Patent Description:
Materials that respond sensitively to temperature variations are used in several applications that range from electrical temperature sensors to micro bolometers for thermal cameras.

Existing high-performance temperature-sensitive materials, such as vanadium oxide, have temperature coefficients of electrical resistance (TCR) on the order of -<NUM>% K-<NUM> at room temperature. These materials derive their properties from changes of their crystal structure during semiconductor to metal transitions.

Variations of the ambient temperature influence the biopotential of living plants. Experiments performed in vivo on a maple tree (Acer saccharum) showed an exponential correlation between the tree's branch electrical resistance and temperature. This behaviour has been attributed to ionic conductivity occurring in plant cell walls.

The plant cell wall, positioned outside the plasma membrane, is composed of carbohydrates such as cellulose microfibrils with diameters as small as <NUM>, and hemicellulose interconnected with pectin. Pectins are composed of pectic polysaccharides rich in galacturonic acid that influence properties such as porosity, surface charge, pH, and ion balance and therefore are critical for ion transport within the cell wall. Pectins contain multiple negatively charged saccharides that bind cations, such as Ca<NUM>+, that form cross-links that confer strength and expansibility to the cell wall. It has been shown that the gelation rate of pectin decreases exponentially with temperature so that the number of dissociated chains is higher at elevated temperatures. This finding is explained by an entropic effect: as the temperature increases, the probability of interaction between two pectin chains is reduced (<NPL>). <CIT> is directed to a method and apparatus for use of thermally switching proteins in sensing and detecting devices.

Here, we utilized the exceptionally high temperature- and moisture sensitivity of biopolymers and related materials to develop temperature and humidity sensors with unique properties.

The objective of the present invention is to provide a temperature sensor comprising a polymer gel.

This objective is attained by the subject-matter of the independent claims.

In the context of the present specification, the term "ion" describes an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is unequal to the total number of protons, which results in a positive or negative electric net charge of the atom or molecule.

In the context of the present specification, the terms "voltage" is used in its meaning known in the art of physics. It refers to the electrical potential in either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) regime.

In the context of the present specification, the terms "current" is used in its meaning known in the art of physics. It refers to either AC or DC.

In the context of the present specification, the terms "voltage source" or "current source" refer either to AC or DC sources.

In the context of the present specification, the term "electrical impedance" is used in its meaning known in the art of physics. It refers to the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an AC circuit.

In the context of the present specification, the term "electrical resistance" is used in its meaning known in the art of physics. It refers to the ratio of the voltage to the current in a DC circuit.

In the context of the present specification, the term "electrical conductivity" is used in its meaning known in the art of physics. It refers to the ratio of the current to the voltage in a DC.

In the context of the present specification, the term "bolometer" describes a device adapted to measure electromagnetic radiation, particularly infrared radiation, over a distance of more than <NUM>, particularly more than <NUM>. The term "bolometer" comprises "micro bolometers".

In the context of the present specification, the term "micro bolometer" describes a bolometer having a maximal extension of less than <NUM>, particularly less than <NUM>, more particularly less than <NUM>.

In the context of the present specification, the term "micro temperature sensor" describes a temperature sensor having a maximal extension of less than <NUM>, particularly less than <NUM>, more particularly less than <NUM>.

In the context of the present specification, the term "micro humidity sensor" describes a humidity sensor having a maximal extension of less than <NUM>, particularly less than <NUM>, more particularly less than <NUM>.

In the context of the present specification, the term "hydrogel" refers to a network of polymer chains that are hydrophilic.

In the context of the present specification, the term "polymer" refers to a molecule, which is composed of repeated subunits, wherein the subunits are connected by covalent bonds.

In the context of the present specification, the term "charged moiety" describes a group of atoms having a positive or negative charge.

In the context of the present specification, the term "polyelectrolyte" refers to a polymer comprising a charged moiety.

In the context of the present specification, the term "biopolymer" refers to a biomolecule, which is also a polymer, particularly selected from polysaccharides, peptides, polypeptides, proteins, deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA), or ribonucleic acids (RNA).

In the context of the present specification, the term "pectin" refers to a heteropolysaccharide comprising galacturonic acid subunits. In the context of the present specification, a substance described by the term "pectin" may comprise methyl esterified carboxyl groups.

The following common chemical terms are known to the person skilled in the art and defined in case of ambiguity by their Chemical Abstract Services Identifier Number (CAS):
Alginate: <NPL>; amylase: <NPL>, amylopectin: <NPL>; carboxymethyl cellulose: <NPL>; cellulose: <NPL>; chitin: CAS <NUM>-<NUM>-<NUM>; chitosan: <NPL>; dextran: <NPL>; glycogen: <NPL>; guaran: <NPL>; hyaluronic acid: <NPL>; polyacrylic acid: <NPL>; polystyrene sulfonate: <NPL>; polyethylene (PE): <NPL>; polypropylene (PP): <NPL>; polystyrene (PS): <NPL>; polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): <NPL>; polyvinyl chloride (PVC): <NPL>; polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): <NPL>.

A first aspect of the invention provides a temperature sensor as defined in claim <NUM>. The temperature sensor comprises a sensor gel, which includes ions that can move within the sensor gel and can particularly bind to charged moieties on a polymer.

In particular, the sensor gel is adapted to transport an electric current from the first electrode to the second electrode, wherein the electric current is dependent on the temperature of the sensor gel.

In certain embodiments, the temperature sensor is a micro temperature sensor.

In certain embodiments, the ionic conductivity of the sensor gel changes with temperature.

In certain embodiments, the electrical impedance or electrical resistance of the sensor gel changes with temperature.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises a hydrogel.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is a polyelectrolyte.

The polymer is selected from a charged biopolymer, particularly a peptide, a polypeptide, or a polysaccharide comprising charged moieties, more particularly pectin, alginate, or alginate sulfate, and/ or a synthetic polymer having charged moieties, particularly polyacrylic acid, polystyrene sulfonate, a cationic derivative of hyaluronic acid, or carboxymethyl cellulose.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises a network of polymers, wherein the network is constituted by covalent bonds, and/ or ionic bonds, and/ or physical crosslinks.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is selected from an uncharged polysaccharide, particularly agarose, amylase, amylopectin, callose, cellulose, chitin, chitosan, dextran, glycogen, guaran, or hemicellulose, or an uncharged peptide or polypeptide.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is selected from a synthetic polymer, particularly polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and/ or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

In certain embodiments, the ions have a charge of <NUM> or greater.

In certain embodiments, the ions have a charge of <NUM>.

In certain embodiments, the ions are divalent ions.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel is crosslinked by the divalent ions.

In certain embodiments, the ions are metal ions.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel is crosslinked by the metal ions.

