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Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including nation-states, and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless socie... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchism", "type": "POLITICAL_PHILOSOPHY"}, {"entity": "nation-states", "type": "POLITICAL_ENTITY"}, {"entity": "capitalism", "type": "ECONOMIC_SYSTEM"}, {"entity": "state", "type": "POLITICAL_ENTITY"}, {"entity": "stateless societies", "type": "SOCIETAL_MODEL"}, {"entity": "voluntary free assoc... |
Humans have lived in societies without formal hierarchies long before the establishment of states, realms, or empires. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, scepticism toward authority also rose. Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenme... | {"items": [{"entity": "Enlightenment", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "19th century", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "20th century", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "Paris Commune", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "Russian Civil War", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "Spanish Civil War", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "classical era ... |
Anarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "revolutionary strategies", "type": "STRATEGY"}, {"entity": "evolutionary strategies", "type": "STRATEGY"}, {"entity": "anarchist society", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "authority", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "state", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"enti... |
Etymology, terminology, and definition
The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Anarchism appears in Englis... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "anarkhia", "type": "TERM"}, {"entity": "an-", "type": "TERM"}, {"entity": "arkhos", "type": "TERM"}, {"entity": "-ism", "type": "TERM"}, {"entity": "anarchy", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "English", "type": "LANGUAGE"}, {"entity": "1642", "type": "DAT... |
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside t... | {"items": [{"entity": "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "1809\u20131865", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "anarchism", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "mid-19th century", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "1890s", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "France", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "libertarianism", "type":... |
While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cu... | {"items": [{"entity": "libertarian", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "New Left", "type": "PoliticalMovement"}, {"entity": "libertarian Marxists", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "authoritarian socialists", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "vanguard party", "type": "PoliticalC... |
While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive s... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "State", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Non-coercive society", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "State apparatus", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Human nature", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Anarchy", "type": "CONCEPT"}], "relationships": [{"from": "A... |
History
Pre-modern era
Before the creation of towns and cities, established authority did not exist. It was after the institution of authority that anarchistic ideas were espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism ... | {"items": [{"entity": "China", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Greece", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Zhuang Zhou", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Laozi", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Taoism", "type": "PHILOSOPHICAL_SCHOOL"}, {"entity": "Stoicism", "type": "PHILOSOPHICAL_SCHOOL"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Zhu... |
Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Aeschylus", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Sophocles", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Antigone", "type": "WORK"}, {"entity": "Socrates", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Athenian authorities", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Cynics", "type": "PHILOSOPHICAL_SCHOOL"}, {"entity": "Stoics", "type"... |
In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I. | {"items": [{"entity": "Europe", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "ascetic religious movements", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "Muslim movements", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "religious anarchism", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "Sasanian Empire", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Mazdak", "type": "PERSON"}, {"enti... |
In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France. Enlightenment ch... | {"items": [{"entity": "Basra", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Europe", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Renaissance", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "Reformation", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "France", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Enlightenment", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "Revolutions of the 1790s", "type": "EV... |
Modern era
During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising... | {"items": [{"entity": "Modern era", "type": "TIME_PERIOD"}, {"entity": "French Revolution", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "Enrag\u00e9s", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "William Godwin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "philosophical anarchism", "type": "THEORY"}, {"entity": "England", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Max S... |
Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx b... | {"items": [{"entity": "Mikhail Bakunin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Karl Marx", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Proudhon", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Peter Kropotkin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "International Workingmen's Association", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "First International", "type": "ORGAN... |
By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved... | {"items": [{"entity": "20th century", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "international syndicalist movement", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "China", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "students", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "anarcho-communism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "Tok... |
Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion. Several anarchists from Petrograd and M... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "Russian Revolution", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "White movement", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "Makhnovshchina", "type": "MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "Bolshevik government", "type": "ORG"}, {"entity": "Kronstadt rebellion", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "... |
In the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion,... | {"items": [{"entity": "Spanish Civil War", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "1936\u201339", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "syndicalists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "CNT", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "FAI", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Spanish anarchism", "type": "... |
Post-WWII
By the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capita... | {"items": [{"entity": "World War II", "type": "Event"}, {"entity": "anarchist movement", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "1960s", "type": "Time Period"}, {"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Marxism\u2013Leninism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Cold War", "type": "Event"}, {"entity": "anti-nuclea... |
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, a... | {"items": [{"entity": "World Trade Organization", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "WTO", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Group of Eight", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "World Economic Forum", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "black blocs", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "Internet", "type": "TECHNOLOGY"}... |
While having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of Food not Bombs group of collectives, to... | {"items": [{"entity": "Carissa Honeywell", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Food not Bombs", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Monsanto", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Carissa Honeywell", "relationship": "takes example of", "to": "Food not Bombs"}, {"from": "Carissa Honeywell", "relationship": ... |
Thought
Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the so... | {"items": [{"entity": "social anarchism", "type": "ideology"}, {"entity": "individualist anarchism", "type": "ideology"}, {"entity": "negative liberty", "type": "concept"}, {"entity": "positive liberty", "type": "concept"}, {"entity": "classical currents", "type": "historical classification"}, {"entity": "post-classica... |
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism ... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchist movements", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "political anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "philosophical anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "individualist anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "minimal state", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "moral obligation", "t... |
Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "Fernando Tarrida del M\u00e1rmol", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "1889", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "Political nihilism", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "collectivism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "communism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "indi... |
Classical
Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.
Mutualism is an 18th-century economic th... | {"items": [{"entity": "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Mikhail Bakunin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "What Is Property?", "type": "WORK"}, {"entity": "mutualism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "individualism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "social anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity"... |
Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, held by a federal network of voluntary associations, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Anarcho... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarcho-communism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "Anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "Communist society", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "French Revolution", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "First International", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Italian section", "type": "ORGANIZATIO... |
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries,... | {"items": [{"entity": "Individualist anarchism", "type": "PHILOSOPHY"}, {"entity": "William Godwin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Max Stirner", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Henry David Thoreau", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Bohemian artists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "intellectuals", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entit... |
Post-classical and contemporary
Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radic... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchist principles", "type": "Philosophy"}, {"entity": "Contemporary radical social movements of the left", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "Anarchist movement", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "Anti-globalisation movement", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "21st century radicalism", "type": "Co... |
Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "black bloc demonstrations", "type": "Tactic"}, {"entity": "anthropology", "type": "AcademicField"}, {"entity": "history", "type": "AcademicField"}, {"entity": "anarchist movement", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "anarchist groups", "type": "Group"}, {... |
Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundame... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchists", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "coercive authority", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "monarchy", "type": "Form of Government"}, {"entity": "representative democracy", "type": "Form of Government"}, {"entity": "state socialism", "type": "Form of Government"}, {"entity": "capitalism", "ty... |
Tactics
Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppres... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "Establishment", "type": "SOCIO_POLITICAL_ENTITY"}, {"entity": "revolutionary means", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "evolutionary means", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "nonviolence", "type": "CONCEPT"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Anarchists", "relatio... |
Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.
