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2018-04853 | Why are smartphone fingerprint scanners so quick and responsive, but laptop fingerprint scanners always seem to be so gimmicky and ineffective? | phones dont actually scan your entire fingerprint. that's why you have to tap it a bunch of times during setup, so it can unlock even from a partial print. it's faster, but less secure havent used a laptop scanner but from what i've seen they're bigger than the ones on phones, so it's possible they scan the entire print to be more secure (of course, neither method is very secure since they rely on a data-set you leave on every object you touch) | [
"Fingerprint matching has an enormous computational burden. Some larger AFIS vendors deploy custom hardware while others use software to attain matching speed and throughput. In general, it is desirable to have, at the least, a two-stage search. The first stage will generally make use of global fingerprint characteristics while the second stage is the minutia matcher.\n",
"Section::::Consumer electronics login authentication.\n\nSince 2000 electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced as consumer electronics security applications. Fingerprint sensors could be used for login authentication and the identification of computer users. However, some less sophisticated sensors have been discovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in gels. In 2006, fingerprint sensors gained popularity in the laptop market. Built-in sensors in laptops, such as ThinkPads, VAIO, HP Pavilion and EliteBook laptops, and others also double as motion detectors for document scrolling, like the scroll wheel.\n",
"This may allow a remote application to detect and prevent online identity theft and credit card fraud, but also to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing histories even when they're attempting to avoid tracking, raising a major concern for internet privacy advocates. \n\nSome computer security experts consider the ease of bulk parameter extraction offered by web browsers to be a security hole.\n\nSection::::History.\n",
"To match a print, a fingerprint technician scans in the print in question, and computer algorithms are utilized to mark all minutia points, cores, and deltas detected on the print. In some systems, the technician is allowed to perform a review of the points that the software has detected, and submits the feature set to a one-to-many (1:N) search. The better commercial systems provide fully automated processing and searching (\"lights-out\") of print features. The fingerprint image processor will generally assign a \"quality measure\" that indicates if the print is acceptable for searching.\n\nSection::::Speed.\n",
"By 2017 Hewlett Packard, Asus, Huawei, Lenovo and Apple were using fingerprint readers in their laptops. Synaptics says the SecurePad sensor is now available for OEMs to start building into their laptops. In the newest smartphones, the fingerprint reader is being integrated into the whole touchscreen display instead of as a separate sensor.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nSection::::Other uses.:Welfare claimants.\n\nIt has been alleged that taking the fingerprints of welfare recipients as identification serves as a social stigma that evokes cultural images associated with the processing of criminals.\n\nSection::::Absence or mutilation of fingerprints.\n",
"Two of the first smartphone manufacturers to integrate fingerprint recognition into their phones were Motorola with the Atrix 4G in 2011, and Apple with the iPhone 5S on September 10, 2013. One month after, HTC launched the One Max, which also included fingerprint recognition. In April 2014, Samsung released the Galaxy S5, which integrated a fingerprint sensor on the home button.\n",
"The first smartphone with a fingerprint reader was the Motorola Atrix 4G in 2011. In September 2013, the iPhone 5S was unveiled as the first smartphone on a major U.S. carrier since the Atrix to feature this technology.\n",
"It has been part of all iPhones since 2013's iPhone 5S up until 2017's iPhone 8 and 8 Plus; it has been on all iPads since the iPad Air 2. In 2015, Apple introduced a faster second-generation Touch ID in the iPhone 6S; a year later, it made its laptop debut in the MacBook Pro and the 2018 MacBook Air.\n\nFingerprint information is stored locally in a secure enclave on the Apple A7 and later chips, not in the cloud, a design choice intended to make it impossible for users to externally access the fingerprint information.\n\nSection::::History.\n",
"Section::::Tools.\n\nEarly investigations consisted of live manual analysis of mobile devices; with examiners photographing or writing down useful material for use as evidence. Without forensic photography equipment such as Fernico ZRT, EDEC Eclipse, or Project-a-Phone, this had the disadvantage of risking the modification of the device content, as well as leaving many parts of the proprietary operating system inaccessible.\n",
"A separate issue is that a single device may have multiple web clients installed or even multiple virtual operating systems. As each distinct client and operating system has distinct internal parameters, one may change the device fingerprint by simply running a different browser on the same machine, unless a new crossbrowser fingerprinting technique is used.\n\nFurthermore, sandboxed devices like the iPhone will exhibit so little uniqueness that most fingerprinting techniques involving technical information about the device, the browser, and the font list will not be sufficient to create a unique fingerprint.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Canvas fingerprinting\n\nBULLET::::- Evercookie\n",
"A pending court case defined failures of even 1% to be \"high risk\" if it results in denials of government benefits.\n\nSection::::USA DOJ report.\n\nA 56-page report titled \"Contactless Fingerprint Technologies Assessment\" was funded in 2010, and version 2 of the report was \"made ... available\" in 2014 online even though it \"has not been published.\"\n\nAfter describing 13 R&D projects in various stages of incompleteness, it identifies four \"contactless fingerprint existing products.\" \n\nBULLET::::- The first company's product attaches to a PC via USB and \"is designed for indoor use only.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- In the TV show \"Dexter\" Season 7 episode 1 Dexter uses IAFIS to test the prints of the female in the trunk of the car.\n\nBULLET::::- In the TV show \"Person of Interest\" in Season 1 episode 18 Donnelly uses IAFIS to match John's fingerprints to previous crimes in New York.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Combined DNA Index System—U.S. DNA system\n\nBULLET::::- Eurodac—the European fingerprint database for identifying asylum seekers and irregular border-crossers\n\nBULLET::::- National Automated Fingerprint Identification System—Australian system\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Bureau of Investigation - CJIS Division - Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System\n",
"It is difficult to surf the web without being tracked by device fingerprinting today. However, for people who do not want device fingerprinting, there are ways to attempt to block fingerprinting. The only ways to stop device fingerprinting cause web browsing to be very slow and websites to display information incorrectly. “There are not convenient options for privacy when it comes to device fingerprinting” said Peter Eckersely a staff scientist at the Electronic Frontier Foundation and privacy-advocacy group. Trying to avoid device fingerprinting is mostly just impractical and inconvenient. Fingerprints are tough to avoid because they are taken from data that are routinely passed from computers to websites automatically. Even if someone changes something slightly, the fingerprinters can still recognize the machine. There is one way to figure out that a device is being fingerprinted. The software JavaScript can be used to collect fingerprinting data. If it asks a browser for specific information, that could be a clue that a fingerprinter is working. Companies that are most known for conducting fingerprinting are advertisers.\n",
"Microsoft Fingerprint Reader\n\nMicrosoft Fingerprint Reader was a device sold by Microsoft, primarily for homes and small businesses. The underlying software providing the biometrics was developed by Digital Persona. \n\nFingerprint readers are more secure, reliable and convenient than a normal traditional password, although they have been subject to spoofing. A fingerprint recognition system is more tightly linked to a specific user than, e.g., an access card, which can be stolen. \n\nSection::::History.\n",
"Fingerprint image acquisition is considered to be the most critical step in an automated fingerprint authentication system, as it determines the final fingerprint image quality, which has a drastic effect on the overall system performance. There are different types of fingerprint readers on the market, but the basic idea behind each is to measure the physical difference between ridges and valleys.\n",
"Passive fingerprinting refers to techniques which do not involve the obvious querying of the client machine. These methods rely upon precise classification of such factors as the client's TCP/IP configuration, OS fingerprint, IEEE 802.11 (wireless) settings, and hardware clock skew.\n",
"BULLET::::3. Ultrasound fingerprint scanners use high frequency sound waves to penetrate the epidermal (outer) layer of the skin.\n\nBULLET::::4. Thermal scanners sense the temperature differences on the contact surface, in between fingerprint ridges and valleys.\n\nSection::::Construction forms.\n\nThere are two construction forms: the stagnant and the moving fingerprint scanner.\n\nBULLET::::- Stagnant: The finger must be dragged over the small scanning area. This is cheaper and less reliable than the moving form. The image is not very good when the finger is not regularly dragged over the scanning area.\n",
"In 2010, Electronic Frontier Foundation launched a website where visitors can test their browser fingerprint. After collecting a sample of 470161 fingerprints, they measured at least 18.1 bits of entropy possible from browser fingerprinting, but that was before the advancements of canvas fingerprinting, which claims to add another 5.7 bits.\n\nFirefox provides a feature to protect against browser fingerprinting since 2015 (version 41), but as of July 2018 it is still experimental and disabled by default.\n",
"BULLET::::- Stability requires that fingerprints remain the same over time. However, by definition browser configuration preferences are not tamper proof. For example, if one measured attribute is whether the browser has cookies on or off, then a simple change of that setting is sufficient to change the fingerprint. One remedy is to reduce the number of parameters collected to only those that are very unlikely to change; however, this is likely to reduce diversity, as fewer parameters are being measured.\n\nSection::::Active vs passive collection.\n\nFingerprinting methods range from passive to active.\n",
"Active fingerprinting assumes the client will tolerate some degree of invasive querying. The most active method is installation of executable code directly on the client machine. Such code may have access to attributes not typically available by other means, such as the MAC address, or other unique serial numbers assigned to the machine hardware. Such data is useful for fingerprinting by programs that employ digital rights management.\n\nSection::::OSI model fingerprints.\n\nPassive collection of device attributes below the web-browser layer may occur at several OSI model layers.\n",
"Contactless fingerprinting\n\nContactless fingerprinting technology (CFP) was described in a government-funded report as an attempt to gather and add fingerprints to those gathered via wet-ink process and then, in a \"touchless\" scan, verify claimed identify and, a bigger challenge, identify their owners without additional clues.\n\nAlthough an early source of this technology, which worked with phone cameras (and not needing additional hardware), opened in 2003 and closed in 2011, others in this space are still, several years later, using the words \"one of the first.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- The fourth product is the most advanced of the group, and while it is not touchless, there is no contact with the scanner, just with an \"optical scanning area.\"\n\nA list of nine \"contactless fingerprint technologies that are worth noting\" is part of the report. Of the\n\ntop three, the first closed in 2011. Next come a pair from an inventor with 2 entries; one had 800 employees worldwide when, for reasons of mismanagement, it went bankrupt and was absorbed by another firm.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nAside from border, airport and access control, contactless fingerprint technologies \n\nhave provided benefits in:\n",
"In 2012, Apple acquired AuthenTec, a company focused on fingerprint reading and identification management software, for $356 million. The acquisition led commentators to expect a fingerprint reading feature. Following leaks and speculation in early September, the iPhone 5S was unveiled on September 10, 2013, was the first phone on a major US carrier to feature the technology. Apple's Vice President of Marketing, Phil Schiller, announced the feature at Apple's iPhone media event and spent several minutes (the major portion of the conference) discussing the feature.\n",
"Although there are hundreds of reported techniques for fingerprint detection, many of these are only of academic interest and there are only around 20 really effective methods which are currently in use in the more advanced fingerprint laboratories around the world.\n",
"Moreover, he notes that the feature is one of the few that distinguish the iPhone 5S from the 5C. Roose also stated the feature is intended to deter theft. However, Brent Kennedy, a vulnerability analyst at the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team, expressed concern that Touch ID could be hacked and suggested that people not rely on it right away. \"Forbes\" noted a history of fingerprints being spoofed in the past, and cautioned that the fingerprints on a stolen iPhone might be used to gain unauthorized access. However, the article did say that biometrics technology had improved since tests on spoofing fingerprint readers had been conducted.\n"
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2018-19474 | China and Russia disappear people and it makes news but nothing happens. Why is it when this happens in Saudi Arabia there’s a huge international backlash? | Journalist For US newspaper At an embassy Of an "ally" of the US In a third party country & nbsp; Those factors all combine to make it a particularly egregious event. | [
"Since 2006, a Canadian citizen Nathalie Morin is stuck in Saudi Arabia with an abusive husband, fighting to go back to Canada along with her four children. With the on-going escalated tensions between Saudi Arabia and Canada, the future of Morin remains unclear. According to Morin’s mother Johanne Durocher, Morin is cut off from the world, locked in an apartment in Dammam, victim of physical, psychological and sexual violence from her spouse. Durocher has not had any contact with her daughter or grandchildren since August 2018.\n",
"According to the \"Global News\", Saudi Arabia's state-owned television spread fake news about Canada. In August 2018, Canada's \"Global News\" reported that state-owned television \"Al Arabiya\", \"has suggested that Canada is the worst country in the world for women, that it has the highest suicide rate and that it treats its Indigenous people the way Myanmar treats the Rohingya – a Muslim minority massacred and driven out of Myanmar en masse last year.\"\n\nIn October 2018, Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi rhetoric about the disappearance of Saudi opposition journalist Jamal Khashoggi.\n",
"Crime has risen inside the workers’ accommodations and company premises. Company cars were overturned, housing units burned to the ground, and pickets have continued.\n\nThe reason why workers cannot leave the country is because they need to have a valid exit clearance to be able to leave, which only the management can provide. Most workers have already resigned from their jobs and filed for their exit clearances. However, the company could not provide airplane tickets, end of service benefits, and most importantly salaries which have resulted in their dire situation as stranded workers.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official website\n",
"About 1200 people fled Saudi Arabia and sought asylum in other countries in 2017, including many women fleeing forced marriages or abusive male family members. The Saudi government has frozen bank accounts, arrested family members, and revoked official documents in an attempt to get fleeing citizens to return to the country or to a Saudi embassy. Students studying abroad have been threatened with termination of scholarships in response to criticism of the Saudi government on social media, and in 2018 some studying in Canada were de-funded after the Canadian government criticized human rights in Saudi Arabia. Women who have successfully gained asylum in Western countries report fearing for their personal safety after being harassed by Saudi government agents on social media, and sometimes in person, warning them that they will be sorry for their actions or be punished. Occasionally they are asked to go to Saudi embassies for no stated reason. One woman, unlike most, reported going to the embassy to try to end harassment of a firm she had left to her business partners, but she said authorities attempted to get her to return, threatened her, and said the business would continue to have problems as long as she remained in Germany.\n",
"BULLET::::- September 20 – The MV \"Nyerere\" capsizes on Lake Victoria, killing at least 228 passengers.\n\nBULLET::::- September 22 – An attack at a military parade kills 30 people (including 5 attackers) and injures 70 more in Ahvaz, Iran.\n\nBULLET::::- September 28 – A magnitude 7.5 earthquake hits Sulawesi, Indonesia, causing a tsunami that kills at least 4,340 people and injures more than 10,679 others.\n\nSection::::Events.:October.\n\nBULLET::::- October 2 – \"Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi is murdered inside the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, triggering a diplomatic crisis for Saudi Arabia.\n",
"BULLET::::- Twenty-year Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict formally ends.\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow vests movement becomes France's largest sustained period of civil unrest since 1968.\n\nBULLET::::- Sunda strait tsunami kills 426 and injures 14,000.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami kills 4,340 and injures 10,700.\n\nBULLET::::- Exiled \"Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi is murdered inside the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, triggering a diplomatic crisis for Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- Kerch Strait incident triggers martial law in Ukraine.\n\nBULLET::::- Macedonia and Greece reach a historic agreement in the Macedonia naming dispute, in which the former is renamed in 2019 to the 'Republic of North Macedonia'.\n",
"BULLET::::- February 5 – American electronics retail store franchise RadioShack files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection after 11 consecutive quarterly losses.\n\nBULLET::::- February 10\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. officials announce that, in light of the Houthi takeover of the Yemeni capital city of Sana'a and the resignation of Yemeni President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, that the United States will be closing its embassy in Yemen. All American diplomats working in Yemen are advised to evacuate.\n",
"In October 2018, Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi journalist and a critic of the crown prince went missing after entering the Saudi consulate in Istanbul. Turkish officials reportedly believe that Khashoggi was murdered at the consulate, claiming to have specific video and audio recordings proving that Khashoggi was first tortured and then murdered, and that a medical forensics expert was part of the 15-man Saudi team seen entering and leaving the consulate at the time of the journalist's disappearance. Saudi Arabia denied the accusations and Salman invited Turkish authorities to search the building as they \"have nothing to hide\". Saudi officials said they are \"working to search for him\". The \"Washington Post\" reported that the Crown Prince had earlier sought to lure Khashoggi back to Saudi Arabia and detain him.\n",
"The pressure on Saudi to reveal the insights about Khashoggi’s disappearance from the US and other European countries has increased. Saudi-US relations took an ugly turn on 14 October 2018, when Trump promised “severe punishment” if the royal court was responsible for Khashoggis’ death. The Saudi Foreign Ministry retaliated with an equal statement saying, “it will respond with greater action,” indicating the kingdom’s “influential and vital role in the global economy.” A joint statement was issued by Britain, France and Germany also demanding a “credible investigation to establish the truth about what happened, and — if relevant — to identify those bearing responsibility for the disappearance of Jamal Khashoggi, and ensure that they are held to account.”\n",
"BULLET::::- Xi Jinping, President and General Secretary of the Communist Party, China\n\nNine leaders and ten groups were dropped from the list of predators in 2016 and 2017:\n\nBULLET::::- Abdallah Ibn Al-Saud, King, Saudi Arabia\n\nBULLET::::- Baloch armed groups, Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- \"Black Eagles\", Paramilitary group, Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Boko Haram, Islamist group, Nigeria\n\nBULLET::::- Choummaly Sayasone, President, Laos\n\nBULLET::::- Islam Karimov, President, Uzbekistan\n\nBULLET::::- Israel Defense Forces, Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Italian organized crime\n\nBULLET::::- Jabhat Al-Nosra, Syrian jihadi group\n\nBULLET::::- Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, President, Iran\n\nBULLET::::- Maldives' Islamists\n\nBULLET::::- Miguel Facussé Barjum, Businessman and landowner, Honduras\n\nBULLET::::- Mswati III, King, Swaziland\n",
"BULLET::::- King Salman officially ended its diplomatic trip in Bogor and Jakarta and began his vacation trip in Bali\n\nBULLET::::- The first ever Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) Leaders' Summit was held in Indonesia's capital city of Jakarta\n\nBULLET::::- 6 March – Hundreds of homes were destroyed after a massive landslipe swept through a village in West Sumatra. 6 people, including one infant, were killed in the disaster.\n\nBULLET::::- 8 March\n",
"According to the legal assistance group, Thai Lawyers for Human Rights, at least 86 Thais left Thailand seeking asylum abroad following the military takeover in May 2014. Among them are the four members of the Thai band Fai Yen. Their music is their crime, as some of their songs mock the monarchy, a serious offense in Thailand. The band, whose name means 'cool fire', announced on social media that its members feared for their lives after \"many trusted people told us that the Thai military will come to kill us.\" All of those who disappeared in late-2018 and early-2019 were accused by Thai authorities of anti-monarchical activity.\n",
"According to \"Newsweek\", Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that \"producing rumors or fake news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that would affect the public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technical means\" is punishable \"by five years and a fine of 3 million riyals\".\n\nIranian-backed Twitter accounts spread sensational fake news and rumours about Saudi Arabia.\n\nSection::::Fake news by country.:Singapore.\n",
