Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2019L00153:body:0:p21
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2019L00153
Segment Type: other
Provision Reference: 
Character Range: 57119–60154

In the East Gippsland region of Victoria, Sambar deer are the most damaging feral species impacting upon Littoral Rainforest (Peel et al. 2005). 'Herbivory and habitat degradation caused by feral deer' is a listed Key Threatening Process under the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. 'Reduction in biodiversity of native vegetation by Cervus unicolor (Sambar Deer)' is a listed Key Threatening Process under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988.
Feral rabbits are also impacting upon Littoral Rainforest, with documented cases of herbivory causing damage to the understory of patches of the ecological community on Cabbage Tree Island, New South Wales (Werren & Clough 1991), and exposing nesting Gould's petrels (Pterodroma leucoptera) to increased predation risk. In the Tambo River region of East Gippsland, the initially limited regeneration of Littoral Rainforest was attributed to herbivory by rabbits, with rapid recruitment of native ground cover and shrubs beginning to occur following the implementation of a rabbit control program (Peel 2010).
Native fauna species inhabiting patches of Littoral Rainforest are threatened by predation and competition from feral animals. In particular, feral cats (Felis catus) and foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are known to prey on native mammals, birds, reptiles and insects (DoEE 2016a). Cane toads (Bufo marinus) can poison native predators, such as snakes and quolls, and can compete with native animals for shelter (DEWHA 2010). Black rats (Rattus rattus) can compete with native species such as the bush rat (Rattus fuscipes) and exclude them from relatively undisturbed patches of Littoral Rainforest (Stokes et al. 2009).
Interactions between exotic scale insects and invasive ant species which farm them for their honeydew can also be detrimental to Littoral Rainforest, particularly on coral cays. When invasive African big-headed ants (Pheidole megacephala) and coastal brown ants (Pheidole megacephala) are present, scale insects, such as the Caribbean species (Pulvinaria urbicola), can reach such high densities that they defoliate trees (Smith & Papacek 2001). Repeated defoliation over time can kill trees and reduce the extent of Littoral Rainforest patches (Smith et al. 2004), as has been documented on the coral cay, Tryon Island, Queensland (Smith & Papacek 2001). Native impacts that are introduced to areas outside of the natural biogeographic range can also pose a threat to Littoral Rainforest. For example, the planthopper (Jamella australae) caused massive damage to pandanus trees (Pandanus tectorius) when it was introduced to south-east Queensland and north-east New South Wales, particularly in Burleigh Heads National Park and Noosa National Park where 75 percent of pandanus trees were destroyed (Smith & Smith 2000).

2.2.8      Mining and industrial development
Mining and industrial development pose a threat to Littoral Rainforest, especially in Queensland where these activities are increasing in some regions. For example, in