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Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf | |
ANALYSING ENGLISH SENTENCES, 2ND EDITION Andrew Radford has acquired an unrivalled reputation over the past thirty years for writing syntax textbooks in which difficult concepts are clearly explained without the excessive use of technical jargon. Analysing English Sentences continues in this tradition, offering a well-... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
CAMBRIDGE TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
General editors: P. Austin, J. Bresnan, B. Comrie, S. Crain, W. Dressler, C. Ewen, R. Lass, D. Lightfoot, K. Rice, I. Roberts, S. Romaine, N. V. Smith. Analysing English Sentences 2 nd edition | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
In this series R. Cann Formal Semantics J. Laver Principles of Phonetics F. R. Palmer Grammatical Roles and Relations M. A. Jones Foundations of French Syntax A. Radford Syntactic Theory and the Structure of English: A Minimalist Approach R. D. Van Valin, Jr, and R. J. Lapolla Syntax: Structure, Meaning and Function A.... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
C. J. Ewen and H. Van Der Hulst The Phonological Structure of Words F. R. Palmer Mood and Modality Second edition B. J. Blake Case Second edition E. Gussman Phonology: Analysis and Theory M. Yip Tone W. Croft Typology and Universals Second edition F. Coulmas Writing Systems: An Introduction to their Linguistic Analysis... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
G. G. Corbett Agreement J. C. L. Ingram Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and its Disorders J. Clackson Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction M. Ariel Pragmatics and Grammar R. Cann, R. Kempson and E. Gregoromichelaki Semantics: An Introduction to Meaning in Language Y. Matras Languag... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
A. Mcmahon and R. Mcmahon Evolutionary Linguistics B. Clark Relevance Theory B. Long Peng Analyzing Sound Patterns B. Dancygier and E. Sweetser Figurative Language J. Bybee Language Change S. G. Thomason Endangered Languages: An Introduction A. Radford Analysing English Sentences Second edition Earlier issues not liste... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
ANALYSING ENGLISH SENTENCES Second edition Andrew Radford University of Essex | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University's mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www. cambridge. org Inform... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
2015026792 ISBN 978-0-521-66008-2 Hardback ISBN 978-0-521-66970-2 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Contents Preface 1 Grammar 1. 1 Overview 1. 2 Approaches to grammar 1. 3 Traditional grammar 1. 4 Universals 1. 5 The nature of universals 1. 6 Language acquisition 1. 7 Parameters 1. 8 Parameter setting 1. 9 Summary 1. 10 Bibliographical background Workbook section 2 Words 2. 1 Overview 2. 2 Grammatical categories 2. ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
2. 9 Complementisers 2. 10 Categorisation problems 2. 11 Grammatical features 2. 12 Summary 2. 13 Bibliographical background Workbook section 3 Structure 3. 1 Overview 3. 2 Phrases 3. 3 Clauses 3. 4 Specifiers 3. 5 Intermediate and maximal projections 3. 6 Testing structure 3. 7 Structural relations 3. 8 Word order 3. ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
4. 8 Null C in infinitive clauses 4. 9 Null complementisers and case-marking 4. 10 Defective clauses 4. 11 Null heads in nominals 4. 12 Summary 4. 13 Bibliographical background Workbook section 5 Head Movement 5. 1 Overview 5. 2 Auxiliary Inversion 5. 3 Triggering Auxiliary Inversion 5. 4 CP recursion 5. 5 Null operato... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
6. 4 Driving Wh-Movement 6. 5 Subject questions 6. 6 Pied-piping 6. 7 Wh-Movement as copying 6. 8 Long Wh-Movement 6. 9 Constraints on movement 6. 10 Summary 6. 11 Bibliographical background Workbook section 7 A-bar Movement 7. 1 Overview 7. 2 Wh-exclamatives 7. 3 Relative clauses 7. 4 A Wh-Movement account of restrict... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Preface | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Overview This book has grown out of a substantial reworking of my Analysing English Sentences book published by Cambridge University Press in 2009, which itself was a reworking of my Minimalist Syntax book published in 2004. Feedback from teachers, students and reviewers led me to make substantial changes to numerous p... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Key features The book is intended to be suitable for people with little (if any) grammatical knowledge and/or experience of linguistics; it is aimed at intermediate undergraduates, or graduates in the first year of a Masters programme. It is not historicist or comparative in orientation and does not presuppose knowledg... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
appropriate for students to tackle them until they have read the whole book: they are intended to provide a useful source of bibliographical information for extended essays or research projects in particular areas, rather than being essential back-up reading: indeed, the exercises in the book are designed in such a way... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Differences from Analysing English Sentences (2009) and Minimalist Syntax (2004) There are five main differences between the new book and its 2009 and/or 2004 predecessors. One is that the new book has restored and updated the chapter (= Ch. 2) on grammatical categories and features that appeared in the 2004 book but w... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