"This image has been undermined by disappearance and apparent Saudi state-sanctioned murder of \"Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi. Following these allegations, US Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo said, \"We call on the government of Saudi Arabia to support a thorough investigation of Mr Khashoggi's disappearance and to be transparent about the results of that investigation\" and a UK Foreign Office spokesman said, \"These are extremely serious allegations. We are aware of the latest reports and are working urgently to establish the facts, including with the government of Saudi Arabia.\" France also sought an explanation as to how an \"accomplished and esteemed\" journalist such as Khashoggi vanished.\n",
"Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that \"producing rumors or fake news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that would affect the public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technical means\" is punishable \"by five years and a fine of 3 million riyals\". Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi tweets about the disappearance of Khashoggi.\n",
"The Ethiopian Foreign Ministry said it would airlift its citizens out of Yemen if they requested to be evacuated. There were reportedly more than 50,000 Ethiopian nationals living and working in Yemen at the outbreak of hostilities.\n\nMalaysia also planned to evacuate its 879 citizens from Yemen, according to its Foreign Minister, Anifah Aman, but it was unclear whether they would be moved out by air or land.\n\nSection::::Timeline of events.\n",
"The Indian government responded by deploying ships and planes to Yemen to evacuate stranded Indians. India began evacuating its citizens on 2 April by sea. An air evacuation of Indian nationals from Sanaʽa to Djibouti started on 3 April, after the Indian government obtained permission to land two Airbus A320s at the airport. The Indian Armed Forces carried out rescue operation codenamed \"Operation Raahat\" and evacuated more than 4640 overseas Indians in Yemen along with 960 foreign nationals of 41 countries. The air evacuation ended on 9 April 2015 while the evacuation by sea ended on 11 April 2015. The United States has assets in the region, but through its Yemen diplomatic mission website, instructed its citizens to evacuate using Indian assistance.\n",
"In January 2019, the Saudi authorities were, according to \"The Washington Post\", refusing to confirm the whereabouts of al-Qahtani. There were concerns that he could be influencing the investigation itself. Khalil Jahshan, executive director of the Arab Centre of Washington DC, stated in an interview with Al Jazeera, that al-Qahtani's \"disappearance\" was a \"natural progression of [Saudi Arabia's] investigation\" and is likely used as a strategy to keep crown prince Mohammed bin Salman protected from accusations regarding Khashoggi's murder: \"They have sheltered some of the key players accused of being involved [in the murder] whether by Turkey or by the international community. The intention of the Saudi campaign right now is to keep the crown prince clear of any accusations with regards to the murder of Khashoggi.\"\n",
"Zaid al-Sharabi, an Emirates News Agency journalist, was killed by a Houthi set bomb which was hidden inside a motocycle and placed near a restaurant in Mokha on 29 January 2019. The bomb killed a total of 6 people and wounded another Emirates News Agency journalist, Faisal Al Thubhani.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure damage and humanitarian situation.\n",
"And also, With the exception of a group of owners who would not give up anything, four types of abandonment were found, with uncertainty of the order of 27.36% of the total samples, 19.92% of the actualist, 13.24% of the self-absorbed type and 8.70% of the suspended type.\n\nSection::::Similar issues in other countries.\n",
"Departure (TV series)\n\nDeparture is an upcoming Canadian-British TV series set to air on Global in 2019. NBCUniversal pre-bought the upcoming drama series to air on the Universal TV channel in the United Kingdom and Germany and 13th Street in France and Spain, as well as on Universal TV in Africa and 13th Street in Poland.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nThe conspiracy series follows the mystery of a passenger plane that vanishes over the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Panjabi\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Plummer\n\nBULLET::::- Kris Holden-Ried\n\nBULLET::::- Claire Forlani\n\nBULLET::::- Rebecca Liddiard\n\nBULLET::::- Shazad Latif\n\nBULLET::::- Tamara Duarte\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Mensah\n",
"Marc Owen Jones, an assistant professor at Hamad Bin Khalifa University in Doha who researched Arab propaganda and has monitored Saudi Twitter bots for two years, said he has seen a massive surge in pro-regime Twitter activity, and in the creation of troll accounts, since Khashoggi went missing: \"There was such a huge spike in October in bot accounts and the use of the hashtags praising the crown prince, it's absurd\".\n\nAfter Khashoggi's assassination, the Saudi cyber-operations were the focus of global scrutiny. The Government of Canada started an investigation in to those malicious cyberattacks.\n",
"As Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for \"Saudization\" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country. Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons. In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the Kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticised Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue. Over 500,000 undocumented migrant workers — mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen — have been detained and deported since 2013.\n",
"Saudi Arabia halted new trade and investment dealings with Canada and suspended diplomatic ties in a dramatic escalation of a dispute over the kingdom’s arrest of a women's rights activist on 6 August 2018.\n",
"On 2 October 2018, Khashoggi went missing after he entered the Saudi Consulate in Istanbul. Saudi officials claimed that they were not responsible for Khashoggi's death but were not able to provide evidence of what happened. Meanwhile Turkish officials stated that Saudi agents killed and dismembered him. Saudi officials later reported that Khashoggi died in a fight with people he met in the consulate.\"\" After several weeks of contradictory claims from the Saudi government, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency concluded that Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman ordered the assassination of Khashoggi, although the matter of who directed the assassination is still in question by some parties.\n"
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2018-09591 | Fruits or vegetables which are high in certain vitamins. Are they of actual use to the plant or just a by product or both? | I mean, the vitamins are produced for some function in the plant vitamin E for example is an antioxidant, which is used to counter some of the effects of oxidizing agents which can cause protein and DNA damage. One large factor in the production of oxidizing agents is UV radiation from the sun, so plants grown in areas with a lot of sunlight probably produce a lot of vitamin E (almonds, swiss chard, avocado, etc.) vitamin B2 is important in energy production. And one of the biggest uses of energy in plants is plant growth. So plants that grow a lot or grow quickly probably are using a lot of energy, so they probably need higher amounts of vitamin B2. It's rare that any organism would have a lot of anything that it isn't using, because it takes energy to make a lot of molecules. So if it were just some product of a reaction, the plant would likely have some way to break it down into something functional, or dispose of it. It wouldn't just hold onto an excessive amount of random junk that it won't use. | [
"Aside from performed vitamin A, vitamin B and vitamin D, all vitamins found in animal source foods may also be found in plant-derived foods. Examples are tofu to replace meat (both contain protein in sufficient amounts), and certain seaweeds and vegetables as respectively kombu and kale to replace dairy foods as milk (both contain calcium in sufficient amounts). There are some nutrients which are rare to find in sufficient density in plant based foods. One example would be zinc, the exception would be pumpkin seeds that have been soaked for improved digestion. The increased fiber in these foods can also make absorption difficult. Deficiencies are very possible in these nutrients if vegetarians are not very careful and willing to eat sufficient quantities of these exceptional plant based foods. A good way to find these foods would be to search for them on one of the online, nutrient analyzing databases. An example would be nutritiondata.com.\n",
"UNICEF specifications for RUTFs say that the vitamin and mineral premix must be sourced from one of the following vendors authorized by the World Food Program: DSM Nutrition/Fortitech, Nicholas Piramal Healthcare Ltd (now Piramal Group), Hexagon Nutrition, BASF (SternVitamin), and the GAIN premix facility.\n\nRUTFs are used by UNICEF Kid Power malnutrition program, which uses celebrities to go on \"global missions\" to help save impoverished areas in Africa.\n\nSection::::Ready-to-use therapeutic food.:Dietary method.\n",
"Section::::Food sources.\n\nSection::::Food sources.:Vitamin K.\n\nVitamin K is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and \"Brassica\" vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils. Some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, also contain vitamin K. Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the recommended amounts.\n",
"Vitamin Cottage Natural Grocers\n\nVitamin Cottage Natural Food Markets, Inc () (commonly referred to as \"Vitamin Cottage\" or \"Natural Grocers\") is a Colorado based health food chain.\n",
"While plant foods are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on the variety of the plant, soil condition, climate where it grew, length of time since it was picked, storage conditions, and method of preparation. The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different raw plant sources. As some plants were analyzed fresh while others were dried (thus, artificially increasing concentration of individual constituents like vitamin C), the data are subject to potential variation and difficulties for comparison. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable:\n",
"Sunlight, fortified foods and supplements are the main sources of vitamin D for humans. Unlike plant-foods, some animal products naturally contain small amounts of vitamin D, such as salmon and other oily fish, egg yolks, some dairy products, and various organ meats. Furthermore, vitamin D3 used in some supplements and fortified foods, which has longer lasting effects than vitamin D2, is commonly animal-derived. Vitamin D2 is obtained from fungi, such as mushrooms exposed to sun or industrial ultraviolet light, offering a vegan choice for dietary or supplemental vitamin D.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetarian nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Raw veganism\n",
"BULLET::::- Research: Enriching plants with vitamins and minerals through selection and breeding, known as bio-fortification, is a focus of research institutions worldwide. For example, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is working on breeding of vitamin A rich cassava roots. iCheck test kits are used to carry out the monitoring by decreasing cost and saving time. Research institutes and labs use the test kits as high-throughput analysis equipment to assess data on nutrients within a short period of time.\n\nSection::::Public Private Partnerships.\n",
"Leaf vegetables contain many typical plant nutrients, but since they are photosynthetic tissues, their vitamin K levels are particularly notable. Phylloquinone, the most common form of the vitamin, is directly involved in photosynthesis. This causes leaf vegetables to be the primary food class that interacts significantly with the anticoagulant warfarin.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n\nLeaf vegetables are typically low in calories and fat, and high in protein per calorie, dietary fiber, vitamin C, pro-vitamin A carotenoids, folate, manganese and vitamin K.\n",
"The vitamin K content of leaf vegetables is particularly high, since these are photosynthetic tissues and phylloquinone is involved in photosynthesis. Accordingly, users of vitamin K antagonist medications, such as warfarin, must take special care to limit consumption of leaf vegetables.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n",
"Prenatal vitamins\n\nPrenatal vitamins, also known as prenatal supplements, are vitamin and mineral supplements intended to be taken before and during pregnancy and during postnatal lactation. Although not intended to replace a healthy diet, prenatal vitamins provide women of childbearing age with nutrients recognized by the various health organizations including the American Dietetic Association as helpful for a healthy pregnancy outcome. It may be appropriate to start taking prenatal vitamins once the female enters childbearing age.\n\nPrenatal vitamins are similar to other multivitamins but do contain different amounts of specific nutrients to better suit the needs of an expecting mother.\n",
"For the most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength of ultraviolet light present in sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume: for example, vitamin A is synthesized from beta carotene; and niacin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. The Food Fortification Initiative lists countries which have mandatory fortification programs for vitamins folic acid, niacin, vitamin A and vitamins B1, B2 and B12.\n",
"Most humans eat an omnivorous diet (comprising animal source foods and plant source foods) though some civilisations have eaten only animal foods. Although a healthy diet containing all essential macro and micronutrients may be possible by only consuming a plant based diet (with vitamin B obtained from supplements if no animal sourced foods are consumed), some populations are unable to consume an adequate quantity or variety of these plant based items to obtain appropriate amounts of nutrients, particularly those that are found in high concentrations in ASF. Frequently, the most vulnerable populations to these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant women, infants, and children in developing countries. In the 1980s the Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (NCRSP) found that six micronutrients were low in the mostly vegetarian diets of children in malnourished areas of Egypt, Mexico, and Kenya. These six micronutrients are vitamin A, vitamin B, riboflavin, calcium, iron and zinc. ASF are the only food source of Vitamin B. ASF also provide high biological value protein, energy, fat compared with plant food sources.\n",
"Researchers at the USDA Agricultural Research Service have published, as of early 2014, several studies that identify the nutritional make-up and the shelf life of microgreens. Twenty-five varieties were tested, key nutrients measured were ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tocopherols (vitamin E), phylloquinone (vitamin K), and beta-carotene (a vitamin A precursor), plus other related carotenoids in the cotyledons.\n",
"Section::::General overview of vitamins and minerals.\n",
"Section::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Food fortification.\n\nFood fortification is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food as a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population. Staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients due to the soil of the region or from inherent inadequacy of a normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in these cases.\n",
"Section::::Intake.:Effects of cooking.\n\nThe USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more \"bio-available\" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.\n",
"The Food Fortification Initiative lists all countries in the world that conduct fortification programs, and within each country, what nutrients are added to which foods, and whether those programs are voluntary or mandatory. Vitamin fortification programs exist in one or more countries for folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin B, vitamin D and vitamin E. Mineral fortification programs include calcium, fluoride, iodine, iron, selenium and zinc. As of December 21, 2018, 81 countries required food fortification with one or more vitamins. The most commonly fortified vitamin – as used in 62 countries – is folate; the most commonly fortified food is wheat flour. Examples of foods and beverages that have been fortified:\n",
"Ascorbic acid and some of its salts and esters are common additives added to various foods, mostly to retard oxidation. The relevant European food additive E numbers are:\n\nBULLET::::1. E300 ascorbic acid (approved for use as a food additive in the EU, U.S. and Australia and New Zealand)\n\nBULLET::::2. E301 sodium ascorbate (approved for use as a food additive in the EU, U.S. and Australia and New Zealand)\n\nBULLET::::3. E302 calcium ascorbate (approved for use as a food additive in the EU, U.S. and Australia and New Zealand)\n",
"Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure. Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.\n",
"Vitamin B, a bacterial product, cannot be obtained from fruits. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health \"natural food sources of vitamin B are limited to foods that come from animals.\" Like raw vegans who do not consume B-fortified foods (certain plant milks and some breakfast cereals, for example), fruitarians may need to include a B supplement in their diet or risk vitamin B deficiency.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Growth and development issues.\n",
"Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.\n\nSection::::Supplementation.:Governmental regulation.\n",
"The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat, and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B; provitamins; dietary minerals; and carbohydrates.\n",
"Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and juice drinks. Tablet and capsule content ranges from 25 mg to 1500 mg per serving. The most commonly used supplement compounds are ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate. Vitamin C molecules can also be bound to the fatty acid palmitate, creating ascorbyl palmitate, or else incorporated into liposomes.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Food fortification.\n",
"As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to \"the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e., vitamins and minerals in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health\", whereas enrichment is defined as \"synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing\". The Food Fortification Initiative lists all countries in the world that conduct fortification programs, and within each country, what nutrients are added to which foods. Vitamin fortification programs exist in one or more countries for folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin B, vitamin D and vitamin E. As of December 21, 2018, 81 countries required food fortification with one or more vitamins. The most commonly fortified vitamin – as used in 62 countries – is folate; the most commonly fortified food is wheat flour.\n",
"In 2014, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency evaluated the effect of fortification of foods with ascorbate in the guidance document, \"Foods to Which Vitamins, Mineral Nutrients and Amino Acids May or Must be Added\". Voluntary and mandatory fortification was described for various classes of foods. Among foods classified for mandatory fortification with vitamin C were fruit-flavored drinks, mixes, and concentrates, foods for a low-energy diet, meal replacement products, and evaporated milk.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Food additives.\n"
] | [] | [] | [
"normal"
] | [] | [
"normal",
"normal"
] | [] |
2018-00818 | Does eating spicy food destroy beneficial bacteria in your colon? | I am not an expert by any means, but [this article]( URL_0 ) suggests that capsaicin, the active ingredient in spicy food, actually has a beneficial effect on your gut flora. Giving mice capsaicin increased the number of good gut bacteria and reduced the number of bad gut bacteria. | [
"The primary treatment is removal from exposure. Contaminated clothing should be removed and placed in airtight bags to prevent secondary exposure.\n",
"The World Health Organization says care should be taken in the preparation and storage of salsas and any other types of sauces, since many raw-served varieties can act as growth media for potentially dangerous bacteria, especially when unrefrigerated.\n\nIn 2002 a study by the University of Texas–Houston, found sauces contaminated with \"E. coli\" in:\n\nBULLET::::- 66% of the sauces from restaurants tested in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 40% of those from restaurants tested in Houston, Texas\n",
"As of 2007 there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical studies had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevents subject compliance. A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials that had been run, found weak, uneven evidence suggesting that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food that people eat and might drive food choice toward carbohydrates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n",
"Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n",
"A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. However, with newly developed radiation sterilization methods, the risk of Salmonella contamination is now lower.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n",
"Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n",
"Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:\n\nBULLET::::- Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.\n\nBULLET::::- Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.\n\nBULLET::::- Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.\n\nBULLET::::- Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.\n\nBULLET::::- Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chiles.\n",
"Pique sauce\n\nPique is a Puerto Rican hot sauce commonly found at restaurants and roadside stands. Homemade versions of this type of sauce are made by steeping hot peppers in vinegar, with seasonings and fresh herbs. One popular variant is habanero peppers with pineapple and fresh recao leaves. The longer it sits, the hotter it gets.\n\nDifferent types of Island ajíes picantes (hot peppers) will have varying amounts of heat, the hottest of all is the ají caballero.\n\nSection::::Pique criollo.\n",
"Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n",
"In addition, Capsiate Capsicum extract is obtained from Tap de Cortí, which contains spicy substances (capsinoids), with the ability to increase the metabolism, thus increasing energy consumption and diminishing accumulation of fat in the body.\n\nSection::::Conservation and care.\n\nTo get the best yield, the paprika Tap de Cortí should be consumed within the first two years of life. During this period the aroma, taste and colour reflect the highest quality, after this time lose its properties.\n",
"BULLET::::- Allicin, the active piquant flavor chemical in uncooked garlic, and to a lesser extent onions (see those articles for discussion of other chemicals in them relating to pungency, and eye irritation)\n\nBULLET::::- Allyl isothiocyanate (also allyl mercaptan), the active piquant chemical in mustard, radishes, horseradish, and wasabi\n\nBULLET::::- Capsazepine, capsaicin antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerol and shogaol, the active piquant flavor chemicals in ginger\n\nBULLET::::- Iodoresiniferatoxin, an ultrapotent capsaicin antagonist found in \"Euphorbia resinifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- List of investigational analgesics\n\nBULLET::::- Naga Viper pepper, Bhut Jolokia Pepper, Carolina Reaper, Trinidad Moruga Scorpion; some of the world's most capsaicin-rich fruits\n",
