Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775:reg:18:p76
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 18 (pt 76/152)
Character Range: 250112–253127

as anchovy Engraulis austalis and sardines Sardinops sagax, when feeding chicks, but they may also feed on krill Nyctiphanes australis and several species of cephalopods at all stages of breeding (Gales and Pemberton 1990, Cullen et al. 1992, Chiaradia et al. 2012). When foraging, some individuals can take advantage of man-made features, like ship channels to aid in their foraging (Preston et al. 2008).

Population Estimates and Trends
The global population size has been quantified for most sites, with current population estimated of 469,760 breeding adults. This is substantially fewer than the previous Red List assessments that estimated the total population as under 1 million individuals but was based on non-quantified data. Based on limited data for a low number of colonies, there is an apparent increase of 18 per cent in population size when historic and recent data are compared. However, this increase must be interpreted with caution as it is very likely to be related to improved population survey effort rather than an actual increase in population. For sites with current population estimates, 60 per cent of the sites have an "unknown" trend due to data deficiency. Nevertheless, for the sites where data were available, 51 per cent of sites were stable, 29 per cent deteriorating and 20 per cent improving. Fifteen sites are suspected extinct.

108 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds

Species profiles

Conservation Concerns and Actions
Principal threats to Little Penguins are introduced predators, bycatch, habitat loss through coastal development, oil pollution, mortality through roadkill and collisions with watercraft, and human disturbance at breeding colonies (Stevenson and Woehler 2007; Chiaradia 2013, Dann 2013, Cannell et al. 2016). Additionally, the impact of changing oceanic conditions appears to impact food availability and reproductive success (Voice et al. 2006, Wu et al. 2012). Introduced predators impact colonies throughout the range to varying extents, with substantial mortality occurring particularly from domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) but impacts were also noted from pigs (Sus scrofa), cats (Felis catus) and Weka (Gallirallus australis) in New Zealand. Invasive grasses and weeds are another threat as they can inhibit access to breeding sites as well as cause the loss of breeding sites. The species is assessed as being moderately at risk from bycatch in gillnets, although qualitative data are lacking (Crawford et al. 2017). As such, recreational gillnets in some parts of the range appear to have the potential to cause considerable mortality (Stevenson and Woehler 2007; Crawford et al. 2017).

An additional challenge for this species is in the fast-changing marine and terrestrial environment, particularly the rapidly warming sea of southern Australia (Voice et al. 2006, Wu et al. 2012). In southwestern Australia, the sea surface temperatures have been associated with poorer breeding including