Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2019L00153:body:0:p19
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2019L00153
Segment Type: other
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Character Range: 51695–54678

canopy and may form dense growth around the edge of Littoral Rainforest (Adam 1992). This transformer weed has also spread into Queensland where it has the potential to flourish in rainforest stands in the south-east. In the Cape York Peninsula Bioregion transformer weed invasion is mainly attributable to disturbance by cattle and pigs (Stanton & Fell 2005).

Figure 4: Weed infestation, by Singapore daisy (Sphagneticola trilobata), in the understorey of a patch of Littoral Rainforest in the Wet Tropics (© Andrew Ford).

2.2.5      Fire
The fire tolerance of Littoral Rainforest varies across its distribution. In general, Littoral Rainforest is a fire-sensitive class of vegetation, with high intensity fires posing a risk to both mature trees and seedlings (Miles & Kendall 2006). However, some Littoral Rainforest plant species are capable of re-sprouting following low intensity fires (Miles & Kendall 2006) and some vegetation types, such as brush box (Lophostemon confertus) habitat along the headlands of northern New South Wales, are relatively fire tolerant (Floyd 1990b).
Coastal processes (including high humidity, oceanic aerosols, wind direction, abundance of surface water) associated with Littoral Rainforest, and the presence of fire retardant vegetation (such as mangroves and salt marshes), confer some degree of fire protection. The presence of a salt haze around patches can also reduce risk as salt retards fire and can slow combustion of potential fuels (BAAM 2013). Nevertheless, the accumulation of fuel loads derived from highly flammable weeds increases the risk of fire which, depending on its intensity and frequency, can destroy a patch if not suppressed. Research by Peel (2010) indicates that fire has the potential to eliminate complete stands of Littoral Rainforest. If fire were to occur in the early stages of succession development, Littoral Rainforest may return to a woodland state (BAAM 2013). The fragmented nature of Littoral Rainforest, and the relatively small-sized patches, increases the risk of irreversible damage from fire.

2.2.6      Agriculture
Grazing is the most extensive land use in Australia (DoEE 2016b), with most historical clearing of Littoral Rainforest having been driven by the conversion of land for agricultural uses (BAAM 2013). Many patches of Littoral Rainforest are within the vicinity of, or adjoining, agricultural land uses including grazing. Biodiversity can be affected in a number of ways as a result of the grazing impacts of introduced herbivores, primarily cattle and sheep (DoEE 2016b). The impacts of grazing can include trampling and fouling of waterholes, selective, indiscriminate or close grazing of vegetation and the introduction and spread of weeds, in addition to the physical removal of vegetation to free up land for stock (DoEE 2016b). These impacts can affect the biodiversity of forest and woodland ecosystems through reductions to the quality of mid-storey and understorey vegetation.