Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2024L01095:body:0:p28
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is drought (Evans et al. 2017), which affects Malleefowl food, leaf litter for nesting and vegetation cover needed to avoid predators (Benshemesh et al. 2021). Invasive species, particularly buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) (see 4.2.7 below), are also altering the spatial extent, frequency and severity of fires in arid areas (Schlesinger et al. 2013).

Large fires are a major threat to the conservation of Malleefowl and many other threatened mallee birds (Woinarski 1999; Baker-Gabb 2004; Clarke 2005), especially species like Malleefowl that require old-growth mallee (Read et al. 2020). Populations of Malleefowl may suddenly be eliminated from vast areas that are burnt, and even if there are nearby sources for recolonisation, recovery in the burnt area to densities that occurred before the fire appears to be very slow, requiring 30 to 60 years (Woinarski 1989b, Benshemesh 1990, Benshemesh 1992, Clarke 2005, Benshemesh et al. 2007). Habitats much older than 30 years post-fire are rare in eastern Australia. Conservation reserves should ideally be large enough to allow for large-scale disturbance such as fire without the entire area being affected. However, the potential scale and frequency of fire in mallee habitats suggests that even the largest reserves may be entirely consumed by a single fire (Land Conservation Council 1987). The significance of fire as a threat has been recognised as a Key Threatening Process under the EPBC Act 1999 Fire regimes that cause declines in biodiversity.
In some states that support Malleefowl, intentional broad-scale burning has been advocated as a pastoral management technique. Where such fire frequencies are employed, Malleefowl populations are likely to be greatly reduced or even extirpated (Benshemesh 1990).

Inspecting a Malleefowl mound after a wildfire, SA ©Graeme Tonkin, NMRG.

4.2.5 Herbivores and grazing
In areas grazed by sheep, Frith (1962a) argued that Malleefowl breeding densities were reduced by 80–90% compared to similar ungrazed habitats. Other herbivores may also compete with Malleefowl for herbaceous foods and damage shrubs that are important as seed sources for the birds. In particular, feral goats are abundant in some areas (Lewis and Hines 2014) and may be even more damaging to shrub populations than sheep. High numbers of kangaroos may also be a problem in areas where their numbers are artificially high due to access to water sources and agriculture and absence of predators. In central Australia, sheep and feral goats are rare but high numbers of other introduced herbivores such as domestic cattle, rabbits and feral camels occur in some areas and provide reasons for concern.

The effects of herbivores are twofold. Firstly, grazing and browsing denies Malleefowl food that may otherwise be available to them. Secondly, when maintained at high densities these herbivores may cause long-term change to the vegetation composition and