"Pique criollo, also known as Pique boricua de botella or Puerto Rican Tabasco is a hot condiment used in Puerto Rican cooking. It is made of Cubanelle peppers, caballero hot peppers and/or habanero peppers, pineapple (skin or small pieces), vinegar, oregano, peppercorns, garlic and/or onions. Some people also add pineapple juice, citrus fruit, cilantro, culantro, sugar, cumin, rum or chocolate.\n",
"Ways of reducing the fishy odor may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Avoiding foods such as egg yolks, legumes, red meats, fish, beans and other foods that contain choline, carnitine, nitrogen, sulfur and lecithin\n\nBULLET::::- Taking low doses of antibiotics such as neomycin and metronidazole in order to reduce the amount of bacteria in the gut\n\nBULLET::::- Using slightly acidic detergent with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5\n",
"The pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n",
"Sofrito - small piquins (\"bird peppers\") with annatto seeds, coriander leaves, onions, garlic, and tomatoes Pique sauce is a Puerto Rican hot sauce made by steeping hot peppers in vinegar. Don Ricardo Original Pique Sauce, which is made with pineapple, is a Puerto Rican staple. Don Ricardo originated in Utuado (Spanish pronunciation: [uˈtwaðo]) a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the central mountainous region of the island known as La Cordillera Central.\n\nSection::::Styles.:North America.:West Indies.:Jamaica.\n\nScotch bonnets are the most popular peppers used on Jamaica. Pickapeppa sauce is a Jamaican sauce.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Asia.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Asia.:Thailand.\n",
"BULLET::::- Garlic\n\nBULLET::::- Green chilli\n\nBULLET::::- Lime juice\n\nBULLET::::- Shallot\n\nBULLET::::- Coriander leaves\n\nBULLET::::- Mint leaves\n\nBULLET::::- Tomato\n\nBULLET::::- Ghee\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogenated vegetable oil (vanaspati)\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut oil\n\nBULLET::::- Edible Rose water\n\nBULLET::::- Curd or yoghurt\n\nBULLET::::- Table salt\n",
"Beginning in 2009, a new type of product known as became a trend in 2010. This variety is known for reduced spiciness, and in addition to the usual oil, chunks of food are included such as fried garlic and fried onion.\n\nSection::::Italy.\n\nThe Italian variety of chili oil (olio di peperoncino) originates from the southern region of Calabria. This variety of chili oil uses olive oil as a base, and has a unique brine flavor. \n\nSection::::Portugal.\n",
"When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n",
"Traditional Panamanian hot sauce is usually made with \"Aji Chombo\", Scotch Bonnet peppers. Picante Chombo D'Elidas is a popular brand in Panama, with three major sauces. The yellow sauce, made with habanero and mustard, is the most distinctive. They also produce red and green varieties which are heavier on vinegar content and without mustard. Although the majority of Panamanian cuisine lacks in spice, D'Elidas is seen as an authentic Panamanian hot sauce usually serviced with Rice with Chicken or soups.\n\nSection::::Styles.:North America.:Mexico.\n",
"For high risk community-acquired infections in adults, the agents recommended for empiric regimens are: meropenem, imipenem-cilastatin, doripenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin in combination with metronidazole, or ceftazidime or cefepime in combination with metronidazole. Quinolones should not be used unless hospital surveys indicate 90% susceptibility of \"E. coli\" to quinolones.\n",
"BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Papaitan\" — Filipino goat or beef tripe and offal soup flavored with bile\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patsás\" (Greek: πατσάς) — Greek, tripe stew seasoned with red wine vinegar and garlic (\"skordostoubi\") or thickened with \"avgolemono\", widely believed to be a hangover remedy\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Pepper Pot soup — American (Pennsylvania) tripe soup with peppercorns\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phở\" — Vietnamese noodle soup with many regional variations, some of which include tripe\n\nBULLET::::- Pickled tripe — pickled white honeycomb tripe once common in the Northeastern United States\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pieds paquets\", Provençal dish, consists of stuffed sheep's offal and sheep's feet stewed together\n",
"Another hypothesis concerning the mechanism of action of praziquantel has been recently reported. The drug seems to interfere with adenosine uptake in cultured worms. This effect may have therapeutical relevance given that the schistosome, as the \"Taenia\" and the \"Echinococcus\" (other praziquantel-sensitive parasites), is unable to synthesize purines such as adenosine \"de novo\".\n",
"Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n",
"\"Helicobacter pylori\" was identified in 1982 by two Australian scientists, Robin Warren and Barry J. Marshall as a causative factor for ulcers. In their original paper, Warren and Marshall contended that most gastric ulcers and gastritis were caused by colonization with this bacterium, not by stress or spicy food as had been assumed before.\n"
] | [
"Eating spicy food could potentially destroy beneficial bacteria in one's colon."
] | [
"Some spicy foods actually benefit the colon rather than destroy, so it's unlikely spicy foods destroy the colon's bacteria."
] | [
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Eating spicy food could potentially destroy beneficial bacteria in one's colon.",
"Eating spicy food could potentially destroy beneficial bacteria in one's colon."
] | [
"normal",
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Some spicy foods actually benefit the colon rather than destroy, so it's unlikely spicy foods destroy the colon's bacteria.",
"Some spicy foods actually benefit the colon rather than destroy, so it's unlikely spicy foods destroy the colon's bacteria."
] |
2018-03643 | how are subatomic particles “caught” to be used in a particle accelerator | Most of the time they are not caught. They are generated, in a collision, and studied as they fly past. When they hit the wall, they are lost. | [
"Section::::Important considerations for particle-beam storage.:Particle injection and timing.\n\nInjection of particles into a storage ring may be accomplished in a number of ways, depending on the application of the storage ring. The simplest method uses one or more pulsed deflecting dipole magnets (injection kicker magnets) to steer an incoming train of particles onto the stored beam path; the kicker magnets are turned off before the stored train returns to the injection point, thus resulting in a stored beam. This method is sometimes called single-turn injection.\n",
"More complex modern synchrotrons such as the Tevatron, LEP, and LHC may deliver the particle bunches into storage rings of magnets with a constant magnetic field, where they can continue to orbit for long periods for experimentation or further acceleration. The highest-energy machines such as the Tevatron and LHC are actually accelerator complexes, with a cascade of specialized elements in series, including linear accelerators for initial beam creation, one or more low energy synchrotrons to reach intermediate energy, storage rings where beams can be accumulated or \"cooled\" (reducing the magnet aperture required and permitting tighter focusing; see beam cooling), and a last large ring for final acceleration and experimentation.\n",
"Section::::Methods.\n\nThe most common type of particles used in single particle tracking are based either on scatterers, such as polystyrene beads or gold nanoparticles that can be tracked using bright field illumination, or fluorescent particles. For fluorescent tags, there are many different options with their own advantages and disadvantages, including quantum dots, fluorescent proteins, organic fluorophores, and cyanine dyes.\n\nOn a fundamental level, once the images are obtained, single-particle tracking is a two step process. First the particles are detected and then the localized different particles are connected in order to obtain individual trajectories.\n",
"Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the polarity is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of \"bunches\" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.\n",
"Those particles that were not deflected into EPA when coming from LIL, were directed straight into a \"dump line\". There, in the middle of the EPA ring, the LIL Experimental Area (LEA) was set up. The electrons coming there were used for many different applications throughout LIL's operation, testing and preparing LEP's and later LHC's detectors. Most famously, the optical fibres for one of CMS's calorimeters were tested here in 2001 during the preparation time of the LHC.\n",
"BULLET::::- A target \"(not shown)\" with which the particles collide, located at the end of the accelerating electrodes. If electrons are accelerated to produce X-rays then a water cooled tungsten target is used. Various target materials are used when protons or other nuclei are accelerated, depending upon the specific investigation. Behind the target are various detectors to detect the particles resulting from the collision of the incoming particles with the atoms of the target. Many linacs serve as the initial accelerator stage for larger particle accelerators such as synchrotrons and storage rings, and in this case after leaving the electrodes the accelerated particles enter the next stage of the accelerator.\n",
"Section::::The method.\n",
"See animated diagram. A linear particle accelerator consists of the following parts:\n",
"This is usually a fixed target, such as the phosphor coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of uranium in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from a fixed point as for a linear accelerator.\n",
"When a nucleus in the target is hit by an electron from the beam, an \"interaction\", or \"event\", occurs, scattering particles into the hall. Each hall contains an array of particle detectors that track the physical properties of the particles produced by the event. The detectors generate electrical pulses that are converted into digital values by analog to digital converters (ADCs), time to digital converters (TDCs) and pulse counters (scalers).\n",
"BULLET::::- Quit the application of a magnetic field\n\nBULLET::::- Discharging the liquid (such as washing buffer) from pipette tip to vessel (in the condition of magnetic force generated by the magnet body is cut off.).\n\nSection::::Automated instruments.:Tajima pipette.:Operations.\n\nAn example of the operations of the nucleic acid extraction apparatus which incorporates\n\nTajima pipette are typically as shown in Fig. 1.\n\nSection::::Automated instruments.:Other methods.\n\nExamples of other type of method of the magnetic particle capturing device are as follows.\n\nBULLET::::- Pen type capture\n\nBULLET::::- Tube type capture\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chaotropic agent\n\nBULLET::::- DNA extraction\n\nBULLET::::- DNA separation by silica adsorption\n",
"Generally, track reconstruction is divided into two stages. First, track finding needs to be performed where a cluster of detector hits believed to originate from the same track are grouped together. Second, a track fitting is performed. Track fitting is the procedure of mathematically fitting a curve to the found hits and from this fit the momentum is obtained.\n",
"A historic method of secondary particle detection still used for demonstration purposes involves the use of cloud chambers to detect the secondary muons created when a pion decays. Cloud chambers in particular can be built from widely available materials and can be constructed even in a high-school laboratory. A fifth method, involving bubble chambers, can be used to detect cosmic ray particles.\n",
"Often data sets of tens of thousands of particle images are used, and to reach an optimal solution an iterative procedure of alignment and classification is used, whereby strong image averages produced by classification are used as reference images for a subsequent alignment of the whole data set.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Image filtering.\n",
"Tracking (particle physics)\n\nIn particle physics, tracking is the process of reconstructing the trajectory (or track) of electrically charged particles in a particle detector known as a tracker. The particles entering such a tracker leave a precise record of their passage through the device, by interaction with suitably constructed components and materials. The presence of a calibrated magnetic field, in all or part of the tracker, allows the local momentum of the charged particle to be directly determined from the reconstructed local curvature of the trajectory for known (or assumed) electric charge of the particle. \n",
"There are two basic types of showers. \"Electromagnetic showers\" are produced by a particle that interacts primarily or exclusively via the electromagnetic force, usually a photon or electron. \"Hadronic showers\" are produced by hadrons (i.e. nucleons and other particles made of quarks), and proceed mostly via the strong nuclear force.\n\nSection::::Types.:Electromagnetic showers.\n",
"In DONUT, protons accelerated by the Tevatron were used to produce tau neutrinos via decay of charmed mesons. After eliminating as many unwanted background particles as possible by a system of magnets and bulk matter (mostly iron and concrete), the beam passed through several sheets of nuclear emulsion. In very rare cases one of the neutrinos would interact in the detector, producing electrically charged particles which left visible tracks in the emulsion and could be electronically registered by a system of scintillators and drift chambers.\n",
"BULLET::::- A straight hollow pipe vacuum chamber which contains the other components. It is evacuated with a vacuum pump so that the accelerated particles will not collide with air molecules. The length will vary with the application. If the device is used for the production of X-rays for inspection or therapy the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters long. If the device is to be an injector for a synchrotron it may be about ten meters long. If the device is used as the primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it may be several thousand meters long.\n",
"Particle shower\n\nIn particle physics, a shower is a cascade of secondary particles produced as the result of a high-energy particle interacting with dense matter. The incoming particle interacts, producing multiple new particles with lesser energy; each of these then interacts, in the same way, a process that continues until many thousands, millions, or even billions of low-energy particles are produced. These are then stopped in the matter and absorbed.\n\nSection::::Types.\n",
"BULLET::::- Additionally, galactic cosmic rays include these particles, but many are from unknown mechanisms\n\nCharged particles (electrons, mesons, protons, alpha particles, heavier HZE ions, etc.) can be produced by particle accelerators. Ion irradiation is widely used in the semiconductor industry to introduce dopants into\n\nmaterials, a method known as ion implantation.\n\nParticle accelerators can also produce neutrino beams. Neutron beams are mostly produced by nuclear reactors. For the production of electromagnetic radiation, there are many methods, depending upon the wave length (see electromagnetic spectrum).\n\nSection::::Passage through matter.\n",
"Section::::Experimental Apparatus.:Beam telescope.\n\nThe timing and the position of the incident particles are determined with cold silicon strip detectors and scintillating fibre detectors. These informations are crucial to determine the interaction point inside the target material. Depending on the beam type, modifications in the beam telescope are done:\n\nBULLET::::- For the muon beam, the momentum is measured using beam momentum stations,\n\nBULLET::::- To distinguish between the different particle types in the hadron beam, a Cherenkov detector is used.\n\nSection::::Experimental Apparatus.:Target.\n\nAccording to the physics goal, a suitable target is needed.\n",
"The Neutrino Factory will create a fairly focused beam of neutrinos at one site on the Earth and fire it downwards, probably in two beams emitted in different directions from a racetrack shaped underground muon storage ring, until the beams resurface at other points. One example could be a complex in the UK sending beams to Japan (see Super-Kamiokande) and Italy (LNGS). The properties of the neutrinos will be examined at the remote sites to determine how neutrinos evolve over time. This will provide information about their masses and weak interaction properties.\n",
"In particle physics one gains knowledge about elementary particles by accelerating particles to very high kinetic energy and letting them impact on other particles. For sufficiently high energy, a reaction occurs that transforms the particles into other particles. Detecting these products gives insight into the physics involved.\n\nTo do such experiments there are two possible setups:\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed target setup: A beam of particles (the \"projectiles\") is accelerated with a particle accelerator, and as collision partner, one puts a stationary target into the path of the beam.\n",
"In particle physics there have been many devices used for tracking. These include cloud chambers (1920–1950), nuclear emulsion plates (1937–), bubble chambers (1952–) , spark chambers (1954-), multi wire proportional chambers (1968–) and drift chambers (1971–), including time projection chambers (1974–). With the advent of semiconductors plus modern photolithography, solid state trackers, also called silicon trackers (1980–), are used in experiments requiring compact, high-precision, fast-readout tracking; for example, close to the primary interaction point in a collider like the LHC.\n",
"Each particle-target collision is called an \"event\". An elaborate data acquisition system records each event measured by the particle detectors, up to several thousand events per second on average. This data is then transferred to a \"farm\" of computing processors. Teams of physicists analyze the events, looking for new kinds of particles or information related to the underlying structure of the proton.\n\nSection::::Detector Description.\n"
] | [
"Subatomic particles are caught.",
"Subatomic particles are caught. "
] | [
"Most of the time subatomic particles are not caught, they are generated, studied, and then lost.",
"Subatomic particles are not caught, but subatomic particles are generated in a collision and studied. "
] | [
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Subatomic particles are caught.",
"Subatomic particles are caught. "
] | [
"false presupposition",
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Most of the time subatomic particles are not caught, they are generated, studied, and then lost.",
"Subatomic particles are not caught, but subatomic particles are generated in a collision and studied. "
] |
2018-10571 | how can a voter’s anonymity be preserved when they cast a provisional ballot before they’re verified as registered? | When a provisional ballot is cast, it’s in a sealed envelope which is put in another envelope. When the election officials review the documentation to see if the voter is entitled to cast the ballot, they then put the sealed envelope in a box with other ballots if everything checks out. Otherwise, the ballot is in a pile to be destroyed. Later, the envelopes are opened. So, the marked ballot and the voters information are never viewed at the same time so they can’t be correlated. | [
"This rule is ensured by a simple restriction: a candidate can't win an election unless its log contains all committed entries. In order to be elected, a candidate has to contact a majority of the cluster, and given the rules for logs to be committed, it means that every committed entry is going to be present on at least one of the servers the candidates contact.\n",
"At this point the voter can either audit or cast the ballot. Auditing the ballot allows the voter to verify that the ciphertext is correct. Once the audit is complete, the ballot must be sealed again. When the voter is ready to cast their ballot, they must verify their login information. Helios authenticates the voter's identity and the ballot is cast. All votes are posted to a public online bulletin board which displays either a voter name or a voter ID number with the encrypted vote. \n",
"When voters turn out to vote, they may be challenged and required to cast a provisional ballot. If investigation of the provisional ballot demonstrates that the voter has just moved or there is an error in the address and the voter is legally registered, the vote should be counted as well as vice versa.\n\nSection::::United States.\n\nSection::::United States.:Legality.\n\nSection 8 of the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA) has been interpreted to prohibit voter caging:\n",
"As unpublished rolls are not made available at polling booths, voters on the unpublished roll must cast a special vote.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.\n\nA person who qualifies to register to vote can be registered anonymously if they can satisfy the electoral registration officer that their safety or that of any other person living in the same household would be at risk if their name and address were printed in the electoral register. \n",
"\"Pursuant to the NVRA, a voter may not be removed from the voters list unless (1) the voter has requested removal; (2) state law requires removal by reason of criminal conviction or mental capacity; (3) the voter has confirmed in writing that he has moved outside the jurisdiction maintaining the specific voter list, or (4) the voter both (a) has failed to respond to a cancellation notice issued pursuant to the NVRA and (b) has not voted or appeared to vote in the two federal general elections following the date of notice.\"\n",
"The voter's ballot receipt does not indicate which candidate the voter cast their ballot for, and therefore it is not secret information. After an election, the election authority will post an image of each receipt online. The voter can look up her ballot by typing in the serial number and she can check that information held by the election authority matches her ballot. This way, the voter can be confident that her ballot was \"cast as intended\".\n",
"The right of political parties to have observers at polling places is long-standing. One of the established roles for such observers is to act as challengers, in the event that someone attempts to vote at the polling place who is not eligible to vote.\n\nBefore the implementation of provisional ballots, some state laws allowed a voter whose eligibility was challenged to cast a \"challenged ballot\". After the polls closed, the canvassing board was then charged with examining the challenged ballots and determining whether the challenge was to be upheld or not.\n",
"Section::::United States.:Examples.:2016: No new violation established.\n\n\"On October 26, 2016, the DNC filed a motion asking that the court find the RNC had violated the decree. On November 5, after abbreviated discovery, the district court denied the DNC’s request, ruling that the DNC had not provided sufficient evidence of coordination between the Trump campaign and the RNC on ballot-security operations, but will allow the DNC to offer further evidence after the election,\" according to the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law. \n\n2016: Indiana voter purges\n",