Classical era
During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Spain", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Ukraine", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Galleanists", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "late 1870s", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "early 1880s", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "1890s", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "early 1900s", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity"... |
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchist", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Anarcho-pacifists", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Emma Goldman", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Errico Malatesta", "type": "Person"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Anarcho-pacifists", "relationship": "advocate for", "to": "non-violence"}, {"from": "E... |
Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "syndicalism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "the state", "type": "GOVERNMENTAL_ENTITY"}, {"entity": "capitalism", "type": "ECONOMIC_SYSTEM"}, {"entity": "the arts", "type": "DOMAIN"}, {"entity": "naturism", "type": "PRACTICE"}, {"entity": "nudism", "ty... |
Revolutionary
In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Inv... | {"items": [{"entity": "Alfredo Bonanno", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Insurrectionary anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "Kropotkin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "The Invisible Committee", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Alfredo Bonanno", "relationship": "proponent of", "to": "Insurre... |
Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; howev... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchists", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "ideological ancestors", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "police", "type": "Organization"}, {"entity": "Canada", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "Greece", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "Mexico", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "Militant black bloc protest ... |
Evolutionary
Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-autho... | {"items": [{"entity": "Peter Kropotkin", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "type": "Person"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Peter Kropotkin", "relationship": "is a classical anarchist", "to": "classical-era anarchism"}, {"from": "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "relationship": "is a classical anarchist", ... |
The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of fac... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchist affinity groups", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "facilitator", "type": "ROLE"}, {"entity": "rough consensus", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "anarchist ethics", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "anarchist goals", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entit... |
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developin... | {"items": [{"entity": "newspapers", "type": "MEDIUM"}, {"entity": "journals", "type": "MEDIUM"}, {"entity": "anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "World Wide Web", "type": "TECHNOLOGY"}, {"entity": "websites", "type": "TECHNOLOGY"}, {"entity": "electronic libraries", "type": "DIGITAL_RESOURCE"}, {"entity": "portal... |
Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "Temporary Autonomous Zones", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "TAZ", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "squatting", "type": "ACTIVITY"}, {"entity": "capitalist market", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "urban space", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "direct actio... |
Key issues
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Philosophy"}, {"entity": "capitalism", "type": "Economic System"}, {"entity": "nationalism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "religion", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "communism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "collectivism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Marxism", "typ... |
The state
Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small ... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "the state", "type": "GOVERNMENT"}, {"entity": "anarchists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "elite", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "government", "type": "GOVERNMENT"}, {"entity": "ruling class", "type": "GROUP"}], "relationships": [{"from": "anarchism", "r... |
Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A.... | {"items": [{"entity": "Robert Paul Wolff", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Bakunin", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "A. John Simmons", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Leslie Green", "type": "Person"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Robert Paul Wolff", "relationship": "believed", "to": "state could never be legitimate"}, {"f... |
Gender, sexuality, and free love
As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.
Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Benjamin Tucker", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "free love", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "marriage", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "age of consent laws", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "Europe", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "United States", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "polyamory", "typ... |
During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers an... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "second wave of feminism", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "feminist movement", "type": "Movement"}, {"entity": "feminists", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "women", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "gays", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "queers", "type": "Group... |
Education
The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political... | {"items": [{"entity": "William Godwin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Max Stirner", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Political Justice", "type": "WORK_OF_ART"}, {"entity": "The False Principle of Our Education", "type": "WORK_OF_ART"}], "relationships": [{"from": "William Godwin", "relationship": "author", "to": "Politi... |
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst g... | {"items": [{"entity": "Francisco Ferrer", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Escuela Moderna", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Barcelona", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Catholic Church", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Leo Tolstoy", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Education and Culture", "type": "WORK"}, {"enti... |
Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Ferrer", "type": "PERSON"}], "relationships": []} |
Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumer... | {"items": [{"entity": "Paul Goodman", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Herbert Read", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Colin Ward", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Late 20th century", "type": "DATE"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Paul Goodman", "relationship": "intensified and expanded", "to": "anarchist critique of state e... |
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as expli... | {"items": [{"entity": "Judith Suissa", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Free Skool Santa Cruz", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Santa Cruz", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "United States", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "American-Canadian network", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "Self-Managed Learning College... |
The arts
The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticis... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "PHILOSOPHY"}, {"entity": "classical era of anarchism", "type": "TIME_PERIOD"}, {"entity": "futurists", "type": "ARTISTIC_MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "surrealists", "type": "ARTISTIC_MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "New Apocalyptics", "type": "LITERARY_MOVEMENT"}, {"entity": "neo-romanticis... |
