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[ "A distinction can be made between \"proximal ageing\" (age-based effects that come about because of factors in the recent past) and \"distal ageing\" (age-based differences that can be traced to a cause in person's early life, such as childhood poliomyelitis).\n\nAgeing is among the greatest known risk factors for most human diseases. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die from age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is higher, reaching 90%.\n\nSection::::Biological basis.\n", "Section::::By country.\n\nHere is a table of YPLL for all causes (ages 0–69, per 100,000) with the most recent available data from the OECD:\n\nSection::::By country.:Australia.\n\nThe report of the NSW Chief Medical Officer in 2002 indicates that cardiovascular disease (32.7% (of total Males Years of Life Lost due to premature mortality) and 36.6% of females YLL) and malignant neoplasms (27.5% of Males YLL and 31.2% of Females YLL) are the main causes of lost years \n", "Health departments discourage listing old age as the cause of death because doing so does not benefit public health or medical research. Old age is not a scientifically recognized cause of death; there is always a more direct cause, although it may be unknown in certain cases and could be one of a number of aging-associated diseases. As an indirect or non-determinative factor, biological aging is the biggest contributor to deaths worldwide. It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.\n", "It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90 percent. Thus, albeit indirectly, biological aging (senescence) is by far the leading cause of death. Whether senescence as a biological process itself can be slowed down, halted, or even reversed is a subject of current scientific speculation and research.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:2001 figures.\n", "In the United States, the 85+ age group is the fastest growing, a group that is almost sure to face the \"inevitable decrepitude\" of survivors. (Frailty and decrepitude are synonyms.)\n\nSection::::Frailty.:Markers.\n\nThree unique markers of frailty have been proposed: (a) loss of any notion of invincibility, (b) loss of ability to do things essential to one's care, and (c) loss of possibility for a subsequent life stage.\n", "Research on the morbidity of supercentenarians has found that they remain free of major age-related diseases (e.g., stroke, cardiovascular disease, dementia, cancer, Parkinson's disease, and diabetes) until the very end of life when they die of exhaustion of organ reserve, which is the ability to return organ function to homeostasis. About 10% of supercentenarians survive until the last 3 months of life without major age-related diseases, as compared to only 4% of semisupercentenarians and 3% of centenarians.\n", "Many centenarians manage to avoid chronic diseases even after indulging in a lifetime of serious health risks. For example, many people in the New England Centenarian Study experienced a century free of cancer or heart disease despite smoking as many as 60 cigarettes a day for 50 years. The same applies to people from Okinawa in Japan, where around half of supercentenarians had a history of smoking and one-third were regular alcohol drinkers. It is possible that these people may have had genes that protected them from the dangers of carcinogens or the random mutations that crop up naturally when cells divide.\n", "Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being is able to survive all calamities, but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age. Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from deterioration of cellular activity and ruination of regular functioning. Aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily (Hayflick & Moody, 2003).\n", "Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as \"senescence\". Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish \"Turritopsis dohrnii\", the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day. Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence).\n", "The causes of ageing are uncertain; current theories are assigned to the damage concept, whereby the accumulation of damage (such as DNA oxidation) may cause biological systems to fail, or to the programmed ageing concept, whereby internal processes (such as DNA methylation) may cause ageing. Programmed ageing should not be confused with programmed cell death (apoptosis).\n\nIn 1934, it was discovered that calorie restriction can extend lifespan by 50% in rats and this has motivated research into delaying and preventing ageing .\n\nSection::::Ageing versus immortality.\n", "Rare cases of lung and bone marrow involvement have also been reported to complicate AGEP. However, involvement of these organs typically resolve along with the skin eruptions. AGE typically shows a mild course: usually, it is not associated with life-threatening complicates although superinfections of skin lesions may be serious or even life-threatening. AGEP has a mortality rate of less than 5%.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nAbout 90% of AGEP reactions are associated with medications. The remaining cases of AGEP have been associated with infective and other agents.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Medicines.\n", "While most people can afford to get resleeved at the end of their lives, they are unable to update their bodies and most go through the full aging process each time, which discourages most from resleeving more than once or twice. So while normal people can live indefinitely in theory, most choose not to. Only the wealthy are able to acquire replacement bodies on a continual basis. The long-lived are called Meths, a reference to the Biblical figure Methuselah. The very rich are also able to keep copies of their minds in remote storage, which they update regularly. This ensures that even if their stack is destroyed, they can be resleeved.\n", "About half of older adults suffer multimorbidity, that is, they have three or more chronic conditions. Medical advances have made it possible to \"postpone death,\" but in many cases this postponement adds \"prolonged sickness, dependence, pain, and suffering,\" a time that is costly in social, psychological, and economic terms.\n", "Section::::Definitions.:Sub-group definitions.\n\nGerontologists have recognized the very different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, and able to care for themselves. However, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation.\n", "Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.\n\nSection::::Psychosocial aspects.\n", "Section::::Scope.:Geriatric giants.\n\nThe so-called geriatric giants are the major categories of impairment that appear in elderly people, especially as they begin to fail. These include immobility, instability, incontinence and impaired intellect/memory.\n", "Research also suggests that there is a clear link between living to 100 and inheriting a hyperactive version of telomerase, an enzyme that prevents cells from ageing. Scientists from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the US say centenarian Ashkenazi Jews have this mutant gene.\n", "Section::::In biology.:Evolution of aging and mortality.\n\nInquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (exceptions include \"Hydra\" and the already cited jellyfish \"Turritopsis dohrnii\", which research shows to be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes.\n", "Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.\n", "BULLET::::- stem cell exhaustion (in the authors' view caused by damage factors such as those listed above)\n\nBULLET::::- altered intercellular communication (encompassing especially inflammation but possibly also other intercellular interactions)\n\nThere are three main metabolic pathways which can influence the rate of ageing, discussed below:\n\nBULLET::::- the FOXO3/Sirtuin pathway, probably responsive to caloric restriction\n\nBULLET::::- the Growth hormone/Insulin-like growth factor 1 signalling pathway\n\nBULLET::::- the activity levels of the electron transport chain in mitochondria and (in plants) in chloroplasts.\n\nIt is likely that most of these pathways affect ageing separately, because targeting them simultaneously leads to additive increases in lifespan.\n", "Section::::Frailty.:Misconceptions.\n", "By age 3 about 30% of rats have had cancer, whereas by age 85 about 30% of humans have had cancer. Humans, dogs and rabbits get Alzheimer's disease, but rodents do not. Elderly rodents typically die of cancer or kidney disease, but not of cardiovascular disease. In humans, the relative incidence of cancer increases exponentially with age for most cancers, but levels off or may even decline by age 60–75 (although colon/rectal cancer continues to increase).\n", "Examples of aging-associated diseases are atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, cancer, arthritis, cataracts, osteoporosis, type 2 diabetes, hypertension and Alzheimer's disease. The incidence of all of these diseases increases exponentially with age. \n\nOf the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is higher, reaching 90%.\n\nSection::::Patterns of differences.\n", "The year is 2101 and thirty three years have passed since the first successful brain tissue remodulation and body reanimation of a human being. \"Vitals\", ordinary living human beings, share their lives with \"Expireds\", an underclass of once dead people who have been restored to life to perform a variety of specialist but unwanted tasks. Apart from the pallor of their skin and the putrid chemical \"unction\" which they are forced to consume as a food-substitute, the dead are otherwise indistinguishable from ordinary functioning human beings.\n", "Section::::Mortality-rate plateaus.:Human late life.\n" ]

[ "Humans can die of old age.", "Old age is a cause of death." ]

[ "Human's don't die of old age, but rather of infections or failures of body systems, occuring when they are old.", "People don't die from aging, over time the body becomes weak and people die from some infection or failure of a system." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Humans can die of old age.", "Old age is a cause of death." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Human's don't die of old age, but rather of infections or failures of body systems, occuring when they are old.", "People don't die from aging, over time the body becomes weak and people die from some infection or failure of a system." ]

[ "The flavour of the whisky will linger on the palate and will change over time as the flavour decays in the mouth.\n\nSection::::Tasting notes.:Water.\n", "BULLET::::- Maximum Nitrogen Concentration (NH4-N [micro l-1] of 13 on the surface and 120 at the bottom of the lake have been reported.\n\nBULLET::::- The lake water temperature varied from a minimum of in January to in June/July at the surface and correspondingly and , at the bottom of the lake.\n\nSection::::Water quality issues.:Flora.\n\nWithin the lake water, the flora recorded comprise the following.\n", "Section::::Temporal taste perception.:Variability of human taste perception.\n", "BULLET::::- Reisner, M., \"Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water\". Penguin Books, New York. 1986.\n\nBULLET::::- United Nations World Water Development Report. Produced every three years.\n\nBULLET::::- St. Fleur, Nicholas. The Water in Your Glass Might Be Older Than the Sun. \"The water you drink is older than the planet you're standing on.\" \"The New York Times\" (15 April 2016)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- OECD Water statistics\n\nBULLET::::- The World's Water Data Page\n\nBULLET::::- FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT\n\nBULLET::::- The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database\n\nBULLET::::- US Geological Survey Water for Schools information\n", "Moreover, concentration polarization leads to:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased salt leakage through the membrane\n\nBULLET::::- Increased probability of scale/fouling development\n\nThus, the selectivity of separation and the membrane lifetime are deteriorated.\n", "Purified water is also used in the commercial beverage industry as the primary ingredient of any given trademarked bottling formula, in order to maintain critical consistency of taste, clarity, and color. This guarantees the consumer complete reliability of safety and drinking-satisfaction of their favorite refreshment, no matter where in the world it has been bottled. In the process prior to filling and sealing, individual bottles are always rinsed with deionised water to remove any particles that could cause a change in taste.\n", "The Susan Coolidge book \"Clover\" (1888), part of the Katy Series, mentions the water during a private train journey to Colorado: \"\"The car seems paved with bottles of Apollinaris and with lemons,\" wrote Katy to her father...Just as surely as it grows warm and dusty, and we begin to remember that we are thirsty, a tinkle is heard, and Bayard appears with a tray,--iced lemonade, if you please, made with Apollinaris water with strawberries floating on top! What do you think of that at thirty miles an hour?\"\"\n", "Test have found 83% of 159 water samples from around the world were contaminated with plastic fibers.\n\nSection::::Water quality.:Improved water sources.\n", "Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is keeping samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this merely minimizes the changes rather than preventing them. A useful procedure for determining influence of sample containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the sampling event. One sample container is filled with water known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the chemical of interest. This sample, called a \"blank\", is opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and transported to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample holding procedures introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then \"spiked\" with a measured additional amount of the chemical of interest at the time of collection. The blank and spiked samples are carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed time between collection and analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and begins to establish chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings – the sample container. Sample containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity with substances to be measured; and pre-cleaning of sample containers is important. The water sample may dissolve part of the sample container and any residue on that container, or chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto the sample container and remain there when the water is poured out for analysis. Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any pumps, piping, or intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample container. Water collected from depths below the surface will normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere; so gas dissolved in the water may escape into unfilled space at the top of the container. Atmospheric gas present in that air space may also dissolve into the water sample. Other chemical reaction equilibria may change if the water sample changes temperature. Finely divided solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the bottom of the sample container, or a solid phase may form from biological growth or chemical precipitation. Microorganisms within the water sample may biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide concentrations may alter pH and change solubility of chemicals of interest. These problems are of special concern during measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at very low concentrations.\n", "The water table at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant fluctuates from on average in December to on average in May.\n", "Prior to the introduction of aquaculture, Alligator Lake was considered as an oligotrophic lake, having low nutrient content and low algal production, resulting in very clear water with high drinking-water quality.\n\nSection::::Geography and Geology.\n", "BULLET::::- The lake is Monomictic Mixing type and develops thermal stratification in March to November. Maximum depth of the Thermocline is . Hypolimnion temperature ranges from to .\n\nBULLET::::- pH value varied from a maximum of 8.8 on the surface to a minimum of 7.7 at depth in year over the 12 months period\n\nBULLET::::- DO [mg l-1] value varied from a maximum of 10.4 on the surface to a minimum of 2.2 at the bottom in year over the 12 months period\n", "Section::::Common drinking water contaminants.\n", "In 1997, polychlorinated biphenyl congeners (PCBs), compounds common in transformers, hydraulic fluids, paint additives and pesticides were determined in sediments and oysters sampled from Manila Bay. The increase in the nutrient concentration and presence of nitrate, ammonia and phosphate in the bay,from the '80s, through to the '90s and beyond are not only attributed to agricultural runoff and river discharges but also on fertilizers from fishponds.\n\nSection::::Future.\n\nSection::::Future.:Rehabilitation.\n", "The next one there was old lady Grayson – she couldn't get in so she peed in the basin\n\nit was the same water the next washed her face in – and nobody knew they were there.\n\n/poem\n", "In the developed world, levels of contaminants found in tap water vary for every household and plumbing system but tend to be low. Two general conceptions with popular appeal are:\n\nBULLET::::1. That tap water is widely contaminated\n\nBULLET::::2. That bottled water is assuredly pure\n", "Tilapia is one of several commercially important aquaculture species (including trout, barramundi and channel catfish) susceptible to off flavors. These 'muddy' or 'musty' flavors are normally caused by geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol, organic products of ubiquitous cyanobacteria that are often present or bloom sporadically in water bodies and soil. These flavors are no indication of freshness or safety of the fish, but they make the product unattractive to consumers. Simple quality control procedures are known to be effective in ensuring the quality of fish entering the market.\n", "The primary focus of both the campaign and the new packaging is the reformulated taste of the drink, proclaimed on the packaging as 'New - tastes nothing like the old one!'.\n", "Section::::Details.\n\nBULLET::::- Average width:\n\nBULLET::::- Basin permanence index:\n\nBULLET::::- Approximate flushing rate: 2.1 volumes per year\n\nBULLET::::- Relative depth: 0.43%\n\nBULLET::::- Shoreline development index: 1.70\n\nBULLET::::- Volume development index: 2.1\n\nBULLET::::- In-lake total phosphorus retention index: 0.7\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Many treatment plants that take raw water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs for public drinking water production use conventional filtration technologies. Direct filtration, which is typically used to treat water with low particulate levels, includes coagulation and filtration but not sedimentation. Other common filtration processes including slow sand filters, diatomaceous earth filters, and membranes will remove 99% of \"Cryptosporidium\". Membranes and bag- and cartridge-filter products remove \"Cryptosporidium\" specifically.\n", "Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise. Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers. Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.\n", "In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of alga called \"Dunaliella\". \"Dunaliella\" in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.\n", "Water quality in the subbasin is generally fair with regard to sodium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate, However, the trend in adverse water quality due to total dissolved solids indicates unpotable conditions may exist as early as 2020 due to overpopulation of the Livermore-Amador Valley by humans and associated discharge of salts to the groundwater.\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of water sampling introduces two significant problems:\n" ]

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[ "Nontradables are primarily services and the output of the construction industry. Nontradables also lead to deviations in PPP because the prices of nontradables are not linked internationally. The prices are determined by domestic supply and demand, and shifts in those curves lead to changes in the market basket of some goods relative to the foreign price of the same basket. If the prices of nontradables rise, the purchasing power of any given currency will fall in that country.\n\nSection::::Difficulties.:Departures from free competition.\n", "Section::::Need for adjustments to GDP.\n\nThe exchange rate reflects transaction values for traded goods \"between\" countries in contrast to non-traded goods, that is, goods produced for home-country use. Also, currencies are traded for purposes other than trade in goods and services, \"e.g.\", to buy capital assets whose prices vary more than those of physical goods. Also, different interest rates, speculation, hedging or interventions by central banks can influence the foreign-exchange market.\n", "Currency markets typically move in long-term cycles around competitive fair value. The competitive fair value between two currencies itself changes over time, according to the relative productivity and inflation differentials between the two economies/currencies. Currencies rarely stay at competitive fair value, due to the interaction of the economic cycles existing in each economy, and typically move between periods of overvaluation and undervaluation as a result.\n", "There are many official currencies worldwide but not all currencies are traded actively in the forex market. Currencies backed by economically and politically stable nations or unions such as USD and EUR are traded actively. Also, the more liquid the currency, the more demand there is for that currency. For example, United States dollar is world's most actively traded currency due to the size and strength of the United States economy and global acceptance of USD.\n", "Section::::Background.:International conditions required for currency war.\n\nFor a widespread currency war to occur a large proportion of significant economies must wish to devalue their currencies at once. This has so far only happened during a global economic downturn.\n", "BULLET::::- This diagram underscores the two main factors that drive a country to contemplate pegging a currency to another, shock symmetry and market integration. Shock symmetry can be characterized as two countries having similar demand shocks due to similar industry breakdowns and economies, while market integration is a factor of the volume of trading that occurs between member nations of the peg.\n", "There are a number of reasons that different measures do not perfectly reflect standards of living.\n\nSection::::Difficulties.:Range and quality of goods.\n\nThe goods that the currency has the \"power\" to purchase are a basket of goods of different types:\n\nBULLET::::1. Local, non-tradable goods and services (like electric power) that are produced and sold domestically.\n\nBULLET::::2. Tradable goods such as non-perishable commodities that can be sold on the international market (like diamonds).\n", "The increasing volume of trading of financial assets (stocks and bonds) has required a rethink of its impact on exchange rates. Economic variables such as economic growth, inflation and productivity are no longer the only drivers of currency movements. The proportion of foreign exchange transactions stemming from cross border-trading of financial assets has dwarfed the extent of currency transactions generated from trading in goods and services.\n\nThe asset market approach views currencies as asset prices traded in an efficient financial market. Consequently, currencies are increasingly demonstrating a strong correlation with other markets, particularly equities.\n", "Countries often have several important trading partners or are apprehensive of a particular currency being too volatile over an extended period of time. They can thus choose to peg their currency to a weighted average of several currencies (also known as a currency basket) . For example, a composite currency may be created consisting of 100 Indian rupees, 100 Japanese yen and one Singapore dollar. The country creating this composite would then need to maintain reserves in one or more of these currencies to intervene in the foreign exchange market. \n", "All monetary regimes except for the permanently fixed regime experience the time inconsistency problem and exchange rate volatility, albeit to different degrees.\n\nSection::::Fixed rate programs.\n\nIn a fixed exchange rate system, the monetary authority picks rates of exchange with each other currency and commits to adjusting the money supply, restricting exchange transactions and adjusting other variables to ensure that the exchange rates do not move. All variations on fixed rates reduce the time inconsistency problem and reduce exchange rate volatility, albeit to different degrees.\n", "If a country's authorities wish to devalue or prevent appreciation against market forces exerting upwards pressure on the currency, and retain control of interest rates, as is usually the case, they will need capital controls in place—due to conditions that arise from the impossible trinity trilemma.\n\nSection::::Background.:Quantitative easing.\n", "Currencies are traded in fixed contract sizes, specifically called lot sizes, or multiples thereof. The standard lot size is 100,000 units. Many retail trading firms also offer 10,000-unit (mini lot) trading accounts and a few even 1,000-unit (micro lot).\n", "The foreign exchange market exhibits systematic inefficiencies, owing mostly to its unique status among financial markets: only a small proportion of currency market participants are seeking profit in that market. Instead, most participants transact in the foreign exchange markets for other purposes—trade or investment, for instance.\n\nBecause the market is dominated by highly constrained participants like industrial and commercial companies, fund managers, portfolio investors, and central banks, there still exist arbitrage opportunities that are not fully exploited. These include cyclical behaviour, trending, disparities in implied and actual volatility, and the forward rate bias.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "A popular and widely used composite currency is the SDR, which is a composite currency created by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), consisting of a fixed quantity of U.S. dollars, Chinese yuan, euros, Japanese yen, and British pounds.\n\nSection::::Hybrid exchange rate systems.:Crawling pegs.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nIn the absence of intervention in the foreign exchange market by national government authorities, the exchange rate of a country's currency is determined, in general, by market forces of supply and demand at a point in time. Government authorities may intervene in the market from time to time to achieve specific policy objectives, such as maintaining its balance of trade or to give its exporters a competitive advantage in international trade.\n\nSection::::Background.:Reasons for intentional devaluation.\n", "Still, some governments strive to keep their currency within a narrow range. As a result, currencies become over-valued or under-valued, leading to excessive trade deficits or surpluses.\n\nSection::::Exchange rate classification.\n\nBULLET::::- From the perspective of bank foreign exchange trading:\n", "Section::::Demand.\n\nInvestors as well as ordinary people generally prefer hard currencies to soft currencies at times of increased inflation (or, more precisely, times of increased inflation differentials between countries), at times of heightened political or military risk, or when they feel that one or more government-imposed exchange rates are unrealistic. There may be regulatory reasons for preferring to invest outside one's home currency, e.g. the local currency may be subject to capital controls which makes it difficult to spend it outside the host nation.\n", "BULLET::::3. Asset market model: views currencies as an important asset class for constructing investment portfolios. Asset prices are influenced mostly by people's willingness to hold the existing quantities of assets, which in turn depends on their expectations on the future worth of these assets. The asset market model of exchange rate determination states that “the exchange rate between two currencies represents the price that just balances the relative supplies of, and demand for, assets denominated in those currencies.”\n", "The eight most traded currencies (in no specific order) are: the U.S. dollar (USD), the Canadian dollar (CAD), the euro (EUR), the British pound (GBP), the Swiss franc (CHF), the New Zealand dollar (NZD), the Australian dollar (AUD) and the Japanese yen (JPY).\n\nCurrencies are traded in pairs. The above-mentioned eight currencies can generate 28 different currency pairs that can be traded. However, not all of them are quoted by forex market makers. Depending on the liquidity of currencies, there are 18 currency pairs which are quoted by forex market makers. These pairs are:\n", "BULLET::::- Participant countries have similar business cycles. When one country experiences a boom or recession, other countries in the union are likely to follow. This allows the shared central bank to promote growth in downturns and to contain inflation in booms. Should countries in a currency union have idiosyncratic business cycles, then optimal monetary policy may diverge and union participants may be made worse off under a joint central bank.\n\nAdditional criteria suggested are:\n\nBULLET::::- Production diversification (Peter Kenen)\n\nBULLET::::- Homogeneous preferences\n\nBULLET::::- Commonality of destiny (\"Solidarity\")\n\nSection::::Models.:Optimum currency area with international risk sharing.\n", "In the 21st century, the currencies associated with large economies typically do not fix (peg) their exchange rates to other currencies. The last large economy to use a fixed exchange rate system was the People's Republic of China, which, in July 2005, adopted a slightly more flexible exchange rate system, called a managed exchange rate. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism is also used on a temporary basis to establish a final conversion rate against the euro from the local currencies of countries joining the Eurozone.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Commodity currencies' nature can allow foreign exchange traders to more accurately gauge a currency's value, and predict movements within markets based on the perceived value of the correlated commodity. Knowing which currencies are tied to which commodities can assist greatly with trading decisions.\n\nAll in all, if looking to trade commodity currencies, it is extremely important to closely follow the price movements of the commodities to which they are correlated, and short or go long a currency accordingly.\n\nSection::::Externalities.\n", "Here Mundell tries to model how exchange rate uncertainty will interfere with the economy; this model is less often cited.\n", "Historically, this was established by a ranking according to the relative values of the currencies with respect to each other, but the introduction of the euro and other market factors have broken the original price rankings. For example, while historically Japanese yen would rank above Mexican peso, the quoting convention for these is now MXNJPY, i.e. Mexican peso has higher priority than Japanese yen.\n", "Although the majority of developed countries now have \"floating\" exchange rates, some of them – together with many developing countries – maintain exchange rates that are nominally \"fixed\", usually with the US dollar or the euro. The adoption of a fixed rate requires intervention in the foreign exchange market by the country’s central bank, and is usually accompanied by a degree of control over its citizens’ access to international markets.\n" ]

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[ "Vitamin C distributes readily in high concentrations into immune cells, has antimicrobial and natural killer cell activities, promotes lymphocyte proliferation, and is consumed quickly during infections, effects indicating a prominent role in immune system regulation. The European Food Safety Authority found a cause and effect relationship exists between the dietary intake of vitamin C and functioning of a normal immune system in adults and in children under three years of age.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cancer.\n", "Section::::Metabolic functions.:Immune function.\n\nVitamin A plays a role in many areas of the immune system, particularly in T cell differentiation and proliferation.\n", "In general, vitamin D functions to activate the innate and dampen the adaptive immune systems. Deficiency has been linked to increased risk or severity of viral infections, including HIV. Low levels of vitamin D appear to be a risk factor for tuberculosis, and historically it was used as a treatment. Supplementation slightly decreases the risk of acute respiratory tract infections and the exacerbation of asthma. Evidence is lacking on whether it does so in children under five years of age. No clinical trials have been done to assess its effect on preventing other infections, such as malaria.\n", "A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The endothelium is a layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels. Endothelial dysfunction is implicated in many aspects of vascular diseases. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, with stronger effects in those at higher risk of cardiovascular disease.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Brain function.\n", "A meta-analysis showed a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function. Benefit was found of vitamin C in doses in the range from 0.5 to 4 g/day, whereas lower doses from 0.09 to 0.5 g/day were not effective.\n\nSection::::Research.:Common cold.\n", "Current evidence does not support its use for the prevention of the common cold. There is, however, some evidence that regular use may shorten the length of colds. It is unclear whether supplementation affects the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or dementia. It may be taken by mouth or by injection.\n\nVitamin C is generally well tolerated. Large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy. The United States Institute of Medicine recommends against taking large doses.\n", "When a T-cell encounters a foreign pathogen, it extends a vitamin D receptor. This is essentially a signaling device that allows the T-cell to bind to the active form of vitamin D, the steroid hormone calcitriol. T-cells have a symbiotic relationship with vitamin D. Not only does the T-cell extend a vitamin D receptor, in essence asking to bind to the steroid hormone version of vitamin D, calcitriol, but the T-cell expresses the gene CYP27B1, which is the gene responsible for converting the pre-hormone version of vitamin D, calcidiol into the steroid hormone version, calcitriol. Only after binding to calcitriol can T-cells perform their intended function. Other immune system cells that are known to express CYP27B1 and thus activate vitamin D calcidiol, are dendritic cells, keratinocytes and macrophages.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Excretion.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Infection.\n\nThe effect of vitamin C on the common cold has been extensively researched. The earliest publication of a controlled clinical trial appears to be from 1945. Researchers continued to work on this question, but research interest and public interest spiked after Linus Pauling, two-time awardee of the Nobel Prize (Chemistry Prize, 1954, Peace Prize 1962), started publishing research on the topic and also published a book \"Vitamin C and the Common Cold\" in 1970. A revised and expanded edition \"Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu\" was published in 1976.\n", "Under the rubric of orthomolecular medicine, \"Intravenous vitamin C is a contentious adjunctive cancer therapy, widely used in naturopathic and integrative oncology settings.\" With oral administration absorption efficiency decreases as amounts increase. Intravenous administration bypasses this. Doing so makes it possible to achieve plasma concentrations of 5 to 10 millimoles/liter (mmol/L), which far exceed the approximately 0.2 mmol/L limit from oral consumption. The theories of mechanism are contradictory. At high tissue concentrations ascorbic acid is described as acting as a pro-oxidant, generating hydrogen peroxide (HO) to kill tumor cells. The same literature claims that ascorbic acid acts as an antioxidant, thereby reducing the adverse effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Research continues in this field, but a 2014 review concluded: \"Currently, the use of high-dose intravenous vitamin C [as an anticancer agent] cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial.\" A 2015 review added: \"There is no high-quality evidence to suggest that ascorbate supplementation in cancer patients either enhances the antitumor effects of chemotherapy or reduces its toxicity. Evidence for ascorbate's anti-tumor effects was limited to case reports and observational and uncontrolled studies.\"\n", "Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews reporting conflicting results. A 2012 Cochrane review reported no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines as one of the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Scurvy.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Cardiovascular disease.\n\nA 2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, or all-cause mortality. However, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke.\n", "BULLET::::- Changes in pigmentation\n\nBULLET::::- Skin atrophy\n\nSection::::Interactions.\n\nNo drug interactions are known.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Mechanism of action.\n\nThe efficacy of calcipotriol in the treatment of psoriasis was first noticed by the observation of patients receiving various forms of vitamin D in an osteoporosis study. Unexpectedly, some patients who also suffered from psoriasis experienced dramatic reductions in lesion counts.\n", "Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimer's disease have reached conflicting conclusions. Maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. A 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Vitamin C supplementation does not prevent or slow the progression of age-related cataract.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n", "From the U.S. National Institutes of Health: [In humans] \"Approximately 70%–90% of vitamin C is absorbed at moderate intakes of 30–180 mg/day. However, at doses above 1,000 mg/day, absorption falls to less than 50%.\" It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms, so the presence of large quantities of sugar in the intestine can slow absorption.\n", "BULLET::::4. does not boost anamnestic immune responses (see Latent tuberculosis#Boosting).\n", "Vitamin K is one of the treatments for bleeding events caused by overdose of the anticoagulant drug warfarin (Coumadin®). Vitamin K is also part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning).\n\nSection::::Medical Uses.:Vitamin K deficiency bleeding in newborns.\n", "Pauling popularized the concept of high dose vitamin C as prevention and treatment of the common cold in 1970. A few years later he proposed that vitamin C would prevent cardiovascular disease, and that 10 grams/day, initially (10 days) administered intravenously and thereafter orally, would cure late-stage cancer. Mega-dosing with ascorbic acid has other champions, among them chemist Irwin Stone and the controversial Matthias Rath and Patrick Holford, who both have been accused of making unsubstantiated treatment claims for treating cancer and HIV infection.\n", "Traditionally thought to serve a strictly pro-inflammatory role, recent investigations have shown that C3a can also work against C5a to serve an anti-inflammatory role. In addition, migration and degranulation of neutrophils can be suppressed in the presence of C3a.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Role in adaptive immunity.\n", "The substance can inhibit the resorption of other drugs, as well as fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and folate, from the gut. Resulting lower blood levels can be clinically problematic with immunosuppressant and antiepileptic drugs.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n\nAdverse effects include gastrointestinal problems such as constipation, as well as vitamin and calcium deficiency. Vitamin K deficiency sometimes causes gastrointestinal bleeding.\n\nSection::::Chemistry and mechanism of action.\n", "There are two approaches to the question of whether vitamin C has an impact on cancer. First, within the normal range of dietary intake without additional dietary supplementation, are people who consume more vitamin C at lower risk for developing cancer, and if so, does an orally consumed supplement have the same benefit? Second, for people diagnosed with cancer, will large amounts of ascorbic acid administered intravenously treat the cancer, reduce the adverse effects of other treatments, and so prolong survival and improve quality of life? A 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy people or those at high risk due to smoking or asbestos exposure. A second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer. One found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect from supplementation. A 2011 meta-analysis failed to find support for the prevention of breast cancer with vitamin C supplementation, but a second study concluded that vitamin C may be associated with increased survival in those already diagnosed.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "Following the final converting step in the kidney, calcitriol is released into the circulation. By binding to vitamin D-binding protein, calcitriol is transported throughout the body, including to the classical target organs of intestine, kidney and bone. Calcitriol is the most potent natural ligand of the vitamin D receptor, which mediates most of the physiological actions of vitamin D.\n\nIn addition to the kidneys, calcitriol is also synthesized by certain other cells including monocyte-macrophages in the immune system. When synthesized by monocyte-macrophages, calcitriol acts locally as a cytokine, modulating body defenses against microbial invaders by stimulating the innate immune system.\n", "The main diseases that cause an increased excretion of faecal calprotectin are inflammatory bowel diseases, coeliac disease, infectious colitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, intestinal cystic fibrosis and colorectal cancer.\n", "Section::::Medical uses.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Repletion of deficiency.\n\nSevere vitamin B deficiency is corrected with frequent intramuscular injections of large doses of the vitamin, followed by maintenance doses at longer intervals. Tablets are sometimes used for repletion in mild deficiency; and for maintenance regardless of severity. Vitamin B12 supplementation sometimes leads to acneiform eruptions (acne-like rashes).\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Cyanide poisoning.\n" ]

[ "Vitamin C boosts the immune system." ]

[ "Vitamin C will only help the immune system if you are deficient in vitamin C." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Vitamin C boosts the immune system." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Vitamin C will only help the immune system if you are deficient in vitamin C." ]

[ "Body shape\n\nHuman body shape is a complex phenomenon with sophisticated detail and function. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the molding of skeletal structures, as well as the distribution of muscles and fat. Skeletal structure grows and changes only up to the point at which a human reaches adulthood and remains essentially the same for the rest of his or her life. Growth is usually completed between the ages of 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close, allowing no further growth (see Human skeleton).\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Skeletal structure.:Male traits.\n\nWidening of the shoulders occurs as part of the male pubertal process. Expansion of the ribcage is caused by the effects of testosterone during puberty.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Fat distribution, muscles and tissues.\n\nBody shape is affected by body fat distribution, which is correlated to current levels of sex hormones. Muscles and fat distribution may change from time to time, unlike bone structure, depending on food habits, exercises and hormone levels.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Fat distribution, muscles and tissues.:Fat distribution.\n", "Developmental biologists seek to understand how genes control the development of structural features through a cascade of processes in which key genes produce morphogens, chemicals that diffuse through the body to produce a gradient that acts as a position indicator for cells, turning on other genes, some of which in turn produce other morphogens. A key discovery was the existence of groups of homeobox genes, which function as switches responsible for laying down the basic body plan in animals. The homeobox genes are remarkably conserved between species as diverse as the fruit fly and humans, the basic segmented pattern of the worm or fruit fly being the origin of the segmented spine in humans. The field of animal evolutionary developmental biology ('Evo Devo'), which studies the genetics of morphology in detail, is rapidly expanding with many of the developmental genetic cascades, particularly in the fruit fly \"Drosophila\", catalogued in considerable detail.\n", "Rarely, more complicated body parts such as teeth, brain matter, eyes, or torso may occur.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Hypotheses of origin.\n\nConcerning the origin of teratomas, numerous hypotheses exist. These hypotheses are not to be confused with the unrelated hypothesis that fetus \"in fetu\" (see below) is not a teratoma at all, but rather a parasitic twin.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Anatomical variations are mainly caused by genetics and may vary considerably between different populations. The rate of variation considerably differs between single organs, particularly in muscles. Knowledge of anatomical variations is important in order to distinguish them from pathological conditions.\n\nA very early paper published in 1898, presented anatomic variations to have a wide range and significance, and before the use of X-ray technology, anatomic variations were mostly only found on cadaver studies. The use of imaging techniques have defined many such variations.\n\nSection::::Variants of structures.\n\nSection::::Variants of structures.:Muscles.\n", "The process of development in plants is fundamentally different from that seen in vertebrate animals. When an animal embryo begins to develop, it will very early produce all of the body parts that it will ever have in its life. When the animal is born (or hatches from its egg), it has all its body parts and from that point will only grow larger and more mature. By contrast, plants constantly produce new tissues and structures throughout their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature tissues. Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues.\n", "Recently, Tetko has found a strong correlation of intragenic S/MARs with spatiotemporal expression of genes in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\". On a genome scale, pronounced tissue- and organ-specific and developmental expression patterns of S/MAR-containing genes have been detected. Notably, transcription factor genes contain a significant higher portion of S/MARs. The pronounced difference in expression characteristics of S/MAR-containing genes emphasizes their functional importance and the importance of structural chromosomal characteristics for gene regulation in plants as well as within other eukaryotes.\n", "Origination of Organismal Form\n\nOrigination of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene in Developmental and Evolutionary Biology () is a book published in 2003 edited by Gerd B. Müller and Stuart A. Newman. It explores the multiple factors that may have been responsible for the origination of biological form in multicellular life. These biological forms include limbs, segmented structures, and different body symmetries.\n", "Section::::Plantae.\n\nIn botany, teratology investigates the theoretical implications of abnormal specimens. For example, the discovery of abnormal flowers—for example, flowers with leaves instead of petals, or flowers with staminoid pistils—furnished important evidence for the \"foliar theory\", the theory that all flower parts are highly specialised leaves.\n\nSection::::Plantae.:Types of deformations in vegetals.\n\nPlants can have mutations that leads to different types of deformations such as:\n\nBULLET::::- fasciation : development of the apex in a flat plane perpendicular to the axis of elongation,\n\nBULLET::::- cresting: crestation or crestal development of the apex of the meristem,\n", "Section::::Recognition and influence.\n", "Some of the earliest ideas and mathematical descriptions on how physical processes and constraints affect biological growth, and hence natural patterns such as the spirals of phyllotaxis, were written by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson in his 1917 book \"On Growth and Form\" and Alan Turing in his \"The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis\" (1952). Where Thompson explained animal body shapes as being created by varying rates of growth in different directions, for instance to create the spiral shell of a snail, Turing correctly predicted a mechanism of morphogenesis, the diffusion of two different chemical signals, one activating and one deactivating growth, to set up patterns of development, decades before the formation of such patterns was observed. The fuller understanding of the mechanisms involved in actual organisms required the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, and the development of molecular biology and biochemistry.\n", "Section::::Axial patterning and related issues.:Craniocaudal patterning.\n", "Exploratory processes are selective processes that operate within individual organisms during their lifetimes. In many animals, the vascular, immune and nervous systems develop by producing a variety of forms, and the most functional solutions are selected for and retained, while others are lost. For example, the ‘shape’ of the circulatory system is constructed according to the oxygen and nutrient needs of tissues, rather than being genetically predetermined. Likewise, the nervous system develops through axonal exploration. Initially muscle fibers are connected to multiple neurons but synaptic competition selects certain connections over others to define the mature pattern of muscle innervation. The shape of a cell is determined by the structure of its cytoskeleton. A major element of the cytoskeleton are microtubules, which can grow in random directions from their origin. Microtubule-associated proteins can aid or inhibit microtubule growth, guide microtubules to specific cellular locations and mediate interactions with other proteins. Therefore, microtubules can be stabilized in new configurations that give rise to new cell shapes (and potentially new behaviors or functions) without changes to the microtubule system itself.\n", "There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced \"C\" or \"S\" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Arthritis.\n", "Section::::Hierarchical structure.\n\nHierarchical structures are distinct features seen throughout different length scales. To understand how the hierarchical structure of mineralized tissues contributes to their remarkable properties, those for nacre and bone are described below. Hierarchical structures are characteristic of biology and are seen in all structural materials in biology such as bone and nacre from seashells\n\nSection::::Hierarchical structure.:Nacre.\n\nNacre has several hierarchical structural levels.\n\nSection::::Hierarchical structure.:Nacre.:The macroscale.\n", "Fourthly, plant morphology examines the pattern of development, the process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows. While animals produce all the body parts they will ever have from early in their life, plants constantly produce new tissues and structures throughout their life. A living plant always has embryonic tissues. The way in which new structures mature as they are produced may be affected by the point in the plant's life when they begin to develop, as well as by the environment to which the structures are exposed. A morphologist studies this process, the causes, and its result. This area of plant morphology overlaps with plant physiology and ecology.\n", "Plant growth and development are mediated by specific plant hormones and plant growth regulators (PGRs) (Ross et al. 1983). Endogenous hormone levels are influenced by plant age, cold hardiness, dormancy, and other metabolic conditions; photoperiod, drought, temperature, and other external environmental conditions; and exogenous sources of PGRs, e.g., externally applied and of rhizospheric origin.\n\nSection::::Morphology in development.:Morphological variation.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Morphological.\n\nOrganisms are able to change several characteristics relating to their morphology in order to maintain performance in novel environments. For example, birds often increase their organ size to increase their metabolism. This can take the form of an increase in the mass of nutritional organs or heat-producing organs, like the pectorals (with the latter being more consistent across species).\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "Section::::Morphology in development.:Evolution of plant morphology.:Environmental effects.\n\nThe way in which new structures mature as they are produced may be affected by the point in the plants life when they begin to develop, as well as by the environment to which the structures are exposed. This can be seen in aquatic plants and emergent plants.\n\nSection::::Morphology in development.:Evolution of plant morphology.:Environmental effects.:Temperature.\n", "Section::::Appearance in nature.\n\nEpithelial cells adopt the \"scutoidal shape\" under certain circumstances. In epithelia, cells can 3D-pack as scutoids, facilitating tissue curvature. This is fundamental to the shaping of the organs during development.\n", "Shapes of parenchyma:\n\nBULLET::::- Polyhedral\n\nBULLET::::- Stellate (found in stem of plants and have well developed air spaces between them)\n\nBULLET::::- Elongated (found in pallisade tissue of leaf)\n\nBULLET::::- Lobed (found in spongy and pallisade mesophyyll tissue of some plants)\n\nSection::::Collenchyma.\n", "Charles Darwin listed a number of putative human vestigial features, which he termed rudimentary, in \"The Descent of Man\" (1890). These included the muscles of the ear; wisdom teeth; the appendix; the tail bone; body hair; and the semilunar fold, in the corner of the eye. Darwin also commented on the sporadic nature of many vestigial features, particularly musculature. Making reference to the work of the anatomist William Turner, Darwin highlighted a number of sporadic muscles which he identified as vestigial remnants of the panniculus carnosus, particularly the sternalis muscle.\n", "Fusiform muscles are wider and cylindrically shaped in the center and taper off at the ends. This overall shape of fusiform muscles is often referred to as a spindle. The line of action in this muscle type runs in a straight line between the attachment points which are often tendons. Due to the shape, the force produced by fusiform muscles is concentrated into a small area. An example of this architecture type is the biceps brachii in humans.\n\nSection::::Architecture types.:Parallel.:Fan-shaped.\n\nThe fibers in fan-shaped muscles converge at one end (typically at a tendon) and spread\n", "The fats and carbohydrates in food constitute the majority of energy used by the body. They are measured cumulatively in the USA and many other places in calories and in kilojoules in some other parts of the world.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Body posture and gait.\n\nBody shape has effects on body posture and gait, and has a major role in physical attraction. This is because a body's shape implies an individual's hormone levels during puberty, which implies fertility, and it also indicates current levels of sex hormones. A pleasing shape also implies good health and fitness of the body.\n\nSection::::Impact on health.\n", "The science writer Philip Ball observes that\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "In 2015, 438 of 687 Members of the European Parliament (MEP) voted in favour of amending the 2016 E.U. budget to indicate that the \"Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) appropriations or any other appropriations from the budget should not be used for the financing of lethal bullfighting activities\".\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Politics.\n", "Bullfighting is considered by many people, including animal rights and animal welfare advocates, to be a cruel, barbaric blood sport in which bulls are forced to suffer severe stress and a slow, torturous death. A number of animal rights and animal welfare groups are involved in anti-bullfighting activities.\n\nSection::::Oxen.\n", "Animal welfare concerns are perhaps the prime driver of anti-bullfighting outside Spain although rejection of traditionalism and Criollo elitism may also play a role in Latin America.\n\nAnimal rights activists claim bullfighting is a cruel or barbarous blood sport, in which the bull suffers severe stress and a slow, torturous death. A number of animal rights or animal welfare activist groups such as Antitauromaquia and StopOurShame undertake anti-bullfighting actions in Spain and other countries.\n", "Section::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:Mexico.\n\nBullfighting has been banned in three Mexican states: Sonora in 2013, Guerrero in 2014 and Coahuila in 2015.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:Portugal.\n\nBullfighting was forbidden in several areas in Portugal, such as Viana do Castelo. In 2009, the mayor has claimed the city as the first \"anti-bullfighting city\" in Portugal when it was forbidden the use of the bullring for those activities.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:India.\n", "Section::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:The United States.\n", "Some circuses now present animal-free acts. Bolivia has enacted what animal rights activists called the world's first ban on all animals in circuses.\n\nSection::::Forms.:Bullfighting.\n\nBullfighting is criticized by animal rights or animal welfare activists, referring to it as a cruel or barbaric blood sport in which the bull suffers severe stress and a slow, torturous death. A number of activist groups undertake anti-bullfighting actions in Spain and other countries. In Spanish, opposition to bullfighting is referred to as \"antitaurismo\".\n", "The practice of bullfighting is controversial because of a range of concerns including animal welfare, funding, and religion. Bullfighting is illegal in most countries, but remains legal in most areas of Spain and Portugal, as well as in some Hispanic American countries and some parts of southern France.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Similar customs in other countries.\n\nSection::::Similar customs in other countries.:Tamil Nadu (India).\n", "In Costa Rica the law prohibits the killing of bulls and other animals in public and private shows. However, there are still bullfights at the end and beginning of the year that are televised from Palmares and Zapote. Volunteers confront a bull in a ring and try to provoke him into charging and then run away. In a December 2016 survey, 46.4% of respondents wanted to outlaw bullfights while 50.1% thought they should continue. Los Toros a la Tica as they are called does not include spears or any other device to harm the bull.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:Ecuador.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bullfighter from Brooklyn\", Matador Sidney Franklin's autobiography\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Sun Also Rises\", a novel by Ernest Hemingway, includes many accounts of bullfighting.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Into The Arena: The World Of The Spanish Bullfight\", book by Alexander Fiske-Harrison about his time in Spain as an aficionado in 2009 and as a bullfighter in 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shadow of a Bull\", book by Maia Wojciechowska about a bullfighter's son, Manolo Olivar\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Story of a Matador\", David L. Wolper's 1962 documentary about the life of the matador Jaime Bravo\n", "The Spanish Royal Family is divided on the issue, from the Former Queen Consort of Spain, Sofía of Spain who does not hide her dislike for bullfights; to the former King Juan Carlos who occasionally presides over a bullfight from the royal box as part of his official duties; to their daughter Princess Elena who is well known for her liking of bullfights and who often accompanies the king in the presiding box or attends privately in the general seating.\n\nThe King has allegedly stated that \"the day the EU bans bullfighting is the day Spain leaves the EU\".\n", "In 1991, the Canary Islands became the first Spanish Autonomous Community to ban bullfighting, when they legislated to ban spectacles that involve cruelty to animals, with the exception of cockfighting, which is traditional in some towns in the Islands; bullfighting was never popular in the Canary Islands. Some supporters of bullfighting and even Lorenzo Olarte Cullen, Canarian head of government at the time, have argued that the fighting bull is not a \"domestic animal\" and hence the law does not ban bullfighting. The absence of spectacles since 1984 would be due to lack of demand. In the rest of Spain, national laws against cruelty to animals have abolished most blood sports, but specifically exempt bullfighting.\n", "The mentor of the implementation of the concept was Pilar Taberner at the time, a member of the environmentalist party \"The Greens\" from Spain and who has started a series of contacts for the creation of an international movement against bullfighting nine years earlier, that proposed to the then Mayor of Tossa de Mar, Telm Zaragoza to declare Tossa de Mar anti-bullfighting.\n", "The last common defense to the practice is the conservationist stance point for both the tradition itself and the special. Bravo bulls are the closest living relative to the European wild bull, completely extinct now and divided into subbreeds whose only use is provision of meat, serving the alimentary industry. Without bullfighting and bull spectacles, the last wild bull in Europe is doomed to disappear.\n", "Section::::Activism.\n\nThe industry of bullfighting in Spain, which is over 300 years old and a great part of the traditional Spaniard culture, is going into a recession due to the activism that has been brought on by animal-rights activists. The animal-rights activism against bullfighting was led by Partido Animalista. Silvia Barquero, a spokeswoman of the Animal Welfare Party, said that the ban in Catalonia was in part a result of an Animalist campaign targeting Spain's northern regions, where bullfighting was never as popular as in the south.\n", "A growing list of Spanish and South American cities and regions have started to formally declare their celebrations of bullfighting part of their protected cultural patrimony. Most of these declarations have come into place as a counter-reaction in the aftermath of the 2010 ban in Catalonia.\n\nAs of April 2012, the latest addition to this list is the Andalusian city of Seville.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:Pre-20th century.\n", "The straightforward supporters question the actual pain the bull may be in, considering the factor of adrenaline, and especially consider how the death of cattle tends to be, and repeat the less than 30 seconds death the animal suffers in the end.\n", "Section::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Animal welfare.\n\nMany people, including animal rights and animal welfare advocates, consider this a cruel, barbaric blood sport in which the bull suffers severe stress, and may ultimately end in a slow, torturous death. A number of animal rights and animal welfare groups undertake anti-bullfighting actions in Spain and other countries.\n\nRSPCA assistant director for public affairs, David Bowles, said: \"The RSPCA is strongly opposed to bullfighting. It is an inhumane and outdated practice that continues to lose support, including from those living in the countries where this takes place such as Spain, Portugal and France.\"\n", "Patricia de Leon worked with PETA in 2011 to reduce support for bullfighting among Hispanic people.\n", "Later, over the years, several animal protection associations from different countries have adopted the concept and launched initiatives and campaigns with the aim that cities where there are bullfights apply the same concept.\n\nThe acceptance of its concept has not always been easy, requiring a great awareness among the political entities in a context with many arguments in favour of and against bullfighting activities.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-bullfighting municipalities — CAS International\n\nBULLET::::- Municipis abolicionistes - ILP Prou corrides de toros\n\nBULLET::::- Bullfighting Around the World — Ian Somerhalder Foundation\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- For a Bullfighting-free europe\n", "Several cities around the world (especially in Catalonia) have symbolically declared themselves to be Anti-Bullfighting Cities, including Barcelona in 2006.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:Galicia.\n\nIn Galicia, bullfighting has been banned in many cities by the local governments. Bullfighting has never had an important following in the region.\n\nSection::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Bans.:Catalonia.\n", "Section::::History.:Violence over animals banned.\n", "Section::::Popularity, controversy, and criticism.:Funding.\n\nThe question of public funding is particularly controversial in Spain, since widely disparaged claims have been made by supporters and opponents of bullfighting. According to government figures, bullfighting in Spain generates €1600 million a year and 200,000 jobs, 57,000 of which are directly linked to the industry. Furthermore, bullfighting is the cultural activity which generates the most tax revenue for the Spanish state (€45 million in VAT and over €12 million in social security).\n", "The manner of implementation of the campaigns is not necessarily equal in all countries. Each local organisation decides on the strategy that they prefer to use, always taking the different political aspects into account. \n\nOne of the strategies adopted by some campaign organisations is also raising awareness among tourists who visit cities with bullfighting traditions, to exert economic pressure as a factor dissuator and penalises of bullfighting.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "After years of increased pressure against bullfighting by abolitionist movements within Spain, the death of a bullfighter Victor Barrio in July 2016 led to hundreds of comments being posted on various social media expressing joy towards the event and openly mocking his family and widow. This led to a significant backlash within Spain against anti-bullfighting activism, and criminal investigations are ongoing against those involved. Within a few days of Barrio's death, over 200,000 signatures had been collecting demanding action be taken against one such activist.\n\nSection::::Special events.\n" ]

[ "Animal rights activist should have stopped bullfighting by now. " ]

[ "There are people who hold enough power to ignore the complaints within the country, therefore bullfighting won't stop." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Animal rights activist should have stopped bullfighting by now. ", "Animal rights activist should have stopped bullfighting by now. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "There are people who hold enough power to ignore the complaints within the country, therefore bullfighting won't stop.", "There are people who hold enough power to ignore the complaints within the country, therefore bullfighting won't stop." ]

[ "If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force of gravity, or of some similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produce convection, which removes combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from the air, which exclude oxygen and extinguish the fire. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight. This does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection.\n", "Collins was originally going to title the book \"World in my Window\", but he later decided that was \"too corny\". After discussing it with his editor, they decided to use three words to describe spaceflight. Collins decided on \"Carrying the Fire\".\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Saffire-1 is a NASA test to study flammability and fire propagation in space, using the CRS OA-6 after it has delivered cargo to the International Space Station. The spacecraft is fitted with various sensors and cameras to record data during what is expected to be a 20-minute fire, to determine how much fire resistance is needed in the ultra-light material used in the spacecraft and astronaut's gear. OA-6 will later disintegrate as it enters the Earth's atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Other ORB projects.\n", "One potential method of increasing the overall performance of the system is to collect either the fuel or the oxidizer during flight. Fuel is hard to come by in the atmosphere, but oxidizer in the form of gaseous oxygen makes up to 20% of the air. There are a number of designs that take advantage of this fact. These sorts of systems have been explored in the liquid air cycle engine (LACE).\n", "Section::::In other media.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.:Live-action.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire appeared in the \"Justice League of America\" television pilot movie, portrayed by Michelle Hurd.\n", "BULLET::::- On the television series \"The Flash\", in the season 1 episode \"Power Outage\", Fire's alter ego Bea da Costa is mentioned as one of the people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator accident that gave Flash his powers. Later, during the season 2 episode \"Invincible\", a metahuman is seen as part of Zoom's Earth-2 army attacking Central City that resembles Fire, a humanoid blasting and emitting green flames from its body. The actress who portrayed that metahuman is unknown.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire appears in \"Powerless\" in her \"Green Fury\" alias, portrayed by Natalie Morales.\n", "Section::::Flights.\n\nSection::::Flights.:FIRE 1 - 14.04.1964 - Atlas-D Antares-2.\n\nAn Atlas D launch vehicle lifted a Project FIRE spacecraft to an altitude of 122 km. After coasting to an apogee of more than 800 km, the velocity package would then FIRE the reentry vehicle into a minus 15 degree trajectory at a velocity of 11,300 meters per second.\n", "Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stove-top burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;\n\nBULLET::::- covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO;\n", "Avatar is projected to weigh 25 tons, of which 60% of that mass would be liquid hydrogen fuel. The oxygen required by the vehicle for combustion in outer space would be collected from the atmosphere during takeoff, thus reducing the need to carry oxygen during launch. The notional specification is for a payload weighing up to to low Earth orbit and to withstand up to 100 launches and reentries.\n", "In 2015, researchers from George Mason University announced that high volume sound with low bass frequencies in the 30 to 60 hertz range drives oxygen away from the combustion surface, extinguishing the fire, a principle was previously tested by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). One proposed application is to extinguish fires in outer space, with none of the clean-up required for mass-based systems.\n\nAnother proposed solution for fire extinguishers in space is a vacuum cleaner that extracts the combustible materials.\n\nSection::::Maintenance.\n", "The amount of air required for complete combustion to take place is known as theoretical air. However, in practice, the air used is 2-3x that of theoretical air.\n\nSection::::Types.:Complete and incomplete.:Incomplete.\n\nIncomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon, carbon monoxide, and/or hydroxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.\n", "BULLET::::- Improper lighting of the fire may produce smoke that is often not drawn into the exhaust system until the burning chamber is heated and drawing air.\n\nBULLET::::- A common problem with some designs is \"smoke-back\", where smoke from the fire is released back into the interior rather than outside. Smoke-back could indicate a serious risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. This issue could be a result of poor individual stove design, or inadequate preheating of the exhaust tube, resulting in inefficient draft to pull the smoke through.\n", "An outdoor fire is always fed with air, and the risk to people is limited as they can move away from it, except in the case of wildfires or bushfires where they risk being easily surrounded by the flames. It might, however, be necessary to protect specific objects like houses or gas tanks against infrared radiation, and thus to use a diffused spray between the fire and the object. Breathing apparatus is often required as there is still the risk of inhaling smoke or poisonous gases.\n\nSection::::Use of water.:Closed volume fire.\n", "It is stated that \"the reactive forces of incendiaries were probably not applied to the propulsion of projectiles prior to the 13th century\". A turning point in rocket technology emerged with a short manuscript entitled \"Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes\" (abbreviated as \"The Book of Fires\"). The manuscript is composed of recipes for creating incendiary weapons from the mid-eighth to the end of the thirteenth centuries—two of which are rockets. The first recipe calls for one part of colophonium and sulfur added to six parts of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) dissolved in laurel oil, then inserted into hollow wood and lit to \"fly away suddenly to whatever place you wish and burn up everything\". The second recipe combines one pound of sulfur, two pounds of charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter—all finely powdered on a marble slab. This powder mixture is packed firmly into a long and narrow case. The introduction of saltpeter into pyrotechnic mixtures connected the shift from hurled Greek fire into self-propelled rocketry. .\n", "BULLET::::- MAGLEV Launch / StarTram: John Powell has a concept for a very high mass-flow system. In a first-gen system, built into a mountain, accelerates a payload through an evacuated MAGLEV track. A small on-board rocket circulizes the payload.\n\nBULLET::::- Beamed Energy Launch: Kevin Parkin and Escape Dynamics both have concepts for ground-based irradiation of a mono-propellant launch vehicle using RF energy. The RF energy is absorbed and directly heats the propellant not unlike in NERVA-style nuclear-thermal. LaserMotive has a concept for a laser-based approach.\n\nSection::::In fiction.\n", "Inerting (gas)\n\nIn fire and explosion prevention engineering, inerting refers to the introduction of an inert (non-combustible) gas into a closed system (e.g. a container or a process vessel) to make the atmosphere oxygen deficient and non-ignitable. \n\nInerting relies on the principle that a combustible (or flammable) gas is able to undergo combustion (explode) only if mixed with air in the right proportions. The flammability limits of the gas define those proportions, i.e. the ignitable range. In combustion engineering terms, the admission of inert gas can be said to dilute the oxygen below the limiting oxygen concentration.\n", "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion\n\nAtmosphere-breathing electric propulsion, or air-breathing electric propulsion, shortly ABEP, is a propulsion technology for spacecraft, which could allow thrust generation in low orbits without the need of on-board propellant, by using residual gases in the atmosphere as propellant. Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion could make a new class of long-lived, low-orbiting missions feasible.\n", "In a zero-gravity environment, there can be no buoyancy forces, and thus no natural (free) convection possible, so flames in many circumstances without gravity smother in their own waste gases. However, flames may be maintained with any type of forced convection (breeze); or (in high oxygen environments in \"still\" gas environments) entirely from the minimal forced convection that occurs as heat-induced \"expansion\" (not buoyancy) of gases allows for ventilation of the flame, as waste gases move outward and cool, and fresh high-oxygen gas moves in to take up the low pressure zones created when flame-exhaust water condenses.\n", "For example, from the equation, with an formula_31 of 0.7, a rocket flying at Mach 0.85 (which most aircraft cruise at) with an exhaust velocity of Mach 10, would have a predicted overall energy efficiency of 5.9%, whereas a conventional, modern, air-breathing jet engine achieves closer to 35% efficiency. Thus a rocket would need about 6x more energy; and allowing for the specific energy of rocket propellant being around one third that of conventional air fuel, roughly 18x more mass of propellant would need to be carried for the same journey. This is why rockets are rarely if ever used for general aviation.\n", "BULLET::::- Three rocket mass stoves or stove designs have been safety certified. The Liberator Rocket Heater, tested to Underwriters Laboratories-1482 safety standard, which is currently on the market, the Eireco Rocket Stove certified in Europe to BS and EN 13240, and Rocket Heater Gamera certified to EN 13240. These stoves are also currently on the market.\n\nBULLET::::- Stoves are often self-built to varying dimensions to suit the location and requirements, using a variety of materials.\n", "Of the two brothers, it was Joseph who was first interested in aeronautics; as early as 1775 he built parachutes, and once jumped from the family house. He first contemplated building machines when he observed laundry drying over a fire incidentally form pockets that billowed upwards. Joseph made his first definitive experiments in November 1782 while living in Avignon. He reported some years later that he was watching a fire one evening while contemplating one of the great military issues of the day—an assault on the fortress of Gibraltar, which had proved impregnable from both sea and land. Joseph mused on the possibility of an air assault using troops lifted by the same force that was lifting the embers from the fire. He believed that the smoke itself was the buoyant part and contained within it a special gas, which he called \"Montgolfier Gas\", with a special property he called levity, which is why he preferred smoldering fuel.\n", "Rocket mass heater\n\nA rocket mass heater (also termed rocket stove mass heater) is a space heating system developed from the rocket stove, a type of efficient wood-burning stove, and the masonry heater. Its fundamental characteristics are an insulated combustion chamber where fuel (generally wood) is burned with high efficiency at extremely high temperatures, and a large thermal mass in contact with the exhaust gases which absorbs most of the generated heat before the gases are released to the atmosphere. According to various reports a rocket mass heater can reduce fuel consumption by 80 - 90% compared to \"conventional\" stoves.\n", "The oxidizer is the other reactant of the chemical reaction. In most cases, it is the ambient air, and in particular one of its components, oxygen (O). By depriving a fire of air, it can be extinguished; for example, when covering the flame of a small candle with an empty glass, fire stops; to the contrary, if air is blown over a wood fire with bellows, the fire is activated by the introduction of more air. In certain torches, gaseous oxygen is introduced to improve combustion.\n", "In field tests in India, rocket stoves used 18 to 35 percent less fuel compared to the traditional stoves and reduced fuel used 39-47 percent compared to the simple traditional open three-stone fire, as well as a large reduction in emissions.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

[ "Rockets should not be able to maintain acceleration in space due to there being no oxygen." ]

[ "Rockets contain self oxidizing chemicals, they do not require air to be able to operate properly." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Rockets should not be able to maintain acceleration in space due to there being no oxygen." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Rockets contain self oxidizing chemicals, they do not require air to be able to operate properly." ]

[ "Skin wettedness is defined as \"the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with sweat.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Flow rate of air: This is in part related to the concentration points above. If \"fresh\" air (i.e., air which is neither already saturated with the substance nor with other substances) is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer.\n\nBULLET::::- The amount of minerals dissolved in the liquid\n", "Evaporative cooling happens when water vapor is added to the surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat and converted into latent heat, while the air remains at a constant enthalpy. Latent heat describes the amount of heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid; this heat comes from the liquid itself and the surrounding gas and surfaces. The greater the difference between the two temperatures, the greater the evaporative cooling effect. When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation of water in air occurs; thus, there is no cooling effect.\n", "It is worth noting that this expression is just the second stage of the dissolution process. In other words, if both the solute to be dissolved and the initial \"solution\" to be diluted are liquids, the dissolution and the dilution processes are identical.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "A simple example of natural evaporative cooling is perspiration, or sweat, secreted by the body, evaporation of which cools the body. The amount of heat transfer depends on the evaporation rate, however for each kilogram of water vaporized 2,257 kJ of energy (about 890 BTU per pound of pure water, at 95 °F (35 °C)) are transferred. The evaporation rate depends on the temperature and humidity of the air, which is why sweat accumulates more on humid days, as it does not evaporate fast enough.\n", "Data in the table above is given for water–steam equilibria at various temperatures over the entire temperature range at which liquid water can exist. Pressure of the equilibrium is given in the second column in kPa. The third column is the heat content of each gram of the liquid phase relative to water at 0 °C. The fourth column is the heat of vaporization of each gram of liquid that changes to vapor. The fifth column is the work \"P\"Δ\"V\" done by each gram of liquid that changes to vapor. The sixth column is the density of the vapor.\n", "For a maximum transfer of substance concentration, an equal flowrate of solvents and solutions is required. For maximum heat transfer, the average specific heat capacity and the mass flow rate must be the same for each stream. If the two flows are not equal, for example if heat is being transferred from water to air or vice versa, then, similar to cocurrent exchange systems, a variation in the gradient is expected because of a buildup of the property not being transferred properly.\n\nSection::::Countercurrent exchange in biological systems.\n", "According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_9 is the heat flux entering the droplet (J.s)\n\nThe heat flux entering the droplet can be expressed as:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_11 is the heat flux from the gas to the droplet surface (J.s)\n\nBULLET::::- formula_12 is the latent heat of evaporation of the specie considered (J.kg)\n", "It was using this explanation that academic philosophers claimed that cold, on many occasions, increases a body's temperature, and dryness increases its moisture. Thus, it was said, quicklime (CaO) was apparently set ablaze when doused with cold water (an effect later explained as an exothermic reaction). It was also the understood reason for why water, such as that in wells, appeared warmer in winter than in summer (later explained as an example of sensory adaptation). It was also suggested that thunder and lightning were the results of antiperistasis caused by the coldness of the sky.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Thermal conductivity\": The container of hotter liquid may melt through a layer of frost that is acting as an insulator under the container (frost is an insulator, as mentioned above), allowing the container to come into direct contact with a much colder lower layer that the frost formed on (ice, refrigeration coils, etc.) The container now rests on a much colder surface (or one better at removing heat, such as refrigeration coils) than the originally colder water, and so cools far faster from this point on.\n", "BULLET::::- Eccrine sweat glands under the skin secrete sweat (a fluid containing mostly water with some dissolved ions), which travels up the sweat duct, through the sweat pore and onto the surface of the skin. This causes heat loss via evaporative cooling; however, a lot of essential water is lost.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Viewed from a microscopic perspective, the dissolution and dilution processes involve three steps of molecular interaction: the breaking of attraction between solute molecules (lattice energy), the breaking of attraction between solvent molecules, and the forming of attraction between a solute and a solvent molecule. If the solution is ideal, which means the solute and the solvent are identical in an interaction, then all the kinds of attraction mentioned above have the same value. As a result, the enthalpy change caused by breaking and forming attraction is canceled, and the dilution of an ideal solution causes no enthalpy change.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Cooling techniques.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cooling techniques.:Evaporative cooling.\n", "The process of dissolution and the process of dilution are closely related to each other. In both processes, similar final statuses of solutions are reached. However, the initial statuses can be different. In a dissolution process, a solute is changed from a pure phase—solid, liquid, or gas—to a solution phase. If the pure phase of the solute is a solid or gas (presuming the solvent itself is liquid), the process can be seen in two stages: the phase change into a liquid, and the mixing of liquids. The dissolution process is generally expressed as:\n\nformula_3\n", "Section::::Table of specific latent heats.\n\nThe following table shows the specific latent heats and change of phase temperatures (at standard pressure) of some common fluids and gases.\n\nSection::::Specific latent heat for condensation of water in clouds.\n\nThe specific latent heat of condensation of water in the temperature range from −25 °C to 40 °C is approximated by the following empirical cubic function:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_4 is taken to be the numerical value in °C.\n", "BULLET::::- The second contribution, , describes convection (or advection). Imagine standing on the bank of a river, measuring the water's salinity (amount of salt) each second. Upstream, somebody dumps a bucket of salt into the river. A while later, you would see the salinity suddenly rise, then fall, as the zone of salty water passes by. Thus, the concentration \"at a given location\" can change because of the flow.\n", "Section::::Kelvin equation.:Dependence on contact angle.\n", "A plant fibre (or other hydrophilic material) that has been exposed to the atmosphere will usually contain some water even if it feels dry. The water can be driven off by heating in an oven, leading to a measurable decrease in weight, which will gradually be regained if the fibre is returned to a 'normal' atmosphere. This effect is important in the textile industry, where the proportion of a material's weight made up by water is called the \"moisture regain\". \n", "Section::::Effects unaccounted for.\n\nSection::::Effects unaccounted for.:The hydrophobic effect.\n", "Section::::Main characteristics.:System characteristics.\n", "Section::::Ideal solid surfaces.:Minimization of energy, three phases.\n\nFigure 3 shows the line of contact where three phases meet. In equilibrium, the net force per unit length acting along the boundary line between the three phases must be zero. The components of net force in the direction along each of the interfaces are given by:\n", "Section::::Melting point of ice at various pressures.\n\nData obtained from \"CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics\" 44th ed., p. 2390\n\nSection::::Water with dissolved NaCl.\n\nNote: ρ is density, \"n\" is refractive index at 589 nm, and η is viscosity, all at 20 °C; \"T\" is the equilibrium temperature between two phases: ice/liquid solution for \"T\" 0–0.1 °C and NaCl/liquid solution for \"T\" above 0.1 °C.\n\nSection::::Additional data translated from German \"Wasser (Stoffdaten)\" page.\n", "Section::::Suggested explanations.\n\nThe following explanations have been proposed:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Evaporation\": The evaporation of the warmer water reduces the mass of the water to be frozen. Evaporation is endothermic, meaning that the water mass is cooled by vapor carrying away the heat, but this alone probably does not account for the entirety of the effect.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::History.:First evaluation by astronauts.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Normal gravity experience.\n", "Buoyancy is another frequently misunderstood phenomenon. Some proposed perpetual-motion machines miss the fact that to push a volume of air down in a fluid takes the same work as to raise a corresponding volume of fluid up against gravity. These types of machines may involve two chambers with pistons, and a mechanism to squeeze the air out of the top chamber into the bottom one, which then becomes buoyant and floats to the top. The squeezing mechanism in these designs would not be able to do enough work to move the air down, or would leave no excess work available to be extracted.\n", "Section::::History.:Gemini XII EVA training.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Comparison.\n", "Section::::History.:Beyond Gemini.\n", "One disadvantage of neutral-buoyancy diving as a simulation of microgravity is the significant amount of drag created by the water. This makes it difficult to set an object in motion, and difficult to keep it in motion. It also makes it easier to keep the object stationary. This effect is the opposite of what is experienced in space, where it is easy to set an object in motion, but very difficult to keep it still. Generally, drag effects are minimized by doing tasks slowly in the water.\n", "One downside of using neutral buoyancy to simulate microgravity is the significant amount of drag presented by water. Generally, drag effects are minimized by doing tasks slowly in the water. Another downside of neutral buoyancy simulation is that astronauts are not weightless \"within\" their suits, thus, precise suit sizing is critical.\n\nSection::::Origins and first tank.\n", "The effects of buoyancy do not just affect balloons; both liquids and gases are fluids in the physical sciences, and when all macrosize objects larger than dust particles are immersed in fluids on Earth, they have some degree of buoyancy. In the case of either a swimmer floating in a pool or a balloon floating in air, buoyancy can fully counter the gravitational weight of the object being weighed, for a weighing device in the pool. However, as noted, an object supported by a fluid is fundamentally no different from an object supported by a sling or cable—the weight has merely been transferred to another location, not made to disappear.\n", "However, maintaining an underwater habitat is much more expensive and logistically difficult than diving from the surface. It also restricts the diving to a much more limited area.\n\nSection::::Technical classification and description.\n\nSection::::Technical classification and description.:Pressure modes.\n\nUnderwater habitats are designed to operate in two fundamental modes.\n", "It is possible in some circumstances to use a bell as a rescue chamber to transport divers from one saturation system to another. This may require temporary modifications to the bell, and is only possible if the mating flanges of the systems are compatible.\n\nSection::::Underwater habitats.\n", "Pioneering British diving engineer, Joseph Salim Peress, invented the first truly usable atmospheric diving suit, the \"Tritonia\", in 1932 and was later involved in the construction of the famous JIM suit. Having a natural talent for engineering design, he challenged himself to construct an ADS that would keep divers dry and at atmospheric pressure, even at great depth. In 1918, Peress began working for WG Tarrant at Byfleet, United Kingdom, where he was given the space and tools to develop his ideas about constructing an ADS. His first attempt was an immensely complex prototype machined from solid stainless steel.\n", "In 1957, F. G. Jensen and Willard F. Searle, Jr began testing methods for manual and automatic buoyancy compensation for the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU). In their early tests, they determined that manual systems were more desirable due to the size of the automatic systems. Later that year, the Walter Kidde and Co. sent a prototype buoyancy compensating tank for use with two cylinders to NEDU for evaluation. The valves of this aluminium tank system leaked and testing was delayed until 1959 when it was recommended for field testing.\n", "Section::::History.:Origins of neutral buoyancy training.\n", "Pioneering British diving engineer, Joseph Salim Peress, invented the first truly usable atmospheric diving suit, the \"Tritonia\", in 1932 and was later involved in the construction of the famous JIM suit. Having a natural talent for engineering design, he challenged himself to construct an ADS that would keep divers dry and at atmospheric pressure, even at great depth. In 1918, Peress began working for WG Tarrant at Byfleet, United Kingdom, where he was given the space and tools to develop his ideas about constructing an ADS. His first attempt was an immensely complex prototype machined from solid stainless steel.\n", "Section::::History.:The modern suit.\n\nSection::::History.:The modern suit.:Peress' \"Tritonia\".\n\nAlthough various atmospheric suits had been developed during the Victorian era, none of these suits had been able to overcome the basic design problem of constructing a joint which would remain flexible and watertight at depth without seizing up under pressure.\n", "In 2012, discovery of aerographite was announced, breaking the record for the least dense material at only 0.2 mg/cm (0.2 kg/m). These solids do not float in air because the hollow spaces in them become filled with air. No lighter-than-air matrix or shell containing a hard vacuum has ever been constructed.\n\nSection::::Submerged balloons.\n", "Outgassing is a problem for UHV systems. Outgassing can occur from two sources: surfaces and bulk materials. Outgassing from bulk materials is minimized by selection of materials with low vapor pressures (such as glass, stainless steel, and ceramics) for everything inside the system. Materials which are not generally considered absorbent can outgas, including most plastics and some metals. For example, vessels lined with a highly gas-permeable material such as palladium (which is a high-capacity hydrogen sponge) create special outgassing problems.\n", "When used with a full-face mask or helmet, oral inflation becomes impracticable or impossible.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nAlthough a correctly fitted and competently operated buoyancy compensator is one of the most important items of equipment for diver safety, convenience and comfort, particularly for scuba divers, it is also a significant hazard if used wrongly or in case of some kinds of malfunction:\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Drag.\n", "There can be a conflict between the requirements for good surface trim and large reserve of buoyancy, particularly with back inflation systems, where a large volume is more likely to move the centre of buoyancy further back than the centre of gravity, and moving the centre of gravity further back by shifting weights may compromise trim stability at neutral buoyancy.\n", "Neutral buoyancy is not identical to weightlessness. Gravity still acts on all objects in a neutral buoyancy tank; thus, astronauts in neutral buoyancy training still feel their full body weight within their spacesuits, although the weight is well-distributed, similar to force on a human body in a water bed, or when simply floating in water. The suit and astronaut together are under no net force, as for any object that is floating, or supported in water, such as a scuba diver at neutral buoyancy. Water also produces drag, which is not present in vacuum.\n", "The main civil engineering challenge is that the current SNO vessel is supported by a series of ropes, to prevent the weight of the heavy water inside from sinking it in the surrounding normal water. The proposed liquid scintillator (linear alkyl benzene) is lighter than water, and must be held down instead, but still without blocking the view of its interior. The existing support rope attachment points, cast into the acrylic sphere's equator, are not suitable for upside-down use.\n\nSection::::Computing.\n", "Although not currently practical, it may be possible to construct a rigid, lighter-than-air structure which, rather than being inflated with air, is at a vacuum relative to the surrounding air. This would allow the object to float above the ground without any heat or special lifting gas, but the structural challenges of building a rigid vacuum chamber lighter than air are quite significant. Even so, it may be possible to improve the performance of more conventional aerostats by trading gas weight for structural weight, combining the lifting properties of the gas with vacuum and possibly heat for enhanced lift.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Gas supply and consumption.\n" ]

[ "Humans should be able to use vaccuums for buoyancy. " ]

[ "The materials that would be withheld inside the vaccuum would likely collapse under pressure, and anything that wouldn't collapse would unfortunately be too heavy." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Humans should be able to use vaccuums for buoyancy. ", "Humans should be able to use vaccuums for buoyancy. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The materials that would be withheld inside the vaccuum would likely collapse under pressure, and anything that wouldn't collapse would unfortunately be too heavy.", "The materials that would be withheld inside the vaccuum would likely collapse under pressure, and anything that wouldn't collapse would unfortunately be too heavy." ]

[ "By definition, only the cations sodium (Na) and potassium (K) and the anions chloride (Cl) and bicarbonate (HCO) are used to calculate the anion gap. (As discussed above, potassium may or may not be used, depending on the specific lab.)\n\nThe cations calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are also commonly measured, but they aren't used to calculate the anion gap. Anions that are generally considered \"unmeasured\" include a few normally occurring serum proteins, and some pathological proteins (e.g., paraproteins found in multiple myeloma).\n", "In a corner of our 60 m room farthest away from the apparatus, we exploded 3 mg of sodium chlorate with milk sugar while observing the nonluminous flame before the slit. After a while, it glowed a bright yellow and showed a strong sodium line that disappeared only after 10 minutes. From the weight of the sodium salt and the volume of air in the room, we easily calculate that one part by weight of air could not contain more than 1/20 millionth weight of sodium.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "The representative terrestrial abundance of chlorine-37 is 24.22(4)% of chlorine atoms, with a normal range of 24.14–24.36% of chlorine atoms. When measuring deviations in isotopic composition, the usual reference point is \"Standard Mean Ocean Chloride\" (SMOC), although a NIST Standard Reference Material (975a) also exists. SMOC is known to be around 24.219% chlorine-37 and to have an atomic weight of around 35.4525\n", "In 2010, the U.S. Institute of Medicine determined that the government should establish new consumption standards for salt to reduce the amount of sodium in the typical American diet below levels associated with higher risk of several cardiovascular diseases, yet maintain consumer preferences for salt-flavored food. The daily maximum for sodium in the United States had been above estimated minimums for decades. For instance, the National Research Council found that 500 milligrams of sodium per day (approximately 1,250 milligrams of table salt) is a safe minimum level. In the United Kingdom, the daily allowance for salt is 6 g (approximately 2.5 teaspoons, about the upper limit in the U.S.), an amount considered \"too high\".\n", "Urine sodium\n\nUrine sodium is a measurement of the concentration of sodium in the urine.\n\nThe urine sodium is expressed as a concentration (such as millimoles per liter). The result must therefore be interpreted in the context of the degree of urine concentration present. Alternatively, the urine sodium can be standardized to the excretion of creatinine using a formula such as the fractional excretion of sodium (FENa). \n", "The UN number or DOT number is 1789. This number will be displayed on a placard on the container.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chloride, inorganic salts of hydrochloric acid\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrochloride, organic salts of hydrochloric acid\n\nBULLET::::- Aqua regia\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- NIST WebBook, general link\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrochloric Acid – Part One and Hydrochloric Acid – Part Two at \"The Periodic Table of Videos\" (University of Nottingham)\n\nBULLET::::- Calculators: surface tensions, and densities, molarities and molalities of aqueous HCl\n\nBULLET::::- General safety information\n\nBULLET::::- EPA Hazard Summary\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrochloric acid MSDS by Georgia Institute of Technology\n", "In 2007, Joffres \"et al.\" reported that in the typical Canadian diet, 11% of sodium occurs naturally, 12% is added during cooking and at the table, and 77% is added by industry during processing. Their study was to determine whether regulations to limit the amount of salt added by food manufacturers could reduce the prevalence of hypertension by 30%, which would substantially reduce Canadian health care costs.\n\nSection::::Health claim #1.:Research not supporting the claim.\n", "Similarly, tests do often measure the anion phosphate (PO) specifically, but it isn't used to calculate that \"gap,\" even if it is measured. Commonly 'unmeasured' anions include sulfates and a number of serum proteins.\n\nIn normal health there are more measurable cations than measurable anions in the serum; therefore, the anion gap is usually positive. Because we know that plasma is electro-neutral (uncharged), we can conclude that the anion gap calculation represents the concentration of unmeasured anions. The anion gap varies in response to changes in the concentrations of the above-mentioned serum components that contribute to the acid-base balance.\n", "The anion gap is a calculated measure. This means that it is not directly measured by a specific lab test; rather, it is computed with a formula that uses the results of several individual lab tests, each of which measures the concentration of a specific anion or cation.\n\nThe concentrations are expressed in units of milliequivalents/liter (mEq/L) or in millimoles/litre (mmol/L).\n\nSection::::Calculation.:With potassium.\n\nThe anion gap is calculated by subtracting the serum concentrations of chloride and bicarbonate (anions) from the concentrations of sodium and potassium (cations):\n\nSection::::Calculation.:Without potassium (daily practice).\n", "Section::::--- inorganic chemicals.:--- carbon compounds, inorganic.:--- carbon dioxide.\n\nBULLET::::- --- dry ice\n\nSection::::--- inorganic chemicals.:--- carbon compounds, inorganic.:--- carbonic acid.\n\nBULLET::::- --- carbonates\n\nBULLET::::- --- bicarbonates\n\nBULLET::::- --- sodium bicarbonate\n\nBULLET::::- --- calcium carbonate\n\nBULLET::::- --- lithium carbonate\n\nSection::::--- inorganic chemicals.:--- chlorine compounds.\n\nSection::::--- inorganic chemicals.:--- chlorine compounds.:--- hydrochloric acid.\n\nBULLET::::- --- chlorides\n\nBULLET::::- --- ammonium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- cadmium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- calcium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- lithium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- magnesium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- mercuric chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- potassium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- --- sodium chloride\n\nSection::::--- inorganic chemicals.:--- chlorine compounds.:--- hypochlorous acid.\n\nBULLET::::- --- sodium hypochlorite\n", "Sodium is a common component or contaminant in many compounds and its spectrum tends to dominate over others. The test flame is often viewed through cobalt blue glass to filter out the yellow of sodium and allow for easier viewing of other metal ions.\n\nSection::::Results.\n", "The salt content was calculated according to the Mohr Method defined by Dr Deniz Korkmaz, \"where alkaline or alkaline earth chlorides such as sodium chloride (table salt) react with silver nitrate in the presence of a few drops of potassium chromate solution as indicator is a simple, direct and accurate method for chloride determination.\" Other components such as crude protein, lipids and ash were done by \"AOAC: Official Methods of Analysis, 1980\".\n", "The size of lithium and potassium ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast, rubidium and caesium ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly. The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl), which has an index of 1. Potassium, as potassium chloride (KCl), is the principal ingredient in salt substitutes and has a saltiness index of 0.6.\n", "The strength of commercial chlorine-releasing products may be instead specified as the concentration of the active ingredient, as mass or weight percent or grams per liter. In order to determine the free chlorine content of the product, one must take into account the oxidizing reactions that the ingredient may undergo in the application. For example, the label of a household bleach product may specify \"5% sodium hypochlorite by weight.\" That would mean that 1 kilogram of the product contains 0.05 × 1000 g = 50 g of .\n", "In the past, methods for the measurement of the anion gap consisted of colorimetry for [HCO] and [Cl] as well as flame photometry for [Na] and [K]. Thus normal reference values ranged from 8 to 16 mEq/L plasma when not including [K] and from 10 to 20 mEq/L plasma when including [K]. Some specific sources use 15 and 8–16 mEq/L.\n\nSection::::Interpretation and causes.\n", "Strictly speaking, the 'base' cations are limited to calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, and these are the primary nutrients that BCSR methods are most concerned with balancing. However, many proponents of 'ideal soil' theories also stress the importance of balancing the anions phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine as well as numerous minor and trace elements. The conventional SLAN system does not generally test for minor and trace elements unless there is sufficient cause to suspect a deficiency or toxicity.\n", "The solution is 9 grams of sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in water, to a total volume of 1000 ml (weight per unit volume(w/v)). The mass of 1 millilitre of normal saline is 1.0046 gram at 22 °C. The molecular weight of sodium chloride is approximately 58.5 grams per mole, so 58.5 grams of sodium chloride equals 1 mole. Since normal saline contains 9 grams of NaCl, the concentration is 9 grams per litre divided by 58.5 grams per mole, or 0.154 mole per litre.\n\nSince NaCl dissociates into two ions – sodium and chloride – 1 molar NaCl is 2 osmolar.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- HAZMAT Class 8 Corrosive Substances\n\nBULLET::::- Common chemicals\n\nBULLET::::- List of cleaning agents\n\nBULLET::::- Acid and Base\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- International Chemical Safety Card 0360\n\nBULLET::::- Euro Chlor-How is chlorine made? Chlorine Online\n\nBULLET::::- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards\n\nBULLET::::- CDC – Sodium Hydroxide – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic\n\nBULLET::::- European Union Risk Assessment Report\n\nBULLET::::- Production by brine electrolysis\n\nBULLET::::- Data sheets\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Hydroxide Safety Data Sheet (SDS)\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Hydroxide MSDS\n\nBULLET::::- Certified Lye MSDS\n\nBULLET::::- Hill Brothers MSDS\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydroxide Safety Summary (BASF)\n", "US EPA drinking water quality standards limit chloramine concentration for public water systems to 4 parts per million (ppm) based on a running annual average of all samples in the distribution system. In order to meet EPA-regulated limits on halogenated disinfection by-products, many utilities are switching from chlorination to chloramination. While chloramination produces fewer regulated total halogenated disinfection by-products, it can produce greater concentrations of unregulated iodinated disinfection byproducts and \"N\"-nitrosodimethylamine. Both iodinated disinfection by-products and \"N\"-nitrosodimethylamine have been shown to be genotoxic.\n\nSection::::Synthesis and chemical reactions.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nIn addition to the familiar domestic uses of salt, more dominant applications of the approximately 250 megatons per year production (2008 data) include chemicals and de-icing.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Chemicals production.\n\nSalt is used, directly or indirectly, in the production of many chemicals, which consume most of the world's production.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Chemicals production.:Chlor-alkali industry.\n\nIt is the starting point for the chloralkali process, which provides the world with chlorine and sodium hydroxide according to the chemical equation\n", "People have no trouble digesting chlorine or chloramine at the levels found in public drinking water; this water is not introduced directly into the human bloodstream. In the United States, the United States Environmental Protection Agency set minimum and maximum health-based safe levels for chloramine in drinking water. Elsewhere, similar oversight agencies may set drinking water quality standards for chloramine.\n", "USA: The FDA \"Food Labeling Guide\" stipulates whether a food can be labeled as \"free\" \"low,\" or \"reduced/less\" in respect of sodium. When other health claims are made about a food (e.g., low in fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the food exceeds 480 mg of sodium per 'serving'.\n\nSection::::Campaigns.\n", "Besides the set of parameters obtained by Pitzer et al. in the 1970s mentioned in the previous section. Kim and Frederick published the Pitzer parameters for 304 single salts in aqueous solutions at 298.15 K, extended the model to the concentration range up to the saturation point. Those parameters are widely used, however, many complex electrolytes including ones with organic anions or cations, which are very significant in some\n\nrelated fields, were not summarized in their paper.\n", "Thus, NS contains 154 mEq/L of Na and Cl. It has a slightly higher degree of osmolarity (i.e. more solute per litre) than blood (However, if you take into account the osmotic coefficient, a correction for non-ideal solutions, then the saline solution is much closer to isotonic. Osmotic coefficient of NaCl is about 0.93; therefore 0.154 × 1000 × 2 × .93 = 286.44) Nonetheless, the osmolarity of normal saline is a close approximation to the osmolarity of NaCl in blood.\n\nOne litre of 0.9% Saline contains:\n\nBULLET::::- 154 mEq of sodium ion = 154 mmol\n", "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.:Substitution.\n\nSome agencies are substituting beer, molasses, and beet juice instead of road salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Food industry and agriculture.\n\nMany microorganisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage.\n" ]

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[ "The glabrous (hairless) skin on the front of the hand, the palm, is relatively thick and can be bent along the hand's flexure lines where the skin is tightly bound to the underlying tissue and bones. Compared to the rest of the body's skin, the hands' palms (as well as the soles of the feet) are usually lighter — and even much lighter in dark-skinned individuals, compared to the other side of the hand. Indeed, genes specifically expressed in the dermis of palmoplantar skin inhibit melanin production and thus the ability to tan, and promote the thickening of the stratum lucidum and stratum corneum layers of the epidermis. All parts of the skin involved in grasping are covered by papillary ridges (fingerprints) acting as friction pads. In contrast, the hairy skin on the dorsal side is thin, soft, and pliable, so that the skin can recoil when the fingers are stretched. On the dorsal side, the skin can be moved across the hand up to ; an important input the cutaneous mechanoreceptors.\n", "For the same body region, individuals, independently of skin colour, have the same amount of melanocytes (however variation between different body parts is substantial), but organelles which contain pigments, called melanosomes, are smaller and less numerous in light-skinned humans.\n", "Section::::Biochemistry.\n", "For people with very light skin, the skin gets most of its colour from the bluish-white connective tissue in the dermis and from the haemoglobin associated blood cells circulating in the capillaries of the dermis. The colour associated with the circulating haemoglobin become more obvious, especially in the face, when arterioles dilate and become tumefied with blood as a result of prolonged physical exercise or stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system (usually embarrassment or anger). Up to 50% of UVA can penetrate deeply into the dermis in persons with light skin pigmentation with little protective melanin pigment.\n", "BULLET::::- Fingers: Using your fingers is great for creating a natural look. The natural body heat in your fingers helps the foundation to melt into your skin and makes it easy to blend in a sheer layer of makeup. However, using your fingers isn’t recommended for applying full coverage foundation as it will create a streaky and uneven appearance.\n", "Section::::Physiology of triglycerides absorption.\n", "In the same population it has been observed that adult human females are considerably lighter in skin pigmentation than males. Females need more calcium during pregnancy and lactation, and vitamin D which is synthesized from sunlight helps in absorbing calcium. For this reason it is thought that females may have evolved to have lighter skin in order to help their bodies absorb more calcium.\n\nThe Fitzpatrick scale is a numerical classification schema for human skin color developed in 1975 as a way to classify the typical response of different types of skin to ultraviolet (UV) light:\n\nSection::::Development.:Aging.\n", "Section::::Evolution.:Earlier hypotheses.\n\nThere were two other main hypotheses that have been put forward to explain the development of light skin pigmentation: resistance to cold injury, and occurrence of a mutation effect; now both of them are considered unlikely to be the main mechanism behind the evolution of light skin.\n", "Human skin color fades with age. Humans over the age of thirty experience a decrease in melanin-producing cells by about 10% to 20% per decade as melanocyte stem cells gradually die. The skin of face and hands has about twice the amount of pigment cells as unexposed areas of the body, as chronic exposure to the sun continues to stimulate melanocytes. The blotchy appearance of skin color in the face and hands of older people is due to the uneven distribution of pigment cells and to changes in the interaction between melanocytes and keratinocytes.\n\nSection::::Sexual dimorphism.\n", "Endogenous defense mechanisms provide protection of the skin from damages induced by UV.\n\nSection::::Defense Mechanisms.:Epidermal thickness.\n\nUV exposure which would lead to an increase in epidermal thickness could help protect from further UV damage.\n\nSection::::Defense Mechanisms.:Pigment.\n\nIt has been reported in many cases that fairer individuals who have lesser melanin pigment show more dermal DNA photodamage, infiltrating neutrophils, keratinocyte activation, IL-10 expression and increased MMPs after UV exposure. Therefore, the distribution of melanin provides protection from sunburn, photoaging, and carcinogenesis by absorbing and scattering UV rays, covering the skin lower layers and protecting them from the radiation. \n", "Section::::Health implications.:Disadvantages of light pigmentation in high sunlight environments.\n", "Skin (Marvel Comics)\n\nSkin (Angelo Espinosa) is a fictional mutant in the Marvel Universe of comics. The character first appeared in \"Uncanny X-Men #317\". (1994)\n\nSection::::Fictional character biography.\n", "Humans with light skin pigmentation have skin with low amounts of eumelanin, and possess fewer melanosomes than humans with dark skin pigmentation. Light skin provides better absorption qualities of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to synthesize higher amounts of vitamin D for bodily processes such as calcium development. Light-skinned people who live near the equator with high sunlight are at an increased risk of folate depletion. As consequence of folate depletion, they are at a higher risk of DNA damage, birth defects, and numerous types of cancers, especially skin cancer.\n", "These studies have found that, in addition to the standard uncertainty of localization due to the point spread function fitting, self-interference with light scattered by nanoparticles can lead to distortions or displacements of the imaged point spread functions, complicating the analysis of such measurements. These may be possible to limit, however, for example by incorporating metasurface masks which control the angular distribution of light permitted into the measurement system.\n\nSection::::Differences between PALM and STORM.\n", "With the increase of vitamin D synthesis, there is a decreased incidence of conditions that are related to common vitamin D deficiency conditions of people with dark skin pigmentation living in environments of low UV radiation: rickets, osteoporosis, numerous cancer types (including colon and breast cancer), and immune system malfunctioning. Vitamin D promotes the production of cathelicidin, which helps to defend humans' bodies against fungal, bacterial, and viral infections, including flu. When exposed to UVB, the entire exposed area of body’s skin of a relatively light skinned person is able to produce between 10 - 20000 IU of vitamin D.\n", "A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.\n", "Section::::Evolution.\n", "Dark skin offers great protection against UVR because of its eumelanin content, the UVR-absorbing capabilities of large melanosomes, and because eumelanin can be mobilized faster and brought to the surface of the skin from the depths of the epidermis. For the same body region, light- and dark-skinned individuals have similar numbers of melanocytes (there is considerable variation between different body regions), but pigment-containing organelles, called melanosomes, are larger and more numerous in dark-skinned individuals. Keratocytes from dark skin cocultured with melanocytes give rise to a melanosome distribution pattern characteristic of dark skin. Melanosomes are not in aggregated state in darkly pigmented skin compared to lightly pigmented skin. Due to the heavily melanised melanosomes in darkly pigmented skin, it can absorb more energy from UVR and thus offers better protection against sunburns and by absorption and dispersion UV rays. Darkly pigmented skin protects against direct and indirect DNA damage. Photodegration occurs when melanin absorbs photons. Recent research suggest that the photoprotective effect of dark skin is increased by the fact that melanin can capture free radicals, such as hydrogen peroxide, which are created by the interaction of UVR and layers of the skin. Heavily pigmented melanocytes have greater capacity to divide after UVR irradiation, which suggests that they receive less damage to their DNA. Despite this, UVB damages the immune system even in darker skinned individuals due to its effect on Langerhans cells. The stratum corneum of people with dark or heavily tanned skin is more condensed and contains more cornified cell layers than in lightly pigmented humans. These qualities of dark skin enhance the barrier protection function of the skin.\n", "The supposition that dark skin evolved in the absence of selective pressure was put forward by the \"probable mutation effect\" hypothesis. The main factor initiating the development of light skin was seen as a consequence of genetic mutation without an evolutionary selective pressure. The subsequent spread of light skin was thought to be caused by assortive mating and sexual selection contributed to an even lighter pigmentation in females. Doubt has been cast on this hypothesis, as a more random patterns of skin coloration would be expected in contrast to the observed structural light skin pigmentation in areas of low UV radiation. The clinal (gradual) distribution of skin pigmentation observable in the Eastern hemisphere, and to a lesser extent in the Western hemisphere is one of the most significant characteristic of human skin pigmentation. Increasingly lighter skinned populations are distributed across areas with incrementally lower levels of UV radiation.\n", "Natural skin color can darken as a result of tanning due to exposure to sunlight. The leading theory is that skin color adapts to intense sunlight irradiation to provide partial protection against the ultraviolet fraction that produces damage and thus mutations in the DNA of the skin cells. There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Darker-skinned populations are found in the regions with the most ultraviolet, closer to the equator, while lighter skinned populations live closer to the poles, with less UVR, though immigration has changed these patterns.\n", "In people with naturally occurring dark skin, the tanning occurs with the dramatic mobilization of melanin upward in the epidermis and continues with the increased production of melanin. This accounts for the fact that dark-skinned people get visibly darker after one or two weeks of sun exposure, and then lose their colour after months when they stay out of the sun. Darkly pigmented people tend to exhibit fewer signs of aging in their skin than the lightly pigmented because their dark skin protects them from most photoaging.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Music career.\n", "Section::::Other versions.\n\nSection::::Other versions.:Age of Apocalypse.\n", "Human skin shows high skin color variety from the darkest brown to the lightest pinkish-white hues. Human skin shows higher variation in color than any other single mammalian species and is the result of natural selection. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.\n", "It has been observed that adult human females are consistently lighter in skin pigmentation than males in the same population. This form of sexual dimorphism is due to the requirement in human females for high amounts of calcium during pregnancy and lactation. Breastfeeding newborns, whose skeletons are growing, require high amounts of calcium intake from the mother's milk (about 4 times more than during prenatal development), part of which comes from reserves in the mother's skeleton. Adequate vitamin D resources are needed to absorb calcium from the diet, and it has been shown that deficiencies of vitamin D and calcium increase the likelihood of various birth defects such as spina bifida and rickets. Natural selection has led to females with lighter skin than males in all indigenous populations because women must get enough vitamin D and calcium to support the development of fetus and nursing infants and to maintain their own health.\n" ]

