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I propose to consider the question, 'Can machines think' | null | What question does the proposal focus on regarding the capabilities of machines? |
(Taken from MIND : a Quartedly Review of Psychology and Philosophy. Vol. LIX. , N.S., No. 236, October , 1950. ) | null | What is the title of the journal mentioned that features content in psychology and philosophy published in October 1950? |
COMPUTING MACHINERY AND INTELLIGENCE by A. M. TURING. | null | What is the title of the work authored by A. M. Turing that discusses computing machinery and intelligence? |
1. The Imitation Game. | null | What is the title of the film about Alan Turing's efforts to crack the Enigma code during World War II? |
This should begin with definitions of the meaning of the terms ‘machine’ and 'think'. | null | What are the definitions of the terms 'machine' and 'think'? |
The definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use of the words, but this attitude is dangerous. | null | What is the danger associated with framing definitions to reflect the normal use of words? |
If the meaning of the words ‘machine' and ‘think’ are to be found by examining how they are commonly used it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to the question, 'Can machines think. | null | What is the conclusion about the meaning of the words 'machine' and 'think' when examined through their common usage? |
is to be sought in a statistical survey such as a Gallup poll. But this is absurd. | null | What type of survey is mentioned in the description as being sought for statistical analysis? |
Instead of attempting such a definition I shall replace the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words. | null | What will the author do instead of attempting a definition? |
The new form of the problem can be described in terms of a game which we call the ‘imitation game‘. | null | What is the name of the new form of the problem described in the text? |
It is played with three people, a man (A), a woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either sex. | null | Who are the three participants in the game described? |
The interrogator stays in a room apart from the other two. | null | Where does the interrogator stay in relation to the other two? |
The object of the game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the man and which is the woman. | null | What is the objective of the game for the interrogator? |
He knows them by labels X and Y, and at the end of the game he says either 'X is A and Y is B' or 'X is B and Y is A'. | null | What does he say at the end of the game regarding labels X and Y? |
The interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B thus: | null | What restrictions are placed on the interrogator regarding the types of questions they can ask A and B? |
C: Will X please tell me the length of his or her hair. | null | What does C want to know about X's hair? |
Now suppose X is actually A, then A must answer. It is A's object in the game to try and cause C to make the wrong identification. His answer might therefore be: 'My hair is shingled, and the longest strands are about nine inches long.' | null | What answer might A give to cause C to make the wrong identification? |
In order that tones of voice may not help the interrogator the answers should be | null | How should answers be provided to ensure that tones of voice do not assist the interrogator? |
The object of the game for the third player (B) is to help the interrogator. The best strategy for her is probably to give truthful answers. She can add such things as 'I am the woman, don't listen to him!' to her answers, but it will avail nothing as the man can make similar remarks. | null | What is the best strategy for the third player (B) in the game? |
We now ask the question, ‘What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game. | null | What happens when a machine takes the part of A in this game? |
Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman? | null | Will the interrogator's decision-making accuracy be the same in this game format as it is in a game played between a man and a woman? |
These questions replace our original, 'Can machines think?' | null | What questions have replaced the original question, 'Can machines think?'? |
null | Please provide the description you would like me to read. | |
Critique of the New Problem. | null | What is the main focus of the "Critique of the New Problem"? |
As well as asking, ‘What is the answer to this new form of the question’, one may ask, ‘Is this new question a worthy one to investigate?’ | null | Is the new question worth investigating? |
This latter question we investigate without further ado, thereby cutting short an infinite regress. | null | What is the primary action taken in the investigation mentioned in the description? |
The new problem has the advantage of drawing a fairly sharp line between the physical and the intellectual capacities of a man. | null | What advantage does the new problem have regarding the distinction between physical and intellectual capacities? |
No engineer or chemist claims to be able to produce a material which is indistinguishable from the human skin. | null | What do engineers and chemists claim about producing a material indistinguishable from human skin? |
