Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2019L00153:body:0:p18
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2019L00153
Segment Type: other
Provision Reference: 
Character Range: 48927–51939

cover due to its relative resilience, if left unchecked, such weeds will eventually take over and destroy the affected patch. Some weeds that invade Littoral Rainforest, notably pond apple (Annona glabra), lantana (Lantana camara), bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata), asparagus fern (Asparagus aethiopicus) and rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora) are recognised as Weeds of National Significance (i.e. high impact, highly invasive species) (TSSC 2008).
The establishment of transformer weeds in Littoral Rainforest patches have been observed to have a significantly detrimental effect (TSSC 2008). For example, an assessment of littoral forest in the Wet Tropics of far north Queensland, found that exotic coconuts (Cocos nucifera) are a major transformer weed species and a significant threatening process to remnant forest in the littoral zone. Coconuts are highly invasive and form monocultures that compete with, and suppress recruitment and seedling development of, native littoral species. In parts of the Daintree coast, especially in the Cape Tribulation region, coconuts now occupy 80-100 percent of the littoral zone (Spencer et al. 2010).
Transformer weeds of the warm temperate climate zone of south-eastern Australia, such as cape ivy (Delairea odorata), bitou bush, lantana and madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia), also extend into the sub-tropical zone of northern New South Wales (Williams 1993; Peel 2010). Rubber vine and Siamese cassia (Senna siamea) are currently a problem near Princess Charlotte Bay and within Lakefield National Park, Cape York Peninsula, and have the potential to expand if left unchecked. This indicates certain transformer weeds have the capacity to significantly expand their range on the eastern coastline (TSSC 2008).
Whether the ecological community is protected in reserves or not, the risk of weed infestation increases where patches of the ecological community are located near human habitation and/or are subject to visitor disturbance (TSSC 2008). This is supported by Peel's (2010) study where a positive correlation was found between proximity to human activity and weed invasion based on a sample of 251 sites, with the majority of weeds recorded having been incidentally introduced through human activities such as agriculture, recreation, domestic gardens and associated refuse dumping.
Weed invasion also occurs through seed dispersal by birds and mammals. For example, this mode of dispersal has led to weed infestations of wilderness areas, such as Croajingolong National Park and Howe Wilderness in Victoria (TSSC 2008). In New South Wales, many coastal habitats have been invaded by bitou bush through the spread of fruit by birds and flying foxes (TSSC 2008). Bitou bush smothers canopy and may form dense growth around the edge of Littoral Rainforest (Adam 1992). This transformer weed has also spread into Queensland where it has the potential to flourish in rainforest stands in the south-east. In the Cape York Peninsula