"In the \"strict\" states, a voter cannot cast a valid ballot without first presenting ID. Voters who are unable to show ID at the polls are given a provisional ballot. Those provisional ballots are kept separate from the regular ballots. If the voter returns to election officials within a short period of time after the election (generally a few days) and presents acceptable ID, the provisional ballot is counted. If the voter does not come back to show ID, that provisional ballot is never counted.\n",
"In an experiment in Northern Ireland using personal identifiers, such as National Insurance numbers and signatures, the number of registered electors fell by some ten thousand. It was also understood that the new process may have resulted in fictitious voters being dropped from rolls.\n",
"Provisional ballots are for would-be voters who assert that they are registered but whose names cannot be found in the list available at the polling place. The voter completes a written ballot, which is placed in a sealed envelope. The ballot is opened and counted only if the voter is subsequently found to be registered.\n",
"Alternatively, assertions regarding ballot stuffing can be externally verified by comparing the number of votes cast with the number of registered voters who voted, and by auditing other aspects of the registration and ballot delivery system.\n\nSupport for E2E auditability, based on prior experience using it with in-person elections, is also seen as a requirement for remote voting over the Internet by many experts.\n\nSection::::Use in elections.\n\nThe city of Takoma Park, Maryland used Scantegrity II for its 2009 and 2011 city elections.\n",
"In the 2018 midterm elections, both valid and invalid provisional ballots were mixed together in Florida after the initial vote count, which provided no way to be separated for the recount.\n\nComputer scientist and election official Douglas W. Jones has criticized the offer of a provisional ballot as \"a way to brush off troublesome voters by letting them think they have voted.\" He expressed the concern that, under some states' laws, casting a provisional ballot at the wrong precinct would disenfranchise voters who could have cast valid ballots had they been redirected to the proper precinct.\n\nSection::::Rates of acceptance.\n",
"A voter could cast their vote at a polling station of their choice within their own district. At the casting their vote, they could identify themselves with an identity document which is considered valid even if it has expired within the last five years.\n\nSection::::Background.:Voting and election organisation.:Numbering of the candidates list.\n",
"Once the anonymous elector application has been accepted by the electoral registration officer, the applicant's entry in the Electoral Register appears as an elector number and the letter N, rather than their name and address. Only the returning officer, the jury service in England and Wales, the security services and police forces have access to the name and address of anonymous electors. A 'certificate of anonymous registration' is then issued to the anonymous elector in case they need to prove their identity and address in order to obtain credit or to donate money or loan money to a political party/candidate (but as this involves handing over name and address details to a third party, the anonymous elector should only do this if they are absolutely confident that the other party will keep the information secure). The anonymous elector application lasts twelve months, after which it must be renewed.\n",
"Registered persons may need to re-register or update their registration if they change residence or other relevant information. In some jurisdictions, when a person registers a change of residence with a government agency, say, for a driver's license, the government agency may forward the information to the electoral agency to automatically update the voter registration information.\n",
"Regulation 23 of the Representation of the People Regulations 2001 states that the electoral registration officer has the power to require information needed for the purpose of maintaining the electoral register. Any person that fails to give information is liable on summary conviction to a fine.\n\nA person can register anonymously if their safety (or the safety of someone in their household) would be at risk if their name and address appeared on the electoral register. Documentary evidence of a court order or an attestation from an authorised person is required.\n\nSection::::Current procedure.:Individual Electoral Registration.\n",
"Anonymous elector\n\nAn anonymous elector is generally a registered voter whose safety would be at risk if their details were available on a public electoral register.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nIn Australia, a voter anonymously registered is known as a silent elector. To be a silent elector, a voter must satisfy the Divisional Returning Officer that their safety or that of any other person living in the same household would be at risk if their name and address were printed in the electoral register. Silent elector registration forms must be returned by post, not by fax or by e-mail.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n",
"Provision of false information to a registration officer is an offence under section 13D of the 1983 Act. While no specific allegation of false registration was particularised on the election petition, evidences were heard by the court as part of the case on personation and other voting offences. A schedule containing multiple false registrations were submitted to and accepted by the court where all entries were shown to have voted for Rahman.\n",
"Section::::Additional security.:Commitments.\n\nPrior to an election, the election authority prints the ballots and creates the database(s). Part of this creation process involves committing to the unique information contained on each ballot and in the databases. This is accomplished by applying a cryptographic one-way function to the information. Though the result of this function, the commitment, is made public, the actual information being committed to remains sealed. Because the function is one-way, it is computationally infeasible to determine the information on the sealed ballot given only its publicly posted commitment.\n\nSection::::Additional security.:Ballot inspection.\n",
"To cast a proxy vote, the user appoints someone as their \"proxy\", by authorizing them to cast or secure their vote in their stead. The proxy must be trusted by the voter, as in a secret ballot there is no way of verifying that they voted for the correct candidate. In an attempt to solve this, it is not uncommon for people to nominate an official of their chosen party as their proxy.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Internet voting.\n",
"Proxy voting is particularly vulnerable to election fraud, due to the amount of trust placed in the person who casts the vote. In several countries, there have been allegations of retirement home residents being asked to fill out 'absentee voter' forms. When the forms are signed and gathered, they are secretly rewritten as applications for proxy votes, naming party activists or their friends and relatives as the proxies. These people, unknown to the voter, cast the vote for the party of their choice. In the United Kingdom, this is known as 'granny farming.'\n\nSection::::Specific methods.:Destruction or invalidation of ballots.\n",
"After the petition is submitted, visitors may track the petitions progress through the parliament or local council, for example via a “progress in parliament” button.\n\nSection::::The system.:Signing the petition.\n\nSignatories’ names are displayed for transparency, but addresses are stored privately, ensuring that the system complies with data protection laws.\n",
"In Raft, the request from a candidate to a voter includes information about the candidate's log. If its own log is more up-to-date than the candidate's log, the voter denies its vote to the candidate. This implementation ensures the State Machine Safety rule.\n\nSection::::Basics.:Safety.:Follower crashes.\n",
"However, anonymous online speech is not without limits. It is clearly demonstrated in a case from 2008, one in which the defendant stated on a law-school discussion board that two women should be raped, an anonymous poster’s comments may extend beyond free speech protections. In the case, a Connecticut federal court must apply a standard to decide whether the poster’s identity should be revealed. There are several tests, however, that the court could apply when considering this issue.\n\nSection::::Legal protection of anonymity.:European Union.\n"
] | [
"Provisional ballots are visible to election staff."
] | [
"Provisional ballots are in a sealed envelope which is put inside another envelope, they are not visible to election staff."
] | [
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Provisional ballots are visible to election staff.",
"Provisional ballots are visible to election staff."
] | [
"false presupposition",
"normal"
] | [
"Provisional ballots are in a sealed envelope which is put inside another envelope, they are not visible to election staff.",
"Provisional ballots are in a sealed envelope which is put inside another envelope, they are not visible to election staff."
] |
2018-16257 | Why is it when you get intoxicated from alcohol you're drunk, but if you get intoxicated from something else you're high? | [Slang changes over time]( URL_0 ). It used to be “getting stoned” and being “high” were euphemisms for being drunk on alcohol. If you’re asking about the physiology of intoxications, each drug acts on the brain (and body) in a different way, so the perception of intoxication is different. | [
"Section::::History.\n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, Buffett frequently sang the song in concert with one of the choruses replaced with \"why don't we get stoned and screw.\" This can be heard on the 1978 live album release \"You Had to Be There\", where Buffett declares \"I just bought some Colombian herb and we'll smoke it all, me and you.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- F10.0 alcohol intoxication (drunk)\n\nBULLET::::- F11.0 opioid intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F12.0 cannabinoid intoxication (high)\n\nBULLET::::- F13.0 sedative and hypnotic intoxication (see benzodiazepine overdose and barbiturate overdose)\n\nBULLET::::- F14.0 cocaine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F15.0 caffeine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F16.0 hallucinogen intoxication (See for example Lysergic acid diethylamide effects)\n\nBULLET::::- F17.0 tobacco intoxication (See for example Nicotine Poisoning)\n\nSection::::Classification.:Contact high.\n\nThe term contact high is sometimes used to describe intoxication without direct administration, either by second-hand smoke (as with cannabis), or by placebo in the presence of others who are intoxicated.\n\nSection::::See also.\n",
"The Differentiator Model is based on the widely accepted notion that alcohol's effects are biphasic. That is, the stimulating effects of alcohol (i.e., euphoria, sociality, energy) are more prevalent as BAC rises (i.e., ascending limb), while alcohol's sedative effects (i.e., relaxation, nausea, headaches) are experienced most strongly as BAC falls (i.e., descending limb). The Differentiator Model proposes that individuals at greatest risk for developing alcohol use disorder (or those who already meet criteria for alcohol use disorder) are more sensitive to the stimulating effects of alcohol on the ascending limb of intoxication and less sensitive to the sedative effects on the descending limb. Additionally, the combination of heightened rewards and diminished consequences over the course of a drinking episode increases motivation to consume alcohol, leading to longer and more frequent drinking episodes. Repeated engagement in these risky drinking occasions may ultimately contribute to the development of alcohol use disorder.\n",
"The role of cannabis use in regard to alcohol use and Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is not fully understood. Some studies suggest better alcohol treatment completion for those who use cannabis while other studies find the opposite. A recent review of 39 studies which examined the relation between cannabis use and alcohol use found that 16 studies support the idea that cannabis and alcohol are substitutes for each other, 10 studies found that they are complements, 12 found that they are neither complementary nor substitutes, and one found that they are both.\n",
"Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?\n\n\"Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?\" is a song by English indie rock band Arctic Monkeys. It was released as the third single from their fifth studio album \"AM\" on 11 August 2013. It was written by the group's lead vocalist Alex Turner while its production was handled by James Ford. Upon its release, many critics compared the composition of \"Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?\" with works by different artists.\n",
"Alcohol can intensify the sedation caused by other central nervous system depressants such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opioids, nonbenzodiazepines/Z-drugs (such as zolpidem and zopiclone), antipsychotics, sedative antihistamines, and certain antidepressants. It interacts with cocaine \"in vivo\" to produce cocaethylene, another psychoactive substance. Ethanol enhances the bioavailability of methylphenidate (elevated plasma dexmethylphenidate). In combination with cannabis, ethanol increases plasma tetrahydrocannabinol levels, which suggests that ethanol may increase the absorption of tetrahydrocannabinol.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Disulfiram-like drugs.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Disulfiram-like drugs.:Disulfiram.\n",
"Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"The difference in volatility between water and ethanol has traditionally been used in the refinement of drinking alcohol. In order to increase the concentration of ethanol in the product, alcohol makers would heat the initial alcohol mixture to a temperature where most of the ethanol vaporizes while most of the water remains liquid. The ethanol vapor is then collected and condensed in a separate container, resulting in a much more concentrated product.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Perfume.\n",
"Support for the Differentiator Model is mixed, perhaps reflecting the paucity of studies designed to test the model itself or record SR over both limbs of intoxication. Both oral and intravenous alcohol administration studies reported that FH+ subjects experienced elevated sensitivity to stimulating effects of alcohol along rising BAC, without the corresponding attenuation of sedative effects as BAC fell. A study using an intravenous alcohol clamping method (participants were titrated to a BAC of .06 g/dl whereupon alcohol was infused to maintain a stable BAC for the duration of the study) reported that FH+ subjects experienced heightened stimulation on the ascending limb of intoxication, consistent with the Differentiator Model. However, FH+ subjects reported decreased stimulation during clamping, indicative of acute tolerance.\n",
"According to DSST, alcohol provides a reduction in performance and caffeine has a significant improvement in performance. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects produced by caffeine are affected, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, when additional caffeine is added, the drug effect produced by alcohol is not reduced. However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol is consumed. Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control. Caffeine antagonizes the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as this may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury.\n",
"1. While under the influence of intoxicating liquor, any drug, a vapor releasing substance containing a toxic substance or any combination of liquor, drugs or vapor releasing substances if the person is impaired to the slightest degree. \"\n",
"Section::::Single release.\n",
"A stimulus that is present when a drug is administered or consumed may eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of the drug. This is sometimes the case with caffeine; habitual coffee drinkers may find that the smell of coffee gives them a feeling of alertness. In other cases, the conditioned response is a compensatory reaction that tends to offset the effects of the drug. For example, if a drug causes the body to become less sensitive to pain, the compensatory conditioned reaction may be one that makes the user more sensitive to pain. This compensatory reaction may contribute to drug tolerance. If so, a drug user may increase the amount of drug consumed in order to feel its effects, and end up taking very large amounts of the drug. In this case a dangerous overdose reaction may occur if the CS happens to be absent, so that the conditioned compensatory effect fails to occur. For example, if the drug has always been administered in the same room, the stimuli provided by that room may produce a conditioned compensatory effect; then an overdose reaction may happen if the drug is administered in a different location where the conditioned stimuli are absent.\n",
"A bit of Texas tradition is captured in \"Sangria Wine,\" a recollection of nights passed in the company of friends, Mexican food, and the titular potent potable. \"Get It Out\" and \"Wheel\", which both make their lone showings in Walker's recorded output here, are twin sides of the same coin: the first a declaration of defiant living, the second a meditation on the fragile and transitory nature of life.\n",
"In the US state of Colorado, the state government indicates that \"[a]ny amount of marijuana consumption puts you at risk of driving impaired.\" Colorado law states that \"drivers with five nanograms of active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in their whole blood can be prosecuted for driving under the influence (DUI). However, no matter the level of THC, law enforcement officers base arrests on observed impairment.\" In Colorado, if consumption of marijuana is impairing your ability to drive, \"it is illegal for you to be driving, even if that substance is prescribed [by a doctor] or legally acquired.\" \n\nSection::::Other drugs.:Prescription medications.\n",
"Section::::United States.\n\nAccording to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Drug Evaluation and Classification program (DEC), a drug is “any substance that, when taken into the human body, can impair the ability of the person to operate a vehicle safely.\" Under this definition, alcohol would be classified as a drug. For the purposes of this article, drug impaired driving is the use of drugs other than alcohol and the effect on driving.\n\nSection::::United States.:Detection.\n",
"However, in \"Powell v. Texas\", , the Court upheld a statute barring public intoxication by distinguishing \"Robinson\" on the basis that \"Powell\" dealt with a person who was drunk \"in public\", not merely for being addicted to alcohol.\n",
"Absorption of alcohol continues for anywhere from 20 minutes (on an empty stomach) to two-and-one-half hours (on a full stomach) after the last consumption. Peak absorption generally occurs within an hour. During the initial absorptive phase, the distribution of alcohol throughout the body is not uniform. Uniformity of distribution, called equilibrium, occurs just as absorption completes. In other words, some parts of the body will have a higher blood alcohol content (BAC) than others. One aspect of the non-uniformity before absorption is complete is that the BAC in arterial blood will be higher than in venous blood. \n",
"Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\n",
"Some states allow for conviction for impaired driving based upon a measurement of THC, through blood test or urine testing. For example, in Colorado and Washington, driving with a blood level of THC in excess of 5 nanograms can result in a DUI conviction. In Nevada, the legal THC limit is 2 nanograms. It is also possible for a driver to be convicted of impaired driving based upon the officer's observations of impairment, even if the driver is under the legal limit. In states that have not yet established a THC blood level that triggers a presumption of impaired driving, a driver may similarly be convicted of impaired driving based upon the officer's observations and performance on other sobriety tests.\n",
"Intoxication in English law is a circumstance which may alter the capacity of a defendant to form mens rea, where a charge is one of specific intent, or may entirely negate mens rea where the intoxication is involuntary. The fact that a defendant is intoxicated in the commission of a crime — whether voluntarily or not — has never been regarded as a full defence to criminal proceedings (unlike statutory defences such as self defence). Its development at common law has been shaped by the acceptance that intoxicated individuals do not think or act as rationally as they would otherwise, but also by a public policy necessity to punish individuals who commit crimes.\n",
"Nonetheless, policymakers in the United States have generally dealt with cannabis-and-driving criminalization by importing the alcohol DUI regime into the cannabis context. This has led to complications down the road when cannabis-driving cases land in criminal court because cannabis detection science differs vastly from alcohol detection science. For example, blood alcohol content (BAC) has similar rates of absorption, distribution, and elimination across all humans, and there is also a fairly good correlation between BAC and level of impairment (in other words, impairment increases when BAC increases, and impairment decreases when BAC decreases). This has allowed law enforcement to use tools like breathalyzers and blood tests in criminal court because alcohol concentration is a relatively reliable indicator of how recently and how much alcohol was consumed. In contrast, THC levels can vary widely depending on the means of ingestion, THC is metabolized at an exponentially declining rate (as opposed to the steady metabolization rate for alcohol), and there is very poor correlation of THC blood levels with impairment. As stated in a report to Congress produced by the U.S. Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, \"[I]n contrast to the situation with alcohol, someone can show little or no impairment at a THC level at which someone else may show a greater degree of impairment.\" The report also noted that, in some studies, THC was detectable as late as 30 days after ingestion--even though the acute psychoactive effects of cannabis last only for a few hours.\n",
"Section::::Miley Cyrus version.\n",
"Research on alcohol’s effects on cortisol dates back to the 1950s. Many studies showed a relation between the two, however they were limited to short-term alcohol ingestion. The first human study to assess the long-term effects of alcohol ingestion on cortisol was conducted in 1966 (Mendelson et al.). They found heightened cortisol levels in both alcoholics and non-alcoholics while actively drinking. Cortisol was overall higher in alcoholics than non-alcoholics, indicating that alcohol has long-term effects on the endocrine system. Also, alcoholics had the highest cortisol levels after drinking stopped, demonstrating symptoms of withdrawal (a hormonal marker of alcohol addiction).\n",
"Some literature has attributed the \"Grand Rapids Effect\" to erroneous data or asserted (without support) that it was possibly due to drivers exerting extra caution at low BAC levels or to \"experience\" in drinking. Other explanations are that this effect is at least in part the blocking effect of ethanol excitotoxicity and the effect of alcohol in essential tremor and other movement disorders, but this remains speculative.\n"
] | [
"Getting intoxicated from alcohol is never called getting stoned and being high."
