Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775:reg:18:p74
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L00775
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 18 (pt 74/152)
Character Range: 244598–247593

Islands, Kerguelen Islands (French Southern Territories), Heard and McDonald Islands and very locally on the northern Antarctic Peninsula. Macaroni Penguins nest on level to steep ground, often walking hundreds of metres across steep scree slopes to nest-sites. The breeding cycle is characterized by a high level of synchrony with a laying period protracted over a period of less than 2 weeks. Breeding areas usually have little or no vegetation due to erosion by birds. Macaroni Penguins are oceanic foragers, searching for prey at moderate depths, usually less than 50 m but they can dive more than 100 m. They feed mainly on small krill (Marchant and Higgins 1990); at South Georgia they feed extensively on Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), while at Crozet and Kerguelen they have a more diverse diet, feeding on small euphausiids, amphipods (e.g. Themisto gaudichaudii) and small amounts of myctophid fish. Their diets show a shift after incubation, with an increase in fish. During their winter dispersal, they rely mostly on crustaceans (Bost et al. 2009).

Population Estimates and Trends
The global population is estimated at 6.3 million pairs in at least 258 colonies
at 55 breeding sites (Crossin et al. 2013), with major populations on Crozet
(2,200,000 pairs, including 1 million on Ilots des Pingouins), Kerguelen
(1.8 million pairs), Heard Island (1 million pairs), South Georgia (1 million pairs)
and Marion Island (290,000 pairs). Volcanic activity displaced a colony of 1 million
pairs on McDonald Island, though satellite images show unidentified penguins may be
recolonising the affected area (Crossin et al. 2013). Surveys on Heard Island suggest
a decrease owing to losses in some smaller colonies. The population at Marion has
decreased by over 30 per cent from 434,000 pairs in 1994-1995 to 290,000 pairs in
2008-2009 (Crawford et al. 2009), and 267,000 pairs in 2012-2013 (Dyer and Crawford
2015). At Kerguelen populations increased by 1.06 per cent per annum between
1962 and 2014, and have been stable since.

106 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds

Species profiles

Conservation Concerns and Actions
Climate change is an important candidate for explaining recent decreases at some breeding sites. Large-scale environmental changes, particularly those related to sea surface temperatures could be contributing to habitat loss, indirect ecosystem effects, direct species mortality and reduced reproductive success, but the nature and level of impacts remain unclear as there may be divergent responses in different populations; climate was found to be have potentially positive effects in the short to medium term for the population studied at Bird Island, South Georgia, whereas changes to predation dynamics appear to be the main factor driving decreases (Horswill et al. 2014, 2016).

Commercial fisheries could represent a potential threat through incidental capture and resource competition. Long-line fisheries