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"Alain Connes\n",
"Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the Collège de France, IHÉS, Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was an Invited Professor at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (2000).\n",
"Section::::Work.\n",
"Alain Connes studies operator algebras. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. He also formulated the Connes embedding problem. Following this, he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Bourbaki.\n",
"Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics.\n",
"Section::::Awards and honours.\n",
"Connes was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001\n",
"Section::::Books.\n",
"BULLET::::- Alain Connes and Matilde Marcolli, \"Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives\", Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, \n",
"BULLET::::- Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, \"Triangle of Thought\", translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001,\n",
"BULLET::::- Jean-Pierre Changeux, and Alain Connes, \"Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics\", translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998,\n",
"BULLET::::- Alain Connes, \"Noncommutative Geometry\", Academic Press, 1994,\n",
"Section::::See also.\n",
"BULLET::::- Bost–Connes system\n",
"BULLET::::- Cyclic homology\n",
"BULLET::::- Factor (functional analysis)\n",
"BULLET::::- Higgs boson\n",
"BULLET::::- C*-algebra\n",
"BULLET::::- M-theory\n",
"BULLET::::- Groupoid\n",
"BULLET::::- Criticism of non-standard analysis\n",
"Section::::External links.\n",
"BULLET::::- Alain Connes Official Web Site containing downloadable papers, and his book \"Non-commutative geometry\", .\n",
"BULLET::::- Alain Connes' Standard Model\n",
"BULLET::::- An interview with Alain Connes and a discussion about it\n"
]
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} | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors | 512px-Allan_Dwan_-_Sep_1920_EH.jpg | 344 | {
"paragraph": [
"Allan Dwan\n",
"Allan Dwan (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter.\n",
"Section::::Early life.\n",
"Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on 4 December 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician.\n",
"Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association.\n",
"Section::::Career.\n",
"Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa, California from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the Flying A Studios origins in La Mesa, California.\n",
"After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 \"Robin Hood\". Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process Phonofilm. This short, also featuring Thomas Meighan and Henri de la Falaise, was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 \"Lambs' Gambol\" for The Lambs, with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club.\n",
"Following the introduction of the talkies, Dwan directed child-star Shirley Temple in \"Heidi\" (1937) and \"Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm\" (1938).\n",
"Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, Victor Fleming, who went on to direct \"The Wizard of Oz\" and \"Gone With the Wind\", and Marshall Neilan, who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, \"Sands of Iwo Jima\". He directed his last movie in 1961.\n",
"He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, California.\n",
"Dwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard.\n",
"Daniel Eagan of \"Film Journal International\" described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style \"is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion.\"\n",
"Section::::Partial filmography as director.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Gold Lust\" (1911)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Picket Guard\" (1913)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Restless Spirit\" (1913)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Back to Life\" (1913)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Bloodhounds of the North\" (1913)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Lie\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Honor of the Mounted\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Remember Mary Magdalen\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Discord and Harmony\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Embezzler\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The End of the Feud\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Tragedy of Whispering Creek\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Unlawful Trade\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Forbidden Room\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Hopes of Blind Alley\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Richelieu\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Wildflower\" (1914)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Small Town Girl\" (1915)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"David Harum\" (1915)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Girl of Yesterday\" (1915)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Pretty Sister of Jose\" (1915)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Jordan Is a Hard Road\" (1915)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Betty of Graystone\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Habit of Happiness\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Good Bad Man\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"An Innocent Magdalene\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Half-Breed\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Manhattan Madness\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Accusing Evidence\" (1916)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Panthea\" (1917)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Modern Musketeer\" (1917)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Bound in Morocco\" (1918)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Headin' South\" (1918)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Mr. Fix-It\" (1918)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"He Comes Up Smiling\" (1918)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Cheating Cheaters\" (1919)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Dark Star\" (1919)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Getting Mary Married\" (1919)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Soldiers of Fortune\" (1919)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"In The Heart of a Fool\" (1920) also producer\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Forbidden Thing\" (1920) also producer\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Splendid Hazard\" (1920)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Perfect Crime\" (1921)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Sin of Martha Queed\" (1921)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"A Broken Doll\" (1921)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Robin Hood\" (1922)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Zaza\" (1923)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Big Brother\" (1923)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Manhandled\" (1924)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Argentine Love\" (1924)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Coast of Folly\" (1925)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Night Life of New York\" (1925)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Stage Struck\" (1925)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Gloria Swanson Dialogue\" (1925) short film made in Phonofilm for The Lambs annual \"Gambol\" held at Metropolitan Opera House\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Padlocked\" (1926)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Sea Horses\" (1926)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Summer Bachelors\" (1926)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Tin Gods\" (1926)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"French Dressing\" (1927)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Joy Girl\" (1927)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"East Side, West Side\" (1927)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Big Noise\" (1928)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Frozen Justice\" (1929)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Iron Mask\" (1929)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Tide of Empire\" (1929)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Far Call\" (1929)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"What a Widow!