id int64 | title large_string | text large_string | url large_string |
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0 | Anarchism | Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including nation-states, and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless socie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
1 | Anarchism | in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
2 | Anarchism | archism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
3 | Anarchism | , and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism.
While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
4 | Anarchism | is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
5 | Anarchism | between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive of a society... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
6 | Anarchism | spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.
Modern era
During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
7 | Anarchism | International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. After bitter disputes,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
8 | Anarchism | 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
9 | Anarchism | during this period.
Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion. Several anarchists... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
10 | Anarchism | FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by arme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
11 | Anarchism | such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
12 | Anarchism | with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the develo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
13 | Anarchism | contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well. Honeywell argues that escalation of problems such as continuous wars and world poverty show that the current framework not only cannot solve those pressing problems for humanity, but are causal fact... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
14 | Anarchism | without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
15 | Anarchism | call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
16 | Anarchism | has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
17 | Anarchism | as such in the Italian section of the First International. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
18 | Anarchism | principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
19 | Anarchism | common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.
Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
20 | Anarchism | and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the oth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
21 | Anarchism | these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.
Anarchist perspectives t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
22 | Anarchism | . They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.
Revolutionary ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
23 | Anarchism | Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.
Evolutionary
Anarchists commonly ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
24 | Anarchism | and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.
The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
25 | Anarchism | Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
26 | Anarchism | issues
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of def... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
27 | Anarchism | , major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among official... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
28 | Anarchism | sexuality, and free love
As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.
Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
29 | Anarchism | Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists dif... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
30 | Anarchism | The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
31 | Anarchism | essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free." In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.
Anarchist education is based largely on th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
32 | Anarchism | serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institut... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
33 | Anarchism | a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
34 | Anarchism | the road towards socialism. In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.
Criticism
The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
35 | Anarchism | order to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
36 | Anarchism | of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
37 | Anarchism | ism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
38 | Anarchism | it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every indi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
39 | Anarchism | links
Anarchy Archives – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.
Anti-capitalism
Anti-fascism
Economic ideologies
Far-left politics
Left-wing politics
Libertarian socialism
Libertarianism
Political culture
Political ideologies
Political movements
Social theories
Socialism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism |
40 | Albedo | Albedo (; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).
Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradian... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
41 | Albedo | spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
42 | Albedo | geological and environmental features.
Terrestrial albedo
Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
43 | Albedo | satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
44 | Albedo | by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.
White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular sola... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
45 | Albedo | ) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. As per Campra et al., human impacts to "the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth’s radiative energy balance" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites.
The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
46 | Albedo | increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 Gt of CO2 emissions."
Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance, has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
47 | Albedo | effects
The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
48 | Albedo | albedo effect.
Climate and weather
Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "sel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
49 | Albedo | direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
50 | Albedo | melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
51 | Albedo | In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.
Solar photovoltaic effects
Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For exa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
52 | Albedo | values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.
Trees
Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
53 | Albedo | net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.
Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grassla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
54 | Albedo | space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.
Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool;... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
55 | Albedo | the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
56 | Albedo | to trap warmth."
Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as colder ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
57 | Albedo | , increased light scattering and radiative cooling (first indirect effect), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (second indirect effect).
In extremely polluted cities like Delhi, aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an urban cool island effect during ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
58 | Albedo | about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
59 | Albedo | indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.
The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
60 | Albedo | waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.
An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by:
where is the astronomical albedo, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
61 | Albedo | urface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by mul... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
62 | Albedo | used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:
.
History
The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Phot... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo |
63 | A | A, or a, is the first letter and the first vowel of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes. It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter Alpha, from which it derives. The up... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
64 | A | aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.
When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
65 | A | , and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.
Typographic variants
During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
66 | A | these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the ninth century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
67 | A | In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
68 | A | ;
the diphthong as in ace and major (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift;
the modified form of the above sound that occurs before , as in square and Mary;
the rounded vowel of w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
69 | A | 6% in French, 11.525% in Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese.
Other languages
In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .
Other systems
In phonetic and phonemic ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
70 | A | , and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra.
In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
71 | A | to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.
Related characters
Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet
Æ æ : Latin AE ligature
A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
72 | A | Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter alpha / script A, which represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA
ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook
Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA
Λ ʌ : Turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
73 | A | � : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic
Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations
ª : an ordinal indicator
Å : Ångström sign
∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all")
@ : At sign
₳ : Argentine austral
Ⓐ : anarchy symbol
Ancestors and siblings... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A |
74 | Alabama | Alabama () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered by Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south; and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states.
Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowham... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
75 | Alabama | it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
76 | Alabama | grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville would help Alabama's economic growth in the mid-to-late 20th century, by developing an aerospace industry. Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
77 | Alabama | ly or in different dialects; the plural form is ). The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used , while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu, respectively, i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
78 | Alabama | '). The meaning may have been 'clearers of the thicket' or 'herb gatherers', referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous place names of Native American origin.
An 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'. This notion was populari... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
79 | Alabama | of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, which was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
80 | Alabama | Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
81 | Alabama | Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what is today southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, and most of Washington County.
What is now the counties of Baldwin and Mobile became... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
82 | Alabama | Yazoo land scandal. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.
19th century
Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
83 | Alabama | ahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 18... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
84 | Alabama | within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830.
From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
85 | Alabama | January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War. Although comparatively few battles were fou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
86 | Alabama | and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. Turner, and James T. Rapier.
Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an econ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
87 | Alabama | prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891.
20th century
The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions for voter registration that eff... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
88 | Alabama | toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.
While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
89 | Alabama | education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools. In Alabama, these schools were designed, and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the loca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
90 | Alabama | seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the Great Migration out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920.
At the same time, man... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
91 | Alabama | largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
92 | Alabama | is in majority control of the Alabama legislature."
In the United States Supreme Court cases of Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
93 | Alabama | 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress.
Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to The New... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
94 | Alabama | century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, Dillard v. Crenshaw County, challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
95 | Alabama | citizens.
Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011. However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
96 | Alabama | led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003.
A few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan, a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was among t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
97 | Alabama | with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.
Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
98 | Alabama | kegee, and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail.
Notable natural wonders include: the "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies, located just south of Haleyville;... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
99 | Alabama | longest mountaintop rivers; Rickwood Caverns near Warrior features an underground pool, blind cave fish and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the Walls of Jericho canyon on the Alabama-Tennessee state line.
A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama |
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