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[ "On October 11, 2017, Facebook introduced the 3D Posts feature to allow for uploading interactive 3D assets. On January 11, 2018, Facebook announced that it would change News Feed to prioritize friends/family content and de-emphasize content from media companies.\n\nSection::::Website.:Like button.\n", "Facebook recognized how successful Snapchat was with the launch of Snapchat stories back in 2014, so Facebook launched their own Facebook stories in 2017. This is a way for you to share, for twenty-four hours, what are you doing with your Facebook friends from the mobile app.\n\nSection::::News organizations.\n", "In March 2009, Facebook rolled out the option to \"Like\" a page to see updates from it in their feed, gave users customizable filters to determine what friends they wanted to see News Feed updates from, and also added a publishing field at the top of the feed, previously exclusive to user profiles, for easy post creation. The publishing field contained the text \"What's on your mind?\", a similar but also notably different question from Twitter's \"What are you doing right now?\" A few weeks later, the company introduced controls to reduce content from app interactions, and enabled the feed to show photos in which friends were tagged.\n", "An August 2014 profile on \"Buzzfeed\" noted the publisher's large investment into video production, and observed that \"the future of BuzzFeed may not even be on BuzzFeed.com. One of the company’s nascent ideas, BuzzFeed Distributed, will be a team of 20 people producing content that lives entirely on other popular platforms, like Tumblr, Instagram or Snapchat.\"\n", "In May and June 2018, Facebook launched around six news programs from partners including BuzzFeed, Vox, CNN, and Fox News. These programs, developed by Facebook's head of news partnerships Campbell Brown, reportedly had an overall budget of US$90 million.\n", "According to a \"BuzzFeed\" spokesperson, \"BuzzFeed\" VP of Product Chris Johansen told Facebook that they needed seven things in order to participate in the program, including compatibility with comScore, Google Analytics, and \"BuzzFeed\" tracking tools, preservation of key aspects of the look, feel, and functionality of the website, and monetization. In January, Facebook returned for talks, saying they had implemented all of the requests.\n\nSection::::History.:Launch (May–June 2015).\n", "At the company's fifth annual Digital Content NewFronts presentation in New York in May 2017, CNE announced the return of 65 original short-form digital series and the premiere of 40 new shows. In August 2017, CNE announced its participation in Facebook's new original video programing platform, Watch, by introducing \"Virtually Dating,\" a show where blind dates take place in a virtual reality world. Ostroff identifies Facebook Watch as \"a new opportunity, new type of content.\"\n", "Information and communications technologies such as Facebook experienced this phenomenon when they released the News Feed functionality to all users. The new groundbreaking feature was met with mass upheaval with only one in 100 messages about News Feed being positive. Now, News Feed is an essential feature of Facebook which users today would be outraged if removed.\n\nSection::::Symbolic Interactionism.\n", "In light of recent concerns about information filtering on social media, Facebook acknowledged the presence of filter bubbles and has taken strides toward removing them. In January 2017, Facebook removed personalization from its Trending Topics list in response to problems with some users not seeing highly talked-about events there. Facebook's strategy is to reverse the Related Articles feature that it had implemented in 2013, which would post related news stories after the user read a shared article. Now, the revamped strategy would flip this process and post articles from different perspectives on the same topic. Facebook is also attempting to go through a vetting process whereby only articles from reputable sources will be shown. Along with the founder of Craigslist and a few others, Facebook has invested $14 million into efforts \"to increase trust in journalism around the world, and to better inform the public conversation\". The idea is that even if people are only reading posts shared from their friends, at least these posts will be credible.\n", "Movie Pilot CEO Tobi Bauckhage explained his company's fall 2017 layoffs as part of moving “from a text-based publishing model to video... a reaction to the fact that Facebook has changed their algorithms in favor of video instead of referral traffic over the last 12 months and we were losing money in the publishing bit of our business.”\n", "\"As people mostly post photos and videos, Stories is the way they’re going to want to do it,\" says Facebook Camera product manager Connor Hayes, noting Facebook's shift away from text status updates after 10 years as its primary sharing option. \"Obviously we’ve seen this doing very well in other apps. Snapchat has really pioneered this,\" explained Hayes. Facebook has seen a lot of success through other applications like Snapchat and Instagram, especially since Facebook bought Instagram for $1 billion in 2012.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "With the introduction of the \"New Facebook\" in early February 2010 came a complete redesign of the pages, several new features and changes to News Feeds. On their personal Feeds (now integrated with Walls), users were given the option of removing updates from any application as well as choosing the size they show up on the page. Furthermore, the community feed (containing recent actions by the user's friends) contained options to instantly select whether to hear more or less about certain friends or applications.\n\nOn March 7, 2013, Facebook announced a redesigned newsfeed.\n\nSection::::Facebook structure.:Friends.\n", "BULLET::::- Prioritize content of family members and friends (Mark Zuckerberg January 12, Facebook: “The first changes you'll see will be in News Feed, where you can expect to see more from your friends, family and groups”.)\n\nBULLET::::- Give priority to news articles from local sources considered more credible\n\nThese changes are expected to improve “the amount of meaningful content viewed”.\n\nSection::::Influence.\n", "The recent changes of the News Feed algorithm (see content : News Feed#History) are expected to improve “the amount of meaningful content viewed”. To this end, the new algorithm is supposed to determine the publications around which a user is most likely to interact with his friends, and make them appear higher in the News Feed instead of items for example from media companies or brands. These are posts “that inspire back-and-forth discussion in the comments and posts that you might want to share and react to”. But, as even Mark Zuckerberg admitted, he “expect the time people spend on Facebook and some measures of engagement will go down. But I also expect the time you do spend on Facebook will be more valuable”. The less public content a facebook user see on his News Feed, the less brands are able to reach consumers. That’s unarguably a major lose for advertisers and publishers.\n", "After the many failed attempts of trying to incorporate Snapchat-like features on Facebook, the company decided to test run Messenger Day. In 2016, Facebook created a feature called Messenger Day, which allowed users to post videos and pictures with filters for 24 hours only. This project was only used in Poland because of the unpopularity of Snapchat in that region. Users are able to add texts and colorful graphics. However, this was only a test for Facebook to be later turned into a feature on Facebook's app.\n\nSection::::Popularity and criticism.\n", "In October 2009, Facebook redesigned the news feed so that the user could view all types of things that their friends were involved with. In a statement, they said, \n\n... your applications [stories] generate can show up in both views. The best way for your stories to appear in the News Feed filter is to create stories that are highly engaging, as high quality, interesting stories are most likely to garner likes and comments by the user's friends.\n\nThis redesign was explained as:\n", "This change which seems to be just another update of the social network, is widely criticized because of the heavy consequences it might lead to “In countries such as the Philippines, Myanmar and South Sudan and emerging democracies such Bolivia and Serbia, it is not ethical to plead platform neutrality or to set up the promise of a functioning news ecosystem and then simply withdraw at a whim”.\n", "In January 2018, following a difficult 2017, marked by accusations of relaying fake news and revelations about groups close to Russia which tried to influence the 2016 US presidential election (see Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections) via advertisements on his service, Mark Zuckerberg announced in his traditional January post:\n\nFollowing surveys of Facebook users, this desire for change will take the form of a reconfiguration of the News Feed algorithms in order to:\n", "In February 2015, the digital video-journalism publisher \"NowThis\" announced that it would operate without a home page, producing content to be published directly on social media platforms.\n\nIn April 2016, \"Mashable\" fired much of its editorial staff, attempting to pivot away from hard news coverage while \"growing Mashable across every platform\" and doubling down on branded content and video.\n", "In August 2015, Facebook began to allow users to live stream video. Streams appear on the News Feed, and users can comment on them in real-time. Live broadcasts are automatically saved as a video post to the streamer's page. The feature was positioned as a competitor to services such as Meerkat and Periscope.\n\nThe feature was initially available only to verified public figures through the Facebook Mentions app (which is also exclusive to these users). Live streaming began to roll out for public use in January 2016, beginning with the Facebook iOS app in the United States.\n", "In March 2013, Facebook held a press event to unveil new updates to News Feed, including a more minimalistic design with consistency across both the website and mobile devices, along with a new layout for posts, presenting friends' photos, shared articles, and maps with larger text and images, and brands' logos. New \"sub-feeds\" show updates in specific areas, such as posts from specific friends or interest updates. However, the initial limited rollout of the new design saw a trend of lower user engagement, prompting the company to stop the rollout. A year later, in March 2014, Facebook once again updated its News Feed, but in response to criticism from users, the company chose to scale back its efforts. While bringing bigger photos that span the width of the feed, font changes, and design tweaks to buttons and icons, the new design removed the drop-down menu, placing relevant entries in a navigation on the left side of the screen while removing some of the sub-feeds. It also simplified the comments system, altered the appearance of profile photos in the feed, and added a search bar at the top of the page. News Feed product manager Greg Marra explained that \"People don't like us moving their furniture around, because you break muscle memory\", and \"Over the last year, we’ve spent a lot of time seeing what people were saying, what was working, what wasn’t working, and we’re rolling out the version that takes all of that feedback into account\".\n", "Indeed, Facebook had experimented withdrawing media companies’ news on user’s newsfeed in few countries such as Serbia. Stevan Docjcinovic then wrote an article explaining how Facebook helped them “to bypass mainstream channels and bring [their] stories to hundreds of thousands of readers”. The rule about publishers is not being applied to paid posts raising the journalist’s fears about the social network “becoming just another playground for the powerful” by letting them for example buy Facebook ads.\n", "The effort to unify channels has a long history across all market sectors. Efforts like single-source publishing and responsive web design, however, were usually focused on internal efficiencies, formatting consistency, and simple de-duplication across channels. As the number of channels proliferated, the potential for disjointed experience when switching or working with multiple channels increased. Channels like mobile devices, the mobile web, mobile apps, contextual help, augmented reality, virtual reality, and chatbots are used in addition to traditional physical and human interaction channels. This creates a complex matrix of possible ways an individual can engage an organization and its offerings or complete a task.\n", "Part of Facebook's earning comes from on-site advertising. During these years, Facebook has offered companies the ability to post and present content in a timeline format on their free brand or business page. By doing so, companies can deliver a more comprehensive promotional message and increase audience engagement. If a user \"likes\" a brand page, corporate content posted on the brand page will appear in the user's news feed. Many users felt angry about the overly implanted ads that showed up in their Facebook timeline.\n", "Thankfully, most social media platforms already lend themselves to storytelling. Some brands apply Vine to post how-to videos, announce new products, or make a video punchline that it is possible to be a \"friend\" first, and brand second.\n" ]

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[ "The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases. For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones.\n\nEating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of asparagusic acid. Likewise consumption of saffron, alcohol, coffee, tuna fish, and onion can result in telltale scents. Particularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Turbidity.\n", "Sometimes food may make an appearance in the feces. Common undigested foods found in human feces are seeds, nuts, corn, and beans, mainly because of their high dietary fiber content. Beets may turn feces different hues of red. Artificial food coloring in some processed foods, such as highly colorful packaged breakfast cereals, can cause unusual coloring of feces if eaten in sufficient quantities.\n\nUndigested objects such as seeds can pass through the human digestive system, and later germinate. One result of this is tomato plants growing where treated sewage sludge has been used as fertilizer.\n\nSection::::Analytical tools.\n", "(HS) is the most common volatile sulfur compound in feces. The odor of feces may be increased when various pathologies are present, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Celiac disease\n\nBULLET::::- Crohn's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Ulcerative colitis\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic pancreatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Cystic fibrosis\n\nBULLET::::- Intestinal infection, e.g. Clostridium difficile infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Malabsorption\n\nBULLET::::- Short bowel syndrome\n\nAttempts to reduce the odor of feces (and flatus) are largely based on animal research carried out with industrial applications, such as reduced environmental impact of pig farming. See also: Flatulence#Management, odor. Many dietary modifications/supplements have been researched, including:\n", "Mutations in the \"FMO3\" gene, which is found on the long arm of chromosome 1, cause trimethylaminuria. The \"FMO3\" gene makes an enzyme that breaks down nitrogen-containing compounds from the diet, including trimethylamine. These compounds are produced by bacteria in the intestine as they digest proteins from eggs, meat, soy, and other foods. Normally, the \"FMO3\" enzyme converts fishy-smelling trimethylamine into trimethylamine \"N\"-oxide which has no odor. If the enzyme is missing or its activity is reduced because of a mutation in the \"FMO3\" gene, trimethylamine is not broken down and instead builds up in the body. As the compound is released in a person's sweat, urine, and breath, it causes the strong odor characteristic of trimethylaminuria. Researchers believe that stress and diet also play a role in triggering symptoms.\n", "A few Stems of Asparagus eaten, shall give our Urine a disagreable Odour...\n\nAsparagus \"...transforms my chamber-pot into a flask of perfume.\"\n\nAsparagus contains asparagusic acid. When the vegetable is digested, this chemical is broken down into a group of related sulfur-containing compounds.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Olfactory genes\"\n\nGenes involved in detecting smell show strong evidence of adaptive evolution (Voight et al. 2006), probably due to the fact that the smells encountered by humans have changed recently in their evolutionary history (Williamson et al. 2007). Humans’ sense of smell has played an important role in determining the safety of food sources.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nutrition genes\"\n", "For example, coffee contains 700 different aroma compounds, but there are only a couple of aroma compounds important for the smell of coffee because most of them are present in concentrations that may not be perceptible with the human nose, i.e. they are present in concentrations lower than their flavor threshold.\n", "The sense of smell is called olfaction. All materials constantly shed molecules, which float into the nose or are sucked in through breathing. Inside the nasal chambers is the neuroepithelium, a lining deep within the nostrils that contains the receptors responsible for detecting molecules that are small enough to smell. These receptor neurons then synapse at the olfactory cranial nerve (CN I), which sends the information to the olfactory bulbs in the brain for initial processing. The signal is then sent to the remaining olfactory cortex for more complex processing.\n\nSection::::Smell modality.:Odors.\n", "To better understand this mechanism, a simple breakdown of smell pathway is provided below. When humans chew, volatile flavor compounds are pushed through the nasopharanx and smell receptors. \n\nSection::::Overview of the smell pathway.:Olfactory epithelium.\n", "Methanethiol is a byproduct of the metabolism of asparagus. The ability to produce methanethiol in urine after eating asparagus was once thought to be a genetic trait. More recent research suggests that the peculiar odor is in fact produced by all humans after consuming asparagus, while the ability to detect it (methanethiol being one of many components in \"asparagus pee\") is in fact the genetic trait. The chemical components responsible for the change in the odor of urine show as soon as 15 minutes after eating asparagus.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Pesticides are useful tools in modern society. Depending on the chemical and how lipophilic, or fat-loving, they are they can move in and out of organisms at different rates. Pesticides are another group of toxicants that can cause olfactory disruption in fish.\n\nSection::::Pesticides.:Mechanism of action.\n", "Section::::In gram-negative bacteria.:Release of outer membrane vesicles.\n", "The process by which olfactory information is coded in the brain to allow for proper perception is still being researched, and is not completely understood. When an odorant is detected by receptors, they in a sense break the odorant down, and then the brain puts the odorant back together for identification and perception. The odorant binds to receptors that recognize only a specific functional group, or feature, of the odorant, which is why the chemical nature of the odorant is important.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Explicit memory.\n", "Additionally, at least one study has suggested that daily intake of the supplements activated charcoal and copper chlorophyllin may improve the quality of life of individuals afflicted with TMAU by helping their bodies to oxidize and convert TMA to the odorless \"N\"-oxide (TMAO) metabolite. Study participants experienced subjective reduction in odor as well as objective reduction in TMA and increase in TMAO concentration measured in their urine. The study found that:\n\nBULLET::::- 85% of test participants experienced complete loss of detectable \"fishy\" odor\n\nBULLET::::- 10% experienced some reduction in detectable odor\n\nBULLET::::- 5% did not experience any detectable odor reduction\n", "Section::::Types.:Smell.\n\nSmell is the process of absorbing molecules through olfactory organs. Humans absorb these molecules through the nose. These molecules diffuse through a thick layer of mucus, come into contact with one of thousands of cilia that are projected from sensory neurons, and are then absorbed into one of, 347 or so, receptors. It is this process that causes humans to understand the concept of smell from a physical standpoint. \n\nSmell is also a very interactive sense as scientists have begun to observe that olfaction comes into contact with the other sense in unexpected ways. \n", "Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.\n", "Olfaction\n\nOlfaction is a chemoreception that forms the sense of smell. Olfaction has many purposes, such as the detection of hazards, pheromones, and food. It integrates with other senses to form the sense of flavor.\n\nOlfaction occurs when odorants bind to specific sites on olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity. Glomeruli aggregate signals from these receptors and transmit them to the olfactory bulb, where the sensory input will start to interact with parts of the brain responsible for smell identification, memory, and emotion.\n", "Section::::Systematic response.:Digestive-system response.:Enteric nervous system.\n\nThe digestive system is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or enteric nervous system alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.\n\nSection::::Research methods and techniques.\n\nSection::::Research methods and techniques.:Clamping techniques.\n", "The process of smelling begins when chemical molecules enter the nose and reach the olfactory mucosa, a dime-sized region located in the nasal cavity that contains olfactory receptor neurons. There are 350 types of olfactory receptors, each sensitive to a narrow range of odorants. These neurons send signals to the glomeruli within the olfactory bulb. Each glomerulus collects information from a specific olfactory receptor neuron. The olfactory signal is then conducted to piriform cortex and the amygdala, and then to the orbitalfrontal cortex, where higher level processing of the odor occurs.\n\nSection::::Olfactory cues.:Olfactory memory.\n", "The odor (scent) of urine can normally vary from odorless (when very light colored and dilute) to a much stronger odor when the subject is dehydrated and the urine is concentrated. Brief changes in odor are usually merely interesting and not medically significant. (Example: the abnormal smell many people can detect after eating asparagus.) The urine of diabetics experiencing ketoacidosis (urine containing high levels of ketone bodies) may have a fruity or sweet smell.\n\nSection::::Target parameters.:Ions and trace minerals.\n", "Section::::Types.:Group specificity.\n", "One of the most distinctive features of fish olfaction is that it takes place entirely in the aquatic environment. The carrier of stimulant is water and therefore the chemicals must be soluble in water. The olfactory epithelium of fish consists of three cell types, like other vertebrates. These three cell types are the receptor cells, supporting cells and basal cells.\n", "The glomerulus process in dogs is divided in 3 parts. signal acquisition, signal transduction, and signal processing.Some dogs have as many as 100 times more ORNs than humans do, producing a correspondingly sharpened ability to detect and discriminate among millions of odors. Characteristics of these stages include: the role of olfactory plume and sniffing, the continuous renewal of Glomerulus receptors throughout the life cycle, and the relationship between the olfactory neuron and the glomerulus, and finally, the synthetic nature of glomerulus coding.\n\nSection::::Other species.:Glomerulus in Fish.\n", "This is thought to be due to increased sulfur containing substrate available to gut microbiota enabling increased volatile sulfur compound (VSC) release during gut fermentation (VSC are thought to be the primary contributors to the odor of flatus and feces). \n\nThis theory is supported by the observation that feces from carnivores is more malodorous than feces from herbivore species, and this appears to apply to human diets as well (odor of human feces shown to increase with increased dietary protein, particularly sulfur containing amino acids).\n\nSection::::Sulfur content of food.\n" ]

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[ "The designer of a die for a blow moulded bottle can never be completely sure of how much the finished bottle will hold. Shrinkage always occurs after the item is released from the mould. The amount of shrinkage depends upon many factors, including cycle time, inflation air pressure, time in storage prior to filling, storage temperature, and more.\n", "\"Saturation\" refers to a state in the product's life cycle where sales have leveled off and, towards the end of this phase, first begin to decline. The term \"Saturation\" is confusing to many and can be explained in reference to its equivalent in chemistry where a substance can no longer be dissolved in a liquid. A product can be said to have \"saturated\" its market. The decline at the end of the Saturation phase gives the first indications of the products end of life.\n", "BULLET::::- Cadbury's Crunchie were sold in packs of three instead of four.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2013 Cereal Partners sold Shredded Wheat Superfruity for £2.68 at Sainsbury's; was put on £2 special offer, before returning to £2.68, but with less cereal in each box.\n\nBULLET::::- In January 2009 Häagen-Dazs announced that it would be reducing the size of their ice cream cartons in the US from 16 US fl oz (470 ml) to 14 US fl oz (410 ml).\n\nBULLET::::- In March 2014 Coca-Cola reduced the size of their 2 litre bottle to 1.75 litres\n", "The prevention of this type of shrinkage is one reason for security guards, cameras and security tags. Other causes of shrinkage include:\n\nBULLET::::- Administrative errors such as shipping errors, warehouse discrepancies, and misplaced goods\n\nBULLET::::- Cashier or price-check errors in the customer's favour\n\nBULLET::::- Damage in transit or in the store\n\nBULLET::::- Paperwork errors\n\nBULLET::::- Perishable goods not sold within their shelf life\n\nBULLET::::- Vendor fraud\n\nBULLET::::- Recalled items\n\nBULLET::::- Returns and exchanges especially if the item returned or exchanged is not resellable\n\nSection::::Causes.:Loss at the POS terminal.\n", "Section::::Examples of shrinkflation.\n\nBULLET::::- A website in Japanese explains how hundreds of well-known products have been reduced in size, how much has been reduced and when they were reduced.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2009 Mars reduced the size of their Mars bar from 62.5 grams to 58 grams, while the price remained at 37 pence.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2010 Kraft reduced its 200g Toblerone bar to 170g.\n\nBULLET::::- Tetley tea bags were sold in boxes of 88 instead of 100.\n\nBULLET::::- Nestlé reduced its After Eight Mint Chocolate Thins box from 200g to 170g.\n", "A volume adjuster insert is one way to slightly adjust the volume of a bottle, without building a completely new mould. A volume insert attaches to the inside of a mould, creating a circular indentation on the side of the finished bottle. Different size inserts can be used as manufacturing circumstances change, for example mould temperature or cooling rate. The volume of finished bottles is periodically measured, and volume inserts are changed as needed.\n\nSection::::Environmental comparisons.\n", "\"Maturity\" in this case refers to state in the product's life cycle where sales of the product \"first\" reach its sales peak and begins to level off. Having survived the Introduction and Growth phases, products in this phase have a low probability of being discontinued.\n", "Section::::Retrospective reviews.\n", "Section::::Laboratory tests.\n\nSection::::Laboratory tests.:Shrinkage limit.\n\nThe shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.\n\nSection::::Laboratory tests.:Plastic limit.\n", "BULLET::::- Permanent – Typically not designed to be removed without tearing the stock, damaging the surface, or using solvents. The adhesion strength and speed can also be varied. For example, full adhesion can be nearly instant, or the label can be almost removable for a short period with full adhesion developing in minutes or hours (known as respositionable adhesives).\n", "BULLET::::- Inventory behavior of firms: “the variance of production exceeds the variance of sales”\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Birds Eye potato waffles were reduced from a 12 pack to a 10 pack\n\nBULLET::::- PG Tips 80 teabags reduced in weight from 250g to 232g, while the price remained at £1.99\n\nBULLET::::- Kit Kat Chunky was reduced in weight from 48g to 40g, while the price remained at £0.60\n\nBULLET::::- In July 2015, a tub of Cadbury Roses which weighed 975g in 2011, was reduced to under 730g, while a tub of Cadbury Heroes was reduced 695g, however the price remained the same at around £9.\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 The new ProShape Process for the production of oval and asymmetrical plastic containers is brought to market\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Presentation of the new FlexWave heating system for preforms based on microwave technology for energy saving manufacturing of PET bottles.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 LitePac is introduced, a completely new method of packaging beverages: PET bottle formations are provided with strapping tape and a carrying handle only, so that waste from packaging can be reduced by 75% in relation to former shrink film packaging.\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 With DecoType Select selectively direct printing to grooved and relief structures is possible.\n\nSection::::Business figures.\n", "Section::::Aging.\n\nThe age of product from the first bottling is the number of containers times the aging interval. As the \"solera\" matures, the average age of product asymptotically approaches one plus the number of scales (excluding the top scale) (K) divided by the fraction of a scale transferred or bottled (α), or (1 + K/α).\n", "While damage to the original packaging is common, damage to its contents is generally not preferred in determining if an item is NOS; however, many items have been on shelves or in storage and over time may have developed some damage. This minor damage from shelf life does not detract from an item being identified as NOS.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing Process.:Filling and packaging.\n\nFirstly, the filling process depends on the different package of each product. The filling line and the filling heads holding play a vital role in this process. The empty bottles will be in the conveyor belt and move continuously waiting for injecting correction fluid in each bottle.\n\nSecondly, when the filling process is finished, it comes to the packing process. All the filled bottles will be moved to the capping machine to sort the caps and tighten them.\n\nFinally, these bottles will be put into the box for shipping to the sellers and customers.\n\nSection::::Notable brands.\n", "BULLET::::- Minimization (also \"source reduction\") – The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of contents) can be measured and used as criteria for minimizing the package in the design process. Usually “reduced” packaging also helps minimize costs. Packaging engineers continue to work toward reduced packaging.\n", "Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE, Terylene, Dacron) is the main substance used to package bottled water and many sodas. Products containing PETE are labeled \"Type 1\" (with a \"1\" in the recycle triangle) for recycling purposes. Although the word \"phthalate\" appears in the name, PETE does not use phthalates as plasticizers. The terephthalate polymer PETE and the phthalate ester plasticizers are chemically different substances. Despite this, however, a number of studies have found phthalates such as DEHP in bottled water and soda. One hypothesis is that these may have been introduced during plastics recycling.\n\nSection::::Detection in food products.\n", "drinks stay pleasantly warm (for up to one hour). The bottle can be comfortably\n\nhandled even when it contains hot drinks and the outer wall does not build up\n\ncondensation when it contains cold ones. The liquid only comes into contact\n\nwith glass and stainless steel so its flavor remains unaffected. All the\n\nmaterials used for the bottle are BPA and BPS free.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "The LabelMe dataset has some problems that should be noted. Some are inherent in the data, such as the objects in the images not being uniformly distributed with respect to size and image location. This is due to the images being primarily taken by humans who tend to focus the camera on interesting objects in a scene. However, cropping and rescaling the images randomly can simulate a uniform distribution. Other problems are caused by the amount of freedom given to the users of the annotation tool. Some problems that arise are:\n", "If you add a label on the data side of the disc, then this space is no longer available for data. The amount of space it takes depends on the size (width) of the label and the location of the label on the disc. The wider the label and the more it is located on the outside of the disc, the more space it takes. In other words: the bigger the label, the more disc surface is occupied and thus the more data-space you sacrifice. For example: a 5 mm label at the inside requires 10% capacity, and at the outside of the disc about 20% of the disc capacity.\n", "Section::::Release.:Reissues.\n", "BULLET::::- Shrinkage also occurs during this process. With the cellulose acetate polymer chains breaking into smaller pieces, and with their side groups splitting off, the plastic film begins to shrink. In advanced stages of deterioration, shrinkage can be as much as 10%. There have been some reports of film 35mm wide shrinking to almost 17mm.\n", "The origin of this problem is a fault in the printing and forcibly generates a phase defect. \n\nBULLET::::- Phasing:\n\nIn most cases, the phasing problem comes from imprecise cutting of the material, as explained below. Nevertheless, poor printing and rectification conditions may also be behind it.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing process.:Defects.:Cutting defects.\n\nDefects, in the way the lenticular lens has been cut, can lead to phase errors between the lens and the image.\n\nTwo examples, taken from the same production batch:\n", "Next the bottle enters a labelling machine (\"labeller\") where a label is applied. To ensure traceability of the product, a \"lot number\", generally the date and time of bottling, may also be printed on the bottle. The product is then packed into boxes and warehoused, ready for sale.\n" ]

[ "Labels on soda bottles shrink when the bottle is opened. ", "The label around a plastic bottle of soda shrinks when first the bottle is first opened." ]

[ "Labels on soda bottles are not shrinking, but are being pulled in as volume is reduced and gas pressure is released.", "The label doesn’t shrink, it is just pulled in because pressure is released when the bottle is opened." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Labels on soda bottles shrink when the bottle is opened. ", "The label around a plastic bottle of soda shrinks when first the bottle is first opened." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Labels on soda bottles are not shrinking, but are being pulled in as volume is reduced and gas pressure is released.", "The label doesn’t shrink, it is just pulled in because pressure is released when the bottle is opened." ]

[ "BULLET::::- burning, itching, redness, skin rash, swelling, or soreness at the application site\n\nBULLET::::- flushing or redness of the skin\n\nBULLET::::- irritation\n\nBULLET::::- itching, scaling, severe redness, soreness, or swelling of the skin\n\nBULLET::::- peeling of the skin\n\nBULLET::::- raised, dark red, wart-like spots on the skin, especially when used on the face\n\nBULLET::::- stinging and burning\n\nBULLET::::- unusually warm skin\n\nSide effects that may go away as the body adjusts to the medication:\n\nBULLET::::- Body aches or pain\n\nBULLET::::- chills\n\nBULLET::::- cough\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty with breathing\n\nBULLET::::- ear congestion\n\nBULLET::::- fever\n\nBULLET::::- headache\n\nBULLET::::- loss of voice\n", "BULLET::::- Yeast infections: Local azole, in the form of ovula and cream. All agents appear to be equally effective. These anti-fungal medications, which are available in over the counter form, are generally used to treat yeast infections. Treatment may last anywhere between one, three, or seven days.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Aerobic vaginitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Trichomoniasis: Single oral doses of either metronidazole, or tinidazole. \"Sexual partner(s) should be treated simultaneously. Patients should be advised to avoid sexual intercourse for at least 1 week and until they and their partner(s) have completed treatment and follow-up.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial vaginosis: The most commonly used antibiotics are metronidazole, available in both pill and gel form, and clindamycin available in both pill and cream form.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Treatment options.\n\nBULLET::::- topical steroids, such as clobetasol\n\nBULLET::::- intralesional injection of steroids, such as dexamethasone\n\nBULLET::::- immunosuppressant drugs, such as CellCept (mycophenolic acid)\n\nBULLET::::- serum or plasma pooled products, like Intravenous gamma globulin (IVIG) may be useful in severe cases, especially paraneoplastic pemphigus\n\nBULLET::::- biologics such as Rituximab, an anti-CD20 antibody, which was found to improve otherwise severe cases of recalcitrant Pemphigus vulgaris.\n\nAll of these drugs may cause severe side effects, so the patient should be closely monitored by doctors. Once the outbreaks are under control, dosage is often reduced, to lessen side effects.\n", "Symptoms of an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" are actually quite vague and similar to the signs that can indicate other illnesses or diseases, so it is relatively difficult to identify when only looking at symptoms. However, in several cases, these infections result after an individual's immune system has been weakened, so it is likely to occur in recovering or ill patients. Most patients, after receiving treatment for another disease or during recovery from surgery, experience chills and increase in body temperature. While these symptoms could mean a variety of things, it is clear that the patient's recovery is halted and that there is an infection of some sort. In an example where a woman developed an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" from a case of sinusitis, she experienced the same chills and elevated temperature, but also nasal discharge containing pus, right facial pain, and a fever.\n", "Side effects are mild, usually at the start of treatment; they include:\n\nBULLET::::- Cough\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Weakness/Asthenia\n\nBULLET::::- Headache\n\nBULLET::::- Disturbances of mood and/or sleep\n\nLess often\n\nBULLET::::- Taste impairment\n\nBULLET::::- Epigastric discomfort\n\nBULLET::::- Nausea\n\nBULLET::::- Abdominal pain\n\nBULLET::::- Rash\n\nReversible increases in blood urea and creatinine may be observed. Proteinuria has occurred in some patients. Rarely, angioneurotic edema and decreases in hemoglobin, red cells, and platelets have been reported.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- They are methotrexate, cytarabine (Ara-C), hydrocortisone, and, rarely, thiotepa.\n\nBULLET::::- Administration of other chemotherapeutic agents such as vincristine via the intrathecal route can lead to fatal outcomes.\n\nSection::::Intrathecal baclofen.\n", "Common ( 1% frequency):\n\nBULLET::::- Local pain\n\nBULLET::::- Itchiness\n\nBULLET::::- Burning\n\nBULLET::::- Stinging\n\nBULLET::::- Crusting\n\nBULLET::::- Weeping\n\nBULLET::::- Dermatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Photosensitivity\n\nUncommon (0.1–1% frequency):\n\nBULLET::::- hyper- or hypopigmentation\n\nBULLET::::- Scarring\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Neurological damage.\n\nThe United States package insert warns that acute cerebellar syndrome has been observed following injection of fluorouracil and may persist after cessation of treatment. Symptoms include ataxia, nystagmus, and dysmetria.\n\nSection::::Potential overdose.\n", "Usually treatment is with an antibiotic, such as clindamycin or metronidazole. These medications may also be used in the second or third trimesters of pregnancy. However, the condition often recurs following treatment. Probiotics may help prevent re-occurrence. It is unclear if the use of probiotics or antibiotics affects pregnancy outcomes.\n", "BULLET::::- Other side effects\n\nTemporary hair loss is a common side effect. Nausea and vomiting are commonly experienced both during and following administration. A variety of antiemetic drugs may be used, including granisetron, ondansetron, metoclopramide and cyclizine.\n\nVincristine causes chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy, a progressive and enduring tingling numbness, intense pain, and hypersensitivity to cold, beginning in the hands and feet and sometimes involving the arms and legs, in some patients.\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.:Deaths.\n\nIn April 2014, it was reported that 21 Japanese people who had received shots of the long-acting injectable paliperidone to date had died, out of 10,700 individuals prescribed the drug.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "Neumega has caused allergic reaction which at times have been very serious. Symptoms have been edema of the face and tongue, or larynx; shortness of breath; wheezing; chest pain; hypotension (including shock); dysarthria; loss of consciousness, rash, urticaria, flushing, and fever. These reaction can occur after the first dose or after any later application. Neumega should be permanently discontinued in patients with any sign of allergy. Treatment is largely symptomatic.\n", "Pharmaceutical drugs that may cause ILI include many biologics such as interferons and monoclonal antibodies. Chemotherapeutic agents also commonly cause flu-like symptoms. Other drugs associated with a flu-like syndrome include bisphosphonates, caspofungin, and levamisole. A flu-like syndrome can also be caused by an influenza vaccine or other vaccines, and by opioid withdrawal in physically dependent individuals.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Cardiac symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, chest palpitations, light headedness, and syncope due to a rare drug-induced reaction, eosinophilic myocarditis\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSome classes of medications have a higher rate of drug reactions than others. These include antiepileptics, antibiotics, antiretrovirals, NSAIDs, and general and local anesthetics.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Syncope (oral, up to 1% ; IM, up to 2%)\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetic ketoacidosis\n\nBULLET::::- Hypothermia\n\nBULLET::::- Pancreatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Agranulocytosis\n\nBULLET::::- Neutropenia\n\nBULLET::::- Leukopenia\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombocytopenia\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura\n\nBULLET::::- Stroke (oral, less than 5% ; IM, less than 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Seizure (oral, 0.3% ; IM, 0.3%)\n\nBULLET::::- Tardive dyskinesia (oral, less than 5% ; IM, less than 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Priapism\n\nBULLET::::- Pulmonary embolism\n\nBULLET::::- Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (oral, adults, less than 1%; pediatrics, less than 5%)\n\nBULLET::::- Anorexia\n\nBULLET::::- Hypoaesthesia\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired concentration\n\nBULLET::::- Sexual dysfunction\n\nBULLET::::- Angioedema\n\nBULLET::::- Intestinal obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Megacolon\n\nBULLET::::- Oedema\n\nBULLET::::- Hyponatraemia\n", "BULLET::::- Irritation of the meninges from drugs administered directly to the spinal canal or subarachnoid space. The hypersensitivity to the drug results in an immune response.\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmune diseases\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus.\n\nBULLET::::- Cancer-caused aseptic meningitis such as neoplastic meningitis\n\nBULLET::::- This affects about 5% of all cancer cases, with a predominance in leukemias.\n\nBULLET::::- Neurosarcoidosis\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Pravastatin has undergone over 112,000 patient-years of double-blind, randomized trials using the 40-mg, once-daily dose and placebos. These trials indicate pravastatin is well tolerated and displays few noncardiovascular abnormalities in patients. However, side effects may occur. A doctor should be consulted if symptoms such as heartburn or headache are severe and do not go away.\n\nThese uncommon side effects should be promptly reported to the prescribing doctor or an emergency medical service:\n\nBULLET::::- muscle pain, tenderness, or weakness\n\nBULLET::::- lack of energy\n\nBULLET::::- fever\n\nBULLET::::- jaundice, yellowing of the skin or eyes\n", "Rhinoviruses are the most common cause of the common cold; other viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus and adenoviruses can cause them too. Rhinoviruses also exacerbate asthma attacks. Although rhinoviruses come in many varieties, they do not drift to the same degree that influenza viruses do. A mixture of 50 inactivated rhinovirus types should be able to stimulate neutralizing antibodies against all of them to some degree.\n\nSection::::Approaches by life cycle stage.:During viral synthesis.\n\nA second approach is to target the processes that synthesize virus components after a virus invades a cell.\n", "Treatment is typically with the antibiotics metronidazole or clindamycin. They can be either given by mouth or applied inside the vagina. About 10% to 15% of people, however, do not improve with the first course of antibiotics and recurrence rates of up to 80% have been documented. Recurrence rates are increased with sexual activity with the same pre-/posttreatment partner and inconsistent condom use although estrogen-containing contraceptives decrease recurrence. When clindamycin is given to pregnant women symptomatic with BV before 22 weeks of gestation the risk of pre-term birth before 37 weeks of gestation is lower.\n", "\"Enterococcus\" are normally present in the human intestines, female genital tract and often within the environment. When these bacteria cause infections, usually within the urinary tract, bloodstream, or in wounds associated with catheters or surgical procedures, the common antibiotic used to treat these cases is Vancomycin. In some instances, enterococci have become resistant to this drug and are, in result, referred to as vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). Most of these infections occur within the long-term healthcare setting.\n", "Note: \"Meconella\" (not to be confused with the genus \"Meconella\") has an alpine and circumpolar arctic distribution and includes some of the most northerly-growing vascular land plants.\n\nSection::::Species.\n\nThere are 70–100 species, including:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver acrochaetum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver aculeatum\" : South African poppy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver alboroseum\" : pale poppy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver alpinum\" : dwarf poppy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver amurense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver apokrinomenon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver apulum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver arachnoideum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver arenarium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver argemone\" : long pricklyhead poppy, prickly poppy, pale poppy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver armeniacum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver atlanticum\" (syn. \"P. rupifragum\" var. \"atlanticum\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver aurantiacum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papaver belangeri\"\n", "Aciclovir, the active metabolite of valaciclovir, is active against most species in the herpesvirus family. In descending order of activity:\n\nBULLET::::- Herpes simplex virus type I (HSV-1)\n\nBULLET::::- Herpes simplex virus type II (HSV-2)\n\nBULLET::::- Varicella zoster virus (VZV)\n\nBULLET::::- Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)\n\nBULLET::::- Cytomegalovirus (CMV)\n", "Side effects may include a lump at the injection site (injection site reaction) in approximately 30% of users, and aches, fever, chills (flu-like symptoms) in approximately 10% of users. Side effect symptoms are generally mild in nature. A reaction that involves flushing, shortness in breath, anxiety and rapid heartbeat has been reported soon after injection in up to 5% of patients (usually after injecting directly into a vein). These side effects subside within thirty minutes. Over time, a visible dent at the injection site can occur due to the local destruction of fat tissue, known as lipoatrophy, that may develop.\n", "Neumega is a potent drug and can have certain, sometimes dangerous, side-effects. Most important are severe allergic reactions, which can occur at any time of Neumega-therapy. Inform you doctor immediately if you experience swollen face, tongue or larynx, shortness of breath, hypotension, shock, fever or skin reactions (urticaria, rash). Additionally, Neumega can cause fluid retention in a high rate of patients. If you notice an unexplainable massive gain of weight, peripheral edemas (e.g. swollen ankles, arms or legs) that are more than mild to moderate, or if you experience shortness of breath without signs of allergy contact your doctor immediately or dial 911. You maybe suffer from lung edema and/or decompensated heart failure which must be treated immediately. The same is true, if you have an irregular heartbeat together with dizziness and vertigo, or sudden loss of consciousness.\n", "The most common adverse effect to acetylcysteine treatment is an anaphylactoid reaction, usually manifested by rash, wheeze, or mild hypotension. Adverse reactions are more common in people treated with IV acetylcysteine, occurring in up to 20% of patients. Anaphylactoid reactions are more likely to occur with the first infusion (the loading dose). Rarely, severe life-threatening reactions may occur in predisposed individuals, such as patients with asthma or atopic dermatitis, and may be characterized by respiratory distress, facial swelling, and even death.\n" ]

[ "Some vacinnes give you cold-like symptoms." ]

[ "Double-blind studies have shown that the rate that cold symptoms occur is constant, for both the vaccinated cohort and the placebo cohort." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Some vacinnes give you cold-like symptoms." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Double-blind studies have shown that the rate that cold symptoms occur is constant, for both the vaccinated cohort and the placebo cohort." ]

[ "Photons are emitted in many natural processes. For example, when a charge is accelerated it emits synchrotron radiation. During a molecular, atomic or nuclear transition to a lower energy level, photons of various energy will be emitted, ranging from radio waves to gamma rays. Photons can also be emitted when a particle and its corresponding antiparticle are annihilated (for example, electron–positron annihilation).\n", "Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces \"emission lines\" in the spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor lamps, etc.), and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser.\n", "Direct photons were predicted to exist by C.O. Escobar in 1975 and were first observed by the R412 group at the Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN in 1976, and were subsequently studied by various experiments, including E705 and E706 at Fermilab, NA3, NA24, WA70 and UA6 at the CERN SPS as well as UA1 and UA2 at the CERN SPPS collider.\n", "Section::::Light production.\n\nRadiation is released when an excimer molecule in its upper electronic exited state de-excites to its ground state. The excimer or exciplex molecules are not very stable and rapidly decompose, typically within a few nanoseconds, giving up their excitation energy in the form of a UV photon:\n\nexcimer molecule emission:\n\nexciplex molecule emission:\n\nwhere \"Rg*\" is an excimer molecule, \"RgX*\" is an exciplex molecule, \"Rg\" is an atom of rare gas, \"X\" is an atom of halogen.\n\nSection::::Excimer molecule formation.\n", "Inside protons and neutrons, there are fundamental particles called quarks. The two most common types of quarks are \"up quarks\", which have a charge of +/, and \"down quarks\", with a −/ charge. Quarks arrange themselves in sets of three such that they make protons and neutrons. In a proton, whose charge is +1, there are two \"up\" quarks and one \"down\" quark (/ + / − / = 1). Neutrons, with no charge, have one \"up\" quark and two \"down\" quarks (/ − / − / = 0). Via the weak interaction, quarks can change flavor from \"down\" to \"up\", resulting in electron emission. Positron emission happens when an \"up\" quark changes into a \"down\" quark. (/ − 1 = −/).\n", "Photon energy is transferred to matter in a two-step process. First, energy is transferred to charged particles in the medium through various photon interactions (e.g. photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and photodisintegration). Next, these secondary charged particles transfer their energy to the medium through atomic excitation and ionizations.\n", "This production of photons is known as decoupling, which leads to recombination sometimes being called photon decoupling, but recombination and photon decoupling are distinct events. Once photons decoupled from matter, they traveled freely through the universe without interacting with matter and constitute what is observed today as cosmic microwave background radiation (in that sense, the cosmic background radiation is infrared [and some red] black-body radiation emitted when the universe was at a temperature of some 4000 K, redshifted by a factor of from the visible spectrum to the microwave spectrum).\n\nSection::::The recombination history of hydrogen.\n", "In a similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to one theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This resulted in hydrogen representing a store of potential energy which can be released by nuclear fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from the gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into starlight. Considering the solar system, starlight, overwhelmingly from the Sun, may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth. This occurs in the case of avalanches, or when water evaporates from oceans and is deposited as precipitation high above sea level (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbine/generators to produce electricity).\n", "The photons are emitted stochastically, and there is no fixed phase relationship between photons emitted from a group of excited atoms; in other words, spontaneous emission is incoherent. In the absence of other processes, the number of atoms in the excited state at time \"t\", is given by\n\nwhere \"N\"(0) is the number of excited atoms at time \"t\" = 0, and τ is the \"mean lifetime\" of the transition between the two states.\n\nSection::::The interaction of light with matter.:Stimulated emission.\n", "There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.\n", "Seen another way, the photon can be considered as its own antiparticle (thus an \"antiphoton\" is simply a normal photon). The reverse process, pair production, is the dominant mechanism by which high-energy photons such as gamma rays lose energy while passing through matter. That process is the reverse of \"annihilation to one photon\" allowed in the electric field of an atomic nucleus.\n", "Several different kinds of hardware random number generators involve the detection of single photons. In one example, for each bit in the random sequence that is to be produced, a photon is sent to a beam-splitter. In such a situation, there are two possible outcomes of equal probability. The actual outcome is used to determine whether the next bit in the sequence is \"0\" or \"1\".\n\nSection::::Recent research.\n", "Light sources used in photonics are usually far more sophisticated than light bulbs. Photonics commonly uses semiconductor light sources like light-emitting diodes (LEDs), superluminescent diodes, and lasers. Other light sources include single photon sources, fluorescent lamps, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and plasma screens. Note that while CRTs, plasma screens, and organic light-emitting diode displays generate their own light, liquid crystal displays (LCDs) like TFT screens require a backlight of either cold cathode fluorescent lamps or, more often today, LEDs.\n", "Photon decoupling is closely related to recombination, which occurred about 378,000 years after the Big Bang (at a redshift of \"z\" = ), when the universe was a hot opaque (\"foggy\") plasma. During recombination, free electrons became bound to protons (hydrogen nuclei) to form neutral hydrogen atoms. Because direct recombinations to the ground state (lowest energy) of hydrogen are very inefficient, these hydrogen atoms generally form with the electrons in a high energy state, and the electrons quickly transition to their low energy state by emitting photons. Because the neutral hydrogen that formed was transparent to light, those photons which were not captured by other hydrogen atoms were able, for the first time in the history of the universe, to travel long distances. They can still be detected today, although they now appear as radio waves, and form the cosmic microwave background (\"CMB\"). They reveal crucial clues about how the universe formed.\n", "where we have inserted formula_18 radians (imagine that the central mass, about which the photon is orbiting, is located at the centre of the coordinate axes. Then, as the photon is travelling along the formula_19-coordinate line, for the mass to be located directly in the centre of the photon's orbit, we must have formula_18 radians).\n\nHence, rearranging this final expression gives:\n\nformula_21\n\nwhich is the result we set out to prove.\n\nSection::::Photon orbits around a Kerr black hole.\n", "Individual photons can be detected by several methods. The classic photomultiplier tube exploits the photoelectric effect: a photon of sufficient energy strikes a metal plate and knocks free an electron, initiating an ever-amplifying avalanche of electrons. Semiconductor charge-coupled device chips use a similar effect: an incident photon generates a charge on a microscopic capacitor that can be detected. Other detectors such as Geiger counters use the ability of photons to ionize gas molecules contained in the device, causing a detectable change of conductivity of the gas.\n", "Photons can also be absorbed by nuclei, atoms or molecules, provoking transitions between their energy levels. A classic example is the molecular transition of retinal (CHO), which is responsible for vision, as discovered in 1958 by Nobel laureate biochemist George Wald and co-workers. The absorption provokes a cis-trans isomerization that, in combination with other such transitions, is transduced into nerve impulses. The absorption of photons can even break chemical bonds, as in the photodissociation of chlorine; this is the subject of photochemistry.\n\nSection::::Technological applications.\n", "Section::::Small devices.:Radioisotopes which decay with high-energy photons co-located with beryllium or deuterium.\n\nGamma radiation with an energy exceeding the neutron binding energy of a nucleus can eject a neutron (a photoneutron). Two example reactions are:\n\nBULLET::::- Be + 1.7 Mev photon → 1 neutron + 2 He\n\nBULLET::::- H (deuterium) + 2.26 MeV photon → 1 neutron + H\n\nSection::::Small devices.:Sealed-tube neutron generators.\n\nSome accelerator-based neutron generators induce fusion between beams of deuterium and/or tritium ions and metal hydride targets which also contain these isotopes.\n\nSection::::Medium-sized devices.\n\nSection::::Medium-sized devices.:Plasma focus and plasma pinch devices.\n", "Other types of radioactive decay were found to emit previously-seen particles, but via different mechanisms. An example is internal conversion, which results in an initial electron emission, and then often further characteristic X-rays and Auger electrons emissions, although the internal conversion process involves neither beta nor gamma decay. A neutrino is not emitted, and none of the electron(s) and photon(s) emitted originate in the nucleus, even though the energy to emit all of them does originate there. Internal conversion decay, like isomeric transition gamma decay and neutron emission, involves the release of energy by an excited nuclide, without the transmutation of one element into another.\n", "Section::::Sources.:Gamma rays from sources other than radioactive decay.\n\nA few gamma rays in astronomy are known to arise from gamma decay (see discussion of SN1987A), but most do not.\n\nPhotons from astrophysical sources that carry energy in the gamma radiation range are often explicitly called gamma-radiation. In addition to nuclear emissions, they are often produced by sub-atomic particle and particle-photon interactions. Those include electron-positron annihilation, neutral pion decay, bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton scattering, and synchrotron radiation.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Gamma rays from sources other than radioactive decay.:Laboratory sources.\n", "Neon-burning process\n\nThe neon-burning process (nuclear decay) is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in massive stars (at least 8 Solar masses). Neon burning requires high temperatures and densities (around 1.2×10 K or 100 KeV and 4×10 kg/m).\n\nAt such high temperatures photodisintegration becomes a significant effect, so some neon nuclei decompose, releasing alpha particles:\n\nAlternatively:\n\nwhere the neutron consumed in the first step is regenerated in the second.\n", "If the atom is in the excited state, it may decay into the lower state by the process of spontaneous emission, releasing the difference in energies between the two states as a photon. The photon will have frequency \"ν\" and energy \"hν\", given by:\n\nwhere \"h\" is Planck's constant.\n\nAlternatively, if the excited-state atom is perturbed by an electric field of frequency \"ν\", it may emit an additional photon of the same frequency and in phase, thus augmenting the external field, leaving the atom in the lower energy state. This process is known as stimulated emission.\n", "Section::::Physical mechanisms behind photon upconversion.\n\nThere are three basic mechanism for photon upconversion in inorganic materials and at least two distinct mechanisms in organic materials. In inorganic materials photon upconversion occurs through energy transfer upconversion (ETU), excited-state absorption (ESA) and photon avalanche (PA). Such processes can be observed in materials with very different sizes and structures, including optical fibers, bulk crystals or nanoparticles, as long as they contain any of the active ions mentioned above. Organic molecules can upconvert photons through sensitized triplet-triplet annihilation (sTTA) and energy pooling.\n", "Section::::Artificial sources.:Incandescent lamps.\n\n'Black light' incandescent lamps are also made, from an incandescent light bulb with a filter coating which absorbs most visible light. Halogen lamps with fused quartz envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light sources in the near UV range, from 400 to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments. Due to its black-body spectrum a filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a fraction of a percent of its energy as UV.\n\nSection::::Artificial sources.:Gas-discharge lamps.\n", "BULLET::::- Additionally, galactic cosmic rays include these particles, but many are from unknown mechanisms\n\nCharged particles (electrons, mesons, protons, alpha particles, heavier HZE ions, etc.) can be produced by particle accelerators. Ion irradiation is widely used in the semiconductor industry to introduce dopants into\n\nmaterials, a method known as ion implantation.\n\nParticle accelerators can also produce neutrino beams. Neutron beams are mostly produced by nuclear reactors. For the production of electromagnetic radiation, there are many methods, depending upon the wave length (see electromagnetic spectrum).\n\nSection::::Passage through matter.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "In 1988 there was a shortage due to high demand. Workers at seven Hitachi corporation factories had to work through their summer vacations to meet demand. In 1994, there was a shortage due to new technologies being developed. The newer manufacturing processes required significantly cleaner “clean rooms” and many batches of integrated circuits were discarded due to manufacturing errors.\n\nIntel suffered a shortage of several products in 2000. Larger companies were able to receive the products they needed but smaller companies such as Gateway had to wait or find other chips.\n", "There was a lack of CDMA chips in 2004. This was due to the strong push of mobile phone companies to introduce and establish CDMA in both the United States and India.\n\nAfter the 2011 earthquake in Japan, there was a severe chip shortage of NAND memory and displays. \n\nQualcomm released a statement on April 19, 2012 that they expect a shortage of their Snapdragon chip due to a lack of facilities to manufacture the 28 nm chip.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "For mass-market personal computers, there may be no financial advantage to a manufacturer in providing more memory sockets, address lines, or other hardware than necessary to run mass-market software. When memory devices were relatively expensive compared with the processor, often the RAM delivered with the system was much less than the address capacity of the hardware, because of cost. \n", "This change forced changes on the hardware vendors as well. Formerly, almost all computer companies attempted to make their machines different enough that when their customers sought a more powerful machine, it was often cheaper to buy another from the same company. This was known as \"vendor lock-in\", which helped guarantee future sales, even though the customers detested it.\n", "Chip famines can have a major effect on the electronics industry where manufacturers change their sourcing of chips and suffer major loss of profits, such as when PC manufacturer Gateway switched from Intel to AMD microprocessors in 2000. Some manufacturers may find themselves having to redesign their products to take account of the shortage of certain chips, or have to leave design options open to allow alternative chips to be incorporated into the design.\n\nSection::::Cases of shortages.\n", "1986 U.S.-Japan semiconductor trade pact was designed to help US chip manufacturers compete with Japanese companies. This resulted in severe cuts in Japanese production \n\nA 1993 DRAM chip famine was caused by a factory explosion at the factory which produced 60% of the world's supply of resin used in chips. \n\nFrom 1993 to 1994, there was a glut of chips and companies lost incentive to build new leading-edge factories. When the new generations came out, there were not enough factories to produce the new chips.\n", "DRAM had a 47% increase in the price-per-bit in 2017, the largest jump in 30 years since the 45% percent jump in 1988, while in recent years the price has been going down.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "New generation chips are difficult to produce due to manufacturing capabilities. In many cases batches of product are discarded due to manufacturing defects in the first few runs, resulting in manufacturing output that could have gone to producing older chips not being used to ship newer chips either. Furthermore, customers that want the newest chips available and may not be willing to settle for older chips, so companies must wait for the newer chips to put into their products.\n\nSection::::1986 chip pact.\n", "Chip famine\n\nA chip famine is a phenomenon in the integrated circuit (chip) industry that appears approximately every four years where demand for silicon chips outstrips supply.\n\nSection::::Introduction.\n", "Market acceptance of the IBM PC and lagging sales of the not quite PC compatible 8:16 and 2001 models created a revenue gap that was too deep to overcome. Otrona was caught in a catch 22 in which they could not buy parts needed to generate revenue with the 2001 and could not hit the revenue targets needed to draw on their credit line in order to buy the needed parts. By this time the banks and venture capitalists had invested heavily and taken a hard edged approach to further investment. Despite the pending success of the 2001, they declined to provide further funding. Otrona had simply not responded quickly enough to the new market conditions created by the introduction of the IBM PC.\n", "Section::::The first shortage (2008–10).\n", "As it takes about three years to build a new polysilicon plant, the shortage continued until 2008. Prices for conventional solar cells remained constant or even rose slightly during the period of silicon shortage from 2005 to 2008. This is notably seen as a \"shoulder\" that sticks out in the and it was feared that a prolonged shortage could delay solar power becoming competitive with conventional energy prices without subsidies.\n", "With the change in software development, combined with new generations of commodity processors that could match the performance of low-end minicomputers, lock-in was no longer working. When forced to make a decision, it was often cheaper for the users to simply throw out all of their existing machinery and buy a microcomputer product instead. If this was not the case at present, it certainly appeared it would be within a generation or two of Moore's law.\n", "One group suggested that every possible development in the industry be poured into the construction of a new VAX family that would leapfrog the performance of the existing machines. This would limit the market erosion in the top-end segment, where profit margins were maximized and DEC could continue to survive as a minicomputer vendor. This line of thought led, eventually, to the VAX 9000 series, which were plagued with problems when they were first introduced in October 1989, already two years late. The problems took so long to work out, and the prices of the systems were so high, that DEC was never able to make the line the success they hoped.\n", "A previous chip famine might also cause slumps in the market, which would result in fewer chips being manufactured. When the slump is over, the demand might grow too high for the companies to fulfill, resulting in a second shortage.\n", "Similar situations have often arisen in the history of computing, when hardware intended to have up to a certain level of resources is designed to handle several times the maximum expected amount, which eventually becomes a severe restriction as Moore's law increases resources economically available. The original IBM PC was typically supplied with 64 KB of memory or less; it was designed to take a maximum of 640 KB, far more than it was thought would ever be needed. This rapidly became a restriction that had to be handled by complex DOS memory management. Similar successive restrictions in size have been imposed and overcome on hard drives.\n", "Brian Pollock of software publisher Logotron highlighted the limitations caused by the shortage of RAM (kept low to keep prices down), “My only concern is memory, or lack of it. For instance, in the game that I'm writing I am using six-channel FM synthesized sound. Now that takes up a hell of a lot of memory. I couldn't usefully fit any more samples, and that's sad.”\n", "During an event that unveiled the 3rd generation iPad, Tim Cook reported that Apple had sold 172 million iPod, iPhone, and iPad products in 2011 alone (totaling 76% of the company's total revenue), and had sold more iPad tablets during the fourth quarter of 2011 than personal computers were sold worldwide. Likewise in the third quarter of 2012, worldwide PC sales dropped by 8.6% in comparison to 2011, and in July 2013, Gartner reported that the number of worldwide PC shipments had fallen for the fifth quarter in a row, marking the longest decline in the history of the PC industry. The threat of post-PC devices have also affected the producers of the x86 processors typically used by PCs; many smartphones and tablets use low-power ARM processors manufactured by companies such as Nvidia and Qualcomm instead of the x86 processors sold by companies such as Intel and AMD. The decline in PC sales has directly affected the sales of their processors; while Intel continued to gain market share over AMD in the third quarter of 2012, worldwide shipments of processors also declined by 9% in comparison to the third quarter of 2011.\n", "Chip famine typically occurs when there is some sociological or physical change that prevents certain chips from being produced in large enough numbers to satisfy demand. A severe case of chip famine occurred in 1988 after a pact between American and Japanese chip manufacturers resulted in severely reduced production. Changing to newer production methods also causes chip famines as the new factories are not built quick enough to meet the demand for the newer chips. An example was the shortage of smart card chips in 1999, another was during the rationing of other types of chips in 2004. Recently, the 2011 Japanese earthquake led to a period when it was difficult to source all the parts needed for various systems.\n", "Constrained by the huge success of their VAX/VMS products, which followed the proprietary model, the company was very late to respond to these threats. In the early 1990s, DEC found its sales faltering and its first layoffs followed. The company that created the minicomputer, a dominant networking technology, and arguably the first computers for personal use, had abandoned the \"low end\" market, whose dominance with the PDP-8 had built the company in a previous generation. Decisions about what to do about this threat led to infighting within the company that seriously delayed their responses.\n", "2008–13 United States ammunition shortage\n\nThe 2008–13 United States ammunition shortage refers to a shortage of civilian small arms ammunition in the United States that started in late 2008 and continued through most or all of 2010, with an additional shortage beginning in December 2012 and continuing throughout 2013.\n", "Most of the affected capacitors were produced from 1999 to 2003 and failed between 2002 and 2005. Problems with capacitors produced with an incorrectly formulated electrolyte have affected equipment manufactured up to at least 2007.\n\nMajor vendors of motherboards such as Abit, IBM, Dell, Apple, HP, and Intel were affected by capacitors with faulty electrolytes.\n\nIn 2005, Dell spent some US$420 million replacing motherboards outright and on the logistics of determining whether a system was in need of replacement.\n", "In November 1996, Rambus entered into a development and license contract with Intel. Intel announced that it would only support the Rambus memory interface for its microprocessors, and had been granted rights to purchase one million shares of Rambus' stock at $10 per share.\n\nAs a transition strategy, Intel planned to support PC-100 SDRAM DIMMs on future Intel 82x chipsets using Memory Translation Hub (MTH). In 2000, Intel recalled the Intel 820 motherboard which featured the MTH due to occasional occurrences of hanging and spontaneous reboots caused by simultaneous switching noise. Since then, no production Intel 820 motherboards contain MTH.\n", "Prior to Open Storage, most storage products were based on customized operating systems running on specialist hardware. In many cases, the specialist hardware was based on old generation hardware, because the customized operating systems were behind in support for current processors and system architectures. During the 2000s, the phenomenal growth in processor performance and processor multithreading left these (often single threaded) storage products with a significant internal processing gap versus current industry standard computers.\n", "In August 1984 they secured a major contract as sole producer of 20-megabyte hard drives for the base model of the IBM PC/AT. Unfortunately, the Singapore-manufactured CM6000 drives proved highly unreliable. Dealers reported failure rates as high as 25 to 30 percent. Part of the problem was high demand for the PC/AT; IBM increased its order from 90,000 units in 1984 to 240,000 in 1985, and manufacturing quality suffered. Second, the design of the disk drive subsystem itself was flawed.\n" ]

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[ "The forelimbs' scope of use is also believed to have also been different among different families. The spinosaurids could have used their powerful forelimbs to hold fish. Some small maniraptorans such as scansoriopterygids are believed to have used their forelimbs to climb in trees. The wings of modern birds are used primarily for flight, though they are adapted for other purposes in certain groups. For example, aquatic birds such as penguins use their wings as flippers.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Forelimb movement.\n", "In many species, there is more than one focus along the wing. Here, moult begins at all foci simultaneously, but generally proceeds only in one direction. Most grouse, for example, have two wing foci: one at the wingtip, the other between feathers P1 and S1. In this case, moult proceeds descendantly from both foci. Many large, long-winged birds have multiple wing foci.\n", "As Darwin elaborated in the last edition of \"The Origin of Species\", many complex traits evolved from earlier traits that had served different functions. By trapping air, primitive wings would have enabled birds to efficiently regulate their temperature, in part, by lifting up their feathers when too warm. Individual animals with more of this functionality would more successfully survive and reproduce, resulting in the proliferation and intensification of the trait.\n", "Today, there are three main theories on the origins of insect flight. These theories are referred to as the paranotal lobe theory, the gill theory and the dual theory of insect wing evolution. These theories postulate that wings either developed from paranotal lobes, extensions of the thoracic terga; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies; or that insect wings arose from the fusion of pre-existing endite and exite structures each with pre-existing articulation and tracheation.\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n\nSection::::Morphology.:Internal.\n", "Many early members of Paraves had both well-developed wings and long feathers on the hind legs, which in some cases, formed a second set of airfoils. These species, most famously represented by \"Microraptor gui\", have often been referred to as \"four winged dinosaurs\". Though it has been suggested that these hind wings would have prevented some paravians from getting around on the ground, and that they must have lived in trees, there is very little evidence that any of the earliest paravians were capable of climbing. This apparent paradox was addressed by later studies which showed that early paravians like \"Microraptor\" were capable of flapping flight and powered launching from the ground into the air without relying on climbing. \"Microraptor\" in particular also seems to represent a case of flight evolving independently of the bird lineage within Paraves.\n", "One of the winged species appears to have evolved on the planet because fossils of these creatures have been found kilometers under the surface, wedged into the rocks of ice down there, and from the condition of the fossils, the wings were rudimentary. If this particular winged species actually did evolve on this planet, it would be a huge public relations victory elsewhere in the known universe, as it would appear to validate their claim that they were the first intelligent species in the galaxy, and therefore heir to intellectual property remaining in many lost ruins across the galaxy.\n", "There is no evidence of actual bird- or bat-like wings, and there is no scientific reason to believe such a thing is possible. The only true winged mammals, bats, have wings in place of arms, as do birds, while species of gliding mammals like flying squirrels, have membranes of skin that stretch between the front and rear limbs. Neither feature has ever been reported for cats. Classical and modern art featuring cats, as well as reports of alleged winged cats, uniformly place the wings or apparent wings on the back of cats with four legs.\n", "The third explanation is a form of conjoining or extra supernumerary limbs. These non-functional or poorly functional growths would be fur-covered and might resemble wings, as in one winged-cat case recently documented by Karl Shuker , in which the \"wings\" were shown to be supernumerary limbs.\n", "The feature of non-functional, vestigial wings may have evolved in this species relatively recently, as wings might otherwise have long-since disappeared completely had they no function for dispersal. Wing-reduction could somehow relate to population structure or some other specialised ecological pressure. Equally, wing-reduction might be a feature that only forms in drought-stressed colonies, as has been observed in several \"Monomorium\" ant species found throughout semi-arid regions of Australia. As yet, scientists do not fully understand how the feature of non-functional, vestigial wings arose in \"Nothomyrmecia macrops\".\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.:Discovery.\n", "Patagium\n\nThe patagium (plural: patagia) is a membranous structure that assists an animal in gliding or flight. The structure is found in living and extinct groups of animals including bats, birds, some dromaeosaurs, pterosaurs, gliding mammals, some flying lizards, and flying frogs.\n\nSection::::Bats.\n\nIn bats, the skin forming the surface of the wing is an extension of the skin of the abdomen that runs to the tip of each digit, uniting the forelimb with the body.\n\nThe patagium of a bat has four distinct parts:\n\nBULLET::::1. Propatagium: the patagium present from the neck to the first digit.\n", "How and why insect wings evolved is not well understood and there has been a long standing debate about their origins. During the 19th century, the question of insect wing evolution originally rested on two main positions. One position postulated insect wings evolved from pre-existing structures, while the second proposed insect wings were entirely novel formations. The “novel” hypothesis suggested that insect wings did not form from pre-existing ancestral appendages but rather as outgrowths from the insect body wall.\n", "The only groups of living things that use powered flight are birds, insects, and bats, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct pterosaurs, an order of reptiles contemporaneous with the dinosaurs, were also very successful flying animals. Each of these groups' wings evolved independently. The wings of the flying vertebrate groups are all based on the forelimbs, but differ significantly in structure; those of insects are hypothesized to be highly modified versions of structures that form gills in most other groups of arthropods.\n", "Suggestions have been made that wings may have evolved initially for sailing on the surface of water as seen in some stoneflies. An alternative idea is that it derives from directed aerial gliding descent—a preflight phenomena found in some apterygote, a wingless sister taxa to the winged insects. The earliest fliers were similar to dragonflies with two sets of wings, direct flight muscles, and no ability to fold their wings over their abdomens. Most insects today, which evolved from those first fliers, have simplified to either one pair of wings or two pairs functioning as a single pair and using a system of indirect flight muscles.\n", "Sometime in the Carboniferous Period, some 350 million years ago, when there were only two major land masses, insects began flying. How and why insect wings developed, however, is not well understood, largely due to the scarcity of appropriate fossils from the period of their development in the Lower Carboniferous. Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes, extensions of the thoracic terga; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies; or that they developed from thoracic protrusions used as radiators.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Fossils.\n", "To assist gliding, some mammals have evolved a structure called the patagium. This is a membranous structure found stretched between a range of body parts. It is most highly developed in bats. For similar reasons to birds, bats can glide efficiently. In bats, the skin forming the surface of the wing is an extension of the skin of the abdomen that runs to the tip of each digit, uniting the forelimb with the body. The patagium of a bat has four distinct parts:\n\nBULLET::::1. Propatagium: the patagium present from the neck to the first digit\n", "The Archaeopteryx was the first fossil bird recorded with evolved feathers. The forelimb in the Archaeopteryx could have been used for parental care of offspring because enlarged feathers were possibly used to shield offspring from the suns' rays and for flight. (Carey, J.R., and Adams. J (2001)) Older potential avialans have since been identified, including \"Anchiornis\", \"Xiaotingia\", and \"Aurornis\".\n", "Section::::Flying animals.:Extinct.:Mammals.\n\nBULLET::::- Several species of extinct bat have been found, like \"Icaronycteris\", \"Palaeochiropteryx\", and \"Onychonycteris\".\n\nSection::::Gliding animals.\n\nSection::::Gliding animals.:Extant.\n\nSection::::Gliding animals.:Extant.:Insects.\n\nBULLET::::- Gliding bristletails. Directed aerial gliding descent is found in some tropical arboreal bristletails, an ancestrally wingless sister taxa to the winged insects. The bristletails median caudal filament is important for the glide ratio and gliding control\n", "The question is if the plates used for gliding evolved from \"scratch\" or by modifying already existing anatomical details. The thorax in Thysanura and Archaeognatha are known to have some structures connected to their trachea which share similarities to the wings of primitive insects. This suggests the origin of the wings and the spiracles are related.\n", "The benefit of wing structures is illustrated by way of body flattening behaviour in tree snakes, the web like skin of flying squirrels and similar adaptions to be found on flying lizards.\n\nSection::::Parts.:Part 4: The Ultraviolet Garden.\n", "Insects were the first to evolve flight, approximately 350 million years ago. The developmental origin of the insect wing remains in dispute, as does the purpose prior to true flight. One suggestion is that wings initially were used to catch the wind for small insects that live on the surface of the water, while another is that they functioned in parachuting, then gliding, then flight for originally arboreal insects.\n", "A cursorial, or \"running\" model was originally proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston in 1879. This theory states that \"flight evolved in running bipeds through a series of short jumps\". As the length of the jumps extended, the wings were used not only for thrust but also for stability, and eventually eliminated the gliding intermediate. This theory was modified in the 1970s by John Ostrom to describe the use of wings as an insect-foraging mechanism which then evolved into a wing stroke. Research was conducted by comparing the amount of energy expended by each hunting method with the amount of food gathered. The potential hunting volume doubles by running and jumping. To gather the same volume of food, \"Archaeopteryx\" would expend less energy by running and jumping than by running alone. Therefore, the cost/benefit ratio would be more favorable for this model. Due to \"Archaeopteryx's\" long and erect leg, supporters of this model say the species was a terrestrial bird. This characteristic allows for more strength and stability in the hindlimbs. Thrust produced by the wings coupled with propulsion in the legs generates the minimum velocity required to achieve flight. This wing motion is thought to have evolved from asymmetrical propulsion flapping motion. Thus, through these mechanisms, \"Archaeopteryx\" was able to achieve flight from the ground up.\n", "BULLET::::- Thoracopteridae is a lineage of Triassic flying fish-like Perleidiformes, having converted their pectoral and pelvic fins into broad wings very similar to those of their modern counterparts. The Ladinian genus \"Potanichthys\" is the oldest member of this clade, as well as the earliest aerial vertebrate known, suggesting that these fish began exploring aerial niches soon after the Permian-Triassic extinction event.\n\nSection::::Gliding animals.:Extinct.:Mammals.\n", "Insects first flew in the Carboniferous, some 350 million years ago. Wings may have evolved from appendages on the sides of existing limbs, which already had nerves, joints, and muscles used for other purposes. These may initially have been used for sailing on water, or to slow the rate of descent when gliding.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Direct flight.\n", "Section::::Nomenclature.\n\nMost of the nomenclature of insect orders is based on the Ancient Greek word for wing, (\"\"), as the suffix \"-ptera\".\n\nSection::::Adaptations.\n\nSection::::Adaptations.:Variation.\n", "Paravians generally have long, winged forelimbs, though these have become smaller in many flightless species and some extinct lineages that evolved before flight. The wings usually bore three large, flexible, clawed fingers in early forms. The fingers became fused and stiffened and the claws highly reduced or lost in some advanced lineages. An increasingly asymmetric wrist joint, a trend that can be traced back to primitive coelurosaurs, allowed the forelimbs to elongate and an elaboration of their plumage, traits that made the evolution of flapping flight possible.\n" ]

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[ "Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, with spontaneous mutations in the pathogen genome occurring at a rate of about 1 in 10 to 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication, the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. However, chromosomal mutations also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but will also slow protein synthesis. manifesting, in slower growth rate. Moreover, some adaptive mutations can propagate not only through inheritance but also through horizontal gene transfer. The most common mechanism of horizontal gene transfer is the transferring of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria of the same or different species via conjugation. However, bacteria can also acquire resistance through transformation, as in \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" uptaking of naked fragments of extracellular DNA that contain antibiotic resistance genes to streptomycin, through transduction, as in the bacteriophage-mediated transfer of tetracycline resistance genes between strains of \"S. pyogenes\", or through gene transfer agents, which are particles produced by the host cell that resemble bacteriophage structures and are capable of transferring DNA.\n", "Lower antibiotic concentration contributes to the increase of AMR by introducing more mutations that support bacterial growth in higher antibiotic concentration. For example, sub-inhibitory concentration have induced genetic mutation in bacteria such as \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Bacteroides fragilis\".\n", "Resistance may take the form of biodegredation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces.\n\nThe survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance, but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Natural occurrence.\n\nNaturally occurring antibiotic resistance is common. Genes for resistance to antibiotics, like antibiotics themselves, are ancient. The genes that confer resistance are known as the environmental resistome. These genes may be transferred from non-disease-causing bacteria to those that do cause disease, leading to clinically significant antibiotic resistance.\n", "BULLET::::1. Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of \"penicillin\" G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. Most commonly, the protective enzymes produced by the bacterial cell will add an acetyl or phosphate group to a specific site on the antibiotic, which will reduce its ability to bind to the bacterial ribosomes and disrupt protein synthesis.\n", "After continued exposure to an antibiotic, bacteria may develop changes in their structure or function that make them resistant to the antibiotic. These resistant organisms will live, while the susceptible organisms will die, leaving the population of bacteria entirely resistant to a given antibiotics. For example, after the discovery of penicillin and its subsequent use to treat bacterial infections, bacteria were found to have begun producing an enzyme, penicillinase, which rendered the penicillin molecule inactive. In response to this newly-acquired resistance, newer penicillins were produced that could not be de-activated by penicillinases. This cycle of bacteria evolving resistance to antibiotics and necessitating the development of new antibiotics has been referred to as a \"bacterial arms race.\"\n", "The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.\n", "Many different bacteria now exhibit multi-drug resistance, including staphylococci, enterococci, gonococci, streptococci, salmonella, as well as numerous other Gram-negative bacteria and \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\". Antibiotic resistant bacteria are able to transfer copies of DNA that code for a mechanism of resistance to other bacteria even distantly related to them, which then are also able to pass on the resistance genes and so generations of antibiotics resistant bacteria are produced. This process is called horizontal gene transfer.\n\nSection::::Bacterial resistance to bacteriophages.\n", "Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.\n", "Various microorganisms have survived for thousands of years by their ability to adapt to antimicrobial agents. They do so via spontaneous mutation or by DNA transfer. This process enables some bacteria to oppose the action of certain antibiotics, rendering the antibiotics ineffective. These microorganisms employ several mechanisms in attaining multi-drug resistance:\n\nBULLET::::- No longer relying on a glycoprotein cell wall\n\nBULLET::::- Enzymatic deactivation of antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased cell wall permeability to antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Altered target sites of antibiotic\n\nBULLET::::- Efflux mechanisms to remove antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Increased mutation rate as a stress response\n", "Bacteria are capable of not only altering the enzyme targeted by antibiotics, but also by the use of enzymes to modify the antibiotic itself and thus neutralize it. Examples of target-altering pathogens are \"Staphylococcus aureus\", vancomycin-resistant enterococci and macrolide-resistant \"Streptococcus\", while examples of antibiotic-modifying microbes are \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and aminoglycoside-resistant \"Acinetobacter baumannii\".\n", "Bacteria can alter their genetic inheritance through two main ways, either by mutating their genetic material or acquiring a new one from other bacteria. The latter being the most important for causing antibiotic-resistant bacteria strains in animals and humans. One of the methods bacteria can obtain new genes is through a process called conjugation which deals with transferring genes using plasmids. These conjugative plasmids carry a number of genes that can be assembled and rearranged, which could then enable bacteria to exchange beneficial genes among themselves ensuring their survival against antibiotics and rendering them ineffective to treat dangerous diseases in humans, resulting into multidrug resistant organisms.\n", "Antibiotic resistance can be a result of point mutations in the pathogen genome at a rate of about 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication. The antibiotic action against the pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will result in a fully resistant colony.\n", "Studies have found that bacteria that evolve antibiotic resistance towards one group of antibiotic may become more sensitive to others. This phenomenon can be utilized to select against resistant bacteria using an approach termed collateral sensitivity cycling, which has recently been found to be relevant in developing treatment strategies for chronic infections caused by \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\".\n\nSection::::Further research.:Development of new drugs.\n", "When a drug is used on a species of bacteria, those that cannot resist die and do not produce offspring, while those that survive potentially pass on the resistance gene to the next generation (vertical gene transmission). The resistance gene can also be passed on to one bacterium by another of a different species (horizontal gene transmission). Because of this, the drug resistance increases over generations. For example, in hospitals, environments are created where pathogens such as \"C\". \"difficile\" have developed a resistance to antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is made worse by the misuse of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is encouraged when antibiotics are used to treat non-bacterial diseases, and when antibiotics are not used for the prescribed amount of time or in the prescribed dose. Antibiotic resistance may arise out of standing genetic variation in a population or de novo mutations in the population. Either pathway could lead to antibiotic resistance, which may be a form of evolutionary rescue.\n", "Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and other means of transformation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, \"superbugs\", that are resistant to antibiotics.\n", "Recent findings show no necessity of large populations of bacteria for the appearance of antibiotic resistance. Small populations of \"E. coli\" in an antibiotic gradient can become resistant. Any heterogeneous environment with respect to nutrient and antibiotic gradients may facilitate antibiotic resistance in small bacterial populations. Researchers hypothesize that the mechanism of resistance development is based on four SNP mutations in the genome of \"E. coli\" produced by the gradient of antibiotic.\n", "Exposure to low doses of the antiseptic octenidine allowed several different strains of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" to develop cross-tolerance to other antiseptics and to several different antibiotics. The level of tolerance was substantial, i.e. in several cases a 32-fold increase in concentrations of the antiseptic was required to obtain the same antimicrobial effect. Also, this increased resistance was permanent. The same group also reported that \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\" was able to develop tolerance to chlorhexidine and that 5 out of 6 strains showed cross-resistance to the last-resort antibiotic, colistin.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Clinical significance.\n", "BULLET::::4. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface These pumps within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. They are often activated by a specific substrate associated with an antibiotic. as in fluoroquinolone resistance.\n", "During exposure to cephalosporins the bacteria can form resistance by itself or as selection of the next generation of bacteria after reproducing itself, by mutation.\n\nBacteria species such as \"pneumococci\" and \"meningococci\" can acquire exogenous genetic material, and incorporate it into their own chromosomes which leads to antimicrobial resistance.\n\nIn that manner the target PBP can be altered to have their attraction for cephalosporins and other β-lactam antibiotics lowered. The bacteria can also replace the PBP that is vulnerable to Beta-lactam antibiotics with PBP that is less vulnerable.\n", "As bacteria replicate quickly, the resistant bacteria that enter water bodies through wastewater replicate their resistance genes as they continue to divide. In addition, bacteria carrying resistance genes have the ability to spread those genes to other species via horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, even if the specific antibiotic is no longer introduced into the environment, antibiotic-resistance genes will persist through the bacteria that have since replicated without continuous exposure. Antibiotic resistance is widespread in marine vertebrates, and they may be important reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the marine environment.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "As with the penicillin resistance, the \"penB\" (porin formation) and \"mtr\" (efflux pump formation) mutations mediate chromosomal resistance. These adaptations will also affect the ability of the antibiotic to get into, or stay in the bacterial cell. High level resistance of \"N. gonorrhoeae\" to tetracyclines was first reported in 1986 with the discovering of the \"tetM\" determinant. The mechanism of resistance is still unknown.\n\nSection::::Aminoglycosides.\n", "Although mutation alone plays a huge role in the development of antibiotic resistance, a 2008 study found that high survival rates after exposure to antibiotics could not be accounted for by mutation alone. This study focused on the development of resistance in \"E. coli\" to three antibiotic drugs: ampicillin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid. The researchers found that some antibiotic resistance in \"E. coli\" developed because of epigenetic inheritance rather than by direct inheritance of a mutated gene. This was further supported by data showing that reversion to antibiotic sensitivity was relatively common as well. This could only be explained by epigenetics. Epigenetics is a type of inheritance in which gene expression is altered rather than the genetic code itself. There are many modes by which this alteration of gene expression can occur, including methylation of DNA and histone modification; however, the important point is that both inheritance of random mutations and epigenetic markers can result in the expression of antibiotic resistance genes.\n", "BULLET::::2. Resistance genes found on antibiotic producers. The microorganisms such as soil-dwelling bacteria and fungi that naturally produce antibiotics have their own protection mechanisms to avoid the adverse effects of the antibiotics on themselves. The genes which code for these resistances are a strong source for the pathogenic bacteria.\n\nBULLET::::3. Cryptic resistance genes. These genes are embedded in the bacterial chromosome but do not obviously confer resistance, because their level of expression is usually low or they are not expressed.\n", "The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is \"so\" specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the European Union alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.\n" ]

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[ "Training, in contrast to other remedies, often requires a large dedication of time at regular intervals. Some dogs may require the training routine to be extended for their entire lifetime to effectively manage the symptoms of noise anxiety. The use of trainers, also, may be prohibitive in cost. Finally, some dogs show little-to-no response from training of any duration\n", "All Marine Critical Skill Operators are required to undergo continual language training. However, based on ability, certain Marines will be selected for follow-on language training at an Advanced Linguistics Course. Those Marines selected for language training could face thirty-six to fifty-two weeks of school depending on the Marine's aptitude, needs of his unit, and at what stage in the deployment cycle his team is in.\n\nSection::::CSO selection and training.:Advanced training.\n", "This activity gives students the chance to improve their communication skills in the TL in a low-pressure situation. Most students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in front of the entire class.\n\nInstructors need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and an utterance. Students may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually have a creative conversation. If instructors do not regulate what kinds of conversations students are having, then the students might not be truly improving their communication skills.\n\nSection::::Classroom activities.:Interviews.\n", "Section::::Outside the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- The Norwegian Army has a silent drill platoon in the Kings Guard, performing in foreign tattoos like Edinburgh and Halifax.\n\nBULLET::::- The French Republican Guard also has a famous exhibition drill unit.\n\nBULLET::::- Another example can be found in the Singapore Armed Forces Military Police Command's Silent Precision Drill Squad.\n\nBULLET::::- The Malaysian counterpart for these teams is the Provost Drill Team of the Royal Malaysian Navy.\n\nBULLET::::- The Italian Navy recently implemented a silent drill platoon (Plotone Alta Rappresentanza) as a part of the San Marco Marine Brigade.\n", "In the Australian Federal Police, Drill Instructors are trained and accredited by the Recognition and Ceremonial team. Each accredited Drill Instructor wears an AFP pin with the wording \"DI\" positioned 5mm above their name plate or citations. Drill Instructors are also issued with a black coloured Hellweg brand leather basket weave Sam Browne belt and strap. The AFP is the only police agency to formally train and accredit police drill instructors in Australia, with a number of New South Wales Police Force members attached to the NSW Police College holding that qualification.\n", "Jim Costello, wearing the white baseball cap that long ago became one of his trademarks, presided over these exhausting practice sessions, starting with a refresher course in the basics of marching; then breaking down and fine-tuning every aspect of the show until it met with his full approval as well as that of the other instructors. By the end of those sessions, Costello usually had lost his voice completely, but those weekend mini-camps got the Caballeros into midseason form compared to the competition.\n", "BULLET::::- Hold the microphone close to your cheek, just off to the side of your mouth, positioned so that you talk across, and not into, the microphone. This reduces plosives (popping sounds from letters such as \"P\").\n\nBULLET::::- Speak in a normal, clear, calm voice. Talking loudly or shouting does not increase the volume of your voice at the receiving radios, but will distort the audio, because loud sounds result in over-modulation, which directly causes distortion.\n", "Section::::Feats.:Feats conducted during BVA training and awarded at the end of Feats Day.\n\nBULLET::::- Voice is awarded to the BVA an each squad that who calls the sequence of commands on Cuts Day. The Voice serves as the informal leader of each 8-member squad, and acts as a go-between for the current Summerall Guard or Bond Volunteer squad members and the BVAs. Traditionally the loudest member of the squad, each Voice must call specific commands while current Summerall Guards attempt to distract BVAs performing Drill on Cuts Day.\n", "The second last day of OSG selection requires OSG personnel to undertake a full scale CBRN drill suits and perform team tasks for a period of 8 hours; each five-person team is rotated through tasks that include crowd control, physical training and other intense functions. During this period no recruit is allowed to break the seal of his or her NBC suit or gas mask and must take liquids through an in-built mask straw. If recruits break the seal on their suit or mask, they fail the course. After final intense full unit litter carry is then conducted before recruits are placed into a CS (tear gas) filled tent where they complete a set of CBRN drills.\n", "In the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, the UK and the US, dialect coaches remain among a very small minority of production staff who are not unionized; their deals may differ in substance from production to production in these jurisdictions. In Australia and New Zealand, dialect coaches who are employed on a film or theatre set are covered under the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance. On English-language Canadian film and television productions, dialect coaches are unionized under the Alliance of Canadian Cinema, Television and Radio Artists. Coaches are not unionized under the Union des artistes for French-language productions in Canada.\n", "Training timelines can vary from a few days to several months depending upon the chosen model of instruction.  Outside practice time is essential for the participant to see significant changes in their speech.\n\n Although accents can be minimized through training, actually eliminating an accent is extremely difficult to master and could take years to accomplish.  It is unrealistic to expect total accent elimination in a short period of time.  \n", "Future City of Detroit Mayor, Cadet John C. Lodge, recorded his memories of the Sherman speech, \"At one of our graduation exercises the speaker was General William T. Sherman. He was not eloquent, and he didn't have a very pleasant voice; it was somewhat shrill.\"\n\nSection::::Student life.\n", "Because many military families do not live together in the same community and cannot be in the same recording session in the same location at the same time, MFV has the capability to call out by phone to their relatives and loved ones, wherever they are in the world and place their voices on the voice preservation recordings as well. Their loved ones can also call in by appointment to preserve their voices from wherever they happen to be. Whereas, MFV can call to anywhere in the world, most calls in and out for recordings primarily involve these locations: Iraq, Afghanistan, Korea, Africa, Germany, England, Mexico, United States.\n", "Section::::Operating principles.\n", "In the theater, coaches who help actors hone dialects or character voices typically seek compensation on a par with designers and may be credited as dialect coaches, dialect designers or voice and speech directors. Dialect coaches are not unionized for live performances in Canada, the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, the UK or the US.\n\nThere is no membership branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences that incorporates dialect coaching, nor is there a peer group of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences that accords active membership status to coaches.\n\nSection::::Cost-cutting for low-budget productions.\n", "Most Navy MCs are recruited into the rating; attend boot camp at Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois; and report to the Defense Information School at Ft. Meade, Maryland for the six-month Basic Mass Communication Specialist Course.\n\nDepending on MC manning throughout the Fleet, Professional Apprentice Career Track (PACT) Sailors may have limited opportunities to become an MC through on-the-job training, submission of a well-rounded MC portfolio and a published rating entry designation quota.\n", "In a public display situation, the audience's attention is focused on the animal, rather than the trainer; therefore the discriminative stimulus is generally gestural (a hand sign) and sparse in nature. Unobtrusive dog whistles are used as bridges, and positive reinforcers are either primary (food) or tactile (rub downs), and not vocal. However, pinnipeds and mustelids (sea lions, seals, walruses, and otters) can hear in our frequency, so most of the time they will receive vocal reinforcers during shows and performances. The shows are turned into more of a play production because of this, instead of just a run through of behaviors like cetaceans generally do in their shows. Guests can often hear these vocal reinforcers when attending a SeaWorld show. During the Clyde and Seamore show, the trainers may say something like: \"Good grief, Clyde!\" or \"Good job, Seamore\". The trainers substitute the word \"good\" in the place of food or rubdowns when teaching a specific behavior to the animals so that the animals no longer need constant feeding as praise for achieving the appropriate behavior.\n", "Section::::Plot.:Camp Poodle – – the Airedale rookie camp.\n\nScene 2 intertitle card: \"Camp Poodle – – the Airedale rookie camp.\" A group of uniformed small dogs standing on their hind legs is told by a dog drill sergeant that \"if you think this army is going to tolerate any sloppy drilling, you're barking up the wrong tree. Now snap into it and get that hang-dog look off your faces.\" Continuing to move on their hind lags, the dogs go through a drill routine.\n", "Recruitment thus remains one of the principle challenges of hearing aid rehabilitation, and it is responsible for a common phenomenon most clinicians who deal with hearing loss have witnessed or experienced: at average speaking levels, an individual with recruitment may ask a speaker to talk more loudly, yet with even a slight increase in intensity, the speech becomes intolerably loud, and the speaker is told not to shout. Although many hearing aids can be programmed to prevent sound from amplifying into a range that is uncomfortable, even the most advanced aids cannot fully replicate the complex, nonlinear\n", "Section::::Exhibition drill in competition.:Unarmed.\n\nIn an unarmed division, exhibition drill may consist of intricate precision marching, along with various hand movements. Modified step team routines are used in some competitions.\n\nSection::::College ROTC drill teams.\n", "In the second year of their three-year tour, RDCs take a break from training divisions and perform other duties on base, including drill evaluations, practical training instruction, teaching classes at RDC \"C\" School, or Battle Stations 21.\n", "The five Yell Leaders then arrange themselves in front of the stands and begin leading the yells. All yells are coordinated using hand signals. When the yell is ready to begin, the head Yell Leader gives a signal and the crowd \"humps it,\" with every person leaning forward to maximize the volume of their voices.\n", "Experienced members of the Silent Drill Platoon, usually non-commissioned officers, have the opportunity to audition to become rifle inspectors. They must go through inspection tryouts graded by rifle inspectors of the previous year. Only two Marines who audition will become rifle inspectors.\n\nOnce the year's Silent Drill Platoon members are selected, they begin their training in Washington, and continue to train at Marine Corps Air Station Yuma, Arizona, perfecting their routine year-round. Throughout the year, they perform at Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., and at numerous events across the United States, and also represent the Marine Corps abroad.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The arduous nature of drill instructor duty means that such assignments are among the most prestigious carried out by enlisted personnel. Those who become drill instructors are eligible for a variety of military awards, such as the Marine Drill Instructor Ribbon, and the Army's Drill Sergeant Identification Badge.\n\nSection::::U.S. Armed Forces.:U.S. Marine Corps.\n", "Section::::UK drill.:Legal action.\n" ]

[ "Military drill instructors do not damage their voice due to all their shouting.", "Drill instructions in the military don't damage their voice from shouting." ]

[ "Drill Sergeants show up to work hoarse and barely able to speak.", "They do damage their throats and their voice becomes hoarse." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Military drill instructors do not damage their voice due to all their shouting.", "Drill instructions in the military don't damage their voice from shouting." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Drill Sergeants show up to work hoarse and barely able to speak.", "They do damage their throats and their voice becomes hoarse." ]

