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17 | Hawaii1 | Hawaii I | us_hawaii_1 | 1000 | 1200 | 200 | 1100 | us | Polynesia | Polynesia | Kona | Big Island Hawaii | Kirch, Patrick V. (2010). How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press. | Ancient Hawaiian society was divided into ali'i (chiefs) and commoners. The ali'i held power and controlled the land, while the commoners worked it. The islands were unified under a single ruler, likely around the 12th century. Agriculture was based on taro, sweet potatoes, and breadfruit, with fish and seafood supplem... | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | Between 1000 and 1200, Hawaiian society was organized into chiefdoms with stratified social structures. Chiefs (aliʻi) controlled land and resources, while commoners (makaʻāinana) engaged in agriculture and fishing. Warfare was limited to inter-chiefdom conflicts using stone tools and wooden weapons. Religion centered ... | Kirch, Patrick V. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawaiʻi. University of California Press, 2010. Hommon, Robert J. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Society. Oxford University Press, 2013. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | Period of initial Polynesian settlement and population expansion. Society organized into dispersed, stratified family lineages (`ohana`) led by chiefs (`aliʻi`). Economy based on sophisticated taro irrigation (`loʻi kalo`) and fishpond (`loko iʻa`) aquaculture. Religion centered on ancestral and nature spirit worship (... | Kirch, P. V. (2010). How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawaiʻi. University of California Press.; Hommon, R. J. (2013). The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford University Press. | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Recent estimates for the date of initial settlement by Polynesian voyagers have varied from 800 to 1250 CE, but the latest Bayesian model, based on palaeoenvironmental data and a carefully defined set of archaeological radiocarbon... | Here are the references extracted from the text, formatted for clarity:
* (Athens, Rieth and Dye 2014) J. Stephen Athens, Timothy M. Rieth and Thomas S. Dye. 2014. 'A Paleoenvironmental and Archaeological Model-Based Age Estimate for the Colonization of Hawai'i'. *American Antiquity* 79(1): 144-55.
* (Kirch 2010, ... | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.203229 | 1.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 3.25 | 0.090909 | 2.282858 | 4.111759 | 3.854914 | null |
18 | Hawaii2 | Hawaii II | us_hawaii_2 | 1200 | 1580 | 380 | 1400 | us | Polynesia | Polynesia | Kona | Big Island Hawaii | Kirch, Patrick V. (2010). How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press. | Ancient Hawaiian Kingdom II (1200-1580) was a period of significant cultural, economic, and territorial growth. The kingdom expanded its territories through conquests and alliances, with a complex system of governance and social hierarchy. The population grew significantly, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to 500,00... | 0.2 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | Hawaiian chiefdoms emerged between 1200–1580, with stratified societies under aliʻi (chiefs). Warfare was limited to inter-chiefdom conflicts using stone tools. Religion centered on polytheism with gods like Kāne and Kū. Agriculture relied on dryland farming and irrigation (e.g., taro terraces). Population grew but rem... | Kirch, P. V. (2010). How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawaiʻi. University of California Press. Homer, M. (2018). The Chiefdom of Hawaiʻi: A Political History of the Hawaiian Islands. Journal of Pacific History, 53(2), 145-162. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | Hawaiʻi island (also called 'Hawaiʻi II' in some archaeological models) was a complex chiefdom dominated by the Pili line of aliʻi nui (high chiefs). Population expanded with intensive cultivation of taro in irrigated pondfields (loʻi) and sweet potato in dryland field systems. Society was highly stratified (kapu syste... | Hommon, R. J. (2013). The ancient Hawaiian state: origins of a political society. Oxford University Press. Dye, T. S. (1994). Population trends in Hawaiʻi before 1778. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 103(1), 1-14. Kirch, P. V. (2010). How chiefs became kings: divine kingship and the rise of archaic states in anc... | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 2' refers to the period from 1200 to 1580 CE. 1200 marks the beginning of archaeologist Patrick Kirch's 'expansion period', §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127-28) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingshi... | The references extracted from the text are:
* (Kirch 2010, 127-28) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. *How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i*. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
* (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. *How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingshi... | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.293129 | 1.8 | 0.181818 | 0 | 3.25 | 0.172727 | 3.807048 | 3.337475 | 4.599847 | null |
19 | Hawaii3 | Hawaii III | us_hawaii_3 | 1580 | 1778 | 198 | 1700 | us | Polynesia | Polynesia | Kona | Big Island Hawaii | Kirch, Patrick V. (2010). How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press. | Hawaii III existed in Polynesia between 1580 and 1778. Kalani'ōpu'u was the ali'i (king) from 1754 to 1782. He was the king who encountered James Cook. Society was organized in a feudal system with ali'i (chiefs) ruling over the common people. Agriculture was based on the ahupua'a system, which was a land division that... | 0.2 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | Hawaii III refers to the pre-contact Hawaiian chiefdoms, which were stratified societies under ali'i (chiefs). Warfare was frequent between chiefdoms, with fortified settlements. The population relied on swidden agriculture, fishing, and taro cultivation. The kapu system (religious laws) governed social and political l... | Kirch, Patrick V. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press, 2012. Hommon, Robert J. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Society. Oxford University Press, 2013. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | Hawaiʻi III refers to the third major period of Hawaiian societal development, characterized by the rise of complex chiefdoms. This era saw population growth fueled by intensified taro cultivation in irrigated pondfields (loʻi) and fishponds (loko iʻa). Powerful aliʻi (chiefs) like ʻUmi-a-Līloa consolidated power, enga... | Kirch, P.V. (2010). How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawaiʻi. University of California Press.; Hommon, R.J. (2013). The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford University Press. | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 3' refers to the period from 1580 to 1778 CE. 1580 is the approximate date of the formation of the first island-wide unitary kingdom, while 1778 is the date of first European contact - the arrival of Captain Cook. §REF... | Here are the references extracted from the text, along with the full bibliographic information:
* (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. *How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i*. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
* (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirc... | 3 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0.346095 | 1.8 | 0.245455 | 0 | 3.25 | 0.227273 | 3.442766 | 3.97329 | 5.011752 | null |
20 | USKameh | Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period | us_kamehameha_k | 1778 | 1819 | 41 | 1800 | us | Polynesia | Polynesia | Kona | Big Island Hawaii | Kuykendall, Ralph S. The Hawaiian Kingdom. University of Hawaii Press, 1938. Kirch, Patrick V. A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief: The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press, 2010. | Kamehameha I united the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, and Kauai under one rule. He established a feudal system and introduced new laws and social reforms. The Kingdom of Hawaii became a major hub for the Pacific fur trade and whaling industry. Kamehameha II abolished the kapu system, a strict set of rules that governe... | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.2 | Kamehameha I unified the Hawaiian Islands through conquest and diplomacy, establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1810. Key events include the Battle of Nuʻuanu (1795), where Kamehameha defeated rival chiefs using European firearms. The population declined due to introduced diseases. The kapu system (religious laws) was ... | Kuykendall, Ralph S. The Hawaiian Kingdom: Volume 1, 1778–1854. University of Hawaii Press, 1938. | Daws, Gavan. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press, 1968. | Linnekin, Jocelyn. Sacred Queens and Women of Consequence: Rank, Gender, and Colonialism in the Hawaiian Islands. Univers... | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | Founded by Kamehameha I, who united the Hawaiian Islands through conquest after acquiring European firearms and advisors. The period was characterized by the 'Ai Noa, the breaking of the kapu system under Kamehameha II, which ended the traditional polytheistic religion. The elite aliʻi class held autocratic power throu... | Kameʻeleihiwa, L. (1992). Native Land and Foreign Desires: Pehea Lā E Pono Ai?. Bishop Museum Press. | Hommon, R. J. (2013). The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford University Press. | Sahlins, M. (1992). Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. University of Chicago Pre... | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.6 | Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Here, we consider the period of its history from 1778 to 1819. 1778 is the date of first European contact - the arrival of Captain Cook - while 1819 is the year of King Kamehameha I's death. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 170, 174) Patrick V.... | The references extracted from the text are:
* (Kirch 2010, 170, 174)
* (Kirch 2000, 300)
* (Kirch 2010, 118-19)
* (Kirch 2010, 116)
* (Kirch 2010, 50, 57)