] | [
"The slang getting stoned and being high used to refer to being drunk on alcohol, but the meaning of these slang phrases has changed over time."
] | [
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Getting intoxicated from alcohol is never called getting stoned and being high.",
"Getting intoxicated from alcohol is never called \"getting stoned\" and being \"high.\""
] | [
"normal",
"false presupposition"
] | [
"The slang getting stoned and being high used to refer to being drunk on alcohol, but the meaning of these slang phrases has changed over time.",
"The slang \"getting stoned\" and being \"high\" used to refer to being drunk on alcohol, but the meaning of these slang phrases has changed over time."
] |
2018-09504 | When a lawyer "objects" to another lawyers statement, how is it handled. | Discussing things in the jury room that you have been instructed not to discuss is a good way to find yourself in contempt of court. If something is brought up in front of the jury that the judge feels is inadmissible but would be impossible for the jury to ignore he can declare a mistrial. Generally though there are no surprises in court. Both sets of attorneys have lists of the witnesses and evidence the other side intends to present, and have opportunities to challenge them in pre-trial motions. | [
"An attorney filing documents with the court, including pleadings, must sign the documents. The attorney thereby certifies that he has read them, that they are grounded in fact or law as determined by a good-faith investigation, and that they are not being filed for the purposes of harassment or delay. An attorney who violates these rules can be held liable for the costs and attorney's fees incurred by the other party in responding to the document. A document that is \"not\" signed by the attorney may be stricken. Where a party is not represented by counsel, the party must sign the documents himself, and thereby make the foregoing certifications.\n",
"The case law standard for determining what comments cross the line is generally \"the application of law to facts specific to an individual seeking legal advice\". Attorneys may use a disclaimer to reduce confusion, and \"I am not your lawyer\" is part of a typical disclaimer. There are \"weighty obligations\" that go along with the creation of a lawyer–client relationship, particularly if an \"online exchange includes legal advice relating to the client's specific facts\". Courts have held that (in the case of 900 numbers) boilerplate disclaimers without clear actions to indicate assent may not avoid the creation of a lawyer–client relationship.\n",
"The pleadings consist of ‘‘printed or written statements’’. Except where a party is appearing in person, he or she does not draft or sign the pleadings; this is done by the legal representative. \n",
"BULLET::::- \"The parties intend that this Agreement, together with all attachments, schedules, exhibits, and other documents that both are referenced in this Agreement and refer to this Agreement, represent the final expression of the parties' intent relating to the subject matter of this Agreement, contain all the terms the parties agreed to relating to the subject matter, and replace all of the parties' previous discussions, understandings, negotiations, representations and agreements relating to the subject matter of this Agreement regardless whether written or oral.\"\n",
"What follows is a series of documentary exchanges, called pleadings, between the parties akin to a conversation on paper. Each party's legal representative sets out the material facts of their complaint or defence, as the case may be, in summary form. This effectively means that conclusions of fact are pleaded. Because pleadings consist of simple statements and do not disclose evidence, they are not affirmed under oath. The procedure is strictly regulated by the rules of court, not least with respect to the time limits that have to be observed. Failure to comply with the rules of court can be fatal for a case.\n",
"In addition, the hold must include precise, clear language that informs all custodians of their responsibilities to preserve evidence. Once the organization issues the litigation hold, the lawyer’s responsibilities toward this data do not end; rather, they must regularly prompt custodians to continue preserving evidence by sending out reminder notices.\n",
"BULLET::::- The communication must have been made in confidence. If you shout out the information at top of your voice to your lawyer, such that everyone hears it, you cannot realistically claim privilege. Much the same applies if a police officer is present during the communication between lawyer and client.\n\nBULLET::::- The communication must have been made either for the purpose of obtaining professional legal advice, or for the purpose of pending litigation.\n\nPayment or non-payment of fees to legal counsel is not automatically decisive. The situation appears to cover communications to salaried legal advisers.\n",
"Attorneys for the deposing litigant are often present, although this is not required in all jurisdictions. The attorney who has ordered the deposition begins questioning of the deponent (this is referred to as \"direct examination\" or \"direct\" for short). Since nods and gestures cannot be recorded, the witness is instructed to answer all questions aloud. After the direct examination, other attorneys in attendance have an opportunity to cross-examine the witness. The first attorney may ask more questions at the end, in \"re-direct\", which may be followed by \"re-cross\".\n",
"Even if an exception to the work-product doctrine is made, the court would still protect privileged actions by an attorney, by redacting the privileged part of the document. \"Memoranda, briefs, communications ... other writings prepared by counsel for his/her own use in prosecuting the client's case ... mental impressions, conclusions, opinions, or legal theories\" are never discoverable by an opposing party.\n\nSection::::History.\n",
"To familiarize oneself with the matter, it is absolutely necessary that the lawyer obtains all witness statements and documents to be relied on and peruses them carefully. Should there be a loophole in the evidence, he should raise it with the prosecution for redress. To achieve this, it is imperative that the lawyer develops a cordial relationship with the prosecutor so that the information flowing to him (prosecutor) will appear as persuasive suggestions as opposed to orders which are more often likely to be ignored since the lawyer has no control over the prosecutor in his line of duty. Further, in Kenya, apart from introducing himself, the lawyer watching brief has no right of audience before the court and so the prosecutor becomes his mouthpiece.\n",
"BULLET::::3. extrinsic evidence regarding previous negotiations and correspondence between the parties, as well as their subsequent conduct, \"showing the sense in which they acted on the document, save direct evidence of their own intentions.\" This is necessary when the language of the document is on the face of it ambiguous.\n",
"For “common interest” or “joint defense” doctrine to apply, to permit parties with common interest in actual or potential litigation to share privileged information without waiving their right to assert privilege, parties' common interest must be identical and not merely similar, and must be legal and not solely commercial. Furthermore, the protection of the privilege “extends only to communications and not to facts.” While a client may refuse to answer questions regarding what it said or wrote to its attorney, it may not refuse to disclose relevant facts “merely because [it] incorporated a statement of such fact into [its] communication to [its] attorney.” The joint defense privilege, like the attorney–client privilege, does not protect “underlying facts embodied in a communication between attorney and client.”\n",
"The conveyancing process in the United States varies from state to state depending on local legal requirements and historical practice. In rare situations, the parties will engage in a formal \"closing.\" In a formal closing three attorneys will be involved in the process: one each to represent the buyer, seller, and mortgage holder; frequently all three will sit around a table with the buyer and seller and literally \"pass papers\" to effect the transaction.\n",
"Section::::Case conference.\n\nIn many courts in the common law system, a case conference may be used to settle a case.\n\nIn some courts, the rules require that before certain types of motions or petitions will be heard by the judge, the lawyers must \"meet and confer\" to try to resolve the matter.\n\nSection::::Foreclosure Pre-foreclosure Settlement Conferences.\n",
"Most South African writers and cases treat this as one branch of privilege. Zeffertt \"et al.\", in Chapter 17 of their book, treat it as two separate branches. This article treats it as one branch with different rules for different situations.\n\nLegal professional privilege applies to both criminal and civil cases.\n\nThe basic rule is that communications between a lawyer and a client may not be disclosed without the client’s consent. The communications “belong” to the client, not to the lawyer. It is the client’s choice to consent to or refuse their disclosure.\n",
"Such exchanges are not technically part of the pleading process, and parties are not encouraged to take points on any discrepancy between pre-action correspondence and the formal statements of case. Their function is to facilitate out-of-court approaches to resolving the dispute, or identifying the issues that divide the parties. The courts consider the genuineness of attempts to resolve the case by dialogue, when considering how costs will be bourne by the parties.\n\nSection::::Pleading in court.\n",
"A corollary to the attorney-client privilege is the joint defense privilege, which is also called the common interest rule. The common interest rule \"serves to protect the confidentiality of communications passing from one party to another party where a joint defense or strategy has been decided upon and undertaken by the parties and their respective counsel.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Badgering\": counsel is antagonizing the witness in order to provoke a response, either by asking questions without giving the witness an opportunity to answer or by openly mocking the witness.\n",
"In the United States, as a general rule, courts do not have self-executing powers. In other words, in order for the court to rule on a contested issue in a case before it, one of the parties or a third party must raise an appropriate motion asking for a particular order. Some motions may be made in the form of an oral request in open court, which is then either summarily granted or denied orally by the court. Today, however, most motions (especially on important or dispositive issues that could decide the entire case) are decided after oral argument preceded by the filing and service of legal papers. That is, the movant is usually required to serve advance written notice along with some kind of written legal argument justifying the motion. The legal argument may come in the form of a memorandum of points and authorities supported by affidavits or declarations. Some northeastern U.S. states have a tradition in which the legal argument comes in the form of an affidavit from the attorney, speaking personally as himself on behalf of his client. In contrast, in most U.S. states, the memorandum is written impersonally or as if the client were speaking directly to the court, and the attorney reserves declarations of his own personal knowledge to a separate declaration or affidavit (which are then cited to in the memorandum). One U.S. state, Missouri, uses the term \"suggestions\" for the memorandum of points and authorities.\n",
"A defendant using ambiguity in the courtroom may present issues and be deemed unacceptable. Specifically, when a victim is invoking their right to a lawyer, there are directions stating that the request may not come off as ambiguous. In fact, if the request is not stated in a way that the officer deems to be clear, the victim may not receive their request for counsel at all. Refer to the following link to explore an example through the \"Louisiana vs. Demesme\" case.\n",
"The Rules and their Practice Directions (principally CPR 16 and its related Practice Direction 16) also set out various items which must be included in or served with statements of case in particular circumstances. Examples include: - \n\nSection::::Pleading in court.:Statements of case.\n\nStatements of case may refer to points of law and include names of witnesses whom it is proposed to call. A party may also attach to or serve with a statement of case any document which is considered necessary to the claim or defence, but which is not required to be attached or served.\n",
"The Second Circuit court in 2011 ruled that it was not improper for an attorney to ghostwrite legal pleadings on behalf of a self-represented litigant.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n",
"Lawyers employs specific tactics for both themselves and their witnesses to come off as more or less truthful to the jury and the people of the courtroom. For example, the lawyer may refer to the witness by their first name or a nickname to humanize the witness, or they may speak using slang in order to create less social distance between himself and the courtroom. The lawyer may also avoid using slang, and instead use complicated law terminology to set himself apart from the courtroom and define his status (Olsson, Luchjenborers, 2013).\n",
"Lawyers and legal professionals regularly share documents with opposing counsel. As the documents constructed in this business vertical may be binding on either side's clients, it is essential that the risks associated with changes are completely mitigated. If opposing counsel makes a change that is not detected by the lawyer, such a change could negatively affect the lawyer's client and the lawyer could be liable for the damages.\n\nSection::::Business Relevance.:Document comparison in banking, finance and accounting.\n",
"During direct examination, if the examining attorney who called the witness finds that their testimony is antagonistic or contrary to the legal position of their client, the attorney may request that the judge declare the witness hostile. If the request is granted, the attorney may proceed to ask the witness leading questions. Leading questions either suggest the answer (\"You saw my client sign the contract, correct?\") or challenge (impeach) the witness's testimony. As a rule, leading questions are generally only allowed during cross-examination, but a hostile witness is an exception to this rule.\n"
] | [] | [] | [
"normal"
] | [
"Lawyer's are unaware of the other lawyer's statements in court."
