Patent Description:
<NPL>, discloses the use of vibrations in fluidized beds not requiring a high flow rate of sweep gas. Reactors using vibrators are further disclosed in <CIT> and in <CIT>.

CVI is a process wherein a gaseous substrate reacts within a porous scaffold material. This approach can be employed to produce composite materials, for instance silicon-carbon composites, wherein a silicon-containing gas decomposes at elevated temperature within a porous carbon scaffold. General approaches in this regard have been described in the art, for example <CIT> and <CIT>, and <CIT>.

While this approach can be employed to manufacture a variety of composite materials, there is particular interest in silicon-carbon (Si-C) composite materials. Such Si-C composite materials have utility, for example as energy storage materials, for example as an anode material within a lithium ion battery (LIB). LIBs have potential to replace devices currently used in any number of applications. For example, current lead acid automobile batteries are not adequate for next generation all-electric and hybrid electric vehicles due to irreversible, stable sulfate formations during discharge. Lithium ion batteries are a viable alternative to the lead-based systems currently used due to their capacity, and other considerations.

To this end, there is continued strong interest in developing new LIB anode materials, particularly silicon, which has <NUM>-fold higher gravimetric capacity than conventional graphite. However, silicon exhibits large volume change during cycling, in turn leading to electrode deterioration and solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) instability. The most common amelioration approach is to reduce silicon particle size, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, for instance DV,<NUM><<NUM>, either as discrete particles or within a matrix. Thus far, techniques for creating nano-scale silicon involve high-temperature reduction of silicon oxide, extensive particle diminution, multi-step toxic etching, and/or other cost prohibitive processes. Likewise, common matrix approaches involve expensive materials such as graphene or nano-graphite, and/or require complex processing and coating.

It is known from scientific literature that non-graphitizable (hard) carbon is beneficial as a LIB anode material (<NPL>; Wu, YP, Fang, SB, Jiang, YY. <NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM>-<NUM>; <NPL>). The basis for this improved performance stems from the disordered nature of the graphene layers that allows Li-ions to intercalate on either side of the graphene plane allowing for theoretically double the stoichiometric content of Li ions versus crystalline graphite. Furthermore, the disordered structure improves the rate capability of the material by allowing Li ions to intercalate isotropically as opposed to graphite where lithiation can only proceed in parallel to the stacked graphene planes. Despite these desirable electrochemical properties, amorphous carbons have not seen wide-spread deployment in commercial Li-ion batteries, owing primarily to low FCE and low bulk density (<<NUM>/cc). Instead, amorphous carbon has been used more commonly as a low-mass additive and coating for other active material components of the battery to improve conductivity and reduce surface side reactions.

In recent years, amorphous carbon as a LIB battery material has received considerable attention as a coating for silicon anode materials. Such a silicon-carbon core-shell structure has the potential for not only improving conductivity, but also buffering the expansion of silicon as it lithiates, thus stabilizing its cycle stability and minimizing problems associated with particle pulverization, isolation, and SEI integrity (<NPL>; <NPL>; <NPL>). Problems associated with this strategy include the lack of a suitable silicon starting material that is amenable to the coating process, and the inherent lack of engineered void space within the carbon-coated silicon core-shell composite particle to accommodate expansion of the silicon during lithiation. This inevitably leads to cycle stability failure due to destruction of core-shell structure and SEI layer (<NPL>).

An alternative to core shell structure is a structure wherein amorphous, nano-sized silicon is homogenously distributed within the porosity of a porous carbon scaffold. The porous carbon allows for desirable properties: (i) carbon porosity provides void volume to accommodate the expansion of silicon during lithiation thus reducing the net composite particle expansion at the electrode level; (ii) the disordered graphene network provides increased electrical conductivity to the silicon thus enabling faster charge/discharge rates, (iii) nano-pore structure acts as a template for the synthesis of silicon thereby dictating its size, distribution, and morphology.

To this end, the desired inverse hierarchical structure can be achieved by employing CVI wherein a silicon-containing gas can completely permeate nanoporous carbon and decompose therein to nano-sized silicon. The CVI approach confers several advantages in terms of silicon structure. One advantage is that nanoporous carbon provides nucleation sites for growing silicon while dictating maximum particle shape and size. Confining the growth of silicon within a nano-porous structure affords reduced susceptibility to cracking or pulverization and loss of contact caused by expansion. Moreover, this structure promotes nano-sized silicon to remain as amorphous phase. This property provides the opportunity for high charge/discharge rates, particularly in combination with silicon's vicinity within the conductive carbon scaffold. This system provides a high-rate-capable, solid-state lithium diffusion pathway that directly delivers lithium ions to the nano-scale silicon interface. Another benefit of the silicon provide via CVI within the carbon scaffold is the inhibition of formation of undesirable crystalline Li<NUM>Si<NUM> phase. Yet another benefit is that the CVI process provides for void space within the particle interior.

In order to realize such benefits commercially, various barriers must be overcome. As such, key challenges are the gas-solid boundary (i.e., achieving sufficient gas-solid contact to promote the CVI reaction), heat transfer in the porous scaffold (i.e., achieving sufficient level and uniformity of temperature to promote the CVI reaction), elutriation of the particulate porous scaffold, and flowability and processability of the porous scaffold.

Therefore, the need remains in the art for easily scalable, inexpensive, and improved processes for producing composite materials employing CVI. Embodiments of the disclosed invention meet this need, and provide further related advantages.

In general terms, embodiments of the current invention are directed to manufacturing Si-C composite materials via vibro-thermally assisted chemical vapor infiltration (VTA-CVI). The VTA-CVI process overcomes various challenges posed by conventional CVI methodologies. For instance, VTA-CVI provides for uniform heating of the porous carbon scaffold particles since individual particles have the opportunity over the course of the reaction time to both be in contact with the heated, vibrating surface, as well be dispersed within the silicon-containing gas phase. In this fashion, both conductive and convective heat transfer can be accomplished and balanced for the plurality of the porous carbon scaffold particles. In this fashion, VTA-CVI facilitates access of the silicon-containing gas directly to within the carbon scaffold porosity, which would otherwise by limited for a packed bed CVI approach. VTA-CVI also provides for conveyance of the reacting porous carbon scaffold particles, facilitating continuous processing. Surprisingly, we have found that the ability to employ vibration to satisfactorily disperse the reacting porous carbon scaffold particles is profoundly dependent on temperature. Thus, the current invention claims specific combinations of processes parameters (e.g., vibration, temperature) and porous particle properties (e.g., particle size, total pore volume, and pore volume distribution) that overcomes the challenges associated with previous technologies.

In particular, the present invention relates to a process for preparing silicon-carbon composite particles and to a reactor as defined in the appending claims.

In the following description, certain specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of various embodiments. However, one skilled in the art will understand that the invention may be practiced without these details. In other instances, well-known structures have not been shown or described in detail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring descriptions of the embodiments. Unless the context requires otherwise, throughout the specification and claims which follow, the word "comprise" and variations thereof, such as, "comprises" and "comprising" are to be construed in an open, inclusive sense, that is, as "including, but not limited to. " Further, headings provided herein are for convenience only and do not interpret the scope or meaning of the claimed invention.

Also, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. It should also be noted that the term "or" is generally employed in its sense including "and/or" unless the content clearly dictates otherwise.

For the purposes of embodiments of the current invention, a porous scaffold may be used, into which silicon is to be impregnated. In this context, the porous scaffold primarily comprises carbon, for example hard carbon. Other allotropes of carbon are also envisioned in other embodiments, for example, graphite, amorphous carbon, diamond, C60, carbon nanotubes (e.g., single and/or multi-walled), graphene and /or carbon fibers. The introduction of porosity into the carbon material can be achieved by a variety of means. For instance, the porosity in the carbon material can be achieved by modulation of polymer precursors, and/or processing conditions to create said porous carbon material, and described in detail in the subsequent section.