[ "It is unclear how many of the patients waiting longer have to. Some may be by choice, because they wish to go to a well-known specialist or clinic that many people wish to attend, and are willing to wait to do so. Waiting times may also vary by region. One experiment reported that uninsured patients experienced longer waits; patients with poor insurance coverage probably face a disproportionate number of long waits.\n", "Each CCG has an Individual Funding Request Panel. Applications are made by clinicians who are asked to supply evidence of clinical need, clinical and cost effectiveness, the impact of refusal and exceptionality. This procedure cannot be used if there is likely to be a cohort of similar patients in the same or similar clinical circumstances as the requesting patient\n\nwhose clinical condition means that they could make a similar request.\n\nRequests are supposed to be dealt with within 20 days.\n", "Within the United States, pre-approval demand is generally met through treatment IND (investigational new drug) applications (INDs), or single-patient INDs. These mechanisms, which fall under the label of expanded access programs, provide access to drugs for groups of patients or individuals residing in the US. Outside the US, Named Patient Programs provide controlled, pre-approval access to drugs in response to requests by physicians on behalf of specific, or \"named\", patients before those medicines are licensed in the patient's home country. Through these programs, patients are able to access drugs in late-stage clinical trials or approved in other countries for a genuine, unmet medical need, before those drugs have been licensed in the patient's home country.\n", "Section::::Priority review.\n\nPrior to approval, each drug marketed in the United States must go through a detailed FDA review process. In 1992, under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA), FDA agreed to specific goals for improving the drug review time and created a two-tiered system of review times – standard review and priority review.\n", "When a company considers that there is enough information from clinical trial to fill an application, they submit to the regulatory agencies a request for approval (or New Drug Application, NDA). When the agency considers that the request is worthy to be evaluated they grant the state \"under review\" (cleared for review) to the drug. Some regulatory agencies have special workflows for drugs that cover something uncovered, like the FDA fast track.\n", "Sometimes, waiting times can be affected by temporary specialist shortages relative to demand rather than urgency, although patients waiting on the same list are often triaged; the author of this paragraph only waited a little over 3 months to see a dermatologist because of a skin problem that itched slightly once a week and was not at all urgent (in the early 2000s) in Halifax, Nova Scotia, while cumulative waiting times (including referral to medical test to appointment with a surgeon to radiation or cancer surgery) for cancer patients can be 2–3 months in areas with long waiting times. Waiting lists for cancer treatment are prioritized by level of urgency, but the triage process (while generally accurate) can occasionally assign a low priority to what turned out to be an urgent case.\n", "Political targeting of waiting-times in Britain has had dramatic effects. The National Health Service reports that the median admission wait-time for elective inpatient treatment (non-urgent hospital treatment) in England at the end of August 2007, was just under 6 weeks, and 87.5% of patients were admitted within 13 weeks. Reported waiting times in England also overstate the true waiting-time. This is because the clock starts ticking when the patient has been referred to a specialist by the GP and it only stops when the medical procedure is completed. The 18-week maximum waiting period target thus includes all the time taken for the patient to attend the first appointment with the specialist, time for any tests called for by the specialist to determine precisely the root of the patient's problem and the best way to treat it. It excludes time for any intervening steps deemed necessary prior to treatment, such as recovery from some other illness or the losing of excessive weight.\n", "Patient enrollment is the most time-consuming aspect of the clinical trial process. The leading cause of missed clinical trial deadlines is patient recruitment, taking up to 30 percent of the clinical timeline. Improving patient recruitment rates offers pharmaceutical and medical device companies one of the biggest opportunities to accelerate the pace of clinical trials – making it possible to reduce time to market. As the number of patients needed for clinical trials rises – as safety and regulatory issues drive trends toward larger and longer trials – the demand for patient recruitment services grows.\n", "BULLET::::- Site support: From resolving pre-trial operational issues to tailored support (e.g., referral processing, subject status updates, and protocol clarifications), site support ensures study challenges are immediately addressed.\n\nBULLET::::- Monitoring and reporting: To assess the effects of the patient recruitment activities on enrollment, ongoing monitoring is performed. Assessing study metrics allows the sponsor to adjust recruitment efforts as needed to ensure maximum return on investment.\n\nSection::::Services.:Patient retention.\n", "Around 80% patients referred by their GP to a first outpatient hospital appointment were eligible to choose the hospital. There are however some exceptions to hospital choice policy. These exceptions include those where speed of access is important such as suspected cancer 2 week wait referrals and urgent referrals such as suspected stroke and heart attack. Referrals to mental health and maternity services were excluded from the policy until April 2014. Patients who are detained, and serving members of the armed forces are not entitled to exercise choice.\n\nSection::::NHS Constitution.\n", "The distinction between priority and standard review times is that additional FDA attention and resources will be directed to drugs that have the potential to provide significant advances in treatment. Such advances can be demonstrated by, for example:\n\nevidence of increased effectiveness in treatment, prevention, or diagnosis of disease; elimination or substantial reduction of a treatment-limiting drug reaction; documented enhancement of patient willingness or ability to take the drug according to the required schedule and dose; or evidence of safety and effectiveness in a new subpopulation, such as children.\n", "Section::::Responsibilities.:Subject recruitment.\n\nPrior to agreeing to conduct the clinical trial, the CRC (and the PI) determine if they have the appropriate patient population. The CRC is responsible for subject recruitment once the trial begins, or must establish the research team that recruits subjects. Viable subject recruitment must occur beforehand, as the clinical trial agreement stipulates the number of subjects the site must recruit.\n\nSection::::Responsibilities.:Patient care.\n", "Under current Prescription Drug User Fee Act targets, the FDA aims to complete and act upon reviews of priority drugs within six months instead of the standard ten-month review period. Actual FDA review timelines, however, can be longer than the target PDUFA review periods, particularly for new products that haven’t previously been approved for any indications. Economists at Duke University, who published on this concept in 2006, estimated that priority review can cut the FDA review process from an average of 18 months down to six months, shortening by as much as a full year the time it takes for the company’s drug to reach the market.\n", "Some very rare limited exceptions to this multi-step process involving animal testing and controlled clinical trials can be granted out of compassionate use protocols, as was the case during the 2015 Ebola epidemic with the use, by prescription and authorization, of ZMapp and other experimental treatments, and for new drugs that can be used to treat debilitating and/or very rare conditions for which no existing remedies or drugs are satisfactory, or where there has not been an advance in a long period of time. The studies are progressively longer, gradually adding more individuals as they progress from stage I to stage III, normally over a period of years, and normally involve drug companies, the government and its laboratories, and often medical schools and hospitals and clinics. However, any exceptions to the aforementioned process are subject to strict review and scrutiny and conditions, and are only given if a substantial amount of research and at least some preliminary human testing has shown that they are believed to be somewhat safe and possibly effective.\n", "A request for Priority Review must be made by the drug company. It does not affect the length of the clinical trial period. FDA determines within 45 days of the drug company’s request whether a priority or standard review designation will be assigned. Designation of a drug as “priority” does not alter the scientific/medical standard for approval or the quality of evidence necessary. Safety requirements for a priority review are equal to that of a standard review.\n\nThe amendment can be found on page 150 of the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007.\n\nSection::::Priority review voucher program.\n", "Governments worldwide have created provisions for granting access to drugs prior to approval for patients who have exhausted all alternative treatment options and do not match clinical trial entry criteria. Often grouped under the labels of compassionate use, expanded access, or named patient supply, these programs are governed by rules which vary by country defining access criteria, data collection, promotion, and control of drug distribution.\n", "Section::::Performance.:Targets.\n\nNational cancer waiting times standards were established by NHS England in 2009 (and the same targets have been set by NHS Scotland).\n\nIn 2017 the targets are\n\nBULLET::::- No more than 62 days wait between the date the hospital receives an urgent GP referral for suspected cancer and starting treatment\n\nBULLET::::- Starting treatment no more than 31 days after the meeting at which you and your doctor agree the treatment plan\n\nThe targets are monitored monthly and in the period from 2014 to 2016 were only met in 4 months out of 36.\n", "In December 2017 there were 1,750 patients waiting a year or more, the highest total since August 2012. 242 were at Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, 156 at Mid Essex Hospital Services NHS Trust and 114 at Royal Cornwall Hospitals NHS Trust. 11.8% of those waiting for a procedure had waited 18 weeks or more. By March 2018 there were 2,647. The largest numbers were at Northern Lincolnshire and Goole Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Royal Cornwall Hospitals NHS Trust and East Kent Hospitals University NHS Foundation Trust. 2,432 patients had waited longer than a year in November 2018. In January 2019 NHS England announced that in future both providers and commissioners would be fined £2,500 for each such patient.\n", "Patient choice is a concept introduced into the NHS in England. Most patients are supposed to be able to choose the clinician whom they want to provide them with healthcare and that money to pay for the service should follow their choice. Before the advent of the internal market, in principle, a GP could refer a patient to any specialist in the UK. When contracts were introduced in 1990 these were called extracontractual referrals. From 1999 the concept of Out of Area Treatments was developed. These referrals were not necessarily related to choice made by a patient. Specialised treatments were not, and are not, available in every area.\n", "The lung allocation score is an important part of the recipient selection process, but other factors are also considered. Patients who are under the age of 12 are still given priority based on how long they have been on the transplant waitlist. The length of time spent on the list is also the deciding factor when multiple patients have the same lung allocation score.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blood type compatibility\"\n", "Some argue that waiting lists result in great pain and suffering, but again evidence for this is unclear. In a recent survey of patients admitted to hospital in the UK from a waiting list or by planned appointment, only 10% reported they felt they should have been admitted sooner than they were. 72% reported the admission was as timely as they felt necessary. Medical facilities in the U.S. do not report waiting times in national statistics as is done in other countries and it is a myth to believe there is no waiting for care in the U.S. Some argue that wait times in the U.S. could actually be as long as or longer than in other countries with universal health care.\n", "BULLET::::- Give extra information on what medicines are for\n\nBULLET::::- Discuss side effects of medicines\n\nBULLET::::- Identify problems associated with medicines\n\nPharmacies in the United kingdom are paid £28 for each Medicines Use Review undertaken, up to a maximum of 400 per pharmacy, per year. At least 70% of patients must be in one of the four target groups:\n\nBULLET::::- taking certain high risk medicines on the national list\n\nBULLET::::- recently discharged from hospital with changes to their prescribed medicine\n\nBULLET::::- with a respiratory condition such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease\n", "Usually, patients in observation, according to hospital policy, are kept in observation for only 24 or 48 hours before they will be discharged or admitted as an inpatient. Insurance can play a role in how \"observation\" is defined (for example, US Medicare does not support observation services for over 48 hours).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Public health surveillance\n\nBULLET::::- Waiting in healthcare\n\nBULLET::::- Monitoring (medicine)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Lymphoma Treatment: Watch and Wait\n\nBULLET::::- Watchful Waiting and Monitoring Indolent Lymphomas\n\nBULLET::::- Watchful Waiting: Chapter from Lymphoma Australia's \"Your Journey Of Lymphoma Treatments\" DVD\n", "There are a number of factors that can affect the meaning of the NNT depending on the situation. The treatment may be a drug in the form of a pill or injection, a surgical procedure, or many other possibilities. The following examples demonstrate how NNT is determined and what it means. In this example, it is important to understand that every participant has the condition being treated, so there are only \"diseased\" patients who received the treatment or did not. This is typically a type of study that would occur only if both the control and the tested treatment carried significant risks of serious harm, or if the treatment was unethical for a healthy participant (for example, chemotherapy drugs or a new method of appendectomy - surgical removal of the appendix). Most drug trials test both the control and the treatment on both healthy and \"diseased\" participants. Or, if the treatment's purpose is to prevent a condition that is fairly common (an anticoagulant to prevent heart attack for example), a prospective study may be used. A study which starts with all healthy participants is termed a prospective study, and is in contrast to a retrospective study, in which some participants already have the condition in question. Prospective studies produce much higher quality evidence, but are much more difficult and time-consuming to perform.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 - Patient choice pilots begin. Patients with Coronary disease are offered faster care from alternative providers\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 - All NHS patients likely to wait more than 6 months for inpatient treatment, offered choice of quicker treatment at alternative provider\n\nBULLET::::- January 2006 - patients referred to hospital could choose between at least 4 hospitals.\n\nBULLET::::- April 2006 – launch of extended choice – patients have access to a national menu of hospitals including Foundation Trusts, Independent Sector Treatment Centres (ISTCs) and Independent Sector (IS) providers on what is known as the Extended Choice Network.\n" ]

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[ "According to Paraskeva (2010), at least 68% of American households play video games. Many recent research articles postulate education and gaming can be joined to provide academic benefits.\n", "While not all researchers agree, some recent studies have shown the positive effects of using games for learning. A study carried out by professor Traci Sitzmann at the University Oregon among 6,476 students states that \"trainees in the game group had 11 percent higher factual knowledge levels, 14 percent higher skill-based knowledge levels, and 9 percent higher retention levels than trainees in the comparison group\". Some other aggregated studies also show an increase in learning performance thanks to the use of videogames.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "There has been a lot of research done in identifying the learning effectiveness in game based learning. Learner characteristics and cognitive learning outcomes have been identified as the key factors in research on the implementation of games in educational settings. In the process of learning a language through an online game, there is a strong relationship between the learner's prior knowledge of that language and their cognitive learning outcomes. For the people with prior knowledge of the language, the learning effectiveness of the games is much more than those with none or less knowledge of the language.\n\nSection::::Other learning theories.\n", "Distinguishable from game-based learning, gamification of learning does not involve students in designing and creating their own games, or in playing commercially produced video games. Within game-based learning initiatives, students might use \"Gamestar Mechanic\" or \"GameMaker\" to create their own video game, or play \"Minecraft\", for example, where they explore and create 3D worlds. In these examples, along with games such as \"Surge\" for PlayStation and \"Angry Birds\", the learning agenda is encompassed within the game itself.\n", "Section::::More recent studies.:The Impact of Different Drugs on Latent Learning.\n\nMany drugs abused by humans imitate dopamine, the neurotransmitter that gives humans motivation to seek rewards. It is shown that zebra-fish can still latently learn about rewards while lacking dopamine if they are given caffeine. If they were given caffeine before learning, then they could use the knowledge they learned to find the reward when they were given dopamine at a later time. \n", "Game designer Jane McGonigal characterizes video game players as urgent optimists who are part of a social fabric, engaged in blissful productivity, and on the lookout for epic meaning. If teachers can successfully organize their classrooms and curriculum activities to incorporate the elements of games which facilitate such confidence, purpose and integrated sense of mission, students may become engrossed in learning and collaborating such that they do not want to stop. The dynamic combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators is a powerful force which, if educational contexts can adapt from video games, may increase student motivation, and student learning.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nWithout adding extra gaming elements to the classroom, schooling already contains some elements which are analogous to games. Since the 1700s, school has presented opportunities for students to earn marks for handing in assignments and completing exams, which are a form of reward points. Since the early 1900s, with the advent of psychoanalytic theory, reward management programs were developed and can still be seen in schools. For example, many teachers set up reward programs in their classrooms which allow students to earn free time, school supplies or treats for finishing homework or following classroom rules.\n", "Research on humans suggests that lack of stimulation delays and impairs cognitive development. Research also finds that attaining and engaging in higher levels of education, environments in which people participate in more challenging cognitively stimulating activities, results in greater cognitive reserve.\n\nSection::::Early research.\n", "Some researchers question whether a greater reliance on video games is in students' best interests, indicating there is little proof that skillful game play translates into better test scores or broader cognitive development. Emma Blakey notes very few studies have examined whether video games improve classroom performance and academic achievement.\n", "\"Extra Credits\" writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for \"tangential learning\". Mozelius \"et al.\" points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the \"Civilization\" games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C., in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.\n", "Referring to how video games provide increasingly difficult challenges to players, game designer Amy Jo Kim has suggested that every educational scenario could be set up to operate this way. This game mechanic which involves tracking players' learning in the game, and responding by raising the difficulty level of tasks at just the right moment, keeps players from becoming unnecessarily frustrated with tasks that are too difficult, as well as keeps players from becoming bored with tasks that are too easy. This pacing fosters continued engagement and interest which can mean that learners are focused on educational tasks, and may get into a state of flow, or deeply absorbed in learning.\n", "There are two forms of gamification, structural with no subject matter changes, and the altered content method that adds subject matter. Games applied in learning can be considered as serious games, where the learning experience is centred around serious stories. The serious story is \"impressive in quality\" and \"part of a thoughtful process\" to achieve learning goals.\n\nIn educational contexts, examples of desired student behaviour which gamification can potentially influence include attending class, focusing on meaningful learning tasks, and taking initiative.\n", "Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which to reform the U.S. education system. It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while playing that is of such high concentration, they do not realize they are learning, and that if the same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits. Students are found to be \"learning by doing\" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking.\n", "Commercial video games in general, referred to as commercial off the shelf (COTS) games, have been suggested as having a potentially important role to assist learning in a range of crucial transferable skills. One example of this would be in first-person shooter games such as the \"Call of Duty\" franchise (although these games are violent by nature, and they have been subject to massive negative reception by parents with varying justification). While the \"Call of Duty\" franchise itself falls short of actual tactical strategy or realism in depth, there are many games in the same \"genre\" (first-person shooters) from which one can learn key skills from the games: they stimulate the player at the cognitive level as they move through the level, mission, or game as a whole. They also teach strategy, as players need to come up with ways to penetrate enemy lines, stealthily avoid the enemy, minimize casualties, and so on. Players can test their usage of these skills using the multiplayer aspect of these games. These games also allow players to enhance their peripheral vision, because they need to watch for movement on the screen and make quick decisions about whether it is a threat, to avoid wasting ammunition or harming allied players.\n", "Kim (2008) supports the use of off-the-shelf games with meta-cognitive strategies to provide an increase in students' cognitive performance.\n\nSection::::Application.:Radio and podcasts.\n\nRadio can serve as an effective vehicle for educational entertainment. The British radio soap opera \"The Archers\" has for decades been systematically educating its audience on agricultural matters; likewise, the Tanzanian radio soap opera \"Twende na Wakati\" (\"Let's Go With the Times\") was written primarily to promote family planning.\n", "Other games, such as the \"Guitar Hero\" and \"Rock Band\" franchises, have been used to provide insight to the basic nature of education in video games. Success at these games requires the player to first fail multiple times – this is the only way to learn the proper actions. These games also provide real-time feedback on how well the player is doing, an area in which traditional educational systems are lacking. The main advantage with video games is that there is nothing to lose from failing, unlike in real life, where failing usually results in negative consequences.\n", "... an understanding of video games as learning environments is becoming increasingly important as gaming culture rivals schooling for the attention of children and adolescents across the world. James Paul Gee argues that the compelling nature of video game participation is in part due to the underlying social, cognitive, and developmental learning principles around which successful games are built. With this perspective, games and gaming can be a source for inspiration in building more effective learning environments.\n\nSection::::Topics.:Training teachers to integrate technology into the classroom curriculum.\n", "Psychologist Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen researched the educational use and potential of computer games and has written many articles on the subject. One paper dealing specifically with edutainment breaks it down into 3 generational categories to separate the cognitive methods most predominantly used to teach. He is critical of the research that has been done on the educational use of computer games, citing their biases and weaknesses in method, which cause their findings to lack scientific validity.\n\nSection::::In education.\n", "Video games are inherently incentive-based systems with the player being rewarded for solving a problem or completing a mission, while meeting certain criteria. As a result, video games train a systematic way of thinking as well as an understanding for how different variables affect each other. Furthermore, video games can constantly and automatically assess the learner's ability at any given moment due to the software-based nature of the medium; modular education structures tend to deliver assessments in large chunks and present a relatively limited picture of student progress.\n", "Gee began playing video games when his (then) six-year-old son needed help playing the problem-solving game Pajama Sam. When he discovered how much enjoyment his son had and how much attention and time he spent solving the game's problems, Gee decided to start playing video games on his own and began to analyze what makes people spend time and money on video games. To his amazement, good video games were \"hard, long, and complex\", and he often had to use outside resources to learn things needed to complete the game. However, when a game is too easy and/or too short, players do not feel compelled by it and they simply will not continue playing it. The new challenges, learning potential, and consistent struggles of these games also make video games motivating and entertaining for the user.\n", "Games also teach students that failure is inevitable, but not irrevocable. In school, failure is a big deal. In games, players can just start over from the last save. A low cost failure ensures that players will take risks, explore and try new things.\n", "In a study that followed students through school, students that played video games showed higher levels of problem solving than students who did not. This contradicts the previous study in that higher success rate was seen in video game players. Time being a factor for problem solving led to different conclusions in the different studies. See video game controversies for more.\n\nSection::::Behavioral effects.:Possible benefits.:Group relations.\n", "BULLET::::- Multimedia principle: Deeper learning is observed when words and relevant graphics are both presented than when words are presented alone (also called the multimedia effect). Simply put, the three most common elements in multimedia presentations are relevant graphics, audio narration, and explanatory text. Combining any two of these three elements works better than using just one or all three.\n", "According to Van Eck (2006), there are three reasons why games are considered learning tools: 1. Ongoing research that has included the last 20 years of educational findings have proven that digital games can be educational; 2. The new generation of today wants \"multiple streams of information\" (p. 1), which includes quick and frequent interaction that allows inductive reasoning; and 3. The mere popularity of games has created a billion-dollar industry. The idea of playing a game assumes the person is engaging in that activity by choice. The activity should have some value of \"fun\". This does not mean that the person is engaging in the activity only for leisure pursuits; it can also include the desire to learn a skill, connect with other gamers (social community), and spend time in a chosen activity. The activity needs to remain one of choice for the gamer.\n", "Several studies have attempted to answer, \"How and to what extent are games used in the classroom?\" In one study, fifty-three Swedish ESL teachers were surveyed; the outcome determined was that video games in the classroom were barely utilized. Although the teachers were open to the idea, they did not identify the benefits of applying video games to the curriculum. Video games created excitement, not for learning, but for the games.\n" ]

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[ "While the World Conservation Union (IUCN) mostly only categorizes whole species or subspecies, assessing the global risk of extinction, in some cases it also assesses the risks to stocks and populations, especially to preserve genetic diversity. In all, 119 stocks or subpopulations across 69 species have been assessed by the IUCN in 2006.\n\nExamples of stocks and populations assessed by the IUCN for the threat of local extinction:\n\nBULLET::::- Marsh deer (three subpopulations assessed)\n\nBULLET::::- Blue whale, North Pacific stock and North Atlantic stock\n\nBULLET::::- Bowhead whale, \"Balaena mysticetus\" (five subpopulations assessed), from Critically Endangered to LR/cd\n", "The rate of listing is strongly correlated with citizen involvement and mandatory timelines: as agency discretion decreases and citizen involvement increases (i.e. filing of petitions and lawsuits) the rate of listing increases. Citizen involvement has been shown to identify species not moving through the process efficiently, and identify more imperiled species. The longer species are listed, the more likely they are to be classified as recovering by the FWS.\n\nSection::::Preventing extinction.:Public notice, comments and judicial review.\n", "BULLET::::2. Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals\n\nD) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.\n\nE) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years).\n\nSection::::Endangered species in the United States.\n", "The IUCN also has categories that it uses to classify species, which are more widely used in conservation. These are:\n\nBULLET::::- Extinct (EX) – there are no individuals remaining of that species at all\n\nBULLET::::- Extinct in the wild (EW) – there are no individuals remaining of that species in the wild at all\n\nBULLET::::- Critically Endangered (CR) – there is a very high risk that the species will soon go extinct in the wild, for example because there is only a very small population remaining\n", "BULLET::::2. Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:\n\nBULLET::::1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations.\n\nBULLET::::2. Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. extent of occurrence\n\nBULLET::::2. area of occupancy\n\nBULLET::::3. area, extent or quality of habitat\n\nBULLET::::4. number of locations or subpopulations\n\nBULLET::::5. number of mature individuals\n\nBULLET::::3. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. extent of occurrence\n\nBULLET::::2. area of occupancy\n\nBULLET::::3. number of locations or subpopulations\n\nBULLET::::4. number of mature individuals\n", "The measure of ongoing species loss is made more complex by the fact that most of the Earth's species have not been described or evaluated. Estimates vary greatly on how many species actually exist (estimated range: 3,600,000-111,700,000) to how many have received a species binomial (estimated range: 1.5-8 million). Less than 1% of all species that have been described beyond simply noting its existence. From these figures, the IUCN reports that 23% of vertebrates, 5% of invertebrates and 70% of plants that have been evaluated are designated as endangered or threatened. Better knowledge is being constructed by The Plant List for actual numbers of species.\n", "Initially the method of calculation involves assessing the abundance and distribution range of a non-indigenous species (NIS) for a specific area (this can be, for example, an entire regional sea, bay, inlet, lagoon, pond, lake, marina, a sand bank, an aquaculture site etc.). Abundance of a NIS may be ranked as \"low\", \"moderate\" or \"high\"; and the distribution may be scored as \"one locality\" (when a NIS was found only at one locality within the assessment area), \"several localities\", \"many localities\" or \"all localities\" (found at all localities). Combination of the abundance and distribution scores gives five classes of the abundance and distribution range. Once obtained this value aids in calculating an impact on 1) native communities, 2) habitats and, 3) ecosystem functioning. The calculation is based on ecological concepts, e.g. \"key species\", \"type specific communities\", \"habitat alteration, fragmentation and loss\", \"functional groups\", \"food web shift\", etc. Calculations are for a stated time period to enable assessment of temporal changes.\n", "The same reasoning applies to mark and recapture. If some animals in a given area are caught and marked, and later a second round of captures is done: the number of marked animals found in the second round can be used to generate an estimate of the total population.\n", "To delist species, several factors are considered: the threats are eliminated or controlled, population size and growth, and the stability of habitat quality and quantity. Also, over a dozen species have been delisted due to inaccurate data putting them on the list in the first place.\n\nThere is also \"downlisting\" of a species where some of the threats have been controlled and the population has met recovery objectives, then the species can be reclassified to \"threatened\" from \"endangered\"\n", "If one has information on species populations from the past in addition to the present, the magnitude of extinction debt can be estimated. One can use the relationship between species and habitat from the past to predict the number of species expected in the present. The difference between this estimate and the actual number of species is the extinction debt.\n", "With the advent, development and availability of computers since the original 3Rs, large data-sets can be used in statistical analysis, thereby reducing the numbers of animals used. In some cases, by using previously published studies, the use of animals can be totally avoided by avoiding unnecessary replication. Modern imaging techniques in conjunction with new statistical analysis methods also allow reductions in the numbers of animals used, for example, by providing greater information per animal.\n\nRefinement: \n", "The IUCN aims to have the category of every species re-evaluated every five years if possible, or at least every ten years. This is done in a peer reviewed manner through IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Specialist Groups, which are Red List Authorities responsible for a species, group of species or specific geographic area, or in the case of BirdLife International, an entire class (Aves).\n\nAs of 2019, of 105,000 species surveyed, 28,338 are considered at risk of extinction because of human activity, in particular overfishing, hunting and land development.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:1964 Red List of Threatened Plants.\n", "There are currently 5196 animals and 6789 plants classified as vulnerable, compared with 1998 levels of 2815 and 3222, respectively. Practices such as Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources have been enforced in efforts to conserve vulnerable breeds of livestock specifically.\n\nSection::::Criteria.\n\nThe International Union for Conservation of Nature uses several criteria to enter species in this category. A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not critically endangered or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future, as defined by any of the following criteria (A to E):\n", "Another example of how collecting data on wildlife would be useful is keeping track of the total number of a certain species exists within a forest. Naturally, it will be impossible to get a definitive number but if an accurate approximation can be made, it could be beneficial in determining if there has been a random increase or decrease in the population. If there is an increase, it could be due to a change in the species migration habits and if there is a decrease, it could be due to an external factor such as pollution or introduction of a new predator.\n", "A variety of sampling methods are used to measure abundance. For larger animals, these may include spotlight counts, track counts and roadkill counts, as well as presence at monitoring stations. In many plant communities the abundances of plant species are measured by plant cover, i.e. the relative area\n", "The US Fish and Wildlife Service's delisting report lists four plants that have recovered:\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.:Positive effects.\n\nAs of January 2019, eighty-five species have been delisted; fifty-four due to recovery, eleven due to extinction, seven due to changes in taxonomic classification practices, six due to discovery of new populations, five due to an error in the listing rule, one due to erroneous data and one due to an amendment to the Endangered Species Act specifically requiring the species delisting. Twenty-five others have been down listed from \"endangered\" to \"threatened\" status.\n", "As of January 2019, there are 1,467 total (foreign and domestic) species on the threatened and endangered lists. However, many species have become extinct while on the candidate list or otherwise under consideration for listing.\n\nSpecies which increased in population size since being placed on the endangered list include:\n\nBULLET::::- Bald eagle (increased from 417 to 11,040 pairs between 1963 and 2007); removed from list 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Whooping crane (increased from 54 to 436 birds between 1967 and 2003)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirtland's warbler (increased from 210 to 1,415 pairs between 1971 and 2005)\n", "In requesting a permit that will authorize the incidental take of a listed species, the applicant must determine the extent of the potential take. To do this, the methods for calculating incidental take must be established. First, the number of individuals of each species, or number of acres of specific habitat, of concern that occur within the geographic boundaries of the HCP area must be determined. Subsequently, incidental take may be calculated based on the number of animals expected to be \"killed, harmed, or harassed\" as a result of the proposed action/project. If the applicant is incapable of determining the number of individuals/acres that occur in the area or the number that are expected to be impacted, incidental take may be calculated based on the acres of habitat anticipated to be affected by the proposed project. Once the number of individual species or acres of habitat are confirmed, the probability that proposed activities will result in the take of a species must be evaluated.\n", "A species can be listed in two ways. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) or NOAA Fisheries (also called the National Marine Fisheries Service) can directly list a species through its candidate assessment program, or an individual or organizational petition may request that the FWS or NMFS list a species. A \"species\" under the act can be a true taxonomic species, a subspecies, or in the case of vertebrates, a \"distinct population segment.\" The procedures are the same for both types except with the person/organization petition, there is a 90-day screening period.\n", "BULLET::::3. Estimates of how long the recovery will take and how much it will cost\n\nA recovery plan often contains the following sections:\n\nBULLET::::- Background of the species - a description of the species, its taxonomy, population structure and life history. This includes the distribution, food sources, reproduction and abundance\n\nBULLET::::- Threats - the main reasons why the species is now at risk of extinction\n\nBULLET::::- Recovery strategy - details of how the species can be returned to a healthy state, including the goals, timeline, methods and criteria for delisting.\n\nSection::::Adaptive management.\n", "The risk level is calculated using a formula that takes into account five criteria: the number of breeding animals or breeding females; the percentage of pure-bred matings; the five-year trend in breed numbers; the number of breeders or herds; and the interval between generations of the animal.\n\nThe GEH also publishes, in conjunction with the , the German national association of poultry breeders, a separate list of the historic poultry breeds and colour varieties that were raised in Germany before 1930. The same levels of conservation risk are assigned as in the main red list.\n\nSection::::Endangered breeds.\n", "As well as taxonomic groups, RLIs can show trends in extinction risk according to biogeographic realm, habitat type, and dominant threat process.\n\nSection::::Sampled approach.\n\nProducing indices of change in extinction risk by comprehensively assessing whole species groups, while feasible for well studied groups with relatively few species, is not suitable for all taxonomic groups. Assessing every species in the larger and lesser known groups which comprise the majority of the world’s biodiversity, such as fungi, invertebrates (particularly insects) and plants, is not practical.\n", "In 2006, many species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which have not been formally recognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as threatened with extinction—a total of 16,119.\n", "BULLET::::5. the effects of introduced taxa, hybridisation, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.\n\nBULLET::::2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.\n", "BULLET::::1. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5,000 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:\n\nBULLET::::1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations.\n\nBULLET::::2. Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. extent of occurrence\n\nBULLET::::2. area of occupancy\n\nBULLET::::3. area, extent or quality of habitat\n\nBULLET::::4. number of locations or subpopulations\n\nBULLET::::5. number of mature individuals\n\nBULLET::::3. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. extent of occurrence\n\nBULLET::::2. area of occupancy\n\nBULLET::::3. number of locations or subpopulations\n\nBULLET::::4. number of mature individuals\n" ]

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[ "Many patients report that temperature may affect the severity of symptoms, especially cold as being an aggravating factor. However, there is some scientific debate on this subject, and some even report that cold may alleviate symptoms.\n\nSection::::Symptoms and signs.:The warm-up phenomenon.\n\nThis phenomenon was described along with the disease by Thomsen in 1876 but its etiology remains unclear.\n", "The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors, such as people spending more time indoors, near infected people, and specifically children at school. There is some controversy over the role of low body temperature as a risk factor for the common cold; the majority of the evidence suggests that it may result in greater susceptibility to infection.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Other.\n", "The traditional theory is that a cold can be \"caught\" by prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions, which is how the disease got its name. Some of the viruses that cause the common colds are seasonal, occurring more frequently during cold or wet weather. The reason for the seasonality has not been conclusively determined. Possible explanations may include cold temperature-induced changes in the respiratory system, decreased immune response, and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates, perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer.\n", "Rhinovirus-caused colds are most infectious during the first three days of symptoms; they are much less infectious afterwards.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Weather.\n", "There is a seasonal pattern to outbreaks with a marked increase in cases reported in the late summer and early fall.\n\nThe CDC has determined and submitted to GenBank complete or nearly complete genomic sequences for three known strains of the virus, which are \"genetically related to strains of EV-D68 that were detected in previous years in the United States, Europe, and Asia.\"\n", "In 2016, Shin et al., in Taiwan, studied 398,043 patients with severe sepsis. Compared with patients admitted on weekends, patients admitted on weekdays had a lower 7-day mortality rate (OR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.87-0.91), 14-day mortality rate (OR = 0.92, 95% CI 0.90-0.93), and 28-day mortality rate (OR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.95-0.98).\n", "Environment plays a key role on whether the disease develops in a plant or not. While the host plant and microbe may be present, if the environment is not conducive, then there will not be disease. Pythium root dysfunction develops in the roots of creeping bentgrass in the fall, winter, and spring when mean soil temperatures are between 50-70℉. This pathogen reduces the ability of roots to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which makes the disease much more harmful during times of stress, such as low fertility, low soil oxygen levels, and especially drought. Because of this, symptoms are most common during warm periods in the summer when soil temperature is within key range.\n", "Symptoms of an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" are actually quite vague and similar to the signs that can indicate other illnesses or diseases, so it is relatively difficult to identify when only looking at symptoms. However, in several cases, these infections result after an individual's immune system has been weakened, so it is likely to occur in recovering or ill patients. Most patients, after receiving treatment for another disease or during recovery from surgery, experience chills and increase in body temperature. While these symptoms could mean a variety of things, it is clear that the patient's recovery is halted and that there is an infection of some sort. In an example where a woman developed an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" from a case of sinusitis, she experienced the same chills and elevated temperature, but also nasal discharge containing pus, right facial pain, and a fever.\n", "The secretion also loses its normal diurnal pattern of morning peak levels and evening and night time troughs. Nevertheless, secretion remains pulsatile and there is a marked variation in blood samples from the same individual.\n", "Noman et al., in the UK in 2012, studied 2571 consecutive PCI-treated STEMI patients. There was no difference in mortality between weekday and weekend groups (OR = 1.09, 95% CI 0.82-1.46; p=0.57). Similarly, no increase in mortality was seen in patients who underwent PCI at night (22:00-06:00).\n\nWhereas, in 2015, Singh et al., in the US, carried out a much larger study of 401,571 PCI procedures. In a multivariate analysis, the weekend was a significant predictor of mortality.\n", "For example, whooping-cough occurs in spring, whereas measles produces two epidemics, one in winter and one in March. Influenza, the common cold, and other infections of the upper respiratory tract, such as sore throat, occur predominantly in the winter.\n\nThere is another variation, both as regards the number of people affected and the number who die in successive epidemics: the severity of successive epidemics rises and falls over periods of five or ten years.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Common source outbreak.\n", "Symptoms of \"X. fastidiosa\" diseases worsen during hot, dry periods in the summer: lack of water and maximum demand from a full canopy of leaves combined with symptoms due to disease stress infected plants to a breaking point. Cold winters can limit the spread of the disease; as occurs in California, but not in regions with milder winters such as Brazil. Additionally, dry summers seem to delay symptom development of PD in California.\n", "The incidence of disease does not appear be related to season or geography; however, infection tends to occur more frequently during the summer and fall months when other respiratory pathogens are less prevalent. Reinfection and epidemic cycling is thought to be a result of P1 adhesin subtype variation. Approximately 40% of community-acquired pneumonia is due to \"M. pneumoniae\" infections, with children and elderly individuals being most susceptible, however no personal risk factors for acquiring \"M. pneumoniae\" induced pneumonia have been determined. Transmission of \"M. pneumoniae\" can only occur through close contact and exchange of aerosols by coughing due to the increased susceptibility of the cell wall-lacking organism to desiccation. Outbreaks of \"M. pneumoniae\" infections tend to occur within groups of people in close and prolonged proximity, including schools, institutions, military bases, and households.\n", "In another huge US study, also in 2016, 3,625,271 NSTEMI admissions were identified by Agrawal et al. Admission on a weekend vs weekday was independently associated with a lower rate of coronary angiography (OR = 0.88; 95% CI 0.89-0.90; p0.001). And adjusted in-hospital mortality was significantly higher for the cohort of patients admitted on weekends (OR = 1.02; 95% CI 1.01-1.04; p0.001).\n\nPCI\n", "According to Microsoft engineer Jeffrey Snover, Nano Server has 93% lower VHD size, 92% fewer critical security advisories, and 80% fewer reboots than Windows Server.\n\nNano Server is only available to Microsoft Software Assurance customers and on cloud computing platforms such as Microsoft Azure and Amazon Web Services.\n\nStarting with the new feature release of Windows Server version 1709, Nano Server can only be installed inside a container host.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "A cold usually begins with fatigue, a feeling of being chilled, sneezing, and a headache, followed in a couple of days by a runny nose and cough. Symptoms may begin within sixteen hours of exposure and typically peak two to four days after onset. They usually resolve in seven to ten days, but some can last for up to three weeks. The average duration of cough is eighteen days and in some cases people develop a post-viral cough which can linger after the infection is gone. In children, the cough lasts for more than ten days in 35–40% of cases and continues for more than 25 days in 10%.\n", "Interstitial nephritis may present with a variety of signs and symptoms, many of these nonspecific. Fever is the most common, occurring in 30-50% of patients, particularly those with drug-induced interstitial nephritis. Other general symptoms that occur with variable frequency include nausea, vomiting, fatigue, lack of appetite, and weight loss. More specific symptoms, such as flank pain, pain with urination, and visible blood in the urine, as well as signs like hypertension can be helpful in increasing suspicion for the diagnosis. The \"classic\" triad of symptoms reported in early documented cases consisted of rash, joint pain, and increased eosinophils in the blood; however, more recent epidemiology suggests that this grouping of symptoms only occurs in a small minority (5-10%) of patients. However, with modern drugs causing between 70-90% of current cases, it is not surprising that the earliest documented cases and a minority of today's may present different symptoms.\n", "The typical symptoms of a cold include cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throat, sometimes accompanied by muscle ache, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases and a cough in about 50%, while muscle ache occurs in about half. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza. While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections.\n", "Most types of eosinophilic pneumonia have similar signs and symptoms. Prominent and nearly universal signs and symptoms include cough, fever, difficulty breathing, and night sweats. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia typically follows a rapid course. Fever and cough may develop only one or two weeks before breathing difficulties progress to the point of respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia usually follows a slower course. Symptoms accumulate over several months and include fever, cough, difficulty breathing, wheezing, and weight loss. Individuals with chronic eosinophilic pneumonia are often misdiagnosed with asthma before the correct diagnosis is made.\n", "The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average adult gets two to three colds a year, while the average child may get six to eight. Infections occur more commonly during the winter. These infections have existed throughout human history.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "A number of various diseases may present with symptoms similar to those caused by a clinical West Nile virus infection. Those causing neuroinvasive disease symptoms include the enterovirus infection and bacterial meningitis. Accounting for differential diagnoses is a crucial step in the definitive diagnosis of WNV infection. Consideration of a differential diagnosis is required when a patient presents with unexplained febrile illness, extreme headache, encephalitis or meningitis. Diagnostic and serologic laboratory testing using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and viral culture of CSF to identify the specific pathogen causing the symptoms, is the only currently available means of differentiating between causes of encephalitis and meningitis.\n", "The impact of the viral shunt varies seasonally as many microbes show seasonal abundance maximums in temperate and oligotrophic waters during different times of the year, meaning viral abundance also varies with season.\n\nSection::::Links to microbial processes.:Biological Pump.\n", "Diagnosis of paramyotonia congenita is made upon evaluation of patient symptoms and case history. Myotonia must increase with exercise or movement and usually must worsen in cold temperatures. Patients that present with permanent weakness are normally not characterized as having PC. Electromyography may be used to distinguish between paramyotonia congenita and myotonia congenita. Clinicians may also attempt to provoke episodes or myotonia and weakness/paralysis in patients in order to determine whether the patient has PC, hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, or one of the potassium-aggravated myotonias. Genomic sequencing of the SCN4A gene is the definitive diagnostic determinant.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Zinc and the common cold\n\nThe human rhinovirus – the most common viral pathogen in humans – is the predominant cause of the common cold. The hypothesized mechanism of action by which zinc reduces the severity and/or duration of cold symptoms is the suppression of nasal inflammation and the direct inhibition of rhinoviral receptor binding and rhinoviral replication in the nasal mucosa.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n\nA 2016 meta-analysis on zinc acetate-lozenges and the common cold found that colds were 2.7 days shorter by zinc lozenge usage. This estimate is to be compared with the 7 day average duration of colds in the three trials.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe distinction between viral upper respiratory tract infections is loosely based on the location of symptoms with the common cold affecting primarily the nose, pharyngitis (the throat), and bronchitis (the lungs). There can be significant overlap and more than one area can be affected. The common cold is frequently defined as nasal inflammation with varying amount of throat inflammation. Self-diagnosis is frequent. Isolation of the viral agent involved is rarely performed, and it is generally not possible to identify the virus type through symptoms.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n" ]

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[ "Stanford University mathematics professor Keith Devlin has said, \"like a Shakespearean sonnet that captures the very essence of love, or a painting that brings out the beauty of the human form that is far more than just skin deep, Euler's equation reaches down into the very depths of existence\". And Paul Nahin, a professor emeritus at the University of New Hampshire, who has written a book dedicated to Euler's formula and its applications in Fourier analysis, describes Euler's identity as being \"of exquisite beauty\".\n", "This is a special case of Euler's formula, which the physicist Richard Feynman called \"our jewel\" and \"the most remarkable formula in mathematics\". Modern examples include the modularity theorem, which establishes an important connection between elliptic curves and modular forms (work on which led to the awarding of the Wolf Prize to Andrew Wiles and Robert Langlands), and \"monstrous moonshine\", which connects the Monster group to modular functions via string theory for which Richard Borcherds was awarded the Fields Medal.\n", "A poll of readers conducted by \"The Mathematical Intelligencer\" in 1990 named Euler's identity as the \"most beautiful theorem in mathematics\". In another poll of readers that was conducted by \"Physics World\" in 2004, Euler's identity tied with Maxwell's equations (of electromagnetism) as the \"greatest equation ever\".\n\nA study of the brains of sixteen mathematicians found that the \"emotional brain\" (specifically, the medial orbitofrontal cortex, which lights up for beautiful music, poetry, pictures, etc.) lit up more consistently for Euler's identity than for any other formula.\n", "Conversely, results that are logically correct but involve laborious calculations, over-elaborate methods, very conventional approaches, or that rely on a large number of particularly powerful axioms or previous results are not usually considered to be elegant, and may be called \"ugly\" or \"clumsy\".\n\nSection::::Beauty in results.\n\nSome mathematicians see beauty in mathematical results that establish connections between two areas of mathematics that at first sight appear to be unrelated. These results are often described as \"deep\".\n\nWhile it is difficult to find universal agreement on whether a result is deep, some examples are often cited. One is Euler's identity:\n\nformula_1\n", "At least two books in popular mathematics have been published about Euler's identity. One is \"A Most Elegant Equation: Euler's formula and the beauty of mathematics\", by David Stipp (2017). Another is \"Euler's Pioneering Equation: The most beautiful theorem in mathematics\", by Robin Wilson (2018).\n\nSection::::Explanations.\n\nSection::::Explanations.:Imaginary exponents.\n", "Despite the confident tone of his papers, Euler expressed doubt over divergent series in his correspondence with Nicolaus I Bernoulli. Euler claimed that his attempted definition had never failed him, but Bernoulli pointed out a clear weakness: it does not specify how one should determine \"the\" finite expression that generates a given infinite series. Not only is this a practical difficulty, it would be theoretically fatal if a series were generated by expanding two expressions with different values. Euler's treatment of rests upon his firm belief that ⁄ is the only possible value of the series; what if there were another?\n", "called \"the most remarkable formula in mathematics\" by Richard P. Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, , and . In 1988, readers of the \"Mathematical Intelligencer\" voted it \"the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever\". In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll.\n\nDe Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.\n", "Euler is well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series: that is, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as\n\nNotably, Euler discovered the power series expansions for \"e\" and the inverse tangent function \n\nHis use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735:\n", "The original proof is based on the Taylor series expansions of the exponential function (where is a complex number) and of and for real numbers (see below). In fact, the same proof shows that Euler's formula is even valid for all \"complex\" numbers .\n", "where (\"n\") denotes the falling factorial; there is a finite sum because the induction stops at 0, since \"n\" is an integer.\n\nIn this case \"m\" = \"n\", and they are integers, so\n\nIntegrating from 0 to 1, all the terms vanish except the last term at 1, which yields:\n\nFrom a modern point of view, this is (up to a scale factor) equivalent to computing Euler's integral identity formula_19 for the Gamma function on a different domain (corresponding to changing variables by substitution), as Euler's identity itself can also be computed via an analogous integration by parts.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Over a millennium after Euclid, Alhazen conjectured that even perfect number is of the form where is prime, but he was not able to prove this result.\n\nIt was not until the 18th century that Leonhard Euler proved that the formula will yield all the even perfect numbers. Thus, there is a one-to-one relationship between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes; each Mersenne prime generates one even perfect number, and vice versa.\n\nSection::::Proof.\n", "Euler also used finite differences to attack . In modern terminology, he took the Euler transform of the sequence and found that it equalled ⁄. As late as 1864, De Morgan claims that \"this transformation has always appeared one of the strongest presumptions in favour of being ⁄.\"\n\nSection::::Dilution and new values.\n", "Mathematics writer Constance Reid has opined that Euler's identity is \"the most famous formula in all mathematics\". And Benjamin Peirce, a 19th-century American philosopher, mathematician, and professor at Harvard University, after proving Euler's identity during a lecture, stated that the identity \"is absolutely paradoxical; we cannot understand it, and we don't know what it means, but we have proved it, and therefore we know it must be the truth\".\n", "Euler's original derivation of the value essentially extended observations about finite polynomials and assumed that these same properties hold true for infinite series.\n\nOf course, Euler's original reasoning requires justification (100 years later, Karl Weierstrass proved that Euler's representation of the sine function as an infinite product is valid, by the Weierstrass factorization theorem), but even without justification, by simply obtaining the correct value, he was able to verify it numerically against partial sums of the series. The agreement he observed gave him sufficient confidence to announce his result to the mathematical community.\n", "The authors define the Gauss plane and describe the action of multiplication by i as rotation through 90°. They address Euler's identity, i.e. the expression \"e\" + 1 = 0, indicating that the venerable Benjamin Peirce called it \"absolutely paradoxical\".\n\nA note of idealism is then expressed: \"When there is so much humility and so much vision everywhere, society will be governed by science and not its clever people.\" (pp 103,4)\n", "In a 1715 letter to Jacopo Riccati, Leibniz mentioned the question of Grandi's series and advertised his own solution in the \"Acta Eruditorum\". Later, Riccati would criticize Grandi's argument in his 1754 \"Saggio intorno al sistema dell'universo\", saying that it causes contradictions. He argues that one could just as well write but that this series has \"the same quantity of zeroes\" as Grandi's series. These zeroes lack any evanescent character of \"n\", as Riccati points out that the equality is guaranteed by He concludes that the fundamental mistake is in using a divergent series to begin with:\n", "where the inputs of the trigonometric functions sine and cosine are given in radians.\n\nIn particular, when ,\n\nSince\n\nand\n\nit follows that\n\nwhich yields Euler's identity:\n\nSection::::Explanations.:Geometric interpretation.\n", "This description of RP also makes it the classifying space of Z, the cyclic group of order 2. Tom Leinster gives a definition of the Euler characteristic of any category which bypasses the classifying space and reduces to 1/|\"G\"| for any group when viewed as a one-object category. In this sense the Euler characteristic of Z is itself ⁄.\n\nSection::::In physics.\n", "Given a CW complex \"S\" containing one vertex, one edge, one face, and generally exactly one cell of every dimension, Euler's formula for the Euler characteristic of \"S\" returns . There are a few motivations for defining a generalized Euler characteristic for such a space that turns out to be 1/2.\n", "BULLET::::- The poles of the zeta function of \"E\" are found using Grothendieck's formula\n\nBULLET::::- The Euler product for the zeta function of \"E\" is\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"Appearance of the Sun during the eclipse of July 18, 1860, as it will be seen from London\", 1860\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"On the deflection of the plummet due to solar and lunar attraction\", 1862 (Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, volume 23, part 1) 89–94 link\n\nBULLET::::- Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, volume 4, 1862, 604 link\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"On the exhibition of both roots of a quadratic equation by one series of converging functions\", Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, volume 4, 1862, 70–72 link\n", "The opera supports the idea that the architect was fully competent to solve these problems and indeed was able to provide solutions that were far more elegant than anything that anyone less inspired, less talented and at one with a vision could provide.\n", "Section::::Leibniz.:Reactions.\n\nWhen he had first raised the question of Grandi's series to Leibniz, Wolff was inclined toward skepticism along with Marchetti. Upon reading Leibniz's reply in mid-1712, Wolff was so pleased with the solution that he sought to extend the arithmetic mean method to more divergent series such as . Leibniz's intuition prevented him from straining his solution this far, and he wrote back that Wolff's idea was interesting but invalid for several reasons. For one, the terms of a summable series should decrease to zero; even could be expressed as a limit of such series.\n", "The incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind is defined as,\n\nthe second kind as\n\nand the third kind as\n\nThe argument \"n\" of the third kind of integral is known as the characteristic, which in different notational conventions can appear as either the first, second or third argument of \"Π\" and furthermore is sometimes defined with the opposite sign. The argument order shown above is that of Gradshteyn and Ryzhik as well as Numerical Recipes. The choice of sign is that of Abramowitz and Stegun as well as Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, but corresponds to the formula_7 of Numerical Recipes.\n", "In fact for a flow with uniform density formula_13 the following identity holds:\n\nformula_14\n" ]

[ "Euler's equation is e˄(i pi)=1." ]

[ "The correct Euler's equation is e˄(i*pi)+1=0." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Euler's equation is e˄(i pi)=1.", "Euler's equation is e˄(i pi)=1." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The correct Euler's equation is e˄(i*pi)+1=0.", "The correct Euler's equation is e˄(i*pi)+1=0." ]

[ "Among the factors which contribute to the scent and flavor of cigar smoke are tobacco types and qualities used for filler, binder, and wrapper, age and aging method, humidity, production techniques (handmade vs. machine-made), and added flavors. Among wrappers, darker tend to produce a sweetness, while lighter usually have a \"drier\", more neutral taste.\n", "By blending various varieties of filler tobacco, cigar makers create distinctive strength, odor, and flavor profiles for their various branded products. In general, fatter cigars hold more filler leaves, allowing a greater potential for the creation of complex flavors. In addition to the variety of tobacco employed, the country of origin can be one important determinant of taste, with different growing environments producing distinctive flavors.\n", "While the variety of tobacco, climate, and soil type affect the strength and flavor of tobacco smoke, another key variable is the part of the plant from which the leaves are harvested. The leaves of a tobacco plant ripen from the bottom to the top and are harvested in a series of \"primings\" as they become ready. As successive layers of leaves are picked and time passes, nutrients concentrate in the slowest ripening leaves remaining at the top of the plant, resulting in the strongest and most flavorful cigar tobacco.\n", "Evaluating the flavor of cigars is in some respects similar to wine-tasting. Journals are available for recording personal ratings, description of flavors observed, sizes, brands, etc. Some words used to describe cigar flavor and texture include; spicy, peppery (red or black), sweet, harsh, burnt, green, earthy, woody, cocoa, chestnut, roasted, aged, nutty, creamy, cedar, oak, chewy, fruity, and leathery.\n\nSection::::Smoking.:Smoke.\n", "The most odorous chemicals in cigar smoke are pyridines. Along with pyrazines, they are also the most odorous chemicals in cigar smokers' breath. These substances are noticeable even at extremely low concentrations of a few parts per billion. During smoking, it is not known whether these chemicals are generated by splitting the chemical bonds of nicotine or by Maillard reaction between amino acids and sugars in the tobacco.\n", "The level of humidity in which cigars are kept has a significant effect on their taste and evenness of burn. It is believed that a cigar's flavor best evolves when stored at a relative humidity similar to where the tobacco is grown, and in most cases, the cigars rolled, of approximately 65–70% and a temperature of . Dry cigars become fragile and burn faster while damp cigars burn unevenly and take on a heavy acidic flavor. \n", "Cigar smoke is more alkaline than cigarette smoke, and is absorbed more readily by the mucous membrane of the mouth, making it easier for the smoker to absorb nicotine without having to inhale.\n\nSection::::Humidors.\n", "Some cigars, especially premium brands, use different varieties of tobacco for the filler and the wrapper. Long filler cigars are a far higher quality of cigar, using long leaves throughout. These cigars also use a third variety of tobacco leaf, called a \"binder\", between the filler and the outer wrapper. This permits the makers to use more delicate and attractive leaves as a wrapper. These high-quality cigars almost always blend varieties of tobacco. Even Cuban long-filler cigars will combine tobaccos from different parts of the island to incorporate several different flavors.\n", "A new humidor requires seasoning, after which a constant humidity must be maintained. The thicker the cedar lining the better. Many humidors contain an analog or digital hygrometer to aid in maintaining a desired humidity level. There are three types of analog: metal spring, natural hair, and synthetic hair .\n\nSection::::Accessories.\n\nA wide variety of cigar accessories are available, in varying qualities.\n\nSection::::Accessories.:Travel case.\n", "BULLET::::- 227 Benedict\n\nBULLET::::- Corona Grape\n\nBULLET::::- Corona Maduro\n\nBULLET::::- Corona Sports\n\nBULLET::::- Corona Strawberry\n\nBULLET::::- Corona Vanilla\n\nBULLET::::- Creme de Menthe\n\nBULLET::::- Honey Sports\n\nBULLET::::- Honey Sports Cigarillos\n\nBULLET::::- Vanilla Sports\n\nBULLET::::- Panetela\n\nBULLET::::- Perfecto\n\nBULLET::::- President\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Cognac\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Grape\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Green\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - White Grape\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Strawberry\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Vanilla\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Sweet\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Wine\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Red Berry\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarillos - Honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- Palma\n\nBULLET::::- Palma Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Palma Cognac\n\nBULLET::::- Tube Cigarillos Cognac\n\nBULLET::::- Tube Cigarillos Grape\n", "The leaf will continue to be baled, inspected, un-baled, re-inspected, and baled again during the aging cycle. When it has matured to manufacturer's specifications it is sorted for appearance and overall quality, and used as filler or wrapper accordingly. During this process, leaves are continually moistened to prevent damage.\n", "Extended direct exposure to the sun is a chief contributing factor to the thickened texture and fuller flavor of ligero leaves. As ligero leaves tend to be thicker and oilier, they burn with more difficulty than other tobacco leaves. They are consequently rolled into the very center of the filler bundle of the cigar, so that ignition can be maintained by the lighter surrounding leaf.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Michael DeBoisbriand, \"How Cigars are Made: Types of Cigar Tobacco,\" YouTube.com, October 1, 2008. (video)\n", "Section::::Manufacture.\n\nTobacco leaves are harvested and aged using a curing process that combines heat and shade to reduce sugar and water content without causing the larger leaves to rot. This takes between 25 and 45 days, depending upon climatic conditions and the nature of sheds used to store harvested tobacco. Curing varies by type of tobacco and desired leaf color. A slow fermentation follows, where temperature and humidity are controlled to enhance flavor, aroma, and burning characteristics while forestalling rot or disintegration.\n", "The fermentation and aging process adds to this variety, as does the particular part of the tobacco plant harvested, with bottom leaves (Spanish: ) having a mild flavor and burning easily, middle leaves (Spanish: ) having a somewhat stronger flavor, with potent and spicy ligero leaves taken from the sun-drenched top of the plant. When used, ligero is always folded into the middle of the filler bunch due to its slow-burning characteristics.\n", "Strangely, in the context of international films, the Toscano cigar is usually referred to in more generic and vague manner. For example, in the film \"Anatomy of a Murder\" directed by Otto Preminger in 1959, the main character - a brilliant lawyer played by James Stewart - offered the cigars he was smoking to a friend and called them Italian cigars. The friend declines, saying, \"Those stinkweeds are another sign of your decadence.\"\n", "Section::::Smoking.\n\nMost machine-made cigars have pre-formed holes in one end or a wood or plastic tip for drawing in the smoke. Hand-rolled cigars require the blunt end to be pierced before lighting. The usual way to smoke a cigar is to not inhale but to draw the smoke into the mouth. Some smokers inhale the smoke into the lungs, particularly with little cigars. A smoker may swirl the smoke around in the mouth before exhaling it, and may exhale part of the smoke through the nose in order to smell the cigar better as well as to taste it.\n\nSection::::Smoking.:Cutting.\n", "In an episode of \"The Return of Sherlock Holmes - The Bruce Partington Plans\" produced by Granada Television in 1988, shows a scene at the Italian restaurant called Goldini. Holmes played by Jeremy Brett said to his friend and colleague, Dr. Watson played by Edward Hardwicke: \"Try one of the proprietor's cigars. They are less poisonous than one would expect.\"\n", "Singles, 3s or 5s are generally packaged in cardboard or paper boxes, and the individual cigars come wrapped in a cellophane sleeve. In Cuban cigars, however, only machine-made cigars come in cellophane. \n\nCabinet selection cigars generally come packaged without cellophane, and (especially when purchased in 50s) often come in the wooden box tied together in a \"bundle\" with a silk ribbon with the maker's name and the cigar \"model\" stated on the silk ribbon. Sometimes they come without cigar bands (occasionally referred to as \"naked\").\n\nOften, cigars are purchased this way for aging (maturing). \n", "In general, dark wrappers add a touch of sweetness, while light ones add a hint of dryness to the taste.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Binder.\n", "The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- He finds some tobacco from a man filling his pipe and a small piece of paper. He then tries to roll his own cigarette, but fails and gets it everywhere.\n\nBULLET::::- He tries to pick up a discarded cigar, but a foot steps on it, flattening it and gets his hand in the process, leaving an imprint on his hand that reads, \"Pussyfoot\".\n\nBULLET::::- He picks up another cigar near an elevator doorway, but a voice calls out \"Goin' up!\" and the door closes on the cigar and as the elevator rises, so does the cigar.\n", "Beneath the wrapper is a small bunch of \"filler\" leaves bound together inside of a leaf called a \"binder\" (Spanish: ). Binder leaf is typically the sun-saturated leaf from the top part of a tobacco plant and is selected for its elasticity and durability in the rolling process. Unlike wrapper leaf, which must be uniform in appearance and smooth in texture, binder leaf may show evidence of physical blemishes or lack uniform coloration. Binder leaf is generally considerably thicker and more hardy than the wrapper leaf surrounding it.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Filler.\n", "Traditionally, they are not smoked as a whole, but cut in the middle. They are considered dry cigars or cheroots which means they do not have to be stored in a humidor. It is very much different from the Caribbean cigars which will dry up and crack if not stored in a humidor. The Kentucky tobacco is not hygroscopic after undergoing special fermentation and can be stored for years at room temperature without losing its quality. Ideally, the Toscano cigar should have an internal humidity between 12% and 14%, and a storage humidity of between 65% and 70%.\n", "Boutique Blends received a major boost in the cigar world that same year, when the company's Aging Room Small Batch M356, a spicy ligero-laced cigar, made the list of the Top 25 Cigars of 2011 in \"Cigar Aficionado\" magazine. This was followed two years later with an even greater triumph, when the Aging Room Small Batch F55 was named the No. 2 Cigar of the Year for 2013 by that same magazine.\n\nStrategic Alliance with Altadis\n", "A number of sets of rules of cigar etiquette besides Davidoff's have been compiled and published from time to time. These include:\n\nSection::::Other rules of etiquette.:New York Times.\n\nIn a 2005 article in \"The New York Times\", Harry Hurt III suggested four basic rules of cigar etiquette:\n\nBULLET::::1. Confine indoor cigar smoking to cigar parlors.\n\nBULLET::::2. Don't chain-smoke cigars.\n\nBULLET::::3. Don't offend non-smokers with the smell of cigar smoke on your clothes or breath.\n\nBULLET::::4. Don't ask, don't tell if it's a Cuban cigar.\n\nSection::::Other rules of etiquette.:Cigar Aficionado.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "A BMS may monitor the state of the battery as represented by various items, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Voltage: total voltage, voltages of individual cells, minimum and maximum cell voltage or voltage of periodic taps\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature: average temperature, coolant intake temperature, coolant output temperature, or temperatures of individual cells\n\nBULLET::::- State of charge (SOC) or depth of discharge (DOD), to indicate the charge level of the battery\n\nBULLET::::- State of health (SOH), a variously-defined measurement of the remaining capacity of the battery as % of the original capacity\n", "Both ammeters and voltmeters individually or together can be used to assess the operating state of an automobile battery and charging system.\n\nSection::::Electronic devices.\n\nA battery indicator is a feature of many electronic devices. In mobile phones, the battery indicator usually takes the form of a bar graph - the more bars that are showing, the better the battery's state of charge.\n\nSection::::Computers.\n", "In addition, the designer of the battery management system defines an arbitrary weight for each of the parameter's contribution to the SoH value. The definition of how SoH is evaluated can be a trade secret.\n\nSection::::SOH threshold.\n\nAs stated before, the method by which the battery management system evaluates the SoH of a battery is arbitrary.\n", "This model is different from the other models discovered because it relies only on knowledge of the battery discharge voltage curve and access to battery voltage sensor which is available in all modern Smartphones. The basic idea for this model technique is to use battery state of discharge with running training software programs to control phone component power and activity states. Each individual Smartphone component is held in a specific state for a significant period of time and the change in battery state of discharge is captured using built-in battery voltage sensors. The first challenging idea is to convert battery voltage readings into power consumption. This is determined by state of discharge (which is total consumed energy by battery) variation within a testing interval captured by voltage sensors that will eventually drive the following equation.\n", "BULLET::::- First, a battery management system evaluates the SoH of the battery under its management and reports it.\n\nBULLET::::- Then, the SoH is compared to a threshold (typically done by the application in which the battery is used), to determine the suitability of the battery to a given application.\n\nKnowing the SoH of a given battery and the SoH threshold of a given application:\n\nBULLET::::- a determination can be made whether the present battery conditions make it suitable for that application\n\nBULLET::::- an estimate can be made of the battery's useful lifetime in that application\n\nSection::::SoH evaluation.:Parameters.\n", "Where E is the rated battery energy capacity and SOD (Vi) is the battery state of discharge at voltage Vi and P is the average power consumption in the time interval t1 and t2. The state of discharge can be estimated using look up table where the relationship between present voltage and SOD is captured. Determining the energy is also an issue because the energy is changing as the battery gets old. The new batteries have the total energy written on their back but the value can’t be true for all time. It can estimate the energy at highest and lowest discharge rate to decrease the error. The internal resistance also has significant impact on the discharged current. To decrease the effect of internal resistance all the phone components can be switched to their lowest power modes to minimize the discharge current when taking a voltage reading. Finally, this method uses a piece-wise linear function to model the non-linear relationship between SOF and battery voltage.\n", "battery desires to be charged and discharged in constant rate such as Coulomb-counting. This method gives precise estimation of battery SoC, but they are protracted, costly, and interrupt main battery performance. Therefore, researchers are looking for some online techniques. In general there are five methods to determine SoC indirectly:\n\nBULLET::::- chemical\n\nBULLET::::- voltage\n\nBULLET::::- current integration\n\nBULLET::::- Kalman filtering\n\nBULLET::::- pressure\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Chemical method.\n", "In fact, it is a stated goal of battery design to provide a voltage as constant as possible no matter the SoC, which makes this method difficult to apply.\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Current integration method.\n\nThis method, also known as \"coulomb counting\", calculates the SoC by measuring the battery current and integrating it in time.\n", "A patent filed by the corporation, published in late July 2013, revealed the development of a new iPhone battery system that uses location data in combination with data on the user's habits to moderate the handsets power settings accordingly. Apple is working towards a power management system that will provide features such as the ability to estimate the length of time a user will be away from a power source to modify energy usage and a detection function that adjusts the charging rate to best suit the type of power source that is being used.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Battery.:Controversy.\n", "Section::::Integrated battery testers.\n\nThere are many types of integrated battery testers, each one corresponding to a specific condition testing procedure, according to the type of battery being tested, such as the “421” test for lead-acid vehicle batteries. Their common principle is based on the empirical fact that after having applied a given current for a given number of seconds to the battery, the resulting voltage output is related to the battery's overall condition, when compared to a healthy battery's output.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Power Equipment Engine Technology By Edward Abdo\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach By Jack Erjavec\n", "SOC, or state of charge, is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for a battery. SOC cannot be determined by a simple voltage measurement, because the terminal voltage of a battery may stay substantially constant until it is completely discharged. In some types of battery, electrolyte specific gravity may be related to state of charge but this is not measurable on typical battery pack cells, and is not related to state of charge on most battery types. Most SOC methods take into account voltage and current as well as temperature and other aspects of the discharge and charge process to in essence count up or down within a pre-defined capacity of a pack. More complex state of charge estimation systems take into account the Peukert effect which relates the capacity of the battery to the discharge rate.\n", "On Samsung Galaxy S5 / S5 Neo / S6 / S7 / S8 / S9 and Edge versions as well as Galaxy Note 4 / 5 / 7 / FE / 8, the application can measure the heart rate with the sensor on the back of the device.\n\nSection::::Features.:Pedometer.\n\nStep counting is a feature that is integrated with Samsung Health with the arrival of the Samsung Galaxy S4 in April 2013.\n\nThe default goal is to reach 10,000 steps per day. This number would be a recommendation of the World Health Organization according to the French Federation of Cardiology.\n", "The following table shows the types of mobile sensors from which each software package is capable of collecting passive data. Note that the type of data collected depends on availability of the appropriate sensor on the smartphone.\n\nSection::::Support for behavioral studies.\n\nThe following table contains information regarding availability of functions, within each software package, that support behavioral experiments for scientific purposes.\n\nSection::::Battery management.\n\nThe following table contains information relative to battery management for each software package. As passive data collection from smartphone sensors is a battery-intensive process, methods to maximize battery performance are important for this type of software.\n", "BULLET::::- Capacity in mAh: mAh stands for milli Ampere-hour and measures the amount of power flow that can be supplied by a certain power bank at a specific voltage. Many manufacturers rate their products at 3.7 V, the voltage of cell(s) inside. Since USB outputs at 5 V, calculations at this voltage will yield a lower mAh number. For example, a battery pack advertised with a 3000 mAh capacity (at 3.7 V) will produce 2220 mAh at 5 V. Power losses due to efficiency of the charging circuitry also occur.\n", "The update with iOS 6 added the ability to check the device's battery level.\n\nSince the release of iOS 7 users have complained about the link between GPS, WiFi, and the app itself. Some handset owners have noted the app enables and disables itself when passing between cellular protocol bandwidths.\n\nSection::::Features.:Requirements.\n", "Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Combined approaches.\n", "Section::::General information.\n", "Section::::Determining SoC.:Voltage method.\n\nThis method converts a reading of the battery voltage to SoC, using the known discharge curve (voltage vs. SoC) of the battery. However, the voltage is more significantly affected by the battery current (due to the battery's electrochemical kinetics) and temperature. This method can be made more accurate by compensating the voltage reading by a correction term proportional to the battery current, and by using a look-up table of battery's open circuit voltage vs. temperature.\n", "Batteries that are part of a system, such as computer batteries, can have their properties checked and logged in operation to assist in determining remaining charge. A real battery can be modeled as an ideal battery with a specified EMF, in series with an internal resistance. As a battery discharges, the EMF may drop or the internal resistance increase; in many cases the EMF remains more or less constant during most of the discharge, with the voltage drop across the internal resistance determining the voltage supplied. Determining the charge remaining in many battery types not connected to a system that monitors battery use is not reliably possible with a voltmeter. In battery types where EMF remains approximately constant during discharge, but resistance increases, voltage across battery terminals is not a good indicator of capacity. A meter such as an equivalent series resistance meter (ESR meter) normally used for measuring the ESR of electrolytic capacitors can be used to evaluate internal resistance. ESR meters fitted with protective diodes cannot be used, a battery will simply destroy the diodes and damage itself. An ESR meter known not to have diode protection will give a reading of internal resistance for a rechargeable or non-rechargeable battery of any size down to the smallest button cells which gives an indication of the state of charge. To use it, measurements on fully charged and fully discharged batteries of the same type can be used to determine resistances associated with those states.\n", "Another approach is to use a fingerprinting-based technique, where the \"signature\" of the home and neighboring cells signal strengths at different points in the area of interest is recorded by war-driving and matched in real-time to determine the handset location. This is usually performed independent from the carrier.\n", "Section::::Principle of CASY technology.\n", "The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed.\n\nSection::::Voltages for common usage.\n", "BULLET::::- Daily, weekly and monthly trends showing the average number of daily steps taken.\n\nYou can choose the source of the recorded data. Either we use the smartphone data or those recorded by a compatible Samsung accessory.\n\nSection::::Features.:Be active.\n\nThis function measures the daily activity expressed in minutes. By default the application automatically calculates the running time and the running time (more than one hundred steps per minute). The goal to reach is set by default at sixty minutes a day.\n", "To overcome the shortcomings of the voltage method and the current integration method, a Kalman filter can be used. The battery can be modeled with an electrical model which the Kalman filter will use to predict the over-voltage, due to the current. In combination with coulomb counting, it can make an accurate estimation of the state of charge. The strength of a Kalman filter is that it is able to adjust its trust of the battery voltage and coulomb counting in real time.\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Pressure method.\n", "A patent filed in July 2013 revealed the development of a new iPhone battery system that uses location data in combination with data on the user's habits to moderate the handsets power settings accordingly. Apple is working towards a power management system that will provide features such as the ability of the iPhone to estimate the length of time a user will be away from a power source to modify energy usage and a detection function that adjusts the charging rate to best suit the type of power source that is being used.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Died: Victor Feguer, 27, became the last federal inmate executed in the United States before the 1972 moratorium on the death penalty, after being his conviction for kidnapping a physician in Iowa and murdering him in Illinois. Feguer, who had been held at the federal penitentiary in Leavenworth, Kansas, had been transported to the Iowa State Penitentiary, where he was hanged, becoming the last person to be legally executed in the state of Iowa. For the next 38 years, no more federal inmates would be put to death until the June 11, 2001, lethal injection of terrorist Timothy McVeigh.\n", "In February 2004, the FBI announced it would review its investigation after learning that agents in the investigation of the Midwest Bank Robbers (an alleged Aryan-oriented gang) had turned up explosive caps of the same type that were used to trigger the Oklahoma City bomb. Agents expressed surprise that bombing investigators had not been provided information from the Midwest Bank Robbers investigation. McVeigh declined further delays and maintained until his death that he had acted alone in the bombing.\n", "Section::::The media and the capital punishment debate.:Media framing of capital punishment.\n\nJournalists and producers play integral roles in shaping the media's framing of the death penalty. But frames develop through a wide variety of social actors and stakeholders. In terms of capital punishment, the media's framing of Timothy McVeigh's execution was interactionally accomplished by a variety of people. Specifically, the Federal Bureau of Prisons, which historically shied away from media attention, responded to increased scrutiny through enlisting a media advisory group to help shape the media's framing of McVeigh's execution.\n", "McVeigh chose William Ernest Henley's poem \"Invictus\" as his final statement. Just before the execution, when he was asked if he had a final statement, he declined. Jay Sawyer, a relative of one of the victims, wrote, \"Without saying a word, he got the final word.\" Larry Whicher, whose brother died in the attack, described McVeigh as having \"a totally expressionless, blank stare. He had a look of defiance and that if he could, he'd do it all over again.\"\n", "Timothy McVeigh\n\nTimothy James McVeigh (April 23, 1968 – June 11, 2001) was an American domestic terrorist who perpetrated the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing that killed 168 people and injured over 680 others. The bombing was the deadliest act of terrorism within the United States prior to the September 11 attacks, and remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in United States history.\n", "On June 2, 1997, McVeigh was found guilty on all eleven counts of the federal indictment. After the verdict, McVeigh tried to calm his mother by saying, \"Think of it this way. When I was in the Army, you didn't see me for years. Think of me that way now, like I'm away in the Army again, on an assignment for the military.\"\n", "McVeigh was executed by lethal injection at 7:14 a.m. on June 11, 2001, at the U.S. Federal Penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana, the first federal prisoner to be executed by the United States federal government since Victor Feguer was executed in Iowa on March 15, 1963.\n", "McVeigh was executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001 at the Federal Correctional Complex in Terre Haute, Indiana. His execution was carried out in a considerably shorter time than most inmates awaiting the death penalty, as most convicts on death row in the United States spend an average of fifteen years there. Terry Nichols and Michael Fortier were also convicted as conspirators in the plot. Nichols was sentenced to eight life terms for the deaths of eight federal agents, and to 161 life terms without parole by the state of Oklahoma for the deaths of the others. Fortier was sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment and has since been released.\n", "Timothy McVeigh was executed on June 11, 2001, for his involvement in the Oklahoma City bombing where 168 people were killed. It was the first federal execution since 1963; it was broadcast on a closed circuit-television to survivors and victims' families.\n\nOther executions by the United States include Juan Raul Garza on June 19, 2001, and Louis Jones Jr. on March 18, 2003. Sentences of death handed down by a jury cannot be rejected by the judge.\n", "Notorious crimes by released murders occurred in the 1980s and 1990s, are often credited with influencing politics along Law and Order lines . Most notably the release of the murderer Willie Horton who committed a rape and a rampage of severe violence when he was released, is generally credited with favoring the election of president George H. W. Bush over the man who released him, Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. Whatever the cause, Bush beat Dukakis by a margin of both popular and electoral college votes that has not been surpassed since 1988. Also, the release of the murderer Reginald McFadden who went on a serial murder and rape spree by the acting governor of Pennsylvania, Mark Singel may have been a contributing factor in the 1994 election of Pennsylvania governor Tom Ridge, in which Ridge defeated Singel by a margin of 45% to 39%.\n", "BULLET::::- Trial began in the case of Sirhan Sirhan for the June 5, 1968 murder of presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy. It would last for 15 weeks, as the jury heard testimony from 89 witnesses. After three days of deliberation, the jury found Sirhan guilty of first-degree murder and of five counts of assault with a deadly weapon. Sirhan would be sentenced to death on May 21, but all death penalty sentences in the United States would be set aside in 1972, and Sirhan would spend the rest of his life at Corcoran State Prison.\n\nSection::::January 8, 1969 (Wednesday).\n", "BULLET::::- In 1987 Ford presided over the trial of serial killer Michael Ross. The accounts of Karen Clarke of \"The Day\" are stored at the Connecticut State Library in Hartford.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1997 Ford was the sole dissenter in the 11-1 censure vote of Harold H. Dean, at the time the state's most senior Superior Court judge.\n", "On June 13, 1997, the jury recommended that McVeigh receive the death penalty. The U.S. Department of Justice brought federal charges against McVeigh for causing the deaths of eight federal officers leading to a possible death penalty for McVeigh; they could not bring charges against McVeigh for the remaining 160 murders in federal court because those deaths fell under the jurisdiction of the State of Oklahoma. Because McVeigh was convicted and sentenced to death, the State of Oklahoma did not file murder charges against McVeigh for the other 160 deaths. Before the sentence was formally pronounced by Judge Matsch, McVeigh addressed the court for the first time and said: \n", "In the punishment phase of the federal capital case against Dzhokhar Tsarnaev in 2015 for the 2013 Boston Marathon bombings, the convict was given the death penalty. Opinion polls in the state of Massachusetts, where the crime and the trial transpired, \"showed that residents overwhelmingly favored life in prison for Mr. Tsarnaev. Many respondents said that life in prison for one so young would be a fate worse than death, and some worried that execution would make him a martyr. But the jurors in his case had to be 'death qualified' — that is, they all had to be willing to impose the death penalty to serve on the jury. So in that sense, the jury was not representative of the state.\"\n", "BULLET::::- March 2 – The brand new Mandalay Bay hotel and casino opens on the Las Vegas Strip.\n\nBULLET::::- March 3 – Walter LaGrand is executed in the gas chamber in Arizona.\n\nBULLET::::- March 4 – In a military court, United States Marine Corps Captain Richard J. Ashby is acquitted of the charge of reckless flying which resulted in the deaths of 20 skiers in the Italian Alps, when his low-flying jet hit a gondola cable.\n\nBULLET::::- March 8 – The Supreme Court of the United States upholds the murder convictions of Timothy McVeigh for the Oklahoma City bombing.\n", "Massachusetts ended the death penalty for state crimes in 1984. However, because Tsarnaev was tried on federal charges, he was eligible for execution.\n\nSection::::Legal proceedings.:Trial.:Appeal.\n\nTsarnaev's lawyer, Judy Clarke, indicated two lines of likely appeal: that on prejudicial grounds the trial should never have been held in Boston; and that the defense was given insufficient time to mount a full argument in mitigation that might have convinced the jury to spare Tsarnaev's life. The appeal process could last years or decades.\n", "Polunsky took the death row inmates on Friday June 18, 1999, with the first 55 inmates all classified as being troublesome. The death row transfer, which took ten months, was the largest transfer of condemned prisoners in history and was performed under heavy security.\n", "A perception had built up among some journalists and pro-life groups that there had been a reluctance to report on the trial among mainstream media. In an April 11, 2013 opinion column for \"USA Today\", Kirsten Powers wrote: \"A Lexis-Nexis search shows none of the news shows on the three major national television networks has mentioned the Gosnell trial in the last three months\", and that national press coverage was represented by a \"Wall Street Journal\" columnist who \"hijacked\" a segment on \"Meet the Press\", a single page A-17 story on the first day of the trial by \"The New York Times\", and no original coverage by \"The Washington Post\".\n", "Section::::Incarceration and execution.\n", "During his time as First Assistant District Attorney, Siragusa successfully prosecuted Arthur Shawcross, also known as The Genesee River Killer. Shawcross had killed eleven victims starting in 1988 before his capture less than two years later in January 1990. Shawcross died November 10, 2008 while serving a life sentence.\n", "The execution date was reset for June 11, 2001. McVeigh invited California conductor/composer David Woodard to perform pre-requiem Mass music on the eve of his execution. He requested a Catholic chaplain. He requested two pints of mint chocolate chip ice cream for his last meal.\n", "Like the case of Edward Earl Johnson whose last days on death row in Mississippi were filmed for the BBC in 1987 as \"Fourteen Days in May\", this case came to light precisely because it was so ordinary, and was seen to be so. To some it demonstrated the need for capital punishment to protect the public from such dangerous people. To others it demonstrated the inhumanity of death row. Whatever conclusions were reached, this case remains one of the few such cases in the public domain that does not involve a celebrity perpetrator or victim, and so reminds all concerned of nature of most capital cases in the USA.\n", "The media coverage was generally skewed towards an uncritical acceptance of the prosecution's viewpoint. David Shaw of the \"Los Angeles Times\" wrote a series of articles, which later won the Pulitzer Prize, discussing the flawed and skewed coverage presented by his own paper on the trial. It was only after the trial that coverage of the flaws in the evidence and events presented by witnesses and the prosecution were discussed.\n", "McVeigh dropped his remaining appeals, saying that he would rather die than spend the rest of his life in prison. On January 16, 2001 the Federal Bureau of Prisons set May 16, 2001, as McVeigh's execution date. McVeigh stated that his only regret was not completely destroying the federal building. Six days prior to his scheduled execution, the FBI turned over thousands of documents of evidence it had previously withheld to McVeigh's attorneys. As a result, U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft announced McVeigh's execution would be stayed for one month.\n", "BULLET::::- Does he respond coherently, rationally, and on point to oral or written questions or do his responses wander from subject to subject?\n\nBULLET::::- Can the person hide facts or lie effectively in his own or others’ interests?\n\nBULLET::::- Putting aside any heinousness or gruesomeness surrounding the capital offense, did the commission of that offense require forethought, planning, and complex execution of purpose?\n" ]

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[ "Significant chemical cycles exist on Jupiter's moons. Recent evidence points to Europa possessing several active cycles, most notably a water cycle. Other studies suggest an oxygen and radiation induced carbon dioxide cycle. Io and Europa, appear to have radiolytic sulphur cycles involving their lithospheres. In addition, Europa is thought to have a sulfur dioxide cycle. In addition, the Io plasma torus contributes to a sulphur cycle on Jupiter and Ganymede. Studies also imply active oxygen cycles on Ganymede and oxygen and radiolytic carbon dioxide cycles on Callisto.\n\nSection::::Saturn.\n", "The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes: shallow and deep. The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer (weather) layer of the planet, which overlays the stable interior. The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter. As both theories have their own successes and failures, many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models.\n\nSection::::Dynamics.:Shallow models.\n", "Jupiter, like all the gas giants, has an atmospheric methane cycle. Recent studies indicate a hydrological cycle of water-ammonia vastly different to the type operating on terrestrial planets like Earth and also a cycle of hydrogen sulfide.\n", "BULLET::::- They are likely to have extreme and exotic atmospheres due to their short periods, relatively long days, and tidal locking. Atmospheric dynamics models predict strong vertical stratification with intense winds and super-rotating equatorial jets driven by radiative forcing and the transfer of heat and momentum. The day-night temperature difference at the photosphere is predicted to be substantial, approximately 500 K for a model based on HD 209458b.\n", "Colored regions on Jupiter's satellite Europa are thought to be tholins. The morphology of Europa's impact craters and ridges is suggestive of fluidized material welling up from the fractures where pyrolysis and radiolysis take place. In order to generate colored tholins on Europa there must be a source of materials (carbon, nitrogen, and water) and a source of energy to make the reactions occur. Impurities in the water ice crust of Europa are presumed both to emerge from the interior as cryovolcanic events that resurface the body, and to accumulate from space as interplanetary dust.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Moons.:Rhea.\n", "Why Oval BA turned red is not understood. According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez-Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country, the most likely mechanism is \"an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA.\" Some believe that small storms (and their corresponding white spots) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight.\n", "The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.\n", "Section::::Zones, belts and jets.:Specific bands.\n\nThe belts and zones that divide Jupiter's atmosphere each have their own names and unique characteristics. They begin below the North and South Polar Regions, which extend from the poles to roughly 40–48° N/S. These bluish-gray regions are usually featureless.\n", "Above the convective core where mixing of chemicals is instantaneous and efficient, some layers can be affected by partial or total mixing during the main sequence phase of evolution. The extent of this \"extra mixed zone\" as well as the mixing efficiency are, however, difficult to assess. This additional mixing has very important consequences since it involves longer time scales for nuclear burning phases and may in particular affect the value of the stellar mass at the transition between those stars which end up their life as white dwarfs and those which face a final supernova explosion. The impact on the chemical evolution of the galaxy is obvious. Physical reasons for this extra-mixing are various, either a mixing induced by internal rotation or a mixing resulting from convective bubbles crossing the convective core boundary to enter the radiative zone where they finally lose their identity (overshooting), or even some other poorly known processes.\n", "The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds. Ammonia concentration is higher in zones, which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes, which in turn leads to their lighter color. On the other hand, in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes. The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts. The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known, but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur, phosphorus and carbon.\n", "Supercritical fluids, although not liquids, do share various properties with liquids. Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles. The gaseous outer layers of Jupiter and Saturn transition smoothly into oceans of supercritical hydrogen. The atmosphere of Venus is 96.5% carbon dioxide, which is a supercritical fluid at its surface.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biosalinity\n\nBULLET::::- Blue carbon\n\nBULLET::::- Brackish water\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of global warming on oceans\n\nBULLET::::- European Atlas of the Seas\n\nBULLET::::- Four Seas\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Jupiter Chronicles (Book Series)\" (2012) by Leonardo Ramirez. Ian and Callie are transported to the Jovian Realm where their missing father had been ruling as king and has been invaded by Mars.\n\nSection::::On Jupiter.:Comics and manga.\n", "Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32.938 K. In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas in the upper layer extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km, and as liquid in deeper layers. Physically, there is no clear boundary—the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends.\n", "The Sun, which comprises nearly all the matter in the Solar System, is composed of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium. Jupiter and Saturn, which comprise nearly all the remaining matter, are also primarily composed of hydrogen and helium. A composition gradient exists in the Solar System, created by heat and light pressure from the Sun; those objects closer to the Sun, which are more affected by heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points. The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could condense is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly 5 AU from the Sun.\n", "The molecular hydrogen that escapes Europa's gravity, along with atomic and molecular oxygen, forms a gas torus in the vicinity of Europa's orbit around Jupiter. This \"neutral cloud\" has been detected by both the \"Cassini\" and \"Galileo\" spacecraft, and has a greater content (number of atoms and molecules) than the neutral cloud surrounding Jupiter's inner moon Io. Models predict that almost every atom or molecule in Europa's torus is eventually ionized, thus providing a source to Jupiter's magnetospheric plasma.\n\nSection::::Exploration.\n", "A better hypothesis is that the dark material is lag (residue) from the sublimation (evaporation) of water ice on the surface of Iapetus, possibly darkened further upon exposure to sunlight. Because of its slow rotation of 79 days (equal to its revolution and the longest in the Saturnian system), Iapetus would have had the warmest daytime surface temperature and coldest nighttime temperature in the Saturnian system even before the development of the color contrast; near the equator, heat absorption by the dark material results in a daytime temperatures of in the dark Cassini Regio compared to in the bright regions. The difference in temperature means that ice preferentially sublimates from Cassini Regio, and deposits in the bright areas and especially at the even colder poles. Over geologic time scales, this would further darken Cassini Regio and brighten the rest of Iapetus, creating a positive feedback thermal runaway process of ever greater contrast in albedo, ending with all exposed ice being lost from Cassini Regio. It is estimated that over a period of one billion years at current temperatures, dark areas of Iapetus would lose about of ice to sublimation, while the bright regions would lose only , not considering the ice transferred from the dark regions. This model explains the distribution of light and dark areas, the absence of shades of grey, and the thinness of the dark material covering Cassini Regio. The redistribution of ice is facilitated by Iapetus's weak gravity, which means that at ambient temperatures a water molecule can migrate from one hemisphere to the other in just a few hops.\n", "In current models, the four giant planets have cores of rock and ice that are roughly the same size, but the proportion of hydrogen and helium decreases from about 300 Earth masses in Jupiter to 75 in Saturn and just a few in Uranus and Neptune. Thus, while the gas giants are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, the ice giants are primarily composed of heavier elements (O, C, N, S), primarily in the form of water, methane and ammonia. The surfaces are cold enough for molecular hydrogen to be liquid, so much of each planet is likely a hydrogen ocean overlaying one of heavier compounds. Outside the core, Jupiter has a mantle of liquid metallic hydrogen and an atmosphere of molecular hydrogen and helium. Metallic hydrogen does not mix well with helium, and in Saturn it may form a separate layer below the metallic hydrogen.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Camouflage\" (2004), by Joe Haldeman, several scientists attempt to communicate with an extraterrestrial object found on the floor of the Pacific Ocean by (among other methods) subjecting it to the atmospheres of various planets and moons, including Io. Haldeman writes, \"Io's atmosphere is exotic and variable... The fact that it's a poisonous mixture of sulfur dioxide and sodium isn't relevant to human survival; a human would freeze solid in the middle of explosive decompression, not having time to notice that the air smelled bad.\"\n", "Recent evidence suggests that similar chemical cycles to Earth's occur on a lesser scale on Mars, facilitated by the thin atmosphere, including carbon dioxide (and possibly carbon), water, sulphur, methane, oxygen, ozone, and nitrogen cycles. Many studies point to significantly more active chemical cycles on Mars in the past, however the faint young Sun paradox has proved problematic in determining chemical cycles involved in early climate models of the planet.\n\nSection::::Jupiter.\n", "The estimates of planetary compositions depend on the model used. In the \"equilibrium condensation\" model, each planet was formed from a \"feeding zone\" in which the compositions of solids were determined by the temperature in that zone. Thus, Mercury formed at 1400 K, where iron remained in a pure metallic form and there was little magnesium or silicon in solid form; Venus at 900 K, so all the magnesium and silicon condensed; Earth at 600 K, so it contains FeS and silicates; and Mars at 450 K, so FeO was incorporated into magnesium silicates. The greatest problem with this theory is that volatiles would not condense, so the planets would have no atmospheres and Earth no atmosphere.\n", "Titan's clouds, probably composed of methane, ethane, or other simple organics, are scattered and variable, punctuating the overall haze.\n", "The majority of flux emitted by L and T dwarfs is in the 1 to 2.5 micrometre near-infrared range. Low and decreasing temperatures through the late M-, L-, and T-dwarf sequence result in a rich near-infrared spectrum containing a wide variety of features, from relatively narrow lines of neutral atomic species to broad molecular bands, all of which have different dependencies on temperature, gravity, and metallicity. Furthermore, these low temperature conditions favor condensation out of the gas state and the formation of grains.\n", "The question of a possible diurnal and annual CO hydrate cycle on Mars remains, since the large temperature amplitudes observed there cause exiting and reentering the clathrate stability field on a daily and seasonal basis. The question is, then, can gas hydrate being deposited on the surface be detected by any means? The OMEGA spectrometer on board Mars Express returned some data, which were used by the OMEGA team to produce CO and HO-based images of the South polar cap. No definitive answer has been rendered with respect to Martian CO clathrate formation.\n", "The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion. However it has major difficulties; it produces a very small number of broad jets, and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008, meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter. One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band-jet structure. It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models; occupying only the outer 10% of Jupiter's radius. In standard models of the Jovian interior, the mantle comprises the outer 20–30%. The driving of deep circulation is another problem. The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces (moist convection, for instance) or by deep planet-wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior. Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet.\n", "Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot.\n" ]

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[ "But some say the death penalty must be enforced even if the deterrent effect is unclear, like John McAdams, who teaches political science at Marquette University: \"If we execute murderers and there is in fact no deterrent effect, we have killed a bunch of murderers. If we fail to execute murderers, and doing so would in fact have deterred other murders, we have allowed the killing of a bunch of innocent victims. I would much rather risk the former. This, to me, is not a tough call.\"\n", "In September 2005, three murderers were the first people to be executed since the restoration. Then on 9 March 2006, an official of Iraq's Supreme Judicial Council confirmed that Iraqi authorities had executed the first insurgents by hanging.\n", "Again in 2008, a large majority of states from all regions adopted, on 20 November in the UN General Assembly (Third Committee), a second resolution calling for a moratorium on the use of the death penalty; 105 countries voted in favour of the draft resolution, 48 voted against and 31 abstained.\n\nA range of amendments proposed by a small minority of pro-death penalty countries were overwhelmingly defeated. It had in 2007 passed a non-binding resolution (by 104 to 54, with 29 abstentions) by asking its member states for \"a moratorium on executions with a view to abolishing the death penalty\".\n", "Early Isabeline executions include that of Santos Ladrón de Cegama on October 14, 1833 at Pamplona. On December 4, 1833, Vicente Genaro de Quesada, captain-general of Old Castile, executed five Carlists by firing squad at Burgos. The prisoners were given four hours to prepare for death, though the archbishop of Burgos requested, on December 6, 1833, that in future prisoners be given twenty-four hours to prepare for death. Quesada responded to this with: \"...it would be pointless one way or another how much time we give before executing them\" (\"\"...será inútil la menor o mayor concesión de tiempo para ejecutarlos\"\"). \n", "The deaths of civilians in several IRA bombings in 1974 prompted a renewed debate. On 11 December 1974 Brian Walden moved a motion declaring that \"the death penalty would neither deter terrorists nor increase the safety of the public\"; Jill Knight moved an amendment calling instead for introduction of legislation providing for death to be the penalty for acts of terrorism causing death. Her amendment was rejected by 217 to 369. A year later, Ivan Lawrence's motion \"That this House demands capital punishment for terrorist offences causing death\" was rejected by 232 to 361.\n", "Of the 54 cases presented to the court, three were most focused upon. Three Mexican nationals, César Roberto Fierro Reyna, Roberto Moreno Ramos, and Osvaldo Torres Aguilera were at risk of execution in the next few months or possibly weeks. The court recognized that their execution would cause irreparable prejudice and implemented provisional measures by prohibiting the United States to proceed with their execution pending the final judgment in the case.\n", "Franklin and David Thomas were convicted of murder and received mandatory death sentences. After their appeal to SVG appeal courts failed, they were notified on Friday, 9 February 1995 that their executions would take place the following Monday morning. However, they still had a legal right to appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, which is the supreme court for SVG. The brothers were executed by hanging early on Monday morning before having lodged an appeal with the JCPC. Amnesty International and other organizations found out about the scheduled executions approximately 36 hours before they took place.\n", "The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States typically involves five critical steps: (1) prosecutorial decision to seek the death penalty (2) sentencing, (3) direct review, (4) state collateral review, and (5) federal habeas corpus.\n\nClemency, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.\n\nSection::::Legal process.:Decision to seek the death penalty.\n", "In 2011, an amendment to the Dangerous Drugs Act ended the official right of appeal for repeat drug offenders. Instead, they can directly appeal to the Prosecutor General of Iran. This change was made because the regular appeals courts were overloaded and could not carry out their work quickly due to a heavy volume of drug cases.\n\nOften execution is delayed until the person completes a prison sentence. Some murder and rape cases are delayed for five years in order to maximize the possibility of forgiveness and reaching a settlement.\n", "The most recent Parliamentary debate on a question proposing reintroduction of capital punishment came on 21 February 1994 when new clauses to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill were moved. The first, providing for death as the sentence for \"the murder of a police officer acting in the execution of his duty\", was rejected by 186 to 383; A new clause providing for general reintroduction with power for the Court of Appeal to substitute life imprisonment was rejected by 159 to 403. This would have been aimed at terrorists in the Northern Ireland conflict.\n", "In March 2010, the procedure was one option considered, but then rejected, by Speaker Nancy Pelosi (D) and congressional Democrats to pass the Reconciliation Act of 2010 () and the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (), as part of President Obama's health care reform initiative.\n\nSection::::Legal arguments.\n", "In November 2012, capital punishment laws in Singapore were revised such that the mandatory death penalty for those convicted of drug trafficking or murder was lifted under certain specific conditions. Judges were empowered with the discretion to sentence such offenders to life imprisonment, which suggests the prisoner lives his entire natural life in jail with the possibility of appeal after 20 years.\n\nThe condemned are given notice at least four days before execution. In the case of foreigners who have been sentenced to death, their families and diplomatic missions/embassies are given one to two weeks' notice.\n", "On September 25, 2007, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear a lethal-injection challenge arising from Kentucky, \"Baze v. Rees\". In Baze, the Supreme Court addressed whether Kentucky's particular lethal-injection procedure (using the standard three-drug protocol) comports with the Eighth Amendment; it also determined the proper legal standard by which lethal-injection challenges in general should be judged, all in an effort to bring some uniformity to how these claims are handled by the lower courts. Although uncertainty over whether executions in the United States would be put on hold during the period in which the United States Supreme Court considers the constitutionality of lethal injection initially arose after the court agreed to hear Baze, no executions took place during the period between when the court agreed to hear the case and when its ruling was announced, with the exception of one lethal injection in Texas hours after the court made its announcement.\n", "Section::::Execution.:Reaction to the execution.\n\nBULLET::::- – On 15 January, U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said in a news conference with the Egyptian foreign minister: \"We were disappointed there was not greater dignity given to the accused under these circumstances.\"\n", "2009 was the first year that no one was executed anywhere in Europe, however in March 2010, Belarus executed the last two people on its death row.\n", "The Criminal Justice Bill in 1988 provided a further opportunity for a debate; the new clause proposed by Roger Gale allowed for the jury in a murder case to \"have the power, upon reaching a verdict of guilt of murder, to recommend ... death in the manner authorised by law\". It was rejected by 218 to 341.\n\nThe aforementioned bills were rejected despite support from then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.\n", "In Jamaica, in the case \"Pratt v Attorney General for Jamaica\", the death penalty was overturned for two prisoners by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, who had made reference to the death row phenomenon. In these judges' opinions, the prisoners had been on death row for too long, and that too many appeals were allowed to the prisoners, who were forced by instinct to attempt to appeal and were thus confined to death row for too long.\n", "In the United States, prisoners may wait many years before execution can be carried out due to the complex and time-consuming appeals procedures mandated in the jurisdiction. The time between sentencing and execution has increased relatively steadily between 1977 and 2010, including a 22% jump between 1989 and 1990 and a similar jump between 2008 and 2009. In 2010, a death row inmate waited an average of 178 months (roughly 15 years) between sentencing and execution. Nearly a quarter of inmates on death row in the U.S. die of natural causes while awaiting execution.\n", "A similar process is available for prisoners sentenced to death by the judgment of a federal court.\n", "The new Parliament in 1983 again prompted supporters of capital punishment to put their case. Sir Edward Gardner's motion \"That this House favours the restoration of the death penalty for murder\" was debated on 13 July 1983, with several amendments moved to restrict capital punishment to certain categories of murder. The amendments were voted on first: capital punishment for murder \"resulting from acts of terrorism\" was rejected by 245 to 361, for murder \"of a police officer during the course of his duties\" by 263 to 344, for murder \"of a prison officer during the course of his duties\" by 252 to 348, for murder \"by shooting or causing an explosion\" by 204 to 374, and for murder \"in the course or furtherance of theft\" by 194 to 369. The main motion was then defeated by 223 to 368. Towards the end of the Parliament, a new clause proposed to the Criminal Justice Bill proposed to return the death penalty for \"A person convicted by the unanimous verdict of a jury of the premeditated killing of another person or of knowingly and intentionally killing another person in a manner, or for a reason, or in circumstances which a reasonable person would consider to be evil\" was rejected by 230 to 342 on 1 April 1987.\n", "After the first few days, the overworked executioners requested firing squads. These requests were rejected on the claim that the Shari'a mandated hanging for apostates and enemies of Allah, though it is thought that the real reason may have been that hanging was quieter than gunfire and would thus better preserve the secrecy of the operations.\n\nAt first this secrecy was effective. \"One survivor admits that he thought he was being processed to be released in time for the forthcoming peace celebrations.\"\n\nSection::::The Massacre.:Dealing with leftists.\n", "In order to discourage the military from staging coups in the future, how about if they line all of us up and shot us one by one? I do not certainly want to be arrested, given some sort of trial and shot. But I would be a stupid General if I sit in the comfort of my farm and await the VENGEANCE that is about to be unleashed on us... I will pray to take away the fear and confusion weighing on my mind now.\n\nSection::::Execution.:Premonitions.:Execution.\n", "Hangings always take place at dawn on Friday and are by the long drop method developed in the United Kingdom by William Marwood. The executioner refers to the Official Table of Drops. The government have said that they:\n\nNeither persons under the age of 18 at the time of their offence nor pregnant women can be sentenced to death.\n", "Every Firing Squad scene was centered around the same basic format, beginning just before the execution was to take place, with;\n\nEl Capitano: \"Ready..., Aim...\"\n\nCast Member: \"-Wait a minute, stop the execution!\"\n\nEl Capitano: \"(Groans) What is it \"this\" time?\"\n", "In September 2005, three murderers were the first people to be executed since the restoration. Then on March 9, 2006, an official of Iraq's Supreme Judicial Council confirmed that Iraqi authorities had executed the first insurgents by hanging.\n\n27 people, including one woman, were executed by the Iraqi government on September 6, 2006, for high crimes against civilians.\n" ]