\" (1930)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Man to Man\" (1930)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Chances\" (1931)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Wicked\" (1931)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"While Paris Sleeps\" (1932)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Counsel's Opinion\" (1933)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Black Sheep\" (1935)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Navy Wife\" (1935)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"High Tension\" (1936)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"15 Maiden Lane\" (1936)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"One Mile from Heaven\" (1937)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Heidi\" (1937)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm\" (1938)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Suez\" (1938)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Josette\" (1938)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Three Musketeers\" (1939)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Gorilla\" (1939)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Frontier Marshal\" (1939)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Sailor's Lady\" (1940)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Young People\" (1940)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Trail of the Vigilantes\" (1940)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Look Who's Laughing\" (1941) also producer\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Rise and Shine\" (1941)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Friendly Enemies\" (1942)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Around the World\" (1943) also producer\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Up in Mabel's Room\" (1944)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Abroad with Two Yanks\" (1944)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Getting Gertie's Garter\" (1945) also screenwriter\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Brewster's Millions\" (1945)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Rendezvous with Annie\" (1946)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Driftwood\" (1947)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Calendar Girl\" (1947)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Northwest Outpost\" (1947) also associate producer\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Inside Story\" (1948)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Angel in Exile\" (1948) (with Philip Ford)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Sands of Iwo Jima\" (1949)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Surrender\" (1950)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Belle Le Grand\" (1951)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Wild Blue Yonder\" (1951)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"I Dream of Jeanie\" (1952)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Montana Belle\" (1952)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Woman They Almost Lynched\" (1953)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Sweethearts on Parade\" (1953)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Silver Lode\" (1954)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Passion\" (1954)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Cattle Queen of Montana\" (1954)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Tennessee's Partner\" (1955)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Pearl of the South Pacific\" (1955)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Escape to Burma\" (1955)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Slightly Scarlet\" (1956)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Hold Back the Night\" (1956)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Restless Breed\" (1957)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The River's Edge\" (1957)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Enchanted Island\" (1958)\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Most Dangerous Man Alive\" (1961)\n",
"Section::::See also.\n",
"BULLET::::- Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood\n",
"Section::::Further reading.\n",
"BULLET::::- Brownlow, Kevin, \"The Parade's Gone By...\" (1968)\n",
"BULLET::::- Bogdanovich, Peter, \"Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer\" (1971)\n",
"BULLET::::- Foster, Charles, \"Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood\" (2000)\n",
"BULLET::::- Lombardi, Frederic, \"Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios\" (2013)\n",
"Print E-book \n",
"Section::::External links.\n",
"BULLET::::- Allan Dwan profile, virtual-history.com; accessed 16 June 2014\n"
]
} | http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Allan_Dwan_-_Sep_1920_EH.jpg | {
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"wikipedia_title": "Allan Dwan"
} | 344 | Allan Dwan |
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"Godfrey of Bouillon\n",
"Godfrey of Bouillon (, , , ; 18 September 1060 – 18 July 1100) was a Frankish knight and one of the leaders of the First Crusade from 1096 until its conclusion in 1099. He was the Lord of Bouillon, from which he took his byname, from 1076 and the Duke of Lower Lorraine from 1087. After the successful siege of Jerusalem in 1099, Godfrey became the first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He refused the title of King, however, as he believed that the true King of Jerusalem was Jesus Christ, preferring the title of Advocate (i.e., protector or defender) of the Holy Sepulchre (Latin: \"Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri\"). He is also known as the \"Baron of the Holy Sepulchre\" and the \"Crusader King\".\n",
"Section::::Early life.\n",
"Godfrey of Bouillon was born around 1060 as the second son of Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, and Ida, daughter of the Lotharingian duke Godfrey the Bearded by his first wife, Doda.\n",
"His birthplace was probably Boulogne-sur-Mer, although one 13th-century chronicler cites Baisy, a town in what is now Walloon Brabant, Belgium.\n",
"As second son, he had fewer opportunities than his older brother and seemed destined to become just one more minor knight in service to a rich landed nobleman. However his maternal uncle, Godfrey the Hunchback, died childless and named his nephew, Godfrey of Bouillon, as his heir and next in line to his Duchy of Lower Lorraine. This duchy was an important one at the time, serving as a buffer between the kingdom of France and the German lands.\n",
"In fact, Lower Lorraine was so important to the German kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire that Henry IV, the German king and future emperor (reigned 1084–1105), decided in 1076 that he would place it in the hands of his own son and give Godfrey only Bouillon and the Margraviate of Antwerp as a test of Godfrey's abilities and loyalty. Godfrey served Henry IV loyally, supporting him even when Pope Gregory VII was battling the German king in the Investiture Controversy. Godfrey fought alongside Henry and his forces against the rival forces of Rudolf of Swabia and also took part in battles in Italy when Henry IV actually took Rome away from the pope.\n",