In certain embodiments, the ions are Ca<NUM>+, Mg<NUM>+, Cu<NUM>+, Sr<NUM>+, or Ba<NUM>+ ions, particularly Ca<NUM>+ ions.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is pectin.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is pectin comprising methyl esterified carboxyl groups. Advantageously, hydrogels comprising pectin and Ca<NUM>+ ions display an especially high effective temperature coefficient of electrical resistance (TCR).

In certain embodiments, the pectin is crosslinked by the ions, particularly divalent ions and/ or metal ions, more particularly cations.

In certain embodiments, the pectin is crosslinked by Ca<NUM>+, Mg<NUM>+, Cu<NUM>+, Sr<NUM>+, or Ba<NUM>+ ions, particularly Ca<NUM>+ ions.

In certain embodiments, the pectin is crosslinked by Ca<NUM>+ ions.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel comprises cell walls from plant cells, particularly tobacco plants, more particularly Nicotiana tabacum, most particularly BY-<NUM> cells.

Advantageously, BY-<NUM> cells are easy to cultivate and exhibit fast growth.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises carbon nanotubes, particularly multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs).

Advantageously, MWCNTs have been observed to increase the lifespan of sensor gels.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises graphite.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel has a water content of < <NUM>%, particularly < <NUM>%, more particularly < <NUM>% weight per volume.

Advantageously, a water content below <NUM>% has been shown to positively influence the temperature sensitivity of electrical resistance of the sensor gel.

In certain embodiments, the stoichiometric ratio of ions to charged moieties is <NUM>:<NUM> to <NUM>:<NUM>, particularly <NUM>:<NUM> to <NUM>:<NUM>, more particularly <NUM>:<NUM> to <NUM>:<NUM>, most particularly <NUM>:<NUM>.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel is essentially composed of the polymer, water, and ions, particularly wherein the sensor gel is free from carbon nanotubes.

Advantageously, such sensor gels are easy to prepare and require only low-cost reagents.

In certain embodiments the first electrode and/ or the second electrode comprises carbon.

In certain embodiments the first electrode and/ or the second electrode comprises platinum.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises pectin at a concentration of <NUM> % to <NUM> % in weight, particularly <NUM> % in weight.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises pectin having a degree of methylation of <NUM> % to <NUM> %, particularly <NUM> %.

In certain embodiments, the pectin has a content of galacturonic acid of <NUM> % to <NUM> %, particularly <NUM> %.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel is embedded in a casing that is not permeable to liquid water and/ or water vapour.

In certain embodiments, the casing is transparent to infrared radiation, particularly in the wavelength range of <NUM> to <NUM>.

In certain embodiments, the casing is transparent to mid or far infrared radiation.

In certain embodiments, the casing comprises germanium.

In certain embodiments, the casing comprises polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS).

In certain embodiments, the casing comprises cellophane.

Advantageously, encasing the sensor gel eliminates humidity effects on the conductivity of the sensor gel.

In certain embodiments, the first electrode, and/ or the second electrode is made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, gold and aluminium.

In certain embodiments, the first electrode, and/ or the second electrode is made of a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, carbon, steel, polysilicon, chromium, and niobium.

According to a second aspect of the invention, a system comprising a temperature sensor according to the first aspect of the invention, a voltage source or electric current source, and a measurement device for detecting voltage or current is provided. Therein the temperature sensor and the measurement device are electrically connected, such that an electric current through the temperature sensor, or a voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode of the temperature sensor is measurable by the measurement device.

In certain embodiments, the system comprises a voltage source and the measurement device is an ampere meter for detecting electric current, wherein the temperature sensor and the ampere meter are electrically connected, such that an electric current through the temperature sensor is measurable by the ampere meter.

In certain embodiments, the system comprises a voltage source and an electrical circuit for detecting electric current, wherein the temperature sensor and the electrical circuit are electrically connected, such that an electric current through the temperature sensor is measurable by the electrical circuit.

In certain embodiments, the system comprises a current source and an electrical circuit for detecting voltage, wherein the temperature sensor and the electrical circuit are electrically connected, such that a voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode of the temperature sensor is measurable by the electrical circuit.

In certain embodiments, the system comprises two or more temperature sensors, wherein the temperature sensors are connected in series.

In certain embodiments, the system comprises two or more temperature sensors, wherein the temperature sensors are connected in parallel.

According to a third aspect of the invention, a bolometer, particularly a mid or far infrared detector is provided, wherein the bolometer comprises a temperature sensor according to the first aspect of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the bolometer is a micro bolometer.

According to a fourth aspect of the invention, a temperature sensor array comprising a plurality of sections arranged in a two-dimensional array is provided. Therein each section comprises a respective temperature sensor according to the first aspect of the invention, and the temperature of each section is determinable by means of the respective temperature sensor.

According to a fifth aspect of the invention, a method for temperature detection by means of a temperature sensor according to the first aspect of the invention is provided. Therein, the method comprises the steps of providing a temperature sensor according to the first aspect of the invention, providing a voltage or an electric current between the first electrode and the second electrode of the temperature sensor, measuring an electric current or a voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode, and determining a temperature from the measured electric current or voltage.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises providing a voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode of the temperature sensor, and measuring an electric current between the first electrode and the second electrode, particularly by means of an ampere meter, wherein the temperature sensor and the ampere meter are electrically connected.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises providing an electric current between the first electrode and the second electrode of the temperature sensor, and measuring a voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode, particularly by means of an electronic circuit, wherein the temperature sensor and the electronic circuit are electrically connected.

In certain embodiments the electric current is converted into a voltage by means of an electronic circuit.

In certain embodiments, infrared radiation of an object is detected by means of the temperature sensor.

The claimed sensors can be provided by a method for obtaining a sensor gel, wherein the method comprises the steps of providing a mixture comprising a gel-forming substance and ions, wherein the mixture is free from plant cells, and reducing the water content of the mixture, particularly to <NUM> %, more particularly <NUM> %, even more particularly <NUM> %.

In certain embodiments, the ions are Ca<NUM>+ ions.

In certain embodiments, the gel forming substance is pectin.

In certain embodiments, the gel forming substance is pectin comprising methyl esterified carboxyl groups.

In certain embodiments, the pectin is provided in purified form, particularly at a concentration of <NUM> % to <NUM> % weight per volume, particularly <NUM> % weight per volume, in order to prepare the mixture.

In certain embodiments, the pectin has a degree of methylation of <NUM> % to <NUM> %, particularly <NUM>%.

In certain embodiments, the stoichiometric ratio of the ions to the gel forming substance is <NUM>:<NUM> to <NUM>:<NUM>, particularly <NUM>:<NUM> to <NUM>:<NUM>, more particularly <NUM>:<NUM> to <NUM>:<NUM>, most particularly <NUM>:<NUM>.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel comprises a hydrogel.

In certain embodiments described herein, the polymer is a polyelectrolyte.