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[ "In the view of Paul and Anne Ehrlich, \"for earth as a whole (including those parts of it we call Australia and the United States), human beings are far above carrying capacity today.\"\n\nThe application of the concept of carrying capacity for the human population has been criticized for not successfully capturing the multi-layered processes between humans and the environment, which have a nature of fluidity and non-equilibrium, and for sometimes being employed in a blame-the-victim framework. \n", "Several estimates of the carrying capacity have been made with a wide range of population numbers. A 2001 UN report said that two-thirds of the estimates fall in the range of 4 billion to 16 billion with unspecified standard errors, with a median of about 10 billion. More recent estimates are much lower, particularly if non-renewable resource depletion and increased consumption are considered. Changes in habitat quality or human behavior at any time might increase or reduce carrying capacity. Research conducted by the Australian National University and Stockholm Resilience Centre mentioned that there is a risk for the planet to cross the planetary thresholds and reach “Hothouse Earth” conditions.. In this case, the Earth would see its carrying capacity severely reduced.\n", "Supporters of the concept argue that the idea of a limited carrying capacity is just as valid applied to humans as when applied to any other species. Animal population size, living standards, and resource depletion vary, but the concept of carrying capacity still applies. The number of people is not the only factor in the carrying capacity of Earth. Waste and over-consumption, especially by wealthy and near-wealthy people and nations, are also putting significant strain on the environment together with human overpopulation. Population and consumption together appear to be at the core of many human problems. Some of these issues have been studied by computer simulation models such as World3. When scientists talk of global change today, they are usually referring to human-caused changes in the environment of sufficient magnitude eventually to \"reduce\" the carrying capacity of much of Earth (as opposed to local or regional areas) to support organisms, especially \"Homo sapiens.\" \n", "The main factor in mass gain is in-falling material, cosmic dust, meteors, etc. are the most significant contributors to Earth's increase in mass. The sum of material is estimated to be annually, although this can vary significantly; to take an extreme example, the Chicxulub impactor, with a midpoint mass estimate of , added 900 million times that annual dustfall amount to the Earth's mass in a single event.\n", "Additional changes in mass are due to the mass–energy equivalence principal, although these changes are relatively negligible. Mass loss due to the combination of nuclear fission and natural radioactive decay is estimated to amount to 16 tons per year,\n\n, though these do not on their own change the total mass-energy of the earth.\n\nAn additional loss due to spacecraft on escape trajectories has been estimated at since the mid-20th century. Earth lost about 3473 tons in the initial 53 years of the space age, but the trend is currently decreasing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Abundance of elements in Earth's crust\n", "Technology can play a role in the dynamics of carrying capacity and while this can sometimes be positive, in other cases its influence can be problematic. For example, it has been suggested that in the past that the Neolithic revolution increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans through the invention of agriculture. In a similar way, viewed from the perspective of foods, the use of fossil fuels has been alleged to artificially increase the carrying capacity of the world by the use of stored sunlight, even though that food production does not guarantee the capacity of the Earth's climatic and biospheric life-support systems to withstand the damage and wastes arising from such fossil fuels. However, such interpretations presume the continued and uninterrupted functioning of all other critical components of the global system. It has also been suggested that other technological advances that have increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans are: polders, fertilizer, composting, greenhouses, land reclamation, and fish farming. In an adverse way, however, many technologies enable economic entities and individual humans to inflict far more damage and eradication, far more quickly and efficiently on a wider-scale than ever. Examples include machine guns, chainsaws, earth-movers, and the capacity of industrialized fishing fleets to capture and harvest targeted fish species faster than the fish themselves can reproduce are examples of such problematic outcomes of technology.\n", "Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute, has said: \"It would take 1.5 Earths to sustain our present level of consumption. Environmentally, the world is in an overshoot mode.\"\n\nSection::::Humans.:Ecological footprint.\n", "Section::::Measurement.:Global human impact on biodiversity.\n\nAt a fundamental level, energy flow and biogeochemical cycling set an upper limit on the number and mass of organisms in any ecosystem. Human impacts on the Earth are demonstrated in a general way through detrimental changes in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to life, most notably those of water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.\n", "The combined effect is a net loss of material, estimated at per year. This amount is of the total earth mass. The annual net loss is essentially due to 100,000 tons lost due to atmospheric escape, and an average of 45,000 tons gained from in-falling dust and meteorites. This is well within the mass uncertainty of 0.01% (), so the estimated value of Earth's mass is unaffected by this factor.\n\nMass loss is due to atmospheric escape of gases. About 95,000 tons of hydrogen per year () and 1,600 tons of helium per year are lost through atmospheric escape.\n", "In the past, the main drivers of global change have been solar variation, plate tectonics, volcanism, proliferation and abatement of life, meteorite impact, resource depletion, changes in Earth's orbit around the sun and changes in the tilt of Earth on its axis. There is overwhelming evidence that now the main driver of planetary-scale change, or global change, is the growing human population's demand for energy, food, goods, services and information, and its disposal of its waste products. In the last 250 years, global change has caused climate change, widespread species extinctions, fish-stock collapse, desertification, ocean acidification, ozone depletion, pollution, and other large-scale shifts.\n", "More recently, in an Australian study published in 2013, researchers surveyed maternity health care providers in Queensland and discovered a lack of knowledge of body mass index (BMI) and body weight guidelines for pregnant women. The lack of guideline knowledge was identified as a barrier to effective care, while the researchers also addressed the social stigma associated communicating guidelines and recommendations for overweight and obese pregnant patients. The study acknowledged that the stigmatisation traditionally associated with excessive weight is increasingly challenged by the ‘creeping normality’ and broader acceptance of overweight and obese people worldwide. Globally, people considered to be of a healthy weight is only 39.40% of the world's population.\n", "A 2019 study published in \"Nature Communications\" found that rapid biodiversity loss is impacting larger mammals and birds to a much greater extent than smaller ones, with the body mass of such animals expected to shrink by 25% over the next century. Over the past 125,000 years, the average body size of wildlife has fallen by 14% as human actions eradicated megafauna on all continents with the exception of Africa.\n\nSection::::Defaunation.:Habitat destruction.\n", "Empirical evidence shows that increasing levels of result in lower concentrations of many minerals in plants tissues. Doubling levels results in an 8% decline, on average, in the concentration of minerals. Declines in magnesium, calcium, potassium, iron, zinc and other minerals in crops can worsen the quality of human nutrition. Researchers report that the levels expected in the second half of this century will likely reduce the levels of zinc, iron, and protein in wheat, rice, peas, and soybeans. Some two billion people live in countries where citizens receive more than 60 percent of their zinc or iron from these types of crops. Deficiencies of these nutrients already cause an estimated loss of 63 million life-years annually.\n", "Studies have shown that obesity has become increasingly prevalent in both people and animals such as pets and laboratory animals. There have been no linkages found between this obesity trend and diet and exercise. According to Professor Robert H. Lustig from the University of California, San Francisco, \"[E]ven those at the lower end of the body mass index (BMI) curve are gaining weight. Whatever is happening is happening to everyone, suggesting an environmental trigger.\" \n", "Thus, carrying capacity interpretations that focus solely on resource limitations alone (such as food) may neglect wider functional factors. If the humans neither gain nor lose weight in the long-term, the calculation is fairly accurate. If the quantity of food is invariably equal to the \"Y\" amount, carrying capacity has been reached. Humans, with the need to enhance their reproductive success (see Richard Dawkins' \"The Selfish Gene\"), understand that food supply can vary and also that other factors in the environment can alter humans' need for food. A house, for example, might mean that one does not need to eat as much to stay warm as one otherwise would. Over time, monetary transactions have replaced barter and local production, and consequently modified local human carrying capacity. However, purchases also impact regions thousands of miles away. For example, carbon dioxide from an automobile travels to the upper atmosphere. This led Paul R. Ehrlich to develop the I = PAT equation.\n", "One way to estimate human demand compared to ecosystem's carrying capacity is \"ecological footprint\" accounting. Rather than speculating about future possibilities and limitations imposed by carrying capacity constraints, Ecological Footprint accounting provides empirical, non-speculative assessments of the past. It compares historic regeneration rates, biocapacity, against historical human demand, ecological footprint, in the same year. One result shows that humanity's demand footprint in 1999 exceeded the planet's bio-capacity by 20%. However, this measurement does not take into account the depletion of the actual fossil fuels, \"which would result in a carbon Footprint many hundreds of times higher than the current calculation.\"\n", "Humanity has caused the loss of 83% of all wild mammals and half of plants The world's chickens are triple the weight of all the wild birds, while domesticated cattle and pigs outweigh all wild mammals by 14 to 1.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion to over seven billion. The combined biomass of all humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at ~ 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals.\n", "Some aspects of a system's carrying capacity may involve matters such as available supplies of food, water, raw materials, and/or other similar resources. In addition, there are other factors that govern carrying capacity which may be less instinctive or less intuitive in nature, such as ever-increasing and/or ever-accumulating levels of wastes, damage, and/or eradication of essential components of any complex functioning system. Eradication of, for example, large or critical portions of any complex system (envision a space vehicle, for instance, or an airplane, or an automobile, or computer code, or the body components of a living vertebrate) can interrupt essential processes and dynamics in ways that induce systems failures or unexpected collapse. (As an example of these latter factors, the \"carrying capacity\" of a complex system such an airplane is more than a matter of available food, or water, or available seating, but also reflects total weight carried and presumes that its passengers do not damage, destroy, or eradicate parts, doors, windows, wings, engine parts, fuel, and oil, and so forth.) Thus, on a global scale, food and similar resources may affect planetary carrying capacity to some extent so long as Earth's human passengers do not dismantle, eradicate, or otherwise destroy critical biospheric life-support capacities for essential processes of self-maintenance, self-perpetuation, and self-repair.\n", "Throughout most of history, humanity has used nature's resources to build cities and roads, to provide food and create products, and to release carbon dioxide at a rate that was well within Earth's budget. But by the early 1970s, that critical threshold had been crossed: Human consumption began outstripping what the planet could reproduce. According to Global Footprint Network’s calculations, our demand for renewable ecological resources and the services they provide is now equivalent to that of more than 1.5 Earths. The data shows us on track to require the resources of two planets well before mid-21st century.\n", "The loss of 10 pounds of muscle per decade is one consequence of a sedentary lifestyle. The adaptive processes of the human body will only respond if continually called upon to exert greater force to meet higher physiological demands.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "Although the sulfur curve shows shifts between net sulfur oxidation and net sulfur reduction in the geologic past, the magnitude of the current human impact is probably unprecedented in the geologic record. Human activities greatly increase the flux of sulfur to the atmosphere, some of which is transported globally. Humans are mining coal and extracting petroleum from the Earth's crust at a rate that mobilizes 150 x 10 gS/yr, which is more than double the rate of 100 years ago. The result of human impact on these processes is to increase the pool of oxidized sulfur (SO) in the global cycle, at the expense of the storage of reduced sulfur in the Earth's crust. Therefore, human activities do not cause a major change in the global pools of S, but they do produce massive changes in the annual flux of S through the atmosphere.\n", "In a study with a middle-aged to elderly sample, personal recollection of maximum weight in their lifetime was recorded and an association with mortality was seen with 15% weight loss for the overweight. Moderate weight loss was associated with reduced cardiovascular risk amongst obese men. Intentional weight loss was not directly measured, but it was assumed that those that died within 3 years, due to disease etc., had not intended to lose weight. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n", "Increases in human stature are a main indicator of improvements in the average health of populations. The newest data set for the average height of adult male birth cohorts, from the mid-nineteenth century to 1980, in 15 European countries was studied (in the populations listed).\n\nDuring a century average height increased by 11 cm representing a dramatic improvement of this phenomenon. The apparent acceleration of body height occurred during the Ĝ.\n\nIn the mid-nineteenth century young European women's menarche occurred at the average age of 16.5 years. One hundred years later, this age was reduced to under 12 years.\n", "In the last few decades, no credible mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass, and there is no credible evidence for new mass having been added in the past. The increased gravity of Earth would have altered the orbits of the celestial objects in the Solar System, including Moon's orbit and Earth's own orbit; proponents have no adequate explanation to address this problem. This is a big obstacle for acceptance of the theory by other geologists.\n" ]

[ "The increase of humans on the planet increases the weight the earth has to sustain, and the earth should have issues by now with the amount of humans on earth. " ]

[ "Regardless of the increase of human beings on the planet, human's combined weight are so miniscule compared to the earth that it will not effect the earth. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The increase of humans on the planet increases the weight the earth has to sustain, and the earth should have issues by now with the amount of humans on earth. ", "The weight of human beings has an affect on the planet." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Regardless of the increase of human beings on the planet, human's combined weight are so miniscule compared to the earth that it will not effect the earth. ", "The weight of human beings are a vanishingly small fraction of the total mass of the Earth." ]

[ "By the 1970s, the terms \"explosive cyclogenesis\" and even \"meteorological bombs\" were being used by MIT professor Fred Sanders (building on work from the 1950s by Tor Bergeron), who brought the term into common usage in a 1980 article in the \"Monthly Weather Review\". In 1980, Sanders and his colleague John Gyakum defined a \"bomb\" as an extratropical cyclone that deepens by at least (24 sin φ/ sin 60°)mb in 24 hours, where φ represents latitude in degrees. This is based on the definition, standardised by Bergeron, for explosive development of a cyclone at 60°N as deepening by 24mb in 24 hours. Sanders and Gyakum noted that an equivalent intensification is dependent on latitude: at the poles this would be a drop in pressure of 28 mb/24 hours, while at 25 degrees latitude it would be only 12 mb/24 hours. All these rates qualify for what Sanders and Gyakum called \"1 bergeron\".\n", "Although their cyclogenesis is totally different from that of tropical cyclones, bombs can produce winds of 74–95 mph, the same order as the first categories of the Saffir-Simpson scale and give heavy precipitation. Even though only a minority of the bombs become so strong, some have caused significant damage.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn the 1940s and 1950s, meteorologists at the Bergen School of Meteorology began informally calling some storms that grew over the sea \"bombs\" because they developed with a great ferocity rarely seen over land. \n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Juanita: In Kathryn Caseys novel \"The Killing Storm\", the hunt for a boy kidnapped by a serial killer is complicated by a Category Four hurricane on a course to strike Houston.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Little Eva: The name of the storm in Clive Cussler's \"Cyclops\". Described as \"...a small blow with a diameter no more than sixty miles wide.\" The storm strands the heroes on an island used by the Soviets as an electronic intelligence post.\n", "The term \"weather bomb\" is popularly used in New Zealand to describe dramatic or destructive weather events. Rarely are the events actual instances of explosive cyclogenesis, as the rapid deepening of low pressure areas is rare around New Zealand. This use of \"bomb\" may lead to confusion with the more strictly defined meteorological term. In Japan, the term is used both academically and commonly to refer to an extratropical cyclone which meets the meteorological \"bomb\" conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- (Unnamed): In Hazard, a 1938 novel by Richard Hughes. A single-screw turbine cargo steamer encounters a hurricane off the coast of Cuba. Reviewers compared it to Joseph Conrad's \"Typhoon,\" admired the weather descriptions, complained of \"puppet-like\" characters.\n\nBULLET::::- (Unnamed): The Mystery of the Double Double Cross A 1982 novel by Mary Blount Christian prominently features a hurricane hitting Galveston, TX.\n", "Section::::Fictional tropical cyclones.:Works predominantly focused on the occurrence of a fictional tropical cyclone.:Television.\n\nBULLET::::- (Unnamed): Category Five storm of mysterious origin that threatens Miami with winds of over in the first-season episode \"Target Hurricane\" of Science Fiction Theater.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Grace and Hurricane Agatha: The made-for-BBC movie \"Superstorm\", starring Tom Sizemore and Nicola Stephenson, involves two hurricanes named Grace and Agatha. Grace is a Category 5 hurricane that strikes Long Island, where the Stormshield headquarters is located. Agatha downs a plane.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Eve: Hit Miami, Florida on the premiere episode of \"Invasion\". Believed to be cover for extraterrestrial activity. Had a pressure of 936 mbar; according to \"TV Guide\", a Category three on the Saffir-Simpson Scale. The NOAA website notes that \"[t]he series was cancelled after its initial season, with no resolution to the question, 'Does global warming cause more squid people?'\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Lenore: Shown in the \"Nip/Tuck\" episode \"Conor McNamara, 2026\". Struck Miami.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Eduardo: Hit the United States east coast, particularly Florida, in \"\", and later merged with a destructive non-tropical system near Washington, D.C. The resulting storm was more powerful than either of the other two. The NOAA website sums up the somewhat shoddy science as follows: \"Falling chunks of the mesosphere combine with urban heat islands to spawn global spanning superstorms.\" Eduardo is considered as a Category 5 hurricane.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Barbara: Hit Springfield in \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Hurricane Neddy.\" Destroyed Ned Flanders's house, picked up Barney Gumble's Bowlerama and dumped it on a nearby hill.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Elizabeth: Artificially created Category Five hurricane targeted at Los Angeles in the film Storm. The film's opening reveals that Hurricane Andrew was the result of an earlier test of the same technology.,\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Odin: The name of a Category Five hurricane, that forces the hero's plane to crash near a small Caribbean island being used by nuclear smugglers in the novel \"Second Wind\" by Dick Francis. Preceded by Hurricane Nicky(Category Three) and followed by Hurricane Sheila (after two unnamed storms),\n", "BULLET::::- List of wettest tropical cyclones by country#Cuba\n\nBULLET::::- List of wettest tropical cyclones in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Opal (1995) – Affected the same areas as a powerful Category 3 hurricane.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Georges (1998) – Just as powerful and produced similar effects in the Gulf Coast Region.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Ivan (2004) – Struck the Gulf Coast less than a year earlier, causing devastating damage.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Gustav (2008) – Took a similar track before striking southern Louisiana.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Patricia – the second strongest tropical cyclone worldwide with a pressure of 872 hPa (mbar; 25.75 inHg), intensified explosively in the eastern Pacific Ocean from a tropical storm to a Category 5 major hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale in 24 hours during October 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Wilma – the strongest Atlantic hurricane on record, intensified explosively in the Caribbean Sea from a Category 1 hurricane to a Category 5 major hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale in 24 hours during October 2005\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Joan–Miriam (1988) – another late-season hurricane which crossed from the Atlantic to the East Pacific\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Beta (2005) – similar hurricane that struck Nicaragua in late October\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Felix (2007) – intense Category 5 hurricane that caused 130 fatalities in Nicaragua\n\nBULLET::::- Tropical Storm Hermine (2010) – a tropical storm originating in the East Pacific basin that eventually crossed over into the Gulf of Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Nate (2017) – caused significant damage in Central America as a tropical storm\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The NHC's advisory archive for Hurricane Otto\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Robert: Shown on the \"Family Guy\" episode \"One If By Clam, Two If By Sea.\" Hit Quahog, Rhode Island with downed power lines, several damaged buildings, and downed trees and brush... A different Hurricane Robert is mentioned in an episode of \"The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\" as having wiped out half of Miami and Hilary refers to it as Bobby to \"...spread a little sunshine\".\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane RuPaul: Massive storm headed for Quahog in the \"Family Guy\" episode \"The Perfect Castaway\".\n", "List of Atlantic–Pacific crossover hurricanes\n\nAn Atlantic–Pacific crossover hurricane is a tropical cyclone that develops in the Atlantic Ocean and moves into the Pacific Ocean, or vice versa. Since reliable records began in 1851, a total of eighteen tropical cyclones have done this. It is more common for the remnants of a North Atlantic hurricane to redevelop into a different storm in the Pacific; in such a scenario, they are not considered the same system.\n\nSection::::Storms.\n\nSection::::Storms.:Other storms.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Carol (1954): Denis Lehane's 2003 novel \"Shutter Island\" is set in 1954 on an island off the U.S. eastern seaboard, as the hurricane strikes two U.S. Marshalls search for a murderess who has escaped from a mental hospital for the criminally insane.,\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 Perfect Storm: Sebastian Junger's novel \"The Perfect Storm\" is about the crew of the Andrea Gail during the storm.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Lorna: Category Five hurricane that threatens environmental havoc in Wilbur Smiths \"Hungry As The Sea\", the storm is disrupted when the cargo of the world's largest oil tanker is ignited at its heart.\n\nBULLET::::- Typhoon Louise: In the 1986 thriller \"Tsunami\", the hero investigates the sinking of a ship off the coast of Taiwan by this storm, uncovering evidence that the storm has been used to cover up insurance fraud.\n", "BULLET::::- Tropical Storm Barney: The name of an artificially enhanced tropical storm that strikes Barbados with winds in excess of in opening of the novel, \"\". The authors describe the storms sudden intensification as \"...bloated menacing clouds exploding over the open ocean with the unholy force of a mid-air detonation.\" This description is the books \"leitmotif\" for a manipulated storm.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Claude: A team of scientists try to use an EMP burst to destroy a Category Two hurricane following a track similar to that of the Long Island Express. Preceded by Hurricane Barbara.\n", "The standard was developed before the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale came into use, and the features of the Standard Project fit poorly with the scale. The wind speed for the project hurricane was just 100 miles per hour, which falls into Category 2; other features more closely resemble a much more severe Category 4. The United States Army Corps of Engineers generally calls it the equivalent of a fast-moving Category 3. \n", "\"Slattery's Hurricane\" begins with: \"...This is a hurricane. Hurricanes are windstorms of great violence several hundred miles in diameter, with a dead calm at the center called the eye. Like whirlpools, they spin rapidly, hurling great destruction in their paths. They're spawned in the doldrums, their father the heat of the sun, their mother the moisture of the sea. From July to December every year, the Caribbean crawls with these evil offspring of the elements...\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 New England hurricane\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Bob\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Carol\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Connie\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Diane\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Floyd\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Gloria\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Isabel\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Sandy\n\nBULLET::::- List of New England hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of New York hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of New Jersey hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Pennsylvania hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Delaware hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Maryland hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Canada hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of retired Atlantic hurricane names\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- National Hurricane Center's advisory archive\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's advisory archive\n", "\"Note: This section only includes tropical cyclones that occurred during or after 1900, when Hawaii was acquired by the United States\"\"This section does not include tropical cyclones that affected the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands\"\n\nSection::::U.S. territories.\n\nSection::::U.S. territories.:American Samoa.\n\n\"Note: This section only includes tropical cyclones that occurred during or after 1900, when American Samoa was acquired by the United States\"\n\nSection::::U.S. territories.:Guam.\n\n\"Note: This section only includes tropical cyclones that occurred during or after 1899, when Guam was acquired by the United States\"\n\nSection::::U.S. territories.:Northern Mariana Islands.\n", "BULLET::::- Bomb cyclone - A rapid deepening of a mid-latitude cyclonic low-pressure area, typically occurring over the ocean, but can occur over land. The winds experienced during these storms can be as powerful as that of a typhoon or hurricane.\n\nBULLET::::- Coastal Storm — large wind waves and/or storm surge that strike the coastal zone. Their impacts include coastal erosion and coastal flooding\n\nBULLET::::- Derecho — A derecho is a widespread, long-lived, straight-line wind storm that is associated with a land-based, fast-moving group of severe thunderstorms.\n\nBULLET::::- Dust devil — a small, localized updraft of rising air.\n", "Section::::Cyclone evolution.:Shapiro-Keyser model.\n\nA second competing theory for extratropical cyclone development over the oceans is the Shapiro-Keyser model, developed in 1990. Its main differences with the Norwegian Cyclone Model are the fracture of the cold front, treating warm-type occlusions and warm fronts as the same, and allowing the cold front to progress through the warm sector perpendicular to the warm front. This model was based on oceanic cyclones and their frontal structure, as seen in surface observations and in previous projects which used aircraft to determine the vertical structure of fronts across the northwest Atlantic.\n\nSection::::Cyclone evolution.:Shapiro-Keyser model.:Warm seclusion.\n", "BULLET::::- United Arab Emirates\n\nBULLET::::- Dubai One\n\nBULLET::::- Dubai 33\n\nBULLET::::- Spacetoon\n\nBULLET::::- Ireland\n\nBULLET::::- RTÉ\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- Channel 5\n\nBULLET::::- Malaysia\n\nBULLET::::- TV2\n\nBULLET::::- MetroVision\n\nBULLET::::- Astro Ria\n\nBULLET::::- Zimbabwe\n\nBULLET::::- ZBC\n\nBULLET::::- Thailand\n\nBULLET::::- IBC 7\n\nBULLET::::- Botswana\n\nBULLET::::- Botswana TV\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong\n\nBULLET::::- ATV World\n\nBULLET::::- Eswatini\n\nBULLET::::- Swazi TV\n\nBULLET::::- Germany\n\nBULLET::::- BFBS (Original English dub)\n\nBULLET::::- SSVC Television (with the original English dub as part of \"Children's SSVC\")\n\nBULLET::::- Jordan\n\nBULLET::::- Channel 2\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines\n\nBULLET::::- Television\n\nBULLET::::- Yey! (Coming Soon)\n\nBULLET::::- DZMM TeleRadyo (Coming Soon)\n\nBULLET::::- S+A (Coming Soon)\n\nBULLET::::- Radio\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Factors affecting the effectiveness of the cleaning agents.\n\nTemperature of the cleaning solution. Elevating the temperature of a cleaning solution increases its dirt removal efficiency. Molecules with high kinetic energy dislodge dirt faster than the slow moving molecules of a cold solution.\n\nConcentration of the cleaning agent. A concentrated cleaning solution will clean a dirty surface much better than a dilute one due to the increased surface binding capacity.\n\nContact time of the cleaning solution. The longer the detergent contact period, the higher the cleaning efficiency. After some time, the detergent eventually dissolves the hard stains/soil from the dirty surface.\n", "Wet shampoo cleaning with rotary machines, followed by thorough wet vacuuming, was widespread until about the 1970s, but industry perception of shampoo cleaning changed with the advent of encapsulation. Hot-water extraction, also regarded as preferable by all manufacturers, had not been introduced either. Wet shampoos were once formulated from coconut oil soaps; wet shampoo residues can be foamy or sticky, and steam cleaning often reveals dirt unextracted by shampoos. Since no rinse is performed, the powerful residue can continue to collect dirt after cleaning, leading to the misconception that carpet cleaning can lead to the carpet getting \"dirtier faster\" after the cleaning. The best method is truckmounted hot water extraction.\n", "Although heat was required for perming, it was soon realized that if an improvement had to be made over the Marcel method, other means were necessary to avoid overheating and to speed up the waving process. The use of water on its own was an obvious choice, particularly as the hair was already wet from washing, for no other reason than that it prevented overheating, and that steam seemed to improve the process (hence the expression \"steaming time\"). It was not long before experiments were carried out on the use of additives, and it was soon apparent that alkaline additives improved the results.\n", "Hot water that is comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. Bacteria grow much faster at body temperature (37 C). However, warm, soapy water is more effective than cold, soapy water at removing natural oils which hold soils and bacteria. Contrary to popular belief however, scientific studies have shown that using warm water has no effect on reducing the microbial load on hands.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n", "Once the chemicals are applied, they are allowed to dwell on the surface of the grease for a period of time, before being washed off of the surface with hot water. In extreme situations, where grease buildup is too heavy for a chemical application and a rinse, scrapers may be used to remove excess buildup from the contaminated surfaces, before chemicals are applied.\n\nSection::::Cleaning processes.:Hot water pressure-washing.\n", "Though commonly called \"steam cleaning\", no actual steam is involved in the HWE cleaning process apart from steam that may escape incidentally from hot water. When the cleaning solution comes in contact with the carpet, it is 50 to 120 degrees Celsius, depending on the heat available from the cleaning unit. In a modern truck-mounted carpet cleaning machine, water can be heated under pressure to over 150 degrees Celsius, but after passing through high-pressure steel braided hose and several manifolds, the water loses much of its heat.\n", "Knives and other cooking tools that are made of carbon steel, semi-stainless steels like D2, or specialized, highly hardened cutlery steels like ZDP189 corrode in the extended moisture bath of dishwashers, compared to briefer baths of hand washing. Cookware is made of austenitic stainless steels, which are more stable.\n", "Extraction is, by far, the most important step in the hot water extraction process. Since the hot-water extraction method uses much more water than other methods like bonnet or shampoo cleaning, proper extraction and air flow are critical to avoid drying issues such as mold growth & browning of wool fibres. Drying time may also be decreased by extra use of fans, de-humidifiers, and/or outdoor ventilation.\n", "If the hot fluid had a much larger heat capacity rate, then when hot and cold fluids went through a heat exchanger, the hot fluid would have a very small change in temperature while the cold fluid would heat up a significant amount. If the cool fluid has a much lower heat capacity rate, that is desirable. If they were equal, they would both change more or less temperature equally, assuming equal mass-flow per unit time through a heat exchanger. In practice, a cooling fluid which has both a higher specific heat capacity and a lower heat capacity rate is desirable, accounting for the pervasiveness of water cooling solutions in technology—the polar nature of the water molecule creates some distinct sub-atomic behaviors favorable in practice.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Softening.\n\nIt is often desirable to soften hard water. Most detergents contain ingredients that counteract the effects of hard water on the surfactants. For this reason, water softening is often unnecessary. Where softening is practised, it is often recommended to soften only the water sent to domestic hot water systems so as to prevent or delay inefficiencies and damage due to scale formation in water heaters. A common method for water softening involves the use of ion exchange resins, which replace ions like Ca by twice the number of monocations such as sodium or potassium ions.\n", "Items contaminated by chemicals such as wax, cigarette ash, poisons, mineral oils, wet paints, oiled tools, furnace filters, etc. can contaminate a dishwasher, since the surfaces inside small water passages cannot be wiped clean as surfaces are in hand-washing, so contaminants remain to affect future loads. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher.\n\nSection::::Differences between dishwashers and hand washing.:Environmental comparison.\n\nDishwashers use less water, and therefore less fuel to heat the water, than hand washing, except for small quantities washed in wash bowls without running water.\n", "However, higher-temperature washing uses more energy, and many fabrics and elastics are damaged at higher temperatures. Temperatures exceeding have the undesirable effect of inactivating the enzymes when using biological detergent.\n\nMany machines are cold-fill, connected to cold water only, which they heat to operating temperature. Where water can be heated more cheaply or with less carbon dioxide emission than by electricity, cold-fill operation is inefficient.\n", "During laundering, temperature and detergent work to reduce microbial contamination levels on fabrics. Soil and microbes from fabrics are severed and suspended in the wash water. These are then \"washed away\" during the rinse and spin cycles. In addition to physical removal, micro-organisms can be killed by thermal inactivation which increases as the temperature is increased. Chemical inactivation of microbes by the surfactants and activated oxygen-based bleach used in detergents contributes to the hygiene effectiveness of laundering. Adding hypochlorite bleach in the washing process achieves inactivation of microbes. A number of other factors can contribute including drying and ironing.\n", "In the United States today, domestic hot water used in homes is most commonly heated with natural gas, electric resistance, or a heat pump. Electric heat pump hot water heaters are significantly more efficient than electric resistance hot water heaters, but also more expensive to purchase. Some energy utilities offer their customers funding to help offset the higher first cost of energy efficient hot water heaters. \n\nSection::::Types of water heating appliances.\n", "Another approach is with solid cleaning media (blasting) which consists of the CO dry ice process: For tougher requirements pellets are used while for more sensitive materials or components CO in form of snow is applied. One draw back is the high energy consumption required to make dry ice.\n\nLast but not least there are processes without any media like vibration, laser, brushing and blow/exhaust systems.\n\nAll cleaning steps are characterised by media and applied temperatures and their individual agitation/application (mechanical impact). There is a wide range of different methods and combinations of these methods:\n\nBULLET::::- Blasting\n", "The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, social and religious diversity throughout the nations, races, creeds and tribes across the globe. Applying heat to a food usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, consistency, appearance, and nutritional properties. Methods of cooking that involve the boiling of liquid in a receptacle have been practised at least since the 10th millennium BC, with the introduction of pottery.\n\nSection::::Housekeeping.:Cleaning.\n", "Section::::Industry.\n\nIn industry, certain processes such as those related to integrated circuit manufacturing, require conditions of exceptional cleanliness which are achieved by working in cleanrooms. Cleanliness is essential to successful electroplating, since molecular layers of oil can prevent adhesion of the coating. The industry has developed specialized techniques for parts cleaning, as well as tests for cleanliness. The most commonly used tests rely on the wetting behaviour of a clean hydrophilic metal surface. Cleanliness is also important to vacuum systems to reduce outgassing. Cleanliness is also crucial for semiconductor manufacturing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Antiseptic\n\nBULLET::::- Aseptic technique\n\nBULLET::::- Cleaner\n", "Hot water extraction\n\nHot Water Extraction (HWE) is a method of carpet cleaning. It involves a combination of hot water and cleaning agents being injected into the fibers of a carpet at high pressure and all lifted soil being removed by a powerful vacuum. \n\nSection::::Process.\n", "When heat is combined with multi-phase extraction, the elevated temperatures will reduce the viscosity and surface tension of the recovered fluids which makes removal faster and easier. This is the original purpose for the development of ERH - to enhance oil recovery (see above).\n\nSection::::Weaknesses.\n\nBULLET::::- Weaknesses of ERH include heat losses on small sites. Treatment volumes that have a large surface area but are thin with respect to depth will have significant heat losses which makes ERH less efficient. The minimum treatment interval for efficient ERH remediation is approximately 10 vertical feet.\n", "Section::::Wash cycles.:Washing.\n\nMany front loading machines have internal electrical heating elements to heat the wash water, to near boiling if desired. The rate of chemical cleaning action of the detergent and other laundry chemicals increases greatly with temperature, in accordance with the Arrhenius equation. Washing machines with internal heaters can use special detergents formulated to release different chemical ingredients at different temperatures, allowing different type of stains and soils to be cleaned from the clothes as the wash water is heated up by the electrical heater.\n", "A clean glass subsurface that will not interfere with the process is essential before beginning the powder coating procedure. Washing to remove oil, dirt and grease can be accomplished with solvents, wipes or a traditional wash system. Proper temperature control is critical from the very beginning, including during the preparation stage. Certain temperature ranges are recommended, but they are proprietary at the moment to companies who have pioneered the technique.\n\nSection::::The Coating Process.\n", "Thermal cleaning\n\nThermal cleaning is a combined process involving pyrolysis and oxidation. As an industrial application, thermal cleaning is used to remove organic substances such as polymers, plastics and coatings from parts, products or production components like extruder screws, spinnerets and static mixers. Thermal cleaning is the most common cleaning method in industrial environment. A variety of different methods have been developed so far for a wide range of applications.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "With the aim of decreasing net efficiency, some brands of laundry detergent have been reformulated for use with cold water. By allowing the consumer to use cold water rather than hot, each load cuts back significantly on energy costs.\n\nSection::::Environmentally benign alternatives.:2-Butoxylethanol, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether (EGBE).\n\n2-Butoxyethanol is a common glycol ether used as a solvent in carpet, hard-surface, glass, and oven cleaners owing to its surfactant properties. It is a relatively cheap, volatile solvent of low toxicity. It has the further advantage of not bioaccumulating.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental effects of laundry wastewater\n\nBULLET::::- Green cleaning\n", "Section::::Importance of cooking temperature on interfaces.:Smoke points of oils.\n", "The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibers, then passes over a plate heated by gas flames. When done to fabrics containing cotton, this results in increased wetability, better dyeing characteristics, improved reflection, no \"frosty\" appearance, a smoother surface, better clarity in printing, improved visibility of the fabric structure, less pilling and decreased contamination through removal of fluff and lint.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Path of Esteem: Stored in a large, flat, golden receptacle, The Path of Esteem serves the same role as a red carpet. When the golden chest is placed on the ground, a large number of red crab like creatures exit, forming a red path for the esteemed to walk upon.\n", "The blowgun can be used to fire darts, as well. Often, these are quite small, and do little harm by themselves; instead, they are effective due to poison spread onto their points, from (for example) dart frogs or curare.\n\nSection::::Other traditional darts.:Rope dart.\n", "BULLET::::- Area 2 section Underwater, Fish Boss: swims up and down, blowing bubbles that can be destroyed by a few tail swings, the bubbles can burst into three balls, the fish will eventually blow a very large bubble that fills the screen with balls\n\nBULLET::::- Area 3 section Land, Beaver Boss: goes side to side clubbing two rocks together that produces sparks\n\nBULLET::::- Area 3 section Air, Bird Boss: flies around shooting three balls and will eventually fire a very large Power-Wave\n", "Tranquilizer darts are related to the darts for blowguns, but include a hypodermic needle and a hollow reservoir resembling a syringe, which is generally filled with sedatives or other drugs. These are launched from a special gun using compressed gas, a tuft of fibers at the back of the missile serving as both fletching and wadding.\n", "Bahamoot's body is flexible and responds to Kayus' movement, enabling Kayus to use Bahamoot as a mobile shield or as a whip-like weapon. The player can also circle the tail around a group of enemies to kill them. The tail of the yellow or blue dragon can be coiled around the player to offer almost complete invulnerability for a limited time.\n", "BULLET::::- In the animated series \"Ultimate Spider-Man\", the K'un-Lun ninja Scorpion uses a exaggerated tail-like rope dart against Iron Fist which is later incorporated into his suit tail in battles against Spider-Man and allies as a member of the Sinister Six.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Pulimurugan\" (2016), Mohanlal's character Murugan uses rope dart as a primary weapon of defense, though the use of the same is animated.\n\nBULLET::::- In the sixth second season episode \"A Fractured House\" of \"Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.\", HYDRA operative Marcus Scarlotti uses a thick rope dart as a weapon against S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Melinda May.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Some darts have a round cross section, others are bladed or vaned. In some cases the blades on the sides of the dart are bifurcated or divided into two parts. Some darts are shaped like a needle or a thorn, others have a tip like an arrowhead, or look like a dagger. What all the shapes have in common is their ability to pierce.\n\nSection::::Species variability.:Images.\n\nNote: both the scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) and the drawings below are taken from, or modified from, Koene & Schulenburg, 2005.\n", "Animal subjects used must be restrained to a fairly high degree when performing the tail withdrawal test due to the exact positioning necessary to direct the noxious stimuli. Restraint is usually accomplished by placing the subjects in small Plexiglas tubes or cloth/cardboard pockets that the subjects can either be habituated to or voluntarily enter.\n", "For thousands of years various peoples have used poisoned arrows (for example tipped with curare), to incapacitate animals before killing them, but the modern tranquillizer gun was invented only in the 1950s by New Zealander Colin Murdoch. While working with colleagues who were studying introduced wild goat and deer populations in New Zealand, Murdoch had the idea that the animals would be much easier to catch, examine, and release if a dose of tranquillizer could be administered by projection from afar. Murdoch went on to develop a range of rifles, darts, and pistols that have had an enormous impact on the treatment and study of animals around the world.\n", "The animal is hung from a tube by its tail for five minutes approximately 10 cm away from the ground. During this time the animal will try to escape and reach for the ground. The time it takes until it remains immobile is measured. Each animal is tested only once and out of view from the other animals. Within the study there should be two sets of rats, one group which is the control which has been injected with saline and the group being tested which has been injected with the anti-depressant like agents.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "However, there are symptoms that can be modeled in a lab setting, one of which is stress induced immobilization. If a rodent is subjected to the short term inescapable stress of being suspended in the air it will develop an immobile posture. If anti-depressant agents are administered before the test, the animal will struggle for a longer period of time than if not.\n", "BULLET::::- Research has shown that cinnamon oil, clove oil, and eugenol are effective snake repellents. Snakes will retreat when sprayed directly with these oils and will exit cargo or other confined spaces when these oils are introduced to the area.\n\nBULLET::::- In ancient times the Greek historian Herodotus noted that Arabian harvesters of frankincense used burning resin from \"Styrax\" trees to repel poisonous snakes that lived in the trees.\n\nBULLET::::- Camphor\n\nBULLET::::- Moth balls\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Seychellois Neuvieme\" is white with colored tail and head splashes (classic Turkish Van pattern)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seychellois Huitieme\" is white with colored tail and head splashes plus additional splashes of color on the legs\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seychellois Septieme\" is white with splashes of color on the legs and body in addition to those on the head and the colored tail\n\nThese are high grade white spotting of types nine, eight and seven.\n", "Two versions of the tail withdrawal assay are commonly employed in pain sensitivity testing. In the classic radiant heat test, a heat source is targeted onto a small area of the tail, and the latency to withdraw the tail away from the heat source is measured. In the tail-immersion test, a container of liquid is heated or cooled to a nociceptive temperature – normally 50–55 °C or below 0 °C. The animal subject is then placed with its tail immersed in the liquid, and the latency to withdraw the tail from the liquid is measured.\n", "The Colorpoint Shorthair comes in a variety of point colors. They include: Red Point (also called Flame Point), Cream Point, Cinnamon Point, Fawn Point, Seal Point, Chocolate Point, Blue Point, Lilac Point, Lynx Point (in any of the colors), Tortie Point (in any of the colors), and Torbie Point (in any of the colors). If a solid pointed kitten is born from \"Colorpoint Siamese\" parents, it is Registered as a \"Colorpoint Siamese,\" because it is still genetically a Colorpoint.\n", "There are several methods of powering fluid injection once the dart strikes its target. These include expansion of compressed gas, creation of gas by chemical fluid reaction, release of a compressed spring, and creation of gas by explosive charge . For example, a design with compressed air or butane in the rear of the dart creates constant compression on the injection fluid. The fluid is restrained within the syringe by placing a gasket-like collar or cap over the hole in the needle. Upon striking the target, the cap is punctured by the needle or the collar is pushed back, and the needle tip continues into the target. At the same time, the fluid is no longer restrained by the gasket, so the compressed gas chamber forces the injection fluid chamber to empty into the target (see diagrams from Veterinary Technician). It has also been suggested that the momentum of a steel ball at the rear of the dart could push the syringe plunger in some designs. In each of these methods, intramuscularly injects carries a dose of barbiturate or other sedative drugs into the animal. The tranquilizer drug causes the target to become sleepy and suddenly unconscious within 45 minutes . Because of the power of the drugs, the handlers then have to move quickly to secure the animal for transport, monitor its vital signs, protect its eyes and ears, and then inject antidotes when needed. Many large animals are acutely sensitive to stress and can easily die without careful treatment; in order to counter stress in targeted animals, the gun is quiet, and there is usually a valve on the gun to control the dart velocity by varying the amount of gas pressure used to propel it.\n", "Some species in this family have spiral darts, and some darts have \"\"minute barbs pointing toward the tip\"\".\n\nSection::::Species variability.:Images.:Parmacellidae.\n\nSpecies of slugs within this family have spiral darts.\n\nSection::::The Cupid connection.\n", "Section::::How it works.\n\nSection::::How it works.:On the Barrelhead.\n\nThe loop is laid out in a twist so that it forms a circle with an X in it, similar to a Cat's cradle or infinity symbol. The mark picks one side of the X or the other as the side to which the loop will hold fast when pulled from the other side. Unfortunately for the mark, the loop can be laid out in multiple ways. Here are a few versions that demonstrate the con:\n", "The dart is shot with some variation in force, and with considerable inaccuracy, such that one-third of the darts that are fired in \"Cornu aspersum\" either fail to penetrate the skin, or miss the target altogether. Snails have only very simple visual systems and cannot see well enough to use vision to help aim the darts.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nAlthough the existence and use of love darts in snails has been known for at least several centuries, until recently the actual function of love darts was not properly understood.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "A tranquillizer gun (also spelled tranquilizer gun or tranquilliser gun), capture gun or dart gun, is a non-lethal air gun often used for incapacitating animal targets via drugs usually referred as \"tranquilizers\". These guns shoot darts with a hypodermic needle tip, filled with a dose of tranquilizer solution that is either sedative, comatosing or paralytic, which once injected will temporarily impair the target's physical function to a level that allows it to be approached and handled in an unresisting and thus safe manner. Tranquillizer guns have a long history of use to stun wildlife when they are in a place where they pose a threat to others and themselves without having to kill the animal, or used to capture wildlife risking serious injuries to both the hunter and the target. They are also used for recreation, which animal rights groups protest against. Tranquillizer darts can also be fired by crossbow or breath-powered blowgun.\n", "The tail flick assay or tail flick test uses a high-intensity beam of light aimed at a rodent's tail to detect nociception. In normal rodents, the noxious heat sensation induced by the beam of light causes a prototypical movement of the tail via the flexor withdrawal reflex. An investigator normally measures the time it takes for the reflex to be induced, a factor influenced by a rodent's sex, age and body weight. The most critical parameter for the tail flick assay is the beam intensity; stimuli producing latencies of larger than 3–4 seconds generally create more variable results. Another important factor to consider is the level of restraint used; rodents held too tightly may exhibit greater tail flick latencies due to heightened stress levels.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Kick-Ass\", Hit-Girl uses a rope dart to dispatch several opponents when storming the penthouse.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Code Geass\", the Chinese mecha Shen-Hu features rope darts mounted in its forearms, which can be electrified for extra damage, or spun rapidly like helicopter blades to generate a shield-like effect.\n\nBULLET::::- In the animated film \"\" (2011), Laira Omoto creates two rope dart constructs while fighting her father, Kentor Omoto.\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Assassin's Creed series\", the Assassin characters Shao Jun, Edward Kenway, Shay Cormac, Adéwalé, and Arbaaz Mir use rope darts.\n" ]

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[ "In a 2003 interview, Matt Skiba stated that \"Good Mourning\": is pretty good. I mean it took us a long time to do and I think most of the people that I talk to that make records and stuff, there's always stuff that you wish you did better or maybe a little differently. I've never been able to avoid that, even with this. There's things that I wish I had done maybe a little differently. But that also comes with just listening to it and living with it for so long that until it's done you won't really hear things in that way until it's like too late I guess. But I would say for the most part that I'm really happy with it.\n", "Music has been used to treat dementia patients by utilizing methods similar to the treatments that are used in the management of PTSD. However, in the treatment of dementia, more emphasis is placed on providing the patient with music that triggers pleasant memories or feelings, rather than avoiding music that triggers negative emotions. After the music is listened to, one sees the change in mood and attitude from closed and distant to joyful, open and happy.\n", "It also cannot be ignored the importance of coping strategies in families and caregivers of those going through serious and even terminal illness. These family members are often responsible for a vast majority of the care of their loved ones, on top of the stress of seeing them struggle. Therapists have worked with these family members, singing and playing instruments, to help them take their minds off of the stress of helping their loved ones undergo treatment. Just like in the patients themselves, the music therapy has been shown to help them cope with the intense emotions and situations they deal with on a daily basis.\n", "Music as a form of coping has been used multiple times in cancer patients, with promising results. A study done on 113 patients going through stem cell transplants split the patients into two group; one group made their own lyrics about their journey and then produced a music video, and the other group listened to audiobooks. The results of the study showed that the music video group had better coping skills and better social interactions in comparison, by taking their mind of the pain and stress accompanying treatment, and giving them an outlet to express their feelings.\n", "Listening to music in a mood-incongruent state, such as someone sad listening to happy music, allows for possible mood attenuation through distraction, and enforces positive thoughts for the individual such as feelings of happiness, encouragement, a sense of hope, a change in perception, etc. In mood attenuation through distraction people are allowed time to “cool off” and let their heightened mood dwindle. Enforcing feelings of positivity can allow for the participant to model his or her actions and behaviors towards ones that are congruent with the type of music that is being used.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Social support.\n", "Being attentive to, and patient with, one's sadness may also be a way for people to learn through solitude; while emotional support to help people stay with their sadness can be further helpful. Such an approach is fueled by the underlying belief that loss (when felt wholeheartedly) can lead to a new sense of aliveness, and to a re-engagement with the outside world.\n\nSection::::Pupil empathy.\n", "...came about from a few different sources, but one was, you know, those sort of old movies that were called weepies, where you could basically be guaranteed that if you needed a good cry, you could go and see one of these and bring your hanky and have a good time. And we want to be able to provide that for people. We want to make music that touches them and moves them in that way, the place where tears come from, for joy and for sorrow.\n", "Section::::Conclusion.\n", "Section::::Cultural considerations.\n", "While there are hundreds of different coping strategies, the use of music is one specific example of a coping strategy that is used to combat the negative effects of stress. Due to the substantially large number of strategies to choose from, psychologists break down coping strategies into three types:\n\nBULLET::::1. Appraisal-based - Intended to modify the individual's thought process Stress is typically eliminated through rationalization, changes in values or thinking patterns, or with humor.\n", "Christian Music Zine's Tyler Hess stated \"there are songs out there that sound convoluted, but when it is known that the pain is real, that is when it is easiest to relate to and apply personally. When Hammitt sings his heart out, replacing grief with joy in the Lord Jesus Christ, that is when it is obvious that through the testing of fire, his faith has come out pure.\" In addition, Hess said \"you don’t have to be going through a tragedy to appreciate what is happening here, though it is certain to cause great comfort to those who are.\"\n", "I tried to reach out to Donny. That's how we managed to do the song we did last year. I felt this need because I didn't know what to do. I couldn't save him, I knew he was sick. But I knew when he sat down at that piano and sang for me it was like it was eight or nine years ago because he sang and played his ass off.\n", "Listening to music in a mood-congruent state with those who are experiencing negative mood states such as dysphoria, or sadness, can allow for those individuals to be more likely to identify with the music that shares their current mood. This mood-congruency effect can allow for individuals engaging in the listening of mood-congruent music to become increasingly aware of their own mood. It is theorized that with a heightened sense of mood recognition, an individual is capable of being empowered by recognizing that the current mood is their own, and they are in control of their mood. With a greater sense of empowerment over one’s emotional state, individuals can take steps in which to take their control and change their current unwanted mood. The acknowledgment of a person’s mood is a critical precursor in attempts made to regulate moods.\n", "A more theoretical critique of this coping strategy is that the use of music in stress coping is largely a short-term coping response and therefore lacks long-term sustainability. These critics argue that while music may be effective in lowering perceived stress levels of patients, it is not necessarily making a difference on the actual cause of the stress response. Because the root cause of the stress is not affected, it is possible that the stress response may return shortly after therapy is ended. Those who hold this position advocate instead for a more problem-focused coping strategy that directly deals with the stressors affecting the patient.\n", "Section::::Major empirical findings.:Physiological findings.\n", "Section::::Specific techniques.\n", "Section::::Major empirical findings.:Patient response-based findings.:Stress and music in the medical field.\n", "Section::::Major theories.\n", "A CD entitled \"Compassion: A Journey of the Spirit\" featuring fifteen of the first compositions was released by EMI. In the liner notes, Shirley Fleming described the music as “[communicating] directly with the listener through a spacious, meditative, transparent quality, with a sense of timelessness.”\n", "A technique that is starting to be employed more often is vibroacoustic therapy. During therapy the patient lies on his/her back on a mat with speakers within it that send out low frequency sound waves, essentially sitting on a subwoofer. This therapy has been found to help with Parkinson's disease, fibromyalgia, and depression. Studies are also being conducted on patients with mild Alzheimer's disease in hopes to identify possible benefits from vibroacoustic therapy. Vibroacoustic therapy can also be used as an alternative to music therapy for the deaf.\n\nSection::::Controversies.\n", "Music selection is also affected by selective exposure. A 2014 study conducted by Christa L. Taylor and Ronald S. Friedman at the SUNY University at Albany, found that mood congruence was effected by self-regulation of music mood choices. Subjects in the study chose happy music when feeling angry or neutral but listened to sad music when they themselves were sad. The choice of sad music given a sad mood was due less to mood-mirroring but as a result of subjects having an aversion to listening to happy music that was cognitively dissonant with their mood.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Music.\n\nMusic is often used for two different reasons in mood repair strategies. The first is to allow the listener to identify themselves with the current music and to allow for some ventilation or mood attenuation. The other is a form of mood-repair strategy which allows the listener to take action to achieve their desired mood. These two approaches are considered the mood-congruent listening approach and the mood-incongruent listening approach, respectively.\n", "Another study done at UNC showed remarkable improvement in a young girl who was born without the ability to speak. A therapist would come in and sing with her, as the only thing she could do was sing. Miraculously, the singing allowed to her gain the ability of speech, as music and speech are similar in nature and help the brain form new connections. In the same hospital, the therapist visits children daily and plays music with them, singing and using instruments. The music fosters creativity and reduces stress associated with treatments, and takes the children's minds off of their current surroundings.\n", "BULLET::::- 1920's – American Delta blues artist Delta Blind Billy in his song \"Hidden Man Blues\" had the line \"Man of sorrow all my days / Left the home where I been raised.\"\n", "Seeking the comfort of Nature\n\nTo quiet a restless heart.\n\nThere came in the shade and silence,\n\nThe calm of a presence near,\n\nThat stilled my pulse's throbbing,\n\nWhile my soul drew close to hear.\n\nHow that Mother Spirit brooded\n\nOver all things, small and great,\n\nO'er each fragile fern and flower,\n\nAnd the pines in lofty state.\n\nStrengthened the tender seedlings,\n\nThe tempest-torn and scarred,\n\nAnd clothed with strange new beauty\n\nThe fallen trees, and marred.\n\nThen dark sorrow fled before her\n\nFor instead of sting and smart,\n\nShe gave to my troubled spirit\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Windows where employees interact with customers by processing the customer's payment and giving them their order. Most drive-throughs have either one window serving both functions, or two windows with the first being used for payment and the second used for retrieving the order.\n", "Power assists originated in the need and desire to move convertible body-style tops up and down by some means other than human effort. The earliest power assists were vacuum-operated and were offered on Chrysler Corporation vehicles, particularly the low-cost Plymouth convertibles in the late 1930s. \n\nShortly before World War II, General Motors developed a central hydraulic pump for working convertible tops. This system was introduced on 1942 convertibles built by GM. Previously, GM had used a vacuum system which did not have the power to handle increasingly larger and complex (four side-windows vs. only two) convertible top mechanisms. \n", "Some establishments provide a walk-up window instead when a drive-through may not be practical. However, the walk-up windows should not be confused with small establishments that customers are lined up for services such as mobile kitchens, kiosks or concession stands. These walk-up windows are value-added services on top of the full services provided inside the stores.\n", "In a typical auto/light truck installation, there is an individual switch at each window and a set of switches in the driver's door or a-frame pillar, so the driver can operate all the windows. These switches took on many different appearances, from heavy chrome plate to inexpensive plastic. \n", "When NYC MTA finishes its transition to contactless payment, OS/2 will be removed.\n\nOS/2 was used in checkout systems at Safeway supermarkets.\n\nOS/2 was used by Trenitalia, both for the desktops at Ticket Counters and for the Automatic Ticket Counters up to 2011. Incidentally, the Automatic Ticket Counters with OS/2 were more reliable than the current ones running a flavor of Windows.\n\nOS/2 was used as the main operating system for Abbey National General Insurance motor and home direct call centre products using the PMSC Series III insurance platform on DB2.2 from 1996-2001\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "Electrically-operated vent windows were available as early as 1956 on the Continental Mark II. The 1960s Cadillac Fleetwood came standard with power front and rear vent windows, in addition to standard power side windows, for a total of eight power window controls on the driver's door panel. \n", "The NOW account was developed as a more explicit challenge to the ban on interest payments by Ronald Haselton, then President and CEO of the Consumer Savings Bank in Worcester, MA, leading to Congress permitting NOW accounts in Massachusetts and New Hampshire starting in January 1974, and in all of New England starting in March 1976. At the outset there was a 5% interest rate ceiling on NOW accounts, and it was binding: all New England institutions offering them paid the full allowable 5% rate.\n", "This is a partial list of both models that had opera windows as standard or optional feature and those which had hybrid or pseudo-opera windows:\n\nBULLET::::- AMC Concord (1978–1982 coupe, 1980–1983 4-door sedan)\n\nBULLET::::- AMC Eagle coupe, 4-door (1980–1988)\n\nBULLET::::- Buick Regal coupe (1973–1977)\n\nBULLET::::- Buick Riviera (1974–1978)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Coupe de Ville (1974–1979, 1985–1993)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Sedan de Ville (1975–1976)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Eldorado (1971–1978)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Fleetwood Brougham coupe (1980–1985)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Fleetwood coupe (1985–1986, 1989–1992)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Sixty Special coupe (1993)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Fleetwood 75 series (1971–1976, 1985–1987)\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Fleetwood limousine (1977–1984)\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet Caprice (1974–1976)\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The windows were intended to offset the significant blind spots created by wide C-pillars that were characteristic of many American cars produced at this time. E In an age of decreasing dimensions and increasingly common use of non-opening rear side windows on 2-door models, a variety of shapes of rear windows helped passengers there to be somewhat less claustrophobic.\n", "Since this time the X window system has gone through many fundamental changes and no longer bears any significant resemblance to W.\n\nSection::::Other W window systems.\n", "Opera windows had fallen out of vogue by the mid-1980s, as changing automotive styles moved away from the upright notchback. Smaller, more aerodynamic cars made opera windows appear gaudy or out of place. Contemporary examples of opera windows are sometimes found on modified or customized automobiles.\n\nSection::::History.:Quarter windows, hybrids and pseudo-opera windows.\n\nSome sample images of quarter windows, hybrids, and pseudo-opera windows that blurred the distinction between their placement and elements and those of traditional true opera windows:\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nbr\n\nSection::::Examples.:Cars with traditional opera windows mixed in with cars with other types.\n", "Also in the mid-1980s, Service Merchandise experimented with the installation of Drive-Thru windows at two showrooms (near Chicago and Nashville), allowing customers with phone-in orders to pick up their orders without leaving their automobiles. The concept was not expanded beyond its test stores, but remained in place at those locations.\n", "Power windows have become so common that by 2008, some automakers eliminated hand crank windows from all their models. So many vehicles now have power windows that some people no longer understand the (formerly) common sign from another driver of using their hand to simulate moving a window crank to indicate that they wish to speak with someone when stopped at a light or in a parking lot. The 2008 Audi RS4 sold in Europe, however, still has roll-up windows for the rear doors although its counterpart sold in the U.S. has power windows for all doors.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "As DOS applications grew larger and more complex in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it became common practice to free up conventional memory by moving the device drivers and TSR programs into upper memory blocks (UMBs) in the upper memory area (UMA) at boot, in order to maximize the conventional memory available for applications. This had the advantage of not requiring hardware changes, and preserved application compatibility.\n", "A typical departmental Windows XP boot image is usually so large that it requires a DVD to store, and may be too large for network booting. Accordingly, it is usually installed on a fixed or removable hard drive kept inside the machine, rather than installed over a network or from a ROM.\n\nThere are some boot image control complexity and total cost of operations advantages to using a departmental boot image instead of a common boot image for the entire organization, or a thin client:\n", "BULLET::::- Toyota Carina Van TA16V/19V (1975–1977) - perhaps the only wagon with opera windows.\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Crown coupe (1979–1983)\n\nSection::::Examples.:Cars with hybrid and pseudo-opera windows.\n\nThis is a list of vehicles that featured hybrid rear windows that blurred the distinction between rear quarter windows, rear door vent windows, and traditional opera windows, which are distinguishable by not mimicking or mixing with any established styling trends such as sharply angled or raked fastback and notchback windows, rear quarter windows, and wraparound rear windows. \n\nBULLET::::- AMC Matador coupe: D/L Formal Window Package (1974–1975) and Barcelona (1976–1978)\n\nBULLET::::- Dodge Charger (1973–1978)\n", "The concept of prescreen was originally conceived as a new, more efficient method of account acquisition for financial institutions. Traditionally, financial services were provided by small community banks. These banks offered a specific set of credit products and services that met the needs of their community. When a potential customer would walk into their branch and apply for a credit product (like a credit card for example), the bank would evaluate the consumer's credit history and decide whether or not to approve the application.\n", "Opera windows began reappearing in the early 1970s in such vehicles as the 1972 Continental Mark IV, kicking off a brief copycat trend that often left the distinction between hybrid and rear windows that combined elements of traditional rear windows styling and true opera windows of the 1930s and 1950s. \n", "The \"Hydro-Electric\" system (windows, front seat adjustment and convertible top) was standard on 1947 model year. The seat and window assist system became available on GM closed cars (standard on some Cadillac Series 75 models and all Series 60 Specials, commonly called \"Fleetwood\" beginning with the 1948). The full system was standard only on the high-end GM convertibles made by Oldsmobile, Buick, and Cadillac. It was only available as a package; that is, power assisted windows, front seat, and convertible top (where applicable). This feature can be identified in 1948 and later General Motors model numbers with an \"X\" at the end, such as the 1951 Cadillac Sixty Special sedan, model 6019X. The electrically operated hydraulic pump system was shared by Hudson and Packard for their 1948 through 1950 models. The driver's door contained four buttons in addition to the remaining individual windows.\n", "In addition to the Panoramas, a more basic series of models was offered, with windows of similar size, but with simpler trim and top sliding vent windows instead of forced air vents. Initially these were built on Bedford and Ford chassis only and named variously as Val, Vam (on the new Bedford VAM chassis) or Embassy IV. However, when the Panorama was renamed Panorama I for the 1967 season, the less expensive \"bread and butter\" models became available on all chassis types as the Panorama II. The Panorama I in particular sold extremely well.\n", "Drive-through designs are different from restaurant to restaurant; however, most drive-throughs can accommodate four to six passenger cars or trucks at once (called the queue). Most drive-through lanes are designed so the service windows and speaker are on the driver's side of the car, for example, in left-hand traffic (right-hand drive) countries such as the UK, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, the windows will be on the right side of the drive-through lane, and vice versa in right-hand traffic (left-hand drive) countries such as North America and mainland Europe. There are a few drive-through lanes designed with the service windows on the passenger side, but these lanes are disfavored as they cannot be used easily by cars with only a driver.\n", "Icons representing running applications appear at the bottom of the screen (the user can extend application windows to cover these). By default, the dock appears at upper right. Icons can be dragged onto the dock to make them permanent. The edge of an icon can be right-clicked to adjust its settings. A separate, dockable application called \"wmdrawer\" features a slide-out drawer which can hold application and file launching icons.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Basic apps.\n", "In the United States, the Energy Code sets certain standards for performance of products installed in homes. These codes now require Low-E Glass in all residential homes.\n\nLow-E is a film that is several layers of metal poured microscopically thin over the surface of newly poured glass. This heat reflective film is transparent but can be darker or lighter depending on the type and manufacturer. This data is rated in Visible Light Transmission. Darker glass with heavier Low–E will have less VT. The NFRC rates most energy star rated window manufacturers.\n", "Final Supreme offering was the Supreme VI. This model was the least successful Supreme being an option for one season alongside the Supreme V. The panoramic windows had been replaced by a higher window line that was better suited to the long distance market. Around 100 were built. The actual idea of the high window design was possibly in reaction to the Duple Dominant III that had shallow trapezoidal windows like an Austin Princess headlight of the mid-1970s.\n" ]

[ "“1st” payment only windows were added / built in to drive-throughs but don’t seem to be used any more.", "1st payment windows are not being used anymore." ]

[ "Customers do currently use “1st” payment only windows.", "They are being used." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "“1st” payment only windows were added / built in to drive-throughs but don’t seem to be used any more.", "1st payment windows are not being used anymore." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Customers do currently use “1st” payment only windows.", "They are being used." ]

[ "For most of recorded history candles were made from tallow (rendered from beef or mutton-fat) or beeswax. From the mid 1800s they were also made from spermaceti, a waxy substance derived from the Sperm whale, which in turn spurred demand for the substance. Candles were also made from stearin (initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes). Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax, a product of petroleum refining.\n", "In 1848 James Young established the world’s first oil refinery at the Alfreton Ironworks in Riddings, Derbyshire. Two paraffin wax candles were made from the naturally occurring paraffin wax present in the oil and these candles illuminated a lecture at the Royal Institution by Lyon Playfair. In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian and developed a commercially viable method of production. The Paraffin wax was processed by distilling residue left after crude petroleum was refined. \n", "A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that a lead core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors — a known health and developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Today, most metal-cored wicks use zinc or a zinc alloy, which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.\n", "Candles can also be made from microcrystalline wax, beeswax (a byproduct of honey collection), gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil), or some plant waxes (generally palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax).\n\nThe size of the flame and corresponding rate of burning is controlled largely by the candle wick.\n", "Candle manufacturers looked at waxes such as soy, palm and flax-seed oil, often blending them with paraffin in hopes of getting the performance of paraffin with the price benefits of the other waxes. The creation of unique wax blends, now requiring different fragrance chemistries and loads, placed pressure for innovation on the candle wick manufacturing industry to meet performance needs with the often tougher to burn formulations. \n", "In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian and developed a commercially viable method of production. Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, which burned cleanly and left no unpleasant odor, unlike tallow candles. By the end of the 19th century candles were made from paraffin wax and stearic acid.\n", "History of candle making\n\nCandle making was developed independently in many places throughout history. \n\nCandles were used by the early Greeks to honour the goddess Artemis' birth on the sixth day of every lunar month.\n\nCandles were made by the Romans beginning about 500 BC. These were true dipped candles and made from tallow. Evidence for candles made from whale fat in China dates back to the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC). In India, wax from boiling cinnamon was used for temple candles.\n", "One of Michael Faraday's significant works was \"The Chemical History of a Candle\", where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nAccording to the U.S. National Fire Protection Association, candles are a leading source of residential fires in the United States with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire attributed to candles.\n\nA candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point will emit soot. Proper wick trimming will reduce soot emissions from most candles.\n", "Prior to the candle, people used oil lamps in which a lit wick rested in a container of liquid oil. Liquid oil lamps had a tendency to spill, and the wick had to be advanced by hand. Romans began making true dipped candles from tallow, beginning around 500 BC. European candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax. In Ancient Rome, candles were made of tallow due to the prohibitive cost of beeswax. It is possible that they also existed in Ancient Greece, but imprecise terminology makes it difficult to determine. The earliest surviving candles originated in Han China around 200 BC. These early Chinese candles were made from whale fat.\n", "A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of a candle. Commercial wicks are made from braided cotton. The wick's capillarity determines the rate at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the flame. If the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with a variety of chemicals to modify their burning characteristics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick not glow after the flame is extinguished. Typical agents are ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Light.\n", "In parts of Europe, the Middle-East and Africa, where lamp oil made from olives was readily available, candle making remained unknown until the early middle-ages. Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in ancient times, but have been made from spermaceti, purified animal fats (stearin) and paraffin wax in recent centuries.\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n\nThe early Greeks used candles to honour the goddess Artemis' birth on the sixth day of every lunar month.\n", "The manufacture of candles became an industrialized mass market in the mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph Morgan, a pewterer from Manchester, England, patented a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed for continuous production of molded candles by using a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified. This more efficient mechanized production produced about 1,500 candles per hour. This allowed candles to be an affordable commodity for the masses. Candlemakers also began to fashion wicks out of tightly braided (rather than simply twisted) strands of cotton. This technique makes wicks curl over as they burn, maintaining the height of the wick and therefore the flame. Because much of the excess wick is incinerated, these are referred to as \"self-trimming\" or \"self-consuming\" wicks.\n", "Wicks can be made of material other than string or cord, such as wood, although they are rare. The cotton of tampons can be used as wicks for oil lamps in wilderness survival situations.\n\nSection::::Stiffeners.\n\nFine wire (such as copper) can be included in the wick. This provides two advantages: it makes the wick more rigid, letting it stand further out of the liquid wax, and it conducts heat downward, melting the wax more readily. The latter is particularly important in candles made of harder wax.\n", "In the Roman Catholic Church a liturgical candle must be made of at least 51% beeswax, the remainder may be paraffin or some other substance. In the Orthodox Church, the tapers offered should be 100% beeswax, unless poverty makes this impossible. The stumps from burned candles can be saved and melted down to make new candles.\n", "Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, burned cleanly, and left no unpleasant odor, unlike tallow candles. A drawback to the substance was that early coal- and petroleum-derived paraffin waxes had a very low melting point. The introduction of stearin, discovered by Michel Eugène Chevreul, solved this problem. Stearin is hard and durable, with a convenient melting range of 54–72.5 °C (129.2–162.5 °F). By the end of the 19th century, most candles being manufactured consisted of paraffin and stearic acid.\n", "By the late 19th century, Price's Candles, based in London was the largest candle manufacturer in the world. The company traced its origins back to 1829, when William Wilson invested in of coconut plantation in Sri Lanka. His aim was to make candles from coconut oil. Later he tried palm oil from palm trees. An accidental discovery swept all his ambitions aside when his son George Wilson, a talented chemist, distilled the first petroleum oil in 1854. George also pioneered the implementation of the technique of steam distillation, and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil and industrial greases.\n", "During the Middle Ages, tallow candles were most commonly used. By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in England and France. The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops. Beeswax, compared to animal-based tallow, burned cleanly, without smoky flame. Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could afford to burn them in their homes in medieval Europe. However, they were widely used for church ceremonies.\n", "The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a candle snuffer instead of blowing on the flame. A candle snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. Placing the snuffer over the flame cuts off the oxygen supply. Snuffers were common in the home when candles were the main source of lighting before electric lights were available. Ornate snuffers, often combined with a taper for lighting, are still found in those churches which regularly use large candles.\n", "Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, became the standard material used in candles in Europe. The unpleasant smell of tallow candles is due to the glycerine they contain. The smell of the manufacturing process was so unpleasant that it was banned by ordinance in several European cities. Beeswax was discovered to be an excellent substance for candle production without the unpleasant odour, but remained restricted in usage for the rich and for churches and royal events, due to their great expense.\n", "Production methods utilize extrusion moulding. More traditional production methods entail melting the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is then poured into a mould or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle. Often fragrance oils, essential oils or aniline-based dye is added.\n\nSection::::Components.:Wick.\n", "By 1800, an even cheaper alternative was discovered. Colza oil, derived from Brassica campestris, and a similar oil derived from rapeseed, yielded candles that produce clear, smokeless flames. The French chemists Michel Eugène Chevreul (1786–1889) and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) patented stearin in 1825. Like tallow, this was derived from animals, but had no glycerine content.\n\nSection::::Modern era.:Industrialization.\n", "Wax from boiling cinnamon was used for temple candles in India. Yak butter was used for candles in Tibet\n\nThere is a fish called the eulachon or \"candlefish\", a type of smelt which is found from Oregon to Alaska. During the 1st century AD, indigenous people from this region used oil from this fish for illumination. A simple candle could be made by putting the dried fish on a forked stick and then lighting it.\n\nSection::::Middle Ages.\n", "Despite advances in candle making, the candle industry declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including kerosene and lamps and the 1879 invention of the incandescent light bulb. From this point on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item.\n\nSection::::Use.\n\nBefore the invention of electric lighting, candles and oil lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until the 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean, oil lamps predominated.\n", "At the beginning of the 20th century, complex rules governed the composition and number of candles to be used at Mass. Lighted candles of the correct composition (beeswax, with no more than a minimal admixture of other material, and usually bleached) were considered so essential that, if before the consecration they happened to go out (quenched, for instance, by a gust of wind) and could not be relit within fifteen minutes, the celebration of Mass had to be abandoned, and some writers maintained that even if the candles could be relit within that time, Mass should in any case be begun again from the start. Some of these rules were formulated only in the second half of the nineteenth and the beginning of the 20th century. The Roman Missal of the time continued to indicate merely that on the altar there should be \"at least two candlesticks with lit candles\" with a centrally placed cross between them (\"Rubricae generales Missalis, XX - De Praeparatione Altaris, et Ornamentorum eius\"). There is also a rule given in the same section of the Roman Missal - and still included even in the typical 1920 edition - that \"a candle to be lit at the elevation of the Sacrament\" should be placed with the cruets of wine and water to the Epistle side of the altar.\n", "Candle wicks are normally made out of braided cotton. Wicks are sometimes braided flat, so that as they burn they also curl back into the flame, thus making them self-consuming. Prior to the introduction of these wicks special scissors were used to trim the excess wick without extinguishing the flame.\n\nLarge diameter wicks typically result in a larger flame, a larger pool of melted wax, and the candle burning faster. \n" ]

[ "It should be possible to just use a wick instead of an actual candle to burn. " ]

[ "The wick would burn away too fast, the wax serves as fuel to the candle in a sense." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It should be possible to just use a wick instead of an actual candle to burn. ", "It should be possible to just use a wick instead of an actual candle to burn. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The wick would burn away too fast, the wax serves as fuel to the candle in a sense.", "The wick would burn away too fast, the wax serves as fuel to the candle in a sense." ]

[ "The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT. No test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison require field experiments.\n\nSection::::Properties of explosive materials.:Density.\n", "Such differences can be substantial. For safety purposes a range as wide as 2673–6702 J (joules) has been stated for a gram of TNT upon explosion.\n\nSo, one can state that a nuclear bomb has a yield of 15 kt (63×10 or 6.3×10 J); but an actual explosion of a 15 000 ton pile of TNT may yield (for example) 8×10 J due to additional carbon/hydrocarbon oxidation not present with small open-air charges.\n", "Where for example the comparison is by energy yield, an explosive's energy is normally expressed for chemical purposes as the thermodynamic work produced by its detonation. For TNT this has been accurately measured as 4686 J/g from a large sample of air blast experiments, and theoretically calculated to be 4853 J/g.\n", "The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of a nuclear weapon. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has been used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact.\n\nSection::::Historical derivation of the value.\n\nAlternative values for TNT equivalency can be calculated according to which property is being compared and when in the two detonation processes the values are measured.\n", "The relative effectiveness factor (RE factor) relates an explosive's demolition power to that of TNT, in units of the TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent: The greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive.\n", "This convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of traditional explosive materials, of which TNT is a typical example, although other conventional explosives such as dynamite contain more energy.\n\nSection::::Kiloton and megaton.\n\nThe \"kiloton (of TNT)\" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules.\n\nThe \"megaton (of TNT)\" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules.\n", "Used together, these numbers may be used to determine the potential threats afforded by energetic materials when employed in the field. It cannot be stressed enough that these figures are relative; when we determine that impact sensitivity of an explosive is lower for that of a tested explosive than PETN, for example, the number produced in the impact test is dimensionless, but it means that it is expected that it would take a greater impact to detonate it than PETN. Therefore, an experienced ordnance technician who works with raw PETN will know that the new explosive is not as sensitive with regards to impact. However, it could be more sensitive to friction, spark, or thermal issues. These conditions must be taken into account before any compound is to be stored, handled, or used in the field.\n", "Another explosive that is used as a calibration standard is TNT, which was afforded the arbitrary Figure of Insensitivity of 100. Other explosives could then be compared against this standard.\n\nSection::::Types of safety testing.\n\nBecause there are different ways to set off explosives, there are several different components to the safety testing of explosives:\n", "Calculating a single RE factor for an explosive is, however, impossible. It depends on the specific case or use. Given a pair of explosives, one can produce 2× the shockwave output (this depends on the distance of measuring instruments) but the difference in direct metal cutting ability may be 4× higher for one type of metal and 7× higher for another type of metal. The relative differences between two explosives with shaped charges will be even greater. The table below should be taken as an example and not as a precise source of data.\n\nSection::::Examples.:RE factor examples.\n", "Prior to the detonation of the Hiroshima bomb, the size of the Halifax Explosion (about 3 kt TNT equivalent, or 1.26 J), was the standard for this type of relative measurement. Each explosion had been the largest known man-made detonation to date.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Foe.\n", "The explosive yield of a nuclear weapon is the amount of energy released when that particular nuclear weapon is detonated, usually expressed as a TNT equivalent (the standardized equivalent mass of trinitrotoluene which, if detonated, would produce the same energy discharge), either in kilotons (kt—thousands of tons of TNT), in megatons (Mt—millions of tons of TNT), or sometimes in terajoules (TJ). An explosive yield of one terajoule is equal to . Because the accuracy of any measurement of the energy released by TNT has always been problematic, the conventional definition is that one kiloton of TNT is held simply to be equivalent to 10 calories.\n", "These complications have been sidestepped by convention. The energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie.\n\nA kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT on a side. \n\nSection::::Conversion to other units.\n\n1 ton TNT equivalent is approximately:\n\nBULLET::::- 1.0 calories\n\nBULLET::::- 4.184 joules\n\nBULLET::::- 3.96831 British thermal units\n\nBULLET::::- 3.08802 foot pounds\n\nBULLET::::- 1.162 kilowatt hours\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "The scale was originally defined using TNT as the reference standard, with TNT having, by definition, an F of I of exactly 100. On this original scale, RDX yielded an F of I of around 80. Following World War II, when more complex explosive compositions replaced pure TNT as the most common energetic component of weapon systems, RDX was adopted as the reference standard.\n", "Section::::Net Explosives Weight (NEW).\n\nThe net explosives weight (NEW) is the total weight of all explosives substances in a single item. NEW is used to calculate safe separation distances (see Quantity-Distance). NEW for a specific explosive may be adjusted by its TNT equivalence which is the weight of trinitrotoluene (TNT) required to produce a shockwave of equal magnitude as that produced by one pound of the explosive in question. For example, C-4 has a TNT equivalency for overpressure of 1.37 (one pound of C-4 is equal to 1.37 pounds of TNT).\n\nSection::::Quantity-Distance (QD).\n", "In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to \"break\"), which is distinguished and separate from their total work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure (power) is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia.\n", "But, even on this basis, comparing the actual energy yields of a large nuclear device and an explosion of TNT can be slightly inaccurate. Small TNT explosions, especially in the open, don't tend to burn the carbon-particle and hydrocarbon products of the explosion. Gas-expansion and pressure-change effects tend to \"freeze\" the burn rapidly. A large open explosion of TNT may maintain fireball temperatures high enough so that some of those products do burn up with atmospheric oxygen.\n", "The energy of various amounts of the explosive TNT (kiloton, megaton, gigaton) is often used as a unit of explosion energy, and sometimes of asteroid impacts and violent explosive volcanic eruptions. One ton of TNT produces 4.184 joules, or (by arbitrary definition) exactly thermochemical calories (approximately 3.964 BTU). This definition is only loosely based on the actual physical properties of TNT.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Hiroshima bomb and Halifax explosion.\n\nThe energy released by the Hiroshima bomb explosion (about 15 kt TNT equivalent, or 6 J) is often used by geologists as a unit when describing the energy of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and asteroid impacts.\n", "TNT can be detonated with a high velocity initiator or by efficient concussion. For many years, TNT used to be the reference point for the Figure of Insensitivity. TNT had a rating of exactly 100 on the \"F of I\" scale. The reference has since been changed to a more sensitive explosive called RDX, which has an F of I rating of 80.\n\nSection::::Energy content.\n", "BULLET::::- Texas City Disaster: On 16 April 1947, SS \"Grandcamp\", loaded with of ammonium nitrate, exploded in port at Texas City, Texas. 581 died, over 5,000 injured. Using standard chemical data for decomposition of ammonium nitrate makes this equivalent to 2.7 kilotons of TNT exploding. The US Army rates the relative effectiveness factor of ammonium nitrate, compared to TNT, as 0.42. This conversion factor makes the blast equivalent to (0.42)7,770 tons, or 3.2 kilotons of TNT, with the discrepancy between the total energy and relative effectiveness value of the \"explosive power\" being due to direct comparisons between high explosives not being as simplistic as comparing total internal energy of each high explosive.\n", "BULLET::::- kt/Mt – This is an approximate measure of how much energy is released by the detonation of a nuclear weapon; kt stands for kilotons TNT, Mt stands for megatons TNT. Conventional science of the period contemporary to the Manhattan project came up with these measures so as to reasonably analogize the incredible energy of a nuclear detonation in a form that would be understandable to the military, politicians, or civilians. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) was and is a high explosive with industrial and military uses, and is around 40% more powerfully explosive than an equivalent weight of gunpowder. A ton is equivalent to 1000 kg or approximately 2200 pounds. A 20 kt nuclear device, therefore, liberates as much energy as does the explosion of 20,000 tons of TNT (this is the origin of the term, for the exact definition see TNT equivalent). This is a large quantity of energy. In addition, unlike TNT, the detonation of a nuclear device also emits ionizing radiation that can harm living organisms, including humans; the prompt radiation from the blast itself and the fallout can persist for a long period of time, though within hours to weeks, the radiation from a single nuclear detonation will drop enough to permit humans to remain at the site of the blast indefinitely without incurring acute fatal exposure to radiation.\n", "Thermochemistry is concerned with the changes in internal energy, principally as heat, in chemical reactions. An explosion consists of a series of reactions, highly exothermic, involving decomposition of the ingredients and recombination to form the products of explosion. Energy changes in explosive reactions are calculated either from known chemical laws or by analysis of the products.\n", "BULLET::::- For current smaller US weapons, yield is 600 to 2200 kilotons of TNT per metric ton. By comparison, for the very small tactical devices such as the Davy Crockett it was 0.4 to 40 kilotons of TNT per metric ton. For historical comparison, for Little Boy the yield was only 4 kilotons of TNT per metric ton, and for the largest Tsar Bomba, the yield was 2 megatons of TNT per metric ton (deliberately reduced from about twice as much yield for the same weapon, so there is little doubt that this bomb as designed was capable of 4 megatons per ton yield).\n", "Therefore, if\n\nThen, because of the conversion of energy to work in the constant pressure case,\n\nfrom which the value of \"Q\" may be determined. Subsequently, the potential of a mole of an explosive may be calculated. Using this value, the potential for any other weight of explosive may be determined by simple proportion.\n\nUsing the principle of the initial and final state, and heat of formation table (resulting from experimental data), the heat released at constant pressure may be readily calculated.\n\nwhere:\n\nThe work energy expended by the gaseous products of detonation is expressed by:\n", "Determining the minimum explosive concentration or maximum explosive concentration of dusts in air is difficult, and consulting different sources can lead to quite different results. Typical explosive ranges in air are from few dozens grams/m for the minimum limit, to few kg/m for the maximum limit. For example, the LEL for sawdust has been determined to be between 40 and 50 grams/m. It depends on many factors including the type of material used.\n\nSection::::Conditions required.:Oxidant.\n", "The Figure of Insensitiveness is determined from impact testing, typically using a drop-weight tower. In this test, a small sample of the explosive is placed on a small steel anvil which is slotted into a recess in the base of the drop tower. A cylindrical, 1 kilogram steel weight (mounted inside a tube to accurately guide its descent to the impact point in the centre of the anvil) is then dropped onto the test specimen from a measured height. The specimen is monitored both during and after this process to determine whether initiation occurs. This test is repeated many times, varying the drop height according to a prescribed method. Various heights are used, starting with a small distance (e.g. 10 cm) and then progressively increasing it to as high as 3 metres. The series of drop heights and whether initiation occurred are analysed statistically to determine the drop height which has a 50% likelihood of initiating the explosives. The intention of these tests is to develop safety policies/rules which will govern the design, manufacturing, handling and storage of the explosive and any munitions containing it.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Free fall\n\nIn Newtonian physics, free fall is any motion of a body where gravity is the only acceleration acting upon it. In the context of general relativity, where gravitation is reduced to a space-time curvature, a body in free fall has no force acting on it.\n", "Free-fall time\n\nThe free-fall time is the characteristic time that would take a body to collapse under its own gravitational attraction, if no other forces existed to oppose the collapse. As such, it plays a fundamental role in setting the timescale for a wide variety of astrophysical processes—from star formation to helioseismology to supernovae—in which gravity plays a dominant role.\n\nSection::::Derivation.\n\nSection::::Derivation.:Infall to a point source of gravity.\n", "Now, consider a case where the mass formula_3 is not a point mass, but is distributed in a spherically-symmetric distribution about the center, with an average mass density of formula_19,\n\nwhere the volume of a sphere is:formula_21 \n", "Free fall (disambiguation)\n\nFree fall is any motion of a body when gravity is the only force acting upon it..\n\nFree fall, Free-fall, or Freefall may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Books.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Free Fall\" (Golding novel), a novel by William G. Golding\n\nBULLET::::- \"Free Fall\", a crime novel in the Elvis Cole series, by Robert Crais\n\nBULLET::::- \"Free Fall\", a novel by Kyle Mills\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freefall\" (novel), the third book of the Tunnels series, by Roderick Gordon and Brian Williams\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freefall\", an autobiographical work of non-fiction by Charles \"Nish\" Bruce under the pseudonym Tom Read\n", "Technically, an object is in free fall even when moving upwards or instantaneously at rest at the top of its motion. If gravity is the only influence acting, then the acceleration is always downward and has the same magnitude for all bodies, commonly denoted formula_1.\n\nSince all objects fall at the same rate in the absence of other forces, objects and people will experience weightlessness in these situations.\n\nExamples of objects not in free fall:\n\nBULLET::::- Flying in an aircraft: there is also an additional force of lift.\n", "This is the \"textbook\" case of the vertical motion of an object falling a small distance close to the surface of a planet. It is a good approximation in air as long as the force of gravity on the object is much greater than the force of air resistance, or equivalently the object's velocity is always much less than the terminal velocity (see below).\n\nwhere\n\nSection::::Free fall in Newtonian mechanics.:Uniform gravitational field with air resistance.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nExamples of objects in free fall include:\n\nBULLET::::- A spacecraft (in space) with propulsion off (e.g. in a continuous orbit, or on a suborbital trajectory (ballistics) going up for some minutes, and then down).\n\nBULLET::::- An object dropped at the top of a drop tube.\n\nBULLET::::- An object thrown upward or a person jumping off the ground at low speed (i.e. as long as air resistance is negligible in comparison to weight).\n", "where the latter is in SI units.\n\nThis result is exactly the same as from the previous section when :formula_28.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nThe free-fall time is a very useful estimate of the relevant timescale for a number of astrophysical processes. To get a sense of its application, we may write\n\nHere we have estimated the numerical value for the free-fall time as roughly 35 minutes for a body of mean density 1 g/cm.\n\nSection::::Comparison.\n", "BULLET::::1. In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.\n\nBULLET::::2. In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant)\n", "A. P. French writes, in \"Special Relativity\": \n\n\"Note, though, that we are appealing to the reality of A's acceleration, and to the observability of the inertial forces associated with it. Would such effects as the twin paradox exist if the framework of fixed stars and distant galaxies were not there? Most physicists would say no. Our ultimate definition of an inertial frame may indeed be that it is a frame having zero acceleration with respect to the matter of the universe at large.\").\"\n\nSection::::In Fiction.\n", "An object in the technical sense of the term \"free fall\" may not necessarily be falling down in the usual sense of the term. An object moving upwards would not normally be considered to be falling, but if it is subject to the force of gravity only, it is said to be in free fall. The moon is thus in free fall.\n", "The Indian scientist Kaartik Issar (4200-6900) subjected the Divyean theories to experimentation and careful observation. He fell repeatedly for different girls to and determined a formula for his rate of falling.\n", "Section::::Free fall in general relativity.\n\nIn general relativity, an object in free fall is subject to no force and is an inertial body moving along a geodesic. Far away from any sources of space-time curvature, where spacetime is flat, the Newtonian theory of free fall agrees with general relativity. Otherwise the two disagree; e.g., only general relativity can account for the precession of orbits, the orbital decay or inspiral of compact binaries due to gravitational waves, and the relativity of direction (geodetic precession and frame dragging).\n", "Section::::Free fall in Newtonian mechanics.:Inverse-square law gravitational field.\n", "It can be said that two objects in space orbiting each other in the absence of other forces are in free fall around each other, e.g. that the Moon or an artificial satellite \"falls around\" the Earth, or a planet \"falls around\" the Sun. Assuming spherical objects means that the equation of motion is governed by Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, with solutions to the gravitational two-body problem being elliptic orbits obeying Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This connection between falling objects close to the Earth and orbiting objects is best illustrated by the thought experiment, Newton's cannonball.\n", "Initially, however, there is no precession, and the top falls straight downward. This gives rise to an imbalance in torques that starts the precession. In falling, the top overshoots the level at which it would precess steadily and then oscillates about this level. This oscillation is called \"nutation\". If the motion is damped, the oscillations will die down until the motion is a steady precession.\n", "Let us assume that the only force acting is gravity. Then, as first demonstrated by Newton, and can easily be demonstrated using the divergence theorem, the acceleration of gravity at any given distance formula_2 from the center of the sphere depends only upon the total mass contained within formula_2. The consequence of this result is that if one imagined breaking the sphere up into a series of concentric shells, each shell would collapse only subsequent to the shells interior to it, and no shells cross during collapse. As a result, the free-fall time of a massless particle at formula_2 can be expressed solely in terms of the total mass formula_3 interior to it. In terms of the average density interior to formula_2, the free-fall time is\n", "Because the Einstein universe soon was recognized to be inherently unstable, it was presently abandoned as a viable model for the universe. It is unstable in the sense that any slight change in either the value of the cosmological constant, the matter density, or the spatial curvature will result in a universe that either expands and accelerates forever or re-collapses to a singularity.\n", "Currently, Demon Drop at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom; \"Free Fall (Elevador)\" at Beto Carrero World, Brazil; \"Hollywood Action Tower\" at Movie Studios Park, Italy; \"Freefall\" at Rusutsu Resort, Japan;\" Free Fall\" at Central Park, Japan; and \"Free Fall\" at Nagashima Spa Land, Japan; are the only remaining Intamin first generation Freefall rides in operation.\n\nSection::::Ride description.\n", "The term \"free fall\" is often used more loosely than in the strict sense defined above. Thus, falling through an atmosphere without a deployed parachute, or lifting device, is also often referred to as \"free fall\". The aerodynamic drag forces in such situations prevent them from producing full weightlessness, and thus a skydiver's \"free fall\" after reaching terminal velocity produces the sensation of the body's weight being supported on a cushion of air.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The example of a falling skydiver who has not yet deployed a parachute is not considered free fall from a physics perspective, since he experiences a drag force that equals his weight once he has achieved terminal velocity (see below). However, the term \"free fall skydiving\" is commonly used to describe this case in everyday speech, and in the skydiving community. It is not clear, though, whether the more recent sport of wingsuit flying fits under the definition of free fall skydiving.\n", "Galileo found that for an object in free fall, the distance that the object has fallen is always proportional to the square of the elapsed time:\n\nGalileo had shown that objects in free fall under the influence of the Earth's gravitational field have a constant acceleration, and Galileo's contemporary, Johannes Kepler, had shown that the planets follow elliptical paths under the influence of the Sun's gravitational mass. However, Galileo's free fall motions and Kepler's planetary motions remained distinct during Galileo's lifetime.\n\nSection::::Newtonian mass.\n", "In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (in symbols, m/s or m·s) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg). Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s, which means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about 9.8 metres per second every second. This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as \"little \" (in contrast, the gravitational constant is referred to as \"big \").\n", "In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed to spacetime curvature instead of to a force. The starting point for general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall with inertial motion. The issue that this creates is that free-falling objects can accelerate with respect to each other. In Newtonian physics, no such acceleration can occur unless at least one of the objects is being operated on by a force (and therefore is not moving inertially).\n", "The experimental observation that all objects in free fall accelerate at the same rate, as noted by Galileo and then embodied in Newton's theory as the equality of gravitational and inertial masses, and later confirmed to high accuracy by modern forms of the Eötvös experiment, is the basis of the equivalence principle, from which basis Einstein's theory of general relativity initially took off.\n\nSection::::Record free fall parachute jumps.\n\nIn 1914, while doing demonstrations for the U.S. Army, a parachute pioneer named Tiny Broadwick deployed her chute manually, thus becoming the first person to jump free-fall.\n" ]

