Datasets:

rodriguescarson
/

adaption-geography-wikipedia-ccbysa

original_prompt stringlengths 68 2.01k	original_completion stringlengths 148 2.56k	enhanced_prompt float64	enhanced_completion float64
Continue this passage from a reference article on Indo-Pacific: Scholarship has shown that the "Indo-Pacific" concept circulated in Weimar Germany, and spread to interwar Japan. German political oceanographers envisioned an "Indo-Pacific" comprising anticolonial India and republican China, as German allies, against "E...	Since the late 2010s, the term "Indo-Pacific" has been increasingly used in geopolitical discourse. It is seen by some as a replacement for the "Asia-Pacific" regional concept which was pioneered by Australia and Japan in the 1970s and 1980s. Australia officially transitioned its strategic focus from the 'Asia-Pacific'...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Timeline of glaciation: The earth has been free of permanent ice sheets for most of its history, and there have been nine glacial periods over the past 3 billion years. The earth is now in the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, which began around 33.9 million years ago, when ice b...	Its latest phase is the Quaternary glaciation, which started around 2.58 million years ago and is still ongoing. Within ice ages, there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate conditions, referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods, respectively. Earth is currently in such an inte...	null	null
Explain Giebichenstein boulder as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The Giebichenstein near Stöckse, Germany, in the district of Nienburg, Lower Saxony, is one of the largest erratic boulders of northern Germany. It weighs around 207 tonnes (460 thousand pounds). A picture of the Giebichenstein is part of the emblem of the Stöckse municipality.	null	null
Explain Capillary flow porometry as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Capillary flow porometry, also known as porometry, is a characterization technique based on the displacement of a wetting liquid from the sample pores by applying a gas at increasing pressure. It is widely used to measure minimum, maximum (or first bubble point) and mean flow pore sizes, and pore size distribution in m...	null	null
Explain Water Protection Zone as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A Water Protection Zone is a statutory regulation imposed under Schedule 11 of the Water Resources Act 1991. The power was subsequently subsumed into The Water Resources Act (Amendment) (England and Wales) Regulations 2009. The only example in the UK was applied to the River Dee in 1999 as The Water Protection Zone (Ri...	null	null
Explain Permeability (porous media) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	In fluid mechanics, materials science and Earth sciences, the permeability of porous media (often, a rock or soil) is a measure of the ability for fluids (gas or liquid) to flow through the media; it is commonly symbolized as k. Fluids can more easily flow through a material with high permeability than one with low per...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Indus-Yarlung suture zone: The Indus-Yarlung suture zone or the Indus-Yarlung Tsangpo suture is a tectonic suture in southern Tibet and across the north margin of the Himalayas which resulted from the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate starting a...	The rocks of the suture zone consist of an ophiolite mélanges composed of Neotethys oceanic crustal flyschs and ophiolites; the Dras Volcanics: which are basalts, dacites and minor radiolarian cherts – the remains of a mid- to late Mesozoic volcanic island arc; and the Indus Molasse which are an Eocene or later contine...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Double mass analysis: Double mass analysis is a simple graphical method to evaluate the consistency of hydrological data. The DM approach plots the cumulative data of one variable against the cumulative data of a second variable.	A break in the slope of a linear function fit to the data is thought to represent a change in the relation between the variables. This approach provides a robust method to determine a change in the behavior of precipitation and recharge in a simple graphical method. It is a commonly used data analysis approach for inve...	null	null
Explain Scribing (cartography) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Scribing was used to produce lines for cartographic map compilations before the use of computer-based geographic information systems. Lines produced by manual scribing are sharp, clear and even. An impression of the corrected compilation sheet is photographed onto scribe sheet material or drawn using pencil.	null	null
Explain Barrier ridge as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The terms barrier ridge, a term of art in the earth sciences, especially geology and sometimes barrier range (more common as a geography term) describing the existence of gross landforms describing long ridgelines which are particularly difficult to pass, especially in the context of being on foot or dependent upon oth...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Climate inertia: Climate inertia or climate change inertia is the phenomenon by which a planet's climate system shows a resistance or slowness to deviate away from a given dynamic state. It can accompany stability and other effects of feedback within complex systems, a...	The term is a colloquialism used to encompass and loosely describe a set of interactions that extend the timescales around climate sensitivity. Inertia has been associated with the drivers of, and the responses to, climate change. Increasing fossil-fuel carbon emissions are a primary inertial driver of change to Earth'...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Altitude: In aviation, altitude is typically measured relative to mean sea level or above ground level to ensure safe navigation and flight operations. In geometry and geographical surveys, altitude helps create accurate topographic maps and understand the terrain's el...	For high-altitude trekking and sports, knowing and adapting to altitude is vital for performance and safety. Higher altitudes mean reduced oxygen levels, which can lead to altitude sickness if proper acclimatization measures are not taken. Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to ...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Digital raster graphic: A digital raster graphic (DRG) is a digital image resulting from scanning a paper USGS topographic map for use on a computer. DRGs created by USGS are typically scanned at 250 dpi and saved as a TIFF.	The raster image usually includes the original border information, referred to as the "map collar". The map file is UTM projected and georeferenced to the surface of the Earth. DRG's are regularly used in GIS applications.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Macrobenthos: Macrobenthos consists of the organisms that live at the bottom of a water column and are visible to the naked eye. In some classification schemes, these organisms are larger than 1 mm; in another, the smallest dimension must be at least 0.5 mm.	They include polychaete worms, pelecypods, anthozoans, echinoderms, sponges, ascidians, crustaceans. The marine macrobenthos community is a critical component and reliable indicator of the biotic integrity of marine ecosystems, especially the intertidal ecosystems. On the one hand, macrobenthos plays a vital role in ma...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Mild-slope equation: The mild-slope equation models the propagation and transformation of water waves, as they travel through waters of varying depth and interact with lateral boundaries such as cliffs, beaches, seawalls and breakwaters. As a result, it describes the v...	From the wave amplitude, the amplitude of the flow velocity oscillations underneath the water surface can also be computed. These quantities—wave amplitude and flow-velocity amplitude—may subsequently be used to determine the wave effects on coastal and offshore structures, ships and other floating objects, sediment tr...	null	null
