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part of scientific whaling research programs undertaken by IWC members, including Iceland, Japan, Norway and the Republic of Korea. Part of Japan's lethal whaling program has taken place in the area covered by the Southern Ocean Sanctuary, and an area where Antarctic blue whales occur. To date, blue whales have not been caught under Special Permit whaling. While it does not appear likely in the near future, there is no guarantee that blue whales will remain exempt from future whaling operations.

5B Climate Variability and Change
Climate change is expected to cause changes in migratory timing and destinations, population range, breeding schedule, reproductive success and survival of baleen whales, including blue whale species and subspecies62,66,95,101. For example, it is predicted that cetaceans limited to warmer areas such as pygmy blue whales will experience a southward shift in distribution as ocean temperature increases66. There is evidence of these changes already occurring in other marine mammal species96, 113, but such changes are difficult to detect for whales due to the complexity of ecological systems and the lack of, yet need for detailed long-term records.
Blue whales may also be affected by climate change through changes in distribution and abundance of their prey83. A decline in Antarctic krill abundance has already been recorded and a southward contraction in their distribution due to climate change has been predicted3,116. Additionally, the impact of naturally occurring temperature changes can be used as a proxy to investigate and assess the likely impact of anthropogenically caused climate change in the marine environment37. Warm El Niño and cold La Niña (ENSO events), which are natural oceanographic events characterised by regular short-term sea surface temperature changes in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, have affected krill abundance and consequently the abundance of blue whales and other baleen whales off California12.

The krill Nyctiphanes australis, prey species of blue whales using the Bonney Upwelling, has also been shown to vary its abundance in response to ENSO events including a complete lack of them in Bass Strait near Tasmania during a temporary, natural La Niña event35,48. There is evidence that upwelling intensity off southern Australia (including the Bonney Upwelling) has increased over recent decades, with links to increased warming and the ENSO cycle.
Ocean acidification
Anthropogenic fossil fuel combustion and deforestation has led to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels33. This results in increased absorption of carbon dioxide into the ocean and, through chemical reactions of the carbon dioxide, a decrease in pH of sea water33. Laboratory experiments have shown that ocean acidification can be detrimental to Antarctic krill embryo development58, which would consequently affect krill predators such as blue whales.

5C Noise Interference
Anthropogenic underwater noise covers a large range of