It is possible that at some time this might be done, but even supposing this invention available we should feel there was little point in trying to make a ‘thinking machine’ more human by dressing it up in such artificial flesh. | null | What is the perspective on making a ‘thinking machine’ more human by giving it artificial flesh? |
The form in which we have set the problem reflects this fact in the condition which prevents the interrogator from seeing or touching the other competitors, or hearing their voices. | null | What condition prevents the interrogator from seeing, touching, or hearing the other competitors? |
Some other advantages of the proposed criterion may be shown up by specimen questions and answers. | null | What may be demonstrated by specimen questions and answers regarding the proposed criterion? |
Thus: Please write me a sonnet on the subject of the Forth Bridge. | null | What poetic form would you like to use to describe the Forth Bridge? |
Count me out on this one. I never could write poetry. | null | What is your opinion on writing poetry? |
Add 34957 to 70764. | null | What is the sum of 34957 and 70764? |
105621. Do you play chess? Yes. I have K at my Kl, and no other pieces. You have only K at K6 and R at Rl. It is your move. What do you play? | null | What pieces do I have and where are they located on the chessboard? |
A: (After a pause of 15 seconds) R-R8 mate. | null | What does R-R8 mate refer to after a pause of 15 seconds? |
The question and answer method seems to be suitable for introducing almost any one of the fields of human endeavour that we wish to include. | null | What method is deemed suitable for introducing various fields of human endeavour? |
We do not wish to penalise the machine for its inability to shine in beauty competitions, nor to penalise a man for losing in a race against an aeroplane. | null | What is the perspective on penalizing machines in beauty competitions and men in races against aeroplanes? |
The conditions of our game make these disabilities irrelevant. | null | What aspect of the game makes disabilities irrelevant? |
The '‘witnesses' can brag, if they consider it advisable, as much as they please about their charms, strength or heroism, but the interrogator cannot demand practical demonstrations. | null | What limitations are placed on the interrogator regarding the demands for practical demonstrations from the witnesses? |
The game may perhaps be criticised on the ground that the odds are weighted too heavily against the machine. | null | What criticism might be raised regarding the odds in the game? |
If the man were to try and pretend to be the machine he would clearly make a very poor showing. | null | What would happen if the man attempted to impersonate the machine? |
He would be given away at once by slowness and inaccuracy in arithmetic. | null | What would indicate that he possesses slowness and inaccuracy in arithmetic? |
May not machines carry out something which ought to be described as | null | What is something that machines may not be able to carry out that should be described as such? |
3. The Machines concerned in the Game. | null | What are the machines involved in the game? |
The question which we put in 81 will not be quite definite until we have specified what we mean by the word ‘machine'. | null | What must be specified to ensure the question put in 81 is quite definite? |
It is natural that we should wish to permit every kind of engineering technique to be used in our machines. | null | What is the natural wish regarding the engineering techniques used in machines? |
We also wish to allow the possibility that an engineer or team of engineers may construct a machine which works, but whose manner of operation cannot be satisfactorily described by its constructors because they have applied a method which is largely experimental. | null | What is the scenario described regarding engineers constructing a machine whose operation cannot be satisfactorily explained by its constructors? |
Finally, we wish to exclude from the machines men born in the usual manner, It is difficult to frame the definitions so as to satisfy these three conditions. | null | What is the challenge mentioned in excluding certain individuals from machines based on their manner of birth? |
One | null | What is the numerical word that represents the quantity of a single item? |
This prompts us to abandon the requirement | null | What does this situation prompt us to do regarding the requirement? |
that every kind of technique should be permitted. We are the more ready to do so in view of the fact that the present interest in ‘thinking machines’ has been aroused | null | What is the current attitude towards techniques in light of the growing interest in 'thinking machines'? |
by a particular kind of machine, usually called an ‘electronic computer’ or ‘digital computer'. Following this suggestion we only permit digital computers to take part in our game, | null | What type of computers are allowed to participate in the game described? |
This restriction appears at first sight to be a very drastic one. | null | What does the description suggest about the nature of the restriction mentioned? |
I shall attempt to show that it is not so in reality. To do this necessitates a short account of the nature and properties of these computers. | null | What account will be provided to demonstrate the true nature and properties of these computers? |