Explain Grade (slope) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The grade (US) or gradient (UK) (also called slope, incline, mainfall, pitch or rise) of a physical feature, landform or constructed line is either the elevation angle of that surface to the horizontal or its tangent. It is a special case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates highe...	null	null
Explain Antipodes on Earth as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	In geography, the antipode () of any spot on Earth is the point on Earth's surface diametrically opposite to it. A pair of points antipodal () to each other are situated such that a straight line connecting the two would pass through Earth's center. Antipodal points are as far away from each other as possible.	null	null
Explain Sand island as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A sand island is an island that is mostly made of sand. Sand islands The largest sand island in the world is K'gari (also known by its former name Fraser Island), which lies to the east of Maryborough, on the Queensland coast in Australia. Other examples of large sand islands are Moreton, North Stradbroke and Bribie Is...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Snow hydrology: Snow hydrology is a scientific study in the field of hydrology which focuses on the composition, dispersion, and movement of snow and ice. Studies of snow hydrology predate the Anno Domini era, although major breakthroughs were not made until the mid ei...	Snowfall, accumulation and melt are important hydrological processes in watersheds at high altitudes or latitudes. In many western states in the United States, snow melt accounts for a large percentage of the spring runoff that serves as water supply to reservoirs, urban populations and agricultural activities. A large...	null	null
Explain Drainage density as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Drainage density is a quantity used to describe physical parameters of a drainage basin. First described by Robert E. Horton, drainage density is defined as the total length of channel in a drainage basin divided by the total area, represented by the equation D ...	null	null
Explain Dense-rock equivalent as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Dense-rock equivalent (DRE) is a volcanologic calculation used to estimate volcanic eruption volume. One of the widely accepted measures of the size of a historic or prehistoric eruption is the volume of magma ejected as pumice and volcanic ash, known as tephra during an explosive phase of the eruption, or the volume o...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Bathymetry: Bathymetric charts (not to be confused with hydrographic charts), are typically produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigation, and usually show seafloor relief or terrain as contour lines (called depth contours or isobaths) and selected de...	The global bathymetry is sometimes combined with topography data to yield a global relief model. Paleobathymetry is the study of past underwater depths. Synonyms include seafloor mapping, seabed mapping, seafloor imaging and seabed imaging.	null	null
Explain Salt marsh as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A salt marsh, saltmarsh or salting, also known as a coastal marsh, is a tidal wetland in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and sea that is regularly flooded by tides of seawater or brackish water. It is a unique marine coastal ecosystem dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs, grass...	null	null
Explain Reef knoll as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A reef knoll is a landform that comprises an immense pile of calcareous material that had previously accumulated on an ancient sea floor. Reef knolls are geological remnants of reefs and other organic concentrations of calcareous organisms. Reef knolls are often fossil-rich, with prehistoric corals, sponges, calcareous...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Socio-hydrology: Socio-hydrology; socio (from the Latin word socius, meaning 'companion) and hydrology (from the Greek: ὕδωρ, "hýdōr" meaning "water"; and λόγος, "lógos" meaning "study") is an interdisciplinary field studying the dynamic interactions and feedbacks bet...	The first approach to socio-hydrology was the term "hydro-sociology", which arises from a concern about the scale of impact of human activities on the hydrological cycle. Socio-hydrology is defined as the humans-water interaction and later as "the science of people and water", which introduces bidirectional feedbacks ...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on GeoTime: GeoTime is geospatial analysis software that allows the visual analysis of events over time. It adds time as the third dimension to a two-dimensional map (which can include 3D projection of terrain elevation geodata or any abstract diagrammatic space), allowin...	Users can view real-time animated playback of data and use automated analysis tools within the software to identify location patterns, connections between events, and trends. GeoTime can import data in many formats, such as GPX, Shapefile, KML, Microsoft Excel, CSV, geotagged photos, and from live data sources via GeoR...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Bergschrund: The French word rimaye encompasses both randklufts and bergschrunds. In a corrie or cirque, the bergschrund is positioned at the rear, parallel to the back wall of the corrie.	It is caused by the rotational movement of the glacier. In a longitudinal glacier, the bergschrund is at the top end of the glacier at a right angle to the flow of the glacier. It is caused by the downwards flow of the glacier.	null	null
Explain Volcano Hazards Program as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The Volcano Hazards Program is a program directed by the USGS that monitors the activity of volcanoes and the public awareness of eruptions. Under the mandate of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act), the Volcano Hazards Program monitors active and potentially active volcano...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Rock flour: Rock flour, or glacial flour, consists of fine-grained, silt-sized particles of rock, generated by mechanical grinding of bedrock by glacial erosion or by artificial grinding to a similar size. Because the material is very small, it becomes suspended in mel...	When the sediments enter a river, they turn it grey, light brown, iridescent blue-green, or milky white. If the river flows into a glacial lake, the lake may appear turquoise in colour as a result. When appearing as any shade of blue, the colour is most commonly caused by the Tyndall effect, with the particular hue det...	null	null