"A major test of Godfrey’s leadership skills was shown in his battles to defend his inheritance against a significant array of enemies. In 1076 he had succeeded as designated heir to the Lotharingian lands of his uncle, Godfrey the Hunchback, and Godfrey was struggling to maintain control over the lands that Henry IV had not taken away from him. Claims were raised by his aunt Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, cousin Count Albert III of Namur, and Count Theoderic of Veluwe. This coalition was joined by Bishop Theoderic of Verdun, and two minor counts attempting to share in the spoils, Waleran I of Limburg and Arnold I of Chiny.\n",
"As these enemies tried to take away portions of his land, Godfrey's brothers, Eustace and Baldwin, both came to his aid. Following these long struggles and proving that he was a loyal subject to Henry IV, Godfrey finally won back his duchy of Lower Lorraine in 1087. Still, Godfrey's influence in the German kingdom would have been minimal if it had not been for his major role in the First Crusade.\n",
"Section::::First Crusade.\n",
"In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim forces and also to aid the Byzantine Empire which was under Muslim attack. Godfrey took out loans on most of his lands, or sold them, to the bishop of Liège and the bishop of Verdun. With this money he gathered thousands of knights to fight in the Holy Land as the Army of Godfrey of Bouillon. In this he was joined by his older brother, Eustace, and his younger brother, Baldwin, who had no lands in Europe. He was not the only major nobleman to gather such an army. Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, also known as Raymond of Saint-Gilles, created the largest army. At age 55, Raymond was also the oldest and perhaps the best known of the Crusader nobles. Because of his age and fame, Raymond expected to be the leader of the entire First Crusade. Adhemar, the papal legate and bishop of Le Puy, travelled with him. There was also the fiery Bohemond, a Norman knight from southern Italy, and a fourth group under Robert II, Count of Flanders.\n",
"Each of these armies travelled separately: some went southeast across Europe through Hungary and others sailed across the Adriatic Sea from southern Italy. Pope Urban II's call for the crusade had aroused the Catholic populace and spurred antisemitism. In the People's Crusade, beginning in the spring and early summer of 1096, bands of peasants and low-ranking knights set off early for Jerusalem on their own, and persecuted Jews during the Rhineland massacres. Godfrey, along with his two brothers, started in August 1096 at the head of an army from Lorraine (some say 40,000 strong) along \"Charlemagne's road\", as Urban II seems to have called it (according to the chronicler Robert the Monk)—the road to Jerusalem. A Hebrew text known to modern scholars as the Solomon bar Simson Chronicle, which seems to have been written more than 50 years after the events, says apparently of the Duke: \n"
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"Thomas John Barnardo\n",
"Thomas John Barnardo (4 July 184519 September 1905) was an Irish philanthropist and founder and director of homes for poor children. From the foundation of the first Barnardo's home in 1867 to the date of Barnardo's death, nearly 60,000 children had been taken in.\n",
"Although Barnardo never finished his studies at the London Hospital, he used the title of ‘doctor’ and later secured a licentiate.\n",
"Section::::Early life.\n",
"Barnardo was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1845. He was the fourth of five children (one died in childbirth) of John Michaelis Barnardo, a furrier who was of Sephardic Jewish descent, and his second wife, Abigail, an Englishwoman and member of the Plymouth Brethren.\n",
"In the early 1840s, John emigrated from Hamburg to Dublin, where he established a business; he married twice and fathered seven children. The Barnardo family \"traced its origin to Venice, followed by conversion to the Lutheran Church in the sixteenth century\".\n",
"As a young child, Barnardo thought that everything that was not his should belong to him. However, as he grew older, he abandoned this mindset in favour of helping the poor.\n",
"Barnardo moved to London in 1866. At that time he was interested in becoming a missionary.\n",
"Section::::Philanthropy.\n",
"In the 1860s, Barnardo opened a school in the East End of London to care for and educate children of the area left orphaned and destitute by a recent cholera outbreak. In 1870 he founded a boys' orphanage at 18 Stepney Causeway and later opened a girls' home. By the time of his death in 1905, Barnardo's institutions cared for over 8,500 children in 96 locations.\n",
"Barnardo's work was carried on by his many supporters under the name \"Dr Barnardo's Homes\". Following societal changes in the mid-20th century, the charity changed its focus from the direct care of children to fostering and adoption, renaming itself \"Dr Barnardo's\". Following the closure of its last traditional orphanage in 1989, it took the still simpler name of \"Barnardo's\".\n",
"Section::::Philanthropy.:Controversies.\n",
"There was controversy early on with Barnardo's work. Specifically, he was accused of kidnapping children without parents' permission and of falsifying photographs of children to make the distinction between the period before they were rescued by Barnardo's and afterwards seem more dramatic. He openly confessed to the former of these charges, describing it as 'philanthropic abduction' and basing his defence on the idea that the end justified the means. In all, he was taken to court on 88 occasions, largely on the charge of kidnapping. However, being a charismatic speaker and popular figure, he rode through these scandals unscathed. Other charges brought against him included presenting staged images of children for Barnardo's 'before and after' cards and neglecting basic hygiene for the children under his care.\n",
"Barnardo's was implicated in the scandal of forced child migration], in which children from poor social backgrounds were taken to the former colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa) by churches and charities, without their parents' consent and even under false claims of death. Although this was a legal scheme, favoured by Government and society, in many cases the children suffered harsh life conditions and many also suffered abuse. This practice went on until the 70's. This merited an apology by PM Gordon Brown in 2010.\n",
"Section::::Philanthropy.:The charity today.\n",
"The official mascot of Barnardo's is a bear called Barney. H.M. Queen Elizabeth II is the current patron of Barnardo's. Its chief executive is Javed Khan.\n",
"Section::::Personal life.\n",
"Section::::Personal life.:Marriage and family.\n",
"In June 1873, Barnardo married Sara Louise Elmslie (1842–1944), known as Syrie, the daughter of an underwriter for Lloyd's of London. Syrie shared her husband's interests in evangelism and social work. The couple settled at Mossford Lodge, Essex, where they had seven children, three of whom died in early childhood. Another child, Marjorie, had Down syndrome.\n",
"Another daughter, Gwendolyn Maud Syrie (1879–1955), known as Syrie like her mother, was married to wealthy businessman Henry Wellcome, and later to the writer Somerset Maugham, and became a socially prominent London interior designer.\n",
"Section::::Personal life.:Death.\n",
"Barnardo died of angina pectoris in London on 19 September 1905, and was buried in front of Cairns House, Barkingside, Essex. The house is now the head office of the children's charity he founded, Barnardo's. A memorial stands outside Cairn's House.\n",
"Section::::Personal life.:Legacy.\n",
"After Barnardo's death, a national memorial was instituted to form a fund of £250,000 to relieve the various institutions of all financial liability and to place the entire work on a permanent basis. William Baker, formerly the chairman of the council, was selected to succeed the founder of the homes as Honorary Director.Thomas Barnardo was the author of 192 books dealing with the charitable work to which he devoted his life.\n",
"From the foundation of the homes in 1867 to the date of Barnardo's death, nearly 60,000 children had been taken-in, most being trained and placed out in life. At the time of his death, his charity was caring for over 8,500 children in 96 homes.\n",
"Section::::Personal life.:Not a Jack the Ripper suspect.\n",