none of them had the course ever got past Chapter 6. ) Specific details of the changes made to individual chapters are given below. The fifth difference is that (in response to widespread requests from teachers) I have produced an Answer Key which provides a detailed answer to every one of the exercise examples include... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
C HAPTER 5 This chapter deals with Head Movement. The analysis of Auxiliary Inversion presented in §5. 2 and §5. 3 has been completely rewritten, in order to make it more consistent with Chapter 6. New sections have been added on CP recursion ( §5. 4 ) and null operators ( §5. 5 ). The sections on DO-support ( §5. 10 )... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
students to use the data they are given to evaluate two or more competing analyses of the relevant types of structure. | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Teaching materials I have prepared an accompanying Answer Key providing detailed answers to all the exercise examples in the book. I have additionally prepared some accompanying Power Point materials which (for each chapter) provide a brief summary of the key points in the chapter as well as providing answers to some o... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Acknowledgments I am grovelingly grateful to Neil Smith for his perennially pertinent and perceptive comments on an earlier draughty draft of the whole manuscript: he has helped to eliminate black holes in argumentation and hopefully make the whole more wholesome. I am also grateful to Martin Atkinson for fertile feedb... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Dedication This book is dedicated to my beloved but beleaguered wife Khadija (with heartfelt thanks for the love, friendship, care and concern she has shown for me over the past four decades-in spite of having to put up with authorial autism, temperamental tantrums, man maladies, etc. ) and to her two sons Karim and Mo... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1 Grammar ◈ | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 1 Overview In broad terms, this book is concerned with syntax in general, and with the syntax of English in particular. Syntax is one of the two key areas of what is traditionally called 'grammar'-the other being morphology. Morphology is the study of how words are formed out of smaller units (called morphemes ) and... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 2 Approaches to grammar A fundamental question that needs to be resolved at the outset concerns what kind of approach to adopt in studying grammar. There are two diametrically opposed answers to this question found in work on grammar. One sees the role of grammar as being essentially prescriptive (i. e. prescribing ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
from a much broader social spectrum and didn't force-feed them with grammar. The linguistic skirmish between Lewis and Morse in ( 1 ) revolves round the grammar of an italicised phrase which comprises the preposition by and the pronoun who(m). The differences between what the two men say relates to (i) the form of the ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(2) (i) The form who is used as a subject of a finite verb, and whom as the object of a verb or preposition. (ii) Never end a phrase, clause or sentence with a preposition. When Lewis asks 'Who by?' he violates both rules. This is because the pronoun who(m) is the object of the preposition by and rule ( 2i ) stipulates... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
there are many different types of structure found in the world's 8,000 or so known languages. Thirdly, the prescriptive approach fails to recognise sociolinguistic variation-i. e. that different types of structure are found in different styles and varieties of English (e. g. Who by? is used in colloquial English, and B... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
exercise material in my syntax books). An interesting sentence which I heard one day (reported in Radford 2004 : 429; 8a ) is the following: (3) What is thought has happened to him? (Interviewer, BBC Radio 5 Live) When I first heard the sentence in ( 3 ), I wasn't sure what to make of it. One possibility that occurred ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(4) (a) What is thought to have happened to him? (b) What is it thought has happened to him ? However, an alternative possibility is that the kind of structure in ( 3 ) is not a speech error but rather a productive structure-albeit not one described in standard grammars of English. To check on whether ( 3 ) is a produc... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(5) (a) The toxicology issue is thought may have arisen because of a pre-existing health issue in the animals (b) Police are investigating the cause of the blazes, which is thought may be arson (c) Curiously, about one-third of adults 60 and over are thought may have antibodies that may help protect against the virus (... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Cutie Pie or Master Blaster as their name) is a native speaker of English or not, and if so what variety/dialect of English they speak. A very different approach to studying grammar has been adopted by Noam Chomsky and his followers in work over the past sixty years. For Chomsky, the goal of studying the grammar of a l... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
competence in their native language: by this, we mean that they have tacit knowledge of the grammar of their language-i. e. of how to form and interpret words, phrases and sentences in the language. In work in the 1960s, Chomsky drew a distinction between competence (the native speaker's tacit knowledge of his or her l... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