Explain Flow net as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A flow net is a graphical representation of two-dimensional steady-state groundwater flow through aquifers. Construction of a flow net is often used for solving groundwater flow problems where the geometry makes analytical solutions impractical. The method is often used in civil engineering, hydrogeology or soil mechan...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Borde costero: In Chilean law borde costero (lit. "coastal border") is defined as; "the said strip of territory that include the public land, the playas, the bays, gulfs, straits and interior channels, and the territorial sea of the republic, [which] makes up a geograp...	"beach") of borde costero. The concept of the playa is based on article 594 of the Chilean Civil Code and this condition is independent of the actual ground type. The decree formally defining borde costero and many of its regulations was issued in December 1994.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Blue space: Substantial urban waterbodies naturally exist as integral features of the geography of many cities because of their historical development, for example the River Thames in London. Accessible blue spaces can help revitalizing neighborhoods and promote increa...	Design guidelines promoting healthy buildings -such as, WELL -managed by The International WELL Building Institute™ (IWBI™), or Fitwel -developed and managed by The Center for Active Design (CfAD), recommend incorporating including and water features as a strategy to improve the health and wellness of the building occ...	null	null
Explain 3D scanning as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	3D scanning is the process of analyzing a real-world object or environment to collect three dimensional data of its shape and possibly its appearance (e.g. The collected data can then be used to construct digital 3D models. A 3D scanner can be based on many different technologies, each with its own limitations, advanta...	null	null
Explain Volcano warning schemes of the United States as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	In October 2006, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) adopted a nationwide alert system for characterizing the level of unrest and eruptive activity at volcanoes. The system is now used by the Alaska Volcano Observatory, the California Volcano Observatory (California and Nevada), the Cascades Volcano Observatory ...	null	null
Explain Overdeepening as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Overdeepening is a characteristic of basins and valleys eroded by glaciers. An overdeepened valley profile is often eroded to depths which are hundreds of metres below the lowest continuous surface line (the thalweg) along a valley or watercourse. This phenomenon is observed under modern-day glaciers, in saltwater fjor...	null	null
Explain Land registry of Bertier de Sauvigny as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The land registry of Bertier de Sauvigny is a series of maps of the parishes of the generality of Paris surveyed from 1776 to 1791, often referred to as plans d'intendance. Bertier de Sauvigny, Intendant of Paris, sought to distribute taxes more equitably, by assessing the overall revenues of each parish. This cadastre...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Flight traffic mapping: The Aircraft Situational Display to Industry (ASDI) system now conveys up-to-date information on flights to the airline industry and the public. Multiple companies distribute ASDI information including FlightStats, FlightAware, FlightExplorer, F...	Each company maintains a website that provides free updated information to the public on flight status and flight tracking. FlyteTrax, a product of FlyteComm, is a Windows-based program for displaying the geographic location of airborne IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) air traffic anywhere in the FAA air traffic system. P...	null	null
Explain Flood bypass as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A flood bypass is a region of land or a large man-made structure that is designed to convey excess flood waters from a river or stream in order to reduce the risk of flooding on the natural river or stream near a key point of interest, such as a city. Flood bypasses, sometimes called floodways, often have man-made dive...	null	null
Explain Sadler effect as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The Sadler effect describes variation in apparent sediment accumulation rates and bed thicknesses back through time inherent to the geological sedimentary record. Peter Sadler analysed what structure you would expect in a stratigraphic section under the hypothesis that bigger geological events – episodes of deposition,...	null	null
Explain Crust (geology) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. It is usually distinguished from the underlying mantle by its chemical makeup; however, in the case of icy satellites, it may be defined based on its phase (solid crust vs. The crusts of Earth, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Io, ...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Tiltmeter: These were used in the very first large concrete dams, and are still in use today, augmented with newer technology such as laser reflectors. Although they had been used for other applications such as volcano monitoring, they have distinct disadvantages, such...	Even in dams, they are slowly being replaced by the modern electronic tiltmeter. Volcano and Earth movement monitoring then used the water-tube, long baseline tiltmeter. In 1919, the physicist, Albert A.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Capillary fringe: If the pore size is small and relatively uniform, it is possible that soils can be completely saturated with water for several feet above the water table. Alternately, when the pore size is large, the saturated portion will extend only a few inches ab...	Capillary action supports a vadose zone above the saturated base, within which water content decreases with distance above the water table. In soils with a wide range in pore size, the unsaturated zone can be several times thicker than the saturated zone. Some workers restrict their definition of the capillary fringe o...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on River morphology: The term river morphology and its synonym stream morphology are used to describe the shapes of river channels and how they change in shape and direction over time. The morphology of a river channel is a function of a number of processes and environmen...	It also can be affected by vegetation and the rate of plant growth; the availability of sediment; the size and composition of the sediment moving through the channel; the rate of sediment transport through the channel and the rate of deposition on the floodplain, banks, bars, and bed; and regional aggradation or degrad...	null	null
Explain Vagabond (boat) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Vagabond is a yacht specifically designed to sail in icy waters. In 2001, she was the first boat to go through the North-East passage without wintering. In 2002, she came back to France via the North-west Passage, completing the first circumnavigation around the Arctic Ocean.	null	null
