Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775:reg:18:p117
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 18 (pt 117/152)
Character Range: 361981–365075

is loss, degradation or alteration of habitat for urban or tourism development in coastal areas (Clancy 1989, 1991; Dennis 2007a; Olsen 1998). In the Chain of Bays region of the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, where Ospreys nest on the ground due to the lack of trees, human disturbance is an increasing threat (Department of the Environment 2019b).

Other less pervasive threats include ingestion of prey items containing pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals or fishing tackle; competition for food with commercial and recreational fisheries; reduced water quality at foraging grounds caused by discharge of effluent or runoff; disturbance or persecution by humans; and accidental mortality arising from collisions with powerlines (Department of the Environment 2019b).

Poisoning by organochlorine pesticides and persecution by humans are considered the likely causes of a post-settlement decline in Osprey numbers in south-eastern Australia (Clancy 1991, 2005a; Garnett 1993; Olsen 1995). Falkenberg et al. (1994) reported low levels of organochlorine pesticides in Ospreys in South Australia soon after regulations were introduced. Recent studies suggest that Ospreys in north-eastern NSW are not significantly affected by pesticides (Clancy 2005b, 2006).

Recommended Management Actions
      Ensure the continued availability of nest sites (large dead trees or artificial structures) with an appropriate buffer zone.

        Quantify the breeding population in Australia

        Regularly monitor breeding populations at index locations

        Quantify and manage the potential impacts of human disturbance

        Measure contaminant levels in all relevant life stages

156 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Species profiles

White-bellied Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster)

Life History and Distribution
The White-bellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) is a large raptor that has long, broad wings and a short, wedge-shaped tail. Females weigh between 2.8 and 4.2 kg, and are larger than the males, which weigh between 2.5 and 3.7 kg (Marchant and Higgins 1993). The plumage of adult birds is predominantly white and grey. The head, breast and belly, and the feathering on the legs, are white. The White-bellied Sea-Eagle is distributed along the coastline (including offshore islands) of mainland Australia and Tasmania. It also extends inland along some of the larger waterways, especially in eastern Australia. The inland limits of the species are most restricted in south-central and south-western Australia, where it is confined to a narrow band along the coast (Barrett et al. 2003; Bilney and Emison 1983; Blakers et al. 1984; Marchant and Higgins 1993). Recent analysis indicates that the distribution of the sea-eagle may shift in response to climatic conditions, with an apparent decreased occupancy of inland sites (and increased occupancy of coastal sites) during drought conditions (Shephard et al. 2005a). The White-bellied Sea-Eagle breeds in solitary and monogamous pairs that mate for life. However, if one member of the pair dies, it