The polymer is selected from a charged biopolymer, particularly a peptide, a polypeptide, or a polysaccharide comprising charged moieties, more particularly pectin, alginate, or alginate sulfate, and/ or a synthetic polymer having charged moieties, particularly polyacrylic acid, polysterene sulfonate, a cationic derivative of hyaluronic acid, or carboxymethyl cellulose.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel comprises a network of polymers, wherein the network is constituted by covalent bonds, and/ or ionic bonds, and/ or physical crosslinks.

In certain embodiments described herein, the polymer is selected from an uncharged polysaccharide, particularly agarose, amylase, amylopectin, callose, cellulose, chitin, chitosan, dextran, glycogen, guaran, or hemicellulose, or an uncharged peptide or polypeptide.

In certain embodiments described herein, the polymer is selected from a synthetic polymer, particularly polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polysterene (PS), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and/ or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel is crosslinked by ions.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel is crosslinked by divalent ions.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel is crosslinked by metal ions.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel is crosslinked by Ca<NUM>+, Mg<NUM>+, Cu<NUM>+, Sr<NUM>+, or Ba<NUM>+ ions, particularly Ca<NUM>+ ions.

In certain embodiments described herein, the polymer is pectin.

In certain embodiments described herein, the polymer is pectin comprising methyl esterified carboxyl groups.

In certain embodiments described herein, the pectin is crosslinked by the ions, particularly divalent ions and/ or metal ions, more particularly cations.

In certain embodiments described herein, the pectin is crosslinked by Ca<NUM>+, Mg<NUM>+, Cu<NUM>+, Sr<NUM>+, or Ba<NUM>+ ions, particularly Ca<NUM>+ ions.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel comprises cell walls from plant cells, particularly from tobacco plants, more particularly from Nicotiana tabacum, most particularly BY-<NUM> cells.

In certain embodiments described herein, the sensor gel comprises carbon nanotubes, particularly multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs).

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel is essentially composed of the polymer, water, and ions, particularly wherein the sensor gel does not contain carbon nanotubes.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises pectin at a concentration of <NUM> % to <NUM> % weight per volume, particularly <NUM> % weight per volume.

In certain embodiments, the sensor gel comprises pectin having a degree of methylation of <NUM> % to <NUM> %, particularly <NUM> % weight per weight.

In certain embodiments, the pectin has a content of galacturonic acid of <NUM> % to <NUM> %, particularly <NUM> % weight per weight.

In certain embodiments, the first electrode, and/ or the second electrode is made of a material selected from the group consisting of copper, silver, gold, and aluminium.

The following items described herein do no form part of the invention, per se.

Wherever alternatives for single separable features are laid out herein as "embodiments", it is to be understood that such alternatives may be combined freely to form discrete embodiments of the invention disclosed herein.

The invention is further illustrated by the following examples and Figures, from which additional embodiments and advantages can be drawn. These examples are meant to illustrate the invention but not to limit its scope.

<FIG> shows a temperature sensor according to the present invention. The temperature sensor comprises an electrode <NUM>, a gel, and an electrode <NUM>, wherein the gel is positioned between the electrode <NUM> and the electrode <NUM>.

<FIG> shows a typical current (A) vs. temperature (°C) plot derived from a measurement by means of a temperature sensor according to the present invention. Values depicted as a solid line have been measured on a temperature sensor, in which the sensor gel comprises graphite. Dotted lines represent simulations according to the activation energy of the gel sensor.

<FIG> shows schematic diagrams and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of cyberwood. (A) Representation of the material with sputtered co-planar gold electrodes and current measurement setup. (B) Optical image of a sample. (C) Diagram of BY-<NUM> cells with MWCNTs. The cell walls are emphasized in grey. (D) SEM picture of tobacco cell (dark gray) with MWCNTs inside the cell wall (brighter lines). (E) Schematic diagram of the pectin backbone structure interconnecting cellulose microfibrils (grey bars) and the encapsulated metal ions in the egg-box structure. Micropores between cellulose microfibrils are shown filled with water and/ or MWCNTs. (F) SEM image showing MWCNTs penetrating the cell wall of a BY-<NUM> cell. The arrows indicate the edge of the cell wall and the MWCNTs.

shows the response of cyberwood to temperature and moisture content variations. (A) Electrical resistance vs. temperature at different moisture contents: <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%. (B) Current vs. time during temperature cycles. Cycle I: <NUM>% moisture content, Cycle II: <NUM>% moisture content, Cycle III: <NUM>% moisture content, Cycle IV: <NUM>% moisture content, Cycle V: <NUM>% moisture content. (C) Resistance vs. sample weight at <NUM>. The weight loss corresponds to the moisture content: <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%. (D) Electrical resistance vs. temperature during cycles up to <NUM>. <NUM>% line: same measurement as in (A) at <NUM>% moisture. The dashed line and arrow represent the sample cycling up to <NUM>. Material modification line I line: cycle from <NUM> to <NUM>. Dotted line: cycles up to <NUM>. Material modification II line: cycle from <NUM> to <NUM>. The open squares represent the sensitivity measured up to <NUM>. The arrows indicate whether the measurement was performed during the heating or cooling part of the respective cycles. (E) Arrhenius plot of the conductivity of a cyberwood micro-sample; isolated BY-<NUM> tobacco cells (black line values over <NUM> are dotted); cyberwood micro-sample with addition of EDTA and MS medium. (F) Temperature vs. time and current vs. time in a cyberwood micro-sample with addition of EDTA. The ambient relative humidity was suddenly increased at time (t = <NUM> sec).

<FIG> shows an application of cyberwood as a thermal distance sensor. Plots show variations of the current in different cyberwood samples, as a function of the position, in and off axis, of heat emitting bodies in time. (A) Larger sample detecting the position of a hand. (B) Micro-sample detecting the position of a hotplate.

<FIG> shows a low-magnification SEM picture of the cyberwood. <FIG> shows a top view of a cell wall of BY-<NUM> with MWCNTs on top. Arrows emphasize some penetration points.

<FIG> shows the I-V characteristics at <NUM> of cyberwood for different final moisture contents: <NUM>%, <NUM>%, <NUM>%, plotted in semi-log scale. The upper characteristic for each moisture content was measured immediately after the sample reached <NUM>, while the lower curve was obtained after being kept for <NUM> at <NUM>. The <NUM>% moisture content characteristics overlap, indicating that the dehydration at <NUM> is <NUM>. The vertical bars on the right of the curves graphically represent the level of hydration of the sample. (B) I-V characteristic at <NUM>% and <NUM>% moisture content before cycling.

<FIG> shows current vs. time and resistance vs. temperature in a cyberwood sample with and without housing when ambient humidity is increased from <NUM>% to <NUM>%.