Explain Sermilik Station as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Sermilik Station is a glaciology research station on Ammassalik Island, dedicated to the research of the nearby Mittivakkat Glacier. It is run jointly by the Department of Geography and Spatial Planning at the University of Graz and the Department of Geography at the University of Copenhagen. The University of Graz is ...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Till plain: Till plains are an extensive flat plain of glacial till that forms when a sheet of ice becomes detached from the main body of a glacier and melts in place, depositing the sediments it carried. Ground moraines are formed with melts out of the glacier in irre...	Till plains are common in areas such as the Midwestern United States, due to multiple glaciation events that occurred in the Holocene epoch. During this period, the Laurentide Ice Sheet advanced and retreated during the Pleistocene epoch. Till plains formed by the Wisconsin glaciation cover much of the Midwest, includi...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Shields formula: The Shields formula is a formula for the stability calculation of granular material (sand, gravel) in running water. The stability of granular material in flow can be determined by the Shields formula or the Izbash formula.	The first is more suitable for fine grain material (such as sand and gravel), while the Izbash formula is more suitable for larger stone. The Shields formula was developed by Albert F. In fact, the Shields method determines whether or not the soil material will move.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Earth's crustal evolution: Earth's crustal evolution involves the formation, destruction and renewal of the rocky outer shell at that planet's surface. The variation in composition within the Earth's crust is much greater than that of other terrestrial planets.	Mars, Venus, Mercury and other planetary bodies have relatively quasi-uniform crusts unlike that of Earth which contains both oceanic and continental plates. This unique property reflects the complex series of crustal processes that have taken place throughout the planet's history, including the ongoing process of plat...	null	null
Explain Freshwater shoreline management as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Freshwater shoreline management involves assessing and protecting lakes, rivers, and other freshwater shorelines from excessive development or other anthropogenic disturbances. Shoreline management involves the long-term monitoring of watershed and shoreline revitalisation projects. Freshwater shoreline management is f...	null	null
Explain Flood pulse concept as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The flood pulse concept explains how the periodic inundation and drought (flood pulse) control the lateral exchange of water, nutrients and organisms between the main river channel (or lake) and the connected floodplain. The annual flood pulse is the most important aspect and the most biologically productive feature of...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Hwangto: Hwangto (황토), a Korean loess soil, is a yellow-coloured soil, which contains high levels of potassium chloride and calcium. Hwangto is sometimes called a 'living soil' for its medical effects.	Korean loess called “Hwangto”or “the red yellow soil or earth” has been a basic element or nourishment which has cultivated Korean nature and cultural heritages. Hwangto reveals its unique natural character as a lenient and honest soil which can tolerate and accommodate various materials including even toxic character....	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Gaskiers glaciation: The Gaskiers glaciation is a period of widespread glacial deposits (e.g. diamictites) that lasted around 250,000 years, between 579.88 ± 0.44 and 579.63 ± 0.15 million years ago — i.e.	late in the Ediacaran Period — making it the last major glacial event of the Proterozoic. It was also the last and the shortest of at least three major ice ages in the Neoproterozoic era. It is assumed that, in contrast to the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations, it did not lead to global glaciation ("Snowball Earth").	null	null
Explain Cartography of Europe as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	The earliest cartographic depictions of Europe are found in early world maps. In classical antiquity, Europe was assumed to cover the quarter of the globe north of the Mediterranean, an arrangement that was adhered to in medieval T and O maps. Ptolemy's world map of the 2nd century already had a reasonably precise desc...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Spatial analysis: In a more restricted sense, spatial analysis is geospatial analysis, the technique applied to structures at the human scale, most notably in the analysis of geographic data. It may also applied to genomics, as in transcriptomics data, but is primarily...	Complex issues arise in spatial analysis, many of which are neither clearly defined nor completely resolved, but form the basis for current research. The most fundamental of these is the problem of defining the spatial location of the entities being studied. Classification of the techniques of spatial analysis is diffi...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Aquifer: Related concepts include aquitard, a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude (or aquifuge), a solid and impermeable region underlying or overlying an aquifer, the pressure of which could lead to the formation of a confined aquifer. Aquifers can...	Groundwater from aquifers can be sustainably harvested by humans through the use of wells. This groundwater is mainly used for agricultural purposes but is used for other reasons such as home or industrial use. Groundwater is a major source of fresh water for many regions, although it can present various challenges for...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Cascadia (bioregion): The Cascadia bioregion is a bioregion located near the Pacific Northwest as defined through the watersheds of the Columbia, Fraser, Snake, and Klamath rivers, as defined through the geology of the region. It extends for more than 2,500 miles (4,00...	The Cascadia Bioregion encompasses all of the state of Washington, all but the southeastern corner of Idaho, and portions of Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Alaska, Yukon, and British Columbia. Bioregions are geographically based areas defined by land or soil composition, watershed, climate, flora, ...	null	null