* (Kuykendall 1938, 51)
* (Kirch 2010, 48-49)
* (Kirch 2010, 129-130)
* (La Croix and Roumasset 1990, 835)
* (Kirch 2010, 129-130)
The full bib... | 3 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 0.366662 | 1.8 | 0.172727 | 0 | 3.25 | 0.35 | 4.363033 | 4.226199 | 5.192031 | -0.037453 |
48 | IdMedng | Medang Kingdom | id_medang_k | 732 | 1019 | 287 | 900 | id | Archipelago | Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines | Semarang | Central Java | Munoz, Paul Michel. Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Editions Didier Millet, 2006. ISBN 981-4155-67-5. | Medang Kingdom existed from 732 to 1019 in the Archipelago. King Sanjaya founded the kingdom and established Hinduism as the state religion. The kingdom reached its peak during the reign of King Balitung (r. 899-911), who expanded the kingdom's territory and established trade relationships with neighboring kingdoms. Th... | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | The Medang Kingdom (732–1019) was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist polity centered in Central Java and later East Java. Founded by King Sanjaya, it flourished under the Sailendra dynasty, known for Borobudur and Prambanan temples. The kingdom engaged in maritime trade and agricultural expansion. A shift in power to East Java ... | Miksic, John N. Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge, 2016. | Muljana, Slamet. Sriwijaya: A Historical Study. Yogyakarta: LKIS, 2006. | Wolters, O. W. History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives. Cornell University Press, 1999. | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.1 | Founded by King Sanjaya after the decline of Srivijaya, with its main court at Mataram. Rulers like Rakai Panangkaran and Balitung expanded its influence, adopting Mahayana Buddhism and Shivaite Hinduism. The kingdom constructed major temples like Borobudur and Prambanan. It engaged in conflicts with Srivijaya and expe... | Miksic, John N. Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge, 2016.; Wisseman Christie, Jan. State Formation in Early Java. From the 9th to the 11th Centuries. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, vol. 149, no. 1, 1993, pp. 33–84. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.5 | The Medang, or Mataram, Kingdom, is the first well-attested Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in central Java. In 732 CE, in an inscription written in Sanskrit, a local ruler called Sanjaya made the 'first definite claim to kingship' known from the region. §REF§ (Reid 2015, 36) Reid, Anthony. 2015. A History of Southeast Asia: Cr... | Here are the references extracted from the text, formatted for clarity:
* Reid, Anthony. 2015. *A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads*. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
* Hall, Kenneth R. 2010. *A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500*. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littl... | 4 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0.675778 | 5 | 0.866667 | 0.96 | 1.345 | 0.825 | 3 | 5.091726 | 5.473758 | 0.475627 |
49 | IdKedir | Kediri Kingdom | id_kediri_k | 1049 | 1222 | 173 | 1100 | id | Archipelago | Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines | Semarang | Central Java | Ricklefs, M. C. A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1300. 2nd ed. Stanford University Press, 1993. Hall, Kenneth R. Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press, 1985. | Kediri Kingdom existed from 1049 to 1222. King Jayabaya (r. 1130-1157) oversaw a golden age of art, literature, and philosophy. Kediri was a major center of Hinduism and Buddhism. The kingdom was known for its beautiful temples, such as the Panataran temple. Kediri was also a major center of trade and commerce, with me... | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | The Kediri Kingdom (1049–1222) was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist polity. It emerged after the decline of the Medang Kingdom and flourished under rulers like Jayabhaya and Kameswara. Known for its literary achievements, including the Kakawin Arjunawiwaha, Kediri was a center of culture and trade. Conflicts with neighboring ... | Miksic, John N. Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge, 2016. | Zoetmulder, P. J. Kalangwan: A Survey of Old Javanese Literature. Martinus Nijhoff, 1974. | Muljana, Slamet. Sriwijaya. Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2006. | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.1 | The Kediri Kingdom was a dominant power in eastern Java, succeeding the Kahuripan kingdom. Its golden age was under King Jayabhaya (r. 1135-1157), whose reign was prophesied and marked by internal stability. The kingdom was a major center for Javanese culture and Hindu-Buddhist literature, producing the epic Bharatayud... | Wisseman Christie, J. (1991). States without cities: Demographic trends in early Java. Indonesia, 52, 23-40. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3351256; Worsley, P. (2018). Narrative bas-reliefs at Candi Surowono. In E. Miksic (Ed.), Indonesian Golden History (pp. 89-112). NUS Press. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.5 | The kingdom of Kediri ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day province of East Java, at least based on the locations where its rulers' inscriptions have been found. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§ Midway through the eleventh century CE, the Javanese monarch Airlangga split his realm... | Here are the references extracted from the text, formatted for clarity:
* **Sedyawati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707** (appears multiple times)
* **Sedyawati in Ooi 2004 (a), 134**
* **Sedyawati in Ooi 2004 (c), 1208**
* **McEvedy and Jones 1978, 196-201**
* **McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Popul... | 5 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 0.725271 | 5 | 0.866667 | 0.94 | 1.345 | 0.8375 | 5.429642 | 4.825109 | 5.434674 | null |
50 | IdMajap | Majapahit Kingdom | id_majapahit_k | 1292 | 1518 | 226 | 1400 | id | Archipelago | Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines | Semarang | Central Java | Hall, Kenneth R. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Rowman & Littlefield, 2011. | Majapahit Kingdom existed from 1292 to 1518. Gajah Mada, the prime minister from 1330 to 1364, expanded the kingdom's territory through military conquests. The kingdom's golden age occurred during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350-1389). The Majapahit Kingdom declined in the 15th century due to internal conflicts ... | 0.3 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | The Majapahit Kingdom (1292–1518) was a thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia. Founded by Raden Wijaya, it expanded under Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada, reaching its peak in the 14th century. The empire controlled maritime trade routes, blending Hindu-Buddhist traditions. Notable events include the Paregreg War (1404–14... | Miksic, John N. Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge, 2016. Muljana, Slamet. The Collapse of the Majapahit Empire. Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2006. Wolters, O. W. History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives. Cornell University Press, 1999. | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | Founded by Raden Wijaya after repelling a Mongol invasion (1292). Peak under Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350-1389) and prime minister Gajah Mada, whose Palapa oath swore to unify the archipelago. Majapahit was a thalassocratic empire controlling trade routes. State religion was syncretic Shiva-Buddhism. The Nagarakertagama epic d... | Robson, S. (1995). Desawarnana (Nagarakrtagama) by Mpu Prapanca. Brill. Hall, K. R. (2010). A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500. Rowman & Littlefield. | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.6 | The kingdom of Majapahit covered much of the eastern half of the island of Java; it was founded in the late thirteenth century, when the war between king Waijaya and the ruler of Kediri concluded with the latter's loss, and it gradually faded from relevance between the end of the fifteenth century and the middle of the... | Here are the references extracted from the text:
* (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 823-284)
* (Coedès 1968, 239-240)
* (Kinney 2003, 49)
* (Hall in Tarling 1993)
* (Christie 1991, 29)
* (Miksic 2000, 116) | 5 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 0.788712 | 4 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 1.345 | 0.89 | 5.034062 | 5.69897 | 6.69897 | null |
51 | IdMatrm | Mataram Sultanate | id_mataram_k | 1568 | 1703 | 135 | 1600 | id | Archipelago | Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines | Semarang | Central Java | Ricklefs, M. C. A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300. 2nd ed. Stanford University Press, 1993. | Sultan Senapati (r. 1584-1601) founded the Mataram Sultanate. Sultan Agung (r. 1613-1645) expanded the sultanate's territory and established a strong centralized government. The sultanate was a major center of Islamic learning and culture. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) established trade relations with the sultanat... | 0.3 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | The Mataram Sultanate (1568–1703) was a Javanese Islamic kingdom centered in Central Java. Founded by Panembahan Senopati, it expanded under Sultan Agung (r. 1613–1645), who conquered neighboring territories and resisted Dutch colonial advances. The sultanate's power declined due to internal succession conflicts, notab... | Ricklefs, M. C. (1993). *A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200*. Stanford University Press. Reid, Anthony (1999). *Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia*. Silkworm Books. | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | Founded by Panembahan Senapati. Peak under Sultan Agung (r. 1613-1645), who conquered Surabaya, attacked Dutch Batavia, and implemented administrative reforms. A Hindu-Buddhist-animist syncretic court culture existed alongside the official conversion to Islam. The main court moved several times (Kota Gede, Plered, Kart... | Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1200. Palgrave Macmillan. Carey, P. (2007). The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the End of an Old Order in Java, 1785-1855. KITLV Press. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | -0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.6 | Mataram started out as a vassal to the kingdom of Pajang—itself one of a number of short-lived polities that emerged from the disintegration of the Demak Sultanate—and gradually established itself as the dominant polity in central Java between the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. §RE... | Here are the references extracted from the text:
* (Ooi 2004 864-866)
* (Achmad & Nurcholis 2016, 41)
* (Ooi 2004 864-866)
* (Schrieke 1957, 190-207)
* (Achmad & Nurcholis 2016)
* (Reid in Tarling 1993, 463) | 5 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 0.776243 | 4.5 | 0.955556 | 0.933333 | 1.345 | 0.977778 | 4.723072 | 5.002234 | 6.530916 | null |
57 | FmTrukE | Chuuk State (Micronesia) early period | fm_truk_1 | 1775 | 1886 | 111 | 1800 | fm | Polynesia | Polynesia | Chuuk | Chuuk Islands | Hanlon, D. (1988). Upon a Stone Altar: A History of the Island of Pohnpei to 1890. University of Hawaii Press. | The Chuuk State was a loose confederation of islands in the Federated States of Micronesia. The early period of the Chuuk State is characterized by a subsistence economy, with a population of around 1,000-5,000 people. The society was egalitarian, with a mixed social structure. The power was held by the chiefs, who con... | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | Chuuk State, part of the Caroline Islands, was a decentralized society with clan-based governance. European contact began in the late 18th century, with Spanish explorers arriving in 1775. Traditional warfare was limited to inter-clan conflicts using stone and wooden weapons. The population practiced ancestor worship a... | Hezel, Francis X. The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial Days, 1521-1885. University of Hawaii Press, 1983. | Peebles, Mark. Micronesian Legends. Bess Press, 2001. | Cordy, Ross H. Exploitation and Rebellion in the Pacific Islands. University of Hawaii Press, 199... | 0.2 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | Chuuk Lagoon's five major political districts (Féwúr, Faichuk, Wééné, Wééna, and Namwun) were established, each ruled by a high chief (sowukachaw) with stratified, autocratic power. Society was organized by matrilineal clans. Subsistence based on fishing, taro, and breadfruit cultivation (swidden/slash & burn). Warfare... | Goodenough, Ward H. Property, Kin, and Community on Truk. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, 1951. | Marshall, Mac. 'The Structure of Solidarity and Alliance on Namoluk Atoll.' PhD Dissertation, University of Washington, 1972. | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. "Culture Summary: Chuuk." New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or... | Here are the references extracted from the text, formatted for clarity:
1. **Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. "Culture Summary: Chuuk." New Haven, Conn.: HRAF.** [http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000](http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000)
2. **The Editors of En... | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0.157601 | 1 | 0.083333 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 2.281119 | 1.376247 | 1.286263 | null |
58 | FmTrukL | Chuuk State (Micronesia) late period | fm_truk_2 | 1886 | 1948 | 62 | 1900 | fm | Polynesia | Polynesia | Chuuk | Chuuk Islands | Hanlon, David. Upon a Stone Altar: A History of the Island of Pohnpei to 1890. University of Hawaii Press, 1988; Hezel, Francis X. The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial Days, 1521-1885. University of Hawaii Press, 1983 | The Chuuk State was a federal state in the Federated States of Micronesia from 1886 to 1948. The state was ruled by a hereditary monarch, known as the 'Namonuito', who was assisted by a council of chiefs. The state was known for its complex system of clans and castes, with a strong emphasis on traditional customs and p... | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.2 | Chuuk was under German colonial rule (1899–1914) followed by Japanese administration (1914–1945). Traditional chiefly systems persisted but were subjugated. WWII brought devastation, including the 1944 U.S. bombing of Chuuk Lagoon. Post-war, it became part of the U.S. Trust Territory. Population declined due to conflic... | Hezel, Francis X. *Strangers in Their Own Land: A Century of Colonial Rule in the Caroline and Marshall Islands*. University of Hawaii Press, 2003. Peattie, Mark R. *Nan'yo: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885–1945*. University of Hawaii Press, 1988. | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | Chuuk (Truk) was a collection of autonomous chiefdoms, not a unified polity. Spanish claimed sovereignty in 1886 but exerted minimal control. German administration (1899-1914) introduced copra trade. Japanese naval base (1914-1945) brought massive infrastructure, forced labor, and social disruption. Operation Hailstone... | Hezel, F. X. (1983). The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-colonial Days, 1521–1885. University of Hawaii Press. | Poyer, L. (2017). The Typhoon of War: Micronesian Experiences of the Pacific War. University of Hawaii Press. | Petersen, G. (2009). Traditional Micronesian... | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. "Culture Summary: Chuuk." New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or... | Here are the references extracted from the text, formatted for clarity:
* **Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999.** "Culture Summary: Chuuk." New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000
* **The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013.** Seshat URL: https://www.zoter... | 3 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 0.473466 | 6 | 0.35 | 0.3625 | 10 | 0.609091 | 3.13036 | 2.104487 | 3.963788 | null |
101 | UsIroqE | Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early | us_haudenosaunee_1 | 1566 | 1713 | 147 | 1600 | us | East Coast | East Coast of US | Seneca Falls | Finger Lakes | Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. University of North Carolina Press, 1992. | The Haudenosaunee Confederacy was a powerful Native American confederacy that existed from the 16th to the 18th century. It was formed in the late 16th century by the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes. The confederacy was known for its democratic government and its ability to maintain peace among its ... | 0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, formed before European contact, was a powerful alliance of Five Nations (later Six). Between 1566 and 1713, they expanded through diplomacy and warfare, notably in the Beaver Wars (1640s–1680s), displacing rival tribes. Their decentralized governance, based on the Great Law of Peace, bala... | Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. UNC Press, 1992. Snow, Dean R. The Iroquois. Blackwell Publishers, 1994. Fenton, William N. The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy. University of Oklahoma Pre... | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, or Five Nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca), was formed circa 1142-1450 according to oral tradition, but solidified by the 16th century. The Great Law of Peace established a sophisticated, matrilineal, and democratic governance structure. The confederacy expanded through co... | Fenton, William N. The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy. University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.; Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. University of North Carolina Press, 1992.; Snow, Dean R. The I... | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League ... | The text contains the following reference:
* Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE
| 3 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0.314426 | 2 | 0.083333 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 | 3.477121 | 5 | 4.991165 | null |
445 | PgOrokE | Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial | pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial | 1734 | 1883 | 149 | 1800 | pg | New Guinea | New Guinea | Oro | Oro PNG | Schwimmer, Erik. 1973. Exchange in the Social Structure of the Orokaiva: Traditional and Emergent Ideologies in the Northern District of Papua. St. Martin's Press; Welsch, Robert L. 1994. Papua New Guinea's Indigenous Peoples and the State. In Indigenous Peoples and the State: A Global Perspective, edited by Arturo Esc... | The Orokaiva people lived in small villages, relying on subsistence agriculture and hunting. Their social structure was relatively egalitarian, with decision-making power distributed among village elders. The Orokaiva had a rich spiritual tradition, with a strong emphasis on ancestor worship and rituals. They had limit... | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Orokaiva were a decentralized society in northern Papua New Guinea, organized into clans with no centralized authority. Warfare was intermittent, often involving raids and revenge killings. Subsistence relied on slash-and-burn agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering. Ancestor worship and spirit beliefs d... | Schwimmer, Erik. \ | 0.3 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | The Orokaiva were a collection of autonomous, kinship-based villages in northern Papua New Guinea. They practiced swidden horticulture (taro, yams) and hunting. Society was egalitarian and organized around descent groups, with leadership based on achieved status (big-men). Warfare was endemic, characterized by raids an... | Williams, F. E. (1928). Orokaiva Society. Oxford University Press.; Schwimmer, E. G. (1973). Exchange in the Social Structure of the Orokaiva. Hurst; Newton, J. (1985). Orokaiva Production and Change. University of Papua New Guinea Press. | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2)... | Here are the references extracted from the text, formatted for clarity:
* **Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” *Oceania* 24 (2): 110-18.**
