Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L00346:reg:4:p1
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L00346
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 4 (pt 1/7)
Character Range: 52602–55749

4               Threats

4.1                 Historical causes of decline
The Spiny Rice-flower's current distribution across multiple linear reserves indicates that it was extremely widespread prior to European settlement (Carter & Walsh 2006; DELWP 2021). Since European settlement, Spiny Rice-flower has undergone widespread and catastrophic decline in range and abundance. The population reduction over the past 150 to 240 years is estimated to be 90–99% (DELWP 2021), primarily as a result of the loss of lowland grassland habitats to settlement and agriculture.

4.2                 Current threatening processes
The primary threats to the Spiny Rice-flower are land clearing and habitat degradation (TSSC 2016; DELWP 2021). Habitat fragmentation is predominantly a result of land clearance for urban development, agriculture, settlement, and industry (DELWP 2021). The majority of populations exist in areas that are not managed appropriately or are subject to ongoing changing land use and development (Foreman 2012; Reynolds 2013; TSSC 2016). Sites situated on public land (roadsides, rail reserves and cemeteries) are progressively being lost or disturbed. Populations on private property are vulnerable to change in land use, as many of these private sites are being developed and pasture grasslands are increasingly being cropped. As most populations are small and fragmented, their long-term viability can only be sustained with intensive site management supported by ex situ conservation actions where appropriate. The priority Recovery Actions (Table 5) include population monitoring and a state-wide census to inform prioritisation of resource allocation for recovery actions.
The main threats to Spiny Rice-flower are further discussed below.

Habitat loss and fragmentation
Habitat loss and fragmentation due to anthropogenic pressures continues to be the primary threat to the Spiny Rice-flower. The grassland habitats of Spiny Rice-flower have been extensively cleared or modified for agriculture, urban and industrial developments (Reynolds 2019; DELWP 2021). The development around Melbourne urban area led to a massive pressure for grassland habitats and Spiny Rice-flower. The Melbourne Strategic Assessment (MSA), developed to regulate development impacts on certain threatened species, including Spiny Rice-flower, around these urban corridors. An audit by the Victorian Auditor General's Office (VAGO), found that only 5% (72 ha from the targeted 1,138 ha) of highest-priority habitats for Spiny Rice-flower within the Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion has been able to be protected under MSA (VAGO 2020). While the level of development pressure on Melbourne's outer western fringe suggests the risk of destruction is greatest in this area (VAGO 2020), the risk of loss is also high throughout the species' range because the majority of populations are small and unprotected.
Roadsides and rail reserves support some of the most important habitats of Spiny Rice-flower, particularly within the Natural Temperate Grasslands of the Victorian Volcanic Plain (Carland & Kennedy 2010). These populations are at great risk of