Explain Tezontle as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Tezontle (Spanish: tezontle) is a porous, highly oxidized, volcanic rock used extensively in construction in Mexico. It is usually reddish in color due to iron oxide. Tezontle is a well-cemented, agglomeritic and scoriaceous rock.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on GeoPlanet: In addition to the strict numerical WOEID, GeoPlanet also has a hierarchical structure that allows accessing surrounding locations, and zooming up and down administrative divisions. released GeoPlanet's WOEID data to the public, but the last release was on 1...	decided to cease making the data downloadable until they "determine a better way to surface the data as a part of the service". In June 2015, Yahoo announced that the GeoPlanet APIs would be dropped as the functionality is now available through their Yahoo Query Language and BOSS APIs. The GeoPlanet APIs stopped respon...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Plucking (glaciation): Plucking, also referred to as quarrying, is a glacial phenomenon that is responsible for the weathering and erosion of pieces of bedrock, especially large "joint blocks". This occurs in a type of glacier called a "valley glacier".	As a glacier moves down a valley, friction causes the basal ice of the glacier to melt and infiltrate joints (cracks) in the bedrock. The freezing and thawing action of the ice enlarges, widens, or causes further cracks in the bedrock as it changes volume across the ice/water phase transition (a form of hydraulic wedgi...	null	null
Explain Thin-skinned deformation as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Thin-skinned deformation is a style of deformation in plate tectonics at a convergent boundary which occurs with shallow thrust faults that only involves cover rocks (typically sedimentary rocks), and not deeper basement rocks. The thin-skinned style of deformation is typical of many fold and thrust belts developed in...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Cartouche (cartography): A cartouche in cartography is a decorative emblem on a globe or map. Map cartouches may contain the title, the printer's address, date of publication, the scale of the map and legends, and sometimes a dedication.	The design of cartouches varies according to cartographer and period style. The cartouche emerged from decorative borders around the map in the 15th century. These were largely modelled after Italian precedent (simple strapwork), but later architectural and figurative elements (like coats of arms) were added.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Urban climatology: The discipline has its origins in the early nineteenth century with the work of Luke Howard, who documented systematic differences between urban and rural temperatures. It developed further in the twentieth century through advances in meteorological ...	Researchers have since identified key components of the urban atmosphere, including the urban canopy layer, the zone between the ground and average building height, and the urban boundary layer, which extends above and is influenced by the integrated exchanges of heat, moisture, and momentum from the city surface. Cont...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Monogenetic volcanic field: A monogenetic volcanic field is a type of volcanic field consisting of a group of small monogenetic volcanoes, each of which erupts only once, as opposed to polygenetic volcanoes, which erupt repeatedly over a period of time. The small monog...	Many monogenetic volcanoes are cinder cones, often with lava flows, such as Parícutin in the Michoacán-Guanajuato volcanic field, which erupted from 1943 to 1952. Some monogenetic volcanoes are small lava shields, such as Rangitoto Island in the Auckland volcanic field. Other monogenetic volcanoes are tuff rings or maa...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Terceira Rift: The Terceira Rift is a geological rift located amidst the Azores islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It runs between the Azores triple junction to the west and the Azores–Gibraltar transform fault to the southeast.	It separates the Eurasian plate to the north from the African plate to the south. The Terceira Rift is named for Terceira Island through which it passes. It crosses Terceira Island as a prominent ESE–WNW fissure zone.	null	null
Explain Máni (spacecraft) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Máni is a future lunar orbiter under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. Máni's mission is to provide detailed topography maps of the lunar surface for use in planning of crewed and uncrewed lunar landing missions. The only primary instrument of the mission is a l...	null	null
Explain Tidal marsh as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A tidal marsh (also known as a type of "tidal wetland") is a marsh found along rivers, coasts and estuaries which floods and drains by the tidal movement of the adjacent estuary, sea or ocean. Tidal marshes experience many overlapping persistent cycles, including diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, day-night temperature fl...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Tide pool: A tide pool or rock pool is a shallow pool of seawater that forms on the rocky intertidal shore. These pools typically range from a few inches to a few feet deep and a few feet across.	Many of these pools exist as separate bodies of water only at low tide, as seawater gets trapped when the tide recedes. Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon. A tidal cycle is usually about 25 hours and consists of two high tides and two low tides.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit: Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits, also known as VMS ore deposits, are a type of metal sulfide ore deposit, mainly copper-zinc which are associated with and produced by volcanic-associated hydrothermal vents in submarin...	The density generally is 4500 kg/m3. They are predominantly stratiform accumulations of sulfide minerals that precipitate from hydrothermal fluids on or below the seafloor in a wide range of ancient and modern geological settings. In modern oceans they are synonymous with sulfurous plumes called black smokers.	null	null
Explain Spring (hydrology) as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A spring is a natural exit point at which groundwater emerges from an aquifer and flows across the ground surface as surface water. It is a component of the hydrosphere, as well as a part of the water cycle. Springs have long been important for humans as a source of fresh water, especially in arid regions which have re...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Marine transgression: A marine transgression is a geologic event where sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground, resulting in flooding. Transgressions can be caused by the land sinking or by the ocean basins filling with water o...	Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events like orogenies, severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load. During the Cretaceous, seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of a deeper Pacific basin. That ...	null	null