[ "Universe is in constant free fall.", "The entire universe is in constant free fall. " ]

[ "Universe is not in freefall it is just expanding. ", "There is no free fall due to a lack of gravity in the universe. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Universe is in constant free fall.", "The entire universe is in constant free fall. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Universe is not in freefall it is just expanding. ", "There is no free fall due to a lack of gravity in the universe. " ]

[ "Section::::Hard disk drives.\n\nOn a hard disk drive, the \"click of death\" refers to a similar phenomenon; the head actuator may click or knock as the drive repetitively tries to recover from one or more errors. These sounds can be heard as the heads load or unload, or they can be the sounds of the actuator striking a stop, or both. The \"click of death\" may indicate that the hard drive has crashed or failed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Head crash\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Comprehensive account of the click of death at grc.com\n", "The Macintosh startup chime is played on power-up, before trying to boot an operating system. The sound indicates that diagnostic tests run immediately at startup have found no hardware or fundamental software problems. The specific sound differs depending on the ROM, which greatly varies depending on Macintosh model. The first sound version in the first three Macintosh models is a simple square-wave \"beep\", and all subsequent sounds are various chords.\n", "Click of death\n\nClick of death is a term that became common in the late 1990s referring to the clicking sound in disk storage systems that signals a disk drive has failed, often catastrophically.\n", "which allows the rate of growth for the loading cycle to be obtained from the crack growth equation.\n\nThe rate of crack growth is then calculated from\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Occurrence.:History.\n\nThe phenomenon was first noticed in 1983 in hoop-wound fibre-reinforced aluminium alloy cylinders, which burst in use in the USA. The alloy was 6351 with a relatively high lead content (400 ppm), but even after the lead content was lowered, the problem recurred, and subsequently the problem was detected in monolithic aluminium cylinders. The first incidence of a SLC crack in the cylindrical part of a cylinder was reported in 1999.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Detection.\n", "BULLET::::3. It is common practice to use a load monitor with CNC machinery. The load monitor stops the machine if the spindle or feed loads exceed a preset value that is set during the set-up operation. The jobs of the load monitor are various:\n\nBULLET::::1. Prevent machine damage in the event of tool breakage or a programming mistake.\n", "Due to the always-on design, in the event of a short circuit, either a fuse would blow, or a switched-mode supply would repeatedly cut the power, wait a brief period of time, and attempt to restart. For some power supplies the repeated restarting is audible as a quiet rapid chirping or ticking emitted from the device.\n\nSection::::Development.:ATX standard.\n", "PC LOAD LETTER\n\nPC LOAD LETTER is a printer error message that has entered popular culture as a technology meme referring to a confusing or inappropriate error message.\n\nThe message is encountered when printing on older HP LaserJet printers such as the LaserJet II, III, and 4 series. It means that the printer is trying to print a document whose paper size is set to \"letter\" when no letter size paper is available, either through supply exhaustion or supply size mismatch.\n", "Some drive mechanisms such as the Apple II -inch drive without a track zero sensor, produce characteristic mechanical noises when trying to move the heads past the reference surface. This physical striking is responsible for the -inch drive clicking during the boot of an Apple II, and the loud rattles of its DOS and ProDOS when disk errors occurred and track zero synchronization was attempted.\n\nSection::::Sizes.\n", "The clicking sound itself arises from the unexpected movement of the disk's read-write actuator. At startup, and during use, the disk head must move correctly and be able to confirm it is correctly tracking data on the disk. If the head fails to move as expected or upon moving cannot track the disk surface correctly, the disk controller may attempt to recover from the error by returning the head to its home position and then retrying, at times causing an audible \"click\". In some devices, the process automatically retries, causing a repeated or rhythmic clicking sound, sometimes accompanied by the whirring sound of the drive plate spinning.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n\nAn executable file starting with an interpreter directive is simply called a script, often prefaced with the name or general classification of the intended interpreter. The name \"shebang\" for the distinctive two characters may have come from an inexact contraction of \"SHArp bang\" or \"haSH bang\", referring to the two typical Unix names for them. Another theory on the \"sh\" in \"shebang\" is that it is from the default shell \"sh\", usually invoked with shebang. This usage was current by December 1989, and probably earlier.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Sustained load cracking\n\nSustained load cracking, or SLC, is a metallurgical phenomenon that occasionally develops in pressure vessels and structural components under stress for sustained periods of time.\n\nIt is particularly noted in aluminium pressure vessels such as diving cylinders.\n\nSustained load cracking is not a manufacturing defect; it is a phenomenon associated with certain alloys and service conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- 6351 aluminum alloy\n\nBULLET::::- Overstressing due to excessive filling pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Abuse and mechanical damage\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "Fill character\n\nIn computer terminology, a fill character is a character transmitted solely for the purpose of consuming time. It does this by filling a timeslot on a data transmission line which would otherwise be forced to be idle (empty). In this way, fill characters provide a simple way of timing required idle times.\n", "Section::::Origin of the term.\n\nThe phrase \"click of death\" originated to describe a failure mode of the Iomega ZIP drives, appearing in print as early as January 30, 1998. In his podcast of September 18, 2008, Mac journalist Tim Robertson claimed to have coined the phrase in the early 1990s. The phrase was then applied to other drives exhibiting a similar unusual clicking sound usually associated with failure.\n\nSection::::Iomega Zip drives.\n", "Loading coils are historically also known as Pupin coils after Mihajlo Pupin, especially when used for the Heaviside condition and the process of inserting them is sometimes called \"pupinization\".\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Telephone lines.\n", "The Amiga is also notorious for the clicking sound made by the floppy drive mechanism if no disk is inserted. The purpose is to detect disk changes, and various utilities such as Noclick exist that can disable the clicking noise to the relief of many Amiga users.\n\nSection::::Custom formatting types on 3½-inch and 5¼-inch media.:Acorn Electron, BBC Micro, and Acorn Archimedes.\n", "A special byte within the relocation and/or control record buffer is used as a \"disabled bit spin\" communication area, and is initialized to a unique value. The Read CCW for that relocation and/or control record has the Program Controlled Interrupt bit set. The processor is thereby notified when that CCW has been accessed by the channel via a special IOS exit. At this point the processor enters the \"disabled bit spin\" loop (sometimes called \"the shortest loop in the world\"). Once that byte changes from its initialized value, the CPU exits the bit spin, and relocation occurs, during the \"gap\" within the media between the relocation and/or control record and the next text record. If relocation is finished before the next record, the NOP CCW following the Read will be changed to a TIC, and loading and relocating will proceed using the next buffer; if not, then the channel will stop at the NOP CCW, until it is restarted by IEWFETCH via another special IOS exit. The three buffers are in a continuous circular queue, each pointing to its next, and the last pointing to the first, and three buffers are constantly reused as loading and relocating proceeds.\n", "BULLET::::- A dialog box, or pop-up message, appears in a window on the screen, blocking further interaction with the computer until it is acknowledged. On Mac OS X, sheets are a form of dialog box that are attached to a specific window.\n", "The term \"locking\" is much older, possibly originating with Grover, and refers to an \"anti-backlash\" design of the gears, which greatly reduced the slippage of the basic worm-and-gear system. The gear's teeth are shaped to lock into those of the worm, with the string tension insufficient to overcome the friction between the gears. Such a design is called self-locking. Grover Rotomatics and similar designs from other manufacturers are rightly called \"locking tuners.\"\n\nSection::::Resistance to usage.\n", "Load file\n\nA load file in the litigation community is commonly referred to as the file used to import data (coded, captured or extracted data from ESI processing) into a database; or the file used to link images. These load files carry commands, commanding the software to carry out certain functions with the data found in them.\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – In the United Kingdom, a walkout at Cortonwood Colliery in Brampton Bierlow signals the start of a strike that lasted almost a year and involved the majority of the country's miners.\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – The British ferry capsizes in about 90 seconds, killing 193.\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – Three Provisional Irish Republican Army volunteers are shot dead by the SAS in Gibraltar in Operation Flavius.\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – The Michelangelo computer virus begins to affect computers.\n", "When the hard drive for a particular slot is not present or has been removed, activity for that slot has no meaning, and should not be interpreted. Since it could still be desirable to locate the slot or indicate a failure, the Locate and Fail bits may have meaning for a particular slot, even if the physical drive is not present.\n\nSection::::SGPIO interpretation.:Activity bit (ODn.0) interpretation.\n\nThe following section describes how the Activity Bit should be interpreted according to the IBPI specification.\n\nSection::::SGPIO interpretation.:Locate bit (ODn.1) and fail bit (ODn.2) interpretation.\n", "BULLET::::- If the system incorporates a buffer between processes (e.g., a Unix shell pipe), then data will accumulate and be processed at the reader's maximum rate. There are some circumstances in which this is a desirable characteristic (e.g. piping a file over SSH, or if all data in the set is important, and the reader's output does not need to be synchronised with the input).\n", "Section::::Load bank types.:Resistive load bank.\n", "The value returned is the number of bytes read (zero indicates end of file) and the file position is advanced by this number. It is not an error if this number is smaller than the number of bytes requested; this may happen for example because fewer bytes are actually available right now (maybe because we were close to end-of-file, or because we are reading from a pipe, or from a terminal), or because the system call was interrupted by a signal.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Practice has been proposed as the most important factor for the “relatively permanent” improvement in the ability to perform motor skills (Adams 1964; Annett 1969; Fitts 1964; Magill 2001; Marteniuk 1976; Newell 1981; Salmoni et al. 1984; Schmidt and Lee 1999; Guadagnoli and Lee 2004). With all other variables held constant, skill increases with practice (Guadagnoli and Lee 2004). However, time devoted to practice can be made more efficient by careful consideration of practice conditions. \n", "Studies have shown that not only by reevaluating the situation and its errors but by comparing them to others who have attempted the same task allows for deeper insight into how to correct ones ability or knowledge of a situation. By having the ability to compare oneself to another individuals performance adjustments can be better internalized and negative effects can be calculated and seen before they are even made. This allows for the error rate to slow down with the positive transfer rate to increase. When applying what has been learned to another similar task, one can now take what has been learned along with the comparisons of what others have accomplished and apply it more accurately. It would almost be like getting five chances to learn from one exercise when in actuality you only attempted it once.\n", "I have been worried that there is a systemic bias in the data. Random errors don’t concern me. They even out over large volumes of data. But I do think that ... the scoring in certain rinks has a bias towards longer or shorter shots, the most dominant factor in a shot quality model. And I set out to investigate that possibility.\n", "It is accepted that feedback, if presented at the correct time and in the correct quantity, plays a great part in the learning of new skills and the enhancement of performance. Recent research, however, has shown that the more objective or quantitative the feedback, the greater effect it has on performance. However, in order to gauge the exact effect of feedback alone, complete control conditions would be needed in order to minimise the effect of other external variables, which is by definition impossible in real competitive environments. This experimental design is also made more difficult because working with elite athletes precludes large numbers of subjects.\n", "Learning is fundamentally a problem-solving process. It has been proposed that with practice, there is reduced information available to the participant because better expectations are formed (i.e. practice = redundancy, therefore less uncertainty; Marteniuk 1976). However, increasing functional task difficulty results in less certainty about the predicted success of the action plan and the nature of the feedback. At low levels of functional difficulty, the potential available information is low for performers in all skill levels. As functional task difficulty increases, the potential information available increases exponentially for beginners and less rapidly for intermediate and skilled performers. For experts, the potential information available increases only at the highest levels of functional task difficulty.\n", "According to the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning theory (IZOF), proposed by Russian social and sport psychologist Yuri Hanin as an instance of the earlier-discovered Yerkes–Dodson effect, an individual’s best performance is when their anxiety level is in a certain zone of optimal state of anxiety or affect. Too much or too little anxiety can lead to performance decrement. Determining athletes’ optimal prestart state anxiety level leads to achieving and maintaining that level throughout the performance.\n", "Depending on traits and situations, it can be easier for some individuals to find motivation than others. That being said, those who are able to find motivation more easily are not guaranteed success and athletes who struggle can adjust some things to improve their drive. Motivation can be facilitated by coaching or leaders, changing the environment, finding multiple reasons or motives to do something, and being realistic about what is achievable. High achieving athletes are more likely to be motivated to achieve success rather than being motivated to avoid failure.\n\nSection::::Common areas of study.:Arousal anxiety and stress.\n", "\"It’s not teaching kids bad habits, because you’ll see that most of us that’s doing tricks like that, where kids will go to the court and do it and get called on, we don’t do that. We do what kids can do in a regular game that don’t get called on. We’re not carrying the ball; we’re not walking; we’re not double-dribbling; we just playing. Our hands is fast like that when you think we doing something that’s wrong.\"\n", "In his biography Sebastian Kawa vividly describes the process of accumulating experience and knowledge necessary to compete at elite level. He expresses the opinion that \"it takes about 10 years of maximal concentration and effort to get to fly against the masters\". In many places however he reminds of an always present factor of chance in aviation, referring to, and in the spirit of the cult book \"\"Fate is the Hunter\"\" by Ernest Gann, the chance which had to be reckoned with, even with most minute and knowledgeable planning.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "This theory predicts a decrease in performance is due to attention being shifted to movement execution. Any combination of factors that increase the importance of performing is considered performance pressure. Baumeister’s self-focus theory suggests responding to performance pressure can lead to an increase in self-consciousness which then results in choking. \n\nThere is more focus on the motor components of performance, consciously controlling movements with step-by-step control.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Processing efficiency theory (PET).\n", "BULLET::::- People with an internal locus of control, have an increased chance of flow because they believe they can increase their skill level to match the challenge.\n\nBULLET::::- Perfectionism, however, is negatively related to flow. A person downplays their skill levels therefore making the gap too big, and they perceive the challenge to be too large to experience flow. On the opposite end of perfectionism, however, there are increased chances of flow.\n", "Performance of a task with low nominal difficulty will be expected to be high in all groups of performers (i.e. all skill levels). However, beginner performance will be expected to decline rapidly as nominal difficulty increases, whereas intermediate and skilled performance will decline less rapidly, and expert performance is expected to decline only at the highest nominal difficulty levels.\n", "At Yale, Morrisett wrote a dissertation: “The Role of Implicit Practice in Learning.” The thesis, which used three activities — including long distance dart throwing — as examples, explored whether or not it is possible to improve performance by thinking about it. Morrisett concluded that in the instance of dart throwing, it is not possible. But in the instance of a two-handed coordination task, it is possible. Today, the dissertation is cited as an important early contribution to sports psychology.\n", "The number of repetitions required will also depend on how critical the skill is considered to be. A single successful demonstration may be sufficient to show that the candidate can perform a task when the consequences are minor. Several sequential faultless performances may be required if another person's life will depend on correct performance.\n\nSection::::Assessment tools.\n", "Other related factors are motivation to achieve success or avoid failure, task relevant attention, positive self-talk and cognitive regulation to achieve automaticity. Performance is also dependent on adaptation of eight areas: Handling crisis, managing stress, creative problem solving, knowing necessary functional tools and skills, agile management of complex processes, interpersonal adaptability, cultural adaptability, and physical fitness. Performance is not always a result of practice, it is about honing the skill, even over practice itself can result in failure due to ego depletion. \n\nSection::::Performance state.:Stage fright.\n", "The specificity of learning hypothesis suggests that learning is most effective when practice sessions include environment and movement conditions which closely resemble those required during performance of the task — replicating the target skill level and context for performance. It suggests that the benefit of specificity in practice occurs because motor learning is combined with physical practice during the learned sport or skill. Contrary to previous beliefs, skill learning is accomplished by alternating motor learning and physical performance, making the sources of feedback work together. The learning process, especially for a difficult task, results in the creation of a representation of the task where all relevant information pertaining to task performance is integrated. This representation becomes tightly coupled with increasing experience performing the task. As a result, removing or adding a significant source of information after a practice period where it was present or not, does not cause performance to deteriorate. Alternating motor learning and physical practice can ultimately lead to a great, if not better performance as opposed to just physical practice.\n", "A study done by Wang, Marchant, Morris and Gibbs (2004) found poor performance associated with high self-conscious individuals. An individual with high self-consciousness focuses their attention to thoughts relating to the task (i.e., “did I step right?”) and to outside concerns (i.e., “will people laugh if I mess up?”). Individuals with low self-consciousness can direct their attention outward or inward because self-concerns do not dominate their thinking.\n\nSection::::Contributing factors.:Experience and skill.\n", "Transfer of motor skills: the gain or loss in the capability for performance in one task as a result of practice and experience on some other task. An example would be the comparison of initial skill of a tennis player and non-tennis player when playing table tennis for the first time. An example of a negative transfer is if it takes longer for a typist to adjust to a randomly assigned letter of the keyboard compared to a new typist.\n\nRetention: the performance level of a particular skill after a period of no use.\n", "For instance, in several sports such as tennis and golf, there have been technological improvements in the apparatuses used in these sports. The improved apparatus in turn allows players to achieve better performance with no improvement in skill by purchasing new equipment. The apparatus, the golf club and golf ball or the tennis racket, provide the player with a higher theoretical performance limit.\n\nPerformance is a measure of the results achieved. Performance efficiency is the ratio between effort expended and results achieved. The difference between current performance and the theoretical performance limit is the performance improvement zone.\n", "In the book \"Moonwalking with Einstein\" by Joshua Foer, a theory called \"deliberate practice\" is brought up. The theorist that came up with this theory was K. Anders Ericsson who said: “Our civilization has always recognized exceptional individuals, whose performance in sports, the arts, and science is vastly superior to that of the rest of the population.” This quote coincides with the three stages because these would be the main topics or ideas that would come in mind to reach the plateau effect in many of people. When these conditions are met, practice improves accuracy and speed of performance on cognitive, perceptual, and motor tasks. \n", "Section::::Sports.\n\nIn physical sports, humans need several years of practice before reaching the highest competitive level. To date, no single professional football or basketball player has been able to play in the best leagues after starting practice at age 20. The same applies to mental sports like chess, where no player has arrived to the top 100 after starting practice at age 20. In general, to reach the highest level in sport, the sooner a person start to train, the best.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Behavioral cusp\n\nBULLET::::- Child development\n\nBULLET::::- Critical period hypothesis\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental psychology\n\nBULLET::::- Malleable intelligence\n", "According to Taxman and co-writer, Belenko, factors influencing the effectiveness of outcomes pertaining to the behavioural corrections system are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Part One\n", "BULLET::::- \"What Motivates Me: Put Your Passions to Work\" (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Best Team Wins: The New Science of High Performance\" (2014)\n\nSection::::Recognition.\n", "To summarize, Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and intelligence suggests that individuals with a relatively low sense of self-efficacy in any field will avoid challenges. This effect is heightened when they perceive the situations as \"personal threats\". When failure occurs, they recover from it more slowly than others, and credit it to an insufficient aptitude. \n\nOn the other hand, persons with high levels of self-efficacy hold a task-diagnostic aim that leads to effective performance.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Process, personality, intelligence and knowledge theory (PPIK).\n", "Two recent articles in \"Current Directions in Psychological Science\" criticize deliberate practice and argue that, while it is necessary for reaching high levels of performance, it is not sufficient, with other factors such as talent being important as well. In addition, Malcolm Gladwell's point-of-view about deliberate practice is different from Ericsson's view. Gladwell, staff writer at \"The New Yorker\" magazine and author of five books on The New York Times Best Seller list including \"Outliers: The Story of Success\" said in a May 2016 Freakonomics podcast interview that, \"He's [Ericsson] a hard practice guy, and I'm a soft practice guy.\" Gladwell claims that talent is important with an intentional dedication to practice and having a support system is vital to produce superior outcomes. It is not all about methodical effort as Ericsson claims.\n" ]

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[ "Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)\n\nVideo RAM, or VRAM, is a dual-ported variant of dynamic RAM (DRAM), which was once commonly used to store the framebuffer in graphics adapters.\n", "Section::::UPnP AV clients.:UPnP control points and player software.\n\nSection::::UPnP AV clients.:UPnP control points and player software.:Cross-platform.\n\nBULLET::::- Banshee, an open source (MIT) media player with UPnP-client support since version 2.4\n\nBULLET::::- Kinsky is an open source UPnP control point for iPod/iPhone, iPad, Windows, macOS, Linux, Android and PocketPC.\n\nBULLET::::- Kodi (XBMC#XBMCbuntu|XBMC), a cross platform open source software media-player/media center for Apple TV, Linux, macOS, Windows, Android and the custom XBMC#XBMCbuntu.\n", "The first IBM PC to use the SMA was the IBM PCjr, released in 1984. Video memory was shared with the first 128KiB of RAM. The exact size of the video memory could be reconfigured by software to meet the needs of the current program.\n\nAn early hybrid system was the Commodore Amiga which could run as a shared memory system, but would load executable code preferentially into non-shared \"fast RAM\" if it was available.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- IBM PCjr\n\nBULLET::::- Video memory\n\nBULLET::::- Shared memory, in general, other than graphics\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- PC Magazine Definition for SMA\n", "BULLET::::- Some video overlay devices write the digital video signal directly into the graphics card's video memory or provide it to the graphics card's RAMDAC.\n", "Other CAM applications include:\n\nBULLET::::- CPU fully associative cache controllers and translation lookaside buffers (TLB)\n\nBULLET::::- Database engines\n\nBULLET::::- Data compression hardware\n\nBULLET::::- Artificial neural networks\n\nBULLET::::- Intrusion prevention system\n\nBULLET::::- Several custom computers, like the Goodyear STARAN, were built to implement CAM.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Content addressable network\n\nBULLET::::- Content Addressable Parallel Processor\n\nBULLET::::- Content-addressable storage, or file system\n\nBULLET::::- Sparse distributed memory\n\nBULLET::::- Tuple space\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Anargyros Krikelis, Charles C. Weems (editors) (1997). \"Associative Processing and Processors\", IEEE Computer Science Press.\n", "BULLET::::- MediaSource, an MSE API developed by Google for its Android mobile-device operating system, originally for the ExoPlayer A-V media app\n\nBULLET::::- Media source – any mass storage device used to serve A-V media content to an application such as a video editor (usually on the same computer)\n\nBULLET::::- Media server – an electronic appliance or personal computer application that delivers audio-visual media to other devices at the same location, such as a home or school\n", "Since the PCjr uses the main system RAM for the video buffer, less memory is available for software than on a standard PC, which has its video memory in the A000h-BFFFh segments, above conventional memory.\n\nSection::::Description.:Overview.:Software.\n", "Section::::The main classes of video hardware.\n\nThere are two main categories of solutions for a home computer to generate a video signal:\n\nBULLET::::- A custom design, either built from discrete logic chips or based around some kind of custom logic chips (an ASIC or PLD).\n\nBULLET::::- A system using some form of video display controller (VDC), a VLSI chip that contained most of the logic circuitry needed to generate the video signal\n", "BULLET::::- In some video recorders DVD-RAM can be written to and read at the same time, allowing one program to be recorded and a different one, or an earlier part of the same one (time slip recording), to be viewed at the same time. DVD+RW recorders can achieve the same thing, and more recently some DVD-RW recorders achieve it as well (though only at the slower recording speeds).\n\nBULLET::::- Usable with some high-end security digital video recorders, such as the Tecton Darlex, as a secure and long-lasting export medium.\n", "BULLET::::- JRiver Media Center, a media player/organizer with a DLNA/UPnP server, controller, and renderer, including conversion.\n\nBULLET::::- AirBeamTV, a company who builds screen mirroring apps for Samsung, LG, Panasonic, Sony and Philips TVs based on the UPnP renderer in the TV, the Mac acts as the UPnP server as well as the UPnP control point.\n\nSection::::UPnP AV clients.:UPnP control points and player software.:Symbian.\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N80 has client and server.\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N82 has client and server, both DLNA certified.\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N95 has client and server, only the server is DLNA certified.\n", "BULLET::::- The free and open-source drivers of the integrated graphics known as \"\"Intel HD Graphics\"\" (Intel HD Graphics 2000/2500/3000/4000) inside Intel Core i3 / i5 / i7 Processor Family (Nehalem, Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge microarchitecture based) processor family.\n\nBULLET::::- The free and open-source drivers of the Intel G45 chipset (with Intel GMA X4500HD integrated graphics), and later\n\nBULLET::::- The closed source proprietary drivers for Intel's Poulsbo chipset with Imagination Technologies's PowerVR-based GMA 500 integrated graphics\n\nBULLET::::- The closed source proprietary drivers for Atom E6xx and Penwell based SoCs are also supported via its \"Media Infrastructure Accelerator\" (MI-X).\n", "BULLET::::- Video coprocessors have their own internal CPU dedicated to reading (and writing) their own video RAM, and converting the contents of this video RAM to a video signal. The main CPU can give commands to the coprocessor, for example to change the video modes or to manipulate the video RAM contents. The video coprocessor also controls the (most often RAM-based) character generator, the colour attribute RAM, palette registers, and the sprite logic (as long as these exist of course).\n\nSection::::List of example VDCs.\n\nExamples of video display controllers are:\n\nVideo shifters\n", "That said, it is not completely clear when a \"video chip\" is a \"video display controller\" and when it is a \"video display processor\". For example, the TMS9918 is sometimes called a \"video display controller\" and sometimes a \"video display processor\". In general however a \"video display processor\" has some power to \"process\" the contents of the video RAM (filling an area of RAM for example), while a \"video display controller\" only controls the timing of the video synchronization signals and the access to the video RAM.\n", "BULLET::::- GeeXboX, an open-source lightweight media center Live CD, no installation required\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N800 and its native MediaStreamer application. This client can also control other hardware renderers such as the Roku Soundbridge\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N900 through its Maemo 5 Operating System\n\nBULLET::::- Moovida (formerly Elisa) is a free, open-source and cross-platform media center solution\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation 3 game-console with OS version 1.8 or later through the Xross Media Bar\n\nBULLET::::- Xbox 360 client from Windows Media Connect\n\nBULLET::::- OurJukebox client for Amazon Alexa\n\nSection::::UPnP AV clients.:UPnP player/client hardware.\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation 3 Sony games console from home screen\n", "RAM image\n\nA RAM image is a sequence of machine code instructions and associated data kept permanently in the non-volatile ROM memory of an embedded system, which is copied into volatile RAM by a bootstrap loader. Typically the RAM image is loaded into RAM when the system is switched on, and it contains a second-level bootstrap loader and basic hardware drivers, enabling the unit to function as desired, or else more sophisticated software to be loaded into the system.\n", "BULLET::::- a microprocessor optimized to deal with these media datatypes\n\nBULLET::::- a memory interface\n\nBULLET::::- streaming media interfaces\n\nBULLET::::- specialized functional units to help deal with the various digital media codecs\n\nThe microprocessor might have these optimizations:\n\nBULLET::::- vector processing or SIMD functional units to efficiently deal with these media datatypes\n\nBULLET::::- DSP-like features\n\nPrevious to media processors, these streaming media datatypes were processed using fixed-function, hardwired ASICs, which could not be updated in the field. This was a big disadvantage when any of the media standards were changed. Since media processors are software programmed devices, the\n", "BULLET::::- Nero MediaHome, a commercial software package containing both a UPnP client and server supporting music and video playback.\n\nBULLET::::- MediaMonkey, free media player/tagger/editor with an UPnP/DLNA client and server.\n\nBULLET::::- JRiver Media Center, a media player/organizer with a DLNA/UPnP server, controller, and renderer, including conversion.\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Media Server, a media player/server with DLNA/UPnP capabilities.\n\nSection::::UPnP AV clients.:UPnP control points and player software.:macOS.\n\nBULLET::::- MediaCloud Mac v2, UPnP Audio/Video Player & Control Point.\n\nBULLET::::- Songbook Mac, UPnP Control Point.\n\nBULLET::::- OPlayer, media player that has a built-in UPnP-client.\n", "BULLET::::- Up to 7.1 surround audio via full-sized HDMI and mini DisplayPort\n\nBULLET::::- Intel Wireless Display (Intel WiDi)\n\n\"Skull Canyon\" models include:\n\nBULLET::::- USB-C port supporting USB 3.1 Gen 2 (SuperSpeed+), Thunderbolt 3 and DisplayPort 1.2\n\nBULLET::::- Internal support for a second M.2 M-Keyed 22×42 and 22×80 SSD card supporting PCIe 3.0 (×1, ×2 and ×4) and SATA 6 Gbit/s\n\nSection::::Sixth generation.:Apollo Lake.\n\nThese UCFF system kit (NUC6CAYS and NUC6CAYH) models formerly known as \"Arches Canyon\", are based on the 6th generation Celeron-branded Apollo Lake SoC 14 nm processor family.\n\nBULLET::::- RAM: DDR3L-1600/1866 1.35V SO-DIMM\n\nSection::::Seventh generation.\n", "Video Core Next\n\nVideo Core Next is AMD's brand for its dedicated video encoding and decoding hardware core. \n\nSection::::Background.\n\nVideo Core Next is AMD's successor ASIC to both UVD and VCE. It can be used to decode, encode and transcode (\"sync\") video streams, for example, a DVD or Blu-ray Disc to a format appropriate to, for example, a smartphone. Unlike video encoding on a CPU or a general-purpose GPU, Video Core Next is a dedicated hardware core on the processor die. This application-specific integrated circuit design can allow for a much more power efficient video processing.\n\nSection::::Support.\n", "There have been RAM drives which use DRAM memory that is exclusively dedicated to function as an extremely low latency storage device. This memory is isolated from the processor and not directly accessible in the same manner as normal system memory.\n", "Section::::Explanation of the terms used in the tables.\n\nBULLET::::- System Name : The name of the system, or if there are many similar versions, the name of the most well known variant, see Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Year : The year that the first version of this system came on the market.\n\nBULLET::::- Chip name : The name of the chip that was used as the basis for the video logic.\n\nBULLET::::- Video RAM : The maximum amount of RAM used for the video display, depending on the resolution used the system may use less.\n", "Most often the VDC chip is completely integrated in the logic of the main computer system, (its video RAM appears in the memory map of the main CPU), but sometimes it functions as a coprocessor that can manipulate the video RAM contents independently\n\nSection::::Video display controller vs. graphics processing unit.\n", "DVD-RAM has a larger presence in camcorders and set-top boxes than in computers, although the popularity of DVD-RAM in these devices can be explained by its being very easily written to and erased, which for example allows extensive in-camera editing.\n", "Low-power laptops use low-power processors and graphics chips, and therefore often struggle to play video at full frame rates. It isn't desirable or practical to port a full operating system onto a VideoCore chip, so only the video decoding need be offloaded onto a video accelerator board (e.g. using the BCM70015 chip).\n\nBlu-ray players can also use it as a low-power video accelerator.\n\nNoting that VideoCore chips were usually used with ARM-based chips, the latest chips have VideoCore and ARM processors.\n\nSection::::Linux support.\n", "OMAP\n\nThe OMAP (Open Multimedia Applications Platform) family, developed by Texas Instruments, was a series of image/video processors. They are proprietary system on chips (SoCs) for portable and mobile multimedia applications. OMAP devices generally include a general-purpose ARM architecture processor core plus one or more specialized co-processors. Earlier OMAP variants commonly featured a variant of the Texas Instruments TMS320 series digital signal processor.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- \"Erythrolamprus ocellatus\", Tobago false coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis elapsoides\", scarlet kingsnake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis pyromelana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum\", milk snake, including the following subspecies and others:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum amaura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum annulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum campbelli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum gaigeae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum hondurensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum multistrata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis triangulum syspila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lampropeltis zonata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lystrophis pulcher\", tri-color hognose snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oxyrhopus petola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oxyrhopus rhombifer\", false coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pliocercus elapoides\", variegated false coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhinobothryum bovallii\", coral mimic snake, false tree coral\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus\"\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In contrast to the normal drab coloration of most reptiles, the lizards of the genus \"Heloderma\" (the Gila monster and the beaded lizard) and many of the coral snakes have high-contrast warning coloration, warning potential predators they are venomous. A number of non-venomous North American snake species have colorful markings similar to those of the coral snake, an oft cited example of Batesian mimicry.\n\nSection::::Defense mechanisms.:Alternative defense in snakes.\n", "Conspicuousness and toxicity may be inversely related, as polymorphic poison dart frogs that are less conspicuous are more toxic than the brightest and most conspicuous species. Energetic costs of producing toxins and bright color pigments lead to potential trade-offs between toxicity and bright coloration, and prey with strong secondary defenses have less to gain from costly signaling. Therefore, prey populations that are more toxic are predicted to manifest less bright signals, opposing the classical view that increased conspicuousness always evolves with increased toxicity.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus bocourti\" – Ecuadorian coral snake (western Ecuador to northern Colombia)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus bogerti\" – Bogert's coral snake (Oaxaca)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus browni\" – Brown's coral snake (Quintana Roo to Honduras)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus browni browni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus browni importunus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus browni taylori\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus camilae\" (Colombia)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus catamayensis\" – Catamayo coral snake (Catamayo Valley of Ecuador)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus clarki\" – Clark's coral snake (southeastern Costa Rica to western Colombia)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus corallinus\" – painted coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus decoratus\" – Brazilian coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema\" – variable coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema aglaeope\"\n", "Some harmless milk snake (\"Lampropeltis triangulum\") subspecies, the moderately toxic false coral snakes (genus \"Erythrolamprus\"), and the deadly coral snakes (genus \"Micrurus\") all have a red background color with black and white / yellow rings. In this system, both the milk snakes and the deadly coral snakes are mimics, whereas the false coral snakes are the model. It has also been suggested that this system could be an instance of pseudomimicry, the similar colour patterns having evolved independently in similar habitats.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Defensive.:Wasmannian.\n", "Aposematism, or warning coloration, is another factor that influences antipredator behavior. For example, the coral snake exhibits aposematic coloration that can be mimicked. While garter snakes do not exhibit mimicry or aposematic coloration, these snakes with striped patterns are more likely to slowly, successively slither away, while spotted and unstriped snakes are more likely to deceptively flee from predators.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus\" – Central American coral snake (Yucatan and Chiapas to Colombia as well as western Caribbean islands)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus babaspul\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus coibensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus divaricatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus mosquitensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus nigrocinctus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus ovandoensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus wagneri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus yatesi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus pacaraimae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus pachecogili\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus paraensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus peruvianus\" – Peruvian coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus petersi\" – Peters' coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus proximans\" – Nayarit coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus psyches\" – Carib coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus psyches circinalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus psyches donosoi\"\n", "These pictures provide a good example of the day-to-night color change;\n\nboth pictures are of the same snake. Pictures were taken 3.2 hours apart.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n\nThis sub-species, being the northernmost rainbow boa, is found in rainforests and drier coastal clearings in its range; southern Central America, Trinidad & Tobago and northern South America. More semi-arboreal when young, rainbow boas may climb into trees and shrubs to forage and avoid land predators, however, they become mostly terrestrial with age.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus alleni\" – Allen's coral snake (eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus alleni alleni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus alleni richardi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus alleni yatesi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus altirostris\" (Brazil, Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus ancoralis\" – regal coral snake (southeastern Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus ancoralis ancoralis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus ancoralis jani\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus annellatus\" – annellated coral snake (southeastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus annellatus annellatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus annellatus balzanii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus annellatus bolivianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus averyi\" – black-headed coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus bernadi\" (Mexico)\n", "There are several rhymes to help people remember the color difference between harmless milk snakes and the poisonous coral snake. Two rhymes that describe the stripe pattern of these snakes are:\n\n\"Black 'round yellow, harmless fellow. Yellow 'round black, stay far back.\"\n\n\"Red touches black, you're O.K. Jack. Red touches yellow, you're a dead fellow.\"\n\nSection::::Conservation status.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus surinamensis\" - aquatic coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus surinamensis nattereri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus surinamensis surinamensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tener\" – Texas coral snake (Texas and Louisiana south to Morelos and Guanajuato)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tener fitzingeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tener maculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tener microgalbineus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tener tamaulipensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tener tener\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tricolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tschudii\" – desert coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tschudii olssoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus tschudii tschudii\"\n\nSection::::Mimicry.\n", "Scarlet kingsnakes have a tricolored pattern of black, red, white, and various shades of yellow bands that appear to mimic the venomous coral snake in a form of Batesian mimicry. A method to help differentiate between venomous and nonvenomous tricolor snakes in North America is found in the popular phrases \"red on yellow, kill a fellow; red on black, venom lack\", \"red on yellow's a deadly fellow; yellow on black's a friendly Jack\", \"if red touches yellow, you're a dead fellow; if red touches black, you're all right, Jack\", and \"red and black is a friend of Jack\" as well as \"red on black, friend of Jack; red on yellow, kill a fellow\" and \"red band near black, venom lack; red band near yellow, bite a fellow\". For tri-colored snakes found east of the Mississippi River, all of these phrases can be replaced with the simple phrase, \"Red face, I'm safe\", in reference to the red snout of scarlet kingsnakes as opposed to the prominent black snout of the eastern coral snake.\n", "Only certain traits may be required to deceive predators; for example, tests on the sympatry/allopatry border (where the two are in the same area, and where they are not) of the mimic \"Lampropeltis elapsoides\" and the model \"Micrurus fulvius\" showed that color proportions in these snakes were important in deceiving predators, but that the order of the colored rings was not.\n\nSection::::Acoustic mimicry.\n", "Warning coloration (aposematism) is effectively the \"opposite\" of camouflage, and a special case of advertising. Its function is to make the animal, for example a wasp or a coral snake, highly conspicuous to potential predators, so that it is noticed, remembered, and then avoided. As Peter Forbes observes, \"Human warning signs employ the same colours – red, yellow, black, and white – that nature uses to advertise dangerous creatures.\" Warning colors work by being associated by potential predators with something that makes the warning colored animal unpleasant or dangerous. This can be achieved in several ways, by being any combination of:\n", "Section::::Protective coloration and behavior.\n\nSection::::Protective coloration and behavior.:Mimicry.\n", "Their colour also differs between species, between genders, and according to mood; for example, a dominant male in display mode is far brighter than when it has been caught, beaten by another male, or otherwise alarmed. Females tend to be less colourful than the males of the species. \n", "There is strong evidence that spiders' coloration is camouflage that helps them to evade their major predators, birds and parasitic wasps, both of which have good color vision. Many spider species are colored so as to merge with their most common backgrounds, and some have disruptive coloration, stripes and blotches that break up their outlines. In a few species, such as the Hawaiian happy-face spider, \"Theridion grallator\", several coloration schemes are present in a ratio that appears to remain constant, and this may make it more difficult for predators to recognize the species. Most spiders are insufficiently dangerous or unpleasant-tasting for warning coloration to offer much benefit. However, a few species with powerful venoms, large jaws or irritant hairs have patches of warning colors, and some actively display these colors when threatened.\n", "Chapter 24 mentions that some terrestrial salamanders \"are rather brightly pied with black and whitish, or yellow\", while other amphibians \"are extremely gaudy—wearing much bright blue, green, purple and sometimes red.\" It suggests that some of these markings are \"baits or targets\", again to distract predators from striking at the head, while the salamander markings are left as a problem as the authors \"know too little about the habits\" of these species. It is admitted that \"the disguising coloration of many of them is very obscure.\"\n", "What sorts of traits draw visual attention? Lizards that use visual communication often possess specialized structures used for communication. These structures often incorporate vibrant colors and striking patterns accompanied by wacky behaviors intended to display these traits, all intended to draw attention during communication. In many cases, these structures are hidden from view except when in use for communication—colors that draw the attention of other lizards may also draw the attention of unwanted audiences, such as predators or competitors. Thus, these colors may be located on a flap of skin that is only visible when the lizard extends it, or on a surface of the body like the belly that is not exposed unless the lizard intends to. Both of these are common in lizards. Many species of \"Anolis\" lizards have dewlaps, vibrantly colored throat fans that they extend during behavioral interactions like attracting mates and dueling with competitors. \"Anolis\" lizards tend to be fairly well camouflaged apart from the vibrant dewlap color, and often go unnoticed until they extend their dewlaps. Many \"Sceloporous\" lizard species also have hidden colors. Many \"Sceloporous\" develop vibrant blue and black coloration on their bellies during the breeding season. This color is not visible to other lizards unless the lizard engages in a behavior called dorsal ventral flattening, in which the lizard flattens its body to expose the colorful parts of its belly during behavioral interactions.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus lemniscatus frontifasciatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus lemniscatus helleri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus limbatus\" – Tuxtlan coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus limbatus limbatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus limbatus spilosomus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus margaritiferus\" – speckled coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus medemi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus mertensi\" – Merten's coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus mipartitus\" – redtail coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus mipartitus anomalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus mipartitus decussatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus mipartitus mipartitus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus mipartitus semipartitus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus multifasciatus\" – many-banded coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus multifasciatus multifasciatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus multifasciatus hertwigi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus multiscutatus\" – Cauca coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus nebularis\" – cloud forest coral snake\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii venezuelensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus elegans\" – elegant coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus elegans elegans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus elegans veraepacis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus ephippifer\" – Oaxacan coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus ephippifer ephippifer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus ephippifer zapotecus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus filiformis\" – slender coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus filiformis filiformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus filiformis subtilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus frontalis\" – southern coral snake (Brazil to northeastern Argentina)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus frontalis brasiliensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus frontalis frontalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus frontalis mesopotamicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus frontifasciatus\" – Bolivian coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus fulvius\" – eastern coral snake (U.S. coastal plains of North Carolina to Louisiana)\n", "Camouflage does not always fool a predator. When caught out, snake species adopt different defensive tactics and use a complicated set of behaviors when attacked. Some first elevate their head and spread out the skin of their neck in an effort to look large and threatening. Failure of this strategy may lead to other measures practiced particularly by cobras, vipers, and closely related species, which use venom to attack. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs from a venom gland. Some non-venomous snakes, such as American hognose snakes or European grass snake, play dead when in danger; some, including the grass snake, exude a foul-smelling liquid to deter attackers.\n", "Coral snakes in North America are most notable for their red, yellow/white, and black colored banding. However, several nonvenomous species have similar coloration, including the scarlet snake, genus \"Cemophora\"; some of the kingsnakes and milk snakes, genus \"Lampropeltis\"; and the shovelnose snakes, genus \"Chionactis\". In some regions, the order of the bands usually, but not always, distinguishes between the non-venomous mimics and coral snakes native to North America: \"Micrurus fulvius\" (eastern or common coral snake), \"Micrurus tener\" (Texas coral snake), and \"Micruroides euryxanthus\" (Arizona coral snake), found in the southern and western United States. Coral snakes found in other parts of the world can have distinctly different patterns, have red bands touching black bands, have pink, blue, white, and black banding, or have no banding at all.\n", "Some octopuses can use muscles in the skin to change both the colour and texture of their mantle to achieve a greater camouflage. In some species, the mantle can take on the spiky appearance of seaweed, or the scraggly, bumpy texture of a rock, among other disguises. A few species, such as the mimic octopus, have another defence mechanism. They can combine their highly flexible bodies with their colour-changing ability to accurately mimic other, more dangerous animals, such as lionfish, sea snakes, and eels.\n\nSection::::Feigning death.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema alienus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema affinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema apiatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema diastema\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema macdougalli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus diastema sapperi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dissoleucus\" – pygmy coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dissoleucus dissoleucus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dissoleucus dunni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dissoleucus melanogenys\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dissoleucus meridensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dissoleucus nigrirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus distans\" – West Mexican coral snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus distans distans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus distans michoacanensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus distans oliveri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus distans zweifeli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii antioquiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii carinicaudus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii colombianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii dumerilii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrurus dumerilii transandinus\"\n" ]

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[ "High School Reunion (TV series)\n\nHigh School Reunion is a reality television series chronicling real-life high school reunions.\n\nThe program originally aired on The WB for two seasons between 2003 and 2005, and featured reunions of classes after ten years.\n\nA new version of the series began airing on TV Land on March 5, 2008, focusing on the 20-year reunion of the 1987 graduating class of J. J. Pearce High School in Richardson, Texas. Filmed in Maui, the series featured documentary-style interviews with the classmates, who are assigned \"labels\" to describe their high school roles.\n", "On the other hand, because of those snail-mail address we know that the people who attended this particular reunion came from 18 different U.S. states, three Canadian provinces, and a pair of foreign countries (UK and Israel).\n", "Additional follow-up studies are underway. The researchers at the Population Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin work in collaboration with NORC and researchers from the University of Minnesota and the University of Wisconsin to continue to build this time series dataset with the endorsement of NCES.[3] In 2012, The Alfred P. Sloan Foundation awarded a grant to re-contact the 14,825 members of the original 1980 sophomore class. The National Science Foundation awarded a grant in 2014 for the researchers to re-contact the 11,995 members of the 1980 senior class.\n\nSection::::The origins/historical context.\n", "It has also been stated that scholarships were awarded, but in most cases these were for only 200 dollars and assigned (won) by random chance, similar to a lottery drawing.\n", "The series returned to TV Land in February 2009 with members of the Class of 1988 of Chandler High School in Chandler, Arizona reuniting and the promise that one of them would reveal a major secret. Once again class members had labels such as \"The Class Clown\", \"The Cowboy\", etc.\n\nThe series returned with its third season premiering on January 13, 2010. It follows the members of the Class of 1989 of Chaparral High School in Las Vegas, Nevada.\n\nSection::::1987 Classmates & Air Dates.\n", "Senator John McCain never met any of the black McCains. Lillie McCain said that Senator John McCain was invited to their biannual family reunion functions in Teoc, but according to the 2008 McCain presidential campaign, schedule conflicts had prevented Senator McCain from attending, though the brother of the Senator, Joseph \"Joe\" McCain, has attended the Teoc reunions.\n\nA statement by the McCain 2008 presidential campaign on the subject of the black McCains said, \"How the Teoc descendents have served their community, and by extension, their country, is a testament to the power of family, love, compassion, and the human spirit.\"\n", "In January 1950, he was visited by a young man whose first name may have been George, three times over the course of a week. On the third occasion, Richard Cox and \"George\" left the grounds of the academy and were never seen again. According to an eyewitness account from another cadet, the two men seemed to have known each other somewhere other than West Point. Cox is the only West Point cadet to have disappeared without a trace.\n\nSection::::Early life and military career.\n", "This is a list of notable alumni of Oregon State University, a university in Corvallis, Oregon in the United States. The university traces its roots back to 1856 when Corvallis Academy was founded. It wasn't formally incorporated until 1858 when the name was changed to Corvallis College, and wasn't chartered until 1868. In 1890 the school became known as Oregon Agricultural College, in 1927 it was known as Oregon State Agricultural College, and the current name was adopted in 1961. Alumni from each of these eras may be included on the list, and more than 200,000 people have attended the university since its founding.\n", "BULLET::::- MSG Matt Eversmann: Army Ranger who fought in the Battle of Mogadishu; portrayed by Josh Hartnett in the film \"Black Hawk Down\"; Class of 1988 (did not graduate due to enlistment in the Army, but was awarded an honorary degree in August 2000)\n\nBULLET::::- Devin Galligan: cancer survivor and philanthropist; founder of \"Strain the Brain\" to help cancer patients in Nashville, Tennessee; Class of 1994 (completed degree at Fordham University)\n\nBULLET::::- Robert E. Livingston Jr.: Adjutant General of South Carolina ; Class of 1978\n", "In 1974, Jim is married. He returns to his home town of Stratford, Connecticut, to accept a job as an English teacher. All seems to go well until after the Christmas holiday. Jim learns that one of his students was killed in a hit and run accident. A new student is added to Jim's class. Jim recognizes the boy as Robert Lawson, one of the greasers who killed his brother. Lawson appears to be the same age as he was in 1957.\n", "BULLET::::- Kirstin, the spoiled girl\n\nBULLET::::- Glenn, the geek\n\nBULLET::::- Lana, the drama queen\n\nBULLET::::- Mike, the rebel\n\nBULLET::::- Rob, the stud\n\nThe Maui High School Marching band performed on the show.\n\n1.1 03/05/2008: Meet the Mustangs \n\n1.2 03/12/2008: Who Could It Be Now \n\n1.3 03/19/2008: Return of the Backstabber \n\n1.4 03/26/2008: Bros Before Ho's \n\n1.5 04/02/2008: Happy Birthday Steve \n\n1.6 04/09/2008: Only the Lonely\n\nSection::::1988 Classmates & Air Dates.\n\nBULLET::::- Andrew, The Band Geek\n\nBULLET::::- Chad Ramirez, The Cowboy\n\nBULLET::::- Dennis, The Troublemaker\n\nBULLET::::- Heather, The Preacher's Daughter\n\nBULLET::::- Jenny LaFlesch, The Cheerleader\n", "BULLET::::- Ron Prince, former head football coach at Kansas State University\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Rodgers, 1972 Heisman Trophy winner, College Football Hall of Fame Inductee, voted University of Nebraska's \"player of the century\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gale Sayers, professional football player, Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee\n\nSection::::Military.\n\nBULLET::::- George Crook, leader of Fort Omaha\n\nBULLET::::- Alfonza W. Davis, Captain in the Tuskegee Airmen; born 1918 in North Omaha, graduate of Technical High School (Omaha, Nebraska), graduate of Omaha University, member of Kappa Alpha Psi; first black military aviator from Omaha to receive his wings from Tuskegee Field; KIA over Germany in 1944\n", "BULLET::::- Al Pollard - All-American at Army and running back for the Philadelphia Eagles\n\nBULLET::::- Sinjin Smith - pioneer world pro volleyball champion\n\nBULLET::::- Fred Snodgrass - outfielder for the New York Giants and appeared in the 1912 World Series; later Mayor of Oxnard, California\n\nBULLET::::- Hollis Thompson - former Georgetown basketball player, Philadelphia 76ers shooting guard\n\nBULLET::::- David Torrence - pro runner and American record holder in 1000 meter\n\nBULLET::::- Matt Ware - former UCLA quarterback and safety with the Philadelphia Eagles, Arizona Cardinals and Toronto Argonauts\n", "BULLET::::- Jimmy McLarnin – Irish boxer, two-time welterweight world champion; International Boxing Hall of Fame inductee\n\nBULLET::::- Nate Mendel – Sunny Day Real Estate and Foo Fighters bassist; Hanford High School Class of 1987\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Repko – Major League Baseball outfielder; Hanford High class of 1999\n\nBULLET::::- Kathryn Ruemmler – White House Counsel to President Barack Obama; RHS class of 1989\n\nBULLET::::- Hope Solo – United States women's national soccer team goalkeeper; Summer Olympic gold medalist; FIFA Women's World Cup champion; RHS class of 1999\n\nBULLET::::- Sharon Tate – actress; murder victim of Charles Manson's followers; Miss Richland, 1959\n", "3.3 01/27/2010 Pair of Jokers: The reunion is crashed by Justin and Marcel from Valley High; Chaparrals rival high school.\n\n3.4 02/03/2010 Ante Up\n\n3.5 02/10/2010 Hearts Are Wild\n\n3.6 02/17/2010 Invite Only: The Summer Girls throw an \"classy\" invite only party; Sumba and Sushi; which those who attend find boring - several sneak out to the Cheerleaders party. The Cheerleaders are upset at not being invited to the party and throw their own open invite party.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Winters, Class of 1941, WWII officer and veteran of D Day, Market Garden, Carentan and the Battle of The Bulge; main character in \"Band of Brothers\"; member of Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity\n\nBULLET::::- Richard P. Mills, Class of 1972, Lieutenant General, USMC Deputy Commandant for Combat Development and Integration and Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command\n\nSection::::Other.\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Bechdel, Class of 1955, high school teacher, funeral director and subject of his daughter Alison's 2006 graphic memoir \"Fun Home\" and its 2013 musical adaptation\n", "BULLET::::- In the film \"Goodfellas\", when trying to get Henry to come along on a double date, Tommy mentions that his date lives in the Five Towns.\n\nBULLET::::- Opening scene to \"Married to the Mob\" was filmed at the Cedarhurst train station (but with the trains going in the reverse direction per the director's decision.)\n\nSection::::Notable people.\n\nNotable current and former residents of the Five Towns include:\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Abramson, Dean of Touro College\n\nBULLET::::- Lyle Alzado (1949–1992), NFL football player\n", "Classes celebrating a major reunion (multiples of five—5th, 10th, and so on) often wear themed costumes, which have ranged from Roman legionnaires to firefighters and Uncle Sam lookalikes. Costumes and themes are often completely unrelated to Princeton or the year the class graduated.\n\nFrequently, classes will hire musical groups, such as the Mummers, local high school marching bands, and a calliope, to lead them through the parade.\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Hodges, Governor of South Carolina (1999–2003)\n\nBULLET::::- James Holshouser, Governor of North Carolina (1973–77)\n\nBULLET::::- Carolyn Hugley, member of the Georgia House of Representatives\n\nBULLET::::- Hinton James, United States Congressman from North Carolina (1930–31)\n\nBULLET::::- Craig Leonard, Canadian politician\n\nBULLET::::- Ed Lindsey, member of the Georgia House of Representatives\n\nBULLET::::- Grier Martin, Member of the North Carolina House of Representatives (2005–present)\n\nBULLET::::- James G. Martin, Governor of North Carolina (1985–93)\n\nBULLET::::- Larry McDonald, United States Congressman from Georgia (1975–83); died 1983 when the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Flight 007\n", "June 29: Twelve special Pullman trains arrived carrying veterans (4 from the east, with the remainder from the north and west).\n\nSection::::Chronology.:1938.:Events.\n\nJuly 1, Friday (Reunion Day): Opening ceremonies in the Gettysburg College Stadium were in the morning and included an address by Secretary of War Harry Hines Woodring, chairman of the United States Commission.\n", "\"Who's Who Among American High School Students\" compiled and published an annual edition in which students' names and achievements are listed. According to the website, people who accept nomination for inclusion in the book are sometimes qualified for various scholarship opportunities. While there were no required fees to be considered, there was the optional purchase of the listing publication.\n", "BULLET::::- Justin Taggart, The Delinquent (Valley High)\n\nBULLET::::- Lissette Jefferies-Waugh, The Hot Girl (Summer Girl)\n\nBULLET::::- Lori Da Silva, The Party Girl\n\nBULLET::::- Marcel Chevalier, The Prankster (Valley High)\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Kasel, The Secret Admirer\n\nBULLET::::- Rachelle Ramirez-Smith, The Late Bloomer\n\nBULLET::::- Tracy Barkhuff, The Teacher's Pet\n\nBULLET::::- Tracey Ealy, The Jock\n\nBULLET::::- Treda Edwards Ealy, The Class Sweetheart\n", "Over 100 players often have been portrayed as making the trip to Junction. In fact, a smaller number actually went to the camp. Although Bryant started out with over 100 players on the roster, many had already quit or been cut by the time of the Junction camp. Accounts of the exact number who left for Junction vary, but all the survivors insist that it was less than 100. \n", "BULLET::::- \"\"The Complete Story of the One Thousand Children\" \" This visually and verbally tells the story of the OTC, the kids, the rescuers, and the rescue-programs. It demonstrates the tortuous physical paths and difficulties many of the OTC kids went through to get to America and freedom.(2008)(12 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wNiP32kWLKM\n", "BULLET::::- In 2012, the Class of 1925 was once again the oldest class represented, with Malcolm Warnock '25, age 107, the recipient of the \"Class of 1923 Cane\" awarded to the oldest alumnus from the oldest returning class. Warnock returned for many Reunions, becoming the first person ever to participate in the P-Rade at his 84th, 85th, and 86th Reunions.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official Princeton Reunions website\n\nBULLET::::- Annual (unofficial) reports on Princeton Reunions\n\nBULLET::::- Princeton Reunions Photo Gallery\n\nBULLET::::- P-rade photos from the 60's and on\n\nBULLET::::- History of Reunions and the P-Rade\n" ]

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[ "Mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. Today, many cities still have mounted police units. In rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol.\n", "In rural areas, law enforcement that operates outside of incorporated cities may also have mounted units. These include specially deputised, paid or volunteer mounted search and rescue units sent into roadless areas on horseback to locate missing people. Law enforcement in protected areas may use horses in places where mechanised transport is difficult or prohibited. Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.\n\nSection::::Modern uses.:Ceremonial and educational uses.\n", "Section::::Notable modern units.:Royal Oman Police.\n\nThe Royal Oman Police have many horse and camel mounted troopers.\n\nSection::::Notable modern units.:US Border Patrol.\n\nThe United States Border Patrol had 200 horses in 2005. Most of these are employed along the U.S.-Mexico border. In Arizona, these animals are fed special processed feed pellets so that their wastes do not spread non-native plants in the national parks and wildlife areas they patrol.\n\nSection::::Notable modern units.:United States cities.\n", "Once humans domesticated horses, that animal became a favorite way to escape a crime scene. Jesse James and many old \"Wild West\" bank robbers and train robbers of the 19th century used horses to get way from the scene of their larceny.\n", "Mounted police do patrols on horseback (equestrians) or camelback. They continue to serve in remote areas and in metropolitan areas where their day-to-day function may be picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control because of their mobile mass and height advantage and increasingly in the UK for crime prevention and high visibility policing roles. Mounted police may be employed for specialized duties ranging from patrol of parks and wilderness areas, where police cars would be impractical or noisy, to riot duty, where the horse serves to intimidate those whom it is desired to disperse through its larger size, or may be sent in to snatch trouble makers or offenders from the crowd.\n", "Section::::21st century.\n\nWorking horses all but disappeared from Britain's streets by the 21st century; among few exceptions are heavy horses pulling brewers' wagons, or drays. However, when Young's Brewery ceased brewing in Wandsworth, London, in 2006, it ended more than 300 years' use of dray horses by the brewery: its team of Shire horses was retired from delivery work and given a new career with the head horsekeeper, offering heavy horse team driving as a recreational event, although they continue to appear at opening ceremonies for new Young's pubs and other publicity events.\n", "Many cities in the United States have mounted units, New York having one of the largest with 55 horses as of 2016, but numerous mounted units were disbanded or downsized in the 2010s. For example, units in Boston and San Diego were disbanded by 2011, while New York City’s mounted unit was reduced considerably over the last decade with 79 police officers and 60 horses in 2011 – down from the 130 officers and 125 horses it had before the downsizing. Philadelphia's mounted police unit was disbanded in 2004, but reinstated in 2011 with four horses from the disbanding unit of Newark, New Jersey. The Houston, Texas Police Department's Mounted Patrol Unit, started in 1983 and now consisting of 1 lieutenant, 4 sergeants and 24 officers, has become increasingly well known due to the decision to, by the middle of 2008, remove the shoes of all its 38 mounted horses and embrace the concept of naturalizing their horses' diet and care in addition to riding them barefoot.\n", "Section::::Notable modern units.:Canadian police forces.\n\nAlthough the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Canada's national and federal police force, is called the \"Mounted Police\", today it only has a small mounted section (~36 horses) and horses are now primarily used for ceremonies.\n\nA few other Canadian police forces have mounted units:\n\nSection::::Notable modern units.:Canadian police forces.:Current.\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Newfoundland Constabulary has had a mounted unit since 1873, but full time after 2003; unit has 4 horses\n\nBULLET::::- Toronto Police Service Mounted Unit - created in 1886 and has largest unit currently with 27 horses\n", "Organised armed fighters on horseback are occasionally seen. The best-known current examples are the Janjaweed, militia groups seen in the Darfur region of Sudan, who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations in the Darfur conflict. Many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted military units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the conflict in Afghanistan.\n", "In a rescue situation today, horses have two main uses: rapid response and subject transport. Both uses occur primarily in areas inaccessible to road-based emergency vehicles: in coastal areas where heavier vehicles tend to become stuck in wet ground or deep sand, and in wilderness areas. In these areas, horses may be used to patrol and in some cases transport people needing assistance. Examples include a volunteer horse patrol at Hampton Beach, New Hampshire.\n\nAs an example of a typical MSAR rapid response, a deployment in northern Germany proceeded as follows.\n", "Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses. Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.\n", "Numerous arguments broke out in 2013 and 2014 concerning the use of horse-drawn carriages in urban settings or on roads. In New York City, the mayor proposed a ban of horse-drawn carriages, symbols of the city for a century, in Central Park for protection reasons. However, an inquiry showed possible collusion with the real estate sector. Israel became the first country to completely ban horse-drawn carriage traffic on the roads and the streets of its cities in 2014, to fight mistreatment of horses and donkeys. The only exception is for tourist attractions. This action was accompanied by a peace march that brought together 4000 supporters of animal rights.\n", "In 1877, the first horses were bought for the city fire department. The department would continue to use horses for its equipment for almost fifty years, phasing out the last horse drawn equipment on July 19, 1921.\n", "At the beginning of Operation Enduring Freedom, Operational Detachment Alpha 595 teams were covertly inserted into Afghanistan on October 19, 2001. Horses were the only suitable transportation for the difficult mountainous terrain of Northern Afghanistan. They were the first U.S. soldiers to ride horses into battle since January 16, 1942, when the U.S. Army’s 26th Cavalry Regiment charged an advanced guard of the 14th Japanese Army as it advanced from Manila.\n\nThe only remaining operationally ready, fully horse-mounted regular regiment in the world is the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry.\n\nSection::::Modern uses.:Law enforcement and public safety.\n", "Section::::Modern uses.\n\nToday, many of the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications, including exhibitions, historical reenactments, work of peace officers, and competitive events. Formal combat units of mounted cavalry are mostly a thing of the past, with horseback units within the modern military used for reconnaissance, ceremonial, or crowd control purposes. With the rise of mechanised technology, horses in formal national militias were displaced by tanks and armored fighting vehicles, often still referred to as \"cavalry\".\n\nSection::::Modern uses.:Active military.\n", "In the early 1900's, some of the unit were issued with bicycyles instead of horses, as a cost saving measure \n\nThe Victorian Mounted Police moved out of their Melbourne city Southbank stables which had been used by them continuously since 1912, into new purpose built stables in Attwood near Melbourne Airport in 2016 \n\nThe unit had its own breeding program for much of its history, which ended in 2006 when they started to source horses commercially.\n\nSection::::Modern Duties.\n", "Horses used by the mounted Police generally include a variety of breeds, including heavier horses such as warm bloods, draft horses and Clydesdale crosses. Historically horses were donated to the section, and ex race horses have been included in the donations. It can take up to two years to train a mount.\n\nSection::::Modern-day duties.\n", "Section::::History.:19th century.:United States USA.\n\nAmerican documents relate several cases of horse exploitation leading to abuse, notably in bus and tram companies. These horse-drawn vehicles were often overloaded, and the horses pulling them were beaten and subject to hard labour.\n", "A well-known mounted police force is the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). The RCMP now uses standard police methods and does not use any horses operationally. However, horses are used in the Musical Ride as well as by several provincial and municipal police detachments. In the United States, mounted patrols are still essential to local law enforcement operations. The largest Midwestern mounted patrol is in the Minneapolis Police Department of Minneapolis, Minnesota. The U.S. Border Patrol had 200 horses in 2005. Most of these are employed along the U.S.-Mexico border. In Canada, urban police forces use mounted patrols for areas inaccessible by motorized units.\n", "The late fashion designer Alexander McQueen re-created the grueling dance marathon for his ready-to-wear fashion show for his spring 2004 Collection.\n\nJoe Jackson wrote the line \"Enjoy the dance, they don't shoot horses\" in his song \"Cha Cha loco\" (from the 1984 album \"Body and Soul\").\n", "With the invention of the automobile, the tractor and other internal combustion vehicles, the need for driving horses diminished, beginning with the end of World War I and to an even greater degree after World War II. However, interest in driving competition for horses continued, with the horse show and harness racing worlds keeping interest alive, and the development of the sport of combined driving continued to refine the art of proper training and driving techniques. In addition, many third world nations retain a need for driving horses for basic farm work and transportation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Driving club\n", "Small areas still exist where draft horses are widely used as transportation, due to legislation preventing automotive traffic, such as on Mackinac Island in the United States.\n\nSection::::Care.\n", "The Border Patrol also extensively uses horses for remote area patrols. , the U.S. Border Patrol has 205 horses. Most are employed along the Mexico–United States border. In Arizona, these animals are fed special processed feed pellets so that their wastes do not spread non-native plants in the national parks and wildlife areas they patrol.\n\nSection::::Killed in the line of duty.\n\nSince 1904, the Border Patrol has lost 123 officers in the line of duty, more than any other federal law enforcement agency during that time period.\n\nSection::::Armed incursions.\n", "Conditions for keeping horses have barely changed in developing countries. In the wild, these animals move 10 to 15 kilometres daily and spend most of their lives grazing on fresh grass.\n", "This type of competition is seen primarily in American Saddlebred and Morgan horse competition. However, this type of attire is occasionally still seen on horses ridden in real parades, particularly major events in the southwestern United States, where there is still a strong Spanish cultural tradition, such as the Tournament of Roses Parade.\n" ]

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[ "Ann Marie Buerkle from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission went on \"Good Morning America\" and commented on the meme, saying, \"teens trying to be funny are now putting themselves in danger by ingesting this poisonous substance.\" Buerkle added, \"This is what started out as a joke on the internet and now it's just gone too far.\"\n\nFollowing the growth of the meme, YouTube and Facebook started removing videos that depicted people eating Tide Pods.\n", "In early 2018, media publications noted that shortly after the product's introduction, the consumption of Tide Pods became a topic of discussion on the Internet. Ultimately, eating Tide Pods became a meme, with its origins being credited to a 2013 thread on the Straight Dope online message board and a 2015 article from \"The Onion\". \"Mashable\" quoted an instance of a tweet regarding this topic from 2012, \"Why does a Tide Pod look so good to eat?\" The Straight Dope thread's discussion was more centered on children accidentally eating Tide Pods, rather than the meme's iteration popularized in 2017, which portrays pods as a delicious food. The topic of children eating the pods was a concept based on real incidents of children consuming them.\n", "Section::::Internet meme.:\"Tide Pod Challenge\".\n\nDuring the first few weeks of 2018, following the meme's surge in popularity, media publications started reporting about teenagers participating in the Tide Pod Challenge. The challenge is an Internet challenge in which an individual consumes Tide Pods. Teenagers were the reported demographic participating in the challenge; they would record themselves chewing and gagging on pods and then daring others to do the same. Some of these videos were posted on YouTube. Some teens cooked the pods prior to eating them.\n", "Beginning in late 2017 a viral Internet trend, called the \"Tide Pod Challenge\" emerged on Twitter and various other social media websites, in which participants intentionally ingest detergent pods. Several children and teens have been injured, some severely, from this intentional consumption. The challenge (and subsequent meme) were popularized on Twitter and several people have eaten Tide Pods on camera. One company began making edible replica \"pods\" and several internet personalities have posted about making edible \"Tide Pods\".\n", "Concern has been raised over children accidentally consuming Tide Pods, as its appearance and the packaging design can have the same appeal to a child as hard candy with patterned designs, and be confused as such. \n", "The pods have been sold since 2012. In late December 2017, Tide Pods became the center of an Internet meme popularized on Twitter, which involves a dare to intentionally consume the pods. The meme became especially popular with teenagers, and since then, there has been a sharp increase in poisoning incidents. Responding to the growing number of incidents, Google and Facebook started removing videos that featured the challenge, and Procter & Gamble aired numerous advertisements urging people to avoid eating the pods.\n\nSection::::Health risks.\n", "The health risks posed by the ingestion of Tide Pods—particularly by children—have been noted by several media outlets. In March 2013, \"Consumer Reports\" reported that \"since early 2012, poison control centers nationwide have received reports of nearly 7,700 pod-related exposures to children age 5 years and younger.\" In 2012 and 2013, an average of one child was admitted to hospital every day as a result of eating Tide Pods. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) tagged them as a health risk in 2012. \"Consumer Reports\" noted that \"swallowing conventional detergent might result in mild stomach upset, but with highly concentrated detergent pods the ingestion can cause excessive vomiting, lethargy, and gasping, and in some reported cases, victims stopped breathing and required ventilation support.\" Individuals suffering from dementia have been reported to face health risks related to Tide Pods. \"Consumer Reports\" reported that between the Tide pods' introduction in 2012 through early 2017, eight deaths had been reported due to the ingestion of laundry detergent pods, with six of the eight deaths resulting from a pod manufactured by P&G.\n", "Many media outlets referenced the visual similarity the pods have to candy as a reasoning behind their consumption. U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer commented on the appeal of pods, \"These pods were supposed to make household chores easier, not tempt our children to swallow harmful chemicals. I saw one on my staffer's desk and I wanted to eat it.\"\n", "Since 2012, Tide has sold Tide Pods, a line of laundry detergent pod, making an estimated 15% of sales. In late 2017, an Internet meme was popularized around the concept of eating Tide Pods and, as a result, many people attempted the extremely dangerous \"Tide Pods Challenge\".\n\nSection::::Sponsorships.\n", "\"Consumer Reports\" published a story discussing the contents of laundry detergent pods and the consequences of ingesting them, which can include death. The story detailed that pods contain ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, and long-chain polymers, that when ingested can result in caustic burns to the lining of one's mouth, as well as the esophagus, stomach, and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. \"The Daily Meal\" cited one 2014 study that suggested that ingesting the detergent pods may cause a swallowing dysfunction that could require surgery to repair.\n\nSection::::Internet meme.\n", "Section::::Body tide.\n", "Due to initial reports of children consuming their laundry detergent pods, Procter & Gamble began distributing Tide Pods in opaque tubs and bags. In 2015, P&G announced it would implement a bitter taste to its Tide Pods as a means to deter people from biting into them. Tide would also include child-safety features in its packaging and issue extensive warnings about locking up the pods in households shared with individuals who have Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, Tide's website includes a page discussing how to safely handle its products, and suggesting consumers drink a glass of water or milk if a product is swallowed and call a poison control center for help.\n", "Humans use intertidal regions for food and recreation. Overexploitation can damage intertidals directly. Other anthropogenic actions such as introducing invasive species and climate change have large negative effects. Marine Protected Areas are one option communities can apply to protect these areas and aid scientific research.\n\nSection::::Biological aspects.:Biological rhythms.\n", "The hazards which accompany harmful algal blooms have hindered visitors' enjoyment of beaches and lakes in places in the U.S. such as Florida, California Vermont, and Utah. Persons hoping to enjoy their vacations or days off have been kept away to the detriment of local economies. Lakes and rivers in North Dakota, Minnesota, Utah, California and Ohio have had signs posted warning about the potential of health risk.\n", "Tide Pods are a line of laundry detergent pods from Procter & Gamble's Tide brand, which can be deadly if ingested, and which have been labeled as a health risk by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. There have been numerous media reports discussing how children and those with dementia could endanger their health or life by consuming the pods, mistaking them for sweets. Between 2012 and 2013, poison control centers reported over 7,000 cases of young children eating laundry pods, and ingestion of Procter & Gamble laundry pods had resulted in six deaths by 2017. In response to the dangers, Procter & Gamble changed Tide Pod containers to an opaque design, introduced warning labels and added a bitter tasting chemical to the pod contents.\n", "Section::::Growth.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011: Gulf of Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: On January, a red tide occurred again on the West Coast Sea of Sabah in the Malaysian Borneo. Two human fatalities were reported after they consumed shellfish contaminated with the red tide toxin.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: January, a red tide bloom appeared at Sarasota beach – mainly Siesta Key, Florida causing a fish kill that had a negative impact on tourists, and caused respiratory issues for beach-goers.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: August, massive 'Florida red tide' 90 miles long and 60 miles wide.\n", "Section::::Pole tide.\n", "Domoic acid was first isolated in 1959 from a species of red algae, \"Chondria armata\", in Japan; commonly referred to as \"doumoi\" (in Tokunoshima's dialect word) or \"hanayanagi\". Poisonings in history have been rare, or undocumented; however, it is thought that the increase in human activities is resulting in an increasing frequency of harmful algal blooms along coastlines in recent years. In 2015, the North American pacific coast was heavily impacted by an algal bloom, consisting predominantly of the domoic acid producing pennate diatom, \"Pseudo-nitzschia.\" Consequently, elevated levels of domoic acid were measured in stranded marine mammals, prompting the closure of beaches and damaging razor clam, rock crab and Dungeness crab fisheries.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2008 large blooms of the algae \"Cochlodinium polykrikoid\" were found along the Chesapeake Bay and nearby tributaries such as the James River, causing millions of dollars in damage and numerous beach closures.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2009, Brittany, France experienced recurring algal blooms caused by the high amount of fertilizer discharging in the sea due to intensive pig farming, causing lethal gas emissions that have led to one case of human unconsciousness and three animal deaths.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2010, dissolved iron in the ash from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano triggered a plankton bloom in the North Atlantic.\n", "Eating fish or shellfish from lakes with a bloom nearby is not recommended. A study has shown that algal toxins may be the cause for as many as 60,000 intoxication cases in the world each year. This is due to the accumulation of potent toxins in shellfish that consume those algae and then these shellfish are later consumed by humans which may result in Amnesic shellfish poisoning, Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, and Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Toxic paralytic shellfish poisoning in the Philippines during red tides has caused at least 120 deaths over a few decades. After a HAB in Monterey Bay, California, health officials warned people not to eat certain parts of anchovy, sardines, or crab caught in the bay. In 1987 a new illness emerged which was called amnesic shellfish poisoning. People who had eaten mussels from Prince Edward Island were found to have amnesic shellfish poisoning. The illness was caused by domoic acid, produced by a diatom found in the area where the mussels were cultivated. In 2015 most shellfish fisheries in Washington, Oregon and California were shut down because of high concentrations of toxic domoic acid in shellfish. People have been warned that inhaling vapors from waves or wind during a red tide may cause asthma attacks or lead to other respiratory ailments.\n", "The island is very rich in marine resources and one could have a field day out at sea. One famous delicacy is Lairo or land crabs, which are plentiful all year round. Giant sea clam, a variety of seaweeds and just about any variety of fish can be caught by angling, spear fishing, net fishing, underwater diving, or by traditional means.\n", "In 2012, in response to a child swallowing Tide Pods, Procter & Gamble said they would make this product more difficult to open by adding a double latch to the lid, and has also re-focused their advertising to make clear the product should be out of a child's reach at all times. The packaging was also changed to an opaque orange rather than the original clear plastic gumball machine-type presentation to make them look less enticing.\n\nIngestion of pods can lead to death in some cases.\n\nSection::::Consumption.:\"Tide Pod Challenge\".\n", "Section::::\"Ule Tide\".\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "A common process often discribed to memory effect is voltage depression. In this case, the peak voltage of the battery drops more quickly than normal as it is used, even though the total energy remains almost the same. In modern electronic equipment that monitors the voltage to indicate battery charge, the battery appears to be draining very quickly. To the user, it appears the battery is not holding its full charge, which seems similar to memory effect. This is a common problem with high-load devices such as digital cameras and cell phones.\n", "The constant charging method adjusts the output voltage of charging devices or the resistance in series with the battery to keep the current constant. It is using the constant current value form the beginning to the end of charging. As nickel-cadmium batteries are easy to polarize during conventional charging, both conventional constant voltage and constant current charging will make the electrolyte continuously produce hydrogen-oxygen gas. Under the action of internal high pressure, the oxygen penetrates to the negative electrode and interacts with the cadmium plate to generate CdO, resulting in the decrease of effective capacity of the electrode plate.As the acceptable current capacity of the battery decreases gradually with the progress of the charging process, it will lead to the overcharging of the battery in the later charging period. Constant current in the late charge is mostly used for electrolysis of water to produce gas, making the battery internal pressure rise, do not control easy to make the battery dry due to water loss. Eventually, it will also lead to a sharp drop in battery capacity. \n", "Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries. These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their capacity relatively quickly, but most such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the approach of fill discharge and discontinue equipment use. When stored after charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40-50% charged. As with all battery types, degradation also occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an increased internal battery resistance often due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery. However, if Li-ION cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them dangerous if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now have an \"electronic fuse\" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a set level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the battery, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.\n", "Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n", "For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage across the battery increases slowly during the charging process, until the battery is fully charged. After that, the voltage \"decreases\", which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers are often labeled as a ΔV, \"delta-V,\" or sometimes \"delta peak\", charger, indicating that they monitor the voltage change.\n", "During single action potentials, transient depolarization of the membrane opens more voltage-gated K channels than are open in the resting state, many of which do not close immediately when the membrane returns to its normal resting voltage. This can lead to an \"undershoot\" of the membrane potential to values that are more polarized (\"hyperpolarized\") than was the original resting membrane potential. Ca-activated K channels that open in response to the influx of Ca during the action potential carry much of the K current as the membrane potential becomes more negative. The K permeability of the membrane is transiently unusually high, driving the membrane voltage \"V\" even closer to the K equilibrium voltage \"E\". Hence, hyperpolarization persists until the membrane K permeability returns to its usual value.\n", "Voltage depression is caused by repeated over-charging of a battery, which causes the formation of small crystals of electrolyte on the plates. These can clog the plates, increasing resistance and lowering the voltage of some individual cells in the battery. This causes the battery as a whole to seem to discharge rapidly as those individual cells discharge quickly and the voltage of the battery as a whole suddenly falls. This effect is very common, as consumer trickle chargers typically overcharge.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Temporary effects.:Voltage depression due to long-term over-charging.:Repair.\n", "A sulfated battery has higher electrical resistance than an unsulfated battery of identical construction. As related by Ohm's law, current is the ratio of voltage to resistance, so a sulfated battery will have lower current flow. As the charging process continues, such a battery will reach the charger's preset cut-off more rapidly, long before it has had time to accept a complete charge. In this case the battery charger indicates the charge cycle is complete, but the battery actually holds very little energy. To the user, it appears that the battery is dying.\n\nSection::::Regeneration.\n", "Conventional battery chargers use a one-, two-, or three-stage process to recharge the battery, with switched-mode power supply include more stages in order to fill the battery more rapidly and completely. Common to almost all chargers, including non-switched models, is the middle stage, normally known as \"absorption\". In this mode the charger holds a steady voltage slightly above that of a filled battery, in order to push current into the cells. As the battery fills, its internal voltage rises towards the fixed voltage being supplied to it, and the rate of current flow slows. Eventually the charger will turn off when the current drops below a pre-set threshold.\n", "Users started reporting battery drain issues after the February security update. The battery drain become worse after the April security updates. Google is looking for a fix.\n\nUsers are reporting proximity sensor issues. Google is aware of the issue and looking for a fix.\n\nSome users are having issues making calls and receiving MMS messages. Google claims these issues are fixed but users are still complaining about them.\n", "Phase one is depolarization. During depolarization, voltage-gated sodium ion channels open, increasing the neuron's membrane conductance for sodium ions and depolarizing the cell's membrane potential (from typically -70 mV toward a positive potential). In other words, the membrane is made less negative. After the potential reaches the activation threshold (-55 mV), the depolarization is actively driven by the neuron and overshoots the equilibrium potential of an activated membrane (+30 mV).\n", "The depolarized voltage opens additional voltage-dependent potassium channels, and some of these do not close right away when the membrane returns to its normal resting voltage. In addition, further potassium channels open in response to the influx of calcium ions during the action potential. The intracellular concentration of potassium ions is transiently unusually low, making the membrane voltage \"V\" even closer to the potassium equilibrium voltage \"E\". The membrane potential goes below the resting membrane potential. Hence, there is an undershoot or hyperpolarization, termed an afterhyperpolarization, that persists until the membrane potassium permeability returns to its usual value, restoring the membrane potential to the resting state.\n", "Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Chargers and sulfation.\n", "Section::::Problems.:Battery drain.\n\nAdrian Kingsley-Hughes of \"ZDNet\" wrote in March 2014 that iPhone and iPad users reported battery drain with the iOS 7.1 update. In lab testing, Andrew Cunningham of \"Ars Technica\" found some hardware models experienced minor battery depletion, while others experienced no statistically significant changes.\n\nSection::::Problems.:Lock screen bypass.\n\nDom Esposito of \"9to5Mac\" reported in June 2014 that a new lock screen bypass method had been discovered in iOS 7, allowing access to the phone in \"5 seconds under certain circumstances\". The issue was later fixed.\n\nSection::::Hoaxes.\n", "In order to prevent cell damage, fast chargers must terminate their charge cycle before overcharging occurs. One method is to monitor the change of voltage with time. When the battery is fully charged, the voltage across its terminals drops slightly. The charger can detect this and stop charging. This method is often used with nickel–cadmium cells, which display a large voltage drop at full charge. However, the voltage drop is much less pronounced for NiMH and can be non-existent at low charge rates, which can make the approach unreliable.\n", "On 9 January 2017, Samsung released another update in South Korea, blocking the device from being charged beyond 15%.\n\nOn 24 March 2017, Samsung released yet another update for South Korea users, barring charging of the Galaxy Note 7.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.\n", "Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Combined approaches.\n", "Fully charging a NiFe cell consists of seven hours at the normal cell rate. In service the amount of charge given is governed by the extent of the previous discharge. For example, a battery discharged one-half, allows a 3.5 hour normal rate charge. Overcharging wastes current and causes rapid evaporation of the water in the electrolyte.\n", "When the cell's membrane voltage overshoots its resting membrane potential (near -60mV), the cell enters a phase of hyperpolarization. This is due to a larger-than-resting potassium conductance across the cell membrane. This potassium conductance eventually drops and the cell returns to its resting membrane potential.\n", "At high overcharge currents, electrolysis of water occurs, expelling hydrogen and oxygen gas through the battery's valves. Care must be taken to prevent short circuits and rapid charging. Constant-voltage charging is the usual, most efficient and fastest charging method for VRLA batteries, although other methods can be used. \n\nVRLA batteries may be continually \"float\" charged at around 2.18-2.27 volts per cell at 25 °C, depending on the type and battery manufacturer specifications.\n", "Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Charge/discharge speed.\n\nFast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Overcharging.\n\nIf a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Memory effect.\n", "Recovery effect\n\nThe recovery effect is a phenomenon observed in battery usage where the available energy is less than the difference between energy charged and energy consumed. Intuitively, this is because the energy has been consumed from the edge of the battery and the charge has not yet diffused evenly around the battery. \n\nWhen power is extracted continuously voltage decreases in a smooth curve, but the recovery effect can result in the voltage partially increasing if the current is interrupted.\n", "BULLET::::- High discharge rates (above 5C) in a battery not specifically designed for such use\n\nBULLET::::- Inadequate charging time\n\nBULLET::::- Defective charger\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Deep discharge.\n", "Memory effect\n\nMemory effect, also known as battery effect, lazy battery effect, or battery memory, is an effect observed in nickel-cadmium and nickel–metal hydride rechargeable batteries that causes them to hold less charge. It describes the situation in which nickel-cadmium batteries gradually lose their maximum energy capacity if they are repeatedly recharged after being only partially discharged. The battery appears to \"remember\" the smaller capacity.\n\nSection::::True memory effect.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "A phone battery drains faster after using it while it was charging" ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "How long a charge last depends on the activity on the phone." ]

[ "Most notably, extreme height may be pathological, such as gigantism resulting from childhood hyperpituitarism, and dwarfism which has various causes. Rarely, no cause can be found for extreme height; very short persons may be termed as having idiopathic short stature. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2003 approved hGH treatment for those 2.25 standard deviations below the population mean (approximately the lowest 1.2% of the population). An even rarer occurrence, or at least less used term and recognized \"problem\", is idiopathic tall stature.\n", "Moreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical period and pregnancy, has a role. A healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide optimal prenatal conditions. The pregnant mother's health is important for herself but also for the fetus as gestation is itself a critical period for an embryo/fetus, though some problems affecting height during this period are resolved by catch-up growth assuming childhood conditions are good. Thus, there is a cumulative generation effect such that nutrition and health over generations influences the height of descendants to varying degrees.\n", "For example, a typical measurement error of plus or minus 0.5 cm may completely nullify 0.5 cm of actual growth resulting in either a \"negative\" 0.5 cm growth (due to overestimation in the previous visit combined with underestimation in the latter), up to a 1.5 cm growth (the first visit underestimating and the second visit overestimating) in the same elapsed time period between measurements. Note there is a discontinuity in the growth curves at age 2, which reflects the difference in recumbent length (with the child on his or her back), used in measuring infants and toddlers and standing height typically measured from age 2 onwards.\n", "Height measurements are by nature subject to statistical sampling errors even for a single individual. In a clinical situation, height measurements are seldom taken more often than once per office visit, which may mean sampling taking place a week to several months apart. The smooth 50th percentile male and female growth curves illustrated above are aggregate values from thousands of individuals sampled at ages from birth to age 20. In reality, a single individual's growth curve shows large upward and downward spikes, partly due to actual differences in growth velocity, and partly due to small measurement errors.\n", "The study of height is known as auxology. Growth has long been recognized as a measure of the health of individuals, hence part of the reasoning for the use of growth charts. For individuals, as indicators of health problems, growth trends are tracked for significant deviations and growth is also monitored for significant deficiency from genetic expectations. Genetics is a major factor in determining the height of individuals, though it is far less influential in regard to differences among populations. Average height is relevant to the measurement of the health and wellness (standard of living and quality of life) of populations.\n", "If not enough growth hormone is produced and/or secreted by the pituitary gland, then a patient with growth hormone deficiency can undergo treatment. This treatment involves the injection of pure growth hormone into thick tissue to promote growth.\n\nSection::::Role of an individual's height.\n\nSection::::Role of an individual's height.:Height and health.\n", "Pharmaceutical companies Genentech and Eli Lilly, makers of human growth hormone, have worked to medicalize short stature by convincing the public that short stature is a disease rather than a natural variation in human height. Limiting sales of the hormone to children diagnosed with growth hormone deficiency, rather than being short for any reason, limited their sales market. Expanding it to all children whose height was below the third percentile would create 90,000 new customers and US$10 billion in revenue. In the early 1990s, they paid two US charities, the Human Growth Foundation and the MAGIC Foundation, to measure the height of thousands of American children in schools and public places, and to send letters urging medical consultations for children whose height was deemed low. Parents and schools were not told that the charities were being paid by the drug companies to do this.\n", "In 2003 Eli Lilly and Company offered a more precise definition of ISS when the pharmaceutical company submitted clinical trial data to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requesting approval to advertise their brand of growth hormone for the treatment of ISS. They proposed a definition of a height more than 2.25 standard deviations below mean, roughly equal to the shortest 1.2% of the population.\n\nOther researchers have described a cutoff of 2.0 standard deviations.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThere is some evidence that hormone treatment may not result in a significant improvement in psychosocial functioning.\n", "Growth retardation may occur, as height gain may slow and can stop completely with severe weight loss or chronic malnutrition. In such cases, provided that growth potential is preserved, height increase can resume and reach full potential after normal intake is resumed. Height potential is normally preserved if the duration and severity of illness are not significant or if the illness is accompanied by delayed bone age (especially prior to a bone age of approximately 15 years), as hypogonadism may partially counteract the effects of undernutrition on height by allowing for a longer duration of growth compared to controls. Appropriate early treatment can preserve height potential, and may even help to increase it in some post-anorexic subjects, due to factors such as long-term reduced estrogen-producing adipose tissue levels compared to premorbid levels. In some cases, especially where onset is before puberty, complications such as stunted growth and pubertal delay are usually reversible.\n", "BULLET::::- The height of persons can vary over the course of a day, due to factors such as a height increase from exercise done directly before measurement (normally inversely correlated), or a height increase since lying down for a significant period of time (normally inversely correlated). For example, one study revealed a mean decrease of in the heights of 100 children from getting out of bed in the morning to between 4 and 5 p.m. that same day. Such factors may not have been controlled in some of the studies.\n", "At the usual age for puberty, these children continue to grow at a prepubertal rate appropriate for their biologic stage of development. Natural slowing of linear growth just before onset of puberty may be exaggerated, emphasizing the difference in size from peers who are accelerating in growth. The timing of the pubertal growth spurt is delayed, and the spurt may be prolonged with a lower peak height velocity. In patients with both CDGP and familial short stature, the degree of growth retardation may appear more severe, but the adult height is appropriate for the genetic background.\n\nSection::::Physical.\n", "Section::::Axon guidance.\n", "It has been shown that a log-normal distribution fits the data equally well, besides guaranteeing a non-negative lower confidence limit, which could otherwise attain a non-physical negative height value for arbitrarily large confidence levels.\n\nSection::::Height abnormalities.\n", "In 2000 another study found a similar correlation. 127 growth-restricted and 32 non-growth-restricted children aged 9 to 24 months were put on a two-year \"randomized trial of nutritional supplementation and psychosocial stimulation.\" Eight years later, the subjects' growth, IQ, and cognitive functions were measured. IQ was also measured using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales. As in the 1986 study, it was found that supplementation to growth was not correlated with cognitive ability. Only psychosocial stimulation was found to increase IQ scores of subjects, and growth-restricted children had lower IQ scores than non-growth-restricted children, lending more evidence to the long-term cognitive consequences of growth restriction.\n", "Most intra-population variance of height is genetic. Short stature and tall stature are usually not a health concern. If the degree of deviation from normal is significant, hereditary short stature is known as familial short stature and tall stature is known as familial tall stature. Confirmation that exceptional height is normal for a respective person can be ascertained from comparing stature of family members and analyzing growth trends for abrupt changes, among others. There are, however, various diseases and disorders that cause growth abnormalities.\n", "An auxological approach that emphasizes multiple influences from all aspects of life, with special attention paid to prenatal and very early child development, seem to offer the most robust and accurate portrayal of overall growth and development. From these perspectives, we can better understand if the correlation persists, especially within developing countries prone to environmental uncertainties.\n", "Height, like other phenotypic traits, is determined by a combination of genetics and environmental factors. A child's height based on parental heights is subject to regression toward the mean, therefore extremely tall or short parents will likely have correspondingly taller or shorter offspring, but their offspring will also likely be closer to average height than the parents themselves. Genetic potential and a number of hormones, minus illness, is a basic determinant for height. Other factors include the genetic response to external factors such as diet, exercise, environment, and life circumstances.\n", "The auxological term \"short-term growth\" denotes growth characteristics that become evident when measurements are being performed within intervals of less than one year (e.g. monthly, weekly or even daily). Mainly knemometry has been used for this purpose, but also very frequent measurements using conventional devices for height measurements. \n", "Growth in stature, determined by its various factors, results from the lengthening of bones via cellular divisions chiefly regulated by somatotropin (human growth hormone (hGH)) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Somatotropin also stimulates the release of another growth inducing hormone Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mainly by the liver. Both hormones operate on most tissues of the body, have many other functions, and continue to be secreted throughout life; with peak levels coinciding with peak growth velocity, and gradually subsiding with age after adolescence. The bulk of secretion occurs in bursts (especially for adolescents) with the largest during sleep.\n", "Anorexia nervosa can have serious implications if its duration and severity are significant and if onset occurs before the completion of growth, pubertal maturation or prior to attaining peak bone mass. Both height gain and pubertal development are dependent on the release of growth hormone and gonadotrophins (LH and FSH) from the pituitary gland. Suppression of gonadotropins in patients with anorexia nervosa has been frequently documented. In some cases, especially where onset is pre-pubertal, physical consequences such as stunted growth and pubertal delay are usually fully reversible. Height potential is normally preserved if the duration and severity of anorexia nervosa are not significant and/or if the illness is accompanied with delayed bone age (especially prior to a bone age of approximately 15 years), as hypogonadism may negate the deleterious effects of undernutrition on stature by allowing for a longer duration of growth compared to controls. In such cases, appropriate early treatment can preserve height potential and may even help to increase it in some post-anorexic subjects due to the aforementioned reasons in addition to factors such as long-term reduced estrogen-producing adipose tissue levels compared to premorbid levels.\n", "For example, the height loss was measured by measuring the patient while he was standing straight (with exaggerated curves in his upper and lower back) and again after he fixed this issue (with no exaggerated curves), both of these measurements were taken in the morning with a gap of 6 months and the growth plates of the patient were checked to make sure that they were closed to rule out natural growth. The height loss occurs in the torso region and once the person fixes his back, his BMI will reduce since he is taller and his stomach will also appear to be slimmer. \n", "The Risser grading system has been criticized as being an inaccurate proxy for skeletal maturity. Comparison of predicted future growth and progression of scoliosis to actual measured changes show that the Risser system is variably accurate. Specifically, because the progression from stages 1 to 4 (apophyseal \"excursion\") is rapid and only takes an average of approximately 1 year, these stages are of limited value in pinpointing stage of growth. Cessation of trunk growth as predicted by Risser stage is also earlier than actual growth.\n", "Genetic factors play a major role in determining the growth rate, and particularly the changes in proportion characteristic of early human development. However, genetic factors can produce the maximum growth only if environmental conditions are adequate. Poor nutrition and frequent injury and disease can reduce the individual's adult stature, but the best environment cannot cause growth to a greater stature than is determined by heredity.\n\nSection::::Aspects.:Physical growth.:Individual variation versus disease.\n", "In a general sense, the conclusion of puberty is reproductive maturity. Criteria for defining the conclusion may differ for different purposes: attainment of the ability to reproduce, achievement of maximal adult height, maximal gonadal size, or adult sex hormone levels. Maximal adult height is achieved at an average age of 15 years for an average girl and 18 years for an average boy. Potential fertility (sometimes termed \"nubility\") usually precedes completion of growth by 1–2 years in girls and 3–4 years in boys. Stage 5 typically represents maximal gonadal growth and adult hormone levels.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Age of onset.\n", "As an indicator of nutritional status, comparisons of children's measurements with growth reference curves may be used differently for populations of children than for individual children. The fact that an individual child falls below the fifth percentile for height for age on a growth reference curve may reflect normal variation in growth within a population: the individual child may be short simply because both parents carried genes for shortness and not because of inadequate nutrition. However, if substantially more than 5% of an identified child population have height for age that is less than the fifth percentile on the reference curve, then the population is said to have a higher-than-expected prevalence of stunting, and malnutrition is generally the first cause considered.\n" ]

[ "Height is genetically predetermined.", "Height is predetermined by genetics." ]