<FIG> shows cyberwood as a thermal distance sensor. The plot shows variations of the current measured across the sample as a function of the position of a heat-emitting body in time, detecting the position of a person moving in the room. The temperature of the air near the sensor was acquired via an independent measurement. The error bars correspond to the accuracy of the measurement system.

<FIG> shows a characterization of the pectin thermometer (A) Dehydrated pectin hydrogel enclosed in PDMS. (B) Model of the pectin network; solid lines: galacturonic acid; black circles: Calcium ions; black dots: water molecules. (C) Temperature responsivity of a dehydrated pectin thermometer. Inset: model of the thermistor.

<FIG> shows a characterization of the pectin film (A) Measurement setup. A thermal camera acquires the temperature on the surface of a pectin film while two electrodes measure its current at a constant applied voltage. (B) Photograph of a pectin film. (C) Thermal-camera image of the pectin film in (A). (D) Current in the pectin film (left axis) vs. temperature on its surface (right axis). (E) Magnification of the black squared box measurements in (D); dots represent the measurement points.

<FIG> shows the characterization of the temperature sensing skin. (A), (B) Pictures of a <NUM>-pixel skin with PDMS insulator at the bottom and top of the pectin film. (C) Schematic of the skin. (D) Electrical response of a <NUM>-pixel skin when a finger touched it in different positions. For the first pixel row and column signals at the readout circuit are shown. Greyscales represent values of row times column signals product (E) Electrical response of a <NUM>-pixel skin when an object is placed at the bottom right corner. (F) Pixelated thermal image of the object producing the electrical response reported in (E).

<FIG> shows the current voltage characteristic of a pectin thermistor. Circles: measurements.

<FIG> shows (A) Temperature and current on a pectin thermistor as a function of time. Left axis: current on the thermistor. Right axis: temperature in the thermistor. (B) Arrhenius plot of electrical conductivity derived from <FIG>.

<FIG> shows the setup for the electrical measurements on the sensitive skin. (A) A <NUM>-pixel skin. (B) A <NUM>-pixel skin.

<FIG> shows the read out circuit for the <NUM>-pixel skin. (A) Working principle. (B), (C) Electrical schematic of the read out circuit. (D) Enabling signals.

<FIG> shows the voltage at the readout circuit for every row and column in a <NUM>-pixel skin. All the time scales are between <NUM> and <NUM> sec. All the amplitudes are between -<NUM> and <NUM> except P<NUM> column <NUM>, which is between -<NUM> and <NUM>. Signals aligned in vertical have been taken synchronously.

<FIG> shows current vs. time when the film is touched with a finger. Black dots: Current measurements.

<FIG> shows the thermal image of the skin just after being touched with a finger.

<FIG> shows the sensitivity to the touch of a finger on a <NUM>-pixel skin.

<FIG> shows an aluminium square in contact with the <NUM>-pixel skin.

<FIG> shows a typical thermal response measured at three different frequencies on the small pectin film samples shown in <FIG>. The current is reported in arbitrary units since it was measured as the RMS value of the voltage drop on a resistor (<NUM> kΩ) in series with the sample (see inset of <FIG>).

<FIG> shows a typical current in a pectin film sample when the temperature is cycled for <NUM> between <NUM> and <NUM>. The material responds stably and the responsivity matches with <FIG>. <FIG> shows a <NUM>-cycle zoom.

<NUM> shows the calculation of an effective TCR coefficient (ΔR/R)/(ΔT) from experimental data in <FIG>. Note that the TCR values are calculated over a <NUM> temperature interval (i.e., between the maximum and minimum temperatures in the experiments shown in <FIG>).

<NUM> shows the values representing the product of the signals in <FIG>. For each of the <NUM> positions of the finger (P<NUM>, P<NUM>, P<NUM>, P<NUM>), the maximum in the variation of the voltage for each row and column (R<NUM>, R<NUM>, C<NUM>, C<NUM>) is taken. Values are multiplied as follows: R<NUM>C<NUM>, R<NUM>C<NUM>, R<NUM>C<NUM>, R<NUM>C<NUM>, and the results are normalized for each experiment.

<NUM> shows the values reported in <FIG>. These values were obtained using the same procedure employed for Tab.

For the experiments described in Example <NUM>, a <NUM>% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution was prepared in MilliQ water and MWCNTs were added. The solution was left to rest for <NUM>. To reduce the clusters in the solution the suspension was then sonicated at room temperature for <NUM>. Following, additional purification steps were performed: after sonication, the supernatant was collected and allowed to precipitate for <NUM> in a new container. The supernatant was collected again, centrifuged at <NUM>,<NUM> rpm for <NUM> at room temperature, and the final supernatant was used for experiments. This solution was added to a suspension of growing tobacco BY-<NUM> cells (<NPL>). Five independent cells/MWCNTs samples were produced and each analyzed individually. Commercially available CNTs (non-modified type "<NUM>" MWCNTs, Nanocyl®) were used in the solution with SDS. The BY-<NUM> cell line was derived from the callus of seedlings of Nicotiana tabacum and propagated in modified MS medium supplemented with <NUM>% sucrose, <NUM>µg/ml KH<NUM>PO<NUM>, <NUM>µg/ml <NUM>,<NUM>-dichlorophenoxacetic acid (<NUM>,<NUM>-D), and <NUM>µg/ml thiamine-HCl. Cells were grown in large flasks on a rotary shaker at <NUM> rotations/min at <NUM> in the dark. <NUM> % of stationary phase cells were transferred to a fresh medium every week. Spontaneous aggregation of cells was observed with tobacco cells combined with MWCNTs. After <NUM> hours a gel-like material formed, was collected and dried at <NUM> for <NUM> days. Macroscopic samples were fabricated ca. <NUM> long, ca. <NUM> wide, and ca. <NUM> thick and microscopic samples <NUM> long, <NUM> wide, and <NUM> thick. Control samples of BY-<NUM> cells only were produced by depositing and compacting a single layer of BY-<NUM> cells on a substrate. The control samples had the same dimensions as the microscopic samples.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were obtained using a field emission gun-scanning electron microscope (FEG-SEM) model Inspect F, FEI Company, equipped with an Everhardt-Thornley secondary electron detector (SED). <FIG> shows the microstructure of cyberwood at low magnification.

All electrical measurements were performed in a two-point contact geometry using Keithley model "<NUM>" and Keithley model "<NUM>" source measurement units. Three different biases in the different experiments were applied: <NUM> V, <NUM> V and <NUM> V. The choice of the applied bias was based on the size of the samples tested and the temperature range of the experiments. No variation in the material electrical response was recorded as a function of applied voltage.

This is due to the fact that the I-V characteristics of the material, reported in <FIG>, are linear. The experiments described in <FIG> were performed at <NUM> V while that of <FIG>, <FIG> and <FIG> were performed at <NUM> V. The experiments described in <FIG> and <FIG> were performed at <NUM> V.