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout the ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Chris Rob\u00e9", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Peter Kropotkin", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Emma Goldman", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Gustav Landauer", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Camillo Berneri", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Anarchy", "type": "PUBLICATION"}, {"entity": "Breaking ... |
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to ... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchists", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "art", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "neo-impressionist movement", "type": "Art Movement"}, {"entity": "Camille Pissarro", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Les chataigniers a Osny", "type": "Artwork"}, {"entity": "Osny", "type": "Location"}], "relationship... |
Criticism
The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservatio... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Bertrand Russell", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "anarchist federalism", "type": "CONCEPT"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Bertrand Russell", "relationship": "supported", "to": "critique of anarchism"}, {"from": "anarchist thinkers", "relationship": "adv... |
Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "PHILOSOPHY"}, {"entity": "Thomas Hobbes", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "social contract theorists", "type": "GROUP"}, {"entity": "Robert Nozick", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "night-watchman state", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "minarchy", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "... |
Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasi... | {"items": [{"entity": "Andrew G. Fiala", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "anarchism", "type": "IDEOLOGY"}, {"entity": "violence", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "destruction", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "protests", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "ethics", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "state", "type": "POLITICAL_ENTIT... |
Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds falla... | {"items": [{"entity": "Philosophical anarchism", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "A. John Simmons", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Moral Principles and Political Obligations", "type": "BOOK"}, {"entity": "William A. Edmundson", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "Law", "type": "FIELD"}, {"entity": "The Problem of Political A... |
One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities... | {"items": [{"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "Joseph Raz", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Raz", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "anarchists", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "academics", "type": "Group"}, {"entity": "Classical anarchism", "type": "Concept"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Joseph Raz", "re... |
Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win",... | {"items": [{"entity": "Friedrich Engels", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "John Molyneux", "type": "Person"}, {"entity": "Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism", "type": "Book"}, {"entity": "Marxism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Friedrich Engels", "relationship"... |
See also
Anarchism by country
Governance without government
List of anarchist political ideologies
List of books about anarchism
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
General and cited sources
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Tertiary sources
Further reading
Criticism of philosophical anarchism.... | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchism by country", "type": "WORK"}, {"entity": "Governance without government", "type": "WORK"}, {"entity": "List of anarchist political ideologies", "type": "WORK"}, {"entity": "List of books about anarchism", "type": "WORK"}, {"entity": "Criticism of philosophical anarchism", "type": "WORK"... |
External links
Anarchy Archives – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.
Anti-capitalism
Anti-fascism
Economic ideologies
Far-left politics
Left-wing politics
Libertarian socialism
Libertarianism
Political culture
Political ideologies
Political movements
Social theories
Socialism | {"items": [{"entity": "Anarchy Archives", "type": "Organization"}, {"entity": "anarchism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Anti-capitalism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Anti-fascism", "type": "Ideology"}, {"entity": "Economic ideologies", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "Far-left politics", "type": "Political Move... |
Albedo (; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).
Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradian... | {"items": [{"entity": "Albedo", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "Surface albedo", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "radiosity", "type": "Physical Quantity"}, {"entity": "irradiance", "type": "Physical Quantity"}, {"entity": "Earth", "type": "Physical Entity"}, {"entity": "Sun", "type": "Physical Enti... |
Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains w... | {"items": [{"entity": "albedo", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "spectral albedo", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "solar radiation", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "spectrum", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "visible light", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "trees", "type": "NaturalObject... |
Ice–albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice–albedo fe... | {"items": [{"entity": "Ice\u2013albedo feedback", "type": "PROCESS"}, {"entity": "ice caps", "type": "NATURAL_OBJECT"}, {"entity": "glaciers", "type": "NATURAL_OBJECT"}, {"entity": "sea ice", "type": "NATURAL_OBJECT"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "surface temperature", "type": "SCIENT... |
Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management. The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features. | {"items": [{"entity": "Albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Earth", "type": "PLANET"}, {"entity": "planetary albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "climatology", "type": "FIELD_OF_STUDY"}, {"entity": "astronomy", "type": "FIELD_OF_STUDY"}, {"entity": "environmental management", "type": "FIEL... |
Terrestrial albedo
Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Terrestrial albedo", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "Visible light", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "Fresh snow", "type": "Material"}, {"entity": "Charcoal", "type": "Material"}, {"entity": "Shadowed cavities", "type": "Feature"}, {"entity": "Black body", "type": "Concept"}, {... |
Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions... | {"items": [{"entity": "Earth", "type": "PLANET"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Earth observation satellite sensors", "type": "TECHNOLOGY"}, {"entity": "NASA", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "MODIS", "type": "TECHNOLOGY"}, {"entity": "Terra", "type": "SATELLITE"}, {"entity": "Aqua... |
Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about . If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below . If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet w... | {"items": [{"entity": "Earth", "type": "Astronomical Object"}, {"entity": "Albedo", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "Greenhouse Effect", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "Ocean Planet", "type": "Scientific Concept"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Earth", "relationship": "influenced by", "to": "Albedo"... |
In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998–2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date a... | {"items": [{"entity": "Earth", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "2021", "type": "DATE"}, {"entity": "1998\u20132017", "type": "DATE"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Earth", "relationship": "dimmed", "to": "DATE:1998\u20132017"}, {"from": "Earth dimming", "relationship": "co-caused by", "to": "climate change"}, {"from": "... |
White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle θi can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:
the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, , sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and
the bi-... | {"items": [{"entity": "white-sky albedo", "type": "scientific term"}, {"entity": "black-sky albedo", "type": "scientific term"}, {"entity": "blue-sky albedo", "type": "scientific term"}, {"entity": "directional-hemispherical reflectance", "type": "scientific term"}, {"entity": "bi-hemispherical reflectance", "type": "s... |
This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.