] | [
"normal",
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Generally though there are no surprises in court, both sets of attorneys have lists of the witnesses and evidence the other side intends to present"
] |
2018-02158 | how are people able to track hackers ie: where they are, who they are, etc | This is part of digital forensics and is kind of like asking 'how do you know that this person murdered this other person without actually witnessing it?'. You can narrow hacking down to 1) Physical access - someone having access to the machine in order to clone the data to another device or crack it at the location 2) Remote access - someone able to crack into a device via logging in from another location. The password can be cracked by acting as a man-in-the-middle (think wiretapping) or hash-cracking, exploits, 0-days (think lock picking) 3) Exploiting bad code - bad sanitization ( URL_0 ) The way to track these people is by taking advantage of how they use the exploits and either de-anonymizing them via some method (comparing ISP logs with VPNs / other servers) or traditional methods (looking for motives and narrowing people down). If it is just one person this could be pretty hard to do, especially if there is no real motive except curiosity or mischief. If it is something bigger, the more people are involved, then the greater the chance you find someone who made a mistake, and the greater chance you catch someone who will talk (for a deal). | [
"BULLET::::- Identifying attackers is difficult, as they are often in a different jurisdiction to the systems they attempt to breach, and operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back tracing difficult and are often located in yet another jurisdiction. If they successfully breach security, they are often able to delete logs to cover their tracks.\n",
"A common example might be following unauthorized network intrusion. A specialist forensic examination into the nature and extent of the attack is performed as a damage limitation exercise. Both to establish the extent of any intrusion and in an attempt to identify the attacker. Such attacks were commonly conducted over phone lines during the 1980s, but in the modern era are usually propagated over the Internet.\n",
"The concept of CyberHumint allows cyber experts and human intelligence specialists to use real-life human sources, both in the gt and within many public or secret online social networks and operating systems.\n\nBy investigating authentic human sources, intelligence experts and cyber experts can explore the various possible aims of potential attackers and their abilities, by monitoring their electronic activities. Outcomes usually leave much to be desired. Attackers are only identified after the attack has started. In just a handful of cases did companies manage to alert their clients against a pending attack.\n",
"In 2011, Andress and Winterfeld drew the attention to the fact that while cyber security experts can deliver extensive reports on Internet risks, most of the alerts are still general, unspecific and do not actually meet the expectations of the specific organization. In addition, cyber security companies locate hackers or cyber attackers only when the attack is already in progress or worse - after a given system has already been damaged or compromised.\n",
"Today, an important role is played by a Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT), due to the rise of internet crime, and is a common example of incident faced by companies in developed nations all across the world. For example, if an organization discovers that an intruder has gained unauthorized access to a computer system, the CSIRT would analyze the situation, determine the breadth of the compromise, and take corrective action. Computer forensics is one task included in this process. Currently, over half of the world’s hacking attempts on Trans National Corporations (TNCs) take place in North America (57%). 23% of attempts take place in Europe. Having a well-rounded Computer Security Incident Response team is integral to providing a secure environment for any organization, and is becoming a critical part of the overall design of many modern networking teams.\n",
"The robot's tunnel system is extensive but unmarked, so getting around is initially an exercise in trial and error. Throughout the globe, there are several cities where the robot can surface and interact with people, primarily the spies who want to bargain for their piece of the evidence.\n",
"Frank's most recent research deals with people’s behaviors in security settings. This includes such things as law enforcement, the legal system and counter-terrorism. The work he contributes to deals with deception clues and how people are good at spotting these clues, and whether or not they can train people to detect the clues as best as they can. Also they try to increase the ability of the automated systems that might assist the recognition of individuals who convey to commit these types of acts.\n\nSection::::Media appearances.\n",
"Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities, such as open ports, insecure software configurations, and susceptibility to malware infections. They may also be identified by consulting public sources, such as NVD, or subscribing to a commercial vulnerability alerting service such as Symantec's DeepSight Vulnerability Datafeed or Accenture's Vulnerability Intelligence Service. Unknown vulnerabilities, such as a zero-day, may be found with fuzz testing, which can identify certain kinds of vulnerabilities, such as a buffer overflow with relevant test cases. Such analysis can be facilitated by test automation. In addition, antivirus software capable of heuristic analysis may discover undocumented malware if it finds software behaving suspiciously (such as attempting to overwrite a system file).\n",
"As cybercrime has proliferated, a professional ecosystem has evolved to support individuals and groups seeking to profit from cybercriminal activities. The ecosystem has become quite specialized, including malware developers, botnet operators, professional cybercrime groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen content, and so forth. A few of the leading cybersecurity companies have the skills, resources and visibility to follow the activities of these individuals and group. A wide variety of information is available from these sources which can be used for defensive purposes, including technical indicators such as hashes of infected files or malicious IPs/URLs, as well as strategic information profiling the goals, techniques and campaigns of the profiled groups. Some of it is freely published, but consistent, on-going access typically requires subscribing to an adversary intelligence subscription service. At the level of an individual threat actor, threat intelligence is often referred to that actor's \"TTP\", or \"tactics, techniques, and procedures,\" as the infrastructure, tools, and other technical indicators are often trivial for attackers to change. Corporate sectors are considering crucial role of artificial intelligence cybersecurity.\n",
"Common functionality of cyber-collection systems include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Data scan\": local and network storage are scanned to find and copy files of interest, these are often documents, spreadsheets, design files such as Autocad files and system files such as the passwd file.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capture location\": GPS, WiFi, network information and other attached sensors are used to determine the location and movement of the infiltrated device\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bug\": the device microphone can be activated in order to record audio. Likewise, audio streams intended for the local speakers can be intercepted at the device level and recorded.\n",
"Ethical hackers are employed by organizations to penetrate networks and computer systems with the purpose of finding and fixing security vulnerabilities. The EC-Council offers another certification, known as Certified Network Defense Architect (CNDA). This certification is designed for United States Government agencies and is available only to members of selected agencies including some private government contractors, primarily in compliance to DOD Directive 8570.01-M. It is also ANSI accredited and is recognized as a GCHQ Certified Training (GCT).\n\nSection::::EC-Council’s VAPT Certification Track.\n",
"The majority of cyber security defenders currently use automatic network scans as a routine measure. A human analyst becomes involved only at the final stage of data-gathering, which means the bulk of the available data will not be analyzed in real time.\n\nSection::::Hackers and CyberHumint.\n\nThe majority of cyber security companies has no access to human operators within the Dark Web. Hence, they do not benefit from the key input of informants and agents provocateurs. These companies do not apply the methods of agent recruitment and agent management, which various national intelligence organizations have developed and used effectively for years.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Combination Rules\": Some agents are very complex and are able to combine the above features in order to provide very targeted intelligence collection capabilities. For example, the use of GPS bounding boxes and microphone activity can be used to turn a smart phone into a smart bug that intercepts conversations only within the office of a target.\n",
"Existing defense-in-depth cyber technologies have struggled against the increasing wave of sophisticated and persistent human attackers. These technologies seek primarily to defend a perimeter, but both firewalls and end-point security cannot defend a perimeter with 100% certainty. Cyber-attackers can penetrate these networks and move unimpeded for months, stealing data and intellectual property. Heuristics may find an attacker within the network, but often generate so many alerts that critical alerts are missed. Since 2014 attacks have accelerated and there is evidence that cyber-attackers are penetrating traditional defenses at a rapidly increasing rate.\n",
"Finding machines that are exploitable and worth attacking is done using analytic databases such as XKeyscore. A specific method of finding vulnerable machines is interception of Windows Error Reporting traffic, which is logged into XKeyscore.\n",
"AIDE takes a \"snapshot\" of the state of the system, register hashes, modification times, and other data regarding the files defined by the administrator. This \"snapshot\" is used to build a database that is saved and may be stored on an external device for safekeeping.\n",
"• Sending a set of test patterns to the node suspected of being compromised. The test pattern matrix consists of a set of known intrusion vectors, as well as a set of non-intrusion patterns. Upon formation of the initial group, and every time that membership in the Trusted Domain changes, the matrix is reconstituted and distributed among all members. The matrix is distributed in such a way that no single member group of members colluding (as long as k, k N-1)/ 2; where k is number of colluding members), has complete knowledge of all test patterns\n",
"Section::::Specialized applications.\n\nInternet of things (IoT) devices are not usually scanned by legacy defense in depth cyber defense and remain prime targets for attackers within the network. Deception technology can identify attackers moving laterally into the network from within these devices.\n",
"Another option they have is an intrusion detection system. This system alerts when there are possible intrusions. Some companies set up traps or \"hot spots\" to attract people and are then able to know when someone is trying to hack into that area.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Security solutions.:Encryption.\n",
", Goggans is an internationally recognized expert on information security. He has performed network security assessments for some of the world's largest corporations, including all facets of critical infrastructure, with work spanning 22 countries across four continents. Chris has worked with US Federal law-enforcement agencies on some of America's most notorious computer crime cases. His work has been referenced in publications such as \"Time\", \"Newsweek\" and \"Computerworld\", and on networks such as CNN and CNBC.\n",
"BULLET::::- Kevin Mitnick and William L. Simon, \"Ghost in the Wires: My Adventures as the World's Most Wanted Hacker\", 2011, Hardback\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Mitnick and William L. Simon, \"The Art Of Intrusion: The Real Stories Behind The Exploits Of Hackers, Intruders, And Deceivers\", 2005, Hardback\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Mitnick, \"The Art of Deception: Controlling the Human Element of Security\", 2002, Paperback\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Goodell, \"The Cyberthief and the Samurai: The True Story of Kevin Mitnick-And the Man Who Hunted Him Down\", 1996,\n",
"An October 2010 article entitled \"Cyber Crime Made Easy\" explained the level to which hackers are using malicious software. As Gunter Ollmann,\n",
"In 2011, Dutch hackers Jobert Abma and Michiel Prins attempted to find security vulnerabilities in 100 prominent high-tech companies. They discovered flaws in all of the companies, including Facebook, Google, Apple, Microsoft, and Twitter. Dubbing their efforts the \"Hack 100\", Abma and Prins contacted the at-risk firms. While many firms ignored their disclosure attempts, the COO of Facebook, Sheryl Sandberg, gave the warning to their head of product security, Alex Rice. Rice, Abma and Prins connected, and together with Merijn Terheggen founded HackerOne in 2012. In November 2015, Terheggen stepped down from his role as CEO and was replaced by Marten Mickos.\n",
"Hackers are individuals or organizations that collect PII data illegally. They are driven mostly by financial interests, but sometimes political, such as the hacking of Sony by North Korean hackers. Hackers from North Korea targeted Sony Pictures in retaliation for the planned release of “The Interview,” a movie about the fictional assassination of North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un. The incident resulted in the release of Social Security numbers, salary information, and medical records of Sony employees. Hackers use spyware, viruses, backdoors, social engineering or other methods to steal and collect PII data from individuals, companies, governments, and other organization. For example, Equifax, one of the largest credit company in the world, its security was compromised by hackers and PII for millions of Americans was stolen.\n",
"\"Information Week\" pointed out that at these security levels, the users themselves need to be monitored. One of the ways A-Space will maintain its security will be through observing traffic patterns, the department doing things like looking out for suspiciously anomalous searches. \"Let's not be Pollyanna-ish about this,\" Wertheimer said. \"This is a counter-intelligence nightmare. You've got to ask yourself, if there's one bad apple here, how much can that bad apple learn?\"\n"
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2018-01339 | How do people go about translating their name into a different alphabet? | Names are never translated officially (though they might be translated for fun between friends, in the case of names that are also just regular words). Names are *transliterated* based on internationally accepted transliteration systems - even for one language (such as Russian) to English there are multiple systems with minor variations. For instance, an й can be transliterated as a y or j or omitted in some cases depending on the system being used. For travel purposes, typically whatever organization is doing your documents will transliterate the name for you. For instance, if you're applying for a visa to Ukraine, the Ukrainian government will be the ones figuring it out for you. This helps keep transliterations uniform within one country at least. | [
"During the 1996 Utah Centennial celebration, an activity book for children was distributed, within which one of the activities was for a child to write their own name in the alphabet. The book says that a child who does this will be \"the first kid in 100 years to write [their] name in the Deseret alphabet!\"\n",
"The anglicisation of a personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in East Asian countries (except for Japan, which no longer has large-scale emigration). However, unless the spelling is changed, European immigrants put up with (and in due course accept) an anglicised pronunciation: \"Lewinsky\" will be so pronounced, unless the \"w\" becomes a \"v\", as in \"Levi\". \"Głowacki\" will be pronounced \"Glowacki\", even though in Polish pronunciation it is \"Gwovatski\". \"Weinstein\" is usually pronounced with different values for the two \"-ein-\" parts, (.\n",
"It may effect a change in original spelling, type, or (most commonly) priority.\n\nBULLET::::- Conserved spelling (orthographia conservanda, orth. cons.) allows spelling usage to be preserved even if the name was published with another spelling: \"Euonymus\" (not \"Evonymus\"), \"Guaiacum\" (not \"Guajacum\"), etc. (see orthographical variant).\n",
"BULLET::::- In Dutch the combination IJ (representing IJ) was formerly to be collated as Y (or sometimes, as a separate letter Y < IJ < Z), but is currently mostly collated as 2 letters (II < IJ < IK). Exceptions are phone directories; IJ is always collated as Y here because in many Dutch family names Y is used where modern spelling would require IJ. Note that a word starting with ij that is written with a capital I is also written with a capital J, for example, the town IJmuiden, the river IJssel and the country IJsland (Iceland).\n",
"Section::::Surnames.:Marriage.\n\nTraditionally, the wife adopts her husband's \"Nachname\" on marriage and drops her own. However, due to the legal equality of sexes, the opposite is possible as well, though rare.\n\nA few examples of the practice under German law, if \"Herr Schmidt\" and \"Frau Meyer\" marry:\n\nBULLET::::1. They can keep their former \"Nachnamen\". (Herr Schmidt and Frau Meyer). In the 1990s, the law was thus changed. They can later change to variant 2, though the inverse is not possible.\n",
"Such anglicisation was once more common. In the late 19th century, however, use of non-English place names in English began to become more common. When dealing with languages that use the same Latin alphabet as English, names are now more usually written in English as in their local language, sometimes even with diacritical marks that do not normally appear in English. With languages that use non-Latin alphabets, such as the Arabic, Cyrillic, Greek, Korean Hangul, and other alphabets, a direct transliteration is typically used, which is then often pronounced according to English rules. Non-Latin based languages may use standard romanisation systems, such as Japanese Rōmaji or Chinese Pīnyīn. The Japanese and Chinese names in English follow these spellings with some common exceptions, usually without Chinese tone marks and without Japanese macrons for long vowels: Chóngqìng to Chongqing (重慶, 重庆), Shíjiāzhuāng to Shijiazhuang (石家莊, 石家庄), both in China; Kyōto to Kyoto (京都) in Japan.\n",
"Many unofficial spelling alphabets are in use that are not based on a standard, but are based on words the transmitter can remember easily, including first names, states, or cities. The LAPD phonetic alphabet has many first names. The German spelling alphabet (\"Deutsches Funkalphabet\" (literally \"German Radio Alphabet\")) also uses first names. Also, during the Vietnam war, soldiers used 'Cain' instead of 'Charlie' because 'Charlie' meant Viet Cong (Charlie being short for Victor Charlie, the International alphabet spelling of the initials VC).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- NATO phonetic alphabet\n\nBULLET::::- Allied Military Phonetic Spelling Alphabet\n\nBULLET::::- APCO radiotelephony spelling alphabet\n",
"Likewise many other languages of the world including Arabic, Greek, Hebrew and Chinese, the alphabets are not named after their respective phoneme values. Similar practice holds good for Standard Mising Language too. The names of the alphabets are thus read as is done in the country today. Names and order of the Roman Script have been recognized worldwide, and also by our country for reading and writing English and also transliteration of national terminologies; so Standard Mising Language has retained them likewise without variations, neither in name nor in order. Names and order of alphabets have no partisan values. Rather, changing alphabetical order and inserting additional letter in the matrix of literal characters cause hardware problems in the computer technology. We being a small community hugely constrained by limited man-power, missionary and monitory resources; things cannot be done so easily. Even once done too, it will not be commercially viable in terms of its utility – just waste of time and energy.\n",
"In the Finnish language, both the root of the surname and the first name can be modified by consonant gradation regularly when inflected to a case.\n\nSection::::Scandinavia.:Iceland.\n\nIn Iceland, most people have no family name; a person's last name is most commonly a patronymic, i.e. derived from the father's first name. For example, when a man called \"Karl\" has a daughter called \"Anna\" and a son called \"Magnús\", their full names will typically be \"Anna Karlsdóttir\" (\"Karl's daughter\") and \"Magnús Karlsson\" (\"Karl's son\"). The name is not changed upon marriage.\n\nSection::::Slavic world.\n",
"BULLET::::2. They can declare one name as a \"marriage name\" (\"Ehename\"). In doing so, they can either both adopt the husband's name, or both adopt the wife's name as an \"Ehename\". (Herr Meyer and Frau Meyer; Herr Schmidt and Frau Schmidt)\n",
"In this method, the letters of a recent version of the Latin alphabet (with \"U\" and \"V\" considered to be separate letters, and \"I\" and \"J\" also considered distinct, which was not common until the 18th century), are assigned numerical values 1-9 as follows:\n\nBased on these values, the value for a person's name is calculated. If the result is greater than 9, the values of the digits in the number are added up until it is reduced to a single-digit number.\n",
"Traditionally common Christian given names could be substituted: such as James for the etymologically connected Jacques. Alternatively phonetical similarities, such as Joe for Giò (Giovanni or Giorgio); or abbreviation, Harry for Harilaos.\n\nThe anglicisation of a personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in, or descending from those who emigrated from, East Asian countries.\n\nSection::::Anglicisation of personal names.:Immigration to English-speaking countries.:French surnames.\n",