Methods for preparing porous carbon materials from polymer precursors are known in the art. For example, methods for preparation of carbon materials are described in <CIT>,<CIT>, <CIT>,<CIT>,<CIT>, <CIT>, <CIT>, and <CIT> (<CIT>).

Accordingly, in one embodiment the present disclosure provides a method for preparing any of the carbon materials described above. The carbon materials may be synthesized through pyrolysis of either a single precursor, for example a saccharide material such as sucrose, fructose, glucose, dextrin, maltodextrin, starch, amylopectin, amlyose, lignin, gum Arabic, and other saccharides known in the art, and combinations thereof. Alternatively, the carbon materials may be synthesized through pyrolysis of a complex resin, for instance formed using a sol-gel method using polymer precursors such as phenol, resorcinol, bisphenol A, urea, melamine, and other suitable compounds known in the art, and combinations thereof, in a suitable solvent such as water, ethanol, methanol, and other solvents known in the art, and combinations thereof, with crosslinking agents such as formaldehyde, hexamethylenetetramine, furfural, and other cross-lining agents known in the art, and combinations thereof. The resin may be acid or basic, and may contain a catalyst. The catalyst may be volatile or non-volatile. The pyrolysis temperature and dwell time can vary as known in the art.

In some embodiments, the methods comprise preparation of a polymer gel by a sol gel process, condensation process or crosslinking process involving monomer precursor(s) and a crosslinking agent, two existing polymers and a crosslinking agent or a single polymer and a crosslinking agent, followed by pyrolysis of the polymer gel. The polymer gel may be dried (e.g., freeze dried) prior to pyrolysis; however drying is not necessarily required.

The target carbon properties can be derived from a variety of polymer chemistries provided the polymerization reaction produces a resin/polymer with the necessary carbon backbone. Different polymer families include novolacs, resoles, acrylates, styrenics, ureathanes, rubbers (neoprenes, styrene-butadienes, etc.), nylons. The preparation of any of these polymer resins can occur via a number of different processes including sol gel, emulsion/suspension, solid state, solution state, melt state, for either polymerization and crosslinking processes.

In some embodiments an electrochemical modifier is incorporated into the material as polymer. For example, the organic or carbon containing polymer, RF for example, is copolymerized with the polymer, which contains the electrochemical modifier. In one embodiment, the electrochemical modifier-containing polymer contains silicon. In one embodiment the polymer is tetraethylorthosiliane (TEOS). In one embodiment, a TEOS solution is added to the RF solution prior to or during polymerization. In another embodiment the polymer is a polysilane with organic side groups. In some cases these side groups are methyl groups, in other cases these groups are phenyl groups, in other cases the side chains include phenyl, pyrrole, acetate, vinyl, siloxane fragments. In some cases the side chain includes a group <NUM> element (silicon, germanium, tin or lead). In other cases the side chain includes a group <NUM> element (boron, aluminum, boron, gallium, indium). In other cases the side chain includes a group <NUM> element (nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic). In other cases the side chain includes a group <NUM> element (oxygen, sulfur, selenium).

In another embodiment the electrochemical modifier comprises a silole. In some cases it is a phenol-silole or a silafluorene. In other cases it is a poly-silole or a poly-silafluorene. In some cases the silicon is replaced with germanium (germole or germafluorene), tin (stannole or stannaflourene) nitrogen (carbazole) or phosphorous (phosphole, phosphafluorene). In all cases the heteroatom containing material can be a small molecule, an oligomer or a polymer. Phosphorous atoms may or may not be also bonded to oxygen.

In some embodiments the reactant comprises phosphorous. In certain other embodiments, the phosphorus is in the form of phosphoric acid. In certain other embodiments, the phosphorus can be in the form of a salt, wherein the anion of the salt comprises one or more phosphate, phosphite, phosphide, hydrogen phosphate, dihydrogen phosphate, hexafluorophosphate, hypophosphite, polyphosphate, or pyrophosphate ions, or combinations thereof. In certain other embodiments, the phosphorus can be in the form of a salt, wherein the cation of the salt comprises one or more phosphonium ions. The non-phosphate containing anion or cation pair for any of the above embodiments can be chosen for those known and described in the art. In the context, exemplary cations to pair with phosphate-containing anions include, but are not limited to, ammonium, tetraethylammonium, and tetramethylammonium ions. In the context, exemplary anions to pair with phosphate-containing cations include, but are not limited to, carbonate, dicarbonate, and acetate ions.

In some embodiments, the catalyst comprises a basic volatile catalyst. For example, in one embodiment, the basic volatile catalyst comprises ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium acetate, ammonium hydroxide, or combinations thereof. In a further embodiment, the basic volatile catalyst is ammonium carbonate. In another further embodiment, the basic volatile catalyst is ammonium acetate.

In still other embodiments, the method comprises admixing an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a solid at room temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, the acid is a liquid at room temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, the acid is a liquid at room temperature and pressure that does not provide dissolution of one or more of the other polymer precursors.

The acid may be selected from any number of acids suitable for the polymerization process. For example, in some embodiments the acid is acetic acid and in other embodiments the acid is oxalic acid. In further embodiments, the acid is mixed with the first or second solvent in a ratio of acid to solvent of <NUM>:<NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM>, <NUM>:<NUM> or <NUM>:<NUM>. In other embodiments, the acid is acetic acid and the first or second solvent is water. In other embodiments, acidity is provided by adding a solid acid.

The total content of acid in the mixture can be varied to alter the properties of the final product. In some embodiments, the acid is present from about <NUM>% to about <NUM>% by weight of mixture. In other embodiments, the acid is present from about <NUM>% to about <NUM>%. In other embodiments, the acid is present from about <NUM>% to about <NUM>%, for example about <NUM>%, about <NUM>% or about <NUM>%.

In certain embodiments, the polymer precursor components are blended together and subsequently held for a time and at a temperature sufficient to achieve polymerization. One or more of the polymer precursor components can have particle size less than about <NUM> in size, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example, less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM> microns, for example less than <NUM> microns. In some embodiments, the particle size of one or more of the polymer precursor components is reduced during the blending process.

The blending of one or more polymer precursor components in the absence of solvent can be accomplished by methods described in the art, for example ball milling, jet milling, Fritsch milling, planetary mixing, and other mixing methodologies for mixing or blending solid particles while controlling the process conditions (e.g., temperature). The mixing or blending process can be accomplished before, during, and/or after (or combinations thereof) incubation at the reaction temperature.

Reaction parameters include aging the blended mixture at a temperature and for a time sufficient for the one or more polymer precursors to react with each other and form a polymer. In this respect, suitable aging temperature ranges from about room temperature to temperatures at or near the melting point of one or more of the polymer precursors. In some embodiments, suitable aging temperature ranges from about room temperature to temperatures at or near the glass transition temperature of one or more of the polymer precursors. For example, in some embodiments the solvent free mixture is aged at temperatures from about <NUM> to about <NUM>, for example about <NUM> to about <NUM>, for example about <NUM> to about <NUM>, for example about <NUM> to about <NUM>, for example about <NUM> to about <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the solvent free mixture is aged at temperatures from about <NUM> to about <NUM>.

The reaction duration is generally sufficient to allow the polymer precursors to react and form a polymer, for example the mixture may be aged anywhere from <NUM> hour to <NUM> hours, or more or less depending on the desired result. Typical embodiments include aging for a period of time ranging from about <NUM> hours to about <NUM> hours, for example in some embodiments aging comprises about <NUM> hours and in other embodiments aging comprises about <NUM>-<NUM> hours (e.g., about <NUM> hours).