"At the time of the Whitechapel murders, due to the supposed medical expertise of the Ripper, various doctors in the area were suspected. Barnardo was named a possible suspect long after his death. Ripperologist Gary Rowlands theorized that due to Barnardo's lonely childhood he had anger which led him to murder prostitutes. However, there is no evidence that he committed the murders. Critics have also pointed out that his age and appearance did not match any of the descriptions of the Ripper.\n",
"Section::::See also.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Likes of Us\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Charitable organization\n",
"BULLET::::- Orphanage\n",
"BULLET::::- Ragged School Museum\n",
"BULLET::::- List of Freemasons\n",
"Section::::References.\n",
"BULLET::::- Attribution\n",
"Section::::External links.\n",
"BULLET::::- British Home Child Group International - research site\n",
"BULLET::::- IllustratedPast.com – photographs of a Barnardo orphanage in 1893\n"
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"Raymond of Poitiers (c. 1099- 29 June 1149) was Prince of Antioch from 1136 to 1149. He was the younger son of William IX, Duke of Aquitaine and his wife Philippa, Countess of Toulouse, born in the very year that his father the Duke began his infamous liaison with Dangereuse de Chatelherault.\n",
"Section::::Assuming control.\n",
"Following the death of Prince Bohemund II of Antioch in 1130, the principality came under the regency first of King Baldwin II (1130–31), then King Fulk (1131–35), and finally Princess Alice (1135–36), Bohemond's widow. The reigning princess was Bohemond II's daughter, Constance (born 1127). Against the wishes of Alice, a marriage was arranged for Constance with Raymond, at the time staying in England, which he left only after the death of Henry I on 1 December 1135.\n",
"Upon hearing word that Raymond was going to pass through his lands in order to marry the princess of Antioch, King Roger II of Sicily ordered him arrested. By a series of subterfuges, Raymond passed through southern Italy and only arrived at Antioch after 19 April 1136. Patriarch Ralph of Domfront then convinced Alice that Raymond was there to marry her, whereupon she allowed him to enter Antioch (whose loyal garrison had refused him entry) and the patriarch married him to Constance. Alice then left the city, now under the control of Raymond and Ralph.\n",
"The first years of their joint rule were spent in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus, who had come south partly to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. Raymond was forced to pay homage, and even to promise to cede his principality as soon as he was recompensed by a new fief, which John promised to carve out for him in the Muslim territory to the east of Antioch. The expedition of 1138, in which Raymond joined with John, and which was to conquer this territory, proved a failure. The expedition culminated in the unsuccessful Siege of Shaizar. Raymond was not anxious to help the emperor to acquire new territories, when their acquisition only meant for him the loss of Antioch. John Comnenus returned unsuccessful to Constantinople, after demanding from Raymond, without response, the surrender of the citadel of Antioch.\n",
"Section::::Struggles.\n",
"There followed a struggle between Raymond and the patriarch. Raymond was annoyed by the homage which he had been forced to pay to the patriarch in 1135 and the dubious validity of the patriarch's election offered a handle for opposition. Eventually Raymond triumphed, and the patriarch was deposed (1139). In 1142 John Comnenus returned to the attack, but Raymond refused to recognize or renew his previous submission, and John, though he ravaged the neighborhood of Antioch, was unable to effect anything against him. When, however Raymond demanded from Manuel, who had succeeded John in 1143, the cession of some of the Cilician towns, he found that he had met his match. Manuel forced him to a humiliating visit to Constantinople, during which he renewed his oath of homage and promised to acknowledge a Greek patriarch.\n",
"In the last year of Raymond's life Louis VII and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine (Raymond's niece) visited Antioch during the Second Crusade. Raymond sought to prevent Louis from going south to Jerusalem and to induce him to stay in Antioch and help in the conquest of Aleppo and Caesarea. Raymond was also suspected of having an incestuous affair with his beautiful niece Eleanor. According to John of Salisbury, Louis became suspicious of the attention Raymond lavished on Eleanor, and the long conversations they enjoyed. William of Tyre claims that Raymond seduced Eleanor to get revenge on her husband, who refused to aid him in his wars against the Saracens, and that \"\"contrary to [Eleanor's] royal dignity, she disregarded her marriage vows and was unfaithful to her husband.\"\" Most modern historians dismiss such rumours, however, pointing out the closeness of Raymond and his niece during her early childhood, and the effulgent Aquitainian manner of behaviour. Also, as the pious Louis continued to have relations with his wife, it is doubtful that he believed his charge of incest.\n",
"Louis hastily left Antioch and Raymond was balked in his plans. In 1149 he was killed in the Battle of Inab during an expedition against Nur ad-Din Zangi. He was beheaded by Shirkuh, the uncle of Saladin, and his head was placed in a silver box and sent to the Caliph of Baghdad as a gift.\n",
"Section::::Personality and family.\n",
"Raymond is described by William of Tyre (the main authority for his career) as \"\"a lord of noble descent, of tall and elegant figure, the handsomest of the princes of the earth, a man of charming affability and conversation, open-handed and magnificent beyond measure\"\"; pre-eminent in the use of arms and military experience; \"litteratorum, licet ipse esset, cultor\" (\"although he was himself illiterate, he was a cultivator of literature\" – he caused the \"Chanson des chétifs\" to be composed); a regular churchman and faithful husband; but headstrong, irascible and unreasonable, with too great a passion for gambling (bk. xiv. c. xxi.). For his career see Rey, in the \"Revue de l'orient latin\", vol. iv.\n",
"With Constance he had the following children: \n",
"BULLET::::- Bohemond III\n",
"BULLET::::- Maria, married emperor Manuel I Komnenos\n",
"BULLET::::- Philippa\n",
"BULLET::::- Baldwin\n"
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"Rachel Bolan\n",
"Rachel Bolan (born February 9, 1966), born James Richard Southworth, is the bass guitar player and main songwriter of the metal band Skid Row. His stage name 'Rachel' is a hybrid of his brother's name, Richard, and his grandfather's name, Manuel. 'Bolan' is a tribute to one of his childhood idols, T. Rex frontman, Marc Bolan. He is the youngest of four children.\n",
"Section::::Career.\n",
"Bolan, who grew up in Toms River, New Jersey, founded Skid Row in 1986 with guitarist Dave \"The Snake\" Sabo. Bolan has appeared as a vocalist on two of Kiss guitarist Ace Frehley's solo albums and back-up vocals on Mötley Crüe's \"Dr. Feelgood\" album. He has produced numerous bands including Rockets to Ruin , the Luchagors in 2007 with former WWE wrestler Amy \"Lita\" Dumas and Atlantic Records stoner metal band Godspeed. He formed the band Prunella Scales with Solace guitarist Tommy Southard and L. Wood. Prunella Scales released \"Dressing up the Idiot\" on Mutiny Records in 1997. Jack Roberts (guitar) and Ray Kubian (drums), both from the New Jersey-based band Mars Needs Women, joined Prunella Scales for touring. Recently, he played the bass guitar for Stone Sour on the band's new records House of Gold & Bones - Part 1 and House of Gold & Bones – Part 2 as a replacement for the departed bassist Shawn Economaki. He also can be seen playing bass in TRUSTcompany music video for the single \"Heart in My Hands\".\n",
"Bolan has another side project called The Quazimotors. He did this project with Skid Row drummer Rob Affuso, Jonathan Callicutt and Evil Jim Wright (guitarist for Spectremen, BigFoot, Road Hawgs).\n",
"Section::::Personal life.\n",