Explain Cartographic censorship as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Cartographic censorship is the deliberate modification of publicly available maps in order to disguise, remove, or obfuscate potentially strategic locations or buildings, such as military bases, power plants or transmitters. Sensitive objects and places have been removed from maps since historic times, sometimes as a ...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Unsinkable aircraft carrier: It functioned this way in the battle, with aircraft from the atoll attacking Japanese carriers and the atoll being attacked in turn. Malta and Iceland were sometimes described as unsinkable aircraft carriers during World War II, making Malt...	During the Korean War (1950–1953) United States General Douglas MacArthur described Taiwan as an unsinkable aircraft carrier. People's Republic of China normalized relations in the 1970s and the United States annulled the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan. However, the United States has de facto maintaine...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Boring Billion: The Boring Billion, otherwise known as the Mid-Proterozoic and Earth's Middle Ages, is an informal geological time period between 1.8 and 0.8 billion years ago (Ga) during the middle Proterozoic eon spanning from the Statherian to the Tonian periods, ch...	The oceans during the Boring Billion may have been oxygen-poor, sulfidic and nutrient-deficient (i.e. euxinic), populated mainly by purple bacteria, a type of bacteriochlorophyll-based photosynthetic bacteria which uses hydrogen sulfide (H2S) for carbon fixation instead of water and produces sulfur as a byproduct inste...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Linear scale: A person using the map can use a pair of dividers (or, less precisely, two fingers) to measure a distance by comparing it to the linear scale. The length of the line on the linear scale is equal to the distance represented on the earth multiplied by the m...	In most projections, scale varies with latitude, so on small scale maps, covering large areas and a wide range of latitudes, the linear scale must show the scale for the range of latitudes covered by the map. One of these is shown below. Since most nautical charts are constructed using the Mercator projection whose sca...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Volcanic passive margin: Volcanic passive margins (VPM) and non-volcanic passive margins are the two forms of transitional crust that lie beneath passive continental margins that occur on Earth as the result of the formation of ocean basins via continental rifting. Ini...	There are two accepted models for VPM formation: hotspots/mantle plumes and slab pull. Both result in large, quick lava flows over a relatively short period of geologic time (i.e. a couple of million years).	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Polynya: A polynya () is an area of open water surrounded by sea ice. It is now used as a geographical term for an area of unfrozen seawater within otherwise contiguous pack ice or fast ice.	It is a loanword from the Russian word polynya (полынья; IPA: [pəɫɨˈnʲja]), which refers to a natural ice hole and was adopted in the 19th century by polar explorers to describe navigable portions of the sea. There are two main types of polynyas: coastal polynyas, which can be found year-round near the Antarctic and Ar...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Large woody debris: Some stream channels have less LWD than they would naturally because of removal by watershed managers for flood control and aesthetic reasons. The study of woody debris is important for its forestry management implications.	Plantation thinning can reduce the potential for recruitment of LWD into proximal streams. The presence of large woody debris is important in the formation of pools which serve as salmon habitat in the Pacific Northwest. Entrainment of the large woody debris in a stream can also cause erosion and scouring around and un...	null	null
Explain Planetary cartography as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Planetary cartography, or cartography of extraterrestrial objects (CEO), is the cartography of solid objects outside of the Earth. Planetary maps can show any spatially mapped characteristic (such as topography, geology, and geophysical properties) for extraterrestrial surfaces. Some well-known examples of these maps h...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Spatial analysis: Spatial analysis is any of the formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties, primarily used in urban design. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques using different analytic approaches, ...	It may be applied in fields as diverse as astronomy, with its studies of the placement of galaxies in the cosmos, or to chip fabrication engineering, with its use of "place and route" algorithms to build complex wiring structures. In a more restricted sense, spatial analysis is geospatial analysis, the technique applie...	null	null
Explain Mirovia as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Mirovia or Mirovoi (from Russian мировой, mirovoy, meaning "global") was a hypothesized superocean which may have been a global ocean surrounding the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era, about 1 billion to 750 million years ago. Mirovia may be essentially identical to, or the precursor of, the hypothesized...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Weir: A weir , or low-head dam is a barrier across the width of a body of water that alters the flow characteristics of water and usually results in a change in the height of the water level. Weirs are used to control the flow of water in rivers, outlets of lakes, pond...	There are many weir designs, but commonly water flows freely over the top of the weir crest before cascading down to a lower level. There is no single definition as to what constitutes a weir. Weirs pose a serious danger to boaters and have been involved in several fatal drownings.	null	null
Explain Syrt as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A syrt is a kind of an elevated landform in Russia and Central Asia. The word means "highland", "ridge" or "backbone" in Turkic languages (sırt) and is present in Turkic toponymy in the mentioned areas: in Tien Shan, Pamirs, South Urals, such as Obshchiy Syrt by Urals, Uzun-Syrt ("Long back") plateau by Koktebel in Cri...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Gat (landform): A gat (Dutch: zeegat, gat; German: Seegatt, Seegat or diminutive Gatje) is an inshore channel or strait connecting coastal waters with the open sea or dividing two landmasses, such as two islands or an island and a peninsula. Gats are usually relatively...	The term is mostly used for features on the North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts. According to Whittow a gat is either a strait dividing offshore islands from the mainland e.g. the Frisian Islands, or it is an opening in a line of sea cliffs allowing access to the coast from inland.	null	null
Explain Land change modeling as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Land change models (LCMs) describe, project, and explain changes in and the dynamics of land use and land-cover. LCMs are a means of understanding ways that humans change the Earth's surface in the past, present, and future. Land change models are valuable in development policy, helping guide more appropriate decisions...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Termination (geomorphology): Termination, as used by Quaternary geologists, oceanographers, and paleoclimatologists is the period of time during a glacial cycle when there is a relatively rapid transition from full glacial climates to full interglacial climates. For th...	“II”, “III”, and so forth, into the past. Termination I, also known as the Last Glacial Termination, is the end of Marine isotope stage 2; Termination II is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 6; Termination III is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 8; Termination IV is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 10, and so forth. During...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Permeability (porous media): Fluid flows can also be influenced in different lithological settings by brittle deformation of rocks in fault zones; the mechanisms by which this occurs are the subject of fault zone hydrogeology. Permeability is also affected by the press...	The SI unit for permeability is the square metre (m2). A practical unit for permeability is the darcy (d), or more commonly the millidarcy (md) (1 d ≈ 10−12 m2). The name honors the French Engineer Henry Darcy who first described the flow of water through sand filters for potable water supply.	null	null