product of a 'cognitive organ' which is 'shared among humans and in crucial respects unique to them' (Chomsky 2007 : 1). In the terminology adopted by Chomsky ( 1986a : 19-56), our ultimate goal in studying competence is to characterise the nature of this 'internal language' or I-language (to use a term employed by Cho... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
an appropriate context). Fourthly (as we will see below), grammaticality is often a matter of degree rather than an absolute property (e. g. a given sentence may be more acceptable than some sentences but less acceptable than others). Fifthly, native speakers who are non-linguists very often have no clear idea what it ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(6) (a) Of which car was [the driver---] awarded a prize? (b) * Of which car did [the driver---] cause a scandal? In traditional terms, a sentence like that in ( 6a ) is said to be in the passive voice, while that in ( 6b ) is in the active voice. An assumption made by Chomsky is that the italicised phrase in ( 6a, b )... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(7) (a) John wondered which man [a book about---] was released last year (b) John wondered which man [a book about---] caused a scandal last year Participants were asked to rate the tested sentences on a 7-point scale, and to give a score of 6 or 7 to sentences they found perfectly acceptable, 3-5 to sentences they fou... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
extraneous factors other than its grammaticality: these extraneous factors include, for example, how interesting it is, how long it is, how plausible it is, how frequent the relevant type of structure is, how easy it is to imagine a context where it could be used, whether or not the sentence expresses ideas which offen... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(8) (a) I wonder where she bought that awful tie, and [ who for ] (b) Whenever we argue and [ whatever about], we always make up afterwards (c) I'm amazed at how much he bought on e Bay and [ how little for] ! (d) I'm going away, but [ not long for ] (e) The fewer presents we send and [ the fewer people to], the happie... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
The general conclusions to be drawn from our discussion in this section are the following. Contemporary work in grammar is descriptive in orientation rather than prescriptive, so that (e. g. ) a grammar of contemporary English seeks to describe the structures found in present-day (spoken and written) English. A grammar... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 3 Traditional grammar Contemporary syntactic theory makes use of a wide range of concepts and constructs which are rooted in centuries of earlier grammatical tradition, as well as introducing new techniques, terminology and perspectives of its own. For this reason, a useful starting point for any book about syntax i... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
predicate ). The overall sentence Students protested has the status of a clause which is finite in nature (by virtue of denoting an event taking place at a specific time) and has the semantic function of expressing a proposition which is declarative in type (in that it is used to make a statement rather than, e. g., as... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
star/asterisk is used to indicate that an expression is ungrammatical). Likewise, a distinction is traditionally drawn between a common noun like boy (which can be modified by a determiner like the, as in ' The boy is lying') and a proper noun like Andrew (which can't be used in the same way in English, as we see from ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
you are not familiar with such terms: terms which are in bold print generally have an entry in the Glossary. ) A third major category found in English is that of adjective (=A). Adjectives are traditionally said to have the semantic property of denoting states or attributes (cf. ill, happy, tired, conscientious, red, c... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
modified by right in the sense of 'completely', or by straight in the sense of 'directly' (as with the preposition down in 'He fell right down the stairs' and the preposition to in 'He went straight to bed'). Prepositions have the morphological property that they are invariable forms which don't allow inflectional or d... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
SPEAKER A : What did the president of the Students' Union say? SPEAKER B : He said that courses should place more emphasis on employability skills In order to avoid repeating the noun expression the president of the Students' Union used by speaker A in the dialogue above, speaker B can replace it by the pronoun he, so ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(11) (a) He had finished by 9 o'clock (b) Had he finished by 9 o'clock ? In a statement like ( 11a ), the italicised auxiliary had is positioned after the bold-printed subject he ; but in the corresponding question ( 11b ), the auxiliary had is inverted with respect to its subject he (i. e. had is moved in front of he ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(12) (a) I went out with her before she got married (b) We met when we were teenagers (c) The doctors think that he will make a full recovery (d) Did he apologise to her and did she accept his apology? In ( 12a, b, c ) the words before/when/that serve to connect a main clause (the went/met/think clause) to a subordinat... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