"He married longtime girlfriend Donna \"Roxxi\" Feldman on June 10, 1994 but later divorced. He has no children.\n",
"He drives racecars in his free time. He competes in high performance go-karts, Legends Cars, Thunder Roadster and Pro-Challenge series cars.\n"
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} | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers | 512px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg | 308 | {
"paragraph": [
"Aristotle\n",
"Aristotle (; \"Aristotélēs\", ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, the founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school of philosophy and Aristotelian tradition. Along with his teacher Plato, he has been called the \"Father of Western Philosophy\". His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him, and it was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.\n",
"Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.\n",
"Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.\n",
"He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as \"The First Teacher\" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply \"The Philosopher\". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.\n",
"Section::::Life.\n",
"In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.\n",
"Aristotle, whose name means \"the best purpose\" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.\n",
"At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.\n",
"Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be \"a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants\". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the \"Suda\", he also had an \"erômenos\", Palaephatus of Abydus.\n",
"This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include \"Physics\", \"Metaphysics\", \"Nicomachean Ethics\", \"Politics\", \"On the Soul\" and \"Poetics\". Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to \"logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre.\"\n",
"Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: \"I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy\" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Logic.\n",
"With the \"Prior Analytics\", Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the \"Critique of Pure Reason\" that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Logic.:\"Organon\".\n",
"What we today call \"Aristotelian logic\" with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled \"analytics\". The term \"logic\" he reserved to mean \"dialectics\". Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the \"Organon\" around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:\n",
"BULLET::::1. \"Categories\"\n",
"BULLET::::2. \"On Interpretation\"\n",
"BULLET::::3. \"Prior Analytics\"\n",
"BULLET::::4. \"Posterior Analytics\"\n",
"BULLET::::5. \"Topics\"\n",
"BULLET::::6. \"On Sophistical Refutations\"\n",
"The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the \"Categories,\" the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in \"On Interpretation\", to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the \"Analytics\") and dialectics (in the \"Topics\" and \"Sophistical Refutations\"). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory \"stricto sensu\": the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The \"Rhetoric\" is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the \"Topics\".\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.\n",
"The word \"metaphysics\" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name \"Metaphysics\". Aristotle called it \"first philosophy\", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (\"theoretikē\") philosophy which is \"theological\" and studies the divine. He wrote in his \"Metaphysics\" (1026a16):\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.\n",
"Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (\"ousia\") and essence (\"to ti ên einai\", \"the what it was to be\") in his \"Metaphysics\" (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the \"potential\" house, while the form of the substance is the \"actual\" house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.:Immanent realism.\n",
"Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (\"katholou\") in particulars (\"kath' hekaston\"), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, \"form\" is still what phenomena are based on, but is \"instantiated\" in a particular substance. \n",
"Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but \"good\" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.:Potentiality and actuality.\n",
"With regard to the change (\"kinesis\") and its causes now, as he defines in his \"Physics\" and \"On Generation and Corruption\" 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:\n",
"BULLET::::1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;\n",
"BULLET::::2. locomotion, which is change in space; and\n",
"BULLET::::3. alteration, which is change in quality.\n",
"The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (\"dynamis\") and actuality (\"entelecheia\") in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (\"dynamei\") plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (\"poiein\") or 'be acted upon' (\"paschein\"), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (\"telos\") is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.\n",
"In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, \"what is it that makes a man one\"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.\n",
"Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Epistemology.\n",
"Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from \"a priori\" principles.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.\n",
"Aristotle's \"natural philosophy\" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, \"natural philosophy\" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as \"science\". Note, however, that his use of the term \"science\" carries a different meaning than that covered by the term \"scientific method\". For Aristotle, \"all science (\"dianoia\") is either practical, poetical or theoretical\" (\"Metaphysics\" 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Five elements.\n",
"In his \"On Generation and Corruption\", Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Motion.\n",
"Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: \"violent\" or \"unnatural motion\", such as that of a thrown stone, in the \"Physics\" (254b10), and \"natural motion\", such as of a falling object, in \"On the Heavens\" (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation\n",
"incorrect in modern physics.\n",
"Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.\n",
"In the \"Physics\" (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:\n",
"Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.\n",
"Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.\n",
"Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.\n",
"Newton's \"forced\" motion corresponds to Aristotle's \"violent\" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Four causes.\n",
"Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term \"aitia\" is traditionally translated as \"cause\", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as \"explanation\", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.\n",
"BULLET::::- Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.\n",
"BULLET::::- The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.\n",
"BULLET::::- The efficient cause is \"the primary source\", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of \"cause\" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.\n",
"BULLET::::- The final cause (\"telos\") is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Optics.\n",
"Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in \"Problems\", book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Chance and spontaneity.\n",
"According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, \"from what is spontaneous\". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names \"luck\", that only applies to people's moral choices.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Astronomy.\n",
