Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L01095:body:0:p14
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undertaken from monitoring data collected from 1989–2017 across 127 sites (Benshemesh et al. 2020). The average monitoring period of these sites was 14.4 years. Analysis of these data showed a decline in Malleefowl breeding numbers of 4.8% per year in SA and 2.1% per year in WA. Breeding numbers were stable in Vic and increased by 4.8% per year in NSW, although the NSW result was uncertain due to limited monitoring data and was considered not representative of Malleefowl in that state. This analysis found strong evidence for a positive effect of winter rainfall and time since fire on breeding numbers, and a positive interaction between time since fire and the proportion of a site burnt. While the index of fox abundance decreased as baiting effort increased, there was little evidence for this benefiting malleefowl. A more localised analysis of Malleefowl population trends at six sites on the Eyre Peninsula, SA, showed breeding activity was positively associated with increased cumulative rain in the previous 2 years, lower average maximum temperatures in the winter, higher-than-average Southern Oscillation Index (i.e. more rain) two years before breeding and greater winter vegetation cover, suggesting that moisture and vegetation cover are important for higher breeding activity in Malleefowl (Stenhouse and Moseby, 2022).

3.4 Biology and ecology

3.4.1 Longevity
In captivity, Malleefowl reach breeding age at three to four years (Bellchambers 1916; K Brumby pers. comm. cited in Benshemesh 2007b; M Johnson pers. comm. cited in Benshemesh 2007b). Once birds reach breeding age, they appear to be long-lived, although data are limited, anecdotal and of uncertain generality:
       * Frith (1962a) noted that no banded birds disappeared during his eight-year study unless an area was cleared.
       * In captivity a male bred at the Adelaide Zoo lived until at least 1998 when he was at least 19 years old (and perhaps much older) (M Johnson & M Craig pers. comm. cited in Benshemesh 2007b).
       * An unbanded but recognisable pair of Malleefowl was known to breed for 25 years at the Little Desert in Vic (K Hately pers. comm. cited in Benshemesh 2007b).
       * Also at the Little Desert, an unbanded but recognisable pair was reported to breed over 17 years, although they apparently found other mates and did not breed together towards the end of this period (W Reichelt pers. comm. cited in Benshemesh 2007b).
       * At Yalgogrin in NSW, of 25 breeding Malleefowl that were banded in 1988, four were still alive 12 years later (Priddel & Wheeler 2003). Although the population declined markedly during the study, the average time that Malleefowl were known in the study was 7.5 years. The age of birds when they were first captured and marked as breeding adults was