In certain embodiments, an electrochemical modifier is incorporated during the above described polymerization process. For example, in some embodiments, an electrochemical modifier in the form of metal particles, metal paste, metal salt, metal oxide or molten metal can be dissolved or suspended into the mixture from which the gel resin is produced.

Exemplary electrochemical modifiers for producing composite materials may fall into one or more than one of the chemical classifications. In some embodiments, the electrochemical modifier is a lithium salt, for example, but not limited to, lithium fluoride, lithium chloride, lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, lithium benzoate, lithium bromide, lithium formate, lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium iodate, lithium iodide, lithium perchlorate, lithium phosphate, lithium sulfate, lithium tetraborate, lithium tetrafluoroborate, and combinations thereof.

In certain embodiments, the electrochemical modifier comprises a metal, and exemplary species includes, but are not limited to aluminum isoproproxide, manganese acetate, nickel acetate, iron acetate, tin chloride, silicon chloride, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the electrochemical modifier is a phosphate compound, including but not limited to phytic acid, phosphoric acid, ammonium dihydrogenphosphate, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the electrochemical modifier comprises silicon, and exemplary species includes, but are not limited to silicon powders, silicon nanotubes, polycrystalline silicon, nanocrystalline silicon, amorpohous silicon, porous silicon, nano sized silicon, nano-featured silicon, nano-sized and nano-featured silicon, silicyne, and black silicon, and combinations thereof.

Electrochemical modifiers can be combined with a variety of polymer systems through either physical mixing or chemical reactions with latent (or secondary) polymer functionality. Examples of latent polymer functionality include, but are not limited to, epoxide groups, unsaturation (double and triple bonds), acid groups, alcohol groups, amine groups, basic groups. Crosslinking with latent functionality can occur via heteroatoms (e.g. vulcanization with sulfur, acid/base/ring opening reactions with phosphoric acid), reactions with organic acids or bases (described above), coordination to transition metals (including but not limited to Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ag, Au), ring opening or ring closing reactions (rotaxanes, spiro compounds, etc).

Electrochemical modifiers can also be added to the polymer system through physical blending. Physical blending can include but is not limited to melt blending of polymers and/or co-polymers, the inclusion of discrete particles, chemical vapor deposition of the electrochemical modifier and coprecipitation of the electrochemical modifier and the main polymer material.

In some instances the electrochemical modifier can be added via a metal salt solid, solution, or suspension. The metal salt solid, solution or suspension may comprise acids and/or alcohols to improve solubility of the metal salt. In yet another variation, the polymer gel (either before or after an optional drying step) is contacted with a paste comprising the electrochemical modifier. In yet another variation, the polymer gel (either before or after an optional drying step) is contacted with a metal or metal oxide sol comprising the desired electrochemical modifier.

In addition to the above exemplified electrochemical modifiers, the composite materials may comprise one or more additional forms (i.e., allotropes) of carbon. In this regard, it has been found that inclusion of different allotropes of carbon such as graphite, amorphous carbon, conductive carbon, carbon black, diamond, C60, carbon nanotubes (e.g., single and/or multi-walled), graphene and /or carbon fibers into the composite materials is effective to optimize the electrochemical properties of the composite materials. The various allotropes of carbon can be incorporated into the carbon materials during any stage of the preparation process described herein. For example, during the solution phase, during the gelation phase, during the curing phase, during the pyrolysis phase, during the milling phase, or after milling. In some embodiments, the second carbon form is incorporated into the composite material by adding the second carbon form before or during polymerization of the polymer gel as described in more detail herein. The polymerized polymer gel containing the second carbon form is then processed according to the general techniques described herein to obtain a carbon material containing a second allotrope of carbon.

In a preferred embodiment, the carbon is produced from precursors with little or no solvent required for processing (solvent free). The structure of the polymer precursors suitable for use in a low solvent or essentially solvent free reaction mixture is not particularly limited, provided that the polymer precursor is capable of reacting with another polymer precursor or with a second polymer precursor to form a polymer. Polymer precursors include amine-containing compounds, alcohol-containing compounds and carbonyl-containing compounds, for example in some embodiments the polymer precursors are selected from an alcohol, a phenol, a polyalcohol, a sugar, an alkyl amine, an aromatic amine, an aldehyde, a ketone, a carboxylic acid, an ester, a urea, an acid halide and an isocyanate.

In one embodiment employing a low or essentially solvent free reaction mixture, the method comprises use of a first and second polymer precursor, and in some embodiments the first or second polymer precursor is a carbonyl containing compound and the other of the first or second polymer precursor is an alcohol containing compound. In some embodiments, a first polymer precursor is a phenolic compound and a second polymer precursor is an aldehyde compound (e.g., formaldehyde). In one embodiment, of the method the phenolic compound is phenol, resorcinol, catechol, hydroquinone, phloroglucinol, or a combination thereof; and the aldehyde compound is formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, or a combination thereof. In a further embodiment, the phenolic compound is resorcinol, phenol or a combination thereof, and the aldehyde compound is formaldehyde. In yet further embodiments, the phenolic compound is resorcinol and the aldehyde compound is formaldehyde. In some embodiments, the polymer precursors are alcohols and carbonyl compounds (e.g., resorcinol and aldehyde) and they are present in a ratio of about <NUM>:<NUM>, respectively.

The polymer precursor materials suitable for low or essentially solvent free reaction mixture as disclosed herein include (a) alcohols, phenolic compounds, and other mono- or polyhydroxy compounds and (b) aldehydes, ketones, and combinations thereof. Representative alcohols in this context include straight chain and branched, saturated and unsaturated alcohols. Suitable phenolic compounds include polyhydroxy benzene, such as a dihydroxy or trihydroxy benzene. Representative polyhydroxy benzenes include resorcinol (i.e., <NUM>,<NUM>-dihydroxy benzene), catechol, hydroquinone, and phloroglucinol. Other suitable compounds in this regard are bisphenols, for instance, bisphenol A. Mixtures of two or more polyhydroxy benzenes can also be used. Phenol (monohydroxy benzene) can also be used. Representative polyhydroxy compounds include sugars, such as glucose, sucrose, fructose, chitin and other polyols, such as mannitol. Aldehydes in this context include: straight chain saturated aldeydes such as methanal (formaldehyde), ethanal (acetaldehyde), propanal (propionaldehyde), butanal (butyraldehyde); straight chain unsaturated aldehydes such as ethenone and other ketenes, <NUM>-propenal (acrylaldehyde), <NUM>-butenal (crotonaldehyde), <NUM> butenal; branched saturated and unsaturated aldehydes; and aromatic-type aldehydes such as benzaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, hydrocinnamaldehyde. Suitable ketones include: straight chain saturated ketones such as propanone and <NUM> butanone; straight chain unsaturated ketones such as propenone, <NUM> butenone, and <NUM> butenone (methyl vinyl ketone); branched saturated and unsaturated ketones; and aromatic-type ketones such as methyl benzyl ketone (phenylacetone), ethyl benzyl ketone. The polymer precursor materials can also be combinations of the precursors described above.

In some embodiments, one polymer precursor in the low or essentially solvent free reaction mixture is an alcohol-containing species and another polymer precursor is a carbonyl-containing species. The relative amounts of alcohol-containing species (e.g., alcohols, phenolic compounds and mono- or poly- hydroxy compounds or combinations thereof) reacted with the carbonyl containing species (e.g. aldehydes, ketones or combinations thereof) can vary substantially. In some embodiments, the ratio of alcohol-containing species to aldehyde species is selected so that the total moles of reactive alcohol groups in the alcohol-containing species is approximately the same as the total moles of reactive carbonyl groups in the aldehyde species. Similarly, the ratio of alcohol-containing species to ketone species may be selected so that the total moles of reactive alcohol groups in the alcohol containing species is approximately the same as the total moles of reactive carbonyl groups in the ketone species. The same general <NUM>: <NUM> molar ratio holds true when the carbonyl-containing species comprises a combination of an aldehyde species and a ketone species.