To measure temperature a Fluke 1502A thermometer was used in combination with a 5627A platinum resistance thermometer probe. A Heratherm advanced protocol oven with a capacity of <NUM> was used to perform temperature cycles. The electrical power dissipated in the samples during all tests was very low (hundreds of µW), as such the samples' self-heating was negligible.

For the experiments described in Example <NUM>, a commercially available citrus low-methoxylated pectin (LMP) with a degree of methylation of <NUM>% and a content of galacturonic acid of <NUM>% (Herbstreith&Fox©) was used to produce the material. The pectin powder (<NUM>% w/vol) was dissolved at <NUM> in ultrapure water, and stirred at <NUM>,<NUM> rpm to obtain a uniform solution at pH <NUM>. To obtain the thermometers CaCl<NUM> powder was added to reach <NUM> (corresponding to a stoichiometric ratio R = [Ca<NUM>+]/<NUM>[COO-] of <NUM>). To obtain films and skins the pectin solution was poured onto substrates and then immersed into a <NUM> CaCl<NUM> solution. After gelation the highly hydrated skins and films were transferred to a vacuum chamber and dehydrated at <NUM> mbar overnight. The final water content in the hydrogel was <NUM>%.

A voltage of 18V was applied to the skin rows and columns. Electrical measurements in <FIG>, <FIG>, were performed in a two-point contact geometry using Keithley model <NUM> source measurement units. Electrical measurements in <FIG> were obtained with the readout circuit and a DAQ National Instruments BNC-<NUM>.

Here, the exceptionally high temperature- and moisture-sensitivity of a biological cells-CNT composite is described and the mechanisms of temperature sensitivity governing these responses are detailed and validated.

Characterization The microstructure of the produced material resembles that of natural wood (see <FIG>). The presence of MWCNTs confers structural stability and a high electrical conductivity, which can be exploited to connect the samples to an external circuit. Hence, the material was termed cyberwood. The method used to synthesize this material is very inexpensive and scalable. Two sets of samples were produced and tested at different scales varying in volume by about four orders of magnitude (see Materials & Methods). The use of these materials is demonstrated as scalable thermal sensors and the fundamental mechanisms governing their response are described.

To measure the electrical properties of the larger (macroscale) samples co-planar gold electrodes were sputtered at their extremities (<FIG>), and to measure the smaller (microscale) samples, they were deposited on gold electrodes on a substrate. Measurements were also performed with steel contacts and no significant difference was found. Scanning electron microscopy images of the samples show that MWCNTs penetrate partially the cell wall and form a complex network among cells (<FIG>). A schematic diagram of the MWCNTs/cell wall nano-structure, comprising the pectin backbone (<NPL>) is shown in <FIG>.

CNT and cell wall penetration. Studies on toxicity of MWCNTs on isolated plant cells (<NPL>) reported TEM images in which MWCNTs were seen to localize only within the cell wall and not intracellularly, implying interaction with the cell wall. These authors concluded that such a phenomenon is due to physical wrapping that allows the MWCNTs to penetrate into the space among the residues of the polysaccharides cellulose and pectins. Other mechanisms not implying physical penetration but adhesion forces would require functionalized MWCNTs that are not used in the present study. For example, Li et al. reported several chemical bonding and electrostatic forces between Ox-MWCNTs and polypeptides that they proved depend specifically on the MWCNTs oxidation (<NPL>). As in <NPL>, the MWCNTs used for our study are pristine and not functionalized implying that the physical wrapping is the dominant phenomenon inside the cell wall structure. This was confirmed by our previous results (<NPL>) on C. albicans and also by <FIG> and <FIG> SEM images on BY-<NUM> cells.

Resistance of the larger samples was monitored as a function of temperature at different values of moisture content following different thermal cycles (see <FIG>). Samples were subjected to slow temperature variations, between <NUM> and <NUM>, to control the sample's moisture content. All measurements, performed at thermal equilibrium, showed that resistance decreased with increasing temperature. The measured resistance decreased by almost three orders of magnitudes in a <NUM> temperature increase. This value corresponds to an effective TCR of -<NUM>,<NUM>% K-<NUM> (see Table <NUM>). To determine the stability of the material over a long period of time the variation of the current as a function of time at constant temperature was measured (<FIG>). In these tests the temperature of samples with different moisture contents was rapidly ramped from <NUM> to <NUM> and the temperature was held constant at <NUM> for ca. <NUM> before cooling. Samples with increasingly higher moisture content showed a decrease of the measured current at constant temperature indicating they were drying. Since the sample measured at <NUM> at <NUM>% moisture showed no change in the current with time, it was assumed that it could not have been dried further at this temperature (see also additional experiments reported in <FIG> and its discussion). The process of dehydration is reversible (<FIG>).

To quantify the effect of the moisture content on the samples' electrical response, the variation of the sample's electrical resistance as a function of the sample's weight was measured (indicating different water content, <FIG>). These results suggest that cyberwood can be used as a humidity sensor as long as temperature is kept constant. The same material can be used as a temperature sensor, as long as humidity is kept constant. To show that it is possible to discriminate between the temperature contribution and that of the moisture of the environment, without monitoring the sample's weight, the material was encased in a polymeric housing (<FIG>). The presence of the housing did not change the measured temperature response (see inset in <FIG>).

The optimal performance of cyberwood was found below <NUM>. Above this temperature, the properties of the cellular material decrease. To identify the maximum operating temperature of the material the electrical resistance was measured cycling the samples at increasing temperatures up to <NUM> (<FIG>). Measurements revealed an unchanged sensitivity from <NUM> up to ca. <NUM>, above which irreversible modifications of the cellular matrix occurred. When the sample was heated up to <NUM> (dotted line) and then slowly cooled to <NUM> its colour changed from black to brown that suggests that structural changes had occurred. To emphasize the change in slope of the curves two parallel lines (squares) were drawn representing the responsivity measured up to <NUM>. When the sample was heated up to <NUM> the material changed further its electrical temperature behaviour. This was expected since, in simulations reported earlier, cellulose changes its molecular structure at similar temperatures (<NPL>). During this higher temperature cycle the sample's colour changed to dark woody-brown tone and its weight reduced considerably and irreversibly. Nevertheless, the resistance-temperature response spanned almost four orders of magnitudes (<FIG>).

Sensing mechanisms. Experiments were performed to understand the mechanisms contributing to the extreme temperature and humidity sensitivity of the cyberwood. Mixed ionic and electronic conductivities were expected and tests were designed to deconvolve the contribution of each mode. <FIG> shows the Arrhenius plots of the conductivity of a cyberwood micro-sample (BY-<NUM>/MWCNTs) and that of control experiments. No variation was found in the micro-sample temperature response compared to larger samples. Measurements on samples obtained with isolated tobacco cells in the absence of MWCNTs (BY-<NUM>, black line) also presented high temperature responsivity, though this phenomenon was transient. Since BY-<NUM> samples required high water content for being conductive they became unstable at temperatures above <NUM> (black dotted line) due to water loss. In addition, even at low temperatures, their lifetime was limited to a few cycles, due to cell degeneration and loss of structural stability. Cyberwood samples tested over a <NUM>-month period did not show any change in their thermal or mechanical response. These experiments proved that the cyberwood's sensitivity to temperature is primarily due to the structure of plant cells.

