Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775:reg:18:p17
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 18 (pt 17/152)
Character Range: 86152–89141

or developed areas (Montevecchi 2006, Rodriguez et al. 2017a, Podolsky et al. 1998). Light sourced impacts have also been reported from offshore oil platforms, including gas flares (Bourne 1979, Wiese et al. 2001, Burke et al. 2005).

 Adult seabirds are less impacted by artificial lighting than fledglings.
 Many procellariforms species (i.e. shearwaters, storm petrels, gadfly petrels) are vulnerable to artificial lighting during nocturnal activities which make up part of the annual breeding cycle. Adult procellariforms are vulnerable when returning to and leaving the nesting colony. They may leave or enter to re-establish their pair bonds with breeding partners, repair nesting burrows, defend nesting sites or to forage. A recent study showed artificial light disrupts adult nest attendance and thus affects weight gain in chicks (Cianchetti-Benedetti et al 2018).

Fledglings are more vulnerable to artificial light than adults due to the naivety of their first flight, the immature development of ganglions in the eye at fledging and the potential connection between light and food (see Montevecchi 2006 and Mitkus et al 2018). Emergence during darkness, believed to be a predator-avoidance strategy (Watanuki 1986) may increase vulnerability to impacts from artificial lighting (Reed et al. 1985). Artificial lights are thought to override the sea-finding cues provided by the moon and star light at the horizon (Telfer et al. 1987) and fledglings can be attracted back to onshore lights after reaching the sea (Rodriguez et al 2014, Podolsky et al 1998). It is possible that fledglings that survive their offshore migration cannot imprint upon their natal colony, preventing them from returning to nest when they mature (Raine et al. 2007). The consequences of exposure to artificial light on the viability of a breeding population of seabirds is unknown (Greisheimer and Holmes 2011).

 Chronic pollution
Chemical contamination has been clearly implicated in the decline of a number of seabirds. Its relevance to the conservation of albatrosses and petrels has been reviewed by Baker et al. (2002) and includes deleterious effects through diminished reproductive success caused by eggshell thinning, embryo viability and offspring deformities. Elevated levels of chemicals and heavy metals can be found in the plasma of adults, chicks and eggs of seabirds from every continent and virtually all islands across the globe. Organochlorines and heavy metals degrade very slowly in the environment, are retained by organisms and passed along the food chain, becoming increasingly concentrated. Tributyltin (TBT), whilst its use as an antifoulant has been widely reduced, can accumulate in sediments which can then be released upon disturbance. Consequently, top order predators, such as seabirds and coastal raptors, may accumulate high levels of chemicals in tissues, a problem which is exacerbated because these birds are long-lived and highly mobile species (Falkenberg et al.