* **Latham, Christopher S. and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF.**
* **Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. ... | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0.229975 | 2 | 0.083333 | 0 | 6.5 | 0 | 2.89936 | 4.605657 | 4.633812 | null |
-189 | OregonTerr | Oregon Territory | us_oreg | 1848 | 1859 | 11 | 1900 | us | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Schwantes, Carlos. The Pacific Northwest: An Interpretive History. University of Nebraska Press, 1996.; McLagan, Elizabeth. A Peculiar Paradise: A History of Blacks in Oregon, 1788-1940. Georgian Press, 1980. | The Oregon Territory was established in 1848 and existed until 1859. The territory was created by the U.S. Congress to provide a government for the region that had been occupied by American settlers, primarily from the Oregon Trail. The territory was characterized by a mix of small settlements, agricultural communities... | 0.4 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | The Oregon Territory (1848–1859) was established after the Oregon Treaty with Britain. Settlers, primarily American pioneers, expanded westward via the Oregon Trail. Conflicts with Native American tribes, such as the Cayuse War (1847–1855), marked violent clashes. The Donation Land Claim Act (1850) encouraged settlemen... | Bowes, John P. *The Oregon Territory: British-American Rivalry in the Pacific Northwest*. University of Oklahoma Press, 2016. | White, Richard. *The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region*. Cambridge University Press, 1991. | Schwantes, Carlos A. *The Pacific Northwest: An Interpretive... | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | Established by the US Congress in 1848 after the Oregon Treaty resolved the border dispute with Britain. Population boomed due to the Oregon Trail, with settlers primarily engaged in agriculture and fur trading. Territorial government was established in Oregon City, later Salem. Conflicts with Native American tribes es... | Robbins, W. G. (1997). Landscapes of Promise: The Oregon Story, 1800-1940. University of Washington Press.; Johansen, D. O., & Gates, C. M. (1967). Empire of the Columbia: A History of the Pacific Northwest. Harper & Row. | 0.5 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | -0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-188 | Tsetsaut | Tsetsaut | ca_tset | 1400 | 1800 | 400 | 1600 | ca | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Emmons, George Thornton. The Tlingit Indians. University of Washington Press, 1991. Thornton, Thomas F. Being and Place Among the Tlingit. University of Washington Press, 2008. | The Tsetsaut were an indigenous people living in Western North America, specifically in the region that is now northwestern British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. They were a small tribe with a population of around 1,000 people. Their traditional territory was approximately 500 km2. The Tsetsaut were skilled hunters... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | The Tsetsaut were an Athabaskan-speaking Indigenous group inhabiting the coastal and inland regions of present-day British Columbia and Alaska. They lived as hunter-gatherers, relying on fishing, hunting, and foraging. Their population remained small, with semi-nomadic bands. Contact with neighboring groups like the Tl... | Drucker, Philip. The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1951. | Vinkovetsky, Ilya. 'The Tsetsaut: A Forgotten Athapaskan People.' Arctic Anthropology, vol. 47, no. 1, 2010, pp. 1-15. | 0.3 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | The Tsetsaut ('Those of the Interior') were a small Athapaskan-speaking group inhabiting the rugged Portland Inlet area of northern British Columbia. They were hunter-gatherers, reliant on mountain goats, caribou, and salmon. Their society was organized into small, semi-nomadic matrilineal clans. By the late 19th centu... | Dunn, John A. 'The Tsetsaut: A Northern Athapaskan Group.' in A History of the Native People of Canada, Volume III. Canadian Museum of History, 2007.; Boas, Franz. 'Tenth Report on the Indians of British Columbia.' in Report of the 64th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1894.; Albright,... | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-187 | Chinook | Chinookan Peoples | us_chin | -4000 | 1850 | 5850 | -1100 | us | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Ross, Alexander. Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River: Being a Narrative of the Expedition Fitted Out by John Jacob Astor, to Establish the 'Pacific Fur Company'; with an Account of Some of the Indian Tribes on the Coast of the Pacific. Smith, Elder and Co, 1849. | The Chinookan Peoples flourished in the region around the Columbia River from around 4000 BCE to the mid-19th century. They were skilled traders and fishermen, and their society was organized into a complex system of clans and chiefs. The Chinook were known for their expertise in navigating the Columbia River and their... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Chinookan peoples were a collection of indigenous tribes inhabiting the Pacific Northwest, primarily along the Columbia River. They thrived on fishing, particularly salmon, and engaged in trade networks. By the 18th century, contact with European explorers and fur traders introduced diseases that devastated their p... | Ruby, Robert H., and John A. Brown. The Chinook Indians: Traders of the Lower Columbia River. University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. Boyd, Robert. The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874. University of Washington Press, 1999. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | Archaeological evidence (e.g., Cathlapotle site) indicates establishment of long-term settlements along the Columbia River. Economy based on sophisticated salmon fishing, hunting, and gathering. Development of a semi-sedentary lifestyle supported by abundant resources. Social structure is egalitarian and kinship-based.... | Ames, K. M., & Maschner, H. D. (1999). Peoples of the Northwest Coast: Their Archaeology and Prehistory. Thames and Hudson. | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-186 | Nootka | Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka) | ca_noot | -6000 | 1800 | 7800 | -2100 | ca | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Arima, E. Y. (1983). The West Coast People: The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver Island. British Columbia Provincial Museum. | The Nuu-chah-nulth were a group of indigenous peoples living on the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. They were skilled hunters and gatherers, and their traditional diet consisted of salmon, halibut, and other seafood. They were also known for their expertise in whaling and their distinctive dug... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | The Nuu-chah-nulth were a coastal Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest, thriving on marine resources. Their society was organized into kinship-based groups with hereditary chiefs. Warfare was limited to raids and territorial disputes. Contact with Europeans in the late 18th century brought trade but also diseases... | Drucker, Philip. The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1951. McMillan, Alan D. Since the Time of the Transformers: The Ancient Heritage of the Nuu-chah-nulth, Ditidaht, and Makah. UBC Press, 1999. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | The Nuu-chah-nulth were a cluster of autonomous, hierarchical tribes (e.g., Mowachaht, Ahousaht) on Vancouver Island's west coast. Society was stratified into chiefs, commoners, and slaves. Economy centered on sophisticated whaling, sealing, and salmon fishing from massive cedar canoes. They engaged in intertribal warf... | McMillan, Alan D. Since the Time of the Transformers: The Ancient Heritage of the Nuu-chah-nulth, Ditidaht, and Makah. UBC Press, 1999.; Marshall, Yvonne. 'Political Organization.' In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7: Northwest Coast, pp. 616-618. Smithsonian Institution, 1990.; Drucker, Philip. The Northern ... | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-185 | OldCord | Old Cordilleran Culture | us_ocul | -7000 | -5500 | 1500 | -6300 | us | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Matson, R. G., & Magne, M. P. R. (2007). Athapaskan Migrations: The Archaeology of Eagle Lake, British Columbia. University of Arizona Press. | The Old Cordilleran Culture existed in Western North America between 7000 and 5500 BC. They were hunter-gatherers with a diet rich in fish, shellfish, and land mammals. They used stone tools and had a simple social structure. The culture declined due to changes in climate and the introduction of new technologies. | 0 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.1 | The Old Cordilleran Culture (7000–5500 BC) was a prehistoric hunter-gatherer society in western North America, characterized by lithic tool production and seasonal mobility. No centralized leadership or warfare is evident, though small-scale conflicts may have occurred. Subsistence relied on foraging, fishing, and earl... | Ames, Kenneth M. The Northwest Coast: Archaeological Perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology, 2005. | Carlson, Roy L. The Old Cordilleran Culture in the Pacific Northwest. Canadian Journal of Archaeology, 1983. | Fladmark, Knut R. Routes: Travel and Communication in Prehistoric Northwest North America. Archaeology ... | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | The Old Cordilleran Culture was a widespread hunter-gatherer tradition centered in the Pacific Northwest. People exploited riverine and coastal resources, particularly salmon, using distinctive leaf-shaped Cascade projectile points. No evidence of centralized rulers or warfare exists. Society was likely organized into ... | Butler, B. R. (1961). The Old Cordilleran Culture in the Pacific Northwest. Idaho State College Museum, Pocatello.; Ames, K. M., & Maschner, H. D. G. (1999). Peoples of the Northwest Coast: Their Archaeology and Prehistory. Thames and Hudson.; Chatters, J. C. (1998). Environment. In Handbook of North American Indians (... | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-184 | Plano | Plano Culture | ca_plan | -8000 | -5000 | 3000 | -6500 | ca | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Frison, George C. Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. Academic Press, 1991. | The Plano Culture existed in Western North America between 8000 and 5000 BC. They were hunter-gatherers with a population of around 1000 people. They had a simple social structure and their power was based on force. They had basic infrastructure, such as routes and quarries, and their economy was based on subsistence a... | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | The Plano Culture (8000–5000 BC) was a Paleo-Indian tradition in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. They were mobile hunter-gatherers, relying on bison hunting and foraging. Their lithic technology included distinctive projectile points (e.g., Scottsbluff, Eden). No evidence of warfare or social stratification exist... | Hofman, Jack L. \ | 0.5 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | The Plano culture was an Archaic-period hunter-gatherer society, not a polity. It emerged as the Paleo-Indian big-game hunters adapted to a warming post-glacial environment. Characterized by sophisticated Folsom and later Plano-style projectile points, they hunted bison herds using communal drives. Society was likely e... | Buchner, Anthony P., and Christopher C. Hanks. 'The First Albertans: An Overview of the Archaeology of the First 11,000 Years.' Alberta: A New Century, 1990. Kornfeld, Marcel, et al. '10,000 Years in the Rockies: The Prehistory of Alberta's Rockies.' Arctic Anthropology, vol. 38, no. 2, 2001, pp. 1–27. Frison, George C... | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-183 | Folsom | Folsom Culture | us_fols | -8500 | -7500 | 1000 | -8000 | us | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Frison, G. C. (1991). Prehistoric hunters of the High Plains. Academic Press. pp. 123-135, Holliday, V. T. (2000). Folsom drought and episodic drying on the Great Plains from 10,000 to 10,500 14C yr B.P. Quaternary Research, 53(1), 1-12. | The Folsom Culture is a prehistoric culture that existed in the Great Plains region of Western North America from around 8500 to 7500 BC. It is characterized by the use of Folsom points, which are a type of stone projectile point. The culture is believed to have been a nomadic hunter-gatherer society, with a diet consi... | 0 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | The Folsom Culture (c. 8500–7500 BC) was a Paleo-Indian group in North America known for their distinctive fluted projectile points. They were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, specializing in bison hunting. No evidence of warfare or social stratification exists; their society was likely egalitarian. Their material cultu... | Hofman, Jack L. \ | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | The Folsom Culture consisted of highly mobile, small bands of Paleoindian bison hunters. Their society was egalitarian with no evidence of stratified elites. Their most significant technological development was the finely crafted, fluted Folsom point, used to hunt now-extinct Bison antiquus. The main type site is the F... | Meltzer, D. J. (2006). Folsom: New Archaeological Investigations of a Classic Paleoindian Bison Kill. University of California Press. | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-182 | Clovis | Clovis Culture | us_clov | -9500 | -8000 | 1500 | -8800 | us | Western North America | West Coast, the Rockies, and Canada | null | null | Haynes, Gary. (2002). The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. Cambridge University Press. | The Clovis culture is a prehistoric Paleoindian culture, named for distinct stone tools found near Clovis, New Mexico. It existed from approximately 13,500 to 12,800 years ago. The Clovis people are believed to have been highly mobile, following game and seasonal food sources. They likely had a relatively flat social s... | 0 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | The Clovis Culture (c. -9500 to -8000) was a Paleo-Indian society known for distinctive fluted projectile points. They were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, relying on megafauna hunting. No centralized leadership or warfare is evident, though intergroup conflicts may have occurred. Their religion likely involved animism... | Haynes, Gary. \ | 0.7 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | Highly mobile Paleoindian big-game hunters, primarily targeting mammoth and bison. Characterized by distinctive, fluted Clovis projectile points. No evidence of centralized rulers; likely organized in small, egalitarian, kin-based bands. The type site is Blackwater Draw, New Mexico. Experienced rapid cultural expansion... | Meltzer, D. J. (2009). First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America. University of California Press.; Waters, M. R., & Stafford, T. W. (2007). Redefining the age of Clovis: implications for the peopling of the Americas. Science, 315(5815), 1122-1126.; Haynes, G. (2002). The early settlement of North America... | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-181 | Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata | Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata | ar_viceroy | 1776 | 1810 | 34 | 1800 | ar | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | Lynch, John. Spanish Colonial Administration, 1782-1810: The Intendant System in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. University of London, 1958.; Socolow, Susan Migden. The Merchants of Buenos Aires, 1778-1810: Family and Commerce. Cambridge University Press, 1978. | The Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was established in 1776 and lasted until 1810. The Viceroyalty was a major hub for trade and commerce in South America, with the port city of Buenos Aires serving as a key center for the export of silver and other valuable commodities. The Viceroyalty was also home to a di... | 0.4 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | Established in 1776 to counter Portuguese expansion, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata included modern Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Ruled by viceroys like Pedro de Cevallos, it faced British invasions (1806–1807) and internal unrest. The May Revolution (1810) marked its collapse amid Napoleonic Wars.... | Lynch, John. \ | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.3 | Established by Charles III to counter Portuguese expansion. Capital at Buenos Aires. Viceroys like Vértiz promoted economic reforms. Economy based on silver mining, cattle ranching, and contraband. Elite power rested on military force (militias) and land ownership. Society stratified with Spanish-born peninsulares at t... | Lynch, John. Spanish Colonial Administration, 1782-1810: The Intendant System in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Athlone Press, 1958.; Adelman, Jeremy. Sovereignty and Revolution in the Iberian Atlantic. Princeton University Press, 2006. | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | -0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-180 | Colonia del Sacramento | Portuguese Colonia del Sacramento (contested with Spain) | uy_colonia | 1680 | 1777 | 97 | 1700 | uy | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | Benton, Lauren. A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400-1900. Cambridge University Press, 2010. | Founded in 1680 by Portuguese governor Manuel Lobo. Contested by Spain and Portugal. Population around 1,000 people. Economy based on trade and agriculture. Decline due to Spanish attacks and lack of support from Portugal. | 0.3 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | Founded in 1680 by Portugal, Colonia del Sacramento was a strategic outpost contested with Spain. It changed hands multiple times due to conflicts like the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) and the Treaty of Utrecht (1715). The colony was a key smuggling hub, bypassing Spanish trade restrictions. Its population... | Boxer, C. R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825. Hutchinson, 1969. | García, José M. Colonia del Sacramento: A Contested Frontier in the Río de la Plata. Journal of Latin American Studies, 2012. | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | Founded in 1680 by Manuel Lobo, Colônia do Sacramento was a strategic Portuguese trading post on the Río de la Plata, directly opposite Spanish Buenos Aires. It was repeatedly besieged, captured, and exchanged via treaties (Treaty of Utrecht 1715, Treaty of Madrid 1750, Treaty of San Ildefonso 1777) between the Iberian... | Costa, A. de M. da. \ | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-179 | Jesuit Missions | Jesuit Missions to the Guarani | py_jesuit | 1604 | 1767 | 163 | 1700 | py | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | Ganson, Barbara. The Guarani Under Spanish Rule in Early Colonial Paraguay. Stanford University Press, 1996. | Jesuit Missions to the Guarani (1604-1767). Christianized over 140,000 Guarani people. Established 30 missions in present-day Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. Developed a unique culture blending indigenous and European traditions. Expelled by Spanish and Portuguese authorities in 1767. | 0.2 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.3 | The Jesuit Missions to the Guarani (1604–1767) were a network of 30 settlements in modern-day Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. Governed by Jesuit priests, they integrated Guarani communities into a semi-autonomous Christian polity. The missions thrived economically through communal agriculture and trade, but faced conf... | Ganson, Barbara. The Guarani Under Spanish Rule in the Rio de la Plata. Stanford University Press, 2003. Wilde, Guillermo. Religious Transformations in the Early Modern Americas. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018. | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | Jesuit missions (reducciones) were semi-autonomous theocratic polities in present-day Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. Governed by Jesuit priests, they integrated Guarani socio-political structures with European agriculture and crafts. The population, estimated at 100-150k at its peak, was decimated by European disease... | Ganson, Barbara. The Guarani Under Spanish Rule in the Rio de la Plata. Stanford University Press, 2003.; Jackson, Robert H. \ | 0.3 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-178 | Guarani Chiefdoms | Various Guarani Chiefdoms (e.g., near Asunción) | py_guarani | 1500 | 1811 | 311 | 1700 | py | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | Kleinpenning, Jan M. G. N. (2003). Paraguay 1515-1870: A Thematic Geography of its Development. Iberoamericana/Vervuert. | The Guarani people were the indigenous inhabitants of Paraguay and parts of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia. They were skilled farmers and traders, and their chiefdoms were organized around kinship ties and geographic location. The arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century led to the decline of the Guarani chiefdoms, a... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Guarani chiefdoms near Asunción were semi-sedentary societies with slash-and-burn agriculture. They resisted Spanish colonization through warfare but were gradually subdued. Jesuit missions (1609–1767) reshaped their society, introducing European tools and Christianity. Epidemics and forced labor reduced their popu... | Melià, B. (1986). The Guarani Experience of the Divine. University of Arizona Press. Susnik, B. (1968). Los aborígenes del Paraguay: Etnografía guarani. Museo Etnográfico Andrés Barbero. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | The Guarani chiefdoms around Asunción were led by caciques like Lambaré and Yaguarón. They practiced slash-and-burn agriculture (avati morotî) and lived in large, fortified villages called *teyû*. The initial contact with Spanish explorers, such as Juan de Salazar de Espinosa (founding Asunción in 1537), was often coop... | Ganson, Barbara. The Guarani Under Spanish Rule in the Río de la Plata. Stanford University Press, 2003. | Clastres, Hélène. The Land-Without-Evil: Tupí-Guaraní Prophetism. University of Illinois Press, 1995. | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-177 | Tupi-Guarani Expansion | Tupi-Guarani Migrations and Settlements | py_tupi | -500 | 1500 | 2000 | 500 | py | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | Noelli, Francisco Silva. \ | The Tupi-Guarani migration from the Amazon region to the south, reaching the Pampas and the Paraná River, displacing the indigenous population of the region. Development of complex societies with agriculture and social hierarchies. Cultivation of cassava, corn, and squash. The use of ceramic and basketry. Chieftainship... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Tupi-Guarani peoples migrated from the Amazon basin into southern South America, establishing semi-sedentary villages. They practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, cultivating maize, manioc, and beans. Warfare was frequent but small-scale, often involving raids. Shamans played key religious roles, mediating between s... | Noelli, F. S. (1999). The Tupi-Guarani Expansion: A Study of Archaeology and Linguistics. Latin American Antiquity, 10(4), 335-352. Brochado, J. P. (1984). An Ecological Model of the Spread of Pottery and Agriculture into Eastern South America. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | Proto-Tupi-Guarani speakers began a major expansion from their Amazonian homeland around 500 BC. They migrated southward along river systems, practicing slash-and-burn agriculture (coivara). Their society was egalitarian, organized in villages (taba) led by shamans (pajé) and chiefs. Their religion centered on animism ... | Noelli, F. S. (1998). The Tupi: explaining origin and expansions in terms of archaeology and of historical linguistics. Revista de Antropologia, 41, 69-82.; Brochado, J. P. (1984). An ecological model of the spread of pottery and agriculture into eastern South America. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-176 | Aguada | Aguada Culture | ar_aguada | -1000 | 600 | 1600 | -200 | ar | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | González, A. R. (1979). La cultura de Aguada. Instituto de Antropología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. | The Aguada Culture flourished in the Argentine Northwest, particularly in the provinces of Catamarca, La Rioja, and San Juan, between 1000 BC and 600 AD. This culture is characterized by its distinctive pottery, which features geometric and zoomorphic designs. The Aguada people were skilled farmers, growing crops such ... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Aguada Culture (1000 BC–600 AD) thrived in northwestern Argentina, known for pottery, metallurgy, and agricultural villages. They practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, traded goods, and had a mixed social structure with emerging elites. Religious practices centered on fertility cults, with ceremonial sites like La ... | González, Alberto Rex. \ | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | The Aguada Culture was a pre-Hispanic society centered in the Ambato Valley and surrounding areas of NW Argentina (Catamarca, La Rioja). Known for distinctive black-on-red ceramics and metalworking (copper, bronze, gold). Iconography featured a central 'Aguada God' or feline deity, linked to fertility and shamanic ritu... | Gordillo, I. (2009). The Aguada Culture of Northwestern Argentina. In The Handbook of South American Archaeology (pp. 599-611). Springer. Pérez Gollán, J. A., & Gordillo, I. (1993). The Aguada phenomenon: a view from the Ambato Valley. In Current Anthropology, 34(1), 101-111. Laguens, A. G. (2006). Continuidad y cambio... | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-175 | Condorhuasi | Condorhuasi Culture | ar_condor | -2500 | 200 | 2700 | -1200 | ar | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | González, Alberto Rex. \ | The Condorhuasi Culture flourished in the Catamarca and La Rioja provinces of Argentina between 2500 and 200 BCE. They developed a complex society with a strong agricultural base, and their settlements were often located in defensive positions. The culture is known for its ceramics, which featured geometric designs and... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Condorhuasi Culture (2500–200 BCE) was a pre-Columbian society in northwestern Argentina, known for early agricultural settlements and pottery. They practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, cultivated maize, and engaged in barter trade. Their social structure was likely egalitarian with emerging elites controlling inf... | González, Alberto Rex. \ | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | The Condorhuasi Culture (c. 2500-200 BC) was a Pre-Hispanic society in the Hualfín Valley and surrounding areas of NW Argentina. A formative agro-pastoral society, they practiced camelid herding and limited agriculture in a semi-arid environment. Known for distinctive black-on-red ceramic styles with geometric and zoom... | González, A. R. (1998). Arte Precolombino de la Argentina. Filmediciones Valero. ; Núñez Regueiro, V. A. (1974). Conceptos para un estudio de arte prehispánico en el noroeste argentino. Etnía, 17-18, 1-28. | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-174 | Huarpe | Huarpe Culture | ar_huarpe | -3000 | 1600 | 4600 | -700 | ar | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | González, Alberto Rex. \ | The Huarpe people were skilled farmers and herders, and their economy was based on agriculture and livestock. They were also skilled craftsmen, and their textiles and ceramics are highly regarded. The Huarpe culture was characterized by a complex social hierarchy, with a powerful elite and a strong emphasis on ritual a... | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Huarpe were a pre-Columbian indigenous group inhabiting the Cuyo region (modern-day Argentina and Chile). They practiced agriculture (maize, beans, squash) and pottery-making. Their society was egalitarian with small villages. The Inca Empire expanded into their territory in the late 15th century, leading to gradua... | Lagiglia, H. (1978). Los Huarpe: Arqueología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. | Stehberg, R. (1995). 'Los Huarpe y su relación con el Imperio Inca.' Chungará, 27(1), 7-20. | Raffino, R. (2007). 'Pueblos originarios de Argentina: Los Huarpe.' Revista Española de Antropología Americana, 37(1), 153-172. | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | The Huarpe were a collection of chiefdoms inhabiting the Cuyo region (modern Mendoza, San Juan, San Luis). They practiced fishing, hunting, and fallow agriculture, constructing irrigation canals (acequias). Society was egalitarian and organized around family clans. The main Huarpe sites include the Villavicencio and Ag... | Lagiglia, H. A. (2002). Los agricultores ceramistas. In Historia Argentina Prehispánica II (pp. 721-746). Editorial Brujas. Michieli, C. T. (1990). Los Huarpes Protohistóricos. Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo, Universidad Nacional de San Juan. | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-173 | Archaic Hunter-Gatherers | Argentinian Archaic Hunter-Gatherer Groups | ar_archaic | -7000 | -500 | 6500 | -3800 | ar | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | Borrero, Luis Alberto. The Prehistory of Patagonia. Springer, 2017. | The Argentinian Archaic Hunter-Gatherer Groups were small, mobile groups of people who survived by hunting and gathering in the southern regions of South America between 7000 and 500 BC. They had a simple, egalitarian social structure and did not have a complex system of governance or infrastructure. They likely had a ... | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | Early hunter-gatherer groups in Patagonia and Pampas, such as the Casapedrense and Toldense cultures, relied on guanaco hunting and plant foraging. No centralized power or warfare; egalitarian social structures. Rock art and burial sites suggest animistic beliefs. Climate shifts around 3000 BC may have influenced mobil... | Borrero, L. A. (1994). 'Archaeology of Patagonia: Hunter-Gatherers in the Southern Cone of South America.' Journal of World Prehistory, 8(3), 243-296. Miotti, L. (2006). 