[ "Height is not genetically predetermined, although it is a huge factor.", "Height is not predetermined by genetics." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Height is genetically predetermined.", "Height is predetermined by genetics." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Height is not genetically predetermined, although it is a huge factor.", "Height is not predetermined by genetics." ]

[ "Proper post-harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficient cold chain application. Cold storage is particularly useful for vegetables such as cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, radish, spinach, potatoes, and tomatoes, the optimum temperature depending on the type of produce. There are temperature-controlling technologies that do not require the use of electricity such as evaporative cooling. Storage of fruit and vegetables in controlled atmospheres with high levels of carbon dioxide or high oxygen levels can inhibit microbial growth and extend storage life.\n", "The long-term storage of vegetables and fruit involves inhibiting the ripening and ageing processes, thus retaining flavor and quality. Ripening is delayed by reducing the level of oxygen and increasing that of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in the cool cell so that the respiration is reduced. Normal atmosphere consists of roughly 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.3 carbon dioxide and a couple of other gasses. In CA the oxygen is reduced to 1.5-2 percent roughly, depending on variety. This is replaced mostly with nitrogen and a little bit of carbon dioxide the apple produces. Under controlled atmosphere conditions the quality and the freshness of fruit and vegetables are retained, and many products can be stored for 2 to 4 times longer than usual.\n", "Summer: Ideal temperatures in summer average around . Ideal summer temperatures enable fruits to ripen. Temperature and sunshine are the most important factors in ripening.\n\nWinter: Ideal temperatures in winter average around . Ideal winter temperatures are necessary to allow grape vines to enter their resting phase. If temperatures fall too low, the crops can be injured.\n", "Controlled atmosphere\n\nA controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated. Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres.\n\nSection::::Dry commodities.\n", "Continental climates are usually seen in areas further inland from the coastal influences of oceans and large bodies of water. The difference from the average mean temperature of its coldest and hottest months can be quite significant with moderate precipitation that usually occurs in the winter and early spring. Depending on the water retaining ability of the soil the grapevine may receive enough water during this period to last throughout the growing season with little if any irrigation needed. For soils with poor water retention, the dry summer months may require some supplemental irrigation. Examples of continental climates that use supplemental irrigation include the Columbia Valley of Washington State and the Mendoza wine region of Argentina.\n", "Hot and sunny climates have a frost-free growing season of 200 days or more. These climates allow grapes to ripen faster with higher sugar levels and lower acidity. Cooler climates have a frost-free growing season of around 150–160 days. Cooler seasons force the grapes to ripen earlier which produces a fresher and more acidic harvest. In general, the average yearly temperature for most crops should average around in order for the highest quality to be achieved in each grape.\n", "The relatively closed environment of a greenhouse has its own unique management requirements, compared with outdoor production. Pests and diseases, and extremes of heat and humidity, have to be controlled, and irrigation is necessary to provide water. Most greenhouses use sprinklers or drip lines. Significant inputs of heat and light may be required, particularly with winter production of warm-weather vegetables.\n", "The temperature necessary for preservation depends on the storage time required and the type of product. In general, there are three groups of products, foods that are alive (e.g. fruits and vegetables), foods that are no longer alive and have been processed in some form (e.g. meat and fish products), and commodities that benefit from storage at controlled temperature (e.g. beer, tobacco).\n\nLocation is important for the success of a cold storage facility. It should be in close proximity to a growing area as well as a market, be easily accessible for heavy vehicles, and have an uninterrupted power supply.\n", "Storage can be short-term or long-term. Most vegetables are perishable and short-term storage for a few days provides flexibility in marketing. During storage, leafy vegetables lose moisture, and the vitamin C in them degrades rapidly. A few products such as potatoes and onions have better keeping qualities and can be sold when higher prices may be available, and by extending the marketing season, a greater total volume of crop can be sold. If refrigerated storage is not available, the priority for most crops is to store high-quality produce, to maintain a high humidity level, and to keep the produce in the shade.\n", "In addition to temperature, the amount of rainfall (and the need for supplemental irrigation) is another defining characteristics. On average, a grapevine needs around of water for sustenance during the growing season, not all of which may be provided by natural rain fall. In Mediterranean and many continental climates, the climate during the growing season may be quite dry and require additional irrigation. In contrast, maritime climates often suffer the opposite extreme of having too much rainfall during the growing season which poses its own viticultural hazards.\n", "BULLET::::- Warm and dry: winter squash, pumpkin, sweet potatoes, dried hot peppers\n\nMany cultures have developed innovative ways of preserving vegetables so that they can be stored for several months between harvest seasons. Techniques include pickling, home canning, food dehydration, or storage in a root cellar.\n\nSection::::Domestic food storage.:Dry storage of foods.:Grain.\n", "Produce can be damaged when exposed to extremes of temperature. Levels of tolerance to low temperatures are importance when cool storage is envisaged. All produce will freeze at temperatures between 0 and -2 degrees Celsius. Although a few commodities are tolerant of slight freezing, bad temperature control in storage can lead to significant losses.\n\nSome fruits and vegetables are also susceptible to contaminants introduced after harvest by use of contaminated field boxes; dirty water used for washing produce before packing; decaying, rejected produce lying around packing houses; and unhealthy produce contaminating healthy produce in the same packages.\n", "Wine regions with Mediterranean climates are characterised by their long growing seasons of moderate to warm temperatures. Throughout the year there is little seasonal change, with temperatures in the winter generally warmer than those of maritime and continental climates. During the grapevine growing season, there is very little rainfall (with most precipitation occurring in the winter months) which increases the risk of the viticultural hazard of drought and may present the need for supplemental irrigation.\n", "Beyond establishing whether or not viticulture can even be sustained in an area, the climatic influences of a particular area goes a long way in influencing the type of grape varieties grown in a region and the type of viticultural practices that will be used. The presence of adequate sun, heat and water are all vital to the healthy growth and development of grapevines during the growing season. Additionally, continuing research has shed more light on the influence of dormancy that occurs after harvest when the grapevine essentially shuts down and reserves its energy for the beginning of the next year's growing cycle.\n", "Fresh fruits and vegetables are sometimes packed in plastic packages and cups for fresh premium markets, or placed in large plastic tubs for sauce and soup processors. Fruits and vegetables are usually refrigerated at the earliest possible moment, and even so have a shelf life of two weeks or less.\n", "Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an optimum range of storage temperature and humidity. Also, certain crops cannot be effectively stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions can result. Various methods of high-speed cooling, and sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere-controlled environments, are employed to prolong freshness, particularly in large-scale operations.\n\nRegardless of the scale of harvest, from domestic garden to industrialised farm, the basic principles of post-harvest handling for most crops are the same: handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, bruising), cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions, and cull (remove damaged items).\n", "The guidelines vary for safe storage of vegetables under dry conditions (without refrigerating or freezing). This is because different vegetables have different characteristics, for example, tomatoes contain a lot of water, while root vegetables such as carrots and potatoes contain less. These factors, and many others, affect the amount of time that a vegetable can be kept in dry storage, as well as the temperature needed to preserve its usefulness. The following guideline shows the required dry storage conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- Cool and dry: onion\n\nBULLET::::- Cool and dry: List of Allium species\n\nBULLET::::- Cool and moist: root vegetable, potato, cabbage\n", "BULLET::::- using the natural effects of respiration (by grain, molds or insects) to reduce oxygen and increase carbon dioxide (Hermetic storage).\n\nSection::::Fruit and vegetables.\n\nThe method is most commonly used on apples and pears, where the combination of altered atmospheric conditions and reduced temperature allow prolonged storage with only a slow loss of quality.\n", "Cold frames can be used to extend the growing season for many food and ornamental crops, primarily by providing increased warmth in early spring. This means that it's possible to harvest vegetable crops ahead of their normal season when they are extremely expensive to buy. Some crops suitable for growing in a cold frame include lettuces, parsley, salad onions, spinach, radishes and turnips etc. One vegetable crop can occupy the whole of a cold frame or a combination of crops can be grown so that they mature in rotation in order to get a wide range of different vegetables throughout the year from a single cold frame.\n", "Spring and Fall: Spring and fall are critical seasons for grape development, because the plants are susceptible to frost damage, which can injure the fruiting buds. Wet weather in spring can increase the odds of mildew formation. To prevent mildew, some farms introduce devices such as heaters or large fans in vineyards. However, such solutions can be costly.\n\nSection::::The grape.:Growing vines.:Slope.\n", "Different soil types suit different crops, but in general in temperate climates, sandy soils dry out fast but warm up quickly in the spring and are suitable for early crops, while heavy clays retain moisture better and are more suitable for late season crops. The growing season can be lengthened by the use of fleece, cloches, plastic mulch, polytunnels, and greenhouses. In hotter regions, the production of vegetables is constrained by the climate, especially the pattern of rainfall, while in temperate zones, it is constrained by the temperature and day length.\n", "The three factors that have the most direct impact on a wine's condition are light, humidity, and temperature. Historically, the storage of wine was handled by wine merchants. Since the mid-20th century, however, consumers have been increasingly storing their own wine in home-based wine cellars.\n\nSection::::Conditions affecting wine.\n\nThe three factors that have the most pronounced effect on wine in storage are light, humidity, and temperature.\n\nSection::::Conditions affecting wine.:Light.\n", "In general, grapevines thrive in temperate climates which grant the vines long, warm periods during the crucial flowering, fruit set and ripening periods. The physiological processes of a lot of grapevines begin when temperatures reach around . Below this temperature, the vines are usually in a period of dormancy. Drastically below this temperature, such as the freezing point of the vines can be damaged by frost. When the average daily temperature is between the vine will begin flowering. When temperatures rise up to many of the vine's physiological processes are in full stride as grape clusters begin to ripen on the vine. One of the characteristics that differentiates the various climate categories from one another is the occurrence and length of time that these optimal temperatures appear during the growing season.\n", "Because several crops grown in the United States require a long period of growth, growing season extension practices are commonly used as well. These include various row-covering techniques, such as using cold frames and garden fabric over crops. Greenhouses are also a common practice to extend the season, particularly in elevated regions that only enjoy 90-day growing seasons.\n\nSection::::Locations.:Europe.\n", "Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be refrigerated during shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after arrival at the grocery store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in climate-controlled environments before being sold. Refrigeration also helps keep fruits and vegetables edible longer.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Keratolysis exfoliativa normally appears during warm weather. Due to excessive sweating and friction, in for example athletic shoes, the skin can start to exfoliate. Other factors that can cause exfoliation are detergents and solvents.\n\nAnother very common cause has been reported from salt water fishermen, who often suffer from these symptoms. It is not sure whether it is from the salt water or whether it is from some bacteria from fish.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The burning heat is usually limited to the soles of the feet, but may extend up to the ankles or lower legs of some patients. The burning can sometimes be accompanied by feelings of 'pins and needles' or tingling in these regions. Nighttime is when almost all sufferers of this syndrome report the heat symptoms being the worst, with the condition getting better as morning comes. Those who have psychosomatic disorders sometimes display psychological symptoms along with the burning of feet associated with the syndrome. For most, there is no redness of the skin of their feet during the heat sensations, and almost never is there accompanying tenderness along with it.\n", "Obviously, keeping your feet warm is a problem in high altitude climbing — but only if you have feet. While companions war-dance to keep theirs from freezing, I can stand on ice for hours. Climbing high or in a bivouac, I'm always the joker who doesn't have cold feet.\n\nCroucher concluded his article by noting that there were advantages beyond just being impervious to frozen feet: \"I need take no special precautions against hookworms, leeches and short snakes.\"\n\nSection::::Awards and motivational speaking.\n", "Wearing closed-toe shoes (\"e.g.\", ballet flats or pumps) without socks leads to accumulation of sweat, dead skin cells, dirt, and oils, further contributing to bacterial growth. Momentarily slipping off shoes whenever feet start to feel \"hot\" or sweaty can help prevent odor.\n\nSection::::Odor qualities.\n\nThe quality of foot odor is often described as being thick and resembling that of cheese, malt vinegar, or ammonia.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nTypical regions of excessive sweating include the hand palms, underarms, the sole of the foot, and sometimes groin, face, and scalp. Indeed, profuse sweating is present mostly in the underarms, followed by the feet, palms and facial region. Sweating patterns of focal hyperhidrosis are typically bilateral or symmetric and rarely occur in just one palm or one underarm. Night sweats or sweating while sleeping is also rare. The onset of focal hyperhidrosis is usually before the age of 25 years. This is in contrast to generalized hyperhidrosis which tends to occur in an older age group.\n", "Dogs can stand, walk and run on snow and ice for long periods of time. When a dog's footpad is exposed to the cold, heat loss is prevented by an adaptation of the blood system that recirculates heat back into the body. It brings blood from the skin surface and retains warm blood in the pad surface.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Dewclaw.\n", "The smell is exacerbated by factors that increase sweating, such as wearing closed-toe shoes. Sports footwear such as sneakers is often heavily padded inside which provides a perfect environment to trap moisture and allow the bacteria to thrive. Socks can trap foot hair, especially on the toes, and may contribute to odor intensity by increasing surface area on which bacteria can thrive.\n", "Other risk factors include perspiring heavily, being in a humid or moist environment, psoriasis, wearing socks and shoes that hinder ventilation and do not absorb perspiration, going barefoot in damp public places such as swimming pools, gyms and shower rooms, having athlete's foot (tinea pedis), minor skin or nail injury, damaged nail, or other infection, and having diabetes, circulation problems, which may also lead to lower peripheral temperatures on hands and feet, or a weakened immune system.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Excessive sweating or focal hyperhidrosis of the hands interferes with many routine activities, such as securely grasping objects. Some focal hyperhidrosis sufferers avoid situations where they will come into physical contact with others, such as greeting a person with a handshake. Hiding embarrassing sweat spots under the armpits limits the sufferers' arm movements and pose. In severe cases, shirts must be changed several times during the day and require additional showers both to remove sweat and control body odor issues or microbial problems such as acne, dandruff, or athlete's foot. Additionally, anxiety caused by self-consciousness to the sweating may aggravate the sweating. Excessive sweating of the feet makes it harder for patients to wear slide-on or open-toe shoes, as the feet slide around in the shoe because of sweat.\n", "\"On one occasion when I woke up this morning I found poor Wild rubbing his bare feet in an attempt to bring his big toe round which has ‘gone’. He is always suffering from one or the other of his feet. But he takes it philosophically and is very amusing when he gets up to say ‘It’s the left foot now, presently it may have been the right’. He says he has scarcely any feeling in them for the past 24 hours. I felt them and gave them a bit of a rub. Indeed they were cold.\" \n", "One way that Arctic foxes regulate their body temperature is by utilizing a countercurrent heat exchange in the blood of their legs. Arctic foxes can constantly keep their feet above the tissue freezing point (−1 °C) when standing on cold substrates without losing mobility or feeling pain. They do this by increasing vasodilation and blood flow to a capillary rete in the pad surface, which is in direct contact with the snow rather than the entire foot. They selectively vasoconstrict blood vessels in the center of the foot pad, which conserves energy and minimizes heat loss. Arctic foxes maintain the temperature in their paws independently from the core temperature. If the core temperature drops, the pad of the foot will remain constantly above the tissue freezing point.\n", "There are several preventive foot hygiene measures that can prevent athlete's foot and reduce recurrence. Some of these include keeping the feet dry, clipping toenails short; using a separate nail clipper for infected toenails; using socks made from well-ventilated cotton or synthetic moisture wicking materials (to soak moisture away from the skin to help keep it dry); avoiding tight-fitting footwear, changing socks frequently; and wearing sandals while walking through communal areas such as gym showers and locker rooms.\n", "The glabrous skin on the sole of the foot lacks the hair and pigmentation found elsewhere on the body, and it has a high concentration of sweat pores. The sole contains the thickest layers of skin on the body due to the weight that is continually placed on it. It is crossed by a set of creases that form during the early stages of embryonic development. Like those of the palm, the sweat pores of the sole lack sebaceous glands.\n", "Foot immersion is a common problem with homeless individuals wearing one pair of socks and shoes for extensive periods of time, especially wet shoes and sneakers from rain and snow. The condition is exacerbated by excessive dampness of the feet for prolonged periods of time. Fungus and bacterial infections prosper in the warm, dark, wet conditions and are characterized by a sickly odor that is distinct to foot immersion.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Another example is found in the legs of an Arctic fox treading on snow. The paws are necessarily cold, but blood can circulate to bring nutrients to the paws without losing much heat from the body. Proximity of arteries and veins in the leg results in heat exchange, so that as the blood flows down it becomes cooler, and doesn't lose much heat to the snow. As the (cold) blood flows back up from the paws through the veins, it picks up heat from the blood flowing in the opposite direction, so that it returns to the torso in a warm state, allowing the fox to maintain a comfortable temperature, without losing it to the snow. This system is so efficient that the Arctic fox does not begin to shiver until the temperature drops to .\n", "Hyperhidrosis can either be \"generalized\", or \"localized\" to specific parts of the body. Hands, feet, armpits, groin, and the facial area are among the most active regions of perspiration due to the high number of sweat glands (eccrine glands in particular) in these areas. When excessive sweating is localized (e.g. palms, soles, face, underarms, scalp) it is referred to as \"primary\" hyperhidrosis or focal hyperhidrosis. Excessive sweating involving the whole body is termed \"generalized\" hyperhidrosis or secondary hyperhidrosis. It is usually the result of some other, underlying condition.\n", "Footwear is chosen according to purpose. In alpine conditions, insulated mountaineering boots are used. In other work conditions, pacs, or bunny boots, with rubber soles and thick, removable wool felt liners are used. In camp, lightweight moon boots of foam and nylon are common. In the tent, down booties are comfortable.\n\nSection::::Parts of clothing.:Gloves.\n\nIn severe conditions, mittens with long gauntlets are preferred.\n\nSection::::Parts of clothing.:Headwear.\n", "Section::::Precipitation.\n", "Section::::Climate.\n", "In birds with webbed feet, retia mirabilia in the legs and feet transfer heat from the outgoing (hot) blood in the arteries to the incoming (cold) blood in the veins. The effect of this biological heat exchanger is that the internal temperature of the feet is much closer to the ambient temperature, thus reducing heat loss. Penguins have them also in the flippers and nasal passages.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Thermoregulation.\n", "\"Tropical immersion foot\" (also known as \"Paddy foot\", and \"Paddy-field foot\") is a skin condition of the feet seen after continuous immersion of the feet in water or mud of temperature above 22 degrees Celsius (roughly 72 degrees Fahrenheit ) for two to ten days.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Warm water immersion foot.\n\n\"Warm water immersion foot\" is a skin condition of the feet that results after exposure to warm, wet conditions for 48 hours or more and is characterized by maceration (\"pruning\"), blanching, and wrinkling of the soles, padding of toes (especially the big toe) and padding of the sides of the feet.\n", "One way to contract athlete's foot is to get a fungal infection somewhere else on the body first. The fungi causing athlete's foot may spread from other areas of the body to the feet, usually by touching or scratching the affected area, thereby getting the fungus on the fingers, and then touching or scratching the feet. While the fungus remains the same, the name of the condition changes based on where on the body the infection is located. For example, the infection is known as tinea corporis (\"ringworm\") when the torso or limbs are affected or tinea cruris (jock itch or dhobi itch) when the groin is affected. Clothes (or shoes), body heat, and sweat can keep the skin warm and moist, just the environment the fungus needs to thrive.\n", "Burning feet syndrome\n\nBurning feet syndrome, also known as Grierson-Gopalan syndrome, is a medical condition that causes severe burning and aching of the feet, hyperesthesia, and vasomotor changes of the feet that lead to excessive sweating. It can even affect the eyes, causing scotoma and amblyopia. The condition occurs more frequently in women, and usually manifests itself when a person is between twenty and forty years old.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n", "The condition is fairly common, especially in the military where wet shoes/boots are worn for extended periods of time without removing/cleaning. Skin biopsy specimens are not usually utilized, as the diagnosis of pitted keratolysis is often made by visual examination and recognition of the characteristic odor. Wood's lamp examination results are inconsistent. Treatment of pitted keratolysis requires the application of antibiotics to the skin such as benzoyl peroxide, clindamycin, erythromycin, fusidic acid, or mupirocin. Prevention efforts aim to keep the feet dry by using moisture-wicking shoes and socks as well as antiperspirants.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n" ]

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[ "The frenulum and the associated tissue delta on the underside of the penis below the corona has been described in sexuality textbooks as \"very reactive\" and \"particularly responsive to touch that is light and soft\". The \"underside of the shaft of the penis, meaning the body below the corona\" is a \"source of distinct pleasure\". Crooks and Baur observe that two extremely sensitive specific locations that many men find particularly responsive to stimulation are the corona, and the frenulum. Repeated stimulation of this structure will cause orgasm and ejaculation in some men.\n", "Nerves can become trapped in the fibrous tissue caused by vasectomy. This pain is often heightened during sexual intercourse and ejaculation because, with arousal and ejaculation, muscles elevate the testis. There are several nerves that run parallel to the vas deferens that may be cut or damaged during vasectomy.\n\nOne study found that the vas deferens exhibits two periodic forms of electrical activity on an electrovasogram, slow pacesetter potentials and fast action potentials. In vasectomized men, the pacesetter potentials on the testicular side exhibit an irregular rhythm.\n", "Section::::Sexual function.:Level of injury.\n", "Section::::Fertility.:Female.\n", "Nerve entrapment is treated with surgery to free the nerve from the scar tissue, or to cut the nerve. One study reported that denervation of the spermatic cord provided complete relief at the first follow-up visit in 13 of 17 cases, and that the other four patients reported improvement. As nerves may regrow, long-term studies are needed.\n\nOne study found that epididymectomy provided relief for 50% of patients with post-vasectomy pain syndrome.\n\nOrchiectomy is recommended usually only after other surgeries have failed.\n\nSection::::Incidence.\n", "Section::::Sexual function.:Psychogenic and reflexogenic responses.\n", "Those who insert objects as aids to masturbation risk them becoming stuck (e.g. as rectal foreign bodies). Men and women can fall prey to this problem. A woman went into a German hospital with two pencils in her bladder, having pierced her urethra after inserting them during masturbation.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Penile.\n", "Commonly there is an area on the body between the areas where sensation is lost and those where is preserved called a \"transition zone\" that has increased sensitivity and is often sexually pleasurable when stimulated. Also known as a \"border zone\", this area may feel the way the penis or clitoris did before injury, and can even give orgasmic sensation. Due to such changes in sensation, people are encouraged to explore their bodies to discover what areas are pleasurable. Masturbation is a useful way to learn about the body's new responses.\n", "Section::::Management.:Considerations for sexual activity.\n", "Section::::Fertility.\n\nSection::::Fertility.:Male.\n", "For anejaculation in SCI, the first-line method for sperm retrieval is penile vibratory stimulation (PVS). A high-speed vibrator is applied to the glans penis to trigger a reflex that causes ejaculation, usually within a few minutes. Reports of efficacy with PVS range from 15–88%, possibly due to differences in vibrator settings and experience of clinicians, as well as level and completeness of injury. Complete lesions strictly above Onuf's nucleus (S2–S4) are responsive to PVS in 98%, but complete lesions of the S2–S4 segments are not.\n", "Severe irritation takes place if a latex catheter is inserted in the urinary tract of a person allergic to latex. That is especially severe in case of a radical prostatectomy due to the open wound there and the exposure lasting e.g. two weeks. Intense pain may indicate such situation.\n", "There is a noticeable enlargement of the epididymides in vasectomized men. This is probably due to increased backpressure within the vas deferens on the testicular side following its blockage by vasectomy. The efferent ducts and seminiferous tubules of the testes are also affected by backpressure, leading to an increase in area and thickness. Backpressure from blockage of the vas deferens causes a rupture in the epididymis, called an \"epididymal blowout\", in 50% of vasectomy patients. Sperm sometimes leak from the vas deferens of vasectomized men, forming lesions in the scrotum known as sperm granulomas. Some sperm granulomas can be painful. The presence of a sperm granuloma at the vasectomy site prevents epididymal pressure build-up, perforation, and the formation of an epididymal sperm granuloma. It thus lessens the likelihood of epididymal discomfort.\n", "Ejaculation has two phases: \"emission\" and \"ejaculation proper\". The emission phase of the ejaculatory reflex is under control of the sympathetic nervous system, while the ejaculatory phase is under control of a spinal reflex at the level of the spinal nerves S2–4 via the pudendal nerve. A refractory period succeeds the ejaculation, and sexual stimulation precedes it.\n\nSection::::Evolved adaptations.\n", "Section::::Sexual function.:Factors in reduced function.\n\nMost people with SCI have problems with the body's physical sexual arousal response. Problems that result directly from impaired neural transmission are called \"primary sexual dysfunction\". The function of the genitals is almost always affected by SCI, by alteration, reduction, or complete loss of sensation. Neuropathic pain, in which damaged nerve pathways signal pain in the absence of any noxious stimulus, is common after SCI and interferes with sex.\n", "Another reason for the treatment is to correct a rare complication of a frenulum breve which presents as scars on the frenulum, these scars cause pain and make normal sex very difficult and are caused by the rubbing of the frenulum whilst engaging in sexual activity. These scars only effect those with frenulum breve. The Frenuloplasty can be conducted under both general or local anesthesia.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "Section::::Vertebrates.:Mammals.:Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla).\n\nThe penises of even-toed ungulates are curved in an S-shape when not erect. In bulls, rams and boars, the sigmoid flexure of the penis straightens out during erection.\n\nWhen mating, the tip of a male pronghorn's penis is often the first part to touch the female pronghorn. The pronghorn's penis is about long, and is shaped like an ice pick. The front of a pronghorn's glans penis is relatively flat, while the back is relatively thick. The male pronghorn usually ejaculates immediately after intromission.\n", "Copulation by male greater short-nosed fruit bats is dorsoventral and the females lick the shaft or the base of the male's penis, but not the glans which has already penetrated the vagina. While the females do this, the penis is not withdrawn and research has shown a positive relationship between length of the time that the penis is licked and the duration of copulation. Post copulation genital grooming has also been observed.\n\nSection::::Vertebrates.:Mammals.:Rodents.\n", "During the copulation, when a male approaches the female, male pheromones (part 1 of the above diagram) are detected by the olfactory circuits (part 2). The pheromonal signals stimulate, among other things, the hypothalamus, which facilitates the lordosis reflex. Then when the male mounts the female (part 3), tactile stimuli on the flanks, the perineum and the rump of the female are transmitted via the sensory nerves in the spinal cord. In the spinal cord and lower brainstem, they are integrated with the information coming from the brain, and then, in general, a nerve impulse is transmitted to the muscles via the motor nerves. The contraction of the longissimus and transverso-spinalis muscles causes the ventral arching of the vertebral column (part 4). The lordosis position which results from it makes it possible to present properly the vagina to the male (part 5), facilitating penile intromission. Then, during intromission, tactile and deep sensations from the genital area and clitoris accentuate the lordosis reflex (part 6). It is thus observed that the physiological and neurobiological organization of the lordosis behavior reflex is specifically adapted to heterosexual copulation.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of pain.\n", "Sex educator Rebecca Chalker states that only one part of the clitoris, the urethral sponge, is in contact with the penis, fingers, or a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\n", "Fingering the vagina is often performed in an effort to stimulate the G-spot. The G-spot is reportedly located roughly up on the anterior wall of the vagina, forwards toward the navel. It is described as being recognized by its ridges and slightly rougher texture compared to the more cushion-like vaginal cavity walls around it. Fingering this spot, and in effect possibly stimulating the Skene's gland, is commonly cited as a method that may lead to female ejaculation. Parallels are sometimes drawn with the fingering or other manipulation of the male prostate through the anus.\n", "BULLET::::- Erectile dysfunction: Men with erectile dysfunction may use a strap-on to be able to penetrate their partner either by using one with a hollow dildo, or by having their penis beneath the dildo. For example, in one documented case, a prostate cancer patient with erectile dysfunction due to anti-cancer androgen deprivation therapy would penetrate his partner with the dildo while she manually stimulated his penis. The report includes a narrative by the patient of his experience where he writes that although he and his partner were initially reluctant, they became highly satisfied, beyond their previous sexual experience as a couple: He found more comfortable without the worry of whether he would be able to keep an erection, and experienced multiple orgasms, felt more diffuse and spreading from his pelvis. His partner reliably achieved orgasm, whereas previously she didn't have orgasms by penetration alone. The fact that the man experienced multiple orgasms is very likely because of his low level of androgens and because he had his prostate removed; the same phenomenon has been noticed in other prostate cancer patients.\n", "Other soft-tissue injuries to the penis can be caused by burns, animal bites, and human bites. Animal bites are common in children, and dogs are the most common animals involved. Though typically not severe, animal bites can cause amputation or infection. Treatment for animal bites and human bites involves antibiotic treatment and closure of the wounds by secondary intention because they are contaminated.\n", "In the greater short-nosed fruit bat, copulation by males is dorsoventral and the females lick the shaft or the base of the male's penis, but not the glans, which has already penetrated the vagina. While the females do this, the penis is not withdrawn and research has shown a positive relationship between length of the time that the penis is licked and the duration of copulation. Post copulation genital grooming has also been observed.\n\nSection::::Types of behavior.:Homosexual behaviour.\n" ]

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[ "List of places referred to as the Center of the Universe\n\nSeveral cities have been given the nickname \"Center (or Centre) of the Universe\". In addition, several fictional works have described a depicted location as being at the center of the universe.\n\nModern models of the Universe suggest it does not have a center, unlike previous systems which placed Earth (geocentrism) or the Sun (heliocentrism) at the center of the Universe.\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:Asia.\n\nBULLET::::- Wudaokou, Beijing (a nickname)\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:Europe.\n", "Center of the universe\n\nThe center of the universe may refer to:\n\nSection::::Astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Geocentric model, the astronomical model which places Earth at the orbital center of all celestial bodies\n\nBULLET::::- Heliocentrism, the astronomical model in which the Sun is at the orbital center of the Solar System\n\nBULLET::::- History of the center of the Universe, a discussion of the historical view that the Universe has a center\n\nSection::::Mythology and religion.\n\nBULLET::::- Axis mundi, the mythological concept of a world center\n\nBULLET::::- Modern geocentrism, the belief that Earth is the center of the universe as described by classical geocentric models\n", "History of the center of the Universe\n\nThe center of the Universe is a concept that lacks a coherent definition in modern astronomy; according to standard cosmological theories on the shape of the universe, it has no center.\n", "BULLET::::- Space Flight Operations Facility, the operations control center of the Deep Space Network\n\nBULLET::::- The former interpretive centre of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Saanich, British Columbia, Canada was once called the Centre of the Universe.\n\nSection::::Fiction.\n\nDepictions of a \"center of the universe\" in fiction include:\n\nBULLET::::- Azathoth, \"The Blind Idiot God\", in H.P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos\n\nBULLET::::- Eternia, the planet that is home to the Masters of the Universe\n\nBULLET::::- Oa, a planet at the center of the DC Comics Universe\n\nBULLET::::- Terminus, in the Doctor Who serial \"Terminus\"\n", "BULLET::::- Perpignan (France) : Salvador Dali considered its train station as the center of the Universe\n\nBULLET::::- Wolverhampton, UK : Sir Terry Wogan referred to Wolverhampton UK as the centre of the Universe because there, the bathwater goes straight down the plughole\n\nBULLET::::- Hammersmith, UK : local historian Keith Whitehouse claimed it as the centre of the universe due to its history of radical politics and invention\n\nBULLET::::- Kirmington, UK : Home of Guy Martin referred to as ‘Center of T’ Universe’\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:North America.\n", "BULLET::::- Ashland, Virginia (the actual, cosmological center of the Universe, as declared by former Mayor Dick Gillis)\n\nBULLET::::- John B. Lindale House in Magnolia, Delaware displays a sign proclaiming \"This is Magnolia, the Center of the Universe around which the Earth revolves\"\n\nBULLET::::- Alumni Hall (University of Notre Dame), South Bend, Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- The center of the Great Dome on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n", "\"Center\" is well-defined in a Flat Earth model. A flat Earth would have a definite geographic center. There would also be a unique point at the exact center of a spherical firmament (or a firmament that was a half-sphere).\n\nSection::::Earth as the center of the Universe.\n", "In the early-20th century, the discovery of other galaxies and the development of the Big Bang theory led to the development of cosmological models of a homogeneous, isotropic Universe, which lacks a central point and is expanding at all points.\n\nSection::::Outside astronomy.\n\nIn religion or mythology, the \"axis mundi\" (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, columna cerului, center of the world) is a point described as the center of the world, the connection between it and Heaven, or both.\n", "Section::::Milky Way's galactic center as center of the Universe.\n\nBefore the 1920s, it was generally believed that there were no galaxies other than our own (see for example The Great Debate). Thus, to astronomers of previous centuries, there was no distinction between a hypothetical center of the galaxy and a hypothetical center of the universe.\n", "BULLET::::- San Dimas, California, in \"Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nibbler's home planet Eternium, in \"Futurama\"\n\nBULLET::::- Anyplace other than \"The Restaurant at the End of the Universe\" in \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" series\n\nBULLET::::- In the game \"Super Mario Galaxy\" for the Wii, Mario travels to the final area, named the Center of the Universe\n\nBULLET::::- In the game \"\" for the PS3, The Great Clock was said to be constructed at the exact center of the universe (give or take fifty feet)\n", "BULLET::::- In Albuquerque, New Mexico, a large sculpted-hallway structure with short corridors aligned to north-south, east-west, and up-down, at the main campus of the University of New Mexico is known as \"The Center of the Universe\"\n\nBULLET::::- A concrete circle at the apex of a rebuilt span of the old Boston Avenue viaduct, between 1st and Archer Streets, in Tulsa, Oklahoma is known as \"The Center of the Universe\". The spot produces an acoustical anomaly and it is for which the Center of the Universe Festival and Ms. Center of the Universe Pageant are named\n", "The 19th century astronomer Johann Heinrich von Mädler proposed the Central Sun Hypothesis, according to which the stars of the universe revolved around a point in the Pleiades.\n\nSection::::The nonexistence of a center of the Universe.\n", "The Copernican principle, named after Nicolaus Copernicus, states that the Earth is not in a central, specially favored position. Hermann Bondi named the principle after Copernicus in the mid-20th century, although the principle itself dates back to the 16th-17th century paradigm shift away from the geocentric Ptolemaic system.\n", "Professor Brian Cox explores our origins, place and destiny in the universe. He describes the initial conditions of the human psyche as one that places itself at the center of the universe, surrounded by family, environment, and events. Brian tells the story of how our innate human curiosity has led us from feeling that we are at the center of everything, to our modern understanding of our true place in space and time – that we are living 13.8 billion years from the beginning of the universe, on a mere speck of rock in a possibly infinite expanse of space.\n", "Historically, different people have suggested various locations as the center of the Universe. Many mythological cosmologies included an \"axis mundi\", the central axis of a flat Earth that connects the Earth, heavens, and other realms together. In the 4th century BCE Greece, philosophers developed the geocentric model, based on astronomical observation; this model proposed that the center of the Universe lies at the center of a spherical, stationary Earth, around which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars rotate. With the development of the heliocentric model by Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, the Sun was believed to be the center of the Universe, with the planets (including Earth) and stars orbiting it.\n", "BULLET::::- A site near Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada has been referred to as a spiritual \"Centre of the Universe\"\n\nBULLET::::- Teotihuacan, in modern-day Mexico was considered the center of the universe by many Mesoamerican tribes, including the Aztecs, and was a model city for the later indigenous civilizations. It was called the \"birthplace of the gods\" and heavily influenced the region despite being abandoned for centuries\n\nBULLET::::- Bon Aqua, Tennessee Hickman county referred to as the center of the universe by country singer Johnny Cash\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:Astronomy.\n", "BULLET::::- Space and time in the Mesoamerican religion\n\nSection::::Media.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Center of the Universe\" (TV series), an American sitcom\n\nBULLET::::- \"Center of the Universe\", a song by Built to Spill from their album \"Keep It Like a Secret\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Center of the Universe\", an album by Admiral Twin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Centre of the Universe\", a song from the album \"Epica\", by Kamelot\n\nBULLET::::- \"Centre of the Universe\", a debut single of Arthur Koldomasov\n\nBULLET::::- \"Center of the Universe\" (song), a song by Swedish house producer Axwell\n", "BULLET::::- Fremont, Seattle A suburb of Seattle is the official Center of the Universe - Sign at the Center of the Universe \n\nBULLET::::- New York City (a nickname)\n\nBULLET::::- Manhattan is often referred to as the Center of the Universe.\n\nBULLET::::- Times Square (a nickname)\n\nBULLET::::- Palm Court, New College of Florida in Sarasota, Florida was enshrined the Center of the Universe in 1965.\n\nBULLET::::- Toronto, a term used derisively by residents of the rest of Canada in reference to the city; see also nicknames for Toronto\n", "With the growing recognition in the late 20th century of the presence of dark matter in the universe, ordinary baryonic matter has come to be seen as something of a cosmic afterthought. As John D. Barrow put it, “This would be the final Copernican twist in our status in the material universe. Not only are we not at the center of the universe: we are not even made of the predominant form of matter”.\n", "Since there is believed to be no \"center\" or \"edge\" of the Universe, there is no particular reference point with which to plot the overall location of the Earth in the universe. Because the observable universe is defined as that region of the Universe visible to terrestrial observers, Earth is, because of the constancy of the speed of light, the center of Earth's observable universe. Reference can be made to the Earth's position with respect to specific structures, which exist at various scales. It is still undetermined whether the Universe is infinite. There have been numerous hypotheses that the known universe may be only one such example within a higher multiverse; however, no direct evidence of any sort of multiverse has been observed, and some have argued that the hypothesis is not falsifiable. \n", "You, King Gelon, are aware the Universe is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the Universe is many times greater than the Universe just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface\n", "In 1750 Thomas Wright, in his work \"An original theory or new hypothesis of the Universe\", correctly speculated that the Milky Way might be a body of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces rotating about a Galactic Center, akin to the Solar System but on a much larger scale. The resulting disk of stars can be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant elaborated on Wright's idea about the structure of the Milky Way.\n", "Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System – developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the \"deviation of the Sun\" from the centre of gravity of the solar system. For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather \"the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World\", and this centre of gravity \"either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line\" (Newton adopted the \"at rest\" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).\n", "Section::::The nonexistence of a center of the Universe.:Expanding Universe.\n\nHubble also demonstrated that the redshift of other galaxies is approximately proportional to their distance from the Earth (Hubble's law). This raised the appearance of our galaxy being in the center of an expanding Universe, however, Hubble rejected the findings philosophically:\n", "In medieval times some Christians thought of Jerusalem as the center of the world (Latin: \"umbilicus mundi\", Greek: \"Omphalos\"), and was so represented in the so-called T and O maps. Byzantine hymns speak of the Cross being \"planted in the center of the earth.\"\n\nSection::::Center of a flat Earth.\n" ]

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[ "The inks are resistant to water after drying but can be defaced by certain solvents which include acetone and various alcohols.\n\nSection::::Types of ballpoint pens.\n", "BULLET::::- Nema C88 is a vacuum pen that simplifies the application of Etest® strips. The applicator is held like a pen and the evacuation hole is covered with the fingertip to create suction. The suction cup is placed on the strip to lift it up and then position onto the agar surface. The strip is released by removing the finger tip from the evacuation hole.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nEtest has 3,000 scientific references in which it has been tested. A few key references are as follows:\n", "Ballpoint pens are produced in both disposable and refillable models. Refills allow for the entire internal ink reservoir, including a ballpoint and socket, to be replaced. Such characteristics are usually associated with designer-type pens or those constructed of finer materials. The simplest types of ballpoint pens are disposable and have a cap to cover the tip when the pen is not in use, or a mechanism for retracting the tip, which varies between manufacturers but is usually a spring- or screw-mechanism.\n", "Rollerball pens employ the same ballpoint mechanics, but with the use of water-based inks instead of oil-based inks. Compared to oil-based ballpoints, rollerball pens are said to provide more fluid ink-flow, but the water-based inks will blot if held stationary against the writing surface. Water-based inks also remain wet longer when freshly applied and are thus prone to \"smearing\" — posing problems to left-handed people (or right handed people writing right-to-left script) — and \"running\", should the writing surface become wet.\n", "Bíró's innovation successfully coupled ink-viscosity with a ball-socket mechanism which acted compatibly to prevent ink from drying inside the reservoir while allowing controlled flow. Bíró filed a British patent on 15 June 1938.\n", "BULLET::::- Water-based roller ball ink is more likely to smudge than a ballpoint pen's oil-based ink because water-based ink dries more slowly than its counterpart. Also if one writes in a notebook, closing it before the ink dries can stain the opposite page. This can also prove a problem for left-handed writers or users of right-to-left scripts. Gel ink dries much more rapidly than liquid-ink, making it much more, but not completely, resistant to smudging.\n", "Rollerball pens were introduced in the early 1970s. They use a mobile ball and liquid ink to produce a smoother line. Technological advances during the late 1980s and early 1990s have improved the roller ball's overall performance. A porous point pen contains a point made of some porous material such as felt or ceramic. A high quality drafting pen will usually have a ceramic tip, since this wears well and does not broaden when pressure is applied while writing.\n", "Around the year 2000, Pelikan introduced a filling system involving a valve in the blind end of the pen, which mates with a specially designed ink bottle. Thus docked, ink is then squeezed into the pen barrel (which, lacking any mechanism other than the valve itself, has nearly the capacity of an eyedropper-fill pen of the same size). This system had been implemented only in their \"Level\" line, which was discontinued in 2006.\n", "The function of these components can be compared with the ball-applicator of roll-on antiperspirant; the same technology at a larger scale. The ballpoint tip delivers the ink to the writing surface while acting as a \"buffer\" between the ink in the reservoir and the air outside, preventing the quick-drying ink from drying inside the reservoir. Modern ballpoints are said to have a two-year shelf life, on average.\n", "Standard international cartridges are closed by a small ball, held inside the ink exit hole by glue or by a very thin layer of plastic. When the cartridge is pressed into the pen, a small pin pushes in the ball, which falls inside the cartridge. The Parker and Lamy cartridges do not have such a ball. They are closed by a piece of plastic, which is broken by a sharp pin when inserted in the pen.\n\nSection::::Cartridges.:Concerns and alternatives.\n", "A closed membrane like SympaTex differs from microporous membranes (such as Gore-Tex) which have microscopic pores that let air (and water vapour) pass through, yet have such low surface energy that the surface tension of any (liquid) water in contact remains too high to allow it to squeeze through the pores. Microporous membranes have traditionally been let down by the contamination of their pores which significantly degrades their breatheability and commonly also have poorer adhesion to fabrics making them more susceptible to delamination.\n", "A patent for an ink cartridge system for fountain pens was filed in 1890. In the early 20th century, cartridges were made from glass and thin copper tubing. However, the concept only became successful and popular after the introduction of moulded plastic cartridges, firstly by Waterman in 1953.\n\nModern plastic cartridges can contain small ridges on the inside to promote free movement of the contained ink and ink/air exchange during writing. Often cartridges are closed with a small ball that gets pressed into the cartridge during insertion into the pen. This ball also aids free movement of the contained ink.\n", "Section::::Invention of the ballpoint pen.\n\nWhile working as a journalist Bíró noticed that the ink used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free. He tried using the same ink in a fountain pen but found that it would not flow into the tip, as it was too viscous.\n", "One must write with a ball point pen on top of Tipp-ex, as a liquid ink pen will smudge. Gel ink will require some seconds to fully dry, but can be used if no ball point pen is available.\n\nSection::::Toxicology.\n", "Section::::Feed.\n\nThe feed of a fountain pen is the component that connects the nib of the pen with its ink reservoir.\n\nIt not only allows the ink to flow to the nib (in what is often described as a \"controlled leak\") but also regulates the amount of air flowing backwards up to the reservoir to replace this lost ink.\n", "Vacuum fillers, such as those used by Pilot in the Custom 823, utilize air pressure to fill the ink chamber. In this case, while the nib is submerged in ink, a plunger is pushed down the empty chamber to create a vacuum in the space behind it. The end of the chamber has a section wider than the rest, and when the plunger passes this point, the difference in air pressure in the area behind the plunger and the area ahead of it is suddenly evened out and ink rushes in behind the plunger to fill the chamber.\n\nSection::::Cartridges.\n", "László Bíró, a Hungarian-Argentine newspaper editor frustrated by the amount of time that he wasted filling up fountain pens and cleaning up smudged pages, noticed that inks used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge free. He decided to create a pen using the same type of ink. Bíró enlisted the help of his brother György, a chemist, to develop viscous ink formulae for new ballpoint designs.\n", "Capillary action is observed in thin layer chromatography, in which a solvent moves vertically up a plate via capillary action. In this case the pores are gaps between very small particles.\n\nCapillary action draws ink to the tips of fountain pen nibs from a reservoir or cartridge inside the pen.\n\nWith some pairs of materials, such as mercury and glass, the intermolecular forces within the liquid exceed those between the solid and the liquid, so a convex meniscus forms and capillary action works in reverse.\n", "BULLET::::- Roller ball pens generally run out of ink more quickly than ballpoints because roller balls use a greater amount of ink while writing. This is especially true of liquid-ink roller balls, due to gel ink having a low absorption rate as a result of its thickness. Neither lasts as long as a ballpoint.\n\nBULLET::::- Uncapped roller ball pens are more likely to leak ink when, for example, placed into a shirt pocket, but most pens include caps or other mechanisms to prevent this from happening.\n", "BULLET::::2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)\n\nBULLET::::3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure)\n\nBULLET::::4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation)\n\nSection::::Consolidation analysis.:Primary consolidation.\n", "Liquid ink roller ball pens flow extremely consistently and skip less than gel ink pens do. The lower viscosity of liquid ink increases the likelihood of consistent inking of the ball, whereas the higher viscosity of gel ink produces \"skipping\", that is, occasional gaps in lines or letters.\n\nIn comparison to ballpoint pens,\n\nBULLET::::- Less pressure needs to be applied to the pen to have it write cleanly. This permits holding the pen with less stress on the hand, saving energy and improving comfort. This can also translate to quicker writing speeds. This is especially true of liquid ink pens.\n", "Blister packs are a common form of packaging. They are safe and easy to use and the user can see the contents without opening the pack. Many pharmaceutical companies use a standard size of blister pack. This saves the cost of different tools and changing the production machinery between products. Sometimes the pack may be perforated so that individual tablets can be detached. This means that the expiry date and the drug's name must be printed on each part of the package. The blister pack itself must remain absolutely flat as it travels through the packaging processes, especially when it is inserted into a carton. Extra ribs are added to the blister pack to improve its stiffness.\n", "The general design of a gel pen is similar to that of a regular ink based pen, with a barrel containing the writing mechanism and a cap, and a reservoir filled with ink. The barrels can be created in many different sizes and designs; some have finger grips of rubber or plastic. The size of the nib or pen tip ranges from to .\n\nSection::::Inks.\n", "1. Cigars are usually kept in a wooden box called a humidor. A pan of water is placed in the humidor so that the wood will absorb water vapor at close to 100% Relative Humidity. It is then used to store the cigars at fairly constant relative humidity, between 55-70%.\n", "Gel pens: While they designed the world's first pen using water-based ink, they also have a line of gel pens. The Mitsubishi Pencil Company incorporated a retractable tip to make the world's first retractable gel pen.\n\nThe Signo line of gel pens uses \"uni Super-ink\", an archival quality ink that is water-proof and fade-resistant.\n\nBallpoint pens: The Jetstream line of hybrid ink ballpoint pens uses a hybrid ink formulation whose viscosity is lower than that of standard ballpoint ink, but greater than rollerball ink. The ink dries faster than a standard ballpoint to prevent smearing when writing.\n" ]

[ "The lid of a ballpoint pen is there to stop it from drying out." ]

[ "The lid of a ballpoint pen is there to stop if from leaving a mark on things you don't want to write on." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The lid of a ballpoint pen is there to stop it from drying out." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The lid of a ballpoint pen is there to stop if from leaving a mark on things you don't want to write on." ]

[ "Mining of uranium ore can disrupt the environment around the mine. Disposal of spent fuel is controversial, with many proposed long-term storage schemes under intense review and criticism. Diversion of fresh or spent fuel to weapons production presents a risk of nuclear proliferation. Finally, the structure of the reactor itself becomes radioactive and will require decades of storage before it can be economically dismantled and in turn disposed of as waste.\n\nSection::::Renewable energy.\n", "Another approach termed Remix & Return would blend high-level waste with uranium mine and mill tailings down to the level of the original radioactivity of the uranium ore, then replace it in inactive uranium mines. This approach has the merits of providing jobs for miners who would double as disposal staff, and of facilitating a cradle-to-grave cycle for radioactive materials, but would be inappropriate for spent reactor fuel in the absence of reprocessing, due to the presence of highly toxic radioactive elements such as plutonium within it.\n", "Solid waste can be disposed of simply by placing it where it will not be disturbed for a few years. There are three low-level waste disposal sites in the United States in South Carolina, Utah, and Washington. Solid waste from the CVCS is combined with solid radwaste that comes from handling materials before it is buried off-site.\n", "Section::::Uranium in Ground and Surface Water in Canada.\n", "AECL's original plans for long-term waste disposal was a three-stage process; in the first stage the fuel would be stored in the existing spent fuel pools located at the reactor sites for a period of six to ten years. After that time the overall decay rates have decreased to the point where it can be safely moved. For the second stage, the fuel would be placed in an underground facility for a period of about 300 years. By that time the most active gamma ray emitters have burned off and the fuel becomes much safer to handle. The final stage would see the fuel moved to surface sites, but over time this was abandoned and the entire time was to be spent underground.\n", "In the 1990s, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority started to implement plans to decommission, disassemble and clean up both piles. In 2004 Pile 1 still contained about 15 tonnes (14.76 L/T) of uranium fuel, and final completion of the decommissioning is not expected until at least 2037.\n", "Because of construction delays, a number of nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to dry cask storage of waste on-site indefinitely in steel and concrete casks.\n", "Note that while the vast majority of the uranium is removed by PUREX nuclear reprocessing, a small amount of uranium is left in the raffinate from the first cycle of the PUREX process. In addition because of the decay of the transplutonium minor actinides and the residual plutonium in the waste the concentration of uranium will increase on the waste. This will occur on a time scale of hundreds and thousands of years.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "The United States has planned disposal in deep geological formations, such as the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, where it has to be shielded and packaged to prevent its migration to humans' immediate environment for thousands of years. On March 5, 2009, however, Energy Secretary Steven Chu told a Senate hearing that \"the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste.\" The Morris Operation is currently the only de facto high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.\n\nGeological disposal has been approved in Finland, using the KBS-3 process.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "Disposal of these wastes in engineered facilities, or repositories, located deep underground in suitable geologic formations is seen as the reference solution. The [[International Panel on Fissile Materials]] has said:\n", "In nature, sixteen repositories were discovered at the Oklo mine in Gabon where natural nuclear fission reactions took place 1.7 billion years ago. The fission products in these natural formations were found to have moved less than 10 ft (3 m) over this period, though the lack of movement may be due more to retention in the uraninite structure than to insolubility and sorption from moving ground water; uraninite crystals are better preserved here than those in spent fuel rods because of a less complete nuclear reaction, so that reaction products would be less accessible to groundwater attack.\n", "Among the other methods to recover uranium from sea water, two seem promising: algae bloom to concentrate uranium\n\nand nanomembrane filtering.\n\nSo far, no more than a very small amount of uranium has been recovered from sea water in a laboratory.\n\nSection::::Uranium supply.:Unconventional resources.:Uraniferous coal ash.\n\n In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.\n", "In the second half of the 20th century, several methods of disposal of radioactive waste were investigated by nuclear nations, which are :\n\nBULLET::::- \"Long term above ground storage\", not implemented.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Disposal in outer space\" (for instance, inside the Sun), not implemented - as it would be currently too expensive.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Deep borehole disposal\", not implemented.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rock-melting\", not implemented.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Disposal at subduction zones\", not implemented.\n", "The ongoing controversy over high-level radioactive waste disposal is a major constraint on the nuclear power's global expansion. Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole. However, almost six decades after commercial nuclear energy began, no government has succeeded in opening such a repository for civilian high-level nuclear waste, although Finland is in the advanced stage of the construction of such facility, the Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository. Reprocessing or recycling spent nuclear fuel options already available or under active development still generate waste and so are not a total solution, but can reduce the sheer quantity of waste, and there are many such active programs worldwide. Deep geological burial remains the only responsible way to deal with high-level nuclear waste. The Morris Operation is currently the only de facto high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.\n", "One tonne of nuclear waste also reduces CO emission by 25 million tonnes.\n\nGovernments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.\n", "BULLET::::- Fast reactors can \"burn\" long lasting nuclear transuranic waste (TRU) waste components (actinides: reactor-grade plutonium and minor actinides), turning liabilities into assets. Another major waste component, fission products (FP), would stabilize at a lower level of radioactivity than the original natural uranium ore it was attained from in two to four centuries, rather than tens of thousands of years.pg 15 see SV/g chart The fact that 4th generation reactors are being designed to use the waste from 3rd generation plants could change the nuclear story fundamentally—potentially making the combination of 3rd and 4th generation plants a more attractive energy option than 3rd generation by itself would have been, both from the perspective of waste management and energy security.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:\"In-situ\" leaching.\n\nIn-situ leaching (ISL), also known as solution mining, or in-situ recovery (ISR) in North America, involves leaving the ore where it is in the ground, and recovering the minerals from it by dissolving them and pumping the pregnant solution to the surface where the minerals can be recovered. Consequently, there is little surface disturbance and no tailings or waste rock generated. However, the orebody needs to be permeable to the liquids used, and located so that they do not contaminate ground water away from the orebody.\n", "Beginning in 2005 Unit 2 was loaded with BLEU (Blended Low Enriched Uranium) recovered by the DOE from weapons programs. This fuel contains quantities of U-236 and other contaminants because it was made from reprocessed fuel from weapons program reactors and therefore has slightly different characteristics when used in a reactor as compared to fresh uranium fuel. By making use of this fuel which would otherwise have been disposed of as waste the TVA is saving millions of dollars in fuel costs and accumulating a database of recycled uranium reactions in LWR use.\n\nSection::::Unit 3.\n", "Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.\n", "In October 2018, a senator from Utah argued that transferring nuclear waste from other states to Yucca Mountain on state highways and railways could be a health hazard.\n\nSection::::Cultural impact.\n", "Section::::Transportation of waste.:Impacts.\n", "BULLET::::- The world's endowment of uranium ore is now so depleted that the nuclear industry will never, from its own resources, be able to generate the energy it needs to clear up its own backlog of waste.\n", "Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.\n", "The main constituent of spent fuel from the most common light water reactor, is uranium that is slightly more enriched than natural uranium, which can be recycled, though there is a lower incentive to do so. Most of this \"recovered uranium\", or at times referred to as reprocessed uranium, remains in storage. It can however be used in a fast reactor, used directly as fuel in CANDU reactors, or re-enriched for another cycle through an LWR. The direct use of recovered uranium to fuel a CANDU reactor was first demonstrated at Quishan, China. The first re-enriched uranium reload to fuel a commercial LWR, occurred in 1994 at the Cruas unit 4, France. Re-enriching of reprocessed uranium is common in France and Russia. When reprocessed uranium, namely Uranium-236, is part of the fuel of LWRs, it generates a spent fuel and plutonium isotope stream with greater inherent self-protection, than the once-thru fuel cycle.\n", "There has been concern that the Sellafield area will become a major dumping ground for unwanted nuclear material, since there are currently no long-term facilities for storing High-Level Waste (HLW), although the UK has current contracts to reprocess spent fuel from all over the world. Contracts agreed since 1976 between BNFL and overseas customers require that all HLW be returned to the country of origin. The UK retains low- and intermediate-level waste resulting from its reprocessing activity, and instead ships out a radiologically equivalent amount of its own HLW. This substitution policy is intended to be environmentally neutral and to speed return of overseas material by reducing the number of shipments required, since HLW is far less bulky.\n" ]

[ "Uranium ore is as dangerous as nuclear waste." ]

[ "Uranium ore only becomes dangerously radioactive after it undergoes nuclear processing." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Uranium ore is as dangerous as nuclear waste.", "Uranium ore is as dangerous as nuclear waste." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Uranium ore only becomes dangerously radioactive after it undergoes nuclear processing.", "Uranium ore only becomes dangerously radioactive after it undergoes nuclear processing." ]

[ "Section::::Other concerns.:Effects of the gift to the first generation.\n\nIt has been argued that the first generation of social security participants have, in effect, received a large gift, because they received far more benefits than they paid into the system. Robert J. Shiller noted that \"the initial designers of the Social Security System in 1935 had envisioned the building of a large trust fund\", but \"the 1939 amendments and subsequent changes prevented this from happening\".\n", "As such, the gift to the first generation is necessarily borne by subsequent generations. In this pay-as-you-go system, current workers are paying the benefits of the previous generation, instead of investing for their own retirement, and therefore, attempts at privatizing Social Security could result in workers having to pay twice: once to fund the benefits of current retirees, and a second time to fund their own retirement.\n\nSection::::Other concerns.:Claims of pyramid- or Ponzi-scheme similarities.\n", "This criticism is not new. In his 1936 presidential campaign, Republican Alf Landon called the trust fund \"a cruel hoax\". The Republican's party platform that year stated, \"The so-called reserve fund estimated at forty-seven billion dollars for old age insurance is no reserve at all, because the fund will contain nothing but the Government's promise to pay, while the taxes collected in the guise of premiums will be wasted by the Government in reckless and extravagant political schemes.\"\n\nThe Social Security Administration responds to the criticism as follows:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Generational accounting\n", ", under current law, the Congressional Budget Office reported that the \"Disability Insurance trust fund will be exhausted in fiscal year 2017 and the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance trust fund will be exhausted in 2033\". Costs of Social Security have already started to exceed income since 2018. This means the trust funds have already begun to be empty and will be fully depleted in the near future. As of 2018, the projections made by the Social Security Administration estimates that Social Security program as a whole will deplete all reserves by the year 2034.\n", "In 2005, this exhaustion of the OASDI Trust Fund was projected to occur in 2041 by the Social Security Administration or by 2052 by the Congressional Budget Office, CBO. Thereafter, however, the projection for the exhaustion date of this event was moved up slightly after the recession worsened the U.S. economy's financial picture. The 2011 OASDI Trustees Report stated:\n", "The number of U.S. workers per retiree was 5.1 in 1960; this declined to 3.0 in 2009 and is projected to decline to 2.1 by 2030. The number of Social Security program recipients is expected to increase from 44 million in 2010 to 73 million in 2030. The present value of unfunded obligations under Social Security as of August 2010 was approximately $5.4 trillion. In other words, this amount would have to be set aside today such that the principal and interest would cover the shortfall over the next 75 years. The Social Security Administration projects that an increase in payroll taxes equivalent to 1.9% of the payroll tax base or 0.7% of GDP would be necessary to put the Social Security program in fiscal balance for the next 75 years. Over an infinite time horizon, these shortfalls average 3.4% of the payroll tax base and 1.2% of GDP.\n", "The Supplementary Medical Insurance, SMI, (otherwise known as Medicare Part B & D) expenditure rate of $307.4 billion in 2012 while bringing in only $293.9 billion means that the Supplementary Medical Insurance trust funds are also being seriously depleted and increased tax rates or reduced coverage will be required. The additional retirees expected under the \"baby boom bulge\" will hasten this trust fund depletion as well as legislation to end the Medicare Part D medical prescription drug funding \"donut hole\" are all tied to medical costs growth rates, which have traditionally increased much faster than GDP growth rates.\n", "Increased spending for Social Security will occur at the same time as increases in Medicare, as a result of the aging of the baby boomers. One projection illustrates the relationship between the two programs:\n\nFrom 2004 to 2030, the combined spending on Social Security and Medicare is expected to rise from 8% of national income (gross domestic product) to 13%. Two-thirds of the increase occurs in Medicare.\n\nSection::::Current operation.:Demographic and revenue projections.:Ways to eliminate the projected shortfall.\n\nSocial Security is predicted to start running out of having enough money to pay all prospective retirees at today's benefit payouts by 2034.\n", "The claims of the probability of future difficulty with the current Social Security system are largely based on the annual analysis made of the system and its prospects and reported by the governors of the Social Security system. While such analysis can never be 100% accurate, it can at least be made using different probable future scenarios and be based on rational assumptions and reach rational conclusions, with the conclusions being no better (in terms of predicting the future) than the assumptions on which the predictions are based. With these predictions in hand, it is possible to make at least some prediction of what the future retirement security of Americans who will rely on Social Security might be. It is worth noting that James Roosevelt, former associate commissioner for Retirement Policy for the Social Security Administration, claims that the \"crisis\" is more a myth than a fact.\n", "Reform proposals continue to circulate with some urgency, due to a long-term funding challenge faced by the program as the ratio of workers to beneficiaries falls, driven by the aging of the baby-boom generation, expected continuing low birth rate, and increasing life expectancy. Program payouts began exceeding cash program revenues (i.e., revenue excluding interest) in 2011; this shortfall is expected to continue indefinitely under current law.\n", "In each year since 1982, OASDI tax receipts, interest payments and other income have exceeded benefit payments and other expenditures, for example by more than $150 billion in 2004. As the \"baby boomers\" move out of the work force and into retirement, however, expenses will come to exceed tax receipts and then, after several more years, will exceed all OASDI trust income, including interest. At that point the system will begin drawing on its trust fund Treasury Notes, and will continue to pay benefits at the current levels until the Trust Fund is exhausted. In 2013, the OASDI retirement insurance fund collected $731.1 billion and spent $645.5 billion; the disability program (DI) collected $109.1 billion and spent $140.3 billion; Medicare (HI) collected $243.0 and spent $266.8 billion and Supplementary Medical Insurance, SMI, collected $293.9 billion and spent $307.4 billion. In 2013 all Social Security programs except the retirement trust fund (OASDI) spent more than they brought in and relied on significant withdrawals from their respective trust funds to pay their bills. The retirement (OASDI) trust fund of $2,541 billion is expected to be emptied by 2033 by one estimate as new retirees become eligible to join. The disability (DI) trust fund's $153.9 billion will be exhausted by 2018; the Medicare (HI) trust fund of $244.2 billion will be exhausted by 2023 and the Supplemental Medical Insurance (SMI) trust fund will be exhausted by 2020 if the present rate of withdrawals continues—even sooner if they increase. The total \"Social Security\" expenditures in 2013 were $1,360 billion dollars, which was 8.4% of the $16,200 billion GNP (2013) and 37.0% of the federal expenditures of $3,684 billion (including a $971.0 billion deficit). All other parts of the Social Security program: medicare (HI), disability (DI) and Supplemental Medical (SMI) trust funds are already drawing down their trust funds and are projected to go into deficit in about 2020 if the present rate of withdrawals continue. As the trust funds are exhausted either benefits will have to be cut, fraud minimized or taxes increased. According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, upward redistribution of income is responsible for about 43% of the projected Social Security shortfall over the next 75 years.\n", "The CBO projected in 2010 that an increase in payroll taxes ranging from 1.6%–2.1% of the payroll tax base, equivalent to 0.6%–0.8% of GDP, would be necessary to put the Social Security program in fiscal balance for the next 75 years. In other words, raising the payroll tax rate to about 14.4% during 2009 (from the current 12.4%) or cutting benefits by 13.3% would address the program's budgetary concerns indefinitely; these amounts increase to around 16% and 24% if no changes are made until 2037. The value of unfunded obligations under Social Security during FY 2009 was approximately $5.4 trillion. In other words, this amount would have to be set aside today such that the principal and interest would cover the shortfall over the next 75 years. Projections of Social Security's solvency are sensitive to assumptions about rates of economic growth and demographic changes.\n", "These Social Security proponents argue that the correct plan is to fix Medicare, which is the largest underfunded entitlement, repeal the 2001–2004 tax cuts, and balance the budget. They believe a growth trendline will emerge from these steps, and the government can alter the Social Security mix of taxes, benefits, benefit adjustments and retirement age to avoid future deficits. The age at which one begins to receive Social Security benefits has been raised several times since the program's inception.\n\nSection::::Studies of Social Security policy alternatives.\n", "The 2011 annual report by the program's Board of Trustees noted the following: in 2010, 54 million people were receiving Social Security benefits, while 157 million people were paying into the fund; of those receiving benefits, 44 million were receiving retirement benefits and 10 million disability benefits. In 2011, there will be 56 million beneficiaries and 158 million workers paying in. In 2010, total income was $781.1 billion and expenditures were $712.5 billion, which meant a total net increase in assets of $68.6 billion. Assets in 2010 were $2.6 trillion, an amount that is expected to be adequate to cover the next 10 years. In 2023, total income and interest earned on assets are projected to no longer cover expenditures for Social Security, as demographic shifts burden the system. By 2035, the ratio of potential retirees to working age persons will be 37 percent—there will be less than three potential income earners for every retiree in the population. At this rate the Social Security Trust Fund would be exhausted by 2036.\n", "BULLET::::- Average in more working years. Social Security benefits are now based on an average of a worker's 35 highest paid salaries with zeros averaged in if there are fewer than 35 years of covered wages. The averaging period could be increased to 38 or 40 years, which could potentially reduce the deficit by 10 to 20%, respectively.\n", "Furthermore, wealthier individuals generally have higher life expectancies and thus may expect to receive larger benefits for a longer period than poorer taxpayers, often minorities. A single individual who dies before age 62, who is more likely to be poor, receives no retirement benefits despite years of paying Social Security tax. On the other hand, an individual who lives to age 100, who is more likely to be wealthy, is guaranteed payments that are more than he or she paid into the system.\n", "Social Security has collected approximately $2.8 trillion more in payroll taxes and interest than have been paid out since tax collection began in 1937. This surplus is referred to as the Social Security Trust Fund. The fund contains non-marketable Treasury securities backed \"by the full faith and credit of the U.S. government\". The funds borrowed from the program are part of the total national debt of $18.9 trillion as of December 2015. Due to interest, the Trust Fund will continue increasing through the end of 2020, reaching a peak of approximately $2.9 trillion. Social Security has the legal authority to draw amounts from other government revenue sources besides the payroll tax, to fully fund the program, while the Trust Fund exists. However, payouts greater than payroll tax revenue and interest income over time will liquidate the Trust Fund by 2035, meaning that only the ongoing payroll tax collections thereafter will be available to fund the program.\n", "The Social Security public trustees including Charles Blahous warned in May 2013 that the \"window for effective action\" to take place was \"rapidly closing\", with less favorable options available to rectify the problems as time passes.\n", "One way to measure mandatory program risks is in terms of unfunded liabilities, the amount that would have to be set aside today such that principal and interest would cover program shortfalls (spending over tax revenue dedicated to the program). These are measured over a 75-year period and infinite horizon by the program's Trustees:\n", "BULLET::::- Between 2021 and 2035, redemption of the Trust Fund balance to pay retirees will draw approximately $3 trillion in government funds from sources other than payroll taxes. This is a funding challenge for the government overall, not just Social Security. However, as the Trust Fund is reduced, so is that component of the National Debt; in effect, the Trust Fund amount is replaced by public debt outside the program.\n", "Several effects came together in the years following the 1972 amendments which rapidly changed the outlook on Social Security's long-term financial picture from positive to problematic. By the 1970s, the phase-in period, during which workers were paying taxes but few were collecting benefits, was largely over, and the ratio of elderly population to the working population was increasing. These developments brought questions about the capacity of the long term financial structure based on a pay-as-you-go program.\n", "The U.S. Social Security system has provided a greater net benefit to those who reached retirement closest to the first implementation of the system. The system is unfunded, meaning the elderly who retired right after the implementation of the system did not pay any taxes into the social security system, but reaped the benefits. Professor Michael Doran estimates that cohorts born previous to 1938 will receive more in benefits than they pay in taxes, while the reverse is true to cohorts born after. Further, he admits that the long-term insolvency of Social Security will likely lead to be further unintentional intergenerational transfers. However, Broad concedes that other benefits have been introduced into U.S. society via the welfare system, like Medicare and government-financed medical research, that benefit current and future elderly cohorts.\n", "In each year since 1983, tax receipts and interest income have exceeded benefit payments and other expenditures, in 2009 by more than $120 billion. However, without further legislation, or change in benefits, this annual surplus will change to a deficit around 2021, when payments begin to exceed receipts and interest thereafter. The fiscal pressures are due to demographic trends, where the number of workers paying into the program continues declining relative to those receiving benefits.\n\nSection::::Background on funding challenges.:Demographics.\n", "The ageing related problems are actually not just a matter of specific demography, it has been suggested that each PAYG system passes through three stages – the young, the expanding and the mature. This must inevitably lead to situation in which it is problematic to provide the funds for it and even harder to reform the system.\n", "However, even right-leaning politicians have been inconsistent with the language they use when referencing Social Security. For example, Bush has referred to the system going \"broke\" in 2042. That date arises from the anticipated depletion of the Trust Fund, so Bush's language \"seem[s] to suggest that there's \"something\" there that goes away in 2042.\" Specifically, in 2042 and for many decades thereafter, the Social Security system can continue to pay benefits, but benefit payments will be constrained by the revenue base from the 12.4% FICA (Social Security payroll) tax on wages. According to the Social Security trustees, continuing payroll tax revenues at the rate of 12.4% will enable Social Security to pay about 74% of promised benefits during the 2040s, with this ratio falling to about 70% by the end of the forecast period in 2080.\n" ]

[ "Social Security works like a savings account." ]

[ "Social Security is not a savings account; it is paid in by current workers for payments to retired workers." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Social Security works like a savings account.", "Social Security works like a savings account." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Social Security is not a savings account; it is paid in by current workers for payments to retired workers.", "Social Security is not a savings account; it is paid in by current workers for payments to retired workers." ]

[ "There is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and positive mood as well. This evidence cannot be entirely explained by demographic or health variables including socio-economic status, exercise, smoking, and body mass index, suggesting a causal link. Further studies have found that fruit and vegetable consumption predicted improvements in positive mood the next day, not vice versa. On days when people ate more fruits and vegetables, they reported feeling calmer, happier, and more energetic than normal, and they also felt more positive the next day.\n", "Most humans eat an omnivorous diet (comprising animal source foods and plant source foods) though some civilisations have eaten only animal foods. Although a healthy diet containing all essential macro and micronutrients may be possible by only consuming a plant based diet (with vitamin B obtained from supplements if no animal sourced foods are consumed), some populations are unable to consume an adequate quantity or variety of these plant based items to obtain appropriate amounts of nutrients, particularly those that are found in high concentrations in ASF. Frequently, the most vulnerable populations to these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant women, infants, and children in developing countries. In the 1980s the Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (NCRSP) found that six micronutrients were low in the mostly vegetarian diets of children in malnourished areas of Egypt, Mexico, and Kenya. These six micronutrients are vitamin A, vitamin B, riboflavin, calcium, iron and zinc. ASF are the only food source of Vitamin B. ASF also provide high biological value protein, energy, fat compared with plant food sources.\n", "Although traditional diets emphasize a sufficient intake of fruit and vegetables, they do not emphasize the range or variety of this intake. Nutritional biodiversity encourages the consumption of about 10 – 15 different green vegetables over a period of a fortnight, rather than the same green vegetable every day for that same period. This extends to all types of fruits and vegetables.\n", "Vitamin B, a bacterial product, cannot be obtained from fruits. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health \"natural food sources of vitamin B are limited to foods that come from animals.\" Like raw vegans who do not consume B-fortified foods (certain plant milks and some breakfast cereals, for example), fruitarians may need to include a B supplement in their diet or risk vitamin B deficiency.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Growth and development issues.\n", "Different fruits and vegetables provide different vitamins and minerals and in differing quantities, and it is this diversity that is essential to ensure that all nutritional needs are met. Every other species of mammal, in the wild, takes in a much larger spectrum of nutrition that humans. The diet realizes also that domestication of food species and humans, is the root of many health problems.\n", "For example, while increased consumption of fruits and vegetables are related to decreases in mortality, cardiovascular diseases and cancers, supplementation with key factors found in fruits and vegetable, like antioxidants, vitamins, or minerals, do not help and some have been found to be harmful in some cases. In general as of 2016, robust clinical data is lacking, that shows that any kind of dietary supplementation does more good than harm for people who are healthy and eating a reasonable diet but there is clear data showing that dietary pattern and lifestyle choices are associated with health outcomes.\n", "There may occasionally be difficulties in getting biofortified foods to be accepted if they have different characteristics to their unfortified counterparts. For example, vitamin A enhanced foods are often dark yellow or orange in color – this for example is problematic for many in Africa, where white maize is eaten by humans and yellow maize is negatively associated with animal feed or food aid, or where white-fleshed sweet potato is preferred to its moister, orange-fleshed counterpart. Some qualities may be relatively simple to mitigate or breed out of biofortified crops according to consumer demand, such as the moistness of the sweet potato, whereas others cannot be.\n", "BULLET::::- Comparing women from WIC and the FMNP, Kropf et al. (2007), of the School of Human and Consumer Sciences at Ohio University, Athens, found that although household food security status or perceived health status did not differ based on FMNP participation, women who participated in the FMNP had a greater perceived diet quality, greater perceived benefit of fruit and vegetable intake, and were at advanced stages of change with regard to fruit and vegetable intake. Further, vegetable intake servings were greater among FMNP participants.\n", "Aside from performed vitamin A, vitamin B and vitamin D, all vitamins found in animal source foods may also be found in plant-derived foods. Examples are tofu to replace meat (both contain protein in sufficient amounts), and certain seaweeds and vegetables as respectively kombu and kale to replace dairy foods as milk (both contain calcium in sufficient amounts). There are some nutrients which are rare to find in sufficient density in plant based foods. One example would be zinc, the exception would be pumpkin seeds that have been soaked for improved digestion. The increased fiber in these foods can also make absorption difficult. Deficiencies are very possible in these nutrients if vegetarians are not very careful and willing to eat sufficient quantities of these exceptional plant based foods. A good way to find these foods would be to search for them on one of the online, nutrient analyzing databases. An example would be nutritiondata.com.\n", "Section::::Research.:Cohort studies.\n", "In the 1999–2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 52% of adults in the United States reported taking at least one dietary supplement in the last month and 35% reported regular use of multivitamin-multimineral supplements. Women versus men, older adults versus younger adults, non-Hispanic whites versus non-Hispanic blacks, and those with higher education levels versus lower education levels (among other categories) were more likely to take multivitamins. Individuals who use dietary supplements (including multivitamins) generally report higher dietary nutrient intakes and healthier diets. Additionally, adults with a history of prostate and breast cancers were more likely to use dietary and multivitamin supplements.\n", "A 2012 survey of the scientific literature did not find significant differences in the vitamin content of organic and conventional plant or animal products, and found that results varied from study to study. Produce studies reported on ascorbic acid (vitamin C) (31 studies), beta-carotene (a precursor for vitamin A) (12 studies), and alpha-tocopherol (a form of vitamin E) (5 studies) content; milk studies reported on beta-carotene (4 studies) and alpha-tocopherol levels (4 studies). Few studies examined vitamin content in meats, but these found no difference in beta-carotene in beef, alpha-tocopherol in pork or beef, or vitamin A (retinol) in beef. The authors analyzed 11 other nutrients reported in studies of produce. A 2011 literature review found that organic foods had a higher micronutrient content overall than conventionally produced foods.\n", "In particular, pregnant women should generally consult their doctors before taking any multivitamins: for example, either an excess or deficiency of vitamin A can cause birth defects.\n\nLong-term use of beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E supplements may shorten life, and increase the risk of lung cancer in people who smoke (especially those smoking more than 20 cigarettes per day), former smokers, people exposed to asbestos, and those who use alcohol. Many common brand supplements in the United States contain levels above the DRI/RDA amounts for some vitamins or minerals.\n", "Deficiencies of various micronutrients, including vitamin A, zinc, and iron are common in low and middle-income countries and affect billions of people. These can lead to, amongst other symptoms, a higher incidence of blindness, a weaker immune system, stunted growth and impaired cognitive development. The poor, particularly the rural poor, tend to subsist on a diet of staple crops such as rice, wheat and maize, which are low in these micronutrients, and most cannot afford or efficiently cultivate enough fruits, vegetables or meat products that are necessary to obtain healthy levels of these nutrients. As such, increasing the micronutrient levels in staple crops can help prevent and reduce the micronutrient deficiencies – in one trial in Mozambique, eating sweet potatoes biofortified with beta-carotene reduced the incidence of vitamin A deficiency in children by 24%.\n", "As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not \"essential\" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.\n", "According to the Harvard School of Public Health: \"...many people don’t eat the healthiest of diets. That’s why a multivitamin can help fill in the gaps, and may have added health benefits.\" The U.S. Office of Dietary Supplements, a branch of the National Institutes of Health, suggests that multivitamin supplements might be helpful for some people with specific health problems (for example, macular degeneration). However, the Office concluded that \"most research shows that healthy people who take an MVM [multivitamin] do not have a lower chance of diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, or diabetes. Based on current research, it's not possible to recommend for or against the use of MVMs to stay healthier longer.\"\n", "Once discovered, vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in \"McCall's\", \"Good Housekeeping\", and other media outlets. Marketers enthusiastically promoted cod-liver oil, a source of Vitamin D, as \"bottled sunshine\", and bananas as a “natural vitality food\". They promoted foods such as yeast cakes, a source of B vitamins, on the basis of scientifically-determined nutritional value, rather than taste or appearance. World War II researchers focused on the need to ensure adequate nutrition, especially in processed foods. Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term \"vitamania\", in 1942, to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods. The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle has led to an obsessive consumption of additives the beneficial effects of which are questionable.\n", "A diet rich in fruits and vegetables not only reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancers but also helps to maintain healthy blood pressure and proper bowel function. Diets high in vegetable consumption are associated with lower body weights than diets high in saturated fat and excess protein. Eating fruits and vegetables also helps prevent bone loss and the developing of kidney stones. A well balanced diet also contributes to healthy hair, skin, nails and improved mood.\n", "In general, vegetable juices are recommended as supplements to whole vegetables, rather than as a replacement. However, the actual nutritional value of juices versus whole vegetables is still contested.\n", "Section::::Animal source food supplementation.\n\nMicronutrient deficiency is associated in poor early cognitive development. Programs designed to address these micronutrient deficiencies should be targeted to infants, children, and pregnant women. To address these significant mirconutrient deficiencies, some global health researchers and practitioners developed and piloted a snack program in Kenya school children. However, some communities are vegetarians for religious or cultural reasons. Efforts must be made to develop culturally appropriate interventions to address the micronutrient deficiencies in these populations, such as through food fortification.\n\nSection::::Animal source food production.\n", "Section::::Precautions.\n\nThe amounts of each vitamin type in multivitamin formulations are generally adapted to correlate with what is believed to result in optimal health effects in large population groups. However, these standard amounts may not correlate what is optimal in certain subpopulations, such as in children, pregnant women and people with certain medical conditions and medication.\n", "The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat, and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B; provitamins; dietary minerals; and carbohydrates.\n", "BULLET::::- Dietary diversification can also control VAD. Nonanimal sources of vitamin A like fruits and vegetables contain preformed vitamin A and account for greater than 80% of intake for most individuals in the developing world. The increase in consumption of vitamin A-rich foods of animal origin has beneficial effects on VAD.\n\nThe richest animal sources of vitamin A (retinol) are livers (beef liver - 100 grams provides around 32,000 IUs, and cod liver oil - 10 g provides around 10,000 IUs ).\n", "As noted in dietary guidelines from Harvard School of Public Health in 2008, multivitamins should not replace healthy eating, or make up for unhealthy eating. In 2015, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force analyzed studies that included data for about 450,000 people. The analysis found no clear evidence that multivitamins prevent cancer or heart disease, helped people live longer, or \"made them healthier in any way.\"\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Section::::Health impacts of micronutrient deficiency.\n" ]

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[ "The most massive galaxies are thought to always contain a supermassive black hole (SBH); these galaxies do not contain nuclear star clusters, and the CMO is identified with the SBH. Fainter galaxies usually contain a nuclear star cluster (NSC). In most of these galaxies, it is not known whether a supermassive black hole is present, and the CMO is identified with the NSC. A few galaxies, for instance the Milky Way and NGC 4395, are known to contain both a SBH and a NSC.\n\nThe mass associated with CMOs is roughly 0.1–0.3% times the total mass of the galactic bulge.\n", "It is now widely accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy, not just active ones, contains a supermassive black hole. The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy's bulge, known as the M-sigma relation, strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.\n\nSection::::Observational evidence.:Microlensing (proposed).\n", "BULLET::::- The majority of giant galaxies contain a supermassive black hole in their centers, ranging in mass from millions to billions of times the mass of our Sun. The black hole mass is tied to the host galaxy bulge or spheroid mass.\n\nBULLET::::- Metallicity has a positive correlation with the absolute magnitude (luminosity) of a galaxy.\n", "Some galaxies, however, lack any supermassive black holes in their centers. Although most galaxies with no supermassive black holes are very small, dwarf galaxies, one discovery remains mysterious: The supergiant elliptical cD galaxy A2261-BCG has not been found to contain an active supermassive black hole, despite the galaxy being one of the largest galaxies known; ten times the size and one thousand times the mass of the Milky Way. Since a supermassive black hole will only be visible while it is accreting, a supermassive black hole can be nearly invisible, except in its effects on stellar orbits.\n", "On April 10, 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope project released the first image of a black hole, in the center of the galaxy Messier 87.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n\nThe origin of supermassive black holes remains an open field of research. Astrophysicists agree that once a black hole is in place in the center of a galaxy, it can grow by accretion of matter and by merging with other black holes. There are, however, several hypotheses for the formation mechanisms and initial masses of the progenitors, or \"seeds\", of supermassive black holes.\n", "Although supermassive black holes are expected to be found in most AGN, only some galaxies' nuclei have been more carefully studied in attempts to both identify and measure the actual masses of the central supermassive black hole candidates. Some of the most notable galaxies with supermassive black hole candidates include the Andromeda Galaxy, M32, M87, NGC 3115, NGC 3377, NGC 4258, NGC 4889, NGC 1277, OJ 287, APM 08279+5255 and the Sombrero Galaxy.\n", "This model also fits well with other observations that suggest many or even most galaxies have a massive central black hole. It would also explain why quasars are more common in the early universe: as a quasar draws matter from its accretion disc, there comes a point when there is less matter nearby, and energy production falls off or ceases as the quasar becomes a more ordinary type of galaxy.\n", "There is observational evidence for two other types of black holes, which are much more massive than stellar black holes. They are intermediate-mass black holes (in the centre of globular clusters) and supermassive black holes in the centre of the Milky Way and other galaxies.\n\nSection::::X-ray compact binary systems.\n", "The strongest evidence for IMBHs comes from a few low-luminosity active galactic nuclei. Due to their activity, these galaxies almost certainly contain accreting black holes, and in some cases the black hole masses can be estimated using the technique of reverberation mapping. For instance, the spiral galaxy NGC 4395 at a distance of about 4 Mpc appears to contain a black hole with mass of about solar masses.\n", "Based on stellar orbital velocities, two UCD in the Virgo Cluster are claimed to have supermassive black holes weighing 13% and 18% of the galaxies' masses.\n\nSection::::Partial list.\n\nBULLET::::- Aquarius Dwarf\n\nBULLET::::- Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Crater 2 dwarf\n\nBULLET::::- Eridanus II\n\nBULLET::::- Henize 2-10\n\nBULLET::::- I Zwicky 18\n\nBULLET::::- IC 10\n\nBULLET::::- Large Magellanic Cloud\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1569\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1705\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 2915\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3353\n\nBULLET::::- Pegasus Dwarf Irregular Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Phoenix Dwarf\n\nBULLET::::- Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Sculptor Dwarf Irregular Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Sextans A\n", "Unambiguous dynamical evidence for supermassive black holes exists only in a handful of galaxies; these include the Milky Way, the Local Group galaxies M31 and M32, and a few galaxies beyond the Local Group, e.g. NGC 4395. In these galaxies, the mean square (or rms) velocities of the stars or gas rises proportionally to 1/ near the center, indicating a central point mass. In all other galaxies observed to date, the rms velocities are flat, or even falling, toward the center, making it impossible to state with certainty that a supermassive black hole is present. Nevertheless, it is commonly accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. The reason for this assumption is the M-sigma relation, a tight (low scatter) relation between the mass of the hole in the 10 or so galaxies with secure detections, and the velocity dispersion of the stars in the bulges of those galaxies. This correlation, although based on just a handful of galaxies, suggests to many astronomers a strong connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.\n", "BULLET::::- When do early-type galaxies form?; Roberto G. Abraham, Patrick J. McCarthy, Erin Mentuch, Karl Glazebrook, Preethi Nair, Jean-Ren ́e Gauthier, Sandra Savaglio, David Crampton, Stephanie Juneau, Richard Murowinski, Damien Le Borgne, R. G. Carlberg, Inger Jørgensen, Kathy Roth, Hsiao-Wen Chen, Ronald O. Marzke; \"International Astronomical Union\"; 10 Nov 2006: \n\nBULLET::::- The evolution of galaxy dust properties for 1\n\nBULLET::::- The cosmic evolution of dust-corrected metallicity in the neutral gas; Annalisa De Cia; Cédric Ledoux; Patrick Petitjean; Sandra Savaglio; \"Astronomy & Astrophysics\", v611; 14 Mar 2018: \n\nSection::::Awards.\n\nBULLET::::- International Award “Vittorio De Sica” (Rome, November 2016) \n", "A small minority of sources argue that distant supermassive black holes whose large size is hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang, such as ULAS J1342+0928, may be evidence that our universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.\n\nSection::::Activity and galactic evolution.\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 — James Bardeen and Jacobus Petterson show that the swirl of spacetime around a spinning black hole can act as a gyroscope stabilizing the orientation of the accretion disc and jets\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 — Identification of microquasar V404 Cygni as a binary black hole candidate system\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 — Charles Townes and colleagues observe ionized neon gas swirling around the center of our Galaxy at such high velocities that a possible black hole mass at the very center must be approximately equal to that of 3 million suns\n\nSection::::21st century.\n", "Section::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Images of supermassive black holes\n\nBULLET::::- NASA images of supermassive black holes\n\nBULLET::::- The black hole at the heart of the Milky Way\n\nBULLET::::- ESO video clip of stars orbiting a galactic black hole\n\nBULLET::::- Star Orbiting Massive Milky Way Centre Approaches to within 17 Light-Hours ESO, October 21, 2002\n\nBULLET::::- Images, Animations, and New Results from the UCLA Galactic Center Group\n\nBULLET::::- \"Washington Post\" article on Supermassive black holes\n", "Astronomers use the term \"active galaxy\" to describe galaxies with unusual characteristics, such as unusual spectral line emission and very strong radio emission. Theoretical and observational studies have shown that the activity in these active galactic nuclei (AGN) may be explained by the presence of supermassive black holes, which can be millions of times more massive than stellar ones. The models of these AGN consist of a central black hole that may be millions or billions of times more massive than the Sun; a disk of gas and dust called an accretion disk; and two jets perpendicular to the accretion disk.\n", "The standard model for an active galactic nucleus is based upon an accretion disc that forms around a supermassive black hole (SMBH) at the core region of the galaxy. The radiation from an active galactic nucleus results from the gravitational energy of matter as it falls toward the black hole from the disc. In about 10% of these galaxies, a diametrically opposed pair of energetic jets ejects particles from the galaxy core at velocities close to the speed of light. The mechanism for producing these jets is not well understood.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Testing the validity of the Kerr conjecture.\" This hypothesis states that all black holes are rotating black holes of the Kerr or Kerr–Newman types.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "BULLET::::- Evolved galaxies at z 1.5 from the Gemini deep deep survey: the formation epoch of massive stellar systems; Patrick J. McCarthy, Damien Le Borgne, David Crampton, Hsiao-Wen Chen, Roberto G. Abraham, Karl Glazebrook, Sandra Savaglio, Raymond G. Carlberg, Ronald O. Marzke, Kathy Roth; The Astrophysical Journal; 13 Sept 2004: \n", "Every massive elliptical galaxy contains a supermassive black hole at its center. Observations of 46 elliptical galaxies, 20 classical bulges, and 22 pseudobulges show that each contain a black hole at the center. The mass of the black hole is tightly correlated with the mass of the galaxy, evidenced through correlations such as the M–sigma relation which relates the velocity dispersion of the surrounding stars to the mass of the black hole at the center.\n\nElliptical galaxies are preferentially found in galaxy clusters and in compact groups of galaxies.\n", "BULLET::::- Messier 104 (or the Sombrero Galaxy)\n\nBULLET::::- Messier 105\n\nBULLET::::- Messier 106\n\nBULLET::::- Mrk 180\n\nBULLET::::- Mrk 421\n\nBULLET::::- Mrk 501\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 821\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1023\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1097\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1277; the central supermassive black hole is listed as fourth largest, and it is unusually large in proportion to the host galaxy, being 14% of the mass, instead of the usual 0.1%\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1566\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 2778\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 2787\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3079\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3115\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3245\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3377\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3384\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3608\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3894\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3998\n", "BULLET::::- from the observation of a central star cluster in the Eridanus II dwarf galaxy (but these constraints can be relaxed if Eridanus II owns a central intermediate mass black hole, which is suggested by some observations). If primordial black holes exhibit a broad mass distribution, those constraints could nevertheless still be evaded.\n\nBULLET::::- from the gravitational micro-lensing of distant quasars by closer galaxies, allowing only 20% of the galactic matter to be in the form of compact objects with stellar masses, a value consistent with the expected stellar population.\n", "BULLET::::- NGC 262, an example of a galaxy with an extended gaseous H I halo\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1097, has four narrow optical jets coming out from its nucleus\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1275, whose central black hole producing the lowest B-flat note ever recorded\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1365, notable for its central black hole spinning almost the speed of light\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1566, one of the first Seyfert galaxies classified\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1672, has a nucleus engulfed by intense starburst regions\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 1808, also a starburst galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- NGC 3079, has a giant bubble of hot gas coming out from its center\n", "In September 2014, data from different X-ray telescopes has shown that the extremely small, dense, ultracompact dwarf galaxy M60-UCD1 hosts a 20 million solar mass black hole at its center, accounting for more than 10% of the total mass of the galaxy. The discovery is quite surprising, since the black hole is five times more massive than the Milky Way's black hole despite the galaxy being less than five-thousandths the mass of the Milky Way.\n", "Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses () may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:2006–07: Formation and \"The Bird and the Bee\".\n", "Word sleuths William and Mary Morris hint that it may have been inspired by words like these from the poet Samuel Coleridge (1825): 'All nature seems at work ... The bees are stirring—birds are on the wing ... and I the while, the sole unbusy thing, not honey make, nor pair, nor build, nor sing.'\"\n", "According to tradition, the birds and the bees is a metaphorical story sometimes told to children in an attempt to explain the mechanics and good consequences of sexual intercourse through reference to easily observed natural events. For instance, bees carry and deposit pollen into flowers, a visible and easy-to-explain parallel to male fertilisation. Another example, birds lay eggs, a similarly visible and easy-to-explain parallel to female ovulation.\n\nSection::::Possible origins.\n", "The birds and the bees\n\n\"The birds and the bees\" is an English-language idiomatic expression and euphemism that refers to courtship and sexual intercourse. The \"Birds and the Bees talk\" (sometimes known simply as \"The Talk\") is generally the event in most children's lives in which the parents explain what sexual relationships are.\n", "BULLET::::- John Burroughs, a naturalist who lived and worked in the Catskill Mountains, wrote a small pamphlet called \"Birds and Bees: Essays\" in which he explained the workings of nature in a way that children could understand.\n\nBULLET::::- Robie Harris has written children's works such as \"It's Perfectly Normal\" and \"It's So Amazing\", which have been the center of controversy and book challenges in the United States.\n", "Several sources give credit to Cole Porter for coining the phrase. One of the musician's more famous songs was \"Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love.\" In Porter's publication from 1928, the opening line for the chorus carried derogatory racial references like \"Chinks\" and \"Japs\", later changed following CBS recommendation and NBC adaptation:\n\npoemAnd that's why birds do it, bees do it\n\nEven educated fleas do it\n\nLet's do it, let's fall in love/poem\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- Many songs feature this phrase, or an extended version of it; \"the birds and the bees and the flowers and the trees\".\n", "Dr. Emma Frances Angell Drake (b. 1849) wrote a section of a publication called \"The Story of Life\" which was published in 1909. This piece was later picked up and included in \"Safe Counsel\", a product of the Eugenics movement in the late 19th and early 20th century. The author tells her daughters \"when you discovered the tiny blue eggs in the robin's nest and I told you that wrapped in each shell was a baby robin that was growing there, kept warm by the mamma bird...\" the narrative continues on in vague terms without actually describing sexual intercourse. Later she describes the father's role in reproduction like this; \"Sometimes it is the wind which blows the pollen dust from one plant to the other, and sometimes it is the bees gathering honey from the flowers. As they suck the honey from the blossoms some of the plant dust sticks to their legs and bodies, and as they go to another plant in search of sweets this is rubbed off and so the parts of the father and mother plant get together and the seed is made fertile.\" \"Safe Counsel\" was reprinted at least 40 times from 1893 through 1930 and may have been widely enough repeated to have contributed to the euphemism, \"the birds and the bees.\"\n", "Even earlier instances of this idiomatic expression appear in Thomas Carew's work \"The Spring\" (c.1640), in which the cavalier poet uses earth and its change of seasons as a metaphorical depiction of women and their sensuality (The Norton Anthology of English Literature 1696). To abet his ends, Carew alludes to the \"birds and the bees\" in lines 7–8 with the use of \"swallow\", \"cuckoo\", and \"humble-bee\" as seen here (lines included are 5–8): \"But the warm sun thaws the benumbed earth/And makes it tender; gives a sacred birth/To the dead \"swallow\"; wakes in hollow tree/The drowsy \"cuckoo\" and the \"humble-bee\"/Now do a choir of chirping minstrels bring\" (emphasis added; lines 5–9 from \"The Spring\").\n", "BULLET::::- Aristaeus and the bees, and their rebirth from an ox hide \"bougonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Austėja – Lithuanian – goddess of bees\n\nBULLET::::- Bhramari – Hindu goddess of bees\n\nBULLET::::- Bubilas – Lithuanian – god of bees\n\nBULLET::::- Colel Cab – Mayan goddess of bees\n\nBULLET::::- Melissa – Ancient Greek/Minoan — goddess of bees.\n\nBULLET::::- Melisseus\n\nBULLET::::- Mellona – Roman goddess of bees\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Harrison, Jane Ellen, (1903) 1922. \"Prolegomena to the Study of Greek religion\", third edition, pp 91 and 442f.\n", "The book tells the story of a day in the life of a beekeeper named Ambrose, and how he and his bees are affected by personifications of the four seasons.\n\nSection::::Contest.\n", "A 1966 single release by Rufus and Carla Thomas was more simply titled as \"Birds and Bees\". Bobby G. Rice recorded \"The Birds and the Bees\" in 1971 to serve as B-side for his #33 C&W chart hit \"Suspicion\", with \"The Birds and The Bees\" being featured on Rice's 1972 debut album \"Hit After Hit\". \"The Birds and the Bees\" has also been recorded by the Chicks, the Defenders (), Jan Keizer, Brenda Lee, Gary Lewis & the Playboys, Dean Martin, Billy Preston, Sha Na Na and Spooky and Sue ().\n", "Section::::Iconography.:The Bees.\n", "In this instance Abstemius has provided a structured narrative leading to a more general moral conclusion in a text soon to be incorporated into the body of Aesopic lore.\n\nSection::::Interpretations.\n\nSection::::Interpretations.:Diplomacy and politics.\n", "“The Princess Rosetta” is the story of a lost princess in the country of Romalia. The king and Queen of Romalia have a daughter, Princess Rosetta, and the three of them are going to the Bee Festival outside of the city on the sixteenth of May. The Bee Festival, which occurs every year, started when the bees migrated across the river from the other Kingdom because they were being treated so poorly. The inhabitants of Romalia, overjoyed to have the bees and delicious honey, treated the bees so well that they have never returned to the kingdom across the river.\n", "During GZA's verse, a brief scene from the 1915 film \"The Birth of a Nation\" is shown. He makes a gesture with his hands, and sends the killer bees back down into Manhattan. They conglomerate to form Masta Killa, who is standing on a tower in the shape of the Wu-Tang Clan symbol. People gather around him as if he was preaching. He forms a spark in his hands that enters all of their eyes, symbolizing the exposure to \"true hip-hop\". He then fades away in the form of killer bees, who travel to a club, where Ghostface Killah and Raekwon are rapping and Quincy Jones is in the audience. After they finish, the crowd transforms into a mass of bees that travel into the sky, forming the W in front of the moon.\n", "The Birds and the Bees (disambiguation)\n\nThe birds and the bees is an idiom that refers to courtship and sex.\n\nThe Birds and the Bees may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Film and television.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\" (film), a 1956 remake of \"The Lady Eve\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\", an episode of \"Diff'rent Strokes\"\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\" (EP), a split EP by Trial Kennedy and Horsell Common\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\" (Jewel Akens song)\n", "BULLET::::- Crioa or Krioa: A deme within the Antiochides tribe, it is the nominal home of Euelpides (line 645).\n\nBULLET::::- Dodona: An ancient, oracular shrine in the north west of Greece, its role is now performed by the birds (line 716).\n\nBULLET::::- Hebrus: A large river north of Greece favoured by swans (line 774).\n", "BULLET::::- \"(The Same Thing Happens with) The Birds and the Bees\", a song from the film \"The Birds and the Bees\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\", a song by Breathe Carolina from \"Gossip\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\", a song by Patrick & Eugene from \"Postcard from Summerisle\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birds and the Bees\", a song by The Real Tuesday Weld from \"The Return of the Clerkenwell Kid\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Birds and Bees\", a song by Warm Sounds\n\nBULLET::::- \"Birds & Bees\", a song by Carly Rose Sonenclar\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Back and forth with Bees.\n", "Section::::The fable in the applied arts.\n", "The prince's journey begins with an act of pity. He happens upon a wedding procession of ants on the bridge, and rather than to trample on them, decides to for the deep-watered river. A grateful winged ant gives him its wings, telling him to burn these in his need, and the entire colony will come to his aid. The prince has a similar encounter, this time with swarming bes. He deposits his hat for the swarm to rest, then later carries them to a new hive he made by hollowing out a log. In gratitude the queen bee presents him with a wing with which to summon her in his moment of seeking help.\n", "Section::::Themes and motifs.:Value of the minute.\n", "Cogan had a #25 hit with this song in the UK in 1956, credited as \"The Birds and the Bees\". The full title distinguishes the song from Jewel Akens' later song \"The Birds and the Bees\", which in 1965 was a #3 hit in the United States.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "A similar story of the creation of bees is seen in the Book of Judges, where Samson puts forward the riddle of \"\"out of the strong came forth sweetness,\"\" referring to a swarm of bees found inside a dead lion\n\nThe bugonia belief is also reported in the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud.\n\nPhilo offers this origin of bees as a possible reason why honey is forbidden as a sacrifice to Yaweh.\n\nSection::::Origin of the belief.\n", "The Killer Bees were the first characters to recur on \"SNL\". According to a Lorne Michaels interview for the book \"Live from New York\", \"The only note we got from the network on the first show was 'Cut the bees.' And so I made sure I put them in the next show.\" The bees were played by all the repertory players at the time, who wore yellow and black horizontal stripes, wings, and springy antennas. Much of the humor from these scenes came out of puns or metaphors that had to do with well-known activities and body parts of bees.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Dynamic range.:Noise shaping.\n", "With the proper application of dither, digital systems can reproduce signals with levels lower than their resolution would normally allow, extending the effective dynamic range beyond the limit imposed by the resolution.\n\nThe use of techniques such as oversampling and noise shaping can further extend the dynamic range of sampled audio by moving quantization error out of the frequency band of interest.\n\nSection::::Dynamic range.:Oversampling.\n", "BULLET::::- Max in/out levels: +24 dBm\n\nSection::::Theory of operation.\n", "BULLET::::- 8 bit: 128 cm² total array area, or 11.3 cm x 11.3 cm (apx 4.5 inches x 4.5 inches)\n\nBULLET::::- 10 bit: 22.6 cm x 22.6 cm array size.\n\nA larger number of bits can be accommodated in a given space by varying the throw of the different elements as well as their area. This can achieve a magnitude or more of area improvement for a given bit depth. One could fit a 13 bit array into a square foot, or a 16 bit array into .\n\nSection::::Improvements.:Ultrasonics.\n", "The tested limiters had the following influence on the signal:\n\nBULLET::::- increase of RMS power,\n\nBULLET::::- increase of EBU3341 loudness,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of crest factor,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of EBU3342 LRA, but only for high amounts of limiting,\n\nBULLET::::- increase of clipped sample density.\n\nIn other words, limiters increase both physical and perceptual levels, increase the density of clipped samples, decrease the crest factor and decrease macro-dynamics (LRA) given that the amount of limiting is substantial.\n\nSection::::Objective influence on the signal.:Compressors.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n", "In communications, sources of interference are usually present, and noise is frequently a significant problem. The effects of interference are typically minimized by filtering off interfering signals as much as possible and by using data redundancy. The main advantages of digital signals for communications are often considered to be the noise immunity to noise capability, and the ability, in many cases such as with audio and video data, to use data compression to greatly decrease the bandwidth that is required on the communication media.\n\nSection::::Logic voltage levels.\n", "BULLET::::- additional modules (tools) added to increase compression efficiency: TNS, Backwards Prediction, PNS, etc. These modules can be combined to constitute different encoding profiles.\n", "BULLET::::- Optionally, in the HD-SDI link only: 10 bit color, YCbCr 4:2:2, each eye in separate stream\n\nSection::::Image and audio capability overview.:Audio.\n\nBULLET::::- 24 bits per sample, 48 kHz or 96 kHz\n\nBULLET::::- Up to 16 channels\n\nBULLET::::- WAV container, uncompressed PCM\n", "Section::::Current uses.\n", "Another control a compressor might offer is hard knee or soft knee selection. This controls whether the bend in the response curve between below threshold and above threshold is abrupt (hard) or gradual (soft). A soft knee slowly increases the compression ratio as the level increases and eventually reaches the compression ratio set by the user. A soft knee reduces the potentially audible transition from uncompressed to compressed, and is especially applicable for higher ratio settings where the changeover at the threshold would be more noticeable.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Peak vs RMS sensing.\n", "Noise shaping is commonly implemented with delta-sigma modulation. Using delta-sigma modulation, Super Audio CD obtains 120 dB SNR at audio frequencies using 1-bit audio with 64× oversampling.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nBit depth is a fundamental property of digital audio implementations and there are a variety of situations where it is a measurement.\n\nSection::::Bit rate and file size.\n", "As far as the compressors are concerned, the authors performed two processing sessions, using a fast attack (0.5 ms) in one case, and a slow attack (50 ms) in the other. Make-up gain is deactivated, but the resulting file is normalized.\n\nSet with a fast attack, the tested compressors had the following influence on the signal:\n\nBULLET::::- slight increase of RMS power,\n\nBULLET::::- slight increase of EBU3341 loudness,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of crest factor,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of EBU3342 LRA,\n\nBULLET::::- slight decrease of clipped sample density.\n", "On December 22, 2014, Avid Technology released an update for Media Composer that added support for 4K resolution, the Rec. 2020 color space, and a bit rate of up to 3,730 Mbit/s with the DNxHR codec.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Implementations.\n", "For example, a 14-bit ADC can produce 16-bit 48 kHz audio if operated at 16× oversampling, or 768 kHz. Oversampled PCM therefore exchanges fewer bits per sample for more samples in order to obtain the same resolution.\n", "BULLET::::- \"the main claimed benefit of high-resolution audio files is superior sound quality [...] 24-bit/96 kHz or 24-bit/192 kHz files should therefore more closely replicate the sound quality that the musicians and engineers were working with in the studio. [..] As always, though, there are some people who can't hear a difference. So, if you can't see or hear a difference, save your money…\"—What Hi-Fi?\n\nand with other opinions ranging from skeptical to highly critical:\n", "Digital sound revolution\n\nThe digital sound revolution (or digital audio revolution) refers to the widespread adoption of digital audio technology in the computer industry beginning in the 1980s.\n\nSection::::Prior methods.\n\nSection::::Prior methods.:Software-based pulse-width modulation.\n", "In January 2012, at linux.conf.au, Jean-Marc Valin helped improve the quantization of line spectral pairs, which Rowe is less familiar with. After several changes to the available bit rate modes in winter and spring 2011/2012, 2,400, 1,400 and 1,200 bit/s modes have been available since May.\n\nCodec 2 700C, a new mode with a bit rate of 700 bit/s, was finished in early 2017.\n", "Section::::In digital audio.:In modern ADCs.\n\nAnalog Devices uses what they refer to as \"Noise Shaping Requantizer\", and Texas Instruments uses what they refer to as \"SNRBoost\" to lower the noise floor approximately 30db compared to the surrounding frequencies. This comes at a cost of non-continuous operation but produces a nice bathtub shape to the spectrum floor. This can be combined with other techniques such as Bit-Boost to further enhance the resolution of the Spectrum. (Note: An Expert is welcome to read the following Document URLs and write something better here).\n", "Post-production houses, content delivery networks and studios use adaptive bit rate technology in order to provide consumers with higher quality video using less manpower and fewer resources. The creation of multiple video outputs, particularly for adaptive bit rate streaming, adds great value to consumers. If the technology is working properly, the end user or consumer's content should play back without interruption and potentially go unnoticed. Media companies have been actively using adaptive bit rate technology for many years now and it has essentially become standard practice for high-end streaming providers; permitting little buffering when streaming high-resolution feeds (begins with low-resolution and climbs).\n", "Some applications use a compressor to reduce the dynamic range of a signal for transmission, expanding it afterward. This reduces the effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. See \"Companding\".\n\nBass amplifiers and keyboard amplifiers often include compression circuitry to prevent sudden high-wattage peaks that could damage the speakers. Electric bass players often use compression effects, either effects units available in pedal, rackmount units, or built-in devices in bass amps, to even out the sound levels of their basslines.\n", "BULLET::::- \"compression\" - the reduction of the dynamic range of a sound to avoid unintentional fluctuation in the dynamics. Level compression is not to be confused with audio data compression, where the amount of data is reduced without affecting the amplitude of the sound it represents.\n\nBULLET::::- \"3D audio effects\" - place sounds outside the stereo basis\n", "Compromises in audio quality are inherent in the use of any codebook-based speech coder, particularly when used in conditions of high background noise. Incremental improvements are being made in the algorithms, which may lead to differences in performance even while the basic method remains unchanged. In the US, the Department of Commerce Public Safety Communications Research laboratory regularly reports on progress in this field. While their work specifically pertains to Project 25 radios, it is directly applicable to any system using similar multi-band excitation coders.\n\nSection::::NXDN Forum.\n", "Compression can also be used on instrument sounds to create effects not primarily focused on boosting loudness. For instance, drum and cymbal sounds tend to decay quickly, but a compressor can make the sound appear to have a more sustained tail. Guitar sounds are often compressed to produce a fuller, more sustained sound.\n\nMost devices capable of compressing audio dynamics can also be used to reduce the volume of one audio source when another audio source reaches a certain level; this is called side-chaining.\n", "BULLET::::- Optimization of bit width of digital data path (according to the dynamic ranges of signal) can reduce the area, cost, and power consumption of digital circuits and systems while improving their performance. Optimal bit width of digital data path is the smallest bit width that can satisfy the required signal-to-noise ratio and avoid overflow at the same time.\n\nBULLET::::- In audio and electronics applications, the ratio involved is often so huge that it is converted to a logarithm and specified in decibels.\n" ]