"It is this aspect of writing that appeals to Owen Brademas. He is seeking a language that has been \"subdued and codified\", simplified into parallel structures. But writing can also be a recovery or articulation of \"ancient things, secret, reshapable.\" In this second type of writing, the mystery of the world is retained. In \"The Names\" it is a child, the narrator's son Tap, who most purely practices this type of writing. Unlike Owen, for whom \"correctness\" in speech is very important, Tap's writing is full of lively misspellings, prompting his father to look at objects in a new way.\n",
"BULLET::::1. On marriage: the couple can choose the name of either partner, they can both keep their original names, or (provided the original family name of neither partner contains a hyphen), one partner can modify their own name, appending the partner's family name to their own, creating a hyphenated name (\"Mr. Schmid and Ms. Meier-Schmid\" or \"Mr. Schmid-Meier and Ms. Meier\").\n\nBULLET::::2. Correction of a name: if the state has made an error with the name and this can be proven, the original name can be restored. Example: \"Maſs\" became \"Mahs\" and is corrected to \"Mass\".\n",
"Section::::Naming laws.:Names with accents and/or non-English letters.\n\nOne naming law that some find restrictive is California's ban on diacritical marks, such as in \"José\", a common Spanish name. The Office of Vital Records in California requires that names contain only the 26 alphabetical characters of the English language.\n\nSome states (for example, Alaska, Hawaii, Kansas, North Carolina, Oregon) allow accents and some (not always all) non-English letters in birth certificates and other documents. There can be problems for persons with such names when moving to a state where such characters are banned and they have to renew their documents.\n",
"Some names are spelled with a capital letter in the middle (LeVar Burton, LaToya Jackson, Richard McMillan). In the machine-readable zone of a passport, the name is spelled only in capitals (LEVAR, LATOYA, MCMILLAN). In some computer systems, the users are asked to enter the name with the middle capital replaced by a minuscule (LeVar → Levar) or as two words (LaToya → La Toya).\n\nSection::::African-American names.\n",
"In cases where \"Nachname\" and \"Hofname\" are not identical (usually because there was no male heir at some point in the family history) they are joined in official documents by \"genannt\" (abbr. \"gen.\"), e.g. \"Amann gen. Behmann\". In Austria the term \"vulgo\" (abbr. \"vlg.\") is used instead of \"genannt\".\n\nSection::::Name changes.\n\nThere are only a few circumstances in which one is allowed to change one's name:\n",
"The written Tetragrammaton, as well as six other names of God, must be treated with special sanctity. They cannot be disposed of regularly, lest they be desecrated, but are usually put in long term storage or buried in Jewish cemeteries in order to retire them from use. Similarly, writing the Tetragrammaton (or these other names) unnecessarily is prohibited, so as to avoid having them treated disrespectfully, an action that is forbidden. To guard the sanctity of the Name, sometimes a letter is substituted by a different letter in writing (e.g. יקוק), or the letters are separated by one or more hyphens, a practice applied also to the English name \"God\", which Jews commonly write as \"G-d\". Most Jewish authorities say that this practice is not obligatory for the English name.\n",
"BULLET::::- Latin names can also be adopted unchanged, or modified; in particular, the inflected element can be dropped, as often happens in borrowings from Latin to English. Examples: Laura, Victoria, Marcus, Justin (Latin \"Justinus\"), Paul (Lat. \"Paulus\"), Julius, Cecilia, Felix, Vivian, Julia, Pascal (not a traditional-type Latin name, but the adjective-turned-name \"paschalis\", meaning 'of Easter' (\"Pascha\")).\n",
"Section::::Personal names.\n\nSection::::Personal names.:Historic names.\n\nIn the past, the names of people from other language areas were anglicised to a higher extent than today. This was the general rule for names of Latin or (classical) Greek origin. Today, the anglicised name forms are often retained for the more well-known persons, like Aristotle for Aristoteles, and Adrian (or later Hadrian) for Hadrianus. However, less well-known persons from antiquity are now often given their full original-language name (in the nominative case, regardless of its case in the English sentence).\n",
"Anglicisation of names\n\nThe anglicisation of personal names is the change of non-English-language personal names to spellings nearer English sounds, or substitution of equivalent or similar English personal names in the place of non-English personal names.\n\nSection::::Anglicisation of personal names.\n\nSection::::Anglicisation of personal names.:Classical, medieval and Renaissance figures.\n",
"BULLET::::- Capitalize surnames and enter spaces within surnames as they appear in the document cited on the assumption that the author approved the form used. For example: Van Der Horn or van der Horn; De Wolf or de Wolf or DeWolf.\n\nBULLET::::- Convert given (first) names and middle names to initials, for a maximum of two initials following each surname\n\nBULLET::::- Give all authors, regardless of the number\n\nBULLET::::- Separate author names from each other by a comma and a space\n\nBULLET::::- End author information with a period\n",
"The story concerns Marshall Zebatinsky, a Polish-American nuclear physicist. He is concerned that his career has stalled, and in desperation consults a numerologist for advice on restarting it. The numerologist advises him to change the first letter of his name to \"S\": Sebatinsky. \n",
"Latinisation of names\n\nLatinisation of names (\"Latinization of names\"), also known as onomastic Latinisation (\"onomastic Latinization\"), is the practice of rendering a \"non\"-Latin name in a Latin style. It is commonly found with historical proper names, including personal names, and toponyms, and in the standard binomial nomenclature of the life sciences. It goes further than romanisation, which is the transliteration of a word to the Latin alphabet from another script (e.g. Cyrillic).\n\nThis was often done in the classical to emulate Latin authors, or to present a more impressive image.\n",
"Each of the I.T.A. letters has a name, the pronunciation of which includes the sound that the character stands for. For example, the name of the backwards \"z\" letter is \"zess\".\n"
] | [
"People can translate their name into a different alphabet. "
] | [
"Names aren't ever really officially transliterated, also transliterated is the correct term for converting a name to another alphabet, the correct term for converting the alphabetical characters in a name is transliterated and not translated. "
] | [
"false presupposition"
] | [
"People can translate their name into a different alphabet. ",
"People can translate their name into a different alphabet. "
] | [
"normal",
"false presupposition"
] | [
"Names aren't ever really officially transliterated, also transliterated is the correct term for converting a name to another alphabet, the correct term for converting the alphabetical characters in a name is transliterated and not translated. ",
"Names aren't ever really officially transliterated, also transliterated is the correct term for converting a name to another alphabet, the correct term for converting the alphabetical characters in a name is transliterated and not translated. "
] |
2018-19425 | Why do you get dizzy if you stand up too fast? | Your blood pressure isnt high enough to support the sudden change in force needed to pump blood up to your head/brain, so you experience a temporary lack of oxygen until your blood pressure raises and you normalise. | [
"Normally, a series of cardiac, vascular, neurologic, muscular, and neurohumoral responses occur quickly so the blood pressure does not fall very much. One response is a vasoconstriction (baroreceptor reflex), pressing the blood up into the body again. (Often, this mechanism is exaggerated and is why diastolic blood pressure is a bit higher when a person is standing up, compared to a person in the horizontal position.) Therefore, some factor that inhibits one of these responses and causes a greater than normal fall in blood pressure is required. Such factors include low blood volume, diseases, and medications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n",
"Normally, the body compensates, but in the presence of other factors, e.g. hypovolemia, diseases and medications, this response may not be sufficient.\n\nThere are medications to treat hypotension. In addition, there are many lifestyle advices. Many of them, however, are specific for a certain cause of orthostatic hypotension, e.g. maintaining a proper fluid intake in dehydration.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypercoagulability.\n",
"Although standing per se is not dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n\nOrthostatic hypotension is characterized by an unusually low blood pressure when the patient is standing up.\n\nIt can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n",
"For many people, excessively low blood pressure can cause dizziness and fainting or indicate serious heart, endocrine or neurological disorders.\n\nTreatment of hypotension may include the use of intravenous fluids or vasopressors. When using vasopressors, trying to achieve a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 70 mm Hg does not appear to result in better outcomes than trying to achieve a MAP of greater than 65 mm Hg in adults.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe primary symptoms of hypotension are lightheadedness or dizziness.\n\nIf the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting may occur.\n",
"Orthostatic hypotension happens when gravity causes blood to pool in the lower extremities, which in turn compromises venous return, resulting in decreased cardiac output and subsequent lowering of arterial pressure. For example, changing from a lying position to standing loses about 700 ml of blood from the thorax, with a decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressures. The overall effect is an insufficient blood perfusion in the upper part of the body.\n",
"Blood pressure that is too low is known as hypotension. This is a medical concern if it causes signs or symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases, circulatory shock.\n\nCauses of low arterial pressure include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis\n\nBULLET::::- Hemorrhage – blood loss\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiogenic shock\n\nBULLET::::- Neurally mediated hypotension (or reflex syncope)\n\nBULLET::::- Toxins including toxic doses of blood pressure medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Hormonal abnormalities, such as Addison's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa and bulimia\n\nSection::::Disorders of blood pressure.:Low blood pressure.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n",
"Orthostatic hypertension\n\nOrthostatic hypertension, is a medical condition consisting of a sudden and abrupt increase in blood pressure when a person stands up. Orthostatic hypertension is diagnosed by a rise in systolic blood pressure of 20 mmHg or more when standing. \"Orthostatic diastolic hypertension\" is a condition in which the diastolic raises to 98 mmHg or over in response to standing; however, this definition currently lacks clear medical consensus and is thus subject to change. Orthostatic hypertension involving the systolic is known as \"systolic orthostatic hypertension\".\n",
"Orthostatic intolerance occurs in humans because standing upright is a fundamental stressor and requires rapid and effective circulatory and neurologic compensations to maintain blood pressure, cerebral blood flow, and consciousness. When a human stands, approximately 750 mL of thoracic blood is abruptly translocated downward. People who suffer from OI lack the basic mechanisms to compensate for this deficit. Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and cerebral blood flow that produce OI may be caused by abnormalities in the interactions between blood volume control, the cardiovascular system, the nervous system and circulation control system.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n",
"Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.\n",
"Apart from addressing the underlying cause, orthostatic hypotension may be treated with a recommendation to increase salt and water intake (to increase the blood volume), wearing compression stockings, and sometimes medication (fludrocortisone, midodrine or others). Salt loading (dramatic increases in salt intake) must be supervised by a doctor, as this can cause severe neurological problems if done too aggressively.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"Apparently healthy individuals may experience minor symptoms (\"lightheadedness\", \"greying-out\") as they stand up if blood pressure is slow to respond to the stress of upright posture. If the blood pressure is not adequately maintained during standing, faints may develop. However, the resulting \"transient orthostatic hypotension\" does not necessarily signal any serious underlying disease.\n",
"This phenomenon can be a sign of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy or of many other types of heart disease (see list below). Other causes include digitalis toxicity, induction of anesthesia, placement of surgical instrumentation into the thorax or as a benign, temporary phenomenon.\n",
"When standing, gravity pulls the blood downwards to the lower part of the body. Body mechanisms, such as vasoconstriction and valves of the veins, assist in pumping blood upwards. As blood is pumped through the body, the valves within the veins prevent the blood from flowing backwards. After extensive, prolonged standing, these valves can become weak and eventually fail. When this happens, blood is no longer being prevented from flowing backward. Gravity will pull the blood back into an individuals legs, ankles and feet. This forces the veins to expand or \"balloon\" to accommodate this extra blood.\n",
"arrhythmia, fainting, and dizziness.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n",
"Prolonged still standing significantly activates the coagulation cascade, called orthostatic hypercoagulability. Overall, it causes an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume crosses into the extravascular compartment. This plasma shift causes an increase in the concentration of coagulation factors and other proteins of coagulation, in turn causing hypercoagulability.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic tremor.\n",
"Some heart conditions can lead to low blood pressure, including extremely low heart rate (bradycardia), heart valve problems, heart attack and heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent the body from being able to circulate enough blood.\n",
"In the past the variation was attributed to random effects. A more recent interpretation is that sway has a fractal structure. A fractal pattern consists of a motif repeated at varying levels of magnification. The levels are related by a ratio called the fractal dimension. It is believed that the fractal pattern offers a range of fine and gross control tuning. Fractal dimension is altered in some motor dysfunctions. In other words, the body cannot compensate well enough for imbalances.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n",
"Orthostatic hypotension and syncope are associated with the body's poor ability to control blood pressure without active alpha-adrenergic receptors. Patients on prazosin should be told to rise to stand up slowly, since their poor baroreflex may cause them to faint if their blood pressure is not adequately maintained during standing. The nasal congestion is due to dilation of vessels in the nasal mucosa.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"In adults the primary symptom is an increase in heart rate of more than 30 beats per minute within ten minutes of standing up. The resulting heart rate is typically more than 120 beats per minute. For people aged between 12 and 19, the minimum increase for diagnosis is 40 beats per minute. This symptom is known as orthostatic (upright) tachycardia (fast heart rate). It occurs without any coinciding drop in blood pressure, as that would indicate orthostatic hypotension. Certain medications to treat POTS may cause orthostatic hypotension. It is accompanied by other features of orthostatic intolerance—symptoms which develop in an upright position and are relieved by reclining. These orthostatic symptoms include palpitations, light-headedness, chest discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, weakness or \"heaviness\" in the lower legs, blurred vision and cognitive difficulties. Symptoms may be exacerbated with prolonged sitting, prolonged standing, alcohol, heat, exercise, or eating a large meal.\n",
"Besides the definitive threshold, an abrupt fall in systolic blood pressure around 30 mmHg from one's \"typical average systolic pressure\" can also be diagnosed with hypotension.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n",
"BULLET::::- Presyncope describes lightheadedness or feeling faint; the name relates to syncope, which is actually fainting.\n\nBULLET::::- Disequilibrium is the sensation of being off balance and is most often characterized by frequent falls in a specific direction. This condition is not often associated with nausea or vomiting.\n\nBULLET::::- Non-specific dizziness may be psychiatric in origin. It is a diagnosis of exclusion and can sometimes be brought about by hyperventilation.\n\nSection::::Mechanism and causes.\n",
"In up to one third of people with POTS, fainting occurs in response to postural changes or exercise. Migraine-like headaches are common, sometimes with symptoms worsening in an upright position (orthostatic headache). Some people with POTS develop acrocyanosis, or blotchy, red/blue skin upon standing, especially over the feet (indicative of blood pooling). 48% of people with POTS report chronic fatigue and 32% report sleep disturbances. Others exhibit only the cardinal symptom of orthostatic tachycardia.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n",
"Many conditions cause dizziness because multiple parts of the body are required for maintaining balance including the inner ear, eyes, muscles, skeleton, and the nervous system. Thus dizziness can be caused by a variety of problems, and may reflect a focal process (such as one affecting balance or coordination) or a diffuse one (such as a toxic exposure or low perfusion state).\n\nCommon physiological causes of dizziness include:\n\nBULLET::::- inadequate blood supply to the brain due to:\n\nBULLET::::- a sudden fall in blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- heart problems or artery blockages\n\nBULLET::::- loss or distortion of vision or visual cues\n",
"Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.\n\nBaroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n",
"Delayed orthostatic hypotension is frequently characterized a sustained systolic blood pressure decrease of ≥20 mm Hg or a sustained diastolic blood pressure decrease ≥10 mm Hg beyond 3 minutes of standing or upright tilt table testing.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Lifestyle changes.\n\nApart from treating underlying reversible causes (e.g., stopping or reducing certain medications, treating autoimmune causes), there are a number of measures that can improve the symptoms of orthostatic hypotension and prevent episodes of syncope. Even small increases in the blood pressure may be sufficient to maintain blood flow to the brain on standing.\n"
] | [] | [] | [
"normal"
] | [] | [
"normal"
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2018-00983 | How do sea/motion sickness pills work? | Your brain has two ways to determine whether you are moving your head (there are more, but we can simplify this): your eyes, and some tiny "caves" inside the temporal bone. These tiny caves are filled with liquid, so when you move your head, because of inertia, the liquid moves. Lining the walls of these caves are cells which have appendixes that extend toward the center (of the caves). When the liquid moves, the appendixes are dragged in such and such direction. This triggers a chemical response inside the cells, which ultimately becomes a signal that is sent to your brain. When these signals and what your eyes see are not in agreement, you might become nauseous (you are not moving your head, but your brain interprets that your head is moving). This can happen, for example, when you are in a car on a sinuous road. You feel the swerving, but it is not due to your turning of the head. Motion sickness pills attenuate the intensity of the signals sent by the little caves so that there is not such a disagreement. Let's just say one opinion is less prevalent, so your brain is not so confused. | [
"Over-the-counter and prescription medications are readily available, such as dimenhydrinate commonly known as dramamine, scopolamine, meclizine, promethazine, cyclizine, and cinnarizine. Several of these are antihistamines, with mild sedation being a common side effect. Cinnarizine is not available in the United States, as it is not approved by the FDA. As these medications often have side effects, anyone involved in high-risk activities while at sea (such as SCUBA divers) must evaluate the risks versus the benefits. Promethazine is especially known to cause drowsiness, which is often counteracted by ephedrine in a combination known as \"the Coast Guard cocktail\". There are special considerations to be aware of when the common anti-motion sickness medications are used in the military setting where performance must be maintained at a high level.\n",
"Scopolamine is effective and is sometimes used in the form of transdermal patches (1.5 mg) or as a newer tablet form (0.4 mg). The selection of a transdermal patch or scopolamine tablet is determined by a doctor after consideration of the patient's age, weight, and length of treatment time required.\n",
"Vomiting is caused when impulses from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CRTZ) in the brain are sent to the vomiting center in the medulla. Motion sickness specifically occurs when signals to the CRTZ originate from the inner ear: motion is sensed by the fluid of the semicircular canals, which causes overstimulation. The signal travels to the brain's vestibular nuclei, then to the CRTZ, and finally to the vomiting center. \n",
"When prescribed for balance problems and vertigo, cinnarizine is typically taken two or three times daily depending on the amount of each dose and when used to treat motion sickness, the pill is taken at least two hours before travelling and then again every four hours during travel. However, a recent 2012 study comparing the effects of cinnarizine to transdermal scopolamine for the treatment of seasickness, concluded that scopolamine was reported as significantly more effective and as having fewer adverse side effects than cinnarizine. This led to the conclusion that transdermal scopolamine is likely a better option for the treatment of motion sickness in naval crew and other sea travelers.\n",