In other embodiments, the polymer precursor in the low or essentially solvent free reaction mixture is a urea or an amine containing compound. For example, in some embodiments the polymer precursor is urea, melamine, hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) or combination thereof. Other embodiments include polymer precursors selected from isocyanates or other activated carbonyl compounds such as acid halides.

Some embodiments of the disclosed methods include preparation of low or solvent-free polymer gels (and carbon materials) comprising electrochemical modifiers. Such electrochemical modifiers include, but are not limited to nitrogen, silicon, and sulfur. In other embodiments, the electrochemical modifier comprises fluorine, iron, tin, silicon, nickel, aluminum, zinc, or manganese. The electrochemical modifier can be included in the preparation procedure at any step. For example, in some the electrochemical modifier is admixed with the mixture, the polymer phase or the continuous phase.

The porous carbon material can be achieved via pyrolysis of a polymer produced from precursors materials as described above. In some embodiments, the porous carbon material comprises an amorphous activated carbon that is produced by pyrolysis, physical or chemical activation, or combination thereof in either a single process step or sequential process steps.

The temperature and dwell time of pyrolysis can be varied, for example the dwell time van vary from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM> hour, for <NUM> hour to <NUM> hours, from <NUM> hours to <NUM> hours, from <NUM> hours to <NUM>. The temperature can be varied, for example, the pyrolysis temperature can vary from <NUM> to <NUM> C, from <NUM> to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C, from <NUM> C to <NUM> C. The pyrolysis can be accomplished in an inert gas, for example nitrogen, or argon.

In some embodiments, an alternate gas is used to further accomplish carbon activation. In certain embodiments, pyrolysis and activation are combined. Suitable gases for accomplishing carbon activation include, but are not limited to, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water (steam), air, oxygen, and further combinations thereof. The temperature and dwell time of activation can be varied, for example the dwell time van vary from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM> hour, for <NUM> hour to <NUM> hours, from <NUM> hours to <NUM> hours, from <NUM> hours to <NUM>. The temperature can be varied, for example, the pyrolysis temperature can vary from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM>.

Either prior to the pyrolysis, and/or after pyrolysis, and/or after activation, the carbon may be subjected to a particle size reduction. The particle size reduction can be accomplished by a variety of techniques known in the art, for example by jet milling in the presence of various gases including air, nitrogen, argon, helium, supercritical steam, and other gases known in the art. Other particle size reduction methods, such as grinding, ball milling, jet milling, water jet milling, and other approaches known in the art are also envisioned.

The porous carbon scaffold is in the form of particles. The particle size and particle size distribution can be measured by a variety of techniques known in the art, and can be described based on fractional volume. In this regard, the Dv,<NUM> of the carbon scaffold may be between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, example between <NUM> and <NUM>, example between <NUM> and <NUM>, example between <NUM> and <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv,<NUM> is less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv,<NUM> is less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv,<NUM> is less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv,<NUM> is less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv,<NUM> is greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv, <NUM> is greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the Dv, <NUM> is greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>, for example greater than <NUM>.

In some embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold can comprise a surface area greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g, for example greater than <NUM> m2/g. In other embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold can be less than <NUM> m2/g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold is between <NUM> and <NUM> m2/g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold is between <NUM> and <NUM> m2/g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold is between <NUM> and <NUM> m2/g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold is between <NUM> and <NUM> m2/g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the porous carbon scaffold can be less than <NUM> m2/g.

In some embodiments, the pore volume of the porous carbon scaffold is greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g, for example greater than <NUM> cm3/g.

In some other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold is an amorphous activated carbon with a pore volume between <NUM> and <NUM> cm3/g. In certain embodiments, the carbon is an amorphous activated carbon with a pore volume between <NUM> and <NUM> cm3/g. In certain embodiments, the carbon is an amorphous activated carbon with a pore volume between <NUM> and <NUM> cm3/g. In certain embodiments, the carbon is an amorphous activated carbon with a pore volume between <NUM> and <NUM> cm3/g.

In some other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises a tap density of less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3, for example less than <NUM>/cm3.

The surface functionality of the porous carbon scaffold can vary. One property which can be predictive of surface functionality is the pH of the porous carbon scaffold. The presently disclosed porous carbon scaffolds comprise pH values ranging from less than <NUM> to about <NUM>, for example less than <NUM>, from <NUM> to <NUM> or greater than <NUM>. In some embodiments, the pH of the porous carbon is less than <NUM>, less than <NUM>, less than <NUM> or even less than <NUM>. In other embodiments, the pH of the porous carbon is between about <NUM> and <NUM>, between about <NUM> and <NUM>, between about <NUM> and <NUM> or between <NUM> and <NUM> or between <NUM> and <NUM>. In still other embodiments, the pH is high and the pH of the porous carbon ranges is greater than <NUM>, greater than <NUM>, greater than <NUM>, greater than <NUM>, greater than <NUM>, or even greater than <NUM>.

The pore volume distribution of the porous carbon scaffold can vary. For example, the % micropores can comprise less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example, less than <NUM>%. In certain embodiments, there is no detectable micropore volume in the porous carbon scaffold.

The mesopores comprising the porous carbon scaffold can vary. For example, the % mesopores can comprise less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example less than <NUM>%, for example, less than <NUM>%. In certain embodiments, there is no detectable mesopore volume in the porous carbon scaffold.

In some embodiments, the pore volume distribution of the porous carbon scaffold comprises more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores, for example more than <NUM>% macropores.

In certain preferred embodiments, the pore volume of the porous carbon scaffold comprises a blend of micropores, mesopores, and macropores. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and less than <NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores. In certain other embodiments, the porous carbon scaffold comprises <NUM>-<NUM>% micropores, <NUM>-<NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM>-<NUM>% macropores.

In certain embodiments, the % of pore volume in the porous carbon scaffold representing pores between <NUM> and <NUM>Å (<NUM> and <NUM>) comprises greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume, for example greater than <NUM>% of the total pore volume.

In certain embodiments, the skeletal density of the porous carbon scaffold ranges from about <NUM>/cc to about <NUM>/cc, for example from about <NUM>/cc to about <NUM>/cc. In other embodiments, the skeletal density ranges from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g or from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g, from about <NUM> cc to about <NUM> cc/g, for example from about <NUM> cc/g to about <NUM> cc/g.

One traditional approach to creating a composite material is to subject a substrate material to elevated temperature in the presence of a thermally decomposing gas. For example, a related process known in the art is chemical vapor deposition (CVD), wherein a substrate provides a solid surface comprising the first component of the composite, and the gas thermally decomposes on this solid surface to provide the second component of composite. Such a CVD approach can be employed, for instance, to create Si-C composite materials wherein the silicon is coating on the outside surface of silicon particles. Alternatively, chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) is a process wherein a substrate provides a porous scaffold comprising the first component of the composite, and the gas thermally decomposes on into the porosity (into the pores) of the porous scaffold material to provide the second component of composite.

In the process of the present invention, silicon is created within the pores of the porous carbon scaffold by subjecting the porous carbon particles to a silicon-containing precursor gas, selected from silane, disilane, trisilane, tetrasilane, monochlorosilane, dichlorosilane, trichlorosilane, tetrachlorosilane, or a combination thereof, at elevated temperature, preferably silane, in order to decompose said gas into silicon. The silicon containing precursor gas can be mixed with other inert gases, for example, nitrogen gas. The temperature and time of processing can be varied, for example the temperature can be between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>.

