Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00677:reg:12:p15
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00677
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 12 (pt 15/33)
Character Range: 44407–47550

relevant approvals from the relevant state or territory agencies.

   Some colonies in Tasmania are threatened with the establishment and expansion of Sea Spurge (Euphorbia paralias), a coastal plant from the Mediterranean. The plant is tolerant of salt water and establishes coastal meadows that alienate and fragment coastal breeding sites for Australian Fairy Terns (E.J. Woehler unpubl. data).

2.2.4     Native wildlife
             Raptors, such as Whistling Kites (Milvus sphenurus), Silver Gulls and Australian Ravens are the principal avian predators of eggs and chicks on mainland Australia (Dunlop 2018; Stephens and Lamanna 2019). During the surveillance of potential breeding sites it is useful to detect evidence of predator activity either from direct observation or from tracks (including prepared sand-pads) or using motion-detector cameras (Dunlop 2018). Any anti-predator interventions need to be timely if they are going to be effective.

             Land managers need to be aware that the presence of people around colonies, including staff and conservation volunteers/wardens, may attract predators (that are also scavengers) to a colony area or provide opportunities for them to locate and plunder the nests (Dunlop 2018). Signs, fence-posts and other structures erected to protect colonies may become observation posts for gulls, ravens or birds of prey, increasing the risk of predation (spikes in the top of fence posts can prevent this). Rubbish bins or fish-cleaning stations near beaches with Australian Fairy Tern colonies can attract gulls, ravens and rats, and should be relocated.

2.2.5     Climate variability and change
             Rising sea-levels caused by global warming (thermal expansion and ice-melt) are already forcing changes in shorelines. Coastal engineering works such as sea-walls, groynes, boat harbours, canal developments and reclamation projects also change the pattern of sedimentation and erosion, potentially removing breeding and foraging habitat/resources (i.e. fish species) for Australian Fairy Terns (Dunlop 2018). One result of these changes is that some breeding sites on beaches or sand banks become
             exposed to tidal flooding (e.g. Peel-Yalgorup System Ramsar wetland) or storm surges (Dunlop 2018). Other sites on accreting shorelines may become vegetated making them unsuitable nesting habitats. Pre-breeding aggregation sites have been abandoned due to the erosion of sand bars (e.g. Penguin Island, Rockingham, WA) and previously secure islands have been connected to the mainland by new sand banks allowing access to domestic dogs and invasive predators such as foxes and Black Rats (e.g. Tern Island in Safety Bay, WA) (Dunlop 2018).

2.2.6     Water management and increased salinity
             High water levels in the south-west Western Australian estuaries in recent years have generally reduced the availability of roosting and breeding sites (Dunlop 2018).
             The consequence of this is the overfilling of the estuaries including the inundation of roosting and nesting sites on banks and sand-spits, and the loss of connection with the