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[ "For example, a hypothetical population might include 10 million men and 10 million women. Suppose that a biased sample of 100 patients included 20 men and 80 women. A researcher could correct for this imbalance by attaching a weight of 2.5 for each male and 0.625 for each female. This would adjust any estimates to achieve the same expected value as a sample that included exactly 50 men and 50 women, unless men and women differed in their likelihood of taking part in the survey.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Censored regression model\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry picking (fallacy)\n\nBULLET::::- File drawer problem\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced variability: When estimates are being considered by any other method, reduced variability in results are observed. This may not be an ideal situation every time.\n\nMajor use: when sampling frame of all elements is not available we can resort only to the cluster sampling.\n\nSection::::Disadvantage.\n\nBULLET::::- Higher sampling error, which can be expressed in the so-called \"design effect\", the ratio between the number of subjects in the cluster study and the number of subjects in an equally reliable, randomly sampled unclustered study.\n", "Tversky and Kahneman (1981) demonstrated systematic reversals of preference when the same problem is presented in different ways, for example in the Asian disease problem. Participants were asked to \"imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume the exact scientific estimate of the consequences of the programs are as follows.\"\n\nThe first group of participants was presented with a choice between programs:\n\nIn a group of 600 people,\n\nBULLET::::- Program A: \"200 people will be saved\"\n", "25 of the 33 studies have at least one, and usually two or more experts whose statistical accuracy is acceptable. Simply identifying those experts and relying on them would be a big improvement over un-validated expert judgment (spotting good performers without measuring performance is a fool's errand\n", "BULLET::::- The subdivision of the sample into so many different groups meant that there was less statistical power that could be used to clearly decide which group had better outcomes.\n\nChris Blattman, a prominent blogger and academic in the area of development economics, with a particular focus on randomized controlled trials, also blogged the study. He expressed two main reservations:\n\nBULLET::::- The observer-expectancy effect, where the people being asked questions may be subtly influenced in their answers by the experimenter's expectations.\n", "Nested case-controls have the advantage of reducing the number of participants that require details follow up or diagnostic testing to assess outcome or exposure status. However, this will also reduce the power of the study, when compared to larger cohort the study population is drawn from. \n\nSection::::Variations.:Household panel survey.\n", "As with any epidemiological study, greater numbers in the study will increase the power of the study. Numbers of cases and controls do not have to be equal. In many situations, it is much easier to recruit controls than to find cases. Increasing the number of controls above the number of cases, up to a ratio of about 4 to 1, may be a cost-effective way to improve the study.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Prospective Vs. Retrospective Cohort Studies.\n", "Writing about the Rhine case in \"Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science\", Martin Gardner explained that he did not think the experimenters had made such obvious mistakes out of statistical naïveté, but as a result of subtly disregarding some poor subjects. He said that, without trickery of any kind, there would always be some people who had improbable success, if a large enough sample were taken. To illustrate this, he speculates about what would happen if one hundred professors of psychology read Rhine's work and decided to make their own tests; he said that survivor bias would winnow out the typical failed experiments, but encourage the lucky successes to continue testing. He thought that the common null hypothesis (of no result) would not be reported, but:\n", "As opposed to selection bias, which features prominently in the IFPRI-Progresa documentation, only two final reports mention attrition bias (which creates essentially the same problem as selection bias from an analytic point of view). Schultz (2000) carried out analyses of enrollment using a \"panel sample\" (households with data across all five survey rounds) and \"pooled sample\" (households with data in at least one survey round). While admitting that \"it is not possible to implement a satisfactory sample-selection-correction model,\" the word 'attrition' appears only once. The rest of the report frames the use of both samples as a form of robustness testing. This framing turns attention away from attrition bias, instead highlighting the dual-sample testing as a strength of the analysis. Behrman and Todd (1999) discuss attrition more extensively.\n", "For example, a sample of teenagers might be divided into male and female on the one hand, and those that are and are not currently studying for a statistics exam on the other. We hypothesize, for example, that the proportion of studying individuals is higher among the women than among the men, and we want to test whether any difference of proportions that we observe is significant. The data might look like this:\n", "In such examples, treatment in a randomized-control trial can have a direct effect on those who receive the intervention and also a spillover effect on those who were not directly treated. \n\nThis article outlines statistical issues that complicate the analysis of experiments intended to measure spillover effects.\n\nSection::::Statistical issues.\n\nEstimating spillover effects in experiments introduces three statistical issues that researchers must take into account.\n\nSection::::Statistical issues.:Relaxing the non-interference assumption.\n", "Compared to prospective cohort studies they tend to be less costly and shorter in duration. In several situations, they have greater statistical power than cohort studies, which must often wait for a 'sufficient' number of disease events to accrue.\n", "As another example, consider a scientific study (maybe of a treatment for some chronic disease, such as arthritis) with ten people in the treatment group and ten people in a control group. If everyone in the treatment group is compared to everyone in the control group, then there are (10×10=) 100 pairs. At the end of the study, the outcome is rated into a score, for each individual (for example on a scale of mobility and pain, in the case of an arthritis study), and then all the scores are compared between the pairs. The result, as the percent of pairs that support the hypothesis, is the common language effect size. In the example study it could be (let's say) .80, if 80 out of the 100 comparison pairs show a better outcome for the treatment group than the control group, and the report may read as follows: \"When a patient in the treatment group was compared to a patient in the control group, in 80 of 100 pairs the treated patient showed a better treatment outcome.\" The sample value, in for example a study like this, is an unbiased estimator of the population value.\n", "If the statistical methods used to analyse the trial are not chosen before the study it started, there is a danger that researchers will intentionally or unintentionally pick the method that gives the results they expect, or which gives the most significant results. This makes the analysis statistically invalid.\n", "The analysis of a nested case–control model must take into account the way in which controls are sampled from the cohort. Failing to do so, such as by treating the cases and selected controls as the original cohort and performing a logistic regression, which is common, can result in biased estimates whose null distribution is different from what is assumed. Ways to account for the random sampling include conditional logistic regression, and using inverse probability weighting to adjust for missing covariates among those who are not selected into the study.\n\nSection::::Case–cohort study.\n", "It is quite possible to make errors in the statistics used to do the analysis, and in 2002 Richard Parker, a law professor at the University of Connecticut, argued that all the widely published studies suffered from unacceptable flaws.\n\nAn alternative view, taken by some policy analysts, is that it is not sufficient to look solely at outcomes, but also at feelings. If a risk is perceived to be significant, but is in fact insignificant, it may nonetheless be appropriate to respond in some way to that risk. Proponents of this view suggest using an expected utility calculation instead.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Truncate selection. When afflicted \"individuals\" have an equal chance of being included in a study this is called truncate selection, signifying the inadvertent exclusion (truncation) of families who are carriers for a gene. Because selection is performed on the individual level, families with two or more affected children would have a higher probability of becoming included in the study.\n\nBULLET::::- Complete truncate selection is a special case where each \"family\" with an affected child has an equal chance of being selected for the study.\n", "BULLET::::- Exclusion bias results from exclusion of particular groups from the sample, e.g. exclusion of subjects who have recently migrated into the study area (this may occur when newcomers are not available in a register used to identify the source population). Excluding subjects who move out of the study area during follow-up is rather equivalent of dropout or nonresponse, a selection bias in that it rather affects the internal validity of the study.\n", "In both examples, as the number of comparisons increases, it becomes more likely that the groups being compared will appear to differ in terms of at least one attribute. Our confidence that a result will generalize to independent data should generally be weaker if it is observed as part of an analysis that involves multiple comparisons, rather than an analysis that involves only a single comparison.\n", "The participants are the individuals who sign up for the speed dating event and interact with each of the 9 individuals of the opposite sex. There are 10 males and 10 female participants. After each date, they rate on a scale of 0 to 100 how much they would like to have a date with that person, with a zero indicating \"not at all\" and 100 indicating \"very much\".\n", "What made this trial novel was that the subjects were randomly allocated to their test groups. The up-to-that-time practice was to allocate subjects alternately to each group, based on the order in which they presented for treatment. This practice could be biased, because those admitting each patient knew to which group that patient would be allocated (and so the decision to admit or not admit a specific patient might be influenced by the experimenter's knowledge of the nature of their illness, and their knowledge of the group to which they would occupy).\n", "If, say, Group A were more inclined to extreme values (the alternative hypothesis H), then there will be a higher proportion of observations from group A with low or high values, and a reduced proportion of values at the center. \n\nSection::::Method.\n\nTwo groups, A and B, produce the following values (already sorted in ascending order):\n\nBy combining the groups, a group of 13 entries is obtained. The ranking is done by alternate extremes (rank 1 is lowest, 2 and 3 are the two highest, 4 and 5 are the two next lowest, etc.).\n", "Examples where the sensitivity and specificity change between different sub-groups of patients may be found with the carcinoembryonic antigen test and urinary dipstick tests.\n\nDiagnostic test performances reported by some studies may be artificially overestimated if it is a case-control design where a healthy population ('fittest of the fit') is compared with a population with advanced disease ('sickest of the sick'); that is two extreme populations are compared, rather than typical healthy and diseased populations.\n\nIf properly analyzed, recognition of heterogeneity of subgroups can lead to insights about the test's performance in varying populations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biased sample\n", "Imagine an experiment in which the participants are not randomly assigned; perhaps the first 10 people to arrive are assigned to the Experimental Group, and the last 10 people to arrive are assigned to the Control group. At the end of the experiment, the experimenter finds differences between the Experimental group and the Control group, and claims these differences are a result of the experimental procedure. However, they also may be due to some other preexisting attribute of the participants, e.g. people who arrive early versus people who arrive late.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Under-representation of one class in the outcome (dependent) variable.\" Suppose we want to predict, from a large clinical dataset, which patients are likely to develop a particular disease (e.g., diabetes). Assume, however, that only 10% of patients go on to develop the disease. Suppose we have a large existing dataset. We can then pick 1/9th the number of patients who did not go on to develop the disease for every one patient who did.\n" ]

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[ "10 people for a data study should be just as good as 30 people." ]

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[ "Data studies rely on very large datasets and become more accurate towards the true value as datasets increase. " ]

[ "In the mid 19th century the US government began intense surveying the upper Missouri region. In the course of these surveys a geologist with the Northern Pacific Railroad Survey named John Evans described the region between the Sioux River and the Falls of the Missouri as one of the best places in the world for collecting Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils.\n", "Though the area of Laramidia was only 20 percent that of modern North America, it saw a major evolutionary radiation of dinosaurs, including its most common hadrosaurs and ceratopsians. It has been postulated that there was a latitudinal array of dinosaur \"provinces\" or biomes on Laramidia during the Campanian and Maastrichtian ages of the Late Cretaceous, with the boundary located around modern northern Utah and Colorado; the same major clades are known from the north and south but are distinct from each other at the genus and species levels. This hypothesis has been challenged; one argument claims that northern and southern dinosaur assemblages during this time were not coeval but reflect a taxonomic distribution over time, which gives the illusion of geographically isolated provinces, and that the distinct assemblages may be an artifact of sampling bias between geological formations. Due to a lack of well-dated fossils from southern Laramidia, this idea had been difficult to test, but discoveries in the Kaiparowits Formation have increased knowledge of fossil vertebrates from the region during the Late Cretaceous. The evolutionary radiation of ceratopsids appears to have been restricted both in time and geographically (the turnover of species was high, and each existed for less than a million years), with most taxa being known from latest Cretaceous sediments in the Western Interior Basin, therefore appearing to have originated and diversified on Laramidia.\n", "Over the next 30 million years, the region was finally taken over by a deep sea, the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway, and deposited mass amounts of shale over the area known as the Pierre Shale. Both the thick section of shale and the marine life fossils found (ammonites and skeletons of fish and such marine reptiles as mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, and extinct species of sea turtles, along with rare dinosaur and bird remains). Colorado eventually drained from being at the bottom of an ocean to land again, giving yield to another fossiliferous rock layer, the Denver Formation. At about 68 million years ago, the Front Range began to rise again due to the Laramide Orogeny in the west.\n", "BULLET::::- Anonymous (nda) \"Louisiana Geological Survey Publications.\" Louisiana Geological Survey, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.\n\nBULLET::::- Anonymous (ndb) \"Geologic units in Louisiana\", United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. Last accessed September 5, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Anonymous (ndc) \"US And Canadian Fossil Sites -- Data for LOUISIANA.\" United States and Canada Fossil Sites List States, Fossil Site. Last accessed October 5, 2013.\n\nBULLET::::- Anonymous (2012) \"Fossil Hunting along the Interstate.\" Savory the Day Last accessed October 5, 2013.\n\nBULLET::::- PDF Files of Louisiana Geological Maps\n\nBULLET::::- Generalized Geologic Map of Louisiana, 2008 PDF version\n", "Most specimens of \"Gorgosaurus libratus\" have been recovered from the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. This formation dates to the middle of the Campanian, between 76.5 and 74.8 million years ago, and \"Gorgosaurus libratus\" fossils are known specifically from the lower to middle section of the formation, between 76.6 and 75.1 million years ago. The Two Medicine Formation and Judith River Formation of Montana have also yielded possible \"Gorgosaurus\" remains. At this time, the area was a coastal plain along the western edge of the Western Interior Seaway, which divided North America in half. The Laramide Orogeny had begun uplifting the Rocky Mountains to the west, from which flowed great rivers that deposited eroded sediment in vast floodplains along the coast. The climate was subtropical with marked seasonality, and periodic droughts sometimes resulted in massive mortality among the great herds of dinosaurs, as represented in the numerous bonebed deposits preserved in the Dinosaur Park Formation. Conifers formed the forest canopy, while the understory plants consisted of ferns, tree ferns and angiosperms. Around 73 million years ago, the seaway began to expand, transgressing into areas formerly above sea level and drowning the Dinosaur Park ecosystem. This transgression, called the Bearpaw Sea, is recorded by the marine sediments of the massive Bearpaw Shale.\n", "It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units. Geochronological units are periods of time, thus it is correct to say that \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" lived during the Late Cretaceous Epoch. Chronostratigraphic units are geological material, so it is also correct to say that fossils of the genus \"Tyrannosaurus\" have been found in the Upper Cretaceous Series. In the same way, it is entirely possible to go and visit an Upper Cretaceous Series deposit – such as the Hell Creek deposit where the \"Tyrannosaurus\" fossils were found – but it is naturally impossible to visit the Late Cretaceous Epoch as that is a period of time.\n", "There is no geological record in Oregon of the K-Pg boundary or of the event that ended the Mesozoic era.\n\nSection::::Prehistory.:Cenozoic Era.\n\nOregon's paleoenvironment in the Cenozoic reflected the era's overall global cooling trend, shifting from tropical to temperate to glacial climates. Westward shift in the state's shoreline brought a more diverse terrestrial fauna, including a variety of extinct land mammals.\n", "Before these discoveries, a theory existed that a Midcontinental seaway separated what is now Texas and Oklahoma from more western lands during the Early Permian, isolating \"Dimetrodon\" to a small region of North America while a smaller sphenacodontid called \"Sphenacodon\" dominated the western area. While this seaway probably did exist, the discovery of fossils outside Texas and Oklahoma show that its extent was limited and that it was not an effective barrier to the distribution of \"Dimetrodon\".\n", "The earliest record of dinosaurs in North America comes from rare, unidentified (possibly theropod) footprints and teeth in the Middle-Late Triassic Pekin Formation of North Carolina. Later in the Triassic period, dinosaurs left more recognizable remains, and could thus be identified as specific genera. Examples of later Triassic North American dinosaur genera include \"Coelophysis\", \"Chindesaurus\", \"Gojirasaurus\", and \"Tawa\". Fossils of \"Tawa\"-like dinosaurs have also been found in South America, which has important indications about paleogeography. During the Early Jurassic Period, dinosaurs such as \"Dilophosaurus\", \"Anchisaurus\", \"Coelophysis\" (formerly known as \"Megapnosaurus\"), and the early thyreophoran \"Scutellosaurus\" lived in North America. The latter is believed to have been the ancestor of all stegosaurs and ankylosaurs. The Middle Jurassic is the only poorly represented time period in North America, although several Middle Jurassic localities are known from Mexico. Footprints, eggshells, teeth, and fragments of bone representing theropods, sauropods, and ornithopods have been found, but none of them are diagnostic to the genus level. \n", "In the Cretaceous, a shallow seaway spread into the interior of North America from the Gulf of Mexico in the south into Utah and later to the Arctic Ocean in the far north. Geologists call this shallow sea the Cretaceous Seaway or Western Interior Seaway. The seaway divided North America into two halves: an eastern portion dominated by the already ancient Appalachian Mountains and a western part composed primarily of the still growing Sevier Mountains; formed from shallow thrust faulting caused by the Sevier orogeny. As the shoreline moved back and forth, the Bryce area alternated from being part of the Sevier landmass to being under the Cretaceous Seaway. Alternating layers of nonmarine, intertidal, and marine sediments lay on top of each other as a result.\n", "Much as in Australia today, East Gondwana played host to many endemic animals, which included many relict species of families that had gone extinct in the rest of the Cretaceous world. It is possible the polar regions of the Late Cretaceous had been inhabited by groups of plants and animals whose ancestry can be traced back to the Ordovician. The gradual isolation of Antarctica in the Late Cretaceous created a distinct group of aquatic creatures called the Weddellian Province.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Dinosaurs.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Dinosaurs.:Birds.\n", "The first fossils to be found in the Beaufort Group rocks that encompass the current eight biozones were discovered by Andrew Geddes Bain in 1856. However, it was not until 1892 that it was observed that the geological strata of the Beaufort Group could be differentiated based on their fossil taxa. The initial undertaking was done by Harry Govier Seeley who subdivided the Beaufort Group into three biozones, which he named (from oldest to youngest):\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of “Pareiasaurians”\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of “Dicynodonts”\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of “highly specialized group of theriodonts”\n", "Section::::Prehistory.:Jurassic.\n\nThere are no known Jurassic rocks at the surface of North Carolina. However, there is a large expanse of possible late Jurassic rock lying 8,500 to 9,878 feet under present-day Cape Hatteras. However, due to this high depth, it would be extremely difficult to collect fossils from there, and currently the only known fossils from this strata are ostracods collected from deep well cores.\n\nSection::::Prehistory.:Cretaceous.\n", "Edward Drinker Cope, whose rivalry with Marsh spurred the \"Bone Wars\" of the late nineteenth century, also collected fossils in Oregon. His findings from the state are described in his book \"Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the West.\"\n", "Section::::Primary deposition of sediments.:Cedar Mountain and Dakota formations (Cretaceous).\n", "Paleontology in the United States\n\nPaleontology in the United States refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the United States. Paleontologists have found that at the start of the Paleozoic era, what is now \"North\" America was actually in the southern hemisphere. Marine life flourished in the country's many seas. Later the seas were largely replaced by swamps, home to amphibians and early reptiles. When the continents had assembled into Pangaea drier conditions prevailed. The evolutionary precursors to mammals dominated the country until a mass extinction event ended their reign.\n", "Very is little is known about the fauna found in the coastal states of Laramida, which is a stark similarity to the neighboring island continent of Appalachia which was on the opposite side of the Western Interior Seaway, when juxtaposed to the western United States which has a history for of rich fossil finds, most notable examples include the Hell Creek Formation and the Two Medicine Formation. However, like with Appalachia, where as the land fauna, most notably the dinosaurs, is not well studied and are not well known thanks to the vast majority of vegetation the covers the eastern United States and some of the fossil formations were destroyed by glaciation during the Pleistocene ice age, though some of the fossil formations present in Appalachia have revealed what types of dinosaurs lived in that environment, but a lot of fossils of the marine life that inhabited the Western Interior Seaway, and other examples of prehistoric marine life, have been unearthed in large quantities in the eastern United States.\n", "Oregon's islands collided with the Laramidian continent at the end of the Jurassic, creating a new western coastline during the Cretaceous period. This coastline later developed through a combination of sea level change and mountain uplift. Global temperatures reached their maximum during the mid-Cretaceous, melting mountain ice and increasing global sea levels. As sea levels rose the Pacific grew to cover more of Oregon's landmass, eventually stopping at the base of a coastal mountain range. These mountains blocked oceanic weather systems, creating a tropical rainy environment along the ancient Oregonian coast. Although the mountain range ran along that Cretaceous coast, it was different from Oregon's modern Coast Range.\n", "The New Jersey State Museum’s activities in the Bighorn Basin of northern Wyoming and southern Montana continues a long tradition of paleontological research in the region by some of the science's founding fathers in North America, including many with ties to Princeton University. William Berryman Scott, Francis Spier, and Henry Fairfield Osborne all visited the region in the 1880s, though these expeditions were largely unsuccessful. W. B. Scott's student and successor, William J. Sinclair, first teamed with American Museum of Natural History paleontologist Walter W. Granger in 1910 which resulted in numerous, far more successful expeditions to the region. Together, Sinclair and Granger established the Bighorn Basin as a significant region for Cenozoic fossils. Sinclair continued his expeditions into the region through the 1920s with additional Princeton students, including Glenn Jepsen, who dedicated the remainder of his professional career to the study of Paleocene mammals of the Bighorn Basin. Jepsen, in turn, introduced many more Princeton paleontology students to the region, including present-day paleontologists Philip D. Gingerich, Barbara Grandstaff, and David Parris. David Parris has continued the tradition, spending much of his nearly 50-year career studying the fossil ecosystems of the northern Bighorn Basin, almost entirely as a paleontologist in the Bureau of Natural History at the New Jersey State Museum.\n", "The first fossils to be found in the Beaufort Group rocks that encompass the current eight biozones were discovered by Andrew Geddes Bain in 1856. However, it was not until 1892 that it was observed that the geological strata of the Beaufort Group could be differentiated based on their fossil taxa. The initial undertaking was done by Harry Govier Seeley who subdivided the Beaufort Group into three biozones, which he named (from oldest to youngest):\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of “Pareiasaurians”\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of “Dicynodonts”\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of “highly specialized group of theriodonts”\n", "BULLET::::- Gregory S. Paul illustrated ceratopsids with upright forelimbs.\n\nBULLET::::- Brouwers and others reported ceratopsid remains from a site that would have been located at a latitude of 85 degrees North during the Cretaceous.\n\nBULLET::::- Cobabe and Fastovsky described the new genus and species \"Ugrosaurus olsoni\".\n\nBULLET::::- Lehman reported that 61–71% of the fossils found in deposits dating to the end of the Cretaceous period belong to a few ceratopsids, like \"Torosaurus\" and \"Triceratops\".\n\nBULLET::::- Lehman argued that ceratopsids preferred coastal habitats over more inland regions.\n\nBULLET::::- Parrish and others reported ceratopsid remains from the North Slope of Alaska.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004: \"A Geologic Time Scale 2004\", Cambridge University Press.\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: \"Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs\", Columbia University Press.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: \"Lithostratigraphy, chemostratigraphy, and vertebrate biostratigraphy of the Dockum Group (Upper Triassic), of southern Garza County, West Texas\", Doctoral Dissertation, Texas Tech.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- GeoWhen Database - Norian\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Triassic timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS\n\nBULLET::::- Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy: \"Stratigraphic charts for the Triassic\", and \n", "The quarry was found by sheepherders and cattlemen as they drove their animals through the area during the late 19th century. In 1927, the Department of Geology at the University of Utah, under the direction of Chairman F.F. Hintze, visited the area and collected 800 bones. In 1939-41 a field party of Princeton University, led by William Lee Stokes (1915-1994, known as the \"Father of Utah geology\"), came on site to extensively dig up specimens. Because of the proximity to Cleveland, Utah, and because these expeditions were financed by Malcolm Lloyd, the site was later known as the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry. In three summers, the 1939-1941 Princeton expeditions collected 1,200 bones. A part of these bones was sent to Princeton and eventually the bones were sorted to mount a complete composite skeleton of \"Allosaurus\", but World World II broke out and the skeleton was not really mounted and exhibited in the University until February 1961. This \"Allosaurus\" skeleton, , in the campus of New Jersey, is most likely the first \"Allosaurus\" skeletal mount obtained from the Quarry. In the meantime, and because excavations had been interrupted by the war, work started again in 1960, when young paleontologist James Henry Madsen Jr. (1932-2009) was hired within the University of Utah to assist William Lee Stokes with the excavations.\n", "The first fossils to be found in the Beaufort Group rocks that encompass the current eight biozones were discovered by Andrew Geddes Bain in 1856. However, it was not until 1892 that it was observed that the geological strata of the Beaufort Group could be differentiated based on their fossil taxa. The initial undertaking was done by Harry Govier Seeley who subdivided the Beaufort Group into three biozones, which he named (from oldest to youngest):\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of \"Pareiasaurians\"\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of \"Dicynodonts\"\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of \"highly specialized group of theriodonts\"\n", "Section::::History and stratigraphy.:Weems, Tanner, & Lucas (2016)'s interpretation.\n" ]

[ "The Western Interior Seaway covered Wyoming and South Dakota for the whole Late Cretaceous period." ]

[ "The Western Interior Seaway may have been dry for some of that period of time." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The Western Interior Seaway covered Wyoming and South Dakota for the whole Late Cretaceous period." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The Western Interior Seaway may have been dry for some of that period of time." ]

[ "Fish are normally cold-blooded, with body temperatures the same as the surrounding water. However, some oceanic predatory fish, such as swordfish and some shark and tuna species, can warm parts of their body when they hunt for prey in deep and cold water. The highly visual swordfish uses a heating system involving its muscles which raises the temperature in its eyes and brain by up to 15 °C. The warming of the retina improves the rate at which the eyes respond to changes in rapid motion made by its prey by as much as ten times.\n", "Previously, \"L. guttatus\" was known to exhibit cranial endothermy, generating and maintaining metabolic heat in the cranial and optic regions to keep them 2 °C warmer than the rest of the body. This adaptation is important for maintaining brain and eye function during the wide range of temperatures it experiences with its vertical movements.\n", "The sclera is rarely damaged by brief exposure to heat: the eyelids provide exceptional protection, and the fact that the sclera is covered in layers of moist tissue means that these tissues are able to cause much of the offending heat to become dissipated as steam before the sclera itself is damaged. Even relatively low-temperature molten metals when splashed against an open eye have been shown to cause very little damage to the sclera, even while creating detailed casts of the surrounding eyelashes. Prolonged exposure, however— on the order of 30 seconds— at temperatures above will begin to cause scarring, and above will cause extreme changes in the sclera and surrounding tissue. Such long exposures even in industrial settings are virtually nonexistent.\n", "Cold-sensitive thermoreceptors give rise to the sensations of cooling, cold and freshness.\n\nIn the cornea cold receptors are thought to respond with an increase in firing rate to cooling produced by evaporation of lacrimal fluid 'tears' and thereby to elicit a blink reflex.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "Nictitating membranes can protect eyes from ultraviolet radiation, as they do in polar bears to prevent snow blindness.\n\nSection::::Vestigiality.\n", "In organisms dwelling near deep-sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to spot the infra-red light produced by the hot vents—in this way the bearers can spot hot springs and avoid being boiled alive.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Consequently, hot or cold environmental temperatures can reduce the proportion of REM sleep, as well as amount of total sleep. In other words, if at the end of a phase of deep sleep, the organism's thermal indicators fall outside of a certain range, it will not enter paradoxical sleep lest deregulation allow temperature to drift further from the desirable value. This mechanism can be 'fooled' by artificially warming the brain.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Muscle.\n", "\"Lampris guttatus\" are able to maintain their eyes and brain at 2 °C warmer than their bodies, a phenomenon called cranial endothermy and one they share with sharks in the Lamnidae family, billfishes and some tunas. This may allow their eyes and brains to continue functioning during deep dives into water below 4 °C.\n", "The cornea experiences a significant degree of adaptation within hours to days, although full adaptation often requiring 2 – 3 weeks. During this initial period vision may be affected for some people. Once adapted, FDA trials showed over 65% of patients achieved 20/20 eyesight and over 90% achieved 20/40 or better (the typical US requirement for driving without glasses).\n", "Blue light filtering IOLs filter the UV and high-energy blue light present in natural and artificial light, both of which can cause vision problems; however too much filtering of blue light can increase depression, especially in the winter months (SAD). The trademarked \"Natural Yellow\" material is available in three hydrophilic IOLs. Dr. Patrick H. Benz of Benz Research and Development created the first IOL material to incorporate the same UV-A blocking and violet light filtering chromophore that's present in the human crystalline lens in order to attempt to protect the retina after cataract extraction of the natural crystalline lens.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Most organisms with colour vision can detect ultraviolet light. This high energy light can be damaging to receptor cells. With a few exceptions (snakes, placental mammals), most organisms avoid these effects by having absorbent oil droplets around their cone cells. The alternative, developed by organisms that had lost these oil droplets in the course of evolution, is to make the lens impervious to UV light—this precludes the possibility of any UV light being detected, as it does not even reach the retina.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rods and cones.\n", "Section::::Ambient light response.\n\nA minor mechanism of adaptation is the pupillary light reflex, adjusting the amount of light that reaches the retina very quickly by about a factor of ten. Since it constributes only a tiny fraction of the overall adaptation to light it is not further considered here.\n\nIn response to varying ambient light levels, rods and cones of eye function both in isolation and in tandem to adjust the visual system. Changes in the sensitivity of rods and cones in the eye are the major contributors to dark adaptation.\n", "Section::::Accelerating dark adaptation.:Anthocyanins.:Supportive evidence.\n", "The ocular immune system protects the eye from infection and regulates healing processes following injuries. The interior of the eye lacks lymph vessels but is highly vascularized, and many immune cells reside in the uvea, including mostly macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells. These cells fight off intraocular infections, and intraocular inflammation can manifest as uveitis (including iritis) or retinitis. The cornea of the eye is immunologically a very special tissue. Its constant exposure to the exterior world means that it is vulnerable to a wide range of microorganisms while its moist mucosal surface makes the cornea particularly susceptible to attack. At the same time, its lack of vasculature and relative immune separation from the rest of the body makes immune defense difficult. Lastly, the cornea is a multifunctional tissue. It provides a large part of the eye's refractive power, meaning it has to maintain remarkable transparency, but must also serve as a barrier to keep pathogens from reaching the rest of the eye, similar to function of the dermis and epidermis in keeping underlying tissues protected. Immune reactions within the cornea come from surrounding vascularized tissues as well as innate immune responsive cells that reside within the cornea.\n", "Section::::Accelerating dark adaptation.:Red lights and lenses.:Applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Aviators commonly wear red lensed glasses or goggles prior to taking off in the dark to ensure that they are able to see outside of the aircraft. Furthermore, throughout flight the cockpit is illuminated with dim red lights. This lighting is to ensure that the pilot is able to read instruments and maps while maintaining scotopic vision for looking outside.\n", "BULLET::::- Nichols KK, Mitchell GL, Zadnik K. Performance and repeatability of the NEI-VFQ-25 in patients with dry eye. Cornea. 2002;21:578-83.\n\nBULLET::::- Kymes SM, Walline JJ, Zadnik K, et al. Changes in the quality-of-life of people with keratoconus. \"American Journal of Ophthalmology\". 2008;145:611-617.\n\nBULLET::::- McMahon TT, Zadnik K. Twenty-five years of contact lenses: the impact on the cornea and ophthalmic practice. Cornea. 2000;19:730-40.\n\nBULLET::::- Murphy CJ, Zadnik K, Mannis MJ. Myopia and refractive error in dogs. \"Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science\". 1992;33:2459-63.\n", "Section::::Dark adaptation.\n", "Because photochromic compounds fade back to their clear state by a thermal process, the higher the temperature, the less dark photochromic lenses will be. This thermal effect is called \"temperature dependency\" and prevents these devices from achieving true sunglass darkness in very hot weather. Conversely, photochromic lenses will get very dark in cold weather conditions. Once inside, away from the triggering UV light, the cold lenses take longer to regain their transparency than warm lenses.\n", "The most important function of the cornea is to transmit and refract light so as to allow high-resolution images to be produced on the back of the retina. To do this, collagen within the cornea is highly ordered to be 30 nanometers in diameter and placed 60 nanometers apart so as to reduce light scatter. Furthermore, the tissue is not vascularized, and does not contain lymphoid cells or other defense mechanisms, apart from some dendritic cells (DC). Both of these factors necessitate the small number of cells within the cornea. However, this necessitates keeping immune cells at a relative distance, effectively creating a time delay between exposures to a pathogen and mounting of an immune response. Therefore, many immune and protective responses within the cornea, such as moistening and nutrition, come from non-local sources, such as the conjunctiva.\n", "Dark adaptation is far quicker and deeper in young people than the elderly.\n\nSection::::Efficiency.:Cones vs. rods.\n", "Section::::Dark adaptation.:Intracellular signalling.\n", "As mentioned above, a refractive cornea is only useful out of water. In water, there is little difference in refractive index between the vitreous fluid and the surrounding water. Hence creatures that have returned to the water—penguins and seals, for example—lose their highly curved cornea and return to lens-based vision. An alternative solution, borne by some divers, is to have a very strongly focusing cornea.\n\nSection::::Types.:Non-compound eyes.:Reflector eyes.\n", "Section::::Function of the mammalian eye.:Accommodation.\n", "Huygens eyepiece lenses are air-spaced, not cemented, and are not subject to damage by intense heat (as cemented lenses are) when used for projecting an image of the Sun onto a screen.\n\nSection::::Eyepiece designs.:Ramsden.\n", "In humans, the eyebrows redirect flowing substances (such as rainwater or sweat) away from the eye.\n\nSection::::Function of the mammalian eye.\n\nThe structure of the mammalian eye owes itself completely to the task of focusing light onto the retina. This light causes chemical changes in the photosensitive cells of the retina, the products of which trigger nerve impulses which travel to the brain.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Rabies is a zoonotic disease, caused by the rabies virus. The rabies virus, a member of the Lyssavirus genus of the Rhabdoviridae family, survives in a diverse variety of animal species, including bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, wolves, coyotes, dogs, mongoose, weasels, cats, cattle, domestic farm animals, groundhogs, bears, and wild carnivores. However, dogs are the principal host in Asia, parts of America, and large parts of Africa. Mandatory vaccination of animals is less effective in rural areas, especially in developing countries where pets may be community property and their destruction unacceptable. Oral vaccines can be safely administered to wild animals through bait, a method initiated on a large scale in Belgium that has successfully reduced rabies in rural areas of Canada, France, the United States, and elsewhere. For example, in Montreal baits are successfully ingested by raccoons in the Mount Royal park area.\n", "In the United States, the most commonly reported rabid animal is the domestic cat. In every year since 1990, reported cases of rabies in cats have outnumbered cases of rabies in dogs.\n\nSection::::Transport of pet animals between countries.\n\nRabies is endemic to many parts of the world, and one of the reasons given for quarantine periods in international animal transport has been to try to keep the disease out of uninfected regions. However, most developed countries, pioneered by Sweden, now allow unencumbered travel between their territories for pet animals that have demonstrated an adequate immune response to rabies vaccination.\n", "Monkeys, like humans, can get rabies, however they do not tend to be a common source of rabies. Monkeys with rabies tend to die more quickly than humans. In one study, 9 of 10 monkeys developed severe symptoms or died within 20 days of infection. Rabies is often a concern for individuals travelling to developing countries as monkeys are the most common source of rabies after dogs in these places.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Other small mammals.\n", "In the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends people receive one dose of human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG) and four doses of rabies vaccine over a 14-day period. The immunoglobulin dose should not exceed 20 units per kilogram body weight. HRIG is expensive and constitutes most of the cost of post exposure treatment, ranging as high as several thousand dollars. As much as possible of this dose should be injected around the bites, with the remainder being given by deep intramuscular injection at a site distant from the vaccination site.\n", "Section::::Stages of disease.\n\nThree stages of rabies are recognized in dogs and other animals. \n\nBULLET::::1. The first stage is a one- to three-day period characterized by behavioral changes and is known as the prodromal stage.\n\nBULLET::::2. The second stage is the excitative stage, which lasts three to four days. It is this stage that is often known as \"furious rabies\" due to the tendency of the affected animal to be hyperreactive to external stimuli and bite at anything near.\n", "The United States as with other developed countries have seen a dramatic decrease in the number of human infections and deaths due to the rabies virus. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) the stark reduction in the number of rabies cases is attributable to the elimination of canine rabies through vaccination, the vaccination of wildlife, education of the virus, and timely administration of post exposure prophylaxis. Currently, in the U.S. only 1 to 3 cases of rabies are reported annually. Since 2008 there have been 23 cases of human rabies infection, 8 of which were due to exposures outside of the U.S. Human exposures to the virus is dependent on the prevalence of the virus in animals, thus investigations into the incidence and distribution of animal populations is vital. A breakdown of the results obtained from animal surveillance in the U.S. for 2015 revealed that wild animals accounted for 92.4% and domestic animals accounted for 7.6% of all reported cases. In wild animals, bats were the most frequently reported rabid species (30.9% of cases during 2015), followed by raccoons (29.4%), skunks (24.8%), and foxes (5.9%).\n", "There is also vaccination in pellet form which can be left out for wild animals to produce a herd immunity effect. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) is a preventive measure to eradicate rabies in wild animal vectors of disease, mainly foxes, raccoons, raccoon dogs, coyotes and jackals, but also can be used for dogs in developing countries. Baits are distributed by airplanes in rural areas and by hand in urban and suburban areas.\n", "In many locations the rabies vaccine is accompanied by a single combined vaccine shot which protects against:\n\nBULLET::::- CDV (canine distemper),\n\nBULLET::::- CAV-2 (canine hepatitis virus or adenovirus-2) and\n\nBULLET::::- CPV-2 (canine parvovirus).\n\nSection::::Recommended administration of vaccines.:Non-Core vaccines.\n\nNon-core vaccines are those that are required by only those animals whose geographical location, local environment or lifestyle places them at risk of contracting specific infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Except in areas where the disease is endemic or where required by law, the VGG considers the rabies vaccine as non-core.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Opossums.\n\nExperimental studies of rabies infection in the Virginia opossum have shown the importance of the mode of transmission. Opossums became infected when exposed to air-borne virus but were found to be fairly resistant to intramuscular inoculations. The aerosol transmission of rabies in opossum was investigated following the death from rabies of two men who had visited the Frio Caves, Texas, and did not remember any direct contact with bats.\n", "BULLET::::- Vaccinating dogs, cats, and ferrets against rabies\n\nBULLET::::- Keeping pets under supervision\n\nBULLET::::- Not handling wild animals or strays\n\nBULLET::::- Contacting an animal control officer upon observing a wild animal or a stray, especially if the animal is acting strangely\n\nBULLET::::- If bitten by an animal, washing the wound with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes and contacting a healthcare provider to determine if post-exposure prophylaxis is required\n\n28 September is World Rabies Day, which promotes the information, prevention, and elimination of the disease.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Vaccinating other animals.\n", "The human diploid cell rabies vaccine was started in 1967. Less expensive purified chicken embryo cell vaccine and purified vero cell rabies vaccine are now available. A recombinant vaccine called V-RG has been used in Belgium, France, Germany, and the United States to prevent outbreaks of rabies in undomesticated animals. Immunization before exposure has been used in both human and nonhuman populations, where, as in many jurisdictions, domesticated animals are required to be vaccinated.\n\nThe Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services Communicable Disease Surveillance 2007 Annual Report states the following can help reduce the risk of contracting rabies:\n", "Rabies is caused by \"lyssaviruses\", including the rabies virus and Australian bat lyssavirus. It is spread when an infected animal scratches or bites another animal or human. Saliva from an infected animal can also transmit rabies if the saliva comes into contact with the eyes, mouth, or nose. Globally, dogs are the most common animal involved. More than 99% of rabies cases in countries where dogs commonly have the disease are the direct result of dog bites. In the Americas, bat bites are the most common source of rabies infections in humans, and less than 5% of cases are from dogs. Rodents are very rarely infected with rabies. The disease can be diagnosed only after the start of symptoms.\n", "Recent data sequencing suggests recombination events in an American bat led the modern rabies virus to gain the head of a G-protein ectodomain thousands of years ago. This change occurred in an organism that had both rabies and a separate carnivore virus. The recombination resulted in a cross-over that gave rabies a new success rate across hosts since the G-protein ectodomain, which controls binding and pH receptors, was now suited for carnivore hosts as well.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Coyotes.\n\nRabies is also common in coyotes and can be a cause for concern if they interact with humans.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Cats.\n", "In the U.S., there is currently no USDA-approved vaccine for the strain of rabies that afflicts skunks. When cases are reported of pet skunks biting a human, the animals are frequently killed in order to be tested for rabies. It has been reported that three different variants of rabies exist in striped skunks in the north and south central states.\n", "BULLET::::1. The dog rabies is transmitted to the rabbit, which thus becomes a convenient and safe reagent to determine the status of non-virulence or virulence of various liquids from rabid animals (…)\n\nBULLET::::2. Rabies is transmitted to animals (rabbits) of his kind (…)\n\nBULLET::::3. Symptoms that predominate in the rabid rabbits are paralysis and convulsions.\n\nBULLET::::4. The rabbit can live from several hours to one, two and even four days after the disease has clearly declared.\n", "Any mammal may become infected with the rabies virus and develop symptoms, but dogs are by far the main source of human rabies deaths — responsible for up to 99% of all rabies transmissions to humans. Infected monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, wolves, bats, and cats are also known to transmit rabies to humans. Rabies may also spread through exposure to infected domestic farm animals, groundhogs, weasels, bears and other wild carnivores. Small rodents such as squirrels, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, chipmunks, rats, and mice and lagomorphs like rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and are not known to transmit rabies to humans. Vampire bats can transmit rabies to humans in the 'new world' tropics.\n", "In Asia and in parts of the Americas and Africa, dogs remain the principal host. Mandatory vaccination of animals is less effective in rural areas. Especially in developing countries, pets may not be privately kept and their destruction may be unacceptable. Oral vaccines can be safely distributed in baits, a practice that has successfully reduced rabies in rural areas of Canada, France, and the United States. In Montreal, Quebec, Canada, baits are successfully used on raccoons in the Mount-Royal Park area. Vaccination campaigns may be expensive, and cost-benefit analysis suggests baits may be a cost-effective method of control. In Ontario, a dramatic drop in rabies was recorded when an aerial bait-vaccination campaign was launched.\n", "The most commonly infected terrestrial animals in the U.S.A. are raccoons, skunks, foxes, and coyotes. Any bites by such wild animals must be considered a possible exposure to the rabies virus.\n\nMost cases of rabies in rodents reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the U.S.A. have been found among groundhogs (woodchucks). Small rodents such as squirrels, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, chipmunks, rats, and mice and lagomorphs like rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and are not known to transmit rabies to humans.\n", "In recent years, canine rabies has been practically eliminated in North America and Europe due to extensive and often mandatory vaccination requirements. However it is still a significant problem in parts of Africa, parts of the Middle East, parts of Latin America, and parts of Asia. Dogs are considered to be the main reservoir for rabies in developing countries.\n\nHowever, the recent spread of rabies in the northeastern United States and further may cause a restrengthening of precautions against movement of possibly rabid animals between developed countries.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Prevalence of rabies\n\nBULLET::::- Rabies transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Rabies vaccine\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The findings that emerge from these facts are the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. Injections of rabies virus into the veins of the sheep do not cause rabies and seem to confer immunity.\n\nBULLET::::2. Rabies can be transmitted by injection of the rabies material.\n", "Human diploid cell culture rabies vaccine (HDCV) and purified chick embryo cell culture rabies vaccine (PCEC) are used to treat post-exposure immunization against a human rabies infection. Recommendations for treatment are given by governmental health care organizations and in health literature. Health care providers are encouraged to administer a regimen of four 1-mL doses of HDCV or PCEC vaccines. According to the CDC, these injections should be administered intramuscularly to persons who have not yet been vaccinated for rabies.\n", "Rabies is a viral zoonotic neuroinvasive disease which causes inflammation in the brain and is usually fatal. Rabies, caused by the rabies virus, primarily infects mammals. In the laboratory it has been found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from birds, reptiles and insects. Animals with rabies suffer deterioration of the brain and tend to behave bizarrely and often aggressively, increasing the chances that they will bite another animal or a person and transmit the disease. Most cases of humans contracting the disease from infected animals are in developing nations. In 2010, an estimated 26,000 people died from rabies, down from 54,000 in 1990.\n", "In South Africa, about a dozen cases of human rabies are confirmed every year and it is particularly widespread in the north-eastern regions of the Eastern Cape, the eastern and south-eastern areas of Mpumalanga, northern Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal. Dogs are the main vector (especially in the east of the country) for the disease but also wildlife, including the bat-eared fox, yellow mongoose and black-backed jackal. The death rate of 13 per annum over the decade 2001–2010 is a rate of approximately 0.26 per million population. This is approximately 30 times the rate in the United States but 1/90th of the African average. The number of cases per province over the last decade are as follows:\n", "For those who are unvaccinated, the first of four doses is administered immediately after exposure to the rabies virus. Additional doses are given three, seven, and fourteen days after the first vaccination. Exposure usually means a bite from a rabid animal.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Rabbits.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Humans and animals are getting the same treatment for rabies." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "In this caase the human was being treated for rabies not just vaccinated which requires a larger dose of the medicine to be delivered. " ]

[ "Coagulation or blood clotting relies on, in addition to the production of fibrin, interactions between platelets. When the endothelium or the lining of a blood vessel is damaged, connective tissue including collagen fibers is locally exposed. Initially, platelets stick to the exposed connective tissue through specific cell-surface receptors. This is followed by platelet activation and aggregation in which platelets become firmly attached and release chemicals that recruit neighboring platelets to the site of vascular injury. A meshwork of fibrin then forms around this aggregation of platelets to increase the strength of the clot.\n\nSection::::Transient interactions.:Cell interactions between bacteria.\n", "Coagulation cascade is a normal physiological process which aims at preventing significant blood loss or hemorrhage following vascular injury. Unfortunately, there are times when a blood clot (thrombus) will form when it is not needed. For instance, some high risk conditions such as prolonged immobilization, surgery, or cancer can increase the risk of developing a blood clot which can potentially lead to significant consequences.\n", "Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system.\n\nBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.\n", "BULLET::::- The clotting system reacts and forms clots both on the particles shed into the blood stream and locally over the rupture. The clot, if large enough, can block all blood flow. Since all the blood, within seconds, passes through 5-micrometre capillaries, any particles much larger than 5 micrometres block blood flow. (most of the occlusions are too small to see by angiography).\n\nBULLET::::- Most ruptures and clotting events are too small to produce symptoms, though they still produce heart muscle damage, a slow progressive process resulting in ischemic heart disease, the most common basis for congestive heart failure.\n", "Although the contact system can activate FXI and the subsequent clotting cascade, and it is routinely observed to activate coagulation in the presence of medical devices, the actual role of the contact system in normal physiological coagulation remains contentious. This is primarily due to the fact that deficiencies in the contact system proteins FXII, PK and HK do not produce bleeding disorders.\n", "The body's hemostasis system requires careful regulation in order to work properly. If the blood does not clot sufficiently, it may be due to bleeding disorders such as hemophilia or immune thrombocytopenia; this requires careful investigation. Over-active clotting can also cause problems; thrombosis, where blood clots form abnormally, can potentially cause embolisms, where blood clots break off and subsequently become lodged in a vein or artery.\n", "The main intravascular fluid in mammals is blood, a complex mixture with elements of a suspension (blood cells), colloid (globulins), and solutes (glucose and ions). The blood represents both the intracellular compartment (the fluid inside the blood cells) and the extracellular compartment (the blood plasma). The other intravascular fluid is lymph. It too represents both the intracellular compartment (the fluid inside its lymphocytes) and the extracellular compartment (the noncellular matrix of the lymph, which is roughly equivalent to serum). The average volume of plasma in the average (70 kg) male is approximately 3.5 liters. The volume of the intravascular compartment is regulated in part by hydrostatic pressure gradients, and by reabsorption by the kidneys.\n", "The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Cardiovascular system.:Arteries.\n", "Venule walls have three layers: An inner endothelium composed of squamous endothelial cells that act as a membrane, a middle layer of muscle and elastic tissue and an outer layer of fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer is poorly developed so that venules have thinner walls than arterioles. They are porous so that fluid and blood cells can move easily from the bloodstream through their walls.\n", "Although angiodysplasia is probably quite common, the risk of bleeding is increased in disorders of coagulation. A classic association is Heyde's syndrome (coincidence of aortic valve stenosis and bleeding from angiodysplasia).\n\nIn this disorder, von Willebrand factor (vWF) is proteolysed due to high shear stress in the highly turbulent blood flow around the aortic valve. vWF is most active in vascular beds with high shear stress, including angiodysplasias, and deficiency of vWF increases the bleeding risk from such lesions.\n", "The blood clot is only a temporary solution to stop bleeding; tissue repair is needed. Small interruptions in the endothelium are handled by physiological mechanisms; large interruptions by the trauma surgeon.\n\nSection::::Immune function.\n", "BULLET::::3. Clot formation - Once the platelet plug has been formed by the platelets, the clotting factors (a dozen proteins that travel along the blood plasma in an inactive state) are activated in a sequence of events known as 'coagulation cascade' which leads to the formation of Fibrin from inactive fibrinogen plasma protein. Thus, a Fibrin mesh is produced all around the platelet plug to hold it in place; this step is called \"Secondary Hemostasis\". During this process some red and white blood cells are trapped in the mesh which causes the primary hemostasis plug to become harder: the resultant plug is called as 'thrombus' or 'Clot'. Therefore 'blood clot' contains secondary hemostasis plug with blood cells trapped in it. Though this is often a good step for wound healing, it has the ability to cause severe health problems if the thrombus becomes detached from the vessel wall and travels through the circulatory system; If it reaches the brain, heart or lungs it could lead to stroke, heart attack, or pulmonary embolism respectively. However, without this process the healing of a wound would not be possible.\n", "Platelets are small blood components that form a plug in the blood vessel wall that stops bleeding. Platelets also produce a variety of substances that stimulate the production of a blood clot. One of the most common causes of increased bleeding risk is exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The prototype for these drugs is aspirin, which inhibits the production of thromboxane. NSAIDs inhibit the activation of platelets, and thereby increase the risk of bleeding. The effect of aspirin is irreversible; therefore, the inhibitory effect of aspirin is present until the platelets have been replaced (about ten days). Other NSAIDs, such as \"ibuprofen\" (Motrin) and related drugs, are reversible and therefore, the effect on platelets is not as long-lived.\n", "Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics. If all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively.\n\nSection::::Constituents.:In mammals.:Cells.\n\nOne microliter of blood contains:\n", "Coagulation inhibitors are also consumed in this process. Decreased inhibitor levels will permit more clotting so that a positive feedback loop develops in which increased clotting leads to more clotting. At the same time, thrombocytopenia occurs and this has been attributed to the entrapment and consumption of platelets. Clotting factors are consumed in the development of multiple clots, which contributes to the bleeding seen with DIC.\n", "The contact activation pathway begins with formation of the primary complex on collagen by high-molecular-weight kininogen (HMWK), prekallikrein, and FXII (Hageman factor). Prekallikrein is converted to kallikrein and FXII becomes FXIIa. FXIIa converts FXI into FXIa. Factor XIa activates FIX, which with its co-factor FVIIIa form the tenase complex, which activates FX to FXa. The minor role that the contact activation pathway has in initiating clot formation can be illustrated by the fact that patients with severe deficiencies of FXII, HMWK, and prekallikrein do not have a bleeding disorder. Instead, contact activation system seems to be more involved in inflammation, and innate immunity. Despite this, interference with the pathway may confer protection against thrombosis without a significant bleeding risk.\n", "Transcytosis is prominent in brain microvascular peptide and protein transport, because the brain microvascular endothelium, which forms the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in vivo, expresses unique, epithelial-like, high-resistance tight junctions. The brain endothelial tight junctions virtually eliminate the paracellular pathway of solute transport across the microvascular endothelial wall in brain. In contrast, the endothelial barrier in peripheral organs does not express tight junctions, and solute movement through the paracellular pathway is prominent at the endothelial barrier in organs other than the brain or spinal cord.\n", "The mechanism behind arterial thrombosis, such as with heart attacks, is more established than the steps that cause venous thrombosis. With arterial thrombosis, blood vessel wall damage is required, as it initiates coagulation, but clotting in the veins mostly occurs without any such damage. The beginning of venous thrombosis is thought to be caused by tissue factor, which leads to conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, followed by fibrin deposition. Red blood cells and fibrin are the main components of venous thrombi, and the fibrin appears to attach to the blood vessel wall lining (endothelium), a surface that normally acts to prevent clotting. Platelets and white blood cells are also components. Platelets are not as prominent in venous clots as they are in arterial ones, but they may play a role. Inflammation is associated with VTE, and white blood cells play a role in the formation and resolution of venous clots.\n", "BULLET::::- Hyperlipidemia, hypertension, smoking, homocysteine, hemodynamic factors, toxins, viruses, and/or immune reactions results in chronic endothelial injury, dysfunction, and increased permeability.\n", "Endothelial injury is almost invariably involved in the formation of thrombi in arteries, as high rates of blood flow normally hinder clot formation. In addition, arterial and cardiac clots are normally rich in platelets–which are required for clot formation in areas under high stress due to blood flow.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Pathogenesis.:Disturbed blood flow.\n", "In a healthy vascular system the endothelium lines all blood-contacting surfaces, including arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, capillaries, and heart chambers. This healthy condition is promoted by the ample production of nitric oxide by the endothelium, which requires a biochemical reaction regulated by a complex balance of polyphenols, various nitric oxide synthase enzymes and L-arginine. In addition there is direct electrical and chemical communication via gap junctions between the endothelial cells and the vascular smooth muscle.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Blood pressure.\n", "In blood vessel, at very low shear stress of ~.3 dynes per squared centimeter, leukocytes do not adhere to the blood vessel endothelial cells. Cells move along the blood vessel at a rate proportional to the blood flow rate. Once the shear stress pass that shear threshold value, leukocytes start to accumulate via selectin binding. At low shear stress above the threshold of about .3 to 5 dynes per squared centimeter, leukocytes alternate between binding and non-binding. Because one leukocyte has many selectins around the surface, these selectin binding/ unbinding cause a rolling motion on the blood vessel. As the shear stress continue to increase, the selectin bonds becomes stronger, causing the rolling velocity to be slower. This reduction in leukocytes rolling velocity allow cells to stop and perform firm binding via integrin binding. \n", "The only vertebrates lacking a spleen are the lampreys and hagfishes (the Cyclostomata). Even in these animals, there is a diffuse layer of haematopoeitic tissue within the gut wall, which has a similar structure to red pulp and is presumed homologous with the spleen of higher vertebrates.\n\nIn mice the spleen stores half the body's monocytes so that upon injury, they can migrate to the injured tissue and transform into dendritic cells and macrophages and so assist wound healing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Asplenia with cardiovascular anomalies\n\nBULLET::::- Marginal zone\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- —\"The visceral surface of the spleen.\"\n", "Under normal conditions, to avoid atherogenesis, thrombosis, smooth muscle proliferation and endothelial apoptosis, shear stress maintains its magnitude and direction within an acceptable range. In some cases occurring due to blood hammer, shear stress reaches larger values. While the direction of the stress may also change by the reverse flow, depending on the hemodynamic conditions. Therefore, this situation can lead to atherosclerosis disease.\n\nSection::::Blood vessels.:Capacitance.\n\nVeins are described as the \"capacitance vessels\" of the body because over 70% of the blood volume resides in the venous system. Veins are more compliant than arteries and expand to accommodate changing volume.\n", "In liver failure (acute and chronic forms), there is insufficient production of coagulation factors by the liver; this may increase bleeding risk.\n\nDeficiency of Vitamin K may also contribute to bleeding disorders because clotting factor maturation depends on Vitamin K.\n" ]

[ "Blood doesn't clot inside the body." ]

[ "It can clost inside the body and is very dangerous. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Blood doesn't clot inside the body." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It can clost inside the body and is very dangerous. " ]

[ "Like other cormorants, this bird's feathers are not waterproof, and they spend time after each dive drying their small wings in the sunlight. Their flight and contour feathers are much like those of other cormorants, but their body feathers are much thicker, softer, denser, and more hair-like. They produce very little oil from their preen gland; it is the air trapped in the dense plumage that prevents them from becoming waterlogged.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Some examples of birds that have lost the ability to fly in favor of an aquatic lifestyle include: \n\nBULLET::::- Penguins: one of the most highly adapted birds for swimming, penguins swim via lift produced by their wings and demonstrate a highly streamlined body shape that reduces drag.\n\nBULLET::::- Flightless cormorants: have very small wings incapable of producing enough lift for flight, and swim via drag based paddling of their webbed hind limbs\n\nBULLET::::- Magellanic flightless steamer duck\n\nBULLET::::- Falkland flightless steamer duck\n\nBULLET::::- White-headed flightless steamer duck\n\nBULLET::::- Auckland Island teal\n\nBULLET::::- Campbell Island teal\n\nBULLET::::- Great auk\n", "Some billfish also descend to considerable mesopelagic depths. They have sophisticated swim bladders which allow them to rapidly compensate for pressure changes as the depth changes. This means that when they are swimming deep, they can return swiftly to the surface without problems. \"Like the large tuna, some billfish maintain their body temperature several degrees above ambient water temperatures; this elevated body temperature increases the efficiency of the swimming muscles, especially during excursions into the cold water below the thermocline.\"\n", "A second problem is the strength of the feathers. In 2010, Robert Nudds and Gareth Dyke published a study arguing that in both \"Confuciusornis\" and \"Archaeopteryx\", the raches (central shafts) of the primary feathers were too thin and weak to have remained rigid during the power stroke required for true flight. They argued that \"Confuciusornis\" would at most have employed gliding flight, which is also consistent with the unusual adaptations seen in its upper arm bones, and more likely used its wings for mere parachuting, limiting fall speed if it dropped from a tree. Gregory S. Paul, however, disagreed with their study. He argued that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the weights of these early birds, and that more accurate weight estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow raches. Nudds and Dyke assumed a weight of 1.5 kilograms for \"Confuciusornis\", as heavy as the modern teal. Paul argued that a more reasonable body weight estimate is about , less than that of a pigeon. Paul also noted that \"Confuciusornis\" is commonly found as large assemblages in lake bottom sediments with little to no evidence of extensive postmortem transport, and that it would be highly unusual for gliding animals to be found in such large numbers in deep water. Rather, this evidence suggests that \"Confuciusornis\" traveled in large flocks over the lake surfaces, a habitat consistent with a flying animal. A number of researchers have questioned the correctness of the rachis measurements, stating that the specimens they had studied showed a shaft thickness of , compared to as reported by Nudds and Dyke. Nudd and Dyke replied that, apart from the weight aspect, such greater shaft thickness alone would make flapping flight possible; however, they allowed for the possibility of two species being present in the Chinese fossil material with a differing rachis diameter.\n", "Most birds scoop or draw water into the buccal areas of their bills, raising and tilting their heads back to drink. An exception is the common pigeon which can suck in water directly by inhalation.\n\nSection::::Hydration and dehydration.\n", "The oxygen need and oxygen uptake of the southern bluefin tuna are directly related. As the tuna increases its metabolic need by swimming faster, water flows into the mouth and over the gills more quickly, increasing the oxygen uptake. Additionally, since there is no energy required to pump the water over the gills, the tunas have adapted an increased energy output to swimming muscles. The oxygen and nutrient uptake in the circulatory system is transported to these swimming muscles rather than to tissues required to pump water over the gills in other teleost fish.\n", "If a glass of water is placed so that the beak dips into it on its descent, the bird will continue to absorb water and the cycle will continue as long as there is enough water in the glass to keep the head wet. However, the bird will continue to dip even without a source of water, as long as the head is wet, or as long as a temperature differential is maintained between the head and body. This differential can be generated without evaporative cooling in the head; for instance, a heat source directed at the bottom bulb will create a pressure differential between top and bottom that will drive the engine. The ultimate source of energy is the temperature gradient between the toy's head and base; the toy is not a perpetual motion machine.\n", "Average survival after fledging has been estimated as between 17 and 20 months, with an annual survival rate slightly less than 50% per year for the first three years, and somewhat higher thereafter. The maximum recorded age is 8 years 10 months.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n", "As part of their spring migration, portions of the population fly from the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico across the Gulf of Mexico, arriving first in Florida and Louisiana. This feat is impressive, as a , non-stop flight over water would seemingly require a caloric energy that far exceeds an adult hummingbird's body weight of . However, researchers discovered the tiny birds can double their fat mass in preparation for their Gulf crossing, then expend the entire calorie reserve from fat during the 20-hour non-stop crossing when food and water are unavailable.\n", "Section::::Swimming birds.:Lift based.\n\nSome pursuit divers rely predominantly on their wings for thrust production during swimming. These include auks, diving petrels, and penguins. Thrust production in these animals is produced via lift principles, much like in aerial flight. These birds essentially \"fly\" beneath the surface of the water. Because they have the dual role of producing thrust in both flight and swimming, wings in these animals demonstrate a compromise between the functional demands of two different fluid media.\n", "In UK coastal waters, dive times are typically around 20 to 45 seconds, with a recovery time of around 15 seconds between dives; this is consistent with aerobic diving, i.e. the bird depends on the oxygen in its lungs and dissolved in its bloodstream during the dive. When they dive, they jump out of the water first to give extra impetus to the dive.\n", "Not only birds that use their wings exploit lift to propel themselves through water. Grebes rotate their feet in a way that results in lift generated thrust. This swim style allows the birds to swim faster and probably more efficient than if they used a regular paddling motion. The feet of grebes are quite special, resembling feathers, and the use of a lift-based propulsive mechanism suggests convergent evolution.\n", "The White tern primarily feed on smaller fish which it catches by plunge diving down on the surface, but it does not submerge fully. It is a long-lived bird, having been recorded living for 18 years.\n\nSection::::White Tern.:Breeding.\n", "In 2010, Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal \"Science\" published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of \"Confuciusornis\" and \"Archaeopteryx\". The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass. The authors determined that \"Archaeopteryx\" and \"Confuciusornis\", were unable to use flapping flight. This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe. Chiappe suggested that it is difficult to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers, and Currie speculated that \"Archaeopteryx\" and \"Confuciusornis\" must have been able to fly to some degree, as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments, suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water. Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study, arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds, and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises. Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of for the Munich specimen \"Archaeopteryx\", a young juvenile, based on published mass estimates of larger specimens. Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about . Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves, noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved. Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of for the longest primary feather, which Paul could not confirm using photographs. Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers, finding rachises across. Despite these criticisms, Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions. They claimed that Paul's statement, that an adult \"Archaeopteryx\" would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen, was dubious. This, they reasoned, would require an even thicker rachis, evidence for which has not yet been presented. Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight, but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard, which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits (see Evolution of bird flight).\n", "Terrestrial birds like the Corvus corax produce urine that is osmoltically more concentrated then its blood plasma. This is likely due to the fact that water is not as abundant in raven habitat.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.:Cells and mechanisms of osmoregulation.:Regulating water loss.\n", "Severely affected birds, particularly young ones, will deteriorate rapidly; they stop drinking and become anorexic. At this stage, death is the usual outcome. Adult birds are usually less severely affected and may only show an occasional cough or even no obvious clinical signs.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "Section::::Animal welfare.:Housing and husbandry.:Behavioural restriction.\n\nDuring the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages, with wire or plastic mesh floors, or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming. Furthermore, ducks and geese are social animals and individual cages prevent such interactions.\n", "The young are fed one at a time by the parents, with one bird carrying the young while the other feeds it. The young take food by grabbing it, with their beaks, from their parents, or by grabbing food dropped into the water. When a young bird cannot grab the food, then the adults submerge their bill into the water and shake their bill to break up the food.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Moult and migration.\n", "After washing, the bird is taken to a separate rinsing area where a special nozzle is used to completely rinse the solution, as any detergent or solution left on its feathers can impair waterproofing. The bird is then placed in a protective, net-bottomed pen equipped with commercial pet grooming dryers, where it will begin to preen its feathers back into place. A tight overlapping pattern of the feathers creates a natural waterproof seal, which enables the bird to maintain its body temperature and remain buoyant in the water.\n", "The fundamentals of bird flight are similar to those of aircraft, in which the aerodynamic forces sustaining flight are lift and drag. Lift force is produced by the action of air flow on the wing, which is an airfoil. The airfoil is shaped such that the air provides a net upward force on the wing, while the movement of air is directed downward. Additional net lift may come from airflow around the bird's body in some species, especially during intermittent flight while the wings are folded or semi-folded (cf. lifting body).\n", "The Hawaiian duck can only get wet when the gods say it can is what the Hawaiian natives say. This means that the duck can only get wet when the gods allow it as the duck seems to walk around the water source. This is only because it is looking for fish to prey.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Most birds fly (\"see bird flight\"), with some exceptions. The largest birds, the ostrich and the emu, are earthbound, as were the now-extinct dodos and the Phorusrhacids, which were the dominant predators of South America in the Cenozoic era. The non-flying penguins have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight. Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage.\n", "Luckily, hunting and illegal trade no longer pose a serious threat, and this buoyant bird has made a notable recovery, both in range extension and overall population size, after its population size decreased to an all-time low of as few as 150 individuals in 1980.\n", "Section::::Episodes.:5. \"Fishing for a Living\".\n" ]

[ "Water should weight down birds.", "When birds hunt for fish in the water, they should not be able to ascend again when their feathers get wet." ]

[ "Birds are waterproof due to an oil secreted from their glands. ", "Birds have a gland that produces oil, the birds take this oil and apply then to their wings, making them waterproof, and allowing the birds to ascend into the air again without falling." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Water should weight down birds.", "When birds hunt for fish in the water, they should not be able to ascend again when their feathers get wet." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Birds are waterproof due to an oil secreted from their glands. ", "Birds have a gland that produces oil, the birds take this oil and apply then to their wings, making them waterproof, and allowing the birds to ascend into the air again without falling." ]

[ "An example of a restored film is the 1939 film \"The Wizard of Oz\". The color portions of \"Oz\" were shot in the three-strip Technicolor process, which in the 1930s yielded three separate black and white negatives created from red, green, and blue light filters which were used to print the cyan, magenta, and yellow portions of the final printed color film answer print. These three negatives were scanned individually into a computer system, where the digital images were tinted and combined using proprietary software.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Novelization.\n\nIn 1980, Jamaican-American author Michael Thelwell published a novel based on the film, using the same title. Thelwell inserted many Jamaican proverbs into the novel that were unused in the film.\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Digital restoration.\n\nIn 2006, Prassad Corporation digitally restored the film, frame by frame, to remove dirt, tears, scratches, and other artifacts and recapture its original look. Prasad cleaned 14,000 frames.\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Stage play.\n", "BULLET::::- 1993: \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" – First film to be entirely scanned to digital files, manipulated, and recorded back to film at 4K resolution. The restoration project was done entirely at 4K resolution and 10-bit color depth using the new Cineon system to digitally remove dirt and scratches and restore faded colors.\n", "Note: When transferring a Techniscope film to a digital video format, the 2-perf negative or 2-perf interpositive A/B rolls can be used (the original film negative from the camera, or the first-generation film elements prepared for the making of the anamorphic 4-frame 35 mm release print negative), thus bypassing any blown-up 4-perf element. Many DVD editions have been transferred this way and the results have frequently been stunning, e.g. Blue Underground's \"The Bird with the Crystal Plumage\" and MGM's special editions of Sergio Leone's Westerns.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n", "Section::::Film supports.:Polyester.\n", "BULLET::::- Star Wars: The legendary first three ‘Star Wars’ feature films were all scanned at 4K with full restoration including stabilization, grain reduction, and dust & dirt removal.\n\nBULLET::::- Avatar & Titanic: In addition to image processing and grain reduction, Z axis issues that had occurred during the original 3D shooting were fixed.\n\nBULLET::::- Disney: Short films and platinum classic films like 'Dumbo', 'Snow White', 'Cinderella', 'Sleeping Beauty' and several others were scanned at 4K, color corrected and restored according to fixed specifications. Dirt and dust were removed from each of these films, and scratches and grains were cleaned up.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2000 movie \"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" was scanned with Spirit DataCine, color corrected with a VDC-2000 and a Pandora Int. Pogle Color Corrector with MegaDEF. A Kodak Lightning II film recorder was used to output the data back on to film.\n\nBULLET::::- Virtual telecines are also used in film restoration.\n", "Every frame of film was scanned in high definition at Premier and had more than 10,000 particles removed by hand by the restoration team. A new sound mix was also created from the original elements in Premier’s in-house audio department. In an article with \"The Weekender\" in November 2017 John discussed the importance restoration and preservation of older films to future-protect film such as \"Monarch\":\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Photochemical restoration steps.\n\nModern, photochemical restoration follows roughly the same path as digital:\n\nBULLET::::1. Extensive research is done to determine what version of the film can be restored from the existing material. Often, extensive efforts are taken to search out alternative material in film archives located around the world.\n", "In 1993, \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" became the first film to be entirely scanned to digital files, manipulated, and recorded back to film. The restoration project was carried out entirely at 4K resolution and 10-bit color depth using the Cineon system to digitally remove dirt and scratches.\n\n\"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" has had a lifetime gross of $418 million across its original release and several reissues. Adjusted for inflation, and incorporating subsequent releases, the film still registers one of the top-10 American film moneymakers of all time.\n\nSection::::Release.:Reception.\n", "Another method worth mentioning, which has become increasingly common in recent years, is to transfer the original colour print to a high resolution digital format and manipulate the image in the digital domain before reconstituting it back on film. Without a doubt this method offers the widest freedom in terms of restoration, since many things are possible with digital that would not be possible by traditional photochemical means.\n", "The restoration was confirmed by Francis Ford Coppola during a question-and-answer session for \"The Godfather Part III\", when he said that he had just seen the new transfer and it was \"terrific\".\n\nSection::::Releases for television and video.:Restoration.\n", "In most cases, when a film is chosen for preservation or restoration work, new prints are created from the original camera negative or the \"composite restoration negative\" which is often made from a combination of elements for general screening.\n", "Before the 1960s, early coloured films were almost without exception preserved on black and white film and the colours, if recorded at all, only noted in writing. These actions have cost many subsequent restorations dearly. However, there are a number of different methods for restoring early coloured films today, each of which nonetheless comes with its own inherent strengths and weaknesses.\n", "In traditional photochemical restorations, image polarity considerations must be observed when recombining surviving materials and the final, lowest generation restoration master may be either a duplicate negative or a fine grain master positive.\n\nPreservation elements, such as fine-grain master positives and duplicate printing negatives, are generated from this restoration master element to make both duplication masters and access projection prints available for future generations.\n\nSection::::Film as archival medium.\n", "Section::::Preventive conservation strategies.:Digitization.\n", "Some of the recordings were repressed from the original metal parts, which the production located whilst researching the films. Peter Henderson explained “in some cases we were lucky enough to get some metal parts – that’s the originals where they were cut to wax and the metal was put into the grooves and the discs were printed from those back in the ‘20s. Some of those still exist – Sony had some of them in their vaults – [but it only amounted to] 15-20 discs out of the whole.”\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "A sample of some of the ANSI standards include:\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI IT9.11-1993 - American National Standard for Imaging Media - Processed Safety Photographic Film - Storage\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI IT9.16-1993 - American National Standard for Imaging Media - Photographic Activity Test\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI IT9.2-1991 - American National Standard for Imaging Media - Photographic Processed Films, Plates, and Papers - Filing Enclosures and Storage Containers,\n\nSection::::Standards and ethical codes.:Codes of ethics.\n", "In the process of making prints for exhibition, this negative is copied onto other film (negative → interpositive → internegative → print) causing the resolution to be reduced with each emulsion copying step and when the image passes through a lens (for example, on a projector). In many cases, the resolution can be reduced down to 1/6 of the original negative's resolution (or worse). Note that resolution values for 70 mm film are higher than those listed above.\n\nSection::::HD content.:HD on the World Wide Web/HD streaming.\n", "New sound restoration techniques were developed for the films and utilized to restore the recordings featured in the series. The 78rpm disc transfers were made by sound engineer Nicholas Bergh, using reverse engineering techniques garnered from working with the first electrical recording system on \"The American Epic Sessions\" along with meticulous sound restoration undertaken by Peter Henderson and Joel Tefteller to reveal greater fidelity, presence, and clarity to these 1920s and 1930s recordings than had been heard before. Nicholas Bergh commented that the 1920s recordings \"are special since they utilize the earliest and simplest type of electric recording equipment used for commercial studio work. As a result, they have an unrivaled immediacy to the sound.\" Some of the recordings were repressed from the original metal parts, which the production located while researching the films. Peter Henderson explained, \"In some cases we were lucky enough to get some metal parts – that's the originals where they were cut to wax and the metal was put into the grooves and the discs were printed from those back in the '20s. Some of those still exist – Sony had some of them in their vaults\" The same care was taken in transferring and restoring the audio pulled from archival film clips, again using techniques and proprietary equipment devised by sound engineer Nicholas Bergh, who specializes in the restoration of audio tracks for the major Hollywood studios. The films were mixed in mono to match the contemporary audio with the 1920s and 1930s recordings.\n", "In 2007, the original 65 mm negative of the 1992 film \"Baraka\" was re-scanned at 8K with a film scanner built specifically for the job at FotoKem Laboratories, and used to remaster the 2008 Blu-ray release. \"Chicago Sun-Times\" critic Roger Ebert described the Blu-ray release as \"the finest video disc I have ever viewed or ever imagined.\" A similar 8K scan/4K intermediate digital restoration of \"Lawrence of Arabia\" was made for Blu-ray and theatrical re-release during 2012 by Sony Pictures to celebrate the film's 50th anniversary. According to Grover Crisp, executive VP of restoration at Sony Pictures, the new 8K scan has such high resolution that when examined, showed a series of fine concentric lines in a pattern \"reminiscent of a fingerprint\" near the top of the frame. This was caused by the film emulsion melting and cracking in the desert heat during production. Sony had to hire a third party to minimise or eliminate the rippling artifacts in the new restored version.\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 photochemical restoration: 132 minutes – 125 minutes of footage synchronised to complete premiere version soundtrack; film freeze frames and on-set publicity photos fill in the blank sections.\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 digital restoration: 132 minutes – further work was carried out on the 1986 restoration.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 all-new 4K digital restoration: 132 minutes – 126 minutes of footage synchronised to premiere soundtrack, after an extra minute of missing film was discovered.\n", "In 1984, an edited restoration of \"Metropolis\" (1927) was released with a new rock music score by producer-composer Giorgio Moroder. Although the contemporary score, which included pop songs by Freddie Mercury, Pat Benatar, and Jon Anderson of Yes, was controversial, the door had been opened for a new approach to the presentation of classic silent films.\n", "BULLET::::- George Eastman House – Laserdisc preservation with stills showing missing scenes\n\nBULLET::::- George Eastman House – Film restoration using materials from Czech National Film Archive. Some sequences still missing and some inadvertently left out\n\nBULLET::::- David Shepard, Serge Bromberg – DVD version using Kodascope prints, Czech archive materials and trailers. Like the George Eastman House restoration, some sequences are still missing and some inadvertently left out\n", "Section::::Film supports.:Cellulose acetate.\n" ]

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[ "Fireworks tubes are made by rolling thick paper tightly around a former, such as a dowel. They can be made by hand, most firework factories use machinery to manufacture tubes. Whenever tubes are used in fireworks, at least one end is always plugged with clay to keep both chemicals and burning gases from escaping through that end. The tooling is always made of non-sparking materials such as aluminium or brass. Experts at handling explosives, called pyrotechnicians, add chemicals for special effects.\n\nSection::::Classifications.:Previous US DOT explosives classifications.\n", "A cake is a cluster of individual tubes linked by fuse that fires a series of aerial effects. Tube diameters can range in size from , and a single cake can have over 1,000 shots. The variety of effects within individual cakes is often such that they defy descriptive titles and are instead given cryptic names such as \"Bermuda Triangle\", \"Pyro Glyphics\", \"Waco Wakeup\", and \"Poisonous Spider\", to name a few. Others are simply quantities of shells fused together in single-shot tubes.\n\nSection::::Types of effects.:Crossette.\n", "Most fireworks in Mexico are produced in the State of Mexico, especially the municipality of Tultepec just north of Mexico City, which has declared itself to be the “pyrotechnics capital of Mexico.” This area has a two-hundred year tradition of making fireworks, with, about 65 percent of the population of the municipality is involved directly or indirectly in fireworks production. In Tultepec, all fireworks are made by hand, including decoration and wrapping, mostly in small factories or workshops that produce everything from small firecrackers to twelve-inch shells for professional shows. Tultepec is also one of the main suppliers of ingredients needed to make fireworks.\n", "Section::::Use.:Lighting and launching.\n", "The Souza family (formerly de Sousa) has been involved in the fireworks industry since the first decade of the twentieth century when they immigrated from the Azores to the San Francisco Bay Area. The patriarch of the family, Manuel, began making his own fireworks out of his home and firing shows for local Portuguese community festivals. As his business began to grow, the entire family became involved in the production of fireworks, enabling him to pass his trade and \"cookbook\" down generationally.\n", "Consumer fireworks can be used with a variety of tools. One set of tools has to do with basic ignition, such as lighters, matches, and punks also known as a 'port fire'. By using a rack, one can ignite a series of different fireworks to create a scene. These sometimes allow for the finales seen at professional fireworks displays to be created using consumer fireworks. Racks can be used with multiple types of fireworks, such as aerial shells, fountains, Roman candles, and the newest class of fireworks, 500  gram repeaters. Other tools are involved with the setup of fireworks for later display, such as shovels, various hand tools, and spare visco fuses. The true scope of tools used with consumer fireworks is limited only by the displayer's imagination.\n", "The first of the main events is a contest of \"castillos\" (lit. castles). Castillos are frames made of wood, reed and paper to which various fireworks are affixed. These fireworks are set off to make images and/or parts of the castillo structure move. The castillos created for this event measure between twenty five and thirty meters, requiring about fifteen days to build. When set off, they take between twenty and thirty minutes to go through all of their features.\n", "Section::::Early days.\n\nIn 1889 Constantino Vitale started this fireworks company in Pietramelara, Italy. In 1920 he immigrated to the United States through Ellis Island making a home for his family and company in New Castle, Pennsylvania — a small town between Pittsburgh and Cleveland that would become known as \"The Fireworks Capital of America.\"\n\nSection::::Twentieth century.\n\nConstantino brought with him centuries of fireworks expertise which he taught to his apprentices his children and grandchildren. The Vitale family developed a reputation for grand and dramatic fireworks displays and the business grew rapidly in the United States.\n", "Section::::Representation of the UK fireworks industry.\n", "Section::::History.:Fireworks show.\n", "Section::::Hazards and regulation.:Pollution.\n", "BULLET::::- Fireworks with Vikings, Tutbury, Staffordshire homepage\n\nBULLET::::- Flaming Tar Barrels, Ottery St Mary homepage\n\nBULLET::::- Glasgow Green fireworks homepage\n\nBULLET::::- Halloween Happening fireworks, Derry homepage\n\nBULLET::::- Midsummer Common, Cambridge homepage\n\nBULLET::::- Sparks in the Park (Cardiff Round Table charity fireworks), Cardiff homepage\n\nThe main firework celebrations in the UK are by the public who buy from many suppliers, one of the best being Diamond and Bad Boy Fireworks Homepage\n\nSection::::Fireworks celebrations throughout the world.:United States.\n", "Fireworks by Grucci has adapted the use of technology, including the use of computers to electronically fire the shells. It has also switched from using the traditionally used cardboard gun barrels to fiberglass and steel, which is better able to absorb a misfire.\n\nSection::::Noteworthy Displays.\n\nFireworks by Grucci has produced fireworks displays for various United States and international events, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Seven consecutive U.S. Presidential inaugurations beginning with Ronald Reagan;\n\nBULLET::::- Statue of Liberty Centennial (1986);\n\nBULLET::::- Brooklyn Bridge Centennial;\n\nBULLET::::- Olympic Games in Lake Placid, Los Angeles, Salt Lake City, Beijing, and more;\n", "Most of the fireworks are made with entire families laboring in the workshops, with about three hundred workshops registered with authorities. Fireworks have been produced by generations of artisans, who consider it both an art and a science. The making of rockets was originally done with reeds, then leather and finally with paper, which remains the medium today. The children of the artisans now get specialized training and even degrees, which has lent the profession more respect as well as raised the quality of its output. However, there is competition from Chinese made fireworks, which can be up to thirty percent cheaper.\n", "than twice as large as the largest shell usually seen in the US, and shells as large as are frequently fired.\n\nSection::::Halloween.\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n\nBoth fireworks and firecrackers are a popular tradition during Halloween in Vancouver, although apparently this is not the custom elsewhere in Canada.\n\nBULLET::::- Ireland\n", "Fireworks\n\nFireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. The most common use of a firework is as part of a fireworks display (also called a fireworks show or pyrotechnics), a display of the effects produced by firework devices. \n", "A mine (aka. pot à feu) is a ground firework that expels stars and/or other garnitures into the sky. Shot from a mortar like a shell, a mine consists of a canister with the lift charge on the bottom with the effects placed on top. Mines can project small reports, serpents, small shells, as well as just stars. Although mines up to diameter appear on occasion, they are usually between , in diameter.\n\nSection::::Types of effects.:Multi-break shells.\n", "Fireworks take many forms to produce the four primary effects: noise, light, smoke, and floating materials (confetti for example). They may be designed to burn with colored flames and sparks including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and silver. Displays are common throughout the world and are the focal point of many cultural and religious celebrations.\n\nFireworks are generally classified as to where they perform, either as a ground or aerial firework. In the latter case they may provide their own propulsion (skyrocket) or be shot into the air by a mortar (aerial shell).\n", "Section::::Homemade fireworks.\n", "In addition to large public displays, people often buy small amounts of fireworks for their own celebrations. Fireworks on general sale are usually less powerful than professional fireworks. Types include firecrackers, rockets, cakes (multishot aerial fireworks) and smoke balls.\n\nFireworks can also be used in an agricultural capacity as bird scarers.\n\nSection::::Pyrotechnic compounds.\n\nColors in fireworks are usually generated by pyrotechnic stars—usually just called stars—which produce intense light when ignited. Stars contain five basic types of ingredients.\n\nBULLET::::- A fuel\n\nBULLET::::- An oxidizer—a compound that combines with the fuel to produce intense heat\n", "BULLET::::- The stove of ceramics Naborigama - cocklestove or \"naborigama\" was built in the summer of 2007. The stove can reach china baking temperatures for more than 1300 degrees. In order to achieve the necessary heat every year in July the stove is heated for a week. After a week of opening the kiln artists gather to see the results of their work of art.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n\nBULLET::::- Library.\n", "BULLET::::- Fireworks: Vladimir builds fireworks to hopefully get other survivors attention at night. For a fuse he uses string, glue, and charcoal from the gasifier. He then cuts ABS pipe to be used as a launcher. The fireworks themselves consists of gunpowder scavenged from shotgun shells and other flammable materials inside cardboard tubes. To safely set them off from the roof, he builds a detonation system so he can fire them from a safe distance.\n", "Kamuro is a Japanese word meaning \"boys haircut\", which is what this shell resembles when fully exploded in the air. It is a dense burst of glittering silver or gold stars which leave a heavy glitter trail and shine bright in the night's sky.\n\nSection::::Types of effects.:Mine.\n", "Loading of shells is a delicate process, and must be done with caution, and a loader must ensure not only the mortar is clean, but also make sure that no part of their body is directly over the mortar in case of a premature fire. Wiring the shells is a painstaking process; whether the shells are being fired manually or electronically, any \"chain fusing\" or wiring of electrical ignitors, care must be taken to prevent the fuse (an electrical match, often incorrectly called a squib) from igniting. If the setup is wired electrically, the electrical matches are usually plugged into a \"firing rail\" or \"breakout box\" which runs back to the main firing board; from there, the Firing Board is simply hooked up to a car battery, and can proceed with firing the show when ready.\n", "It is the nature of fireworks making that the different processes are spread far apart - a precaution against a chain reaction should there be a single accident. For this reason, you can wander far and wide in and around Liuyang and it appears that everywhere you look there is something happening which involves the creation of fireworks.\n" ]