In certain embodiment, the porosity of the particulate carbon particles can be increased by activation within the VTA-CVI reactor by introducing an activation gas, comprising, but not limited to, CO2, steam, and combinations thereof. The activation temperature can be varied, for example, between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>, for example between <NUM> and <NUM>. In certain embodiments, the resulting particulate porous carbon particles can further traverse into the subsequent zone in the VTA-CVI reactor to accomplish CVI under the process conditions as described elsewhere in this disclosure.

In certain embodiments, the flow of the silicon containing precursor gas is co-current, i.e., flows in the same direction as the porous carbon particles traverse the heated zone. In certain preferred embodiments, the flow of the silicon containing precursor gas is counter-current, i.e., flows in the opposite direction as the porous carbon particles traverse the heated zone.

The mixture of gas can comprise between <NUM> and <NUM> % silane and remainder inert gas. Alternatively, the mixture of gas can comprise between <NUM>% and <NUM>% silane and remainder inert gas. Alternatively, the mixture of gas can comprise between <NUM>% and <NUM>% silane and remainder inert gas. Alternatively, the mixture of gas can comprise between <NUM>% and <NUM>% silane and remainder inert gas. Alternatively, the mixture of gas can comprise above <NUM>% silane and remainder inert gas. Alternatively, the gas can essentially be <NUM>% silane gas. Suitable inert gases include, but are not limited to, hydrogen, nitrogen, argon, and combinations thereof.

There are several critical challenges to scalable and cost-effective CVI processing. These key challenges include overcoming the gas-solid diffusional barrier, i.e., barrier for the reactant gas to enter into the pores of the scaffold material and for by-product gas to exit the pores of the scaffold material, achieving sufficient heat transfer to accomplish the decomposition reaction, achieving temperature uniformity of the reacting material, and achieving porous scaffold material flowability. These challenges can be overcome, and other benefits obtained as well, by the current VTA-CVI invention described herein.

VTA-CVI is a process wherein a particulate scaffold material is conveyed by vibration through the heated region of a reactor in the presence of a thermally decomposing gas. According to the present invention, the VTA-CVI process is employed to produce a silicon-carbon composite material.

The VTA-CVI process can be carried out as follows. The particulate porous carbon scaffold is introduced within a retort, wherein said retort is vibrated such that the particulate porous carbon is conveyed through the retort, and said retort comprises a heated zone. For the purpose of this disclosure, the term "retort" refers to a vessel comprising a zone in which the porous scaffold is heated, and whose geometry can be varied, and is contained within the heated zone of the reactor. In certain preferred embodiments, the carbon scaffold particles are conveyed across a rectangular surface. The VTA-CVI process can be run is various modes, for example, as batch, semi-batch, or continuous process.

The conveyance rate of the material within the retort of the VTA-CVI reactor can be varied, for example by varying the amplitude and frequency of the vibration, as well as the location(s) at which vibration is applied to the retort. In certain embodiments, the amplitude is between <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>. In preferred embodiments, the amplitude of the vibrating retort varies between <NUM> and <NUM>.

The frequency of the vibration can be varied, for example between <NUM> to <NUM>, for example between <NUM> to <NUM>. In preferred embodiments, the frequency of the vibration is between <NUM> to <NUM>.

In certain embodiments, the vibration is applied to the retort at the entrance of the reactor, that is, the position at which the feed carbon scaffold material is introduced into the retort. In certain embodiments, the position at which the feed porous carbon scaffold material is introduced into the retort coincides with the beginning of the heated zone. In certain embodiments, the vibration is applied to the retort at the exit of the heated zone. In certain embodiments, vibration is applied at a location between the points where the porous scaffold material enters and exits the retort, and/or between the beginning and end of the heated zone. In certain embodiments, vibration is applied to the retort at more than one position within the heated zone, such as entry, exit, and/or one or more locations in between, that is, one or more positions within the heated zone.

In certain embodiments, the porous carbon material is introduced to the VTA-CVI retort upstream of the heated zone. In certain embodiments, the porous carbon material is introduced to the VTA-CVI retort upstream of the heated zone and upstream of any position or positions where vibration is applied.

In one embodiment, vibration is applied in one position, and that position is not within the heated zone. In one embodiment, vibration is applied in one position, and said position is not within the heated zone, and said position is upstream of the heated zone relative to the movement of porous carbon scaffold material through the hot zone. In one embodiment, vibration is applied in one position, and said position is not within the heated zone, and said position is downstream of the heated zone relative to the movement of porous carbon scaffold material through the hot zone.

In one embodiment, vibration is applied in more than one position, and one or more of said positions are not within the heated zone. In one embodiment, vibration is applied in more than one position, and one or more of said positions are not within the heated zone, and one or more of said positions are upstream of the heated zone relative to the movement of porous carbon scaffold material through the hot zone. In one embodiment, vibration is applied in more than one position, and one or more of said positions are not within the heated zone, and one or more of said positions are downstream of the heated zone relative to the movement of porous carbon scaffold material through the hot zone.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at a single position, the frequency and/or amplitude is held constant. In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at a more than one position, the frequency and/or amplitude is held constant at each position, and is the same for all positions where vibration is applied.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at a more than one position, the frequency and/or amplitude is held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and is not the same for all positions where vibration is applied.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the frequency is sequentially increased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the frequency is sequentially decreased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the amplitude is sequentially increased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the amplitude is sequentially decreased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the amplitude and frequency are sequentially increased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the amplitude and frequency are sequentially decreased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the amplitude is sequentially increased and frequency is sequentially decreased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one position, the frequency and amplitude are held constant at each position where vibration is applied, and the amplitude is sequentially decreased and frequency is sequentially increased at each position where vibration is applied in the direction of sample progresses through the heated zone.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at a single position, the frequency and/or amplitude is varied over time. In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one positon single position, the frequency and/or amplitude is varied over time at one or more of the positions where vibrations are applied.

In certain embodiments where vibration is applied at more than one positon single position, the frequency and/or amplitude is varied over time at one or more of the positions where vibrations are applied with the result of maintaining porous carbon scaffold material within the heated zone. In this latter embodiment, the process can be a batch or semi-batch process.

In certain embodiments, the VTA-CVI process can be combined with other process or processes. For example, pyrolyzed porous carbon particles can traverse through the reactor in two zones, wherein the pyrolyzed carbon particles traverse though a first zone, and this first zone is an activation zone, wherein vibration is applied at one position or more than one position within the first heated zone, and subsequently the resulting activated porous carbon particles traverse through the second zone, wherein vibration is applied at one position or more than one position within the second heated zone, and this second zone is the VTA-CVI zone.

In certain embodiments, a particle size reduction is accomplished to the porous carbon material before the VTA-CVI process. In certain embodiments, a particle size reduction is accomplished to the porous carbon material after the VTA-CVI process. In certain embodiments, a particle size reduction is accomplished to the porous carbon material before and after the VTA-CVI process. In certain embodiments, a particle size reduction is accomplished to the pyrolyzed carbon material before the VTA-CVI process. In certain embodiments, a particle size reduction is accomplished to the pyrolzyed carbon material after the VTA-CVI process. In certain embodiments, a particle size reduction is accomplished to the pyrolzyed carbon material before and after the VTA-CVI process.

In certain embodiments, vibration is applied at one position, or more than one position, and the porous carbon material traverses through the heated zone at a constant rate, i.e., same rate at each position within the heated zone. In certain other embodiments, vibration is more than one position, and the porous carbon material traverses through the heated zone at a non-constant rate. A preferred mode for this latter embodiment is the case where the porous carbon accelerates as the material progresses thought the heated zone. Without being bound by theory, this latter mode results in more precise control over the porous carbon material accurately achieving the final desired level of silicon loading.