Human activities
Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. As per Camp... | {"items": [{"entity": "albedo", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Human activities", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "deforestation", "type": "ACTIVITY"}, {"entity": "farming", "type": "ACTIVITY"}, {"entity": "urbanization", "type": "ACTIVITY"}, {"entity": "Campra", "type": "PERSON"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Human ac... |
The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in Almería, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized. A follow-up study found that "CO2-eq. emissions associ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Almer\u00eda", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Spain", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "2008", "type": "DATE"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Almer\u00eda", "relationship": "located in", "to": "Spain"}]} |
It has been found that urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than adjacent croplands), which contributes to global warming. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate urban heat island. Ouyang et al. estimated that, on a global scale, "an albedo increase of 0.1 in world... | {"items": [{"entity": "urbanization", "type": "PROCESS"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_TERM"}, {"entity": "global warming", "type": "PHENOMENON"}, {"entity": "urban heat island", "type": "PHENOMENON"}, {"entity": "Ouyang et al.", "type": "PERSON"}, {"entity": "CO2", "type": "CHEMICAL"}], "relationships": [{... |
Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance, has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises and global warming known as passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on m... | {"items": [{"entity": "albedo", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Earth's surface", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "daytime thermal emittance", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "solar radiation management", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "energy crises", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "global warming", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {... |
Examples of terrestrial albedo effects
Illumination
Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g.... | {"items": [{"entity": "Albedo", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Illumination", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "Earth", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "poles", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "subtropics", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "tropics", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "latitude", "type": "GEOGRAPHICAL_FEATU... |
Insolation effects
The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, wi... | {"items": [{"entity": "Arctic", "type": "Region"}, {"entity": "Antarctic", "type": "Region"}, {"entity": "Sahara Desert", "type": "Region"}, {"entity": "Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas", "type": "Region"}, {"entity": "temperate forest", "type": "Region"}, {"entity": "tropics", "type": "Region"}, {"entity": "... |
Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker colo... | {"items": [{"entity": "Arctic regions", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "heat", "type": "Phenomenon"}, {"entity": "space", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "Earth", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "arctic ice and snow", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "higher temperatures", "type": "Condition"}, {"entity": "wat... |
Climate and weather
Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" o... | {"items": [{"entity": "Albedo", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "climate", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "radiation", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "Earth", "type": "Location"}, {"entity": "weather", "type": "Concept"}, {"entity": "climate system", "type": "System"}, {"entity": "feedbacks", "type": "Concept"}, {"entit... |
Albedo–temperature feedback
When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and... | {"items": [{"entity": "Albedo", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "Temperature", "type": "ScientificTerm"}, {"entity": "Snowfall", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "Sunlight", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "Cooling", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "Warm air mass", "type": "Meteorologica... |
Snow
Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to m... | {"items": [{"entity": "Antarctica", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "snow albedo", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "ice\u2013albedo positive feedback", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "0.9", "type": "QUANTITY"}, {"entity": "0.4", "type": "QUANTITY"}, {"entity": "0.2", "type": "QUA... |
Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased s... | {"items": [{"entity": "fresh snow", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "dirty snow", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "ScientificConcept"}, {"entity": "snow-covered sea ice", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "sea water", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "solar radiation",... |
Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.