Here, the words out and up are traditionally categorised as (adverbial) particles, not as a negative particle, to as an infinitive particle, and than as a comparative particle. Using a set of syntactic categories like those outlined above, we can employ a traditional technique known as labelled bracketing to categorise... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(14) (a) The president is clearly not feeling happy that Congress has refused to negotiate with him (b) [ D the] [ N president] [ AUX is] [ ADV clearly] [ PRT not] [ V feeling] [ A happy] [ C that] [ N Congress] [ AUX has] [ V refused] [ PRT to] [ V negotiate] [ P with] [ PRN him] The labelled bracketing in ( 14b ) tel... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
noun/N desire and its prepositional phrase/PP complement for success. The PP for success comprises the preposition/P to and its noun/N complement success. The VP leads to fear of failure comprises the verb/V leads and its prepositional phrase/PP complement to fear of failure. The PP to fear of failure comprises the pre... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
A tacit assumption embodied in traditional trees like ( 17 ) is that words belonging to major categories can be used to form phrases (so we find noun phrases like supporters of the president, verb phrases like close the door, adjectival phrases like fond of chocolate, adverbial phrases like independently of me and prep... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(18) (a) John smokes (b) The president smokes (c) The president of Utopia smokes (d) The former president of the island paradise of Utopia smokes Sentence ( 18a ) comprises the noun John which serves the function of being the subject of the sentence (and denotes the person performing the act of smoking), and the verb s... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(19) (a) John smokes cigars (b) John smokes Cuban cigars (c) John smokes Cuban cigars imported from Havana (d) John smokes a specific brand of Cuban cigars imported by a friend of his from Havana Sentence ( 19a ) comprises the subject John, the predicate smokes and the complement (or direct object ) cigars. (The comple... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
where each of the bracketed nouns is a different argument of the italicised predicate: | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(20) (a) [John] resigned (b) [John] felt [remorse] (c) [John] sent [Mary] [flowers] A predicate like resign in ( 20a ) which has a single argument is said to function as a one-place predicate (in the relevant use); one like feel in ( 20b ), which has two arguments, is a two-place predicate ; and one like send in ( 20c ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(21) (a) The president smokes a cigar after dinner (b) The president smokes a cigar in his office In both sentences in ( 21 ), smokes functions as a two-place predicate whose two arguments are its subject the president and its complement a cigar. But what is the function of the phrase after dinner which also occurs in ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
there are correspondingly two clauses-the smokes clause on the one hand, and the knows clause on the other. The smokes clause comprises the subject John and the predicate smokes ; the knows clause comprises the subject Mary, the predicate knows and the complement John smokes. So, the complement of knows here is itself ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(24) (a) Mary was glad that he apologised (b) Mary demanded that he apologise (c) I can't imagine him apologizing (d) It would be sensible for him to apologise (e) It's important to know when to apologise The italicised clauses in ( 24a, b ) are finite, and one characteristic of finite clauses in English is that they c... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
third person masculine singular personal pronoun in English has the nominative form he, the accusative form him and the genitive form his. Finite clauses permit a nominative subject (like I, we, he, she or they ), whereas non-finite clauses permit either an accusative subject (like me, us, him, or them ) or a silent (i... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(25) (a) SPEAKER A : I know you cheat on me SPEAKER B : OK, I admit it. I cheat on you. But not with any of your friends. (b) SPEAKER A : I know you cheat on me SPEAKER B : Me cheat on you ! No way! I never would! The fact that the italicised clause in speaker B 's reply in ( 25a ) has the nominative subject I suggests... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(26) (a) He went home (b) Are you feeling OK? (c) You be quiet! (d) What a great idea that is! A sentence like ( 26a ) is traditionally said to be declarative in type (or force ), in that it is used to make a statement. ( 26b ) is interrogative in type in that it is used to ask a question. ( 26c ) is imperative in type... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(27) (a) He asked where she had gone (b) Did you know that he has retired? (c) Tell her what a great time we had! In ( 27a ), the main ( asked ) clause is declarative, whereas the complement ( gone ) clause is interrogative; in ( 27b ) the main ( know ) clause is interrogative, whereas the complement ( retired ) clause... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 4 Universals Using data collected by one or more of the methods outlined in §1. 2, a linguist analysing a particular language attempts to devise a grammar of the language. However, if we are to attain a deeper understanding of the nature of language, we need to investigate the extent to which the properties of the g... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