"In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of \"those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays,\" pointing out correctly that if \"the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them.\"\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Geology.\n",
"Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.\n",
"The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including \"lakes that had dried up\" and \"deserts that had become watered by rivers\", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and \"the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption.\"'\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Empirical research.\n",
"Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in \"History of Animals\", \"Generation of Animals\", \"Movement of Animals\", and \"Parts of Animals\" are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.\n",
"Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.\n",
"He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a \"survival of the fittest\" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Scientific style.\n",
"Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term \"pepeiramenoi\" to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In \"Generation of Animals\", he finds a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.\n",
"Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.\n",
"From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Classification of living things.\n",
"Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the \"History of Animals\" in a graded scale of perfection, a \"scala naturae\", with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter \"animals with blood\", and below them the colder invertebrates as \"animals without blood\". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Soul.\n",
"Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise \"On the Soul\" (\"peri psychēs\"), posits three kinds of soul (\"psyches\"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the \"nous\" (intellect) and \"logos\" (reason).\n",
"For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Memory.\n",
"According to Aristotle in \"On the Soul\", memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal \"appearance\" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.\n",
"Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.\n",
"Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of \"images\" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.\n",
"Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.\n",
"Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Dreams.\n",
"Aristotle describes sleep in \"On Sleep and Wakefulness\". Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.\n",
"Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.\n",
"One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.\n",
"Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.:Just war theory.\n",
"Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave \"natural slaves\". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers \"natural slavery\" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over \"those who deserve to be slaves\". According to \"The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics\" the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that \"our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'\".\n",
"Aristotle generally has a favorable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that \"the leisure that accompanies peace\" tends to make people \"arrogant\". War to \"avoid becoming enslaved to others\" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war \"compels people to be just and temperate\", however, in order to be just \"war must be chosen for the sake of peace\" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.:Ethics.\n",
"Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the \"Nicomachean Ethics\".\n",
"Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (\"ergon\") of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the \"psuchē\" (\"soul\") in accordance with reason (\"logos\"). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, \"eudaimonia\", generally translated as \"happiness\" or sometimes \"well being\". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (\"ēthikē\" \"aretē\"), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.\n",
"Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (\"phronesis\") and their intellect (\"nous\") can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.:Politics.\n",
"In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled \"Politics\". Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, \"for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part\". He also famously stated that \"man is by nature a political animal\" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.\n",
"The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (\"polis\") which functions as a political \"community\" or \"partnership\" (\"koinōnia\"). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: \"The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.\" This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of \"fear of violent death\" or its \"inconveniences.\"\n",
"In \"Protrepticus\", the character 'Aristotle' states:\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.:Economics.\n",
"Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In \"Politics\", Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In \"Politics\", Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.\n",
"Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.\n",
"Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them \"commensurable\". He goes to on state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, \"if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it\".\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.:Rhetoric and poetics.\n",
"Aristotle's \"Rhetoric\" proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: \"ethos\" (an appeal to the speaker's character), \"pathos\" (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and \"logos\" (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorises rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: \"enthymeme\" (proof by syllogism) and \"paradeigma\" (proof by example).\n",
"Aristotle writes in his \"Poetics\" that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of \"mimesis\" (\"imitation\"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term \"mimesis\" both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the \"mimesis\" is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that \"mimesis\" is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry \"follows the pattern of nature\". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls \"highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes.\" For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.\n",
"While it is believed that Aristotle's \"Poetics\" originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes \"Poetics\" with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.\n",
"Section::::Practical philosophy.:Views on women.\n",
"Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his \"Rhetoric\" that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.\n",
"Section::::Influence.\n",
"More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, \"it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did\". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in \"The Classical Tradition\", observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing \"every branch of intellectual enterprise\" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today \"will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind.\" Jonathan Barnes wrote that \"an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought\".\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On his successor, Theophrastus.\n",
"Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the \"History of Plants\", a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from \"carpos\", fruit, and pericarp, from \"pericarpion\", seed chamber.\n",
"Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On later Greek philosophers.\n",