The areal loading of the porous carbon material for vary, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/cm2. In certain embodiments, the area loading of the porous carbon material varies as the material traverses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments, the area loading of the porous carbon material decreases as the material traverses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments, the area loading of the porous carbon material increases as the material traverses through the heated zone. In certain embodiments, the area loading of the porous carbon material increases and the silicon content of the porous carbon particles increases as the material traverses through the heated zone.

The conveyance rate of porous carbon scaffold material can be varied. For example, the conveyance rate can be described as a linear velocity, and can vary from <NUM> to <NUM>/h, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/g, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/g, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/g, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/g, for example from <NUM> to <NUM>/g,
The certain embodiments, vibration is applied continuously. In other embodiments, vibration is applied non-continuously, i.e., as pulses separated by period where no vibration is applied. According to these embodiments, the duration of pulses can be varied, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>. In a similar fashion, the duration of pulses can be varied, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>, for example from <NUM> sec to <NUM>. For the above embodiments, the duty cycle is defined as the duration of each pulse divided by the sum of the duration of each pulse and each period of non-pulse, expressed as percentage. The duty cycle can vary, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%, for example from <NUM>% to <NUM>%.

In some embodiments, the retort is horizontal. In other preferred embodiments the surface is sloped downwards relative to the travel direction of the porous scaffold particle, a case that can be described as a negative angle of travel. According to these embodiments, the negative angle of travel can vary, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°. In other embodiments the surface is sloped upwards relative to the travel direction of the porous scaffold particle, a case that can be described as a positive angle of travel. According to these embodiments, the positive angle of travel can vary, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°, for example from <NUM>° to <NUM>°.

In certain embodiments, the retort comprises various sections, wherein each section has a distinct angle of travel. For example, the retort can comprise two sections, and upstream section that is horizontal, and a downstream section that has a negative angle of travel. In certain embodiments, the retort comprises two or more sections, with each section having s sequentially decreasing angle of travel. Without being bound by theory, this latter embodiment results in more precise control over the porous carbon material accurately achieving the final desired level of silicon loading.

The VTA-CVI reactor can be constructed using a gas-tight alloy retort. The alloy could be stainless steel (<NUM>, <NUM>, etc.) or more exotic alloys such as Inconel or Hastelloy. The retort is mounted on vibration isolating spring footings. Vibration generating motors (VGM) are mounted directly on the retort. The number of VGMs used is dependent on the design. The VGMs are positioned to create both vertical and horizontal vibrational modes with the cumulative vibrational vector oriented in the direction of desired material flow. At the inlet end of the retort a raw material feed chute is installed, and at the product outlet, a discharge chute is installed. A process gas injector is installed at product outlet end, and an exhaust gas lance is installed at the material inlet end of the retort (alternate modes of gas configuration are listed in the following section). The gas-tight retort is heated externally to elevate the material temperature and drive the reaction. In the case of silicon CVI, the powder temperature must exceed <NUM>, for example exceed <NUM>, for example exceed <NUM>, for example exceed <NUM>, for example exceed <NUM>, for example exceed <NUM>. For other embodiments of silicon CVI, the powder temperature must be in the range of <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>.

Additionally, gas heaters may be used to elevate the process gas temperature. Heating of the retort can be accomplished using electrical resistive heating elements. Alternatively, a hot gas plenum can be constructed around or under the retort and heated air or other gas can be circulated to heat the retort. Ideally, only the retort bottom is heated resulting cooler surfaces on the retort walls and ceiling; this reduces deposition of process gas onto reactor walls because the scaffold is hotter than all other gas-accessible surfaces. The retort can be positioned level to the ground, or at a declined angle (-<NUM> - <NUM> degrees) with material traveling down-slope.

Residence time of powder flowing through the VTA-CVI reactor is controlled using the vibratory frequency and amplitude and direction of force. Also, the VGMs can be cycled using an on-off timer or programmed variable frequency drive (VFD) to produce very long residence times. For example, VGMs can be programed on for <NUM> seconds and off for <NUM> minutes to generate a plug-flow continuous reactor; the resulting duty cycle in this embodiment is <NUM>%.

The gas injector/exhaust can be configured for countercurrent flow of material to gas. It is also possible to configure this for co-current flow of material and gas. It is also possible to draw exhaust gas from the center of the retort and inject gas from both ends. It is also possible to inject gas in the middle of the retort and exhaust from one or both ends. The retort can be rectangular in shape, and cylindrical/tubular designs are also possible.

The above embodiments are not limited to silane gas as the silicon containing precursor. Additional silane containing precursors in this context are disilane, trisilane, tetrasilane, chlorosilane, dichlorosilane, trichlorosilane, and tetrachlorosilane, and combinations thereof.

The pressure within the VTA-CVI reactor can be varied, for example can be ambient, or about <NUM> kPa. In certain embodiments, the pressure can be less than ambient, for example less than <NUM> kPa, for example less than <NUM> kPa, for example less than <NUM> kPa. In certain other embodiments, the pressure within the VTA-CVI reactor can be greater than ambient, for example between 101kPa and <NUM> kPa, for example between <NUM> kPa and <NUM> kPa.

The bed depth of porous carbon scaffold within the VTA-CVI reactor can vary, for example can be from <NUM> to <NUM>. In other embodiments, the bed depth of porous carbon scaffold within the VTA-CVI reactor can be from <NUM> to <NUM>. The bed expansion within the VTA-CVI reactor can be defined as the height of the carbon scaffold subjected to the vibration during operation of the VTA-CVI reactor divided by the height of the carbon scaffold at rest, that is when not subjected to any vibration. The bed expansion within the VTA-CVI reactor can vary, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>, for example <NUM> to <NUM>.

A laboratory tube furnace with a <NUM>-inch diameter tube and <NUM>-inch long hot zone was setup in a fume hood. An alumina sample boat was used to hold the porous carbon scaffold in the furnace.

The particle size distribution for the porous carbon scaffold was determined by laser light scattering as known in the art. The resulting particle size distribution yielded Dv,<NUM>=<NUM>, dV,<NUM>=<NUM>, Dv,<NUM>=<NUM>, Dv,<NUM>=<NUM>, and Dv,<NUM>=<NUM>. The pore size for the porous carbon scaffold was analyzed by nitrogen sorption analysis as known in the art. The total pore volume for the porous carbon scaffold was <NUM> cm2/g, and the surface area was <NUM> m2/g. The porous carbon scaffold comprises micropores, mesopores, and/or macropores. For example, the porous carbon scaffold comprises greater <NUM>% micropores, <NUM> to <NUM>% mesopores, and <NUM> to <NUM>% macropores. For example, the porous carbon scaffold comprises greater <NUM>% micropores, less than <NUM>% mesopores, and less than <NUM>% macropores. For example, the porous carbon scaffold comprises greater <NUM>% micropores, less than <NUM>% mesopores, and less than <NUM>% macropores. For example, the porous carbon scaffold comprises greater <NUM>% micropores, less than <NUM>% mesopores, and less than <NUM>% macropores. For example, the porous carbon scaffold comprises greater <NUM>% micropores, less than <NUM>% mesopores, and less than <NUM>% macropores. The tap density for the porous carbon scaffold as measured as known in the art was <NUM>/cm3. The total ash content for the porous carbon scaffold as determined by tXRF as known in the art was <NUM>%.

Silane and nitrogen gas were injected into the furnace, exhaust gas was vented to a laboratory scrubber. The furnace was operated at atmospheric pressure. A test was completed using this apparatus to validate silicon CVI on a static bed of microporous carbon at varying bed depths. For each test, the sample and furnace were ramped to the desired reaction temperature under nitrogen, exposed to <NUM>% silane gas for the desired time and at the desired flow rate, cooled under nitrogen to room temperature, and exposed to air to passivate the samples. Si-C composite materials produced were evaluated for silicon content and homogeneity by TGA as known in the art. See the matrix of experimental conditions and results in the table below. As can be seen, the static approach can produce silicon on the porous carbon, however, this process may have throughput limitations for commercial scalability. Therefore, processes that are non-static may have a throughput advantage.