languages make use of all of these categories? Not necessarily. It may be that a given language will make use of only a specific subset of these universal categories. If so, a potentially universal category may occur in a wide range of languages, but not necessarily all. In this respect, it is interesting to note that ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
it is a Prepositional Phrase. An important property of Merge is that it is recursive, in the sense that it allows us to build up structures containing multiple occurrences of particular types of constituent. For example, we can build up more and more complex sentences by recursively embedding one clause inside another ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(28) (a) He was lying to you (b) Was he lying to you? How can we convert the statement in ( 28a ) into the question in ( 28b )? A traditional answer is that we do this by moving the auxiliary was from its position after the subject he in ( 28a ) into a new position in front of he, so resulting in the question ( 28b ) W... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
front of a word used to indicate that the sentence becomes ungrammatical if the word in question is used): | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(30) (a) I/*we/*you/*he/*she/*they am working (b) He/she/*I/*we/*you/*they is working (c) We/they/you/*I/*he/*she are working What the sentences in ( 30 ) illustrate is that the form of the auxiliary verb BE is determined by the choice of subject. To be more precise, we require the first person singular form am if the ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(31) (a) these beautiful cars (b) queste these[F. Pl] belle beautiful[F. Pl] macchine cars[F. Pl] In both examples, we have a noun cars / macchine modified by two other types of word. The first type of word these / queste is a determiner (since it determines which particular cars we are talking about), and the second t... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
English, whereas nouns agree in both number and gender with both determiners and adjectives in Italian). A fourth type of potentially universal operation is Ellipsis (i. e. deletion). This is a type of operation by which a string of one or more words can be deleted if it is redundant (e. g. if it has already been menti... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(32) (a) I know I should go to the dentist's, but I just don't want to go to the dentist's (b) I'm pretty sure he has gone, but I have no idea where he has gone (c) John ate an apple, and Mary ate a pear In ( 32a ), the deleted material go to the dentist's is (as we will see in Chapter 3 ) a verb phrase (abbreviated to... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(33) SPEAKER A : He had said someone would do something SPEAKER B : He had said who would do what? In ( 33 ), speaker B largely echoes what speaker A says, except for replacing someone by who and something by what. For obvious reasons, the type of question produced by speaker B in ( 33 ) is called an echo question. How... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
bold-printed/italicised, and the corresponding echo question is given in parentheses; 35a is repeated from the echo question in 33 B, and 35b from 34. Recall that a star/asterisk in front of a sentence indicates that it is ungrammatical. ) | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(35) (a) He had said who would do what ? (= echo question) (b) Who had he said would do what? (cf. He had said who would do what?) (c) * Who would he had said do what? (cf. He had said who would do what?) (d) * What had he said who would do? (cf. He had said who would do what ?) (e) * What would he had said who do? (cf... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
of the relevant type) suggests that grammatical operations are governed by a universal principle which can be outlined informally as: (36) Economy Principle Structures and the operations used to form them should be as economical as possible. In consequence of the Economy Principle, Auxiliary Inversion preposes the firs... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
sentence like My new book on syntax has been so unsuccessful that nobody has bought my new book on syntax by replacing the second occurrence of the repeated phrase my new book on syntax with the pronoun it (as in My new book on syntax has been so unsuccessful that nobody has bought it ). | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 5 The nature of universals Our discussion in the previous section leads to the conclusion that there is a universal set of grammatical categories found throughout the various languages of the world, together with a universal set of grammatical operations (including Merge, Movement, Agreement and Ellipsis), and a uni... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
A more difficult case is the issue of whether Merge is a language-specific property or a more general property of combinatorial systems. In essence, Merge is an operation which combines two elements into a set containing these two elements, and thus is in essence simply a set-formation operation. As we will see in Chap... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
understand Chomsky's answer to this question, it's important to have an overview of his conception of the internal organisation of grammars. So let's look at this. One component of a grammar is a lexicon (= dictionary = list of all the lexical items /words in the language and their linguistic properties), and in formin... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
The interface with thought systems links with 'the conceptual/intentional (semantic-pragmatic) systems that make use of generated linguistic expressions for thought, interpretation, and organizing action' (Chomsky 2010 : 45); while the interface with speech systems links with 'the sensorimotor systems that externalize ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
