Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2016L00043:reg:5:p10
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2016L00043
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 5 (pt 10/15)
Character Range: 44610–47811

the studied species. Moreover, although intense human disturbance occurred mainly in summer, the human presence observed was sufficient to have a negative impact on the long-term trends of a resident shorebird species. The authors suggested that the impacts of disturbance detected on shorebirds and gulls may be reversible through management actions that decrease human presence. They suggest minimum distances
  for any track or walkway from those areas where shorebirds are usually present, particularly during spring and summer, as well as an appropriate fencing in the most sensitive areas.

       8.4               Climate variability and change

  There is strong scientific evidence that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are causing changes to the world's climate (Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2013). As such, 'Loss of habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases' has been declared a Key Threatening Process under the EPBC Act. Such changes have the potential to affect migratory shorebirds and their habitats by reducing the extent of coastal and inland wetlands or through a poleward shift in the range of many species (Chambers et al. 2005; Iwamura et al. 2013). Climate change projections for Australia suggest likely increased temperatures, rising sea levels and an overall drying trend for much of the continent, together with more frequent and/or intense extreme climate events resulting in likely species loss and habitat degradation (Chambers et al. 2005, 2011; Iwamura et al. 2013).

                8.5               Harvesting of
                shorebird prey

           Overharvesting of intertidal resources, including fish, molluscs, annelids, sea-cucumber, sea-urchins and seaweeds can lead to decreased productivity and changes in prey distribution and availability (MacKinnon et al 2012). The recent industrialisation of harvesting methods in China has resulted in greater harvests of intertidal flora and fauna with less manual labour required, which is affecting ecosystem processes throughout the intertidal zone. In many important shorebirds areas, the intertidal zone is a maze of fishing platforms, traps and nets that not only add to overfishing, but prevent access to shorebird feeding areas by causing human disturbance.

                8.6               Fisheries by-catch

           Competition for food by human fishers together with associated disturbance by humans and boats has continued to put pressure on waterbirds along the EAAF (MacKinnon et al. 2012). Fishing nets, set for shrimp or fish species, accidentally kill shorebirds if left on intertidal flats at low tide. Birds caught in the nets drown when the tide rises. The significance of this threat is presently not quantified and requires further investigation.

                8.7                Hunting

           Hunting of migratory shorebirds in Australia has been prohibited for a number of decades. It is unclear if illegal hunting occurs during the annual duck hunting season in certain states. Historically, Latham's snipe was particularly vulnerable to hunting. The species was formerly hunted, legally,