Explain Drainage basin as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A drainage basin is an area of land in which all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. A basin is separated from adjacent basins by a perimeter, the drainage divide, made up of a succession of elevated features, such as ri...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on High marsh: Areas of extremely high salinity prohibit plant growth altogether. These barren sandy areas are known as "salt pans".	Some cordgrass plants do survive here, but are stunted and do not reach their full size. The high marsh depends on regular tidal activity and inundation to deposit sediments. Sediment deposition facilitates mineral and organic matter buildup and sediment accretion.	null	null
Explain Kouvola as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Kouvola (Finnish pronunciation: [ˈkou̯ʋolɑ]) is a city in Finland and the administrative capital of Kymenlaakso. It is located in the southeastern interior of the country. The population of Kouvola is approximately 78,000.	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on High water mark: A high water mark is a point that represents the maximum rise of a body of water over land. Such a mark is often the result of a flood, but high water marks may reflect an all-time high, an annual high (highest level to which water rose that year) or t...	Knowledge of the high water mark for an area is useful in managing the development of that area, particularly in making preparations for flood surges. High water marks from floods have been measured for planning purposes since at least as far back as the civilizations of ancient Egypt. It is a common practice to create...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Hydrometeorology: Hydrometeorology is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the transfer of water and energy between the land surface and the lower atmosphere for academic research, commercial gain or operational forecasting purposes. Whilst traditionally ...	Hydrometeorologists typically have a foundation in one or other discipline before undertaking additional training and specialist forecaster training depending on requirements. The cross over skills and knowledge between the two disciplines can bring organisational benefits in terms of efficiencies in terms of using too...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Brackish water: Brackish water, sometimes termed brack water, is water occurring in a natural environment that has more salinity than freshwater, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing seawater (salt water) and fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may oc...	The word comes from the Middle Dutch root brak. Certain human activities can produce brackish water, in particular civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish water pools for freshwater prawn farming. Brackish water is also the primary waste product of the salinity...	null	null
Explain M. King Hubbert Award as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	King Hubbert Award is an annual award granted by the National Ground Water Association in the United States. Established in 1973, it is named after Marion King Hubbert, an American geophysicist who made foundational contributions to geology and geophysics. The award is presented to a person who has made a major science...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Flash flood guidance system: The flash flood guidance system (FFGS) was designed and developed by the Hydrologic Research Center, a non-profit public-benefit corporation located in San Diego, CA, US, for use by meteorological and hydrologic forecasters throughout the w...	The FFGS provides flood warnings based on remote-sensed precipitation (e.g., radar and satellite-based rainfall estimates) and hydrologic models. It supports the analysis of weather-related events that can initiate flash floods (e.g., heavy rainfall, rainfall on saturated soils) and incorporates adjustments based on lo...	null	null
Explain Glaciovolcanism as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Glaciovolcanism is volcanism and related phenomena associated with glacial ice. The ice commonly constrains the erupted material and melts to create meltwater. Considerable melting of glacial ice can create massive lahars and glacial outburst floods known as jökulhlaups.	null	null
Explain Mountain range as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. Mountain ranges are formed by a v...	null	null
Explain Sods as a reference article would, in two or three sentences.	Sods is a term used in the Allegheny Mountains of eastern West Virginia for a mountain top meadow or bog, in an area that is otherwise generally forested. The term is similar (perhaps identical) to that of a "grass bald", a more widespread designation applied throughout the central and southern Appalachian region. The ...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Flood warning: The amount of time that the public would need to respond effectively to a warning. The delay between a warning being initiated and it being received by the public.	The need to avoid issuing warnings unnecessarily, because of the wasted efforts of those who respond and because a record of false alarms means that fewer would respond to future warnings. The need to avoid situations where a warning condition is rescinded only for the warning to be re-issued within a short time, again...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Double mass analysis: This approach provides a robust method to determine a change in the behavior of precipitation and recharge in a simple graphical method. It is a commonly used data analysis approach for investigating the behaviour of records made of hydrological o...	It is used to determine whether there is a need for corrections to the data - to account for changes in data collection procedures or other local conditions. Such changes may result from a variety of things including changes in instrumentation, changes in observation procedures, or changes in gauge location or surround...	null	null
Continue this passage from a reference article on Dell (landform): In physical geography, a dell is a grassy hollow—or dried stream bed—often partially covered in trees. In literature, dells have pastoral connotations, frequently imagined as secluded and pleasant safe havens.	The word "dell" comes from the Old English word dell, which is related to the Old English word dæl, modern 'dale'. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with the word "dingle", although "dingle" specifically refers to deep ravines or hollows that are embowered with trees. The terms have also been combined to form ...	null	null