"The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained \"Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?\"\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On Hellenistic science.\n",
"After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.\n",
"The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was \"nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance.\"\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On Byzantine scholars.\n",
"Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.\n",
"After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On the medieval Islamic world.\n",
"Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the \"exemplar\" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the \"First Teacher\". The title \"teacher\" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On medieval Europe.\n",
"With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the \"Organon\" made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his \"Summa Theologica\", working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle \"The Philosopher\", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.\n",
"The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having\n",
"A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.\n",
"The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in \"The Divine Comedy\":\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On Early Modern scientists.\n",
"In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.\n",
"Section::::Influence.:On 19th-century thinkers.\n",
"The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people (\"natural slaves\"), and the natural superiority (virtue, \"arete\") of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.\n",
"The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided \"to go under, over, and beyond\" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book \"The Laws of Thought\". This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.\n",
"Section::::Influence.:Modern rejection and rehabilitation.\n",
"During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticised. The philosopher Bertrand Russell\n",
"argued that \"almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine\". Russell called Aristotle's ethics \"repulsive\", and labelled his logic \"as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy\". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.\n",
"The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by \"proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character\" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in \"pure seventeenth century\" tones that Aristotle had assembled \"a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility\".\n",
"By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that \"In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition.\" Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as \"the greatest philosopher in history\" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that \"that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander\" remained current, as in the 2004 film \"Alexander\", while the \"firm rules\" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the \"Poetics\" in Hollywood.\n",
"Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.\n",
"Section::::Surviving works.\n",
"Section::::Surviving works.:Corpus Aristotelicum.\n",
"The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organisation of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (\"Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica\", Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.\n",
"Section::::Surviving works.:Loss and preservation.\n",
"Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the \"exoteric\", intended for the public, and the \"esoteric\", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's \"lost\" works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as \"a river of gold\" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.\n",
"Section::::Legacy.\n",
"Section::::Legacy.:Depictions.\n",
"Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known is Raphael's fresco \"The School of Athens\", in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's \"Aristotle with a Bust of Homer\", too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, \"this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time.\"\n",
"Section::::Legacy.:Eponyms.\n",
"The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book \"Meteorology\", the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it \"Antarctica\". Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.\n",
"Section::::See also.\n",
"BULLET::::- Aristotelian Society\n",
"BULLET::::- Conimbricenses\n",
"Section::::Further reading.\n",
"The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ackrill, J. L. (1997). \"Essays on Plato and Aristotle\", Oxford University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- These translations are available in several places online; see External links.\n",
"BULLET::::- Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). \"Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments\", Trafford Publishing\n",
"BULLET::::- Bolotin, David (1998). \"An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.\" Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.\n",
"BULLET::::- Burnyeat, Myles F. \"et al.\" (1979). \"Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics\". Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.\n",
"BULLET::::- Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.\n",
"BULLET::::- De Groot, Jean (2014). \"Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC\", Parmenides Publishing,\n",
"BULLET::::- Frede, Michael (1987). \"Essays in Ancient Philosophy\". Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). \"Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima\", Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.\n",
"BULLET::::- Gill, Mary Louise (1989). \"Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity\". Princeton University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Halper, Edward C. (2009). \"One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta\", Parmenides Publishing.\n",
"BULLET::::- Halper, Edward C. (2005). \"One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books\", Parmenides Publishing.\n",
"BULLET::::- Irwin, Terence H. (1988). \"Aristotle's First Principles\". Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Jori, Alberto (2003). \"Aristotele\", Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the \"International Academy of the History of Science\").\n",
"BULLET::::- Knight, Kelvin (2007). \"Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre\", Polity Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Lewis, Frank A. (1991). \"Substance and Predication in Aristotle\". Cambridge University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Lord, Carnes (1984). \"Introduction to \"The Politics\", by Aristotle\". Chicago University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) \"Reading Aristotle: Physics\" VII. 3: \"What is Alteration?\" \"Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference\", Parmenides Publishing.\n",
"BULLET::::- [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). \"Articles on Aristotle\" Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]\n",
"BULLET::::- Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). \"Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship\". Cambridge University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). \"Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics\". Hackett.\n",
"BULLET::::- Scaltsas, T. (1994). \"Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics\". Cornell University Press.\n",
"BULLET::::- Strauss, Leo (1964). \"On Aristotle's \"Politics\"\", in \"The City and Man\", Rand McNally.\n",
"Section::::External links.\n",
"BULLET::::- At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:\n",
"BULLET::::- From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:\n",
"BULLET::::- Collections of works\n",
"BULLET::::- At Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n",
"BULLET::::- Perseus Project at Tufts University\n",