The temperature sensitivity of plants is due to the presence of ions in the cell wall (<NPL>). The egg-box structure of pectin inside the plants' cell wall contains metal ions such as Ca<NUM>+ (<NPL>), <FIG>. These ions are responsible for the cross linking between pectin chains, and this process is disfavoured as temperature increases (<NPL>). As a consequence, the number of free ions available for conduction increases with temperatures. To investigate the role of Ca<NUM>+ ions, micro-samples treated with <NUM>µL of <NUM> EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), a chelating agent for divalent ions, were measured (<FIG>). The addition of EDTA eliminated the temperature sensitivity of the material proving the central role of pectin-Ca<NUM>+. The conductivity increment due to the presence of MWCNTs is constant in temperature (<FIG>,), while the number of free Ca<NUM>+ ions available for current transport increases exponentially with temperature. The presence of MWCNTs provides a permanent conductive pathway, and substitutes water when the material is completely dehydrated. Therefore, MWCNTs are responsible for raising the background conductivity and stabilizing the electrical response, while the number of Ca<NUM>+ ions available for conduction is responsible for the current increase with temperature.

The sample's sensitivity to humidity was still present after adding EDTA (<FIG>). For the results reported in <FIG>, the sample was tested at low, constant relative humidity, while changing the temperature (monitored with an independent thermometer). After ~<NUM> (~<NUM>,<NUM>) the humidity of the environment was suddenly increased to <NUM>% and subsequently decreased. The measured current increased sharply and then decreased, following humidity and independently of the temperature. This demonstrates that the sensitivity of cyberwood to humidity is not related to the presence of divalent Ca<NUM>+ ions and can be decoupled from the temperature response.

The cyberwood's conductivity increases ~<NUM> times when the internal moisture content is increased between <NUM> and <NUM>% at <NUM>. A comparable behaviour has been described for microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and has been attributed to protons jumping between neighbouring water molecules bound to cellulose OH- groups on the amorphous microfibril surfaces (<NPL>; <NPL>; <NPL>). Cyberwood presents similar density (<NUM>/cm<NUM>) to MCC (<NPL>; <NPL>; <NPL>). In addition, the cyberwood fractal dimension, measured using impedance spectroscopy (<NPL>), is D = <NUM> and is in line to values reported for MCC in (<NPL>). The concomitant presence of these two parameters indicates the presence of micropores, which have dimensions between <NUM>-<NUM> in size. The magnitude of the water-induced proton conductivity, at given moisture content, is determined by the connectivity of the micropores (<NPL>). At densities between ca. <NUM> and <NUM>/cm<NUM> the pore networks were shown to percolate, facilitating the charge transport through the MCC compact (<NPL>). The same mechanism is supposed to occur in cyberwood.

To compare the cyberwood's response to that of an electrolyte with the same ionic strength as that present in plant cells, we tested the temperature sensitivity of Murashige and Skoog growth medium only (MS), as shown in <FIG>. It is evident that the TCR of the MS medium is rather small. Temperature response of cyberwood is also ~<NUM> times higher than the best electrolyte materials either solid, liquid, gel, organic or polymeric (<NPL>).

Temperature at distance The very high responsivity to temperature changes of cyberwood suggests that it can be used as temperature distance sensor. The distance of a warm body at fixed temperature can be inferred by the temperature measurements at constant environmental temperature (see <FIG>). <FIG> shows the capacity to detect the presence of bodies irradiating heat (e.g., a hand and a hotplate) positioned at different distances from the sensor. We tested two cyberwood samples (a larger one and a smaller one) placed in an open oven at <NUM>, at constant relative humidity. We first measured the variation of current across the larger sample in response to the motion of a hand positioned in four different locations, ranging from <NUM> to <NUM> away from the sample (<FIG>). At each position, the hand was held still for <NUM> and then rapidly moved away. In correspondence to each hand movement, the current measured across the sample ramped to a different value and then decreased to a reference value corresponding to a temperature of <NUM>. A similar experiment was performed to detect the motion of an adult moving in a room (<FIG>). We then measured the response of the smaller sample to movements in- and off-axis of a hotplate held at constant temperature, located <NUM> away from the sample (<FIG>). The smaller sample was also sensitive to variations in the position of the hotplate.

Cyberwood is an example of how plant nanobionics (<NPL>) can be exploited to create novel materials with record high temperature sensitivity.

Temperature response Table <NUM> shows the calculation of an effective TCR coefficient (ΔR/R)/(ΔT) from experimental data in <FIG>. Note that the TCR values are calculated over a <NUM> temperature interval (i.e., between the maximum and minimum temperatures in the experiments shown in <FIG>).

Measurements of dehydration The larger samples were held for a finite time at <NUM> (see <FIG> and <FIG>). The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of these samples were monitored with three different moisture contents, both at the beginning and at the end of the temperature hold. As expected, the two curves (representing samples with a <NUM>% moisture level) overlap, confirming that the sample could not be dried further at this temperature. The results also demonstrate that the samples are stable in a broad range of voltages.

To show that the dehydration process was reversible the samples were re-hydrated keeping them at room temperature for <NUM> days and the I-V measurements were repeated. It was found that the re-hydrated samples had <NUM>% moisture content. <FIG> shows the I-V curves at room temperature before cycling (<NUM>% moisture, <NUM>) and after rehydration (<NUM>%, <NUM>). Both characteristics are linear. No current was measured at <NUM> applied voltage.

Comparison with other CNT-based temperature sensors Sensors composed of CNTs interspersed in a polymeric matrix can detect temperature variations because the CNT-CNT tunneling junctions are sensitive to strain variations (<NPL>). Percolation of nano-composites through a two-dimensional area has been modeled (<NPL>). More specifically, the role of tunneling resistance in the electrical conductivity of CNT-based composites was analyzed in <NPL>. In this work, CNTs at a contact point in the network were assumed to overlap. The tunneling resistance of CNT-polymer matrix composites depends on the material of the insulating layer and on its thickness. <NPL>, derived a general formula for the electric tunneling effect between similar electrodes separated by a thin insulating film. When the thickness of the insulating layer between crossing CNTs is uniform and the variation of the barrier height along the thickness can be neglected, the formula for a rectangular potential barrier can be employed. Therefore, the current density inside the insulating layer can be expressed according to <NPL>, and <NPL>, as a function of the thickness of the insulating layer and the height of the rectangular barrier. The latter is approximately taken as the work function of CNTs in <NPL>, and the dielectric constant of the insulating material.

