Document ID: chunk:federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L01285:reg:3:p20
Version: federal_register_of_legislation:F2022L01285
Segment Type: reg
Provision Reference: reg 3 (pt 20/26)
Character Range: 123736–126713

material (Savoca et al. 2016). In consequence, seabirds are highly likely to mistake plastic particles for food and ingest them. Albatross and petrel chicks receive pollutants when they receive regurgitated food. Due to the physical impaction and internal ulceration, the chicks receive less food and nutrients which increases their chances of starvation and dehydration (Fry et al. 1987, Sileo et al. 1990).
Plastic ingestion affects some Australian albatross and petrel species (Baker et al. 2002, Gall & Thompson 2015, Roman et al. 2020). For example, analyses of 540 Shy Albatross chicks that had died 1% had plastic debris in their stomachs, ranging from segments of plastic bags to solid, coloured pieces of plastic (Hedd & Gales 2001). Black-browed, Grey-headed, Wandering Albatrosses and Southern Giant Petrels have all been observed regurgitating plastic debris to their chicks at breeding sites outside of Australia (Huin & Croxall 1996). In the southern hemisphere, plastic ingestion also affects Antipodean, Atlantic Yellow-nosed, Black-browed, Buller's, Chatham Island, Indian Yellow-nosed, Light-mantled, Northern Royal, Salvin's, Sooty, Southern Royal, Wandering and White-capped albatrosses, and Black and White-chinned petrels (Ryan 1987, Robertson 1998, Gall & Thompson 2015, Roman et al. 2020). In the waters off Australia and New Zealand, marine plastics ingestion is estimated to increase mortality in some albatross species by up to 3.4%, a level expected to lead to population declines, particularly in those populations already affected by other threats (Roman et al. 2020). It is likely that most or all other albatross and petrel species ingest plastic debris.
Microplastics can enter the food chain and can lead to secondary ingestion. For example, small plastic particles taken up by zooplankton can bioaccumulate and concentrate in higher vertebrates (Cole et al. 2013). The feeding ability of zooplankton is hampered when the guts are full of debris, and their health and function are compromised (Cole et al. 2013). It is currently not known whether toxins associated with plastics are passed through the food chain, and whether there are any potential negative effects of this transport.

Competition with fisheries for prey species
Threats from competition with fisheries for prey species.

Global captures of marine living resources are reasonably well documented. For example, in 2013, marine fisheries reported the catch of 80.9 million tonnes of fish globally (FAO 2016). Stocks fished biologically sustainably have decreased from 90% in 1974 to 69% in 2013, 58% of stocks are deemed to be fully fished, that is any increase in effort would make these fisheries no longer sustainable (FAO 2016). As the percentage of fully fished stocks has increased, the proportion of under-fished stocks has decreased (FAO 2016). Global catches vary with region—among the most productive areas is the northwest Pacific Ocean where 21.4 million tonnes