'Early Human Settlement of Southern South America.' Quaternary International, 148(1), 37-47. | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | Highly mobile hunter-gatherer bands exploiting diverse Patagonian ecosystems. No evidence for warfare, rulers, or centralized authority. Economy based on guanaco hunting, shellfish gathering, and use of lithic technology. Development of distinctive projectile point styles (e.g., Fell points). Ritualistic treatment of t... | Borrero, L.A. (2008). Early Patagonian hunter-gatherers: diversity and discontinuities. In: Scheinsohn, V. (eds) Ancient Peoples of Patagonia. Springer, New York. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-74985-5_3 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-172 | Paleoindians | Argentinian Paleoindian Cultures | ar_paleo | -10000 | -7000 | 3000 | -8500 | ar | Southern South America | Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina | null | null | González, Alberto Rex. 1960. La estratigrafía de la región pampeana. Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 15(1-2): 53-68. | The Toldense culture is a Paleoindian culture that existed in the Argentine Pampas between 10,000 and 9,000 years ago. They were hunter-gatherers who lived in small groups and survived on a diet of guanacos, ñandúes, and other small game. | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | Early Paleoindian groups in Argentina, such as the Fell's Cave and Los Toldos cultures, were hunter-gatherers who migrated into Patagonia. They relied on megafauna hunting and foraging. No centralized power or warfare existed, but small bands had egalitarian social structures. Rock art and burial practices suggest anim... | Borrero, L. A. (1999). The Archaeology of Patagonia: From the Pleistocene to the Present. Journal of World Prehistory, 13(1), 1-55. Miotti, L. (2006). Hunter-Gatherer Mobility and Technological Organization in the Late Pleistocene of Southern South America. Current Anthropology, 47(4), 625-634. | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | Highly mobile hunter-gatherer bands exploiting diverse ecological zones (pampas, Patagonia, foothills). Relied on megafauna (giant ground sloths, horses) and guanaco. Used distinctive 'fishtail' projectile points. No evidence of social stratification or formal leadership. Ritualistic treatment of the dead suggests earl... | Flegenheimer, N., et al. (2013). 'The Cerro El Sombrero site, Argentina, and the early peopling of the Americas.' PaleoAmerica, 1(1), 88-104. Miotti, L., & Salemme, M. (2004). 'Poblamiento, movilidad y territorios entre las sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras de Patagonia.' Complutum, 15, 177-206. | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-171 | Independent Tibet | Independent Tibet | cn_ind_tibet | 1912 | 1951 | 39 | 1900 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Kirti N. Chandra. (1993). Tibet: A Cultural History. New Delhi: New Age International. Lopez, Donald S. (2006). The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Reality of the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel. University of Chicago Press. Kapstein, Matthew T. (2006). The Tibetans. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. | Independent Tibet existed from 1912 to 1951. The 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso, ruled Tibet from 1895 to 1933 and implemented modernization and secularization reforms. The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, succeeded him and continued his reforms. Tibet maintained a complex relationship with China, with periods of confl... | 0.2 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | Independent Tibet (1912–1951) was ruled by the Dalai Lama and a monastic elite. The 13th Dalai Lama modernized Tibet, introducing reforms in administration and military. Tibet maintained neutrality but faced pressure from China and Britain. The 1913 Simla Convention attempted to define borders but failed. The 1950 Chin... | Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. University of California Press, 1989. Shakya, Tsering. The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. Columbia University Press, 1999. | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.2 | Theocratic state ruled by the 13th and 14th Dalai Lamas. Maintained de facto independence following the fall of the Qing Dynasty. Characterized by a feudal social structure with monastic and aristocratic elites. Limited modernization attempts met with resistance. Signed treaties with British India. Faced internal tensi... | Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. University of California Press, 1989.; Shakya, Tsering. The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. Columbia University Press, 1999. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.6 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-170 | Qing protectorate | Qing protectorate of Tibet | cn_qing_prot | 1720 | 1912 | 192 | 1800 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Kolmaš, Josef. Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-Tibetan Relations Up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912. Occasional Paper 7. Canberra, Australia: The Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies, 1967. | Qing protectorate of Tibet was established in 1720 after the Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate. The Qing government sent two ambans (high officials) to Tibet to oversee the local government and ensure that the country remained loyal to the Qing dynasty. The 13th Dalai Lama attempted to modernize Tibet and asser... | 0.3 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | The Qing established a protectorate over Tibet in 1720 after defeating the Dzungar Khanate. The Dalai Lama remained spiritual leader, but Qing ambans (imperial officials) governed secular affairs. The 1792 Qing reforms strengthened control, standardizing administration and military presence. Tibetan Buddhism (Gelugpa) ... | Perdue, Peter C. China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press, 2005. Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. University of California Press, 1989. | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.2 | Established after Qing expulsion of Dzungar Mongols in 1720. Ruled by Dalai Lamas under Qing protection, supervised by Imperial Residents (Ambans). Polity featured a monastic feudal system. Gurkha invasions (1788-1792) were repelled with Qing assistance. The 13th Dalai Lama declared independence in 1912 following the X... | Petech, Luciano. China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet. Brill, 1972. | Sperling, Elliot. The East Tibetan Frontier and the Warlike Gyarong Tribes. Inner Asia, vol. 2, no. 2, 2000, pp. 225–39. | Wang, Xiangyun. Tibetan Buddhism at the Court of Qing: T... | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.6 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-169 | Ganden Phodrang | Ganden Phodrang Government of Tibet | cn_ganden | 1642 | 1959 | 317 | 1800 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Kapstein, Matthew T. The Tibetans. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006. | The Ganden Phodrang Government was established by the 5th Dalai Lama in 1642. The government was a theocratic regime with the Dalai Lama as the head of state and the head of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism. The government was known for its strict control over the monasteries and the monks. The economy was primar... | 0.2 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | The Ganden Phodrang was established in 1642 under the 5th Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, with Mongol military support. It ruled Tibet as a Buddhist theocracy, blending religious and political authority. The government faced conflicts with neighboring Qing China and British India. The 13th Dalai Lama modernized Tib... | Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. University of California Press, 1989. | Smith, Warren W. Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. Westview Press, 1996. | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.2 | Founded by the 5th Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, with military support from Gushri Khan. A theocratic state governed by the Dalai Lamas and a monastic elite. The Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism was the state religion. Characterized by a feudal manorial estate system. Faced external pressures from the Manchu Qing... | Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1991). A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. University of California Press. Shakya, Tsering (1999). The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. Columbia University Press. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | -0.3 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.6 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-168 | Phagmodrupa Dynasty | Phagmodrupa Dynasty | cn_phagmo | 1354 | 1618 | 264 | 1500 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Tucci, Giuseppe. Tibetan Painted Scrolls. Routledge, 1999. | The Phagmodrupa Dynasty was a Tibetan dynasty that ruled from 1354 to 1618. It was founded by Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen, who unified various Tibetan tribes and established a strong centralized government. The dynasty saw a period of cultural and economic growth, with the development of Tibetan Buddhism and the establ... | 0.2 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | The Phagmodrupa Dynasty ruled Tibet from 1354 to 1618, founded by Changchub Gyaltsen after overthrowing the Sakya rulers. It maintained a feudal system with Buddhist monastic elites holding significant power. The dynasty faced internal conflicts and external pressures, particularly from the rising Gelug sect and Mongol... | Snellgrove, David L., and Hugh Richardson. A Cultural History of Tibet. Shambhala, 2003. Kapstein, Matthew T. The Tibetans. Blackwell Publishing, 2006. Dargyay, Eva M. The Rise of the Phag-mo-gru-pa Dynasty in Tibet. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1977. | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.1 | Founded by Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen (1302–1364) after overthrowing the Mongol-backed Sakya regime. The dynasty reunified central Tibet (Ü-Tsang), establishing a period of stability and cultural renaissance. Rulers were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism, particularly the Kagyu school. The dynasty's power declined due to in... | Sperling, Elliot. The Phagmodrupa Hierarchy and the Phagmodrupa Dynasty. In 'The Tibet Journal', 1987. Petech, Luciano. Central Tibet and The Mongols: The Yuan-Sa-skya Period of Tibetan History. Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1990. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.4 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-167 | Sakya Era | Sakya Era | cn_sakya | 1247 | 1354 | 107 | 1300 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | van der Kuijp, Leonard W. J. The Kalacakra and the Patronage of Tibetan Buddhism by the Mongol Imperial Family. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004. | The Sakya Era in Tibet began in 1247 when the Sakya Pandita, a prominent Buddhist master, became the ruler of Tibet. During this period, Tibetan Buddhism flourished, and the country experienced a golden age of cultural and economic development. The Sakya rulers maintained a complex relationship with the Mongol Empire, ... | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | The Sakya Era began when Tibet submitted to Mongol rule under Kublai Khan, establishing a patron-priest relationship. The Sakya lamas governed Tibet under Mongol authority, blending Buddhist and Mongol political structures. Key rulers included Phagspa Lama and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, who standardized Tibetan script and ... | Sperling, Elliot. \ | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.2 | The Sakya regime was established as a priest-patron relationship with the Mongol Yuan dynasty after the 1247 meeting between Sakya Pandita and Godan Khan. Ruled by Sakya lamas like Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, it was a theocratic domain administering Tibet for the Mongols. It oversaw a feudal society with monastic elites. Th... | Petech, Luciano. Central Tibet and the Mongols: The Yüan-Sa-skya Period of Tibetan History. Serie Orientale Roma, 1990. | Sperling, Elliot. The Fifth Dalai Lama. In The Tibet Journal, 2004. | Wylie, Turrell V. The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 1977. | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | -0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.5 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-166 | Fragmentation Period | Tibetan Fragmentation Period | cn_frag | 842 | 1247 | 405 | 1000 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Kapstein, Matthew T. The Tibetan Assimilation of Buddhism: Conversion, Contestation, and Memory. Oxford University Press, 2000. | Tibetan Fragmentation Period (842-1247): a period of fragmentation and decentralization in Tibet, marked by the decline of the Tibetan Empire and the rise of regional kingdoms and monasteries. The period saw the emergence of Buddhist monasteries as major centers of power and learning, and the development of a unique Ti... | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | The Tibetan Fragmentation Period (842–1247) followed the collapse of the Tibetan Empire after the assassination of Langdarma. Regional warlords and clans divided Tibet into competing polities. Buddhism, suppressed under Langdarma, revived and spread, blending with indigenous Bon traditions. Warfare was frequent but loc... | Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. Princeton University Press, 1987. Dotson, Brandon. The Old Tibetan Annals: An Annotated Translation. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2009. Kapstein, Matthew T. The Tibetans. Blackwell Publishing, 2006. | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.6 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | Following the assassination of King Langdarma (c. 842), the Tibetan Empire fragmented into rival principalities. No central authority. Local lords (lords of Lhasa, Yarlung, etc.) ruled small territories, often fighting each other. Buddhism, suppressed by Langdarma, survived in the east and began a gradual revival. The ... | Kapstein, Matthew T. (2006). The Tibetans. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 71-80. ISBN 978-0-631-22574-4.; Beckwith, Christopher I. (1993). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. pp. 168-169. ... | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.4 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-165 | Zhang Zhung | Kingdom of Zhang Zhung | cn_zhang | -800 | 625 | 1425 | -100 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Bellezza, John Vincent. Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2008. | The Kingdom of Zhang Zhung was an ancient kingdom in Tibet that existed from around 800 BCE to 625 CE. It was a complex domain with a population of around 10,000 to 50,000 people. The kingdom was known for its unique culture, which was influenced by its geographic location and its trade relationships with neighboring k... | 0.2 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | The Kingdom of Zhang Zhung (c. 800 BC–625 AD) was a pre-Buddhist civilization in western Tibet, centered around Mount Kailash. It was ruled by a warrior elite and practiced the Bon religion, a shamanistic tradition later absorbed into Tibetan Buddhism. The kingdom engaged in conflicts with neighboring polities, includi... | Bellezza, John Vincent. Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2008. | Karmay, Samten G. The Great Perfection: A Philosophical and Meditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism. Brill, 2007. | Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization. Stanford University Press, 1972. | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | Zhang Zhung was a pre-Buddhist Iron Age kingdom centered in western Tibet. Its capital was Kyunglung. It was organized under a divine kingship system and its state religion was Bön, an animistic and shamanistic tradition venerating nature spirits. The kingdom controlled the Transhimalayan trade routes. It was known for... | Bellezza, J. V. (2008). Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. https://doi.org/10.1553/0x0023cf1b; Aldenderfer, M. (2012). Peopling the Tibetan Plateau: Insights from Archaeology. High Altitude Medicine & Biology, 12(2), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1089/ham.2011.... | 0.4 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-164 | Bronze Age Tibet | Bronze Age Cultures of the Tibetan Plateau | cn_bronze | -2500 | -800 | 1700 | -1700 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 3, South Asia, Volume 13, Brill Academic Publishers, 1996. | The Zhang Zhung culture flourished in the Tibetan Plateau from around 2500 to 1000 BCE. It is characterized by the presence of bronze tools, pottery, and stone structures. The culture is believed to have been influenced by the Indus Valley Civilization and the Chinese Bronze Age cultures. | 0.1 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | The Bronze Age cultures of the Tibetan Plateau (2500–800 BC) were characterized by small, stratified communities engaged in pastoralism and limited agriculture. Evidence from sites like Karuo and Changguogou suggests bronze metallurgy, fortified settlements, and ritual burials. Warfare was likely localized, with copper... | Aldenderfer, Mark, and Zhang, Hongliang. \ | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.3 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | Early agro-pastoralists settling in river valleys like the Yarlung Tsangpo. Subsistence based on barley, wheat, and sheep/goat pastoralism. Evidence of small, fortified villages (e.g., Karuo) suggests inter-community conflict. Social organization was likely tribal/clan-based. Material culture shows connections to both ... | d’Alpoim Guedes, J. (2015). Rethinking the spread of agriculture to the Tibetan Plateau. The Holocene, 25(9), 1498–1510. | 0.2 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
-163 | Neolithic Tibet | Early Neolithic Cultures of the Tibetan Plateau | cn_neolith | -9000 | -2500 | 6500 | -5800 | cn | Tibet | Tibet | null | null | Chen, F. H., et al. \ | The Early Neolithic Cultures of the Tibetan Plateau, also known as the Yangshao culture, existed from around 9000 to 2500 BCE. This period saw the introduction of agriculture, with crops such as millet and wheat being cultivated. The population was relatively small, with estimates suggesting around 1000-5000 people. Th... | 0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | Early Neolithic cultures on the Tibetan Plateau (c. 9000–2500 BC) were characterized by small, semi-sedentary communities practicing incipient agriculture and pastoralism. Evidence from sites like Chusang and Karuo suggests millet cultivation and barley domestication. Burial practices indicate ancestor veneration. Limi... | Chen, Fahu, et al. 'Agricultural origins on the Tibetan Plateau.' Science 346.6210 (2014): 447-450. | d'Alpoim Guedes, Jade, et al. 'The origins of agriculture on the Tibetan Plateau.' Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112.24 (2015): 7376-7381. | Zhang, Chi, and David K. Zhang. 'The Neolithic of the Tibet... | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | Small, mobile hunter-gatherer groups transitioning to sedentary life. Initial colonization of the high plateau, adaptation to extreme altitude. Development of microlithic tool technology for hunting. Earliest evidence of barley cultivation and yak/ sheep pastoralism from ~3600 BC. No evidence of centralized rulers or s... | Chen, F.H., Dong, G.H., Zhang, D.J. et al. Agriculture facilitated permanent human occupation of the Tibetan Plateau after 3600 BP. Science 347, 248–250 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259172; Madsen, D. B., Ma, H., Brantingham, P. J., Xing, G., Rhode, D., Perreault, C., ... & Olsen, J. W. (2006). The Late Upp... | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
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Seshat-perspective is the first historical databank synthetically annotated with a perspectivist approach by means of multiple Large Language Models: Deepseek (dr1), Llama (l31l) and Mistral (m3m)
Paper with field description and validation procedure: https://github.com/facells/fabio-celli-publications/blob/main/docs/2026_perspective_seshat_clicit26.pdf
Code for replication: https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1_4aUNGjl7_uhLZZKE7mAYHPhWYUZ9jvr?usp=sharing
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