It has been shown that the thickness of the insulating layer between crossing CNTs plays a significant role in the tunneling resistance, which increases very rapidly with increasing thickness (<NPL>). Further, tunneling occurs only if t < <NUM>Å (<NPL>; <NPL>). The change of the height of the barrier with temperature has been introduced recently by <NPL>, to model the high performance temperature sensing of a MWCNT/epoxy nanocomposite. The sensitivity of this MWCNT/epoxy nanocomposite increased with increasing MWCNTs content. The largest value of the TCR reported was <NUM> %K-<NUM>, corresponding to a loading of <NUM>%wt of MWCNTs (<NPL>). In this material, the resistance was found to increase with temperature (<NPL>). The opposite behaviour was found for MWCNTs/epoxy material with <NUM>%wt MWCNTs content (<NPL>). In this case, the resistance decreased with increasing temperature and a TCR of -<NUM> %K-<NUM> was reported (<NPL>). A TCR of <NUM> %K-<NUM> was measured for a pure <NUM>-D MWCNT network deposited on top of aluminium electrodes (<NPL>). The sensitivity of suspended pure SWCNTs in vacuum was also reported earlier and was found to be larger than that of pure MWCNTs, but similar to that of vanadium dioxide (<NPL>). In those experiments the measured TCR was -<NUM>% K-<NUM> in the <NUM> to <NUM> temperature range (<NPL>, <NPL>).

Composite materials obtained with MWCNTs and fungal cells grown in suspension were fabricated earlier (<NPL>; <NPL>). However, fungal cells do not contain pectin in their cell wall, so their behaviour is expected to be different from that of plant cell/MWCNTs composites. Materials composed of C. albicans and MWCNTs were shown to have a TCR of <NUM>% K-<NUM>. This response was due to the presence of MWCNTs alone (<NPL>). In cyberwood, MWCNTs are not centrally responsible for the ultra-high temperature response. Nevertheless, their percolation path through cellulose microfibrils increases the current transmitted in the material and stabilizes its response. This phenomenon is due to conduction through tunneling junctions between MWCNTs with cellulose microfibrils, acting as insulator.

Comparison with CNT/cellulose humidity sensors Humidity sensors based on CNTs and cellulose have been described previously (<NPL>). However, their behaviour is very different from cyberwood. <NPL>, have shown that when a CNT/cellulose composite sensor was immersed in water, resistance increased whilst it decreased upon drying. This phenomenon was attributed to the swelling of the cellulose matrix in the presence of water (<NPL>). A humidity sensor with cellulose paper was also produced using single walled CNTs functionalized with carboxylic acid (<NPL>). Also in this case, the resistance increased upon increasing the relative ambient humidity, in contrast to the electrical properties of cyberwood. However, similarly to cyberwood, the conductivity of bare paper increased while increasing humidity content. The explanation is in accordance with our results: water dissociation occurs on the moist cellulose fibres under an applied bias, dissociating H+ and OH- ions. Thus, the current flow is due to ionic conduction (<NPL>).

Effect of a polymeric housing on the properties of cyberwood For practical applications, a housing was introduced (wrapping the sensor in a cellophane film) around the cyberwood to shield the material from the effect of ambient humidity. Additional experiments have been performed to show the effect of a polymeric housing on the temperature response of cyberwood. A cyberwood sensor was encased in a polymeric housing and placed in an oven kept at constant temperature (<NUM>). The ambient humidity was increased from <NUM> to <NUM>% using an ultrasonic humidifier. The ambient humidity was monitored at all times with a humidity CMOS sensor (Sensirion). As shown in <FIG>, cyberwood enclosed in a polymeric housing was not sensitive to humidity changes. However, the presence of the housing did not alter the ultra-high temperature response, as shown in the inset of <FIG>.

Temperature sensitivity at distance Experiments were performed to detect the motion of an adult moving in the room where the sensor was positioned. The sensor detected accurately the motion of the person who was moving closer to the sensor every <NUM> (from <NUM> to <NUM>) and held still for additional <NUM> at each position. As expected, the measured current increased with decreasing distance of the body from the sensor. In between measurements, the person moved away from the sensor for ca. Every time the person left the current diminished towards the reference value at <NUM>. During the experiments, the air temperature near the cyberwood sensor was monitored with an independent thermometer (a calibrated platinum-resistance temperature detector). The independent air temperature measurements are shown in <FIG>.

Synthetic skins (<NPL>) are essential to augment robotics (<NPL>) and improve the performance of prosthetic limbs (<NPL>). Some flexible devices emulate properties of the human skin, such as wound healing (<NPL>), response to pressure, strain (<NPL>) and temperature variations (<NPL>). Human skin monitors temperature with very high sensitivity, via voltage-gated ionic-channel transmembrane proteins (<NPL>), and presents different spatial density of thermosensitive receptors in different areas of the body (<NPL>)). However, the temperature sensitivity of existing materials is low. In addition, synthetic skins are limited in their differential temperature sensitivity, because the expansion of their pixel density requires a linear increase of the number of sensors and flexible electrical connections. This makes the fabrication and use of current synthetic skins rather cumbersome. Here, we describe an iontronic hydrogel with extremely high temperature sensitivity. We fabricated transparent thermometers and self-standing, flexible films. By depositing electrodes only on the outer frame of the films, we created skins with pixel-by-pixel temperature sensitivity with different spatial resolutions. The number of electrical contacts required is proportional to the square root of the pixel density. These devices are ultra-low cost, biocompatible, and can be used as sensitive layers to monitor heat transfer on surfaces.

Hydrogels are soft, transparent materials widely used in everyday life, as thickening agents in food science (<NPL>), for contact lenses (<NPL>), wound healing skins (<NPL>) in medicine, and drug releasers in cosmetics (<NPL>). More recently, the ionic conductivity of hydrogels has been exploited in stretchable electrical contacts (<NPL>). However, hydrogels have never been used so far as active materials to create flexible, biocompatible and transparent temperature sensors.

It has been shown previously that the combination of dehydrated plant cells and CNTs forms a material (<NPL>), cyberwood, with exceptionally high temperature response (<NPL>; <NPL>). Further, it has been suggested that this response is due to the available Ca<NUM>+ ions present in pectin molecules of the plant cell wall (<NPL>). Here, we show that a pectin hydrogel sensor has responsivity comparable to cyberwood, which further supports the mechanism governing its temperature sensitivity.