"BULLET::::- At the University of Adelaide\n",
"BULLET::::- P. Remacle\n",
"BULLET::::- The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of \"Aristotle's Works\" in Greek (PDFDJVU)\n"
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"SOS Children's Villages",
"World Orphan Week",
"Lace Market Theatre",
"Nottingham",
"The Guardian",
"Alzheimer's disease",
"BBC Radio 4"
]
} | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses | 512px-Prunella_Scales_in_2010.JPG | 157655 | {
"paragraph": [
"Prunella Scales\n",
"Prunella Margaret Scales (\"née\" Illingworth; born 22 June 1932) is an English actress best known for her role as Basil Fawlty's wife Sybil in the BBC comedy \"Fawlty Towers\" and her BAFTA award-nominated role as Queen Elizabeth II in \"A Question of Attribution\" (\"Screen One\", BBC 1991) by Alan Bennett.\n",
"Section::::Early life.\n",
"Scales was born in Sutton Abinger, Surrey, the daughter of Catherine (\"née\" Scales), an actress, and John Richardson Illingworth, a cotton salesman. She attended Moira House Girls School, Eastbourne. She had a younger brother, Timothy (\"Timmo\") Illingworth (1934–2017).\n",
"Scales' parents moved their family to Bucks Mill near Bideford in Devon in 1939 at the start of the Second World War. Scales herself (and her brother) were evacuated to Near Sawrey (then in Lancashire, now in Cumbria).\n",
"Section::::Career.\n",
"Scales started her career in 1951 as an assistant stage manager at the Bristol Old Vic. Throughout her career she has often been cast in comic roles. Her early work included the second UK adaptation of \"Pride and Prejudice\" (1952), \"Hobson's Choice\" (1954), \"Room at the Top\" (1959) and \"Waltz of the Toreadors\" (1962).\n",
"Her career break came with the early 1960s sitcom \"Marriage Lines\" starring opposite Richard Briers. In addition to \"Fawlty Towers\", she has had roles in BBC Radio 4 sitcoms, and comedy series including \"After Henry\", \"Smelling of Roses\" and \"Ladies of Letters\"; on television she starred in the London Weekend Television/Channel 4 series \"Mapp & Lucia\" based on the novels by E. F. Benson. She played Queen Elizabeth II in Alan Bennett's \"A Question of Attribution\".\n",
"In 1973, Scales was cast with Ronnie Barker in \"One Man's Meat\" which formed part of Barker's \"Seven of One\" series, also for the BBC. Her later film appearances include \"Escape from the Dark\" (1976), \"The Hound of the Baskervilles\" (1978), \"The Boys From Brazil\" (1978), \"The Wicked Lady\" (1983), \"The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne\" (1987), \"Stiff Upper Lips\" (1997), \"Howards End\" (1992) and \"Wolf\" (1994). For the BBC Television Shakespeare production of \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\" (1982) she played Mistress Page and the \"Theatre Night\" series (BBC) she appeared with her husband Timothy West in the Joe Orton farce \"What the Butler Saw\" (1987) playing Mrs Prentice.\n",
"For ten years, Prunella appeared with Jane Horrocks in advertisements for UK supermarket chain Tesco. In 1996, Scales starred in the television film, \"Lord of Misrule\", alongside Richard Wilson, Emily Mortimer and Stephen Moyer. The film was directed by Guy Jenkins and filming took place in Fowey in Cornwall. Also in 1996, she appeared as Miss Bates in Jane Austen’s Emma. In 1997, Scales starred in Chris Barfoot's science-fiction film short \"Phoenix\" which was first aired in 1999 by NBC Universal's Sci Fi Channel. Scales played 'The Client', an evil government minister funding inter-genetic time travel experiments. The same year she played Dr. Minny Stinkler in the comedy film \"Mad Cows\", directed by Sara Sugarman. In 1993 Scales voiced Mrs Tiggy-Winkle in The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends.\n",
"In 2000 she appeared in the film \"The Ghost of Greville Lodge\" as Sarah. The same year she appeared as Eleanor Dunsall in Midsomer Murders Beyond the Grave. In 2001 she appeared in 2 episodes of Silent Witness, “Faith” as Mrs Parker. In 2003, she appeared as Hilda, \"she who must be obeyed\", wife of Horace Rumpole in four BBC Radio 4 plays, with Timothy West playing her fictional husband. Scales and West toured Australia at the same time in different productions. Scales appeared in a one-woman show called \"\"An Evening with Queen Victoria\"\", which also featured the tenor Ian Partridge singing songs written by Prince Albert.\n",
"Also in 2003, she voiced the speaking (\"cawing\") role of Magpie, the eponymous thief in a recording of Gioachino Rossini's opera \"La gazza ladra\" (The Thieving Magpie).\n",
"In 2006, she appeared alongside Academy Award winners Vanessa Redgrave and Maximilian Schell in the mini-series \"The Shell Seekers\".\n",
"On 16 November 2007, Scales appeared in \"Children in Need\", reprising her role as Sybil Fawlty, the new manager who wants to take over Hotel Babylon. She appeared in the audio play \"The Youth of Old Age\", produced in 2008 by the Wireless Theatre Company, and available to download free of charge on their website. She appeared in a production of \"Carrie's War\", the Nina Bawden novel, at the Apollo Theatre in 2009. In 2008, she appeared in Agatha Christie's, \"A Pocket Full of Rye\", as Mrs. Mackenzie.\n",
"John Cleese said in an interview on 8 May 2009 that the role of Sybil Fawlty was originally offered to Bridget Turner, who turned down the part, claiming \"it wasn't right for her\".\n",
"She starred in the 2011 British live-action 3D family comedy film \"\" as the titular character's Great Aunt Greta.\n",
"Scales appeared in a short audio story, \"Dandruff Hits the Turtleneck\", written by John Mayfield, and available for download.\n",
"She starred in a Virgin Short \"Stranger Danger\" alongside Roderick Cowie in 2012. In 2013 she made a guest appearance in the popular BBC radio comedy \"Cabin Pressure\" as Wendy Crieff, the mother of Captain Martin Crieff.\n",
"Alongside husband Timothy West she has appeared in \"Great Canal Journeys\" for Channel 4 every year since 2014. Stuart Heritage, writing for \"The Guardian\" in November 2016, commented that it \"is ultimately a work about a devoted couple facing something huge together. It’s a beautiful, meditative programme\". \"An emotional but unrooted glimpse of life with dementia\" was Christopher Howse's characterization in October 2018, writing for \"The Telegraph\".\n",
"Section::::Personal life.\n",
"Scales is married to the actor Timothy West, with whom she has two sons; the elder is actor and director Samuel West. Their younger son Joseph participated in two episodes of \"Great Canal Journeys\" filmed in France. Scales also has a step-daughter, Juliet, by West's first marriage.\n",
"Her biography, \"Prunella\", written by Teresa Ransom, was published by UK publishing imprint John Murray in 2005.\n",
"She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1992 Birthday Honours List. Her husband received the same honour in the 1984 Birthday Honours List.\n",
"Section::::Personal life.:Other activities.\n",
"Scales is an ambassador of SOS Children's Villages charity. an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. She supports the charity's annual World Orphan Week campaign, which takes place each February.\n",
"Scales is a patron of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham.\n",
"In 2005, she named the P&O cruise ship, \"Artemis\".\n",
"Section::::Personal life.:Later life.\n",
"In March 2014, her husband told \"The Guardian\" that Scales was living with Alzheimer's disease. The couple discussed practical measures in a radio programme about age and dementia on BBC Radio 4 in December 2014. In June 2018, her husband characterized her short-term memory as \"no good at all\", and admitted her condition \"slowed them down\", but \"not so it closes up opportunities.\"\n"
]
} | http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Prunella_Scales_in_2010.JPG | {
"aliases": {
"alias": [
"Prunella Margaret Rumney Illingworth"
]
},
"description": "British actress",
"enwikiquote_title": "",
"wikidata_id": "Q271348",
"wikidata_label": "Prunella Scales",
"wikipedia_title": "Prunella Scales"
} | 157655 | Prunella Scales |
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