It may also be said that this identification of machines with digital computers, like our criterion for 'thinking', will only be unsatisfactory if (contrary to my belief), it turns out that digital computers are unable to give a good showing in the game. | null | What will render the identification of machines with digital computers and the criterion for 'thinking' unsatisfactory? |
There are already a number of digital computers in working order, and it may be asked, ‘Why not try the experiment straight away. | null | Why not try the experiment straight away with the digital computers that are already in working order? |
It would be easy to satisfy the conditions of the game. A number of interrogators could be used, and statistics compiled to show how often the right identification was given. | null | How can the conditions of the game be satisfied using interrogators and statistics? |
The short answer is that we are not asking whether all digital computers would do well in the game nor whether the computers at present available would do well, but whether there are imaginable computers which would do well. | null | Are we questioning the performance of all existing digital computers in the game or the existence of hypothetical computers that could perform well? |
But this is only the short answer. | null | What is the nature of the content provided in the description? |
We shall see this question in a different light later. | null | What perspective will we consider this question from later? |
The idea behind digital computers may be explained by saying that these machines are intended to carry out any operations which could be done by a human computer. | null | What is the primary purpose of digital computers according to the description? |
The human computer is supposed to be following fixed rules; he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail. | null | What characteristics define the behavior of a human computer in relation to rules? |
We may suppose that these rules are supplied in 'a book, which is altered whenever he is put on to a new job. He has also an unlimited supply of paper on which he does his calculations, He may also do his multiplications and additions on a ‘desk machine', but this is not important, | null | What resources are available to him for performing calculations when he is assigned to a new job? |
If we use the above explanations as a definition we shall be in danger of circularity of argument. We avoid this by giving an outline of the means by which the desired effect is achieved, A digital computer can usually be regarded as consisting of three parts: | null | What are the three main parts that a digital computer can usually be regarded as consisting of? |
(i) Store. | null | What aspect of a store was described in the text? |
(ii) Executive unit. | null | What is the term used to describe an organization or group responsible for decision-making and administration within a larger entity? |
(iii) Control. | null | What is the third component of the described framework that involves regulating and directing actions or processes? |
The store is a store of information, and corresponds to the human computer's paper, whether this is the paper on which he does his calculations or that on which his book of rules is printed. In so far as the human computer does calculations in his head, a part of the store will correspond to his memory. | null | What does the store of information correspond to in the context of a human computer's calculations? |
The executive unit is the part which carries out the various individual operations involved in a calculation. What these individual operations are will vary from machine to machine. Usually fairly lengthy operations can be done such as ‘multiply 3540675445 by 7076345687' but in some machines only very simple ones such ... | null | What is the function of the executive unit in a machine? |
We have mentioned that the ‘book of rules' supplied to the computer is replaced in the machine by a part of the store. It is then called the ‘table of instructions’. | null | What is the term used for the part of the store in a machine that replaces the 'book of rules' supplied to the computer? |
It is the duty of the control to see that these instructions are obeyed correctly and in the right order. | null | What is the duty of the control regarding the instructions? |
The control is so constructed that this necessarily happens. | null | What is the construction of the control that ensures a specific outcome? |
The information in the store is usually broken up into packets of moderately small size. | null | What is the typical size of the packets in which the information in the store is broken up? |
In one machine, for instance, a packet might consist of ten decimal digits. | null | What is the composition of a packet in one machine? |
Numbers are assigned to the parts of the store in which the various packets of information are stored, in some systematic manner. | null | How are packets of information organized in the store? |
A typical instruction might say - ‘add. | null | What is a typical instruction that might be given in a certain context? |