One approach for a non-static reactor that is known in the art, is FBR. A laboratory fluidized bed reactor was constructed to deposit silicon onto microporous micronized carbon particles. The vertically oriented reactor consisted of a <NUM> (<NUM>-inch) diameter process tube with a gas distributor plate welded in the middle of the tube. Process gas was injected below the distributor plate designed to fluidize the carbon particles. Exhaust gas was vented from the top of the reactor retort to a laboratory gas abatement system. The retort tube was heated by a <NUM> (<NUM>-inch) long vertically mounted tube furnace. A <NUM> sample of microporous carbon was loaded onto the distributor plate through a feed port on the retort. Nitrogen gas flow was initiated at a velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min) through the tube to fluidize the carbon. The retort temperature was ramped to <NUM> over <NUM> minutes. The nitrogen flow was proportionally reduced to maintain a <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min) velocity accounting for hot gas expansion. At <NUM>, the nitrogen flow was discontinued and a flow of <NUM>% silane in nitrogen was initiated to achieve fluidization at a velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min). After <NUM> hours, the flow was switched back to nitrogen and the system was cooled to room temperature. At room temperature, the materials were slowly exposed to air to passivate the sample. Only <NUM> grams of material was recovered from the reactor. All other material had elutriated from the reactor and collected in the abatement system. The materials collected were silicon-carbon composite comprising <NUM>% silicon and <NUM>% carbon as measured by TGA. While this approach was able to yield a desired addition of silicon on the porous carbon over <NUM> hours, over that <NUM>-hour period the carbon material loss due to elutriation was <NUM>% of the starting sample. Therefore, the approach of fluid bed was not deemed commercially suitable without substantial improvement to address this issue.

Yet another non-static approach examined was a rotary kiln. In this study, a batch rotary kiln comprising a <NUM> (<NUM> inch) diameter Inconel batch process tube with a <NUM> (<NUM>-inch) long heated reaction zone was utilized. A <NUM> (<NUM>-inch) diameter process gas injection nozzle was installed on one end of the process tube, and a <NUM> (<NUM>-inch) diameter exhaust vent was installed on the opposite end. Micronized porous carbon materials were loaded through a hatch on the exhaust side of the process tube. For each test, micronized porous carbon materials were loaded into the reactor at room temperature. The reactor was ramped to the target reaction temperature under an inert nitrogen atmosphere. The tube was rotated at the target speed during the entire process. Once at temperature, a mixture of <NUM> mol% silane in nitrogen was injected into the tube at a target flow rate. After many tests, silicon-carbon composites were produced, however, the process yields were very low due to elutriation of material in the gas stream. Below is a table of select process conditions and associated elutriation rates based on starting carbon materials and recovered product mass with associated silicon loading.

Overall, rotary kiln technology can be used for CVI reactions, but the tumbling action of particles in the furnace results in significant entrainment and elutriation when working with micronized powders. Observations in the fluid bed reactor and rotary kiln led us to further examine methods of accomplishing the low elutriation observed in the static bed tests of Example <NUM>, but in a configuration that enabled higher continuous throughput.

A vibratory convey test system was constructed by mounting a self-synchronized vibratory exciter motor to a <NUM> (<NUM>") wide stainless-steel retort with <NUM> (<NUM>") high walls that was <NUM> (<NUM> ft) long. The entire retort and motor assembly was mounted on isolation springs and was declined at a <NUM>-degree angle. Micronized porous carbon was loaded into the elevated end of the retort and the vibratory motor was turned on at <NUM> with the entire retort at ambient room temperature (<NUM>). The vibrational force direction of the vibratory exciter motor was oriented at <NUM> degrees angle of attack orthogonal to the retort powder deck. The micronized porous carbon traveled smoothly to the other end of the retort in ~<NUM> seconds.

In a following test on the setup described above, the vibratory exciter motor starter was configured with an on/off timer with a programmed <NUM> seconds on, and <NUM> minutes off. This program enabled an overall convey velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min) which would enable a <NUM> hr residence time for material to flow through the reactor. The required residence time for a CVI reaction can be achieved using such a pulse program with pulse parameters accounting for the entire length of the retort.

In a following test on the setup described above, a powder feeder was used to slowly meter micronized porous carbon into the retort with the vibratory exciter motor set on a pulse program of <NUM> seconds on, <NUM> minutes off at <NUM>. It was observed that bed depth of the porous carbon in the retort can be modulated precisely by adjusting feed rate while holding all other process variables constant (vibration frequency, vibration angle, and vibration pulse frequency and duration). Using porous carbon scaffold with a bulk density of <NUM>/cc, bed depths of ~<NUM> (~<NUM> inch) and ~<NUM> (~<NUM> inch) were achieved in stable conditions along the length of the entire <NUM> (<NUM>-foot) apparatus at feed rates of ~<NUM>/hr, ~<NUM>/hr respectively.

In a following test on the identical setup described above, a process gas injection nozzle was welded to the product discharge end of the retort, and an exhaust gas vent was welded to the product inlet side of the retort. A nitrogen flow rate of <NUM>/min was applied across the retort. The vibratory exciter motor was initiated on a pule program of <NUM> seconds on and <NUM> minutes off at a frequency of <NUM> when on. This enabled an overall powder convey velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min) for an overall powder residence time of <NUM> hrs across the retort length. The feed hopper was loaded with <NUM> of micronized porous carbon with a bulk density of <NUM>/cc. The powder feeder was initiated at a rate of ~<NUM>/hr. The system was allowed to run for <NUM> hrs to assure all materials could transfer through the retort and into the product collection vessel. After <NUM> hr <NUM> of carbon materials were collected from the product vessel. This indicated total elutriation rate of <NUM>%. This result validated a significantly lower elutriation rate relative to fluid bed reactor and rotary kiln processing (<NUM> to <NUM>% per hour). Without being bound by theory, the elutriation rate from the VTA-CVI reactor can be further lowered, for example to less than <NUM>% per hour, for example less than <NUM>% per hour, for example less than <NUM>% per hour, for example less than <NUM>% per hour.

In a subsequent test, the identical apparatus described in the previous test was passed through a <NUM>-zone electrically heated tube furnace. The heated furnace length was <NUM> (<NUM> ft) or <NUM>% of the <NUM> (<NUM> ft) retort length. The retort was heated to <NUM> in all three zones and a nitrogen flow of <NUM>/min was applied to the furnace. The vibratory exciter motor was initiated on a pule program of <NUM> seconds on and <NUM> minutes off at a frequency of <NUM> when on. This enabled an overall powder convey velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min) for an overall powder residence time of <NUM> hr across the retort length based on cold flow testing. The feed hopper was loaded with <NUM> of micronized porous carbon with a bulk density of <NUM>/cc. The powder feeder was initiated at a rate of ~<NUM>/hr. The system was allowed to run for <NUM> hr to assure all materials could transfer through the retort and into the product collection vessel. After <NUM> hr the product collection vessel was opened and an unexpected result was observed. Only <NUM> of material had travelled into the collection container. The retort end-cap was opened and it was observed that most of the porous carbon powder was stuck in retort on the downstream edge of the heated section. In this section, the retort temperature drops from <NUM> to ~<NUM> over ~<NUM> (~<NUM> inches). It was hypothesized that upon cooling, hot porous carbon materials cling to cooler surfaces. Example <NUM> details testing that was completed to confirm this hypothesis.

