Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L00930:reg:2:p37
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L00930
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 2 (pt 37/48)
Character Range: 162974–166000

in the environment and given many marine mammals are apex marine predators (e.g., killer whales), they have the potential to accumulate relatively high levels through biomagnification. Marine plastics, and particularly microplastics, provide a global transport medium for the most toxic chemicals into the marine food chain and ultimately, to humans. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is one example of pollutants that comprise a wide range of chemicals (e.g. DDT, PCBs) that undergo bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Jones & de Voogt 1999), predominantly entering the marine environment through atmospheric transport, reaching as far as Antarctica (Bengtson Nash 2011). Due to the recognition of the threat of POPs on human health and the environment, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was enacted in 2001 under the United Nations Environment Programme for which Australia ratified the Convention in 2004. POPs have been found in the blubber and tissue samples of many cetacean species, including killer whales (Desforges et al. 2018, Schlingermann et al. 2020), humpback, blue (Metcalfe et al. 2004) and fin whales (Taniguchi et al. 2019), and is of particular concern for odontocetes given their marine apex predator status (Jepson Paul & Law Robin 2016). Currently, an evaluation of the threat of POPs to southern right whales has not been undertaken.
Heavy metals are also persistent and can bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Heavy metal concentrations can increase in the environment through mining and processing, burning fossil fuels, and the use of fertilisers or pesticides containing heavy metals. These can enter the marine environment through run-off, effluents, or atmospheric transport. The effects of heavy metals and their degree of toxicity in cetaceans is poorly understood, but there is evidence that heavy metals may pose a threat in baleen whales through immunosuppression, such as hexavalent chromium in North Atlantic right whales (Wise et al. 2008).

    3.9.2     Acute chemical discharge
Southern right whales could also be exposed to acute chemical discharge from accidental oil or condensate spills from oil rigs and vessels. Oil spills can affect marine mammals through a variety of direct and indirect pathways. Direct pathways include inhalation, ingestion, and dermal exposure, each of which can initiate a range of physiological responses with health and long-term survival and/or reproduction consequences. For most marine mammals, the most serious acute health threat may be severe damage to the respiratory system through inhalation of the volatile and highly toxic aromatic components of oil (Helm et al. 2014). Ingestion of oil through consumption of contaminated prey would be expected to harm various internal organs (e.g., liver, kidney, and intestines) and organ systems (e.g., digestive and urogenital). Mild dermal exposure would cause at least short-term injuries to mucus membranes, eyes, and other external soft tissue areas, while severe oiling could