"Section::::Episode 42 – \"Steel Toe-Cap Amputation\".:Bottle Rocket Blast-Off.\n\nThe Build team attempt to recreate this\n\nwater bottle jetpack from a Japanese game show.\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: November 16, 2005\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Seasickness – Kill or Cure?\n\nBecause Adam and Grant are very susceptible to motion sickness, they test non-pharmaceutical remedies for seasickness by...\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Tailgate Up vs. Tailgate Down.\n\nThis was revisited in \"More Myths Revisited\".\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Finger in a Barrel.\n",
"Section::::Types.:Motion that is seen and felt but whose visual and bodily perception is incongruous.\n\nWhen moving within a rotating reference frame such as in a centrifuge or environment where gravity is simulated with centrifugal force, the coriolis effect causes a sense of motion in the vestibular system that does not match the motion that is seen.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nMany cures and preventatives for motion sickness have been proposed.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Devices.\n",
"Inducing vection can also induce motion sickness in susceptible individuals.\n\nSection::::Sea legs, dock rock, or stillness illness.\n",
"Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Pharmacologic therapy.\n",
"A head-worn, computer device with a transparent display can be used to mitigate the effects of motion sickness (and spatial disorientation) if visual indicators of the wearer’s head position are shown. Such a device functions by providing the wearer with digital reference lines in their field of vision that indicate the horizon’s position relative to the user’s head. This is accomplished by combining readings from accelerometers and gyroscopes mounted in the device (US Patent 5,966,680). This technology has been implemented in both standalone devices and Google Glass. In two NIH-backed studies, greater than 90% of patients experienced a reduction in the symptoms of motion sickness while using this technology.\n",
"BULLET::::- William Paul Fife\n\nBULLET::::- John Scott Haldane\n\nBULLET::::- Robert William Hamilton, Jr.\n\nBULLET::::- Leonard Erskine Hill\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Andrew Hills\n\nBULLET::::- F.J. Keays\n\nBULLET::::- Christian J. Lambertsen\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph B. MacInnis\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Mitchell\n\nBULLET::::- Richard E. Moon\n\nBULLET::::- František Novomeský\n\nBULLET::::- John Rawlins (Royal Navy officer)\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Wesley Shilling\n\nBULLET::::- Edward D. Thalmann\n\nBULLET::::- Richard D. Vann\n\nBULLET::::- James Vorosmarti\n\nBULLET::::- R.M. Wong\n\nBULLET::::- Robert D. Workman\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Scubadoc's Diving Medicine Online\n\nBULLET::::- Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)\n\nBULLET::::- Rubicon Research Repository Diving Medical Literature\n\nBULLET::::- SCUBA Diving and Asthma\n\nBULLET::::- infos scuba diving restrictions\n",
"For many years, traditional Western pharmacognosy focused on the investigation and identification of medically important plants and animals in the terrestrial environment, although many marine organisms were used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. With the development of the open-circuit self-contained underwater breathing apparatus or SCUBA in the 1940s, some chemists turned to more pioneering work looking for new medicines in the marine environment. In the United States, the road has been long for the first FDA approval of a drug directly from the sea, but in 2004, the approval of ziconotide isolated from a marine cone snail has paved the way for other marine-derived compounds moving through clinical trials.\n",
"Section::::Treatments.:Drugs and vaccines.:Organophosphates.\n\nOrganophosphates are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and cause excitatory paralysis leading to death of sea lice when given as a bath treatment. Dichlorvos was used for many years in Europe and later replaced by azamethiphos, the active ingredient in Salmosan, which is safer for operators to handle. Azamethiphos is water-soluble and broken down relatively quickly in the environment. Resistance to organophosphates began to develop in Norway in the mid 1990s, apparently due to acetylcholinesterases being altered due to mutation. Use has declined considerably with the introduction of SLICE, emamectin benzoate.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Drugs and vaccines.:Pyrethroids.\n",
"In a study conducted by the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences in a report published May 1995 titled \"Technical Report 1027 - Simulator Sickness in Virtual Environments\", out of 742 pilot exposures from 11 military flight simulators, \"approximately half of the pilots (334) reported post-effects of some kind: 250 (34%) reported that symptoms dissipated in less than one hour, 44 (6%) reported that symptoms lasted longer than four hours, and 28 (4%) reported that symptoms lasted longer than six hours. There were also four (1%) reported cases of spontaneously occurring flashbacks.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Akathisia (oral, up to 10% ; IM, 4% to 11%)\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness (oral, 4% to 16% ; IM, 3% to 11%)\n\nBULLET::::- Dyspnoea\n\nBULLET::::- Asthenia\n\nBULLET::::- Agitation\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary incontinence\n\nBULLET::::- Arthralgia\n\nBULLET::::- Myalgia\n\nBULLET::::- Epistaxis\n\nBULLET::::- Somnolence (oral, adult, 3% to 6%; pediatric, 8% to 29% )\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep disturbances\n\nBULLET::::- Self harm and suicidal thoughts\n",
"Research suggests that this is the body's natural way of adjusting to these systems. The bodies of experienced pilots have adapted to different types of motion experienced during actual flight conditions. When placed into a flight simulator, visual and other stimuli cause their bodies to expect the same motions associated with actual flight conditions. But their bodies instead experience the imperfect motion of the simulator, resulting in sickness.\n",
"It has been shown to occur in excursions of as little as 30 minutes though it has been unclear how long it takes for symptoms to occur. The most commonly reported inciting event was a prolonged ocean cruise (~45%); however, shorter boating excursions (~22%), aircraft travel (~15%), and automobile travel (~8%) have all been described.\n\nMal de Débarquement syndrome has been noted as far back to the times of Erasmus Darwin in 1796, and Irwin J A (1881) \"The pathology of seasickness\".\n",
"Many pharmacological treatments which are effective for nausea and vomiting in some medical conditions may not be effective for motion sickness. For example, metoclopramide and prochlorperazine, although widely used for nausea, are ineffective for motion-sickness prevention and treatment. This is due to the physiology of the CNS vomiting centre and its inputs from the chemoreceptor trigger zone versus the inner ear. Sedating anti-histamine medications such as promethazine work quite well for motion sickness, although they can cause significant drowsiness.\n\nGinger root is commonly thought to be an effective anti-emetic, but it is ineffective in treating motion sickness.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Electronic.\n",
"A motion blocking eyewear device was patented (US patent 6,275,998) to prevent carsickness-related terrestrial motion sickness. Visual cues are an important contributor to land-based vehicular travel in addition to vestibular (inner ear) input. The eyewear device limits what the wearer sees outside the moving vehicle by use of an opaque shield. By removing visual cues outside the vehicle, the device normalizes the visual input dimension involved in sensory conflict, a leading theory behind motion sickness. No evidence exists that motion blocking eyewear alters or eliminates vestibular input or that of other bodily receptors. Carsickness is the most common type of motion sickness given the number of travelers traveling over land versus those traveling by air or sea.\n",
"Section::::Range and scope of diving medicine.\n",
"BULLET::::- Tablet form of scopolamine, by prescription\n\nBULLET::::- Malaria\n\nBULLET::::- Mefloquine\n\nBULLET::::- Doxycycline\n\nBULLET::::- Malarone (a combination of atovaquone and proguanil)\n\nBULLET::::- Chloroquine\n\nBULLET::::- Hydroxychloroquine sulfate\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrimethamine\n\nBULLET::::- Fansidar (sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine)\n\nBULLET::::- No interactions between antimalarial drugs and diving have been established, and complications are not generally expected, but the use of Mefloquine is not accepted by all diving medicine specialists.\n\nBULLET::::- Antimalarial drug prophylaxis recommendations depend on specific regions and may change over time. Current recommendations should be checked.\n\nBULLET::::- All of these drugs may have side-effects, and there are known interactions with other drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- Decongestants\n",
"In giant-breed dogs and sighthounds, the sedative effects of acepromazine may last for 12–24 hours, which is much longer than the usual 3–4 hours.\n\nSection::::Veterinary use.:Canine and feline.:Dogs with a mutation in the \"ABCB1\" (\"MDR1\") gene.\n",
"Avermectins belong to the family of macrocyclic lactones and are the major drugs used as in-feed treatments to kill sea lice. The first avermectin used was ivermectin at doses close to the therapeutic level and was not submitted for legal approval for use on fish by its manufacturer. Ivermectin was toxic to some fish, causing sedation and central nervous system depression due to the drug’s ability to cross the blood–brain barrier. Emamectin benzoate, which is the active agent in the formulation SLICE, has been used since 1999 and has a greater safety margin on fish. It is administered at 50 µg/kg/day for 7 days and is effective for two months, killing both chalimus and mobile stages. Withdrawal times vary with jurisdiction from 68 days in Canada to 175 degree days in Norway. Avermectins act by opening glutamate-gated chloride channels in arthropod neuromuscular tissues, causing hyperpolarization and flaccid paralysis leading to death. Resistance has been noted in \"Chalimus rogercresseyi\" in Chile and \"L. salmonis\" on North Atlantic fish farms. The resistance is likely due to prolonged use of the drug leading to up-regulation of P-glycoprotein, similar to what has been seen in nematode resistance to macrocyclic lactones.\n",
"Section::::Diagnostics.:High pressure nervous syndrome.\n",
"Section::::Diagnostics.:Decompression sickness.\n",
"Higher doses of these medications can be used for later stages of spasmodic torticollis; however, the frequency and severity of side effects associated with the medications are usually not tolerated. Side effects include dry mouth, cognitive disturbance, drowsiness, diplopia, glaucoma and urinary retention.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Botulinum toxin.\n"
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2018-02608 | What makes Earth's atmosphere sustain? | > I have wondered why the atmosphere is there, and how it does not dissipate. It is stuck on Earth for the same reason everything else is, because of gravity. Air is composed of materials with mass which means it has weight; not as much weight as many other things but still it is attracted to Earth. > It seems like a snow globe with a hard cutoff point somewhere a few miles from earths surface. There is no hard cutoff, it gradually gets thinner and thinner. In fact the height at which the International Space Station orbits there is still some slight bits of air that would gradually slow it down, meaning it needs to be boosted every so often with nudges from rockets to stay in orbit. > Are there any illustrations or anything explaining what it is really made up of? [Here is a graphic which illustrates what is going on.]( URL_0 ) | [
"The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. In addition to the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon there are small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapor. Water vapor and CO allow the earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays—which are often incorrectly thought to be deflected by the magnetic field. The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. As the earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.\n",
"The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about 21%), argon (about 0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.04%) and other gases in trace amounts. Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration; nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids; and carbon dioxide is used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis. The atmosphere helps to protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays. The current composition of the Earth's atmosphere is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.\n",
"Atmosphere of Earth\n\nThe atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).\n\nBy volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. \n",
"Thomas compares the Earth to a living cell, one with its own membrane that allows it to keep out disorder. He shows how the evolution of cells was closely tied to the “breath” of the Earth, the cycling of oxygen concentration in the atmosphere. The atmosphere is “for sheer size and perfection of function, it is far and away the grandest product of collaboration in all of nature.” It gives us the oxygen we need, protection from UV light, and protection from the millions of meteorites.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n",
"Section::::Interactions with other systems.\n\nAtmospheric carbon is exchanged quickly between the oceans and the terrestrial biosphere. This means that at times the atmosphere acts as a sink, and at other times as a source of carbon. The following section introduces exchanges between the atmospheric and other components of the global carbon cycle.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other systems.:Terrestrial biosphere.\n",
"Section::::Relevant gases.:Carbon dioxide.\n\nCarbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. Although individual CO molecules have a short residence time in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.\n",
"Chemical elements, vital for life, are also constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. In the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using photosynthesis; this is re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures. Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle. Over very long (geological) time periods, they release carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other geological carbon dioxide sinks.\n",
"Atmospheric composition affects and is affected by the biological mechanisms active on the Earth's surface. Organisms effect the amount of oxygen vs. carbon dioxide through respiration and photosynthesis. They also affect the levels of nitrogen through fixation, nitrification, and denitrification. The ocean is capable of absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but this varies based on the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus present in the water. Humans have also played a role in changing the atmospheric composition of the Earth through industrial byproducts, deforestation, and motor vehicles.\n",
"Section::::Earth.\n\nA number of different types of chemical cycles geochemical cycles occur on Earth. Biogeochemical cycles play an important role in sustaining the biosphere.\n\nNotable active chemical cycles on Earth include:\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon cycle – consisting of an atmospheric carbon cycle (and carbon dioxide cycle), terrestrial biological carbon cycle, oceanic carbon cycle and geological carbon cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Nitrogen cycle – which converts nitrogen between its forms through fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification\n\nBULLET::::- Oxygen cycle and Ozone–oxygen cycle – a biogeochemical cycle of circulating oxygen between the atmosphere, biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere\n",
"The atmosphere is one of the Earth's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle, holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon. Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect. The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide (). Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere (approximately 0.04% on a molar basis), it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect. Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons (the latter is entirely anthropogenic). Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.\n",
"The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.\n\nSection::::Atmosphere, climate and weather.:Layers of the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Atmosphere, climate and weather.:Layers of the atmosphere.:Principal layers.\n\nEarth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are:\n",
"Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Weather and climate.\n\nEarth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.\n",
"Section::::Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle.:Atmospheric carbon dioxide and photosynthesis.\n",
"The atmosphere envelops the earth and stretches out hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (1%). The trace gases in the atmosphere, water vapour and carbon dioxide are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are greenhouse gases which allow visible light from the Sun to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the infra-red radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise. The hydrological cycle is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of precipitation, it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.\n",
"The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about .\n\nSection::::Stratification.\n",
"The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.\n",
"Section::::Evolution of Earth's atmosphere.:Air pollution.\n\n\"Air pollution\" is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances.\n\nThe scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.\n\nSection::::Images from space.\n",
"\"Emission\" is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their \"black body\" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately , its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately , so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.\n",
"The carbon cycle is another major contributor to climate change primarily from anthropogenic metabolism. A few examples of how humans contribute to the carbon in the atmosphere is by burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. By taking a close look at the carbon cycle Peng, Thomas and Tian have discovered that, \"It is recognized that human activities, such as fossil fuel burning, land-use change, and forest harvesting at a large scale, have resulted in the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere since the onset of the industrial revolution. The increasing amounts of greenhouse gases, particularly CO2 in the atmosphere, is believed to have induced climate change and global warming.\n",
"Carbon dioxide () is an important trace gas in Earth's atmosphere. It is an integral part of the carbon cycle, a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth's oceans, soil, rocks and the biosphere. Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds. absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 µm (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode) and consequently is a greenhouse gas that plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.\n",
"Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.\n",
"The composition and chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, but primarily because of the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles from corona. It has also been changed by human activity and some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems which have been addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases and global warming. Atmospheric chemists seek to understand the causes of these problems, and by obtaining a theoretical understanding of them, allow possible solutions to be tested and the effects of changes in government policy evaluated.\n",
"The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, already mentioned, other noble gases, neon, helium, krypton, and xenon are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.\n",
"There has been much evidence to show a significant connection between the carbon cycle and climate change. Most greenhouse gases are primarily composed of carbon and they produce an effect where warmer air that is heated by the sun is kept from leaving the atmosphere by forming a barrier in the troposphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, greenhouse gasses produced by human activity have been noted as the most significant cause of global climate change since the 1950s. Without human interaction, carbon is removed from and reintroduced to soil through a variety of ecosystem processes known as the carbon cycle. Humans have been significantly influencing the global carbon cycle since the Industrial Revolution through various means, such as transportation and agriculture. Through these actions, most of this carbon has moved in one direction, from the lithosphere and biospheres to the atmosphere. By means of oil, gas and irresponsible farming, much of the natural carbon in the earth's pedosphere has been released into the atmosphere, contributing to greenhouse gasses.\n",
"An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and escape into space, leaving O in the atmosphere: \n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Biological consumption.\n\nThe main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Abiotic consumption.\n\nThe lithosphere also consumes atmospheric free oxygen by chemical weathering and surface reactions. An example of surface weathering chemistry is formation of iron oxides (rust): \n"
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@inproceedings{fan2019eli5,
title = "{ELI}5: Long Form Question Answering",
author = "Fan, Angela and Jernite, Yacine and Perez, Ethan and Grangier, David and Weston, Jason and Auli, Michael",
booktitle = "Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics",
year = "2019",
}
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