The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to re... | {"items": [{"entity": "Cryoconite", "type": "SUBSTANCE"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "glaciers", "type": "GEOGRAPHICAL_FEATURE"}, {"entity": "ice sheets", "type": "GEOGRAPHICAL_FEATURE"}, {"entity": "positive feedback", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "energy estimates", "t... |
Small-scale effects
Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.
Solar photovoltaic effects
Albedo can affect the elect... | {"items": [{"entity": "Albedo", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "dark clothes", "type": "Clothing Material"}, {"entity": "light-coloured clothes", "type": "Clothing Material"}, {"entity": "body temperature", "type": "Biological Effect"}, {"entity": "solar photovoltaic devices", "type": "Technology"}, {"entity... |
Trees
Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In other ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Forests", "type": "Natural Feature"}, {"entity": "Trees", "type": "Plant"}, {"entity": "Albedo", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "Ultraviolet Spectrum", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "Visible Spectrum", "type": "Scientific Concept"}, {"entity": "Photosynthesis", "type": "Bio... |
In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts ... | {"items": [{"entity": "evergreen forests", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "seasonal snow cover", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "albedo reduction", "type": "EFFECT"}, {"entity": "deforestation", "type": "PROCESS"}, {"entity": "net cooling effect", "type": "EFFECT"}, {"entity": "trees", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "c... |
Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit... | {"items": [{"entity": "Mid-to-high-latitude forests", "type": "BIOME"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_TERM"}, {"entity": "snow seasons", "type": "SEASON"}, {"entity": "flat ground", "type": "TERRAIN_FEATURE"}, {"entity": "warming", "type": "ENVIRONMENTAL_PHENOMENON"}, {"entity": "Modeling", "type": "SCIENTIF... |
In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across ... | {"items": [{"entity": "treeless areas", "type": "LandCover"}, {"entity": "forested areas", "type": "LandCover"}, {"entity": "snow", "type": "NaturalPhenomenon"}, {"entity": "deciduous trees", "type": "TreeType"}, {"entity": "coniferous trees", "type": "TreeType"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "ScientificConcept"}, {"en... |
Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps wa... | {"items": [{"entity": "Hadley Centre", "type": "ORGANIZATION"}, {"entity": "albedo change", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "carbon sequestration", "type": "CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "planting forests", "type": "ACTIVITY"}, {"entity": "tropical and midlatitude areas", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "high latitudes", "type"... |
Water
Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations.
At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of l... | {"items": [{"entity": "Water", "type": "NATURAL_ELEMENT"}, {"entity": "light", "type": "PHYSICAL_PHENOMENON"}, {"entity": "Fresnel equations", "type": "SCIENTIFIC_CONCEPT"}, {"entity": "reflectivity", "type": "PROPERTY"}, {"entity": "glint", "type": "EFFECT"}, {"entity": "waviness", "type": "CONDITION"}], "relationship... |
Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes... | {"items": [{"entity": "water", "type": "MATERIAL"}, {"entity": "reflectivity", "type": "PROPERTY"}, {"entity": "albedo", "type": "PROPERTY"}, {"entity": "incident light", "type": "PHENOMENON"}, {"entity": "Earth", "type": "ASTRONOMICAL_OBJECT"}, {"entity": "terminator", "type": "ASTRONOMICAL_PHENOMENON"}, {"entity": "p... |
Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.
Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.
Clouds
Cloud albedo has s... | {"items": [{"entity": "white caps", "type": "Oceanographic Feature"}, {"entity": "waves", "type": "Oceanographic Feature"}, {"entity": "water", "type": "Substance"}, {"entity": "bubbles", "type": "Physical Object"}, {"entity": "Fresh black ice", "type": "Ice Type"}, {"entity": "Fresnel reflection", "type": "Optical Phe... |
Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as colder than temperatures ... | {"items": [{"entity": "Kuwaiti oil fields", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Iraqi occupation", "type": "EVENT"}, {"entity": "Kuwait", "type": "LOCATION"}, {"entity": "Iraq", "type": "LOCATION"}], "relationships": [{"from": "Iraqi occupation", "relationship": "occurred_in", "to": "Kuwait"}, {"from": "burning of the Kuw... |
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