Pectin, a component of all higher plant cell walls is made of structurally and functionally very complex, acid-rich polysaccharides (<NPL>). Pectin plays several roles in plant growth among which development, morphogenesis, defense, cell-cell adhesion, cell wall structure and porosity, binding of ions, enzymes, pollen tube growth and fruit development (<NPL>). In high-ester pectins, at acidic pH, individual pectin chains are linked together by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Contrary, in low-ester pectins, close to neutral pH, ionic bridges are formed between Ca<NUM>+ ions and the ionized carboxyl groups of the galacturonic acid, generating the so-called "egg box" (<NPL>). Since gelation rate of pectin decreases exponentially with temperature (<NPL>) increasing the temperature of a Ca<NUM>+ crosslinked pectin, the number of free ions available for electrical conduction increases (<NPL>). High dependence of current with temperature is expected in pure pectin samples as well.

We created a bulk gel embodying water, pectin and CaCl<NUM> (see Methods section). We cut a fragment of gel and placed it on top of two gold plated electrodes (<NUM> × <NUM> × <NUM>, <NUM> apart) and dehydrated it (<FIG>). After dehydration we soaked the sample in liquid polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to protect it from environmental humidity.

The sample was dehydrated until the measured absolute water content was reduced to <NUM>%. Above this value the electrical conductivity of water is predominant and the total conductivity of the hydrogel measured is in the order of <NUM> mSm-<NUM>. Upon dehydration the electrical conductivity associated with water decreases, thus the conductivity of pectin is predominant. The conductivity of the hydrogel after dehydration is in the order of <NUM> mSm-<NUM>. After dehydration the current is stable at a given temperature. <FIG> shows a schematic representation of the pectin network, calcium ions and water molecules in the low water content regime. As temperature increases the number of dissociated chains of polygalacturonic acid (black lines) increases and thus the number of free Ca<NUM>+ ions. <FIG> shows that the current-voltage characteristic of a typical sample is linear. Samples were then heated on a plate increasing the temperature from <NUM> to <NUM> following two temperature steps as reported in <FIG>. Current was monitored when <NUM> V were applied. The curve was obtained by sampling current and temperature every <NUM> second up to <NUM> and every <NUM> second up to <NUM>. The thermal responsivity is comparable to that of cyberwood (<NPL>). The inset in <FIG> represents the equivalent electrical model for the pectin thermistor. <FIG> shows the Arrhenius plot of conductivity whose activation energy of <NUM> kJ/mol was calculated from the slope. The value is in agreement with the activation energy reported for rheological measurements (<NPL>).

To exploit the high temperature responsivity of the material we fabricated thin films casting a pectin solution inside a frame on an electrically insulating substrate. We immersed the casted liquid in a <NUM> CaCl<NUM> solution and allowed it to jellify overnight. We removed the gel from the solution, and dehydrated it (see Methods section). We fabricated films ~<NUM> thick. <FIG> shows the setup we used to monitor temperature and current variations of all samples. A thermal camera was employed to monitor the local temperature of the samples while their electrical current was measured via an independent source meter. The photograph in <FIG> shows the transparent film and the electrical contacts: the steel clamps are in direct contact with the film. <FIG> shows a thermal image of the film, which is not transparent to radiated heat. <FIG> shows on the left axis the current increase in the film and, on the right axis, the temperature monitored by the thermal camera proving that current and temperature match. Details of small variations are reported in <FIG> by zooming the square of <FIG> second interval. We also repeated the experiment with carbon electrodes and no difference in the behaviour was found, excluding any effect due to the interaction of the gel with a metal. These measurements demonstrated that pectin hydrogel films sense minor temperature variations.

<FIG> shows transparent, flexible temperature-sensing skins with electrodes only on the external frame. <FIG>, B show photographs of pectin films sandwiched between two PDMS layers with chromium/gold electrical contacts. <FIG> shows schematics of the section of the device. The current was monitored at all rows and columns while a finger touched one of the <NUM> pixels for ~<NUM> sec. Current measurements were acquired using the circuit shown in <FIG> and values converted into a voltage. The bottom insulator was SiO<NUM> and the top PDMS. The acquisition rate was <NUM> samples per second corresponding to <NUM> samples per second per channel. The current was averaged on <NUM> samples per channel. Panels on the sides of the drawing in <FIG> represent the percentage of voltage increase upon touching pixel P<NUM> as a function of time. The greyscale-coding squares represent the product between the maximum percentages of voltage variations detected at each row and column. Table <NUM> represents the values of the products corresponding to the greyscale coding bar in <FIG>. For each pixel touched the maximum product value was normalized to <NUM>. <FIG> shows the increase in voltage percentage over time for each of the <NUM> pixels when individually touched.

To confirm that the noise in <FIG> is due to the electronic readout circuit of <FIG>, we performed a similar measurement with a pico-ampere meter and the corresponding noise free curve is reported in <FIG> in which the current of a single row was measured when a single pixel was touched for less than <NUM> sec. The temperature variation on the pixel was estimated to be less than <NUM> as shown in the thermal image in <FIG> shows that the sensing phenomenon is due to temperature variations since the sample's measurement did not exhibit a significant change when pressed for few seconds by a metal object at the same temperature of the pixel. On the contrary, current increased significantly when touched with a finger for the same length of time. <FIG> displays the thermal image of a <NUM>-pixel device immediately after an aluminium square was placed on it at <NUM>. The experiment was performed at an ambient temperature of <NUM>. <FIG> shows the row and column product as in <FIG> for each of the <NUM> pixels <NUM> seconds after the aluminium square was laid in contact with the skin. The acquisition rate was <NUM> samples per second corresponding to <NUM> samples per second per channel. Table <NUM> reports the corresponding values. <FIG> shows the pixelated thermal image acquired by the thermal camera reported in <FIG>. Each pixel is considered as the intersection between each row and column according to the electrode position.

These experiments demonstrate that the density of sensitive pixels can be intensified simply by increasing the number of electrodes on the external frame of the film. For <NUM> pixels we used <NUM> contacts instead of <NUM>, differently from existing technologies that require the use of complex wiring to ensure at least <NUM> contacts at each pixel site and a network of thin film transistors. This is feasible for the extremely high thermal sensitivity of the hydrogel skin (see also <FIG>).

We reported that the use of hydrogels for temperature sensing on all kinds of surfaces has several advantages: a state of the art extreme temperature sensitivity, transparency, ultra-low cost, and ease of manufacturing. Further just a simple contact geometry and a straightforward readout circuit is required.

<FIG> shows a typical thermal response measured at three different frequencies on the small pectin film samples shown in <FIG>. The current is reported in arbitrary units since it was measured as the RMS value of the voltage drop on a resistor (<NUM> kΩ) in series with the sample (see inset of <FIG>). The electrical measurements were acquired with a lock-in amplifier model SR830 Stanford research systems. No responsivity difference between measurements at different frequencies and d. measurements was found.

Claim 1:
A temperature sensor comprising
• a cell free sensor gel comprising a polymer selected from a charged biopolymer and a synthetic polymer having charge moieties, water at a weight portion of <NUM>% or more, and ions at a concentration of <NUM> pM or more,
• a first electrode and a second electrode separated from each other by said sensor gel.