the number stored in position 6809 to that in 4.302 and put the result back into the latter storage position’ | null | What should be done with the number stored in position 6809 and the number 4.302? |
Needless to say it would not occur in the machine expressed in English. | null | In what language is the occurrence of the phenomenon not expected to happen? |
It would more likely be coded in a form such as 6809.30217. | null | What is the format in which the code would likely be presented? |
Here 17 says which of various possible operations is to be performed on the two numbers. | null | What does the number 17 specify regarding operations on two numbers? |
In this case the operation is that described above, viz. ‘add the number ....' It will be noticed that the instruction takes up 10 digits and so forms one packet of information, very conveniently. | null | What is the length of the instruction that describes the operation of adding a number, and how does it relate to the formation of a packet of information? |
The control will normally take the instructions to be obeyed in the order of the positions in which they are stored, but occasionally an instruction such as 'Now obey the instruction stored in position 5606, and continue from there’ may be encountered, or again ‘If position 4505 contains O obey next the instruction sto... | null | How does the control handle exceptions in the order of instruction execution? |
Instructions of these latter types are very important because they make it possible for a sequence of operations to be repeated over and over again until some condition is fulfilled, but in doing so to obey, not fresh instructions on each repetition, but the same ones over and over again. | null | What is the significance of instructions of certain types in performing a sequence of operations repeatedly until a condition is met? |
To take a domestic analogy. | null | What is a domestic analogy? |
Suppose Mother wants Tommy to call at the cobbler's every morning on his way to school to see if her shoes are done, she can ask him afresh every morning. | null | What does Mother want Tommy to do every morning on his way to school? |
Alternatively she can stick up a notice once and for all in the hall which he will see when he leaves for school and which tells him to call for the shoes, and also to destroy the notice when he comes back if he has the shoes with him. | null | What is the alternative method suggested for reminding him to call for the shoes? |
The reader | null | What is the subject of the description? |
The book of rules which we have described our human computer as using is of course a convenient fiction, | null | What is described as a convenient fiction in relation to our human computer? |
Actual human computers really remember what they have got to do. | null | What ability do actual human computers possess regarding task remembrance? |
If one wants to make a machine mimic the behaviour of the human computer in some complex operation one has to ask him how it is done, and then translate the answer into the form of an instruction table. | null | How can one translate a human's explanation of a complex operation into an instruction table for a machine? |
Constructing instruction tables is usually described as 'programming'. | null | What is usually described as 'programming' in the context of constructing instruction tables? |
To ‘programme a machine to carry out the operation A' means to put the appropriate instruction table into the machine so that it will do A. | null | What does it mean to 'programme a machine to carry out the operation A'? |
An interesting variant on the idea of a digital computer is a ‘digital computer with a random element’. | null | What is a variant of a digital computer that incorporates a random element? |
These have instructions involving the throwing of a die or some equivalent electronic process; one such instruction might for instance be, 'Throw the die and put the resulting number into store 1000'. | null | What type of instructions involve the throwing of a die or an equivalent electronic process? |
Sometimes such a machine is described as having free will (though I would not use this phrase myself). | null | What term is sometimes used to describe a machine that operates independently, despite the author not using it themselves? |
It is not normally possible to determine from observing a machine whether it has a random element, for a similar effect can be produced by such devices as making the choices depend on the digits of the decimal for ~. | null | How can the effect of a random element in a machine be mimicked according to the described devices? |
Most actual digital computers have only a finite store. | null | What is a common characteristic of most actual digital computers regarding their storage? |
There is no theoretical difficulty in the idea of a computer with an unlimited store. Of course only a finite part can have been constructed, but we can imagine more and more being added as required. Such computers have special theoretical interest and will be called infinitive capacity computers. | null | What are computers with an unlimited store that hold special theoretical interest called? |
The idea of a digital computer is an old one. | null | What is the concept that relates to the idea of a digital computer? |
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