Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L01285:reg:3:p19
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L01285
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 3 (pt 19/26)
Character Range: 121154–124007

Sooty and Northern and Southern Royal albatrosses are among the highest recorded for free-living birds (Stewart et al. 1999, Goutte et al. 2014).

Marine debris
Marine debris comprises a variety of materials including timber, glass, rubber, metal and plastics. An estimated 80% of marine debris originates from terrestrial sources, and a large percentage of it is plastics (Allsop et al. 2006). Marine debris from human sources is increasing in scale and distribution across ocean systems globally (Andrady 2011, Jambeck et al. 2015, Roman et al. 2020). Low density plastic particles will float on the sea surface. For example, in the early 2010s, the concentration of plastic particles on the ocean surface around Australia averaged about 4260 pieces per square kilometre, but ranged from zero to around 50 000 pieces per square kilometre (Reisser et al. 2013), and is predicted to rise significantly in coming decades (Wilcox et al. 2015). Marine plastic pollution is now ubiquitous as wind and currents carry the debris into remote regions. Over time, plastics break up into smaller and smaller particles while the total quantities are still increasing (Barnes et al. 2009).
Marine plastic pollution impacts seabirds in a variety of ways. However, the rate of this source of morbidity and mortality remains unknown (Laist 1997, Kühn et al. 2015). Entanglement in discarded or lost fishing lines and abandoned nets, leads to drowning or the inability to escape predators, and ingestion of plastics can have lethal or sub-lethal effects (Coe & Rogers 1997). Sharp particles can damage the gut lining or irritate stomach tissue when ingested; resulting infections often lead to death (Kärrman et al. 2016). The presence of plastic debris in the gastrointestinal tract may reduce feeding due to perceived satiation and lead to a loss of condition and starvation (Pierce et al. 2004, Senko et al. 2020). The debris can also cause mechanical blockage or impairment of the digestive system, resulting in starvation. Some plastics are also a source of toxic pollutants, which are released into the bloodstream as the bird's digestive system attempts to break down the substance (Ryan et al.1988). The subsequent reduction in fitness can lower the bird's ability to reproduce successfully, catch prey and/or avoid predation (Fry et al. 1987, Sileo et al. 1990).
Plastics adrift in the ocean are covered in biofilm, a thin layer of microorganisms that expel dimethyl sulphide (DMS). This compound attracts albatrosses and petrels as the prey items of these birds exude the same olfactory material (Savoca et al. 2016). In consequence, seabirds are highly likely to mistake plastic particles for food and ingest them. Albatross and petrel chicks receive pollutants when they receive regurgitated food. Due to the physical impaction and internal ulceration, the