Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L01285:reg:3:p7
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L01285
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 3 (pt 7/26)
Character Range: 88441–91510

(Ixodes eudyptidis) borne Phlebovirus (Hunter Island Group virus I) was a major cause of Shy Albatross chick mortality during some years at Albatross Island (Woods 2004, Wang et al. 2014, Uhart et al. 2018). Heavily infested nestlings carried ticks clustered around the gape and along the soft, exposed skin on the underside of the bill. Such chicks appeared weak and underweight, and ultimately died (MacDonald & Green 1963, Johnstone et al. 1975). The effects of this avian poxvirus vary inter-annually, and infestations can reduce breeding success to only 10% in some colonies. Thus, disease may be a significant factor restricting the recovery of the Albatross Island population (Johnstone et al. 1975, Woods 2004). Disease links with climate change are likely (Thomson et al. 2015). Ticks on adults and chicks at colonies of Black-browed Albatrosses at the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas spread an avian pox virus causing localised sporadic mortality; these ticks are also present on Macquarie Island (Selkirk et al. 1990).
Beyond Australia's jurisdiction, the outbreak of two diseases in the 1980s (Avian Cholera and the pathogenic bacterium, Erysipelas sp.) are notable (Weimerskirch 2004). These caused a decline of the Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross population on Amsterdam Island, a key breeding site for this species, comprising 55% of the global population (ACAP 2012k). These diseases affect mainly young chicks, with a cyclic pattern between years, but also kill adult birds. The diseases potentially also threaten the Amsterdam Albatross and Sooty Albatross breeding populations at this location (Weimerskirch 2004).

The impact of disease on albatrosses and petrels is poorly studied. However, a recent review documented the occurrence of disease vectors in Antarctic seabirds and showed, for example, that 44% of species examined carried gastrointestinal parasites, 33% had potentially harmful bacteria, and 80% were infected with ectoparasites, such as lice (Barbosa & Palacios 2009). DNA analysis of scat samples of Shy Albatrosses revealed a high occurrence of tapeworm and roundworm DNA (McInnes et al. 2017a).
Geological processes
Threats from volcanic activity or earthquakes, including tsunamis and landslips.

Volcanic activity may impact breeding sites of seabirds through damage or destruction of habitat from eruptions including from resulting lava flows and ash debris. Contrastingly, volcanic activity may result in new environmental niches suitable for colonisation by seabirds.
Active volcanoes on Heard Island and McDonald Island in Australia's sub-Antarctic jurisdiction have erupted several times in recent decades (Stephenson et al. 2005, Commonwealth of Australia 2014). There is evidence of significant displacement of seabirds on McDonald Island following an eruption in 1992 (Crossin et al. 2013). The size of this island has also increased dramatically since then, providing potentially new habitat for seabird species including albatrosses and petrels.
Depending on their magnitude and location, earthquakes, either on land