relevant discourse context). Movement (in such cases) thus plays an important role at the semantics interface in signalling focus. Now compare ( 38 ) above with ( 39 ) below: (39) He has witnessed acts of horrific violence, mutilation and torture. Such brutality, he prayed that he would never again encounter as long as... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(40) (a) He didn't fail one of the students (b) One of the students, he didn't fail ( 40a ) is ambiguous and has two interpretations. One is paraphraseable as 'There is not one student that he failed' (i. e. he passed all the students): in this case, the negative adverb not is said to have scope over the quantifier one... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(41) (a) Il a vu Paul He has seen Paul (b) Il l 'a vu He him's seen ('He has seen him') In ( 41a ), the object/complement of the verb vu seen is Paul, and this occupies the normal position for objects in a language like French, which is (as in English) after the verb. However in ( 41b ), Paul has been replaced by the c... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
The overall conclusion to be drawn from our discussion here is that movement serves to satisfy interface conditions which hold at the semantics or phonetic interface-in simpler terms, movement is designed to satisfy semantic or phonetic requirements. Our discussion of movement can be put into a broader context in the f... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
But why should Chomsky want to minimise what is special and unique about language? The answer lies in his desire to account for the evolution of language. If there was a single evolutionary step which took place at some point in human evolution which gave rise to language, it is unlikely to have been a step in which a ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 6 Language acquisition A central fact about language is that children acquire the fundamentals of the grammar of their native language/s within a relatively short period (around 5% of their total life span), and that all normally developing children go through similar stages of acquisition. Children generally produc... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
verb forms like going / gone alongside the uninflected verb form go ) and similarly start to produce elementary two-and three-word utterances such as Want Teddy, Eating cookie, Daddy gone office, etc. From this point on, there is a rapid expansion in their grammatical development, until by the age of around 30 months t... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
process can be represented schematically as in ( 42 ) below (where L is the language being acquired): (42) Children acquiring a language will observe people around them using the language, and the set of expressions in the language which a child hears (and the contexts in which they are used) in the course of acquiring... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
nature of human language and are rooted in the specific character of the human mind. (Chomsky 1972 : 102) Moreover, he notes, language acquisition is an ability which all humans possess, entirely independently of their general intelligence: Even at low levels of intelligence, at pathological levels, we find a command o... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
(The sequence 'under... data' means simply 'in so short a time, and on the basis of such limited linguistic experience'. ) What makes the uniformity and rapidity of acquisition even more remarkable is the fact that the child's linguistic experience is often degenerate (i. e. imperfect), since it is based on the linguis... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
geometric properties, so too we are genetically predisposed to analyse sentences (however ungrammatical) as having specific grammatical properties. A further argument Chomsky uses in support of the Innateness Hypothesis is that language acquisition is an entirely subconscious and involuntary activity (in the sense that... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
enormously, but her syntax never developed. This suggests that the acquisition of syntax is determined by an innate language acquisition programme which is in effect switched off (or gradually atrophies) around the onset of puberty. Further support for the key claim in the Innateness Hypothesis that the human Language ... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
But what kind of knowledge does the innate Language Faculty endow children with? Chomsky's view is that it incorporates a theory of Universal Grammar which gives the child innate knowledge of the range of grammatical structures, operations and principles found in natural language grammars. If whatever is universal in l... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
1. 7 Parameters In the previous section, we looked at Chomsky's claim that children are genetically endowed with a Language Faculty which provides them with innate knowledge of universal aspects of grammar. However, it clearly cannot be the case that all aspects of the grammar of languages are universal; if this were s... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
If children have innate knowledge of universal properties of language, it is clear that grammatical learning is not going to involve learning those aspects of grammar which are universal. Rather, grammatical learning will be limited to parametrised aspects of grammar (i. e. those aspects of grammar which vary in a para... | Radford 2016 Analysing English Sentences.pdf |
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