End of preview. Expand in Data Studio

Geography Reference Text (Wikipedia)

Reference-style explanations and passage continuations taken verbatim from English Wikipedia articles.


Rows	2,888
Domain	geography
Format	`data.parquet`, one row per example
Licence	cc-by-sa-4.0
Built for	supervised fine-tuning (SFT) experiments on Adaption AutoScientist

Columns

Column	Description
`original_prompt`	The prompt (user turn) as uploaded.
`original_completion`	The target response as uploaded.
`enhanced_prompt`	Empty in this dataset.
`enhanced_completion`	Empty in this dataset.

How it was built

Fetched per topic category through the Wikipedia API; every completion is a verbatim span of its source article (checked against the article text).

Sources and licence

English Wikipedia (CC-BY-SA-4.0)

Notes

Columns enhanced_prompt, enhanced_completion are empty in this dataset (the Adaption export reserves them for rewritten text).
Share-alike: derivatives must carry the same licence.

Loading

from datasets import load_dataset
ds = load_dataset("rodriguescarson/adaption-geography-wikipedia-ccbysa", split="train")

import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_parquet("hf://datasets/rodriguescarson/adaption-geography-wikipedia-ccbysa/data.parquet")

Published by Carson Rodrigues (Hugging Face, Kaggle).

Downloads last month: 39