Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L00930:reg:2:p28
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L00930
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 2 (pt 28/48)
Character Range: 138423–141249

individual that is relevant for the whale (but this value is more difficult to determine). At lower received levels other responses may occur such as displacement and behavioural responses, such as increased social and feeding call rates as demonstrated in blue whales (Di Iorio & Clark 2010).
Implementation of the practical measures outlined in the EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1 are intended to minimise the risk of auditory impairment (including acoustic injury) to whales. Impacts can be classified as physical (e.g., permanent or temporary hearing loss) when within proximity to a seismic noise source, and behavioural (e.g., avoidance of areas, disturbance and disruption to calving and nursing behaviour, stress) which may occur many kilometres from the seismic survey. While these guidelines advise that seismic surveys should be undertaken outside of times the species occupy BIAs, it is not known at what distance from a seismic source behavioural impacts occur or the extent of any behavioural impact. Furthermore, the EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1 does not consider cumulative noise exposure from multiple noise sources and periods. The precautionary principle should be applied in these cases when a lack of full scientific certainty exists.

    3.4.3     Vessel noise
Marine traffic in the world's oceans is increasing and consequently so too are the levels of vessel noise, with shipping noise being the primary source of chronic noise exposure on marine mammals. Marine traffic consists of small recreational vessels ranging to large commercial ships. Vessel noise from ship traffic contributes to increasing low frequency ambient noise levels within the vocalisation and hearing range of baleen whales (Miksis-Olds et al. 2013, Miksis-Olds & Nichols 2016, Erbe et al. 2019). Increases in numbers of smaller recreational vessels (< 25 m long) is linked to increasing human population and use of the coastal marine environment, whereas commercial ships are increasing in number and size, which is linked to overall economic growth (Erbe et al. 2019). There can be a large range in the source levels of small vessels (< 25 m) depending on vessel type and design, with vessel noise potentially ranging from 130 dB re 1µPa m for 'electric' vessel types to 195 dB re 1µPa m for 'cargo' vessels (Parsons et al. 2021).
There have been periodic reviews of the state of knowledge of impacts from vessel noise on marine mammals (Richardson et al. 1995, Nowacek et al. 2007, Erbe et al. 2018). Most research of the impact of vessel noise on right whales has been on North Atlantic right whales because the population is Critically Endangered, and vessel strike is one of the major causes of mortality. Ship noise can potentially increase stress in right whales, with analyses of North Atlantic right whale faecal hormone