To validate the unexpected result observed in Example <NUM>, the following series of tests were conducted. A vibratory convey test system was constructed by mounting a self-synchronized vibratory exciter motor to an <NUM> (<NUM>") wide stainless-steel trough with <NUM> (<NUM>") high walls that was <NUM> (<NUM> ft) long. The entire trough and motor assembly was mounted on isolation springs and was declined at a <NUM>-degree angle. Unlike the apparatus described in Example <NUM>, the vibrational angle of attack of the vibratory exciter motor was oriented at <NUM> degrees toward the declined end of the trough. This adjustment in force vector enables the system to function with the powder deck declined at a lower angel (in this case <NUM> degrees). It is also possible to convey on a completely flat surface and an inclined surface by adjusting these vibrational force vectors. Underneath the trough was a sealed stainless steel plenum. A hot air recirculation system was installed to blow heated air through the plenum up to <NUM> (<NUM> foot) from the declined end of the trough all the way to the inclined end of the trough. This system effectively heated the bottom of the entire trough to <NUM> with the exception of the <NUM> (<NUM>-foot) end on the discharge side. Micronized porous carbon was loaded into the elevated end of the trough using a volumetric feeder. The vibratory exciter motor starter was configured with an on/off timer with a programmed <NUM> seconds on at <NUM>, and <NUM> seconds off. This program enabled an overall convey velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min). When the vibratory exciter pulse program initiated the micronized porous carbon moved uniformly down the length of the trough. Temperature measurements with an infrared thermometer validated the bed of carbon reached <NUM> uniformly across the bed. The material conveyed across the entire heated length of the trough but would not convey onto the cooler section in the last <NUM> (<NUM> feet) of the trough. In this area the heated trough temperature dropped from <NUM> to <NUM>. The micronized porous carbon appeared to stick to the cooler metal surface of the trough.

A following experiment was conducted using the identical apparatus described in the first experiment of Example <NUM> above except the heated air plenum extended the entire length of the trough. Micronized porous carbon was loaded into the elevated end of the trough using a volumetric feeder. The vibratory exciter motor starter was configured with an on/off timer with a programmed <NUM> seconds on at <NUM>, and <NUM> seconds off. This program enabled an overall convey velocity of <NUM>/min (<NUM> ft/min). When the vibratory exciter pulse program initiated the micronized porous carbon moved uniformly down the length of the trough. Temperature measurements with an infrared thermometer validated the bed of carbon reached <NUM> uniformly across the bed. Unlike the previous test, the bed of hot micronized porous carbon traveled uniformly across the entire trough and flowed off the end of the trough into a collection container.

To overcome the unexpected finding in Example <NUM>, VTA-CVI reactors for use with micronized porous carbon must effectively heat the materials until they can be effectively removed from the retort by means other than vibratory convey. For instance, similar to the second test in Example <NUM>, a VTA-CVI reactor can be constructed with a heated air plenum on the underside of the retort that heats the entire convey surface of the retort including the product discharge spout allowing the materials to fall out of the retort via gravity and collect in a container or alternate conveyor. See <FIG>, which presents a schematic depicting this concept with a heated air plenum.

In certain embodiments, the particulate silicon-carbon composite particles exit the VTA-CVI reactor at the same temperature as the heated zone, in order to avoid any clumping or clogging of material in the reactor. In certain other embodiments, the particulate silicon-carbon composite particles exit the VTA-CVI reactor at a temperature <NUM> to <NUM> lower than as the heated zone, but above ambient, in order to avoid any clumping or clogging of material in the reactor. For example, the particulate silicon-carbon composite particles exit the VTA-CVI reactor at the temperature <NUM> lower than as the heated zone, for example <NUM> lower than as the heated zone, for example <NUM> lower than as the heated zone.

Additionally, if a heated air plenum is not desired to achieve higher temperatures, improve energy efficiency, or heat the entire retort, a VTA-CVI reactor can be constructed where the entire retort passes through an electrically heated furnace box. Care in the design must be made to assure the vibrating retort cannot contact the furnace. To overcome the unexpected observation in Example <NUM>, the product outlet should be heated by the furnace. See <FIG>, which presents a schematic detailing this concept.

The identical apparatus described in Example <NUM> was configured with product discharge spout that was welded to the bottom of the declined end of the retort and was connected to a product collection can using a flexible bellows for vibration isolation. The retort was passed through a <NUM>-zone electrically heated tube furnace. The heated furnace length was <NUM> (<NUM> ft) or <NUM>% of the <NUM> (<NUM> ft) retort length. A process gas inlet was welded to the declined end of the retort and an exhaust gas outlet was welded to the inclined end of the retort. The declined end of the retort protruding from the furnace was wrapped with heat trace and insulation to heat the outlet section and prevent issues with material flow observed in Example <NUM>. See <FIG>, which depicts the schematic of this apparatus.

The furnace on the above described assembly was heated to <NUM> in all three zones. The vibratory exciter motor was programmed for <NUM> seconds on and <NUM> minutes off with a frequency of <NUM> when on. The vibration program was initiated. A process gas mixture of <NUM>% silane diluted in nitrogen was flown into the retort at a continuous rate of <NUM>/min. The volumetric feeder was initiated to feed micronized porous carbon into the retort at a rate of <NUM>/hr for bed depth of ~<NUM> (~<NUM> inches). The process was left to operate at this condition for <NUM> hr and then the carbon feed was stopped. After an additional <NUM> hours the silane/nitrogen flow was discontinued and switched to <NUM>% nitrogen. The retort was cooled to room temperature and the product collection container was opened. Silicon carbon composite materials with <NUM>% silicon and <NUM>% carbon as measured by TGA were collected from the container.

Si-C composites were produced using the VTA-CVI reactor and processing as described in Example <NUM>. These materials were characterized for their physicochemical properties, specifically their surface area and pore volume, and for their silicon loading (see Example <NUM> for further method details). The data for four representative Si-C samples are presented the following table.

Sample <NUM>-<NUM> was further characterized for electrochemical performance as anode material in lithium ion batteries. One test in this regard is half cell evaluation. For the purpose of this example, Si-C sample <NUM>-<NUM> was blended in an anode comprising active material, binder (e.g., CMC-SBR), and conductive carbon (e.g., C45) at <NUM>%, <NUM>%, and <NUM>% of the electrode mass respectively. The electrolyte comprised <NUM> LiPF6 in EC:DEC w/<NUM>% FEC. The half-cells were cycled as described in the table below.

Electrochemical characterization of material produced in Example <NUM> is described in the table below.

<FIG> and <FIG> depict the capacity (both insertion and extraction) vs. cycle number and Coulombic efficiency vs. cycle number respectively. As can be seen, the VTA-CVI reactor was successful in producing Si-C composite material with the targeted silicon loading as achieved for static processing (Example <NUM>); furthermore, and importantly, the anode material produced in the VTA-CVI reactor had desirable electrochemical properties such as high average Coulombic efficiency and capacity retention.

From the foregoing it will be appreciated that, although specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without deviating from the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

Claim 1:
A process for preparing silicon-carbon composite particles, the process comprising:
a. providing a particulate porous carbon;
b. subjecting the particulate porous carbon to a vibrating surface to traverse the particulate porous carbon through a heated zone of a reactor;
c. providing a silicon-containing gas within the heated zone of a reactor to impregnate silicon within the particulate porous carbon, wherein the silicon-containing gas comprises silane, disilane, trisilane, tetrasilane, monochlorosilane, dichlorosilane, trichlorosilane, tetrachlorosilane, or a combination thereof; and
d. discharging the resulting silicon-carbon composite particles from the reactor, wherein the resulting silicon-carbon composite particles are discharged from the reactor while maintaining the resulting silicon-carbon composite particles at the same temperature as the heated zone of the reactor, or at a temperature <NUM> to <NUM> lower than the heated zone of the reactor.