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[ "Liquor\n\nLiquor (also hard liquor, hard alcohol, spirit, or distilled drink) is an alcoholic drink produced by distillation of grains, fruit, or vegetables that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation. The distillation process purifies the liquid and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content (commonly expressed as alcohol by volume, ABV). As liquors contain significantly more alcohol, they are considered \"harder\" – in North America, the term \"hard liquor\" is used to distinguish distilled alcoholic drinks from non-distilled ones.\n", "BULLET::::- Reverend David Goodchild: in a variant of a popular American vaudeville sketch from Red Skelton's repertoire, Goodchild's water decanter is accidentally spiked with gin, and as a result, he slowly gets more and more drunk as his monologue progresses. This sketch is regarded as one of the most memorable and popular in the show, and can also be regarded as one of Fulton's finest comic performances.\n", "Introducing magnesium sulphate into the brewing water, or \"liquor\", creates a rounder, fuller taste that enhances other flavours in the beer. However, excessive dosage must be avoided to prevent undesirable consequences, which could include a laxative effect.\n\nSection::::Double dropping.\n", "Section::::On \"The Ren & Stimpy Show\".\n", "With chronic alcohol intake, consumption of ethanol similarly induces CREB phosphorylation through the D receptor pathway, but it also alters NMDA receptor function through phosphorylation mechanisms; an adaptive downregulation of the D receptor pathway and CREB function occurs as well. Chronic consumption is also associated with an effect on CREB phosphorylation and function via postsynaptic NMDA receptor signaling cascades through a MAPK/ERK pathway and CAMK-mediated pathway. These modifications to CREB function in the mesolimbic pathway induce expression (i.e., increase gene expression) of ΔFosB in the , where ΔFosB is the \"master control protein\" that, when overexpressed in the NAcc, is necessary and sufficient for the development and maintenance of an addictive state (i.e., its overexpression in the nucleus accumbens produces and then directly modulates compulsive alcohol consumption).\n", "Section::::Effects by dosage.:Moderate doses.\n\nEthanol inhibits the ability of glutamate to open the cation channel associated with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors. Stimulated areas include the cortex, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens, which are all responsible for both thinking and pleasure seeking. Another one of alcohol's agreeable effects is body relaxation, which is possibly caused by neurons transmitting electrical signals in an alpha waves-pattern; such waves are actually observed (with the aid of EEGs) whenever the body is relaxed.\n", "Section::::Human metabolic physiology.:Physiologic structures.\n\nA basic organizing theme in biological systems is that increasing complexity in specialized tissues and organs, allows for greater specificity of function. This occurs for the processing of ethanol in the human body. The enzymes required for the oxidation reactions are confined to certain tissues. In particular, much higher concentration of such enzymes are found in the liver, which is the primary site for alcohol catabolism. Variations in genes influence alcohol metabolism and drinking behavior.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.:Energy thermodynamics.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.:Energy thermodynamics.:Energy calculations.\n", "Section::::Stabilization.:Other methods of stabilization.\n\nClarification tends to stabilize wine, since it removes some of the same particles that promote instability. The gradual oxidation that occurs during barrel aging also has a naturally stabilizing effect.\n\nSection::::Premium wine production.\n", "With chronic alcohol intake, consumption of ethanol similarly induces CREB phosphorylation through the D1 receptor pathway, but it also alters NMDA receptor function through phosphorylation mechanisms; an adaptive downregulation of the D1 receptor pathway and CREB function occurs as well. Chronic consumption is also associated with an effect on CREB phosphorylation and function via postsynaptic NMDA receptor signaling cascades through a MAPK/ERK pathway and CAMK-mediated pathway. These modifications to CREB function in the mesolimbic pathway induce expression (i.e., increase gene expression) of ΔFosB in the , where ΔFosB is the \"master control protein\" that, when overexpressed in the NAcc, is necessary and sufficient for the development and maintenance of an addictive state (i.e., its overexpression in the nucleus accumbens produces and then directly modulates compulsive alcohol consumption).\n", "Alcohol tolerance\n\nAlcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.\n\nSection::::Consumption-induced tolerance.\n\nAlcohol tolerance is increased by regular drinking. This reduced sensitivity requires that higher quantities of alcohol be consumed in order to achieve the same effects as before tolerance was established. Alcohol tolerance may lead to (or be a sign of) alcohol dependency.\n", "Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.\n\nFermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.\n\nSection::::Production method.:Distillation.\n\nAs with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation.\n\nWhile some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.\n\nPot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.\n\nSection::::Production method.:Ageing and blending.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Adenylyl Cyclase.\n\nAdenylyl cyclase (AC) plays a role in ethanol induced signaling pathways. Acute ethanol may increase AC activity resulting in increased levels of cAMP and altered activity of cAMP targets. Of the cAMP targets, protein kinase A (PKA) has been associated with ethanol use. While acute ethanol use increases the activity of AC, chronic use tends to desensitize AC such that more simulation, increased ethanol consumption, is required to elicit the same response.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Kinases.\n", "The banjo, with its loud and raucous tone, was replaced with the guitar, which provided a more subtle and secure pulsation (chunk-chunk) in the foundation rhythm. As the saying went, the guitar was more felt than heard. Listeners felt the combined sound of bass, guitar, and drums as a sonic force that pushed through cavernous dance halls. “If you were on the first floor, and the dance hall was upstairs,” Count Basie remembered, “that was what you would hear, that steady rump, rump, rump, rump in that medium tempo.”\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nMusic critic William Ruhlmann, writing for AllMusic, wrote that the album \"may have been the statement of a band that had been through a lot and reached a point of emotional exhaustion, but the BoDeans used their experience to craft their most deeply felt and satisfying music.\" Likewise, Thom Jurek of \"Rolling Stone\" stated: \"\"Go Slow Down\" reveals the BoDeans in firm control of their musical vision\" and \"is perhaps the finest album to date by a band that keeps on growing. With any justice, it should make the BoDeans more than critics' favorites.\"\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n", "Upon its release, \"Enjoy Yourself\" received generally positive reviews from most music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 68, based on 4 reviews, which indicates \"generally favorable reviews\".\n", "Section::::Biography.:Liquor Goat becomes Coilback.\n", "BULLET::::- It should be made from good-quality, high-proof liquors.\n\nBULLET::::- It should whet rather than dull the appetite. Thus, it should never be sweet or syrupy, or contain too much fruit juice, egg or cream.\n\nBULLET::::- It should be dry, with sufficient alcoholic flavor, yet smooth and pleasing to the palate.\n\nBULLET::::- It should be pleasing to the eye.\n\nBULLET::::- It should be well iced.\n", "Section::::Biography.:\"Stranglehold\".\n", "Areas of the brain that are responsible for planning and motor learning are sharpened. A related effect, which is caused by even low levels of alcohol, is the tendency for people to become more animated in speech and movement. This is caused by increased metabolism in areas of the brain associated with movement, such as the nigrostriatal pathway. This causes reward systems in the brain to become more active, which may induce certain individuals to behave in an uncharacteristically loud and cheerful manner.\n", "This is the opposite of drug tolerance (or drug desensitization), in which the effect or the subject's reaction decreases following its repeated use. The two notions are not incompatible, and tolerance may sometimes lead to reverse tolerance. For example, heavy drinkers initially develop tolerance to alcohol, requiring them to drink larger amounts to achieve a similar effect, but as excessive drinking can cause liver damage, this can then put this group at risk of intoxication when drinking even very small amounts of alcohol.\n", "Lithuanians also began to make cognac sweetened with chocolate and created new liquors that utilized chocolate. More elaborate recipes were created, such as the sweet called \"tinginys,\" which means \"lazy\".\n", "Ethanol's rewarding and reinforcing (i.e., addictive) properties are mediated through its effects on dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic reward pathway, which connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). One of ethanol's primary effects is the allosteric inhibition of NMDA receptors and facilitation of GABA receptors (e.g., enhanced GABA receptor-mediated chloride flux through allosteric regulation of the receptor). At high doses, ethanol inhibits most ligand-gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels in neurons as well.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "BULLET::::- DeLeón Extra Añejo: \"Despite its concentration, this tequila has no sting of alcohol to its aroma: Only a slight tingling on the tongue hints at the lofty proof. Honey, buttered almonds, cherries, and cedar essences are packed into every sip, while a hint of heather, reminiscent of a single-malt Scotch, lingers at the back of the palate.\"\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n" ]

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[ "At the same time that officers arrived at Cole Hall, Sergeant Rodman, who had left a meeting at the Holmes Student Center, arrived at the west entrance of that building to find a shooting victim who had been shot in the back and the head, along with another victim who had blood on the face, seeking help for his injured friend. Rodman attended to the most severely wounded victim.\n", "While the school was in lockdown, people at many locations found it difficult to shelter in place, as few of the doors had locks for events of this nature. As a result, some students resorted to creative mechanisms to keep the doors closed. Scott Waugh, the school's executive vice-chancellor and provost, said the University will review its active-shooter protocols. The issue was previously brought up during deadly mass shootings at Virginia Tech and Sandy Hook Elementary School, where students and teachers also had to improvise to keep the doors to classrooms closed. Although some schools across the country installed locks to doors, a more widespread adoption of this security measure was hindered by \"the cost to retrofit doors and local fire codes that require doors to open in one motion during emergencies\", according to experts. Some schools and universities disagreed about the importance of door locks during active-shooter situations; the University of Colorado stated that it wanted students and teachers to rely on training instead.\n", "Phillips and a second Native American, both with ceremonial drums, walked towards the students grouped along the stairs. Sidner said that while some of the students danced to Phillips' drum beat and chanted along with him for awhile, they were not \"enjoying each other's company\". Soon, Phillips, was \"encircled\" by about 30 students, \"many of them white and wearing apparel bearing the slogan of President Trump\", red baseball hats with the phrase \"Make America Great Again\" (MAGA). Phillips continued to beat his ceremonial drum and sing for nearly two minutes as a boy wearing the red MAGA hat chose not to retreat with what some viewed as a smirk on his face. The student later explained that he smiled because he wanted Phillips to know \"that I was not going to become angry, intimidated or be provoked into a larger confrontation.\" Within minutes of this encounter, an adult chaperone called the students to their buses which had arrived. The students quickly departed the area without further incident.\n", "However, as many schools have developed lock-down protocols in the wake of incidents such as Columbine, the increased risk posed by IARD may become inappropriate in such cases where the venue itself has already contained the shooter's movements and reduced the number of exposed targets in their locked down posture.\n\nSection::::EMS Response as Part of IARD.\n", "Suddenly, they turned around, got on their knees, as if they were ordered to, they did it all together, aimed. And personally, I was standing there saying, they're not going to shoot, they can't do that. If they are going to shoot, it's going to be blank.\n\nAnother witness was Chrissie Hynde, the future lead singer of The Pretenders and a student at Kent State University at the time. In her 2015 autobiography she described what she saw:\n", "Municipalities and universities continue to negotiate police jurisdiction on and near campuses. Today, many universities and colleges maintain their own police forces. In cities where a significant number of students live off campus, university police may be allowed to patrol these neighbourhoods to provide an extra measure of security. Meanwhile, civil libertarians argue that school officials should only call on local law enforcement to intervene when it is necessary to protect the safety of people on campus. Such intrusion is legally mandated in some jurisdictions when school officials have reasonable suspicion to believe that a student is breaking the law. Generally, local police are reluctant to go on campus if a college maintains its own security force (the Kent State and Jackson State killings are examples of intervention turning into tragedy).\n", "The February 14, 2018 shooting which killed 17 people at Stoneman Douglas High School brought renewed attention to the topic of police in schools. The police officer assigned to the school resigned shortly after the shooting under criticism of not entering the school building while the student was shooting. Given the frequency with which school shootings occur in the United States, critics of SRO programs are asking if it is necessary to have armed police officers in schools, if they cannot ensure students' safety during crises.\n", "In addition to Johnson, several witnesses to the shooting of Michael Brown described him as having his hands up during the encounter. However, no one else recalled Brown asking Wilson not to shoot his firearm.\n", "Officer Houston McCoy, 26, heard of the shooting on his radio. As he looked for a way into the tower, a student offered to help, saying he had a rifle at home. McCoy drove the student to his home to retrieve the rifle.\n", "The first major limitation to this came in the U.S. Supreme Court case \"West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette\" (1943), in which the court ruled that students cannot be forced to salute the American flag. More prominent change came in the 1960s and 1970s in such cases as \"Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District\" (1969), when the Supreme Court decided that \"conduct by the student, in class or out of it, which for any reason - whether it stems from time, place, or type of behavior - materially disrupts classwork or involves substantial disorder or invasion of the rights of others is, of course, not immunized by the constitutional guarantee of freedom of speech.\" Adult speech is also limited by \"time, place and manner\" restrictions and therefore such limits do not rely on schools acting in loco parentis.\n", "One study on hand-raising illustrated that students almost always looked directly at the teacher when raising their hands, and only looked away just before lowering their hand. They also composed their facial expressions to appear serious before raising their hands, did not raise their hands whilst others in their class were answering a question and lowered their hands once another student was elected by the teacher.\n\nTeachers also use hand-raising to gain the attention of their students, and often to silence them, by raising one hand and not speaking, encouraging the students to imitate their behaviour.\n", "The hands-up pose had been widely adopted by protesters throughout the weekend. The gesture was often paired with the phrase \"Don't shoot me\" or \"Don't shoot us.\" During the demonstrations on Monday, the media first documented the posture and the phrase being combined into the slogan \"Hands Up, Don't Shoot.\"\n", "On October 1, at East Carolina University, about 19 members of the band knelt, while about another two held the American flag during the national anthem at the beginning of the football game against the University of Central Florida. There have been almost no such incidents involving college football players, for the simple reason that college players and coaches are typically in the locker room when the anthem is played. There has been at least one exception to the rule, however. During a September 2016 away game at Northwestern, where players are traditionally on the field during the anthem, three Nebraska players knelt on the sideline. The NCAA football rulebook does not address the issue of pregame ceremonies (patriotic or otherwise) at all, except to say that team captains must be present for a coin toss three minutes before the first-half kickoff.\n", "On November 30, 2014, several players on the St. Louis Rams, (Tavon Austin, Stedman Bailey, Kenny Britt, Jared Cook and Chris Givens) entered the field during a NFL game making the gesture.\n\nThe St. Louis Police Officers Association said the act was \"way out-of-bounds\" and the organization \"is profoundly disappointed with the members of the St. Louis Rams football team who chose to ignore the mountains of evidence released from the St. Louis County Grand Jury this week and engage in a display that police officers around the nation found tasteless, offensive, and inflammatory\".\n", "Immediately after the shooting, Christopher Lynch, an aerospace and mechanical engineering professor who heard the gunshots, went to Klug's office. and held the door shut, after which he heard another shot and then silence. Another professor said she heard someone fall after the last shot. Lynch later said that he did not feel the gunman try to open it but suspected the gunman heard yells for the hallway to be cleared out and that police were called in. Lynch was credited for potentially saving lives during the shooting.\n", "Gerald Casale, the future bassist/singer of Devo, also witnessed the shootings. While speaking to the Vermont Review in 2005, he recalled what he saw:\n\nSection::::Timeline.:May 4, after the shootings.\n\nImmediately after the shootings, many angry students were ready to launch an all-out attack on the National Guard. Many faculty members, led by geology professor and faculty marshal Glenn Frank, pleaded with the students to leave the Commons and to not give in to violent escalation:\n", "Recently, some schools have opted to ban hand-raising from their classrooms, instead implementing alternate strategies for students to contribute. One such school is the Samworth Church Academy in the United Kingdom, in which hand-raising is now used exclusively to request silence, although its logo is two children raising their hands. The decision made by this school to ban hand-raising in the classroom has received negative reactions from parents, teachers and the National Union of Teachers. The principal of Frankston High School in Melbourne, Australia is also banning hand-raising from his classrooms, justifying his decision by stating that only the “outgoing” students are raising their hands.\n", "Various sources have attributed the origin of the handshake, as an ancient sign of bravery and respect, to Lord Baden-Powell's encounter after battle with Prempeh I, or to earlier published works by Ernest Thompson Seton. There exist various versions of the Prempeh story, all centering on African warriors using the left hand to hold their shields and to lower it and shake the left hand of the person was to show they trusted each other.\n", "Sometime around 4:00 pm, two officers began spraying pepper spray directly in the faces of the sitting students. Bystanders recorded the incident with cell phone cameras, while members of the crowd chanted \"Shame on you\" and \"Let them go\" at the police officers. Eleven protesters received medical treatment; two were hospitalized.\n", "While students were sitting on the ground, in a circle, around the officers, they were asked to \"leave peacefully.\" Sometime around 4:00 pm, two officers began spraying Defense Technology MK-9, 0.7% Orange Band pepper spray at almost \"point-blank range\" in the faces of the seated students. The pepper spray used, according to various websites, has a recommended minimum distance of six feet. Bystanders recorded the incident with cell-phone cameras, while members of the crowd chanted \"Shame on you\" and \"Let them go\" at the police officers. Eleven protesters received medical treatment; two were hospitalized.\n", "BULLET::::- \"In wearing armbands, the petitioners were quiet and passive. They were not disruptive, and did not impinge upon the rights of others. In these circumstances, their conduct was within the protection of the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment and the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"First Amendment rights are available to teachers and students, subject to application in light of the special characteristics of the school environment.\"\n", "Jared Cook, one of the Rams players, received threats after making the gesture.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Capitol Hill.\n\nOn December 1, 2014, several lawmakers in the United States House of Representatives made the gesture to protest the shooting and police brutality. Rep. Hakeem Jeffries (D-New York) said on the floor: Other members of the Congressional Black Caucus joining Jeffries were Reps. Yvette Clarke (D-New York), Al Green (D-Texas) and Sheila Jackson Lee (D-Texas), who praised the football players who made the gesture the night before.\n", "The shooting occurred during the last day of classes for the spring semester, at around 5:40 p.m. local time, according to university officials. Around that time, the suspected gunman entered Room 236 in the Kennedy Building, where approximately 60 students enrolled in \"Science, Technology, & Society,\" a liberal studies course on the anthropology and philosophy of science, were delivering their final group presentations. The classroom, with a level floor and 14 separate tables, was designed to accommodate approximately 100 students, and had both a front and a rear entrance, according to survivor Rami Al-Ramadhan, who had been seated towards the front of the room. The course instructor was Adam Johnson, a professor in the university's anthropology department. Johnson, who had himself done his graduate school work in anthropology from UNC Charlotte, had been teaching at the university since 2017. He had recently accepted a position in Texas and was in his final semester at UNC Charlotte.\n", "Students have identified raising their hands as a key discussion skill which is partly responsible for creating a ‘Safe Space’ in their classroom, alongside a teacher who is encouraging of class participation and peers who are respectful and exhibit good discussion skills. \n\nSection::::In education.:Raising hands in the classroom.\n", "The first states to legalize campus carry were Colorado in 2003 and Utah in 2004. This led to a debate among students and staff at various universities throughout the country whether this would make students safer or cause safety concerns. Those in favor of campus carry made the point that allowing students to carry would allow them to protect themselves and others. Those against campus carry said that allowing students to carry would be dangerous because there would be more guns on campus grounds and could cause a distraction to learning. The Virginia Tech shooting incident further ignited the debate in many states on allowing students and faculty to carry on campus.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Accruals in accounting.:Accrued expense.\n\nAccrued expense is a liability whose timing or amount is uncertain by virtue of the fact that an invoice has not yet been received. The uncertainty of the accrued expense is not significant enough to qualify it as a provision. An example of an accrued expense is a pending obligation to pay for goods or services received from a counterpart, while cash is to be paid out in a later accounting period when the amount is deducted from \"accrued expenses\".\n\nUnder International Financial Reporting Standards, this difference is best summarized by IAS 37 which states:\n", "In lending, amortization is the distribution of loan repayments into multiple cash flow installments, as determined by an amortization schedule. Unlike other repayment models, each repayment installment consists of both principal and interest. Amortization is chiefly used in loan repayments (a common example being a mortgage loan) and in sinking funds. Payments are divided into equal amounts for the duration of the loan, making it the simplest repayment model. A greater amount of the payment is applied to interest at the beginning of the amortization schedule, while more money is applied to principal at the end. Commonly it is known as EMI or Equated Monthly Installment.\n", "Amortization refers to the process of paying off a debt (often from a loan or mortgage) through regular payments. A portion of each payment is for interest while the remaining amount is applied towards the principal balance. The percentage of interest versus principal in each payment is determined in an amortization schedule.\n\nSection::::Defining characteristics.\n", "Each payment to the lender will consist of a portion of interest and a portion of principal. Mortgage loans are typically amortizing loans. The calculations for an amortizing loan are those of an annuity using the time value of money formulas, and can be done using an amortization calculator.\n\nAn amortizing loan should be contrasted with a bullet loan, where a large portion of the loan will be paid at the final maturity date instead of being paid down gradually over the loan's life.\n", "Accrual\n\nAccrual (\"accumulation\") of something is, in finance, the adding together of interest or different investments over a period of time. It holds specific meanings in accounting, where it can refer to accounts on a balance sheet that represent liabilities and non-cash-based assets used in accrual-based accounting. These types of accounts include, among others, accounts payable, accounts receivable, goodwill, deferred tax liability and future interest expense.\n\nSection::::Accruals in accounting.\n", "BULLET::::- The potential method is a form of the accounting method where the saved credit is computed as a function (the \"potential\") of the state of the data structure. The amortized cost is the immediate cost plus the change in potential.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Dynamic array.\n", "BULLET::::- When used in the context of a home purchase, amortisation is the process by which loan principal decreases over the life of a loan, typically an amortizing loan. As each mortgage payment is made, part of the payment is applied as interest on the loan, and the remainder of the payment is applied towards reducing the principal. An amortisation schedule, a table detailing each periodic payment on a loan, shows the amounts of principal and interest and demonstrates how a loan's principal amount decreases over time. An amortisation schedule can be generated by an amortisation calculator. Negative amortisation is an amortisation schedule where the loan amount actually increases through not paying the full interest.\n", "or, equivalently,\n\nwhere: \"P\" is the principal amount borrowed, \"A\" is the periodic amortization payment, \"r\" is the periodic interest rate divided by 100 (nominal annual interest rate also divided by 12 in case of monthly installments), and \"n\" is the total number of payments (for a 30-year loan with monthly payments \"n\" = 30 × 12 = 360).\n\nSection::::Negative amortization.\n\nNegative amortization (also called deferred interest) occurs if the payments made do not cover the interest due. The remaining interest owed is added to the outstanding loan balance, making it larger than the original loan amount.\n", "Some accrual policies have the ability to carry over or roll over some or all unused time that has been accrued into the next year. If the accrual policy does not have any type of rollover, any accrued time that is in the bank is usually lost at the end of the employer's calendar year.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nWhen referring to clinical trials, the definition of \"accrual\" is either the process of recruiting patients into a trial, or the number of patients in a trial.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accrued interest\n\nBULLET::::- Accrued jurisdiction\n\nBULLET::::- Accrued liabilities\n\nBULLET::::- Revenue recognition\n", "In addition to breaking down each payment into interest and principal portions, an amortization schedule also indicates interest paid to date, principal paid to date, and the remaining principal balance on each payment date.\n\nSection::::Amortization schedule assumptions.\n\nThis amortization schedule is based on the following assumptions:\n\nFirst, it should be known that rounding errors occur and, depending on how the lender accumulates these errors, the blended payment (principal plus interest) may vary slightly some months to keep these errors from accumulating; or, the accumulated errors are adjusted for at the end of each year or at the final loan payment.\n", "BULLET::::- Straight line (linear)\n\nBULLET::::- Declining balance\n\nBULLET::::- Annuity\n\nBULLET::::- Bullet (all at once)\n\nBULLET::::- Balloon (amortization payments and large end payment)\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing balance (negative amortization)\n\nAmortization schedules run in chronological order. The first payment is assumed to take place one full payment period after the loan was taken out, not on the first day (the origination date) of the loan. The last payment completely pays off the remainder of the loan. Often, the last payment will be a slightly different amount than all earlier payments.\n", "Neg-Ams also have what is called a recast period, and the recast principal balance cap is in the U.S. based on federal and state legislation. The recast period is usually 60 months (5 years). The recast principal balance cap (also known as the \"neg am limit\") is usually up to a 25% increase of the amortized loan balance over the original loan amount. States and lenders can offer products with lesser recast periods and principal balance caps; but cannot issue loans that exceed their state and federal legislated requirements under penalty of law.\n", "While a portion of every payment is applied towards both the interest and the principal balance of the loan, the exact amount applied to principal each time varies (with the remainder going to interest). An amortization schedule indicates the specific monetary amount put towards interest, as well as the specific amount put towards the principal balance, with each payment. Initially, a large portion of each payment is devoted to interest. As the loan matures, larger portions go towards paying down the principal.\n\nSection::::Methods of amortization.\n\nThere are different methods used to develop an amortization schedule. These include:\n", "BULLET::::- In business, amortisation allocates a lump sum amount to different time periods, particularly for loans and other forms of finance, including related interest or other finance charges. Amortisation is also applied to capital expenditures of certain assets under accounting rules, particularly intangible assets, in a manner analogous to depreciation.\n\nBULLET::::- In tax law in the United States, amortisation refers to the cost recovery system for intangible property.\n\nBULLET::::- In computer science, amortised analysis is a method of analyzing the execution cost of algorithms over a sequence of operations.\n", "An amortization schedule is a table detailing each periodic payment on an amortizing loan (typically a mortgage), as generated by an amortization calculator. Amortization refers to the process of paying off a debt (often from a loan or mortgage) over time through regular payments. A portion of each payment is for interest while the remaining amount is applied towards the principal balance. The percentage of interest versus principal in each payment is determined in an amortization schedule. The schedule differentiates the portion of payment that belongs to interest expense from the portion used to close the gap of a discount or premium from the principal after each payment.\n", "BULLET::::- Interest rate risk: A secondary effect is that amortization reduces the duration of the debt, reducing the debt's sensitivity to interest rate risk, as compared to debt with the same maturity and coupon rate. This is because there are smaller payments in the future, so the weighted-average maturity of the cash flows is lower.\n\nSection::::Weighted-average life.\n\nThe number weighted average of the times of the principal repayments of an amortizing loan is referred to as the weighted-average life (WAL), also called \"average life\". It's the average time until a dollar of principal is repaid.\n\nIn a formula,\n\nwhere:\n", "Section::::Amortization of intangible assets.\n\nIn accounting, amortization refers to expensing the acquisition cost minus the residual value of intangible assets in a systematic manner over their estimated \"useful economic lives\" so as to reflect their consumption, expiry, and obsolescence, or other decline in value as a result of use or the passage of time.\n", "Amortization (business)\n\nIn business, amortization refers to spreading payments over multiple periods. The term is used for two separate processes: amortization of loans and amortization of assets. In the latter case it refers to allocating the cost of an intangible asset over a period of time.\n\nSection::::Amortization of loans.\n", "Amortization calculator\n\nAn amortization calculator is used to determine the periodic payment amount due on a loan (typically a mortgage), based on the amortization process.\n\nThe amortization repayment model factors varying amounts of both interest and principal into every installment, though the total amount of each payment is the same.\n", "With amortization, portions of the principal are periodically being repaid (along with the loan's interest payments) until the loan matures. With \"full amortization\", the amortization schedule has been set so that the last periodical payment comprises the final portion of principal still due.\n", "NegAM loans today are mostly straight adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs), meaning that they are fixed for a certain period and adjust every time that period has elapsed; e.g., one month fixed, adjusting every month. The NegAm loan, like all adjustable rate mortgages, is tied to a specific financial index which is used to determine the interest rate based on the current index and the margin (the markup the lender charges). Most NegAm loans today are tied to the Monthly Treasury Average, in keeping with the monthly adjustments of this loan. There are also Hybrid ARM loans in which there is a period of fixed payments for months or years, followed by an increased change cycle, such as six months fixed, then monthly adjustable.\n", "Offset loan\n\nAn offset loan is a type of lending arrangement, usually for a mortgage, in which a borrower also maintains a savings account with the lender. Instead of receiving interest on the savings account, the interest payment due on the loan is calculated only on the net balance of the loan minus the savings account. The regular payment is calculated on the full amount of the loan, however, and so making regular payments pays off the loan faster than a standard loan with the same interest rate, amount, and periodic payment.\n", "BULLET::::- Term: Mortgage loans generally have a maximum term, that is, the number of years after which an amortizing loan will be repaid. Some mortgage loans may have no amortization, or require full repayment of any remaining balance at a certain date, or even negative amortization.\n\nBULLET::::- Payment amount and frequency: The amount paid per period and the frequency of payments; in some cases, the amount paid per period may change or the borrower may have the option to increase or decrease the amount paid.\n", "The prototypical contingent claim is an option, the right to buy or sell the underlying asset at a specified exercise price by a certain expiration date; whereas (vanilla) swaps, forwards, and futures are forward commitments, since these grant no such optionality. \n\nContingent claims are applied under financial economics in developing models and theory, and in corporate finance as a valuation framework.\n\nSection::::Financial economics.\n", "Arrears\n\nArrears (or arrearage) is a legal term for the part of a debt that is overdue after missing one or more required payments. The amount of the arrears is the amount accrued from the date on which the first missed payment was due. The term is usually used in relation with periodically recurring payments such as rent, bills, royalties (or other contractual payments), and child support.\n" ]

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[ "Gendered price disparities for hair salon services have also been documented in different locations across the United States and Europe. The California Assembly Office of Research conducted a survey of five large California cities and found that forty percent of the hair salons charged women, on average, five dollars more than men for a standard haircut. Gendered price disparities in haircut prices also has been found in New York City: Of 199 hair salons examined, nearly 48 percent of hair-cutters charged women more than men for a simple haircut.\n\nSection::::Gendered price disparities.:Vehicle insurance.\n", "Price disparities in hair salon services between men and women are thought to be justifiable because women's hair is often longer and more complicated to maintain and cut. In recent years, however, this stereotype has changed. Men are often experimenting with their hair, including hair loss treatment and hair color. While women may still spend a considerable amount for hair color and other treatments, many women prefer basic haircuts. Additionally, salon-quality hair styling tools are readily available and easy to use at home.\n", "Section::::Gendered price disparities.:Personal care industry.:Personal care products.\n\nGendered price disparities in personal care products are more apparent than in personal care services and across other industries. By and large, the price disparities in personal care products are notably higher than in other industries and cost women around 13 percent more than men. This disparity is especially significant considering women purchase these products more regularly than men. Prices for hair products, followed by razors, cost the most for women - typically costing women almost 50 percent more than men.\n\nSection::::Gendered price disparities.:Hair care industry.\n", "In the black hair business, the most profitable portion is the sale and maintenance of weaves. Women can expect to invest six to eight hours in the salon getting their hair braided into sections and then having tracks of hair attached to the braids. After women get their weave, they regularly come back into the salon for hair washing, conditioning, and tightening. In the documentary, Rock learned that some women will spend upwards to $1000 for a weave and if they cannot afford it, they can put it on layaway.\n\nSection::::Derogatory words used to describe Afro Textured Hair.\n", "In developed western societies, women tend to be judged for their physical appearance over their other qualities and the pressure to engage in beauty work is much higher for women than men. Beauty work is defined as various beauty “practices individuals perform on themselves or others to elicit certain benefits from a specific social hierarchy.” Being “beautiful” has individual, social and institutional rewards. Although marketers have started to target the “metro-sexual” male and produce hygiene and beauty products geared towards men, the expectations placed on them is less than women The time and money required for a man to achieve the same well-groomed appearance is much lower. Even in areas that men also face pressure to perform beauty work, such a haircuts/styling, the prices discrepancy for products and services are skewed. This phenomenon is called the \"pink tax.\"\n", "While studies have shown significant price disparities in personal care products between men and women, gendered price disparities across personal care services has been inconsistent. A recent study titled \"Cost of Doing Femininity\" examined two areas of personal care services that had directly comparable prices between men and women: hair salons and dry cleaners. The study found that only 15 out of 100 randomly selected hair salons had the same prices for both men and women, and none of the salons charged women less than men. Dry cleaning prices depended on the type and amount of fabric, with more embellishments corresponding with higher prices. This price factor, however, tended to negatively impact women more often than men because women's garments are more likely to be embroidered or be made of delicate fabric.\n", "Menin conducted DCA's first study of gender pricing disparities between goods sold in New York City, and published a report, \"From Cradle to Cane: The Cost of Being a Female Consumer.\" Through a comparison of nearly 800 products with clear male and female versions from more than 90 brands sold online and in stores at two dozen New York City stores, the study found that, on average, products for women cost seven percent more than similar products for men and women's products were priced higher 42 percent of the time.\n\nSection::::Career.:Commissioner of the Mayor's Office of Media and Entertainment.\n", "Product differentiation can account for a portion of the difference between the prices of men's goods and women's goods. Products like the Radio Flyer scooter may cost more due to the cost of slightly changing the product. For example, a pink scooter may cost more than a red scooter because it is more expensive to paint a scooter pink than red, assuming such a large difference for this reason of production would be because the red scooters are the larger production, and pink scooters are in the minority. They may also be seen as more of a \"special edition\", like camo-print trampolines. This also applies to services like haircuts or dry cleaning. Oftentimes, women's haircuts cost more than men's because women's haircuts can involve more over time and are more labor-intensive than men's; they need to price haircuts for women higher than for men. In dry cleaning, men's clothing tends to be more uniform while women's clothing tends to have a lot of variabilities which can make it harder to clean. Pressing machines, normally made for men's clothing, are more difficult to use on women's clothes, which results in the dry-cleaners resorting to hand-pressing the clothing.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Design creation.\n", "Health insurance will not pay for any type of hair loss surgery for cosmetic reasons but they may pay for it if the hair loss is caused by hair loss disease like Alopecia areata , accidents and or burns. many offices offer payment plans to pay for the surgery.\n\nSection::::Surgeons.\n\nScalp reduction surgery is done by a physician trained in plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery or dermatology. The surgery is performed in a hospital, outpatient office setting.\n\nSection::::alternatives.\n\nBULLET::::- wig\n\nBULLET::::- oral medication\n\nBULLET::::- lotion that contains prescription\n", "After year end, Jane decides she can make more money by improving machines B and D. She buys and uses 10 of parts and supplies, and it takes 6 hours at 2 per hour to make the improvements to each machine. Jane has overhead, including rent and electricity. She calculates that the overhead adds 0.5 per hour to her costs. Thus, Jane has spent 20 to improve each machine (10/2 + 12 + (6 x 0.5) ). She sells machine D for 45. Her cost for that machine depends on her inventory method. If she used FIFO, the cost of machine D is 12 plus 20 she spent improving it, for a profit of 13. Remember, she used up the two 10 cost items already under FIFO. If she uses average cost, it is 11 plus 20, for a profit of 14. If she used LIFO, the cost would be 10 plus 20 for a profit of 15.\n", "Section::::Details of the FCC model.:Costs of increasing brain-size.\n", "As the price of human hair has increased, there is concern that hair has been unethically sourced. Much hair comes from women in impoverished countries who are attempting to solve a temporary financial difficulty. Hair of some women have been forcibly cut by armed guards or prison supervisors.\n\nSection::::Military wigs.\n", "The barber Sam Mature, whose interview with Studs Terkel was published in Terkel's 1974 book \"\", says \"A man used to get a haircut every couple weeks. Now he waits a month or two, some of 'em even longer than that. A lot of people would get manicured and fixed up every week. Most of these people retired, moved away, or passed away. It's all on account of long hair. You take old-timers, they wanted to look neat, to be presentable. Now people don't seem to care too much.\"\n", "There are a number of different studies on the price disparities between personal care products and services that are marketed towards females and males. For example, the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs (DCA) conducted a study of prices of goods in New York City across five industries, including personal care products. Other universities and academics have also studied the prices in personal care products and services.\n\nSection::::Gendered price disparities.:Personal care industry.:Personal care services.\n", "A 2017 study from Statistics Canada showed that, among men over the age of 24, the median annual pay of apprenticeship holders is $72,955 per year, which is 7% more than they would have received with a typical college diploma. Among women, the figure is $38,230, which is actually 12% less than if they had started work straight out of high school. This discrepancy is explained by the tendency for men to seek training in engineering-related trades, while women often seek training in service trades such as hairdressing. Four years after certification, median employment incomes for individual trades range from $21,000 for hairdressers to $107,220 for heavy-duty equipment technicians.\n", "Men had already been shaving at barber's shops and later at home when a men's disposable \"safety-razor\" was introduced for home use in 1903. Quickly successful, Gillette sold 90,000 razor sets the next year. A female market for hair removal products, on the other hand, did not yet exist in the United States; that market had to be created.\n", "The Aqiqah ceremony involves shaving the child's head seven days after birth and anointing the child’s head with saffron. It is traditional to give in charity gold or silver equal in weight to the hair. This does not have to be done by actually weighing the hair; if it is too difficult to do that, it is sufficient to estimate the weight and give paper currency equivalent to the price of that amount of gold or silver.\n\nSection::::Slavic culture.\n\nSection::::Slavic culture.:Polish.\n", "She is reportedly the first stylist in New York to charge US$600.00 for a haircut. She currently charges US$800.00 for a haircut. According to an article posted in the \"Palm Beach Post\", she is the \"first woman to achieve the status of an Oribe or Frederic Fekkai.\"\n\nHershberger has also been featured on the Bravo reality television series, \"Shear Genius\".\n\nSection::::Salons.\n", "Consumers are generally not very aware of post-use costs. Since developed countries usually include the disposal costs in property or public service taxes, these costs are not explicitly related to the product, except when those extra costs are billed directly to the consumer.\n", "In the Quickcut challenge, teams were to sell haircuts to mall patrons within a 2-hour period; what services and what prices they offered were up to the teams. The team that made the most money won the challenge. Tyson and Tabatha won the challenge, earning more money than the other two teams combined, by charging $50 per haircut, as opposed to $5–$20 that the other teams used.\n", "Criticism of the pink tax includes the principle that the idea robs women of agency and choice by suggesting that women are so easily brainwashed by marketing that they are prevented from choosing the lesser priced but otherwise \"identical\" male-marketed alternative. Instead, critics have attributed the pricing disparity to market forces, and stated that if women continue to buy a more expensive pink razor, it is because they see some utility or additional aesthetic that they are willing to pay for. Substantive differences in price indicates differences in the marketability of different products.\n", "Section::::Collecting.\n", "A more specific eponymous example was the so-called \"Sawyer\" of James \"Sawyer\" Ford, the character played by Josh Holloway in the ABC-TV series \"Lost\" (2004–2010), or the shaggy \"Justin Bieber haircut\" debuted by the pop singer in 2008. Some salons charged up to $150 for the forward-combed look. When Bieber changed his hairstyle in 2011, it received considerable press. He gave the cut hair to talk-show host Ellen DeGeneres, who auctioned Bieber's hair on eBay, earning more than $40,000 for an animal charity.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Ziggy Stardust haircut\n", "With consumer products, differential pricing is usually not based explicitly on the actual gender of the purchaser, but is achieved implicitly by the use of differential packaging, labelling, or colour schemes designed to appeal to male or female consumers. In many cases, where the product is marketed to make an attractive gift, the gender of the purchaser may be different from that of the end user.\n" ]

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[ "MasterCard and Visa in the United States say they cover \"Physical damage and/or theft\", but an introductory paragraph for some MasterCards and all Visa cards limits this to \"collision or theft,\" so vandalism and hail are excluded. It may be ambiguous whether deer impacts and glass chips are covered as \"collisions.\" MasterCards from Bank of America and MBNA generally have a simpler opening paragraph, which leaves coverage in place for any physical damage.\n", "At common law, disclaimers can also have effect as conditions of a license (i.e. permission) to enter land. An occupier of land will have certain duties to take care for the personal safety of people he or she allows onto the premises. By placing a sign at the entrance to the premises, such as \"visitors enter at their own risk\", the occupier may be able to stop entrants successfully suing in tort for damage or injury caused by the unsafe nature of the premises. Warnings or disclaimers contained in signs may, by a slightly different legal analysis leading to the same result, allow the person who would otherwise be responsible to rely on the defense of consent.\n", "Regard must be had to whether the provision imposing the duty is peremptory or permissive.\n", "Where there is only a single operative cause for the loss and damage suffered by the claimant, it is a relatively simple matter to determine whether that cause was a breach of the duty of care owed to the claimant by the defendant. But where the sequence of events leading to the loss and damage comprises more than one cause, the process of separating and attributing potential or actual liability is more complicated.\n\nSection::::Discussion.:Act of God and other natural events as contributing causes.\n", "Section 1(5) of the Act covers warnings. It states that the occupier discharges his duty \"by taking such steps as are reasonable in all the circumstances of the case to give warning of the danger concerned or to discourage persons from incurring the risk\". However, simply providing a warning sign is not enough; the sign must be clear enough to ensure that the risk is obvious to the trespasser. Whether or not the warning sign makes the risks obvious is dependent on the trespasser; warning notices are often considered inadequate for children, who may be either unable to read or unable to appreciate the danger.\n", "A nonconforming \"compensable\" sign was lawfully erected but did not comply with the provisions of state law or regulations passed at a later date. These signs violated zoning or land use provisions and generally were located in rural areas (i.e. agricultural and residential land uses). The removal of such signs require just (cash) compensation.\n", "The development of pure economic loss stems from the case of \"Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v Heller & Partners Ltd\", where it was first recognised that a duty of care may arise not to cause economic loss to others through negligent misstatements. In this case, Hedley Byrne, an advertising agency, approached Heller & Partners for a credit check on a third company, Easipower Ltd, before carrying out advertising orders on their behalf. Heller & Partners reported that Easipower Ltd was credit-worthy, and in reliance on this statement, Hedley Byrne placed advertising orders for them. When subsequently Easipower Ltd was declared bankrupt, Hedley Byrne took legal action against Heller & Partners, alleging they had been owed a duty of care when consulting for a credit reference. Whilst Hedley Byrne did not succeed in their claim, the House of Lords recognised that such a duty may be owed, where a relationship of reliance exists between two parties.\n", "Even states that have retained the traditional common law rule regarding the absence of duty towards a trespasser may impose a duty of care towards certain kinds of trespassers. For example, a dangerous condition may effectively invite children to come onto the property. Such an attractive nuisance may impose a duty of care even towards trespassers.\n\nHistorically, emergency workerspolice and firefightershave been considered licensees, but they are barred from recovering from injuries caused by the risks inherent to their jobs. Generally such injuries are instead covered by worker's compensation.\n", "The Paris Agreement provides for the continuation of the Warsaw International Mechanism but explicitly states that its inclusion \"does not involve or provide a basis for any liability or compensation\". The inclusion of this clause was the condition on which developed countries, particularly the United States, agreed to include a reference to loss and damage. However, \n\nSection::::In reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.\n", "Delictual harm is usually caused, if not always directly, by human conduct. The person responsible must have legal capacity, and his conduct ought to be voluntary, much as in criminal law. Delictual conduct includes positive acts and omissions and statements. One of the reasons why the law distinguishes between different forms of conduct is that this affects the way the courts deal with the question of wrongfulness. Courts tend to be stricter when considering whether omissions or statements are wrongful.\n\nSection::::Remedies.:Aquilian action.:Conduct.:Wrongfulness or unlawfulness.\n", "Common law holds innkeepers liable for any loss of guest property when the guest is on the premises of a place of business; in practice, such liability is often overlooked provided that the business owner meets certain conditions (such as having a guest sign a waiver of liability). In most countries, for liability waivers to be enforceable, notification of the waiver must be posted in an accessible, visible location (usually at the front desk or in a common area of the business), and must be printed in clearly legible text.\n", "Section::::Special types of harm.:Pure economic loss.\n", "Express assumption of risk occurs when the plaintiff explicitly accepts the risk, whether by oral or written agreement. For example, a gym requires its members to sign a liability waiver stating that the gym is not legally responsible for any injuries if the member drops heavy weights on him or herself. A signed liability waiver, however, is not a blanket exemption from liability for operators of a dangerous activity. The \"specific\" risk causing the injury must have been known to, and appreciated by, the plaintiff in order for primary assumption of risk to apply. Courts often refuse to enforce a general liability waiver if it fails to inform the signer of the specific risk that caused the injury. Additionally, even express assumption of risk cannot absolve a defendant of liability for reckless conduct (only negligent conduct). \n", "Product liability was the context in which the general duty of care first developed. Manufacturers owe a duty of care to consumers who ultimately purchase and use the products. In the case of \"Donoghue v Stevenson\" [1932] AC 562 of the House of Lords, Lord Atkin stated:\n\nSection::::Examples.:Land.\n", "Standing alone, \"the fact that a harm is widely shared does not necessarily render it a generalized grievance.\" Jewel, 673 F.3d at 909; see also Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497, 517 (2007) (\"[I]t does not matter how many persons have been injured by the challenged action\" so long as \"the party bringing suit shows that the action injures him in a concrete and personal way.\" (quotation marks omitted and alterations normalized)); Akins, 524 U.S. at 24 (\"[A]n injury . ... widely shared ... does not, by itself, automatically disqualify an interest for Article III purposes.\n", "An omission, as noted previously, is not \"prima facie\" wrongful, even when physical damage is caused. The courts' tendency is to be more lenient for omissions than for positive conduct. An omission will be considered wrongful only if there was a duty to act positively to prevent harm to the plaintiff. The existence of a legal duty to act positively depends on the legal (rather than the moral) convictions of the community. The following are examples of how this standard is met:\n\nBULLET::::- where one has control of a potentially dangerous object or animal;\n\nBULLET::::- where one holds public office;\n", "In the Republic of Ireland, under the Occupiers' Liability Act, 1995, the duty of care to trespassers, visitors and \"recreational users\" can be restricted by the occupier; provided reasonable notice is given, for which a prominent notice at the usual entrance to the premises usually suffices.\n\nSection::::Premises liability case law of the United States.\n\nIn United States law, premises liability law is highly developed and can differ from state to state. This section includes some examples of state case law.\n\nSection::::Premises liability case law of the United States.:Florida.\n", "\"If the nature of a thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of danger. Its nature gives warning of the consequences to be expected. If to the element of danger there is added knowledge that the thing will be used by persons other than the purchaser, and used without new tests, then, irrespective of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully ... If he is negligent, where danger is to be foreseen, a liability will follow.\"\n", "Thus only signs that are capable of being perceived visually are mentioned. That list is not exhaustive, however, as can be seen from the language of both Article 2 of the Directive and the seventh recital in the preamble thereto, which refers to a \"list of examples\" of signs of which a trade mark may consist. Consequently, that provision, although it does not mention signs that are not in themselves capable of being perceived visually, such as sounds, does not expressly exclude them. Additionally, sound signs are capable of distinguishing the goods and services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Schmidt v Rosewood Trust Ltd\" [2003] UKPC 26\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hartigan Nominees v Rydge\" (1992) 29 NSWLR 405, Kirby P said it would not be unduly burdensome for professional trustees to provide reasoned decisions and that would be likely to cause less strife than no reasons at all.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hawkesley v May\" [1955] 3 WLR 569, obligation to inform beneficiaries of their status as beneficiaries when they turn 18.\n", "That to show injury to the prior mark all relevant factors should be considered. Just because the earlier mark has a reputation, the goods are dissimilar, the prior mark is unique, and that the later mark calls the prior one to mind, is insufficient to show that the later mark causes injury.\n\nLastly injury can be shown even if the prior mark is not unique. First use of the subsequent mark may cause injury and so likelihood of future harm is sufficient proof, and that evidence of injury requires proof of a change in economic behaviour of the relevant consumers.\n", "A famous early case in negligence \"per se\" is \"Gorris v. Scott\" (1874), a Court of Exchequer case that established that the harm in question must be of the kind that the statute was intended to prevent. \"Gorris\" involved a shipment of sheep that was washed overboard but would not have been washed overboard had the shipowner complied with the regulations established pursuant to the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act 1869, which required that livestock be transported in pens to segregate potentially-infected animal populations from uninfected ones. Chief Baron Fitzroy Kelly held that as the statute was intended to prevent the spread of disease, rather than the loss of livestock in transit, the plaintiff could not claim negligence \"per se\".\n", "Two types of damages are dealt with: (1) damage caused by agents in their normal condition; (2) damage caused by agents in their abnormal condition. An instance of the first class of agents is an ox treading upon things that are in his way and thus damaging them, or eating things that are in his path. An instance of the second class is the case of a Goring Ox, as under normal circumstances an ox does not gore.\n\nSection::::Damage caused without criminality.:Agents in their normal condition.\n", "Usage of protective signs is restricted to armed conflicts. They are to be used only by eligible organizations or groups to mark their personnel, vehicles, buildings and other objects. The misuse of protective signs is a violation of international humanitarian law and punishable under the national law of all countries who are state parties to the respective treaties.\n\nSection::::List of protective signs.\n\nThe following signs have a protective meaning under certain conditions:\n", "These are classified as people who intrude onto property without permission. The degree of care owed to trespassers, although slight, nevertheless exists particularly in situations where a source of danger is deliberately created or where small children are involved. An example would be where live wires were left exposed after the centre had closed. If some children entered the premises for some reason, despite that reason, if they were injured the owner of the centre would be liable.\n" ]

[ "Signs saying “We are not responsible for harm/loss\" are binding.", "Signs saying “We are not responsible for harm/loss” are binding." ]

[ "Signs saying “We are not responsible for harm/loss\" hold zero weight in court.", "Signs reading “We are not responsible for harm/loss” are not legally binding." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Signs saying “We are not responsible for harm/loss\" are binding.", "Signs saying “We are not responsible for harm/loss” are binding." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Signs saying “We are not responsible for harm/loss\" hold zero weight in court.", "Signs reading “We are not responsible for harm/loss” are not legally binding." ]

[ "But although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites. Most artificial satellites operate in this region called low Earth orbit and must fire their engines every couple of weeks or a few times a year (depending on solar activity). The drag here is low enough that it could theoretically be overcome by radiation pressure on solar sails, a proposed propulsion system for interplanetary travel. Planets are too massive for their trajectories to be significantly affected by these forces, although their atmospheres are eroded by the solar winds.\n", "The density of the atmosphere varies greatly due to space weather and other unknown processes. The International Space Station once dropped in height by tens of kilometers in a span of a few days and by understanding drag forces and composition of the atmosphere we can provide better data about this phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Science.\n", "Atmospheric molecules can also escape from the polar regions on a planet with a magnetosphere, due to the polar wind. Near the poles of a magnetosphere, the magnetic field lines are open, allowing a pathway for ions in the atmosphere to exhaust into space.\n\nSection::::Impact erosion.\n\nThe impact of a large meteoroid can lead to the loss of atmosphere. If a collision is sufficiently energetic, it is possible for ejecta, including atmospheric molecules, to reach escape velocity. \n", "The troposphere begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the mesosphere has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km.\n", "where \"G\" is the Gravitational constant and \"g\" is the Gravitational acceleration. The escape velocity from Earth's surface is about 11 200 m/s, and is irrespective of the direction of the object. This makes \"escape velocity\" somewhat of a misnomer, as the more correct term would be \"escape speed\": any object attaining a velocity of that magnitude, irrespective of atmosphere, will leave the vicinity of the base body as long as it doesn't intersect with something in its path.\n\nSection::::Relative velocity.\n", "Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere (approximately 80–500 km above the surface) or exosphere (approximately 500 km and up), depending on orbit height. Due to atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km. Objects in LEO orbit Earth between the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt.\n", "Since gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, a space station 400 km above the Earth feels almost the same gravitational force as we do on the Earth's surface. The reason a space station does not plummet to the ground is not that it is not subject to gravity, but that it is in a free-fall orbit.\n\nSection::::Gas giants.\n\nFor gas giant planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, where the surfaces are deep in the atmosphere and the radius not known, the surface gravity is given at the 1 bar pressure level in the atmosphere. \n", "Section::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.:Sputtering escape.\n\nExcess kinetic energy from the solar wind can impart sufficient energy to eject atmospheric particles, similar to sputtering from a solid surface. This type of interaction is more pronounced in the absence of a planetary magnetosphere, as the electrically charged solar wind is deflected by magnetic fields, which mitigates the loss of atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.:Charge exchange escape.\n", "Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.\n", "Section::::Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes in the Solar System.:Titan and Io.\n", "Section::::Atmospheric escape.\n\nSurface gravity differs significantly among the planets. For example, the large gravitational force of the giant planet Jupiter retains light gases such as hydrogen and helium that escape from objects with lower gravity. Secondly, the distance from the Sun determines the energy available to heat atmospheric gas to the point where some fraction of its molecules' thermal motion exceed the planet's escape velocity, allowing those to escape a planet's gravitational grasp. Thus, distant and cold Titan, Triton, and Pluto are able to retain their atmospheres despite their relatively low gravities.\n", "Section::::In outer space.\n\nThe solar wind is quite different from a terrestrial wind, in that its origin is the sun, and it is composed of charged particles that have escaped the sun's atmosphere. Similar to the solar wind, the planetary wind is composed of light gases that escape planetary atmospheres. Over long periods of time, the planetary wind can radically change the composition of planetary atmospheres.\n\nThe fastest wind ever recorded is coming from the accretion disc of the IGR J17091-3624 black hole. Its speed is , which is 3% of the speed of light.\n\nSection::::In outer space.:Planetary wind.\n", "The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape the Solar System from a location at a distance from the Sun equal to the distance Sun–Earth, but not close to the Earth, requires around 42 km/s velocity, but there will be \"partial credit\" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.\n", "Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about Pa at of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.\n", "BULLET::::- be lost to space either by solar radiation pressure or, if the gases are ionized, by being swept away in the solar wind's magnetic field.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "For Earth, atmospheric entry occurs at the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62.14 mi / ~ 54 nautical mi) above the surface, while at Venus atmospheric entry occurs at 250 km (155.3 mi / ~135 nautical mi) and at Mars atmospheric entry at about 80 km (50 mi / ~ 43.2 nautical mi). Uncontrolled, objects reach high velocities while accelerating through space toward the Earth under the influence of Earth's gravity, and are slowed by friction upon encountering Earth's atmosphere. Meteors are also often travelling quite fast relative to the Earth simply because their own orbital path is different from that of the Earth before they encounter Earth's gravity well. Most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital (e.g., intercontinental ballistic missile reentry vehicles), orbital (e.g., the Soyuz), or unbounded (e.g., meteors) trajectories. Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities. An alternative low-velocity method of controlled atmospheric entry is buoyancy which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres, strong gravity, or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry, such as the atmospheres of Venus, Titan and the gas giants.\n", "Section::::Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes in the Solar System.\n\nSection::::Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes in the Solar System.:Earth.\n\nAtmospheric escape of hydrogen on Earth is due to Jeans escape (~10 - 40%), charge exchange escape (~ 60 - 90%), and polar wind escape (~ 10 - 15%), currently losing about 3 kg/s of hydrogen. The Earth additionally loses approximately 50 g/s of helium primarily through polar wind escape. Escape of other atmospheric constituents is much smaller. A Japanese research team in 2017 found evidence of a small number of oxygen ions on the moon that came from the Earth.\n", "In common usage, the initial point is on the surface of a planet or moon. On the surface of the Earth, the escape velocity is about 11.2 km/s, which is approximately 33 times the speed of sound (Mach 33) and several times the muzzle velocity of a rifle bullet (up to 1.7 km/s). However, at 9,000 km altitude in \"space\", it is slightly less than 7.1 km/s.\n", "While outer space provides the most rarefied example of a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were originally thought to be seamlessly filled by a rigid indestructible material called aether. Borrowing somewhat from the pneuma of Stoic physics, aether came to be regarded as the rarefied air from which it took its name, (see Aether (mythology)). Early theories of light posited a ubiquitous terrestrial and celestial medium through which light propagated. Additionally, the concept informed Isaac Newton's explanations of both refraction and of radiant heat. 19th century experiments into this luminiferous aether attempted to detect a minute drag on the Earth's orbit. While the Earth does, in fact, move through a relatively dense medium in comparison to that of interstellar space, the drag is so minuscule that it could not be detected. In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: \"While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there\".\n", "If we define the exobase as the height at which upward-traveling molecules experience one collision on average, then at this position the mean free path of a molecule is equal to one pressure scale height. This is shown in the following. Consider a volume of air, with horizontal area formula_1 and height equal to the mean free path formula_2, at pressure formula_3 and temperature formula_4. For an ideal gas, the number of molecules contained in it is:\n\nwhere formula_6 is the universal gas constant. From the requirement that each molecule traveling upward undergoes on average one collision, the pressure is:\n", "In principle, the exosphere covers distances where particles are still gravitationally bound to Earth, i.e. particles still have ballistic orbits that will take them back towards Earth. The upper boundary of the exosphere can be defined as the distance at which the influence of solar radiation pressure on atomic hydrogen exceeds that of Earth's gravitational pull. This happens at half the distance to the Moon (the average distance between Earth and the Moon is ). The exosphere, observable from space as the geocorona, is seen to extend to at least from Earth's surface.\n\nSection::::Moon's exosphere.\n", "Aerospace is not the same as airspace, which is the physical air space directly above a location on the ground. The beginning of space and the ending of the air is considered as 100 km above the ground according to the physical explanation that the air pressure is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "An airfoil produces a pressure field in the surrounding air, as explained under \"The wider flow around the airfoil\" above. The pressure differences associated with this field die off gradually, becoming very small at large distances, but never disappearing altogether. Below the airplane, the pressure field persists as a positive pressure disturbance that reaches the ground, forming a pattern of slightly-higher-than-ambient pressure on the ground, as shown on the right. Although the pressure differences are very small far below the airplane, they are spread over a wide area and add up to a substantial force. For steady, level flight, the integrated force due to the pressure differences is equal to the total aerodynamic lift of the airplane and to the airplane's weight. According to Newton's third law, this pressure force exerted on the ground by the air is matched by an equal-and-opposite upward force exerted on the air by the ground, which offsets all of the downward force exerted on the air by the airplane. The net force due to the lift, acting on the atmosphere as a whole, is therefore zero, and thus there is no integrated accumulation of vertical momentum in the atmosphere, as was noted by Lanchester early in the development of modern aerodynamics.\n", "The atmosphere of the Moon is a very scant presence of gases surrounding the Moon. For most practical purposes, the Moon is considered to be surrounded by vacuum. The elevated presence of atomic and molecular particles in its vicinity compared to interplanetary medium, referred to as \"lunar atmosphere\" for scientific objectives, is negligible in comparison with the gaseous envelopes surrounding Earth and most planets of the Solar System. The pressure of this small mass is around , varying throughout the day, and in total mass less than 10 metric tonnes. Otherwise, the Moon is considered not to have an atmosphere because it cannot absorb measurable quantities of radiation, does not appear layered or self-circulating, and requires constant replenishment due to the high rate at which its gases get lost into space.\n", "In order to have a significant effect on atmospheric escape, the radius of the impacting body must be larger than the scale height. The projectile can impart momentum, and thereby facilitate escape of the atmosphere, in three main ways: (a) the meteroid heats and accelerates the gas it encounters as it travels through the atmosphere, (b) solid ejecta from the impact crater heat atmospheric particles through drag as they are ejected, and (c) the impact creates vapor which expands away from the surface. In the first case, the heated gas can escape in a manner similar to hydrodynamic escape, albeit on a more localized scale. Most of the escape from impact erosion occurs due to the third case. The maximum atmosphere that can be ejected is above a plane tangent to the impact site.\n" ]

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[ "Labels typically own the copyright in the records their artists make, and also the master copies of those records. An exception is when a label makes a distribution deal with an artist; in this case, the artist, their manager, or another party may own the copyright (and masters), while the record is licensed exclusively to the label for a set period of time. Promotion is a key factor in the success of a record, and is largely the label's responsibility, as is proper distribution of records.\n", "However, not all labels dedicated to particular artists are completely superficial in origin. Many artists, early in their careers, create their own labels which are later bought out by a bigger company. If this is the case it can sometimes give the artist greater freedom than if they were signed directly to the big label. There are many examples of this kind of label, such as Nothing Records, owned by Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails; and Morning Records, owned by the Cooper Temple Clause, who were releasing EPs for years before the company was bought by RCA.\n", "A contract either provides for the artist to deliver completed recordings to the label, or for the label to undertake the recording with the artist. For artists without a recording history, the label is often involved in selecting producers, recording studios, additional musicians, and songs to be recorded, and may supervise the output of recording sessions. For established artists, a label is usually less involved in the recording process.\n", "BULLET::::- publisher : for the purposes of copyright, a publisher is the owner of the copyrighted work. It is now standard practice for songwriters of even the slightest prominence to form a publishing company as a separate legal entity to hold the rights to their work. Continued use of the, now somewhat anachronistic, term \"publisher\" reflects the state of media at the time of the Berne Convention, when all music distribution was done on paper as sheet music or player piano rolls.\n\nSection::::Broadcasting.\n", "The copyrights owned and administered by publishing companies are one of the most important forms of intellectual property in the music industry. (The other is the copyright on a master recording which is typically owned by a record company) Publishing companies play a central role in managing this vital asset.\n\nSection::::The music publisher's role.\n", "Traditionally, music publishing royalties are split seventy/thirty, with thirty percent going to the publisher (as payment for their services) and the rest going to the songwriter – or songwriters, as the case may be. Other arrangements have been made in the past, and continue to be; some better for the writers, some better for the publishers. Occasionally a recording artist will ask for a co-writer's credit on a song (thus sharing in both the artist and publishing royalties) in exchange for selecting it to perform, particularly if the writer is not well known. Sometimes an artist's manager or producer will expect a co-credit or share of the publishing (as with Norman Petty and Phil Spector), and occasionally a publisher will insist on writer's credit (as Morris Levy did with several of his acts); these practices are listed in ascending order of scrupulousness, as regarded by the music industry.\n", "Section::::Relationship with artists.\n", "When a company (recording label) records the composed music, say, on a CD master, it obtains a distinctly \"separate\" copyright to the sound recording, with all the exclusivities that flow to such copyright. The main obligation of the recording label to the songwriter and her publisher is to pay the contracted royalties on the license received.\n", "WEA Manufacturing Inc. was created in 1978–1979 when Warner Communications Inc. purchased two of its longtime suppliers: the record pressing plants Specialty Records Corporation (Olyphant, Pennsylvania) and Allied Record Company (Los Angeles). The company was headquartered in Olyphant, where the original plant was replaced in late 1981 by a new facility which retained the name Specialty Records Corporation. The Specialty Records Corporation name was dropped in 1996 in favor of WEA Manufacturing.\n", "Rock-n-roll pioneer Buddy Holly split with longtime manager Norman Petty over publishing matters in late 1958, as did the Buckinghams with producer James William Guercio almost a decade later. John Fogerty of Creedence Clearwater Revival was sued by his former publisher Saul Zaentz (who'd also served as his manager) over a later Fogerty song that sounded slightly like a CCR song Zaentz published. (Fogerty won in court.)\n", "The most unscrupulous type of music publisher is the songshark, who does little if any real \"legwork\" or promotion on behalf of songwriters. Songsharks make their profit not on royalties from sales, but by charging inexperienced writers for \"services\" (some real, such as demo recording or musical arranging, some fictional, such as \"audition\" or \"review\" fees) a legitimate publisher would provide without cost to the writer, as part of their job. (By comparison, a bona fide publisher who charges admission to a workshop for writers, where songs may be auditioned or reviewed, isn't wrong to do so.)\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 : \"Tarboro Blues\" by George Higgs\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 : \"Mississippi Rubberleg\" by Adolphus Bell\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 : \"Lee Gates and the Alabama Cotton Kings\" by Lee Gates\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 : \"Drinkhouse\" by Macavine Hayes (MM53)\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 : \"Carolina Breakdown\" by Etta Baker with Cora Phillips (MM56)\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 : \"One Man Band\" by Adolphus Bell (MM58)\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 : \"Treasure Box\" (MM61-62-63)\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 : \"John Dee Holeman & The Waifs Band\" (MM68)\n", "The relationship between record labels and artists can be a difficult one. Many artists have had albums altered or censored in some way by the labels before they are released—songs being edited, artwork or titles being changed, etc. Record labels generally do this because they believe that the album will sell better if the changes are made. Often the record label's decisions are prudent ones from a commercial perspective, but these decisions may frustrate artists who feel that their art is being diminished or misrepresented by such actions.\n", "In the early days of the recording industry, recording labels were absolutely necessary for the success of any artist. The first goal of any new artist or band was to get signed to a contract as soon as possible. In the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, many artists were so desperate to sign a contract with a record company that they sometimes ended up signing agreements in which they sold the rights to their recordings to the record label in perpetuity. Entertainment lawyers are usually employed by artists to discuss contract terms.\n", "Stefan Herwig has been quoted as saying that \"The strategy of mass release campaigns of most of the companies around, hurt the market significantly, and created a confusing flood of mediocre products\" and that \"Dependent considers the artists to be an integral part of the label, consulting them on some of the most basic and fundamental issues\" and that Dependent would have a philosophy of \"quality before quantity\".\n", "A music publisher does a lot to negotiate the uses and fees for the songwriters and composers on their roster. In the 2010s, the publishing companies are a main source of revenue besides live touring, because sync licensing has persisted as a substantial income source while the music industry underwent wrenching changes that saw their previously dominant income source, record sales, steadily decline.\n\nSection::::Technologies.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Sound recording.\n", "BULLET::::- Loaded Records\n\nBULLET::::- Skyblaze Recordings\n\nBULLET::::- Sanctuary Records Group\n\nBULLET::::- Castle Communications\n\nBULLET::::- Pye Records\n\nBULLET::::- Precision Records and Tapes\n\nBULLET::::- Transatlantic Records\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar Hill Records\n\nBULLET::::- CMC International\n\nBULLET::::- Mayan Records\n\nBULLET::::- Neat Records\n\nBULLET::::- Noise Records\n\nBULLET::::- RAS Records\n\nBULLET::::- Trojan Records\n\nBULLET::::- Upsetter Records\n\nBULLET::::- Urban Records\n\nBULLET::::- Countdown Media\n\nBULLET::::- Alshire/Somerset\n\nBULLET::::- Everest Records\n\nBULLET::::- Mediaphon\n\nBULLET::::- Dobre Records\n\nBULLET::::- SRP Records\n\nBULLET::::- Alto Records\n\nBULLET::::- Sun Records\n\nBULLET::::- RAM Records\n\nBULLET::::- RBC Records\n\nBULLET::::- World Circuit Records\n\nBULLET::::- Disques Dreyfus\n\nBULLET::::- Albert Music\n\nBULLET::::- Albert Productions\n\nBULLET::::- The End Records\n", "Section::::Major labels.\n\nRecord labels are often under the control of a corporate umbrella organization called a \"music group\". A music group is typically owned by an international conglomerate \"holding company\", which often has non-music divisions as well. A music group controls and consists of music publishing companies, record (sound recording) manufacturers, record distributors, and record labels. Record companies (manufacturers, distributors, and labels) may also constitute a \"record group\" which is, in turn, controlled by a music group. The constituent companies in a music group or record group are sometimes marketed as being \"divisions\" of the group.\n", "Publishers also work to link up new songs by songwriters with suitable recording artists to record them and to place writers' songs in other media such as movie soundtracks and commercials. They will typically also handle copyright registration and \"ownership\" matters for the composer. Music print publishers also supervise the issue of songbooks and sheet music by their artists.\n\nSection::::Publishing disputes.\n", "In the 1970s successful musicians sought greater control, and one way they achieved this was with their own labels, though normally they were still operated by the large music corporations. Two of the most famous early examples of this were the Beatles' Apple Records and Led Zeppelin's Swan Song Records\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Athens – mastering\n\nBULLET::::- David Boman – engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Michaela Bosch – paintings\n\nBULLET::::- Cason Cooley – producer, programming\n\nBULLET::::- Barry Dean – vocal producer\n\nBULLET::::- Serban Ghenea – mixing\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Gore – vocal engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Lynn Grossman – A&R\n\nBULLET::::- John Hanes – engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Katie Herzig – producer, programming\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Hooper – package design\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Kuffner – engineer, producer, programming\n\nBULLET::::- Shervin Lainez – photography\n\nBULLET::::- Luke Laird – producer, programming\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Lobel – mixing assistant\n\nBULLET::::- Saul Simon MacWilliams – engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Buckley Miller – bass engineer, drum engineering\n", "According to copyright law, record companies use musical works for commercial purposes by recording, reproducing and selling them. Since SIAE acts as a mediator, record producers (who hold the economic rights according to article 72 of the Legge 22 Aprile 1941, n. 633, on the subject of “Copyright protection and other related rights”), must affix the SIAE sticker to the record and must deposit royalties to SIAE, which in turn is responsible for distributing them between authors and publishers of the work. \n", "The term \"record label\" derives from the circular label in the center of a vinyl record which prominently displays the manufacturer's name. During its existence, the styling of the RSO circular label changed as it changed its distribution partner. \n\nBULLET::::- Atlantic Records - distributed label: Peach label with small logo\n\nBULLET::::- Polydor - distributed label: Tan label with large logo, Polydor logo at bottom perimeter of label\n\nBULLET::::- Independently distributed label: Tan label with larger logo\n\nBULLET::::- PolyGram - distributed label: Silver label with large logo\n", "\"Tied to the Tracks\" was issued in 1989. Sales did not meet RCA's expectations. In the notes for their third record, the group writes, \"RCA decided that if our little basement tape could do so well, why not spend fifty times more money and it will be fifty times better! (They think everything works like that.)\" Treat Her Right were dropped from their RCA contract.\n", "Warner Music International (formerly WEA International) is the international copyright holder and distributor for North American artists on the Warner Music record labels. An example of this is on the credits for the American artists albums which states i.e. \"Warner Bros. Records, Inc. for the U.S. and WEA International, Inc. for the world outside the U.S.\"\n" ]

[ "The rights to a song are a single thing that can be held by a record label.", "The rights of compositions and the rights of the master recording are the same. " ]

[ "The rights to a composition of a song and the rights to a master recording of that song are two different things and can be held by different entities", "The rights to composition and the rights of the master recording are different and can be held by two people. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The rights to a song are a single thing that can be held by a record label.", "The rights of compositions and the rights of the master recording are the same. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The rights to a composition of a song and the rights to a master recording of that song are two different things and can be held by different entities", "The rights to composition and the rights of the master recording are different and can be held by two people. " ]

[ "When the trigeminal nerve is directly stimulated, there is the possibility that increased light sensitivity in the ocular nerve could result. An example of directly stimulating would be plucking an eyebrow or pulling hair. In many people who show the photic sneeze reflex, even this direct stimulation can lead to a photic sneeze which is why we find it easier to sneeze while looking at a bright light.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Propofol-induced inhibitory suppression.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Optic-trigeminal summation.\n\nStimulation of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve may enhance the irritability of the maxillary branch, resulting in an increased probability of sneezing. This is similar to the mechanism by which photophobia develops by persistent light exposure relaying signals through the optic nerve and trigeminal nerve to produce increased sensitivity in the ophthalmic branch. If this increased sensitivity occurred in the maxillary branch instead of the ophthalmic branch, a sneeze could result instead of photophobia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Parasympathetic generalization.\n", "The photic sneeze effect is a genetic tendency to begin sneezing, sometimes many times consecutively (due to naso-ocular reflex), when suddenly exposed to bright light. This condition tends to occur more severely after one has emerged into the light after spending time in a dark environment. Although the syndrome is thought to affect about 18-35% of the human population, it is relatively harmless and not widely studied.\n", "The photic sneeze reflex manifests itself in the form of uncontrollable sneezing in response to a stimulus which would not produce a sneeze in people without the trait. The sneezes generally occur in bursts of 1 to 10 sneezes, followed by a refractory period that can be as long as 24 hours.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Photic sneezing.\n\nA photic sneeze results from exposure to a bright light and is the most common manifestation of the photic sneeze reflex. This reflex seems to be caused by a change in light intensity rather than by a specific wavelength of light.\n", "Photic sneeze reflex\n\nThe photic sneeze reflex (also backronymed as Autosomal Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst (ACHOO) syndrome and colloquially sun sneezing) is a reflex condition that causes sneezing in response to numerous stimuli, such as looking at bright lights or periocular (surrounding the eyeball) injection. The condition affects 18–35% of the world's population, but its exact mechanism of action is not well understood.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "The parasympathetic nervous system has many neighboring fibers that respond to different stimuli. When one stimulus activates multiple nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic generalization is occurring. There is a possibility that sensory input from the eyes could travel to the neurons in the cortex that interpret such signals, but neighboring neurons which are involved in sneezing are also activated, due to the generalization. This could lead to a sneeze in response to a stimulus other than nasal irritation.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Increased light sensitivity.\n", "One early warning sign of Coats' disease is yellow-eye in flash photography. Just as the red-eye effect is caused by a reflection off blood vessels in the back of a normal eye, an eye affected by Coats' will glow yellow in photographs as light reflects off cholesterol deposits. Children with yellow-eye in photographs are typically advised to immediately seek evaluation from an optometrist or ophthalmologist, who will assess and diagnose the condition and refer to a vitreo-retinal specialist.\n", "Section::::Risks.\n\nSneezing generally does not present any particular risks to the individual, and is usually more an annoyance than a risk of injury. The fits of sneezing brought about by the photic sneeze reflex can, however, have dangerous implications during certain scenarios and activities, such as operating a vehicle, or while undergoing operations (dental, optical) and having bright lights directed towards the patient's face.\n\nSection::::Risks.:Disease transmission.\n", "The sneeze reflex involves contraction of a number of different muscles and muscle groups throughout the body, typically including the eyelids. The common suggestion that it is impossible to sneeze with one's eyes open is, however, inaccurate. Other than irritating foreign particles, allergies or possible illness, another stimulus is sudden exposure to bright light – a condition known as photic sneeze reflex (PSR). Walking out of a dark building into sunshine may trigger PSR, or the ACHOO (autosomal dominant compulsive helio-ophthalmic outbursts of sneezing) syndrome as it's also called. The tendency to sneeze upon exposure to bright light is an autosomal dominant trait and affects 18-35% of the human population. A rarer trigger, observed in some individuals, is the fullness of the stomach immediately after a large meal. This is known as snatiation and is regarded as a medical disorder passed along genetically as an autosomal dominant trait.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nSevere or chronic photophobia, such as in migraine or seizure disorder, may result in a person not feeling well with eye ache, headache and/or neck ache. These symptoms may persist for days even after the person is no longer exposed to the offensive light source. Further, once the eyes have become sensitized to the offensive light source (which can occur even in short duration exposures), they may become even more photosensitive with extreme pain occurring upon exposure to light.\n", "BULLET::::- The inner-ear condition Ménière's disease can be aggravated by flicker. Sufferers of vertigo are recommended to not use fluorescent lights.\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphous light eruption is a condition affecting the skin thought to be caused by an adverse reaction to ultraviolet light. Its prevalence across Europe is 10-20% of the population. Artificial light sources may provoke the condition, and compact fluorescent light have been shown to produce an eruption.\n", "A study conducted by the School of Optometry at the University of Alabama at Birmingham found that females represent 67% of photic sneezers, and Caucasians represent 94%. The study also found statistically significant correlations between photic sneezing and the presence of a deviated nasal septum. The study also showed that photic sneezing is more likely to be acquired than inherited.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Response to periocular injection.\n", "BULLET::::- Seborrhoeic dermatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmune bullous diseases (immunobullous diseases)\n\nBULLET::::- Mycosis fungoides\n\nBULLET::::- Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Porphyria cutanea tarda\n\nAlso, many conditions are aggravated by strong light, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\nBULLET::::- Sjögren’s syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Sinear Usher syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Rosacea\n\nBULLET::::- Dermatomyositis\n\nBULLET::::- Darier’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Kindler-Weary syndrome\n\nSection::::Fluorescent lamps.\n\nThe Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) in 2008 reviewed the connections between light from fluorescent lamps, especially from compact fluorescent lamp, and numerous human diseases, with results including:\n", "BULLET::::- One cause of cataracts is exposure to ultraviolet light. Provided the level of UV emission from lamps is within safe limits, and the lamp a sufficient distance away from the individual, there should be no increased risk of developing cataracts.\n\nBULLET::::- Photophobia is a symptom of excessive sensitivity to light which affects 5 to 20% of the population. No studies have been conducted into the effect of compact fluorescent light on sufferers of photophobia but there is the possibility for compact fluorescent light to affect sufferers.\n", "Today, scientific attention has mainly focused on a hypothesis proposed in 1964 by Henry Everett, who was the first to call light-induced sneezing “The Photic Sneeze Effect.” Since the nervous system transmits signals at an extremely fast pace, Dr. Everett hypothesized that the syndrome was linked to the human nervous system, and was perhaps caused by the confusion of nerve signals. The genetic basis of photic sneezing still remains unclear, and single genes for this condition have not been found and studied. However, the condition often occurs within families, and it has been suggested that light-induced sneezing is a heritable, autosomal-dominant trait. A 2010 study demonstrated a correlation between photic sneezing and a single-nucleotide polymorphism on chromosome 2.\n", "Section::::Risks.:Vehicle operation.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.:Sneezing after eating.\n", "The best treatment for light sensitivity is to address the underlying cause, whether it be an eye, nervous system or other cause. Notwithstanding recent progress in understanding light sensitivity of the eye, much more research is needed to better understand and treat photophobia, especially where it relates to migraine or other nervous system disorders. Genetic research into photophobia-related disorders is also needed. If the triggering factor or underlying cause can be identified and treated, photophobia may disappear.\n\nSection::::Artificial light.\n", "While this phenomenon is poorly understood, recent research has shown that antihistamines being used to treat rhinitis due to seasonal allergies may also reduce the occurrence of photic sneezes in people affected by both conditions.\n\nThose affected by photic sneezing may find relief by shielding their eyes and/or faces with hats, scarves, and sunglasses.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Risks.:Medical procedures.\n\nUncontrollable fits of sneezing are common in patients under propofol sedation who undergo periocular or retrobulbar injection. A sneeze by a sedated patient often occurs upon insertion of a needle into or around their eye. The violent and uncontrollable movement of the head during a reflexive sneeze has potential to cause damage within the patient's eye if the needle is not removed before the sneeze occurs.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Description.:\"Das Elisabeth Linné-Phänomen\".\n\n\"Das Elisabeth Linné-Phänomen\", or the \"Elizabeth Linnæus Phenomenon\", is the name given to the phenomenon of \"flashing flowers\". Especially at dusk, the orange flowers may appear to emit small \"flashes\". Once believed to be an electrical phenomenon, it is today thought to be an optical reaction in the human eye caused by the contrast between the orange flowers and the surrounding green. The phenomenon is named after Elisabeth Christina von Linné, one of Carl Linnaeus's daughters, who discovered it at age 19.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Benign summer light eruption\" is a cutaneous condition, and a name used in continental Europe, particularly France, to describe a clinically short-lived, itchy, papular eruption particularly affecting young women after several hours of sunbathing at the beginning of summer or on sunny vacations.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Actinic Prurigo\" is a hereditary form of PLE occurring typically in native Americans.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nManagement entails regulating triggers whilst simultaneously inducing “hardening”; that is, steadily increasing exposure to sunlight, as light sensitivity is reduced with repeated sun exposure\n", "Patients may develop photophobia as a result of several different medical conditions, related to the eye, the nervous system, genetic, or other causes. Photophobia may manifest itself in an increased response to light starting at any step in the visual system, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Too much light entering the eye. Too much light can enter the eye if it is damaged, such as with corneal abrasion and retinal damage, or if its pupil(s) is unable to normally constrict (seen with damage to the oculomotor nerve).\n", "Such internal scattering is also present in the human eye, and manifests in an unwanted veiling glare most obvious when viewing very bright lights or highly reflective surfaces. In some situations, eyelashes can also create flare-like irregularities, although these are technically diffraction artifacts.\n", "Squinting is also a common involuntary reflex, especially among people with light colored eyes, during adaptation to a sudden change in lighting such as when one goes from a dark room to outdoors on a sunny day to avoid pain or discomfort of the eyes. The pupillary light reflex caused by adjustment to light takes around five minutes in people with healthy eyes, so squinting and pain after that could be a sign of photophobia.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Decreased levels of retinoic acid in the skin may contribute to comedo formation. To address this deficiency, methods to increase the skin's production of retinoid acid are being explored. A vaccine against inflammatory acne has shown promising results in mice and humans. Some have voiced concerns about creating a vaccine designed to neutralize a stable community of normal skin bacteria that is known to protect the skin from colonization by more harmful microorganisms.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nAcne can occur on cats, dogs, and horses.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Not all interactions between humans and cattle egrets are beneficial. The cattle egret can be a safety hazard to aircraft due to its habit of feeding in large groups in the grassy verges of airports, and it has been implicated in the spread of animal infections such as heartwater, infectious bursal disease and possibly Newcastle disease.\n", "Feline acne is a problem seen in cats primarily involving the formation of blackheads accompanied by inflammation on the cat's chin and surrounding areas that can cause lesions, alopecia, and crusty sores. In many cases symptoms are mild and the disease does not require treatment. Mild cases will look like the cat has dirt on its chin, but the dirt will not brush off. More severe cases, however, may respond slowly to treatment and seriously detract from the health and appearance of the cat. Feline acne can affect cats of any age, sex or breed, although Persian cats are also likely to develop acne on the face and in the skin folds. This problem can happen once, be reoccurring, or even persistent throughout the cat's life.\n", "Other conditions that can cause similar-appearing conditions include skin mites, ringworm, yeast infection, or autoimmune diseases such as eosinophilic granuloma complex (\"rodent ulcers\"). These can be ruled out by a simple biopsy of affected cells.\n\nFeline acne is one of the top five most common skin conditions that veterinarians treat.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nAlthough the exact cause of feline acne is unknown, some causes include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperactive sebaceous glands\n\nBULLET::::- Poor hygiene\n\nBULLET::::- Stress\n\nBULLET::::- Developing secondary to fungal, viral, and bacterial infections\n\nBULLET::::- Reaction to medication\n\nBULLET::::- Drinking from plastic containers to which the cat is allergic\n", "The common spotted cuscus is hunted for its meat and pelt in New Guinea, but has very little economical influence. Despite hunting, it is still common in New Guinea and most islands, but it is rarely spotted in Australia, mostly because it is a very shy creature. It was introduced by humans to Salyer, Mussau, and New Ireland, and has since flourished in these areas. The conservation status of the common spotted cuscus is least concern because of its wide population distribution, ability to flourish in a variety of environments, and lack of dominating predators. However, continued human expansion, an increase in demand for cuscus meat and pelts, and destruction of its natural habitat could lead to a demise in the spotted cuscus predominance.\n", "Not all interactions between humans and eastern cattle egrets are beneficial. The cattle egret can be a safety hazard to aircraft due to its habit of feeding in large groups in the grassy verges of airports, and it has been implicated in the spread of animal infections such as heartwater, infectious bursal disease and possibly Newcastle disease.\n", "The common spotted cuscus has an unspecialised dentition, allowing it to eat a wide variety of plant products. It eats the leaves of ficus, alstonia, and slonea plants, nectar, and the fruits of ficus, lithocarpus, aglia, and possibly mischocarpus and pometia plants. It is also known to eat flowers, small animals, and occasionally eggs. Predators of the common spotted cuscus include pythons, hawks and owls.\n\nSection::::Human interactions.\n", "None of the species is threatened on a global scale, but the two more widespread partridges are over-hunted in parts of their range. The grey partridge has been badly affected by agricultural changes, and its range has contracted considerably. The Tibetan partridge seems secure in its extensive and often inaccessible range on the Tibetan plateau.\n", "The adult cattle egret has few predators, but birds or mammals may raid its nests, and chicks may be lost to starvation, calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds. This species maintains a special relationship with cattle, which extends to other large grazing mammals; wider human farming is believed to be a major cause of their suddenly expanded range. The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them. This benefits both species, but it has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "Section::::Cases.\n\nRecently (within the last 25 years), human cases have been recorded in Uganda, Kenya, Ghana, South Africa, Rwanda, Nigeria, Italy, Israel, Mexico, Canada and the United States, and animal cases have been found in many other countries as well. (9)\n", "The Malay civet is found in many habitats, including forests, secondary habitats, cultivated land, and the outskirts of villages, and is highly adaptable to human disturbances, including \"selecting logging\" (partial forest removal).\n\nAfrican civets (\"Civettictis civetta)\" are listed as Least Concern, but in certain regions of Africa the population is declining due to hunting, both direct and indirect poisoning, and an increase in large scale farm fences that limit population flow. They are also seen as comparatively abundant options in the bushmeat trade.\n\nSection::::Relationship with humans.:Urban environments.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Conservation.\n", "From 1982 to 1990, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) stated that the species was “Rare”. This was until its status was changed to “Vulnerable” in 1994 and then to “Endangered” in 1996. According to the IUCN, the black-spotted cuscus has been classified as Critically Endangered since 2010. The population of this species is drastically declining due to human disruptions.\n", "The main threat to the black-spotted cuscus is overhunting. Due to its large size in comparison to other marsupials, it is frequently hunted for its meat. In addition, its dense, colorful fur makes it favorable for capes and headwear. The existence of the black-spotted cuscus in a limited environment makes it an easy hunting target.\n\nSection::::Conservation status.\n", "Section::::Management.:Medications.:Antibiotics.\n", "The adult cattle egret has few predators, but birds or mammals may raid its nests, and chicks may be lost to starvation, calcium deficiency, or disturbance from other large birds. This species maintains a special relationship with cattle, which extends to other large grazing mammals; wider human farming is believed to be a major cause of their suddenly expanded range. The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them. This benefits both species, but it has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "Kopi Luwak is traditionally made from the faeces of wild civets, however, due to it becoming a trendy drink, civets are being increasingly captured from the wild and fed coffee beans to mass-produce this blend. Many of these civets are housed in battery cage systems which have been criticised on animal welfare grounds. The impact of the demand for this fashionable coffee on wild palm civet populations is yet unknown but may constitute a significant threat. In Indonesia, the demand for Asian palm civets appears to be in violation of the quota set for pets.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "An estimated 5% of dogs may be affected by footpad hyperkeratosis, a thickening of the footpad and sometimes nose. Lesions usually occur at the age of 6 months. X-rays submitted voluntarily to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals shows that more than 50% of Dogues in the database are affected by hip dysplasia. Over 21% are affected by elbow dysplasia. Approximately 3% of Dogues suffer from retinal dysplasia. Patella luxation affects around 2% of Dogues.\n\nSection::::Health.:Reproduction.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n\nThe North and Baltic Sea populations of the Atlantic white-sided dolphin are listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). They are listed on Appendix II as they have an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. These species of dolphin are known to fall victims to in a polluted environment, a study from 1997 confirmed that the British and Irish populations of Atlantic white-sided dolphins to succumb to these effects.\n", "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Diet.\n", "BULLET::::- The redhead gene is not becoming extinct due to the gene for red hair being recessive, nor will the gene for blond hair disappear. Although redheads and blonds may become more rare, they will not die out unless everyone who carries those genes dies or fails to reproduce.\n\nBULLET::::- Acne is mostly caused by genetics, rather than lack of hygiene, eating fatty food, or other personal habits.\n\nSection::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Nutrition, food, and drink.\n", "There is almost 100% prevalence of infestation of the nasal mite in the northern fur seal (\"Callorhinus ursinus\") on the Pribilof Islands. Mucosal erosion was observed in the nasal turbinates as well as the nasopharynx. Based on clinical observation, the effects of the mite are of minor impairment, however, heavy infection have been shown to lead to more serious problems, such as impairment of respiration, lesions in the lungs and secondary alveolar emphysema.\n\nSection::::Human incidences.\n", "Section::::Relationship to humans.\n\nSection::::Relationship to humans.:Pollution.\n\nMajor oil spills double the winter mortality of breeding adults but appear to have little effect on birds less than three years old. This loss of breeding birds can be compensated by increased recruitment of 4–6 year olds to breeding colonies.\n\nSection::::Relationship to humans.:Recreational disturbance.\n\nNesting common murres are prone to two main sources of recreational disturbance: rock-climbing and birdwatching. Sea cliffs are a paradise for climbers as well as birds; a small island like Lundy has over 1000 described climbing routes. To minimise disturbance, some cliffs are subject to seasonal climbing bans.\n", "Section::::Management.:Alternative medicine.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n" ]

[ "Animals don't get acne", "Animals don't get acne, however humans do. " ]

[ "Animals do get acne.", "Animals actually do get acne, but it's just different from human acne, however still considered acne. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Animals don't get acne", "Animals don't get acne, however humans do. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Animals do get acne.", "Animals actually do get acne, but it's just different from human acne, however still considered acne. " ]

[ "BULLET::::- Socrates:By Here, a fair resting-place, full of summer sounds and scents. Here is this lofty and spreading plane-tree, and the agnus castus high and clustering, in the fullest blossom and the greatest fragrance; and the stream which flows beneath the plane-tree is deliciously cold to the feet. Judging from the ornaments and images, this must be a spot sacred to Achelous and the Nymphs. How delightful is the breeze:--so very sweet; and there is a sound in the air shrill and summerlike which makes answer to the chorus of the cicadae. But the greatest charm of all is the grass, like a pillow gently sloping to the head. My dear Phaedrus, you have been an admirable guide.\n", "When at the close of \"Possession: A Romance\", a novel by A. S. Byatt, the two lovers Randolph Henry Ash and Christabel LaMotte finally unite in the midst of a great storm. They wake the next day to find that the whole world had a strange new smell. It is described as 'a green smell, a smell of shredded leaves and oozing resin, of crushed wood and splashed sap, a tart smell, which bore some relation to the smell of bitten apples.' It was the described as the smell of death and destruction, however, it was said to smell fresh, lively and hopeful.\n", "Sonfist's breakthrough work, Time Landscape, was New York City's first urban forest. The juxtaposition of the pre-Colonial forest inside a modern day city epitomizes the environmental conscience that Sonfist is known for.\n\nIn his essay \"The New Economics of Environmental Art,\" Jeffrey Dietch wrote of the piece:\n", "Wife and I are come to settle here. We came last night, got up to a delightful spring day, and we are now enjoying the little book room, with the windows open, hearing the birds sing, and the place looking beautiful. The plants in the passage are just watered: and with the passage door open the room smells like a greenhouse. Pamela has dressed four beautiful flower-pots, and is now working at her frame, while I write to my dearest mother; and upon the two little stands are six pots of fine auriculas, and I am sitting in a bay window with all those pleasant feelings which the fine weather, the pretty place, the singing birds, the pretty wife and Frescati give me.\n", "Global warming and climate change are especially felt in the area, with summers becoming more tropical- featuring higher humidity with occasional afternoon thunderstorms and warmer nights. Winters are becoming warmer and drier. Due to these climatic changes, tropical plants such as mango, avocado, lychee, and plumeria are becoming a more common sight in the area, giving the town an exotic and lush feel. At night, the town often smells of these new tropical flowers and jasmine, as well as eucalyptus, as light mountain breezes blow the smells through the town.\n", "In 1708, Johann Maria Farina wrote a letter to his brother, Johann Baptist Farina, in which he describes his perfume as follows:\n\n“I have created a perfume which is reminiscent of a spring morning following a soft shower where fragrances of wild narcissi combine with that of sweet orange flowers. This perfume refreshes me and stimulates both my senses and imagination”.\n", "Floral scent emissions of most flowering plants vary predictably throughout the day, following a circadian rhythm. This variation is controlled by light intensity. Maximal emissions coincide with peaks of highest activity of visiting pollinators. For instance, snapdragon flowers, mostly pollinated by bees, have highest emissions at noon, whereas nocturnally-visited tobacco plants have highest emissions at night.\n", "In the more urban setting of \"Romeo and Juliet\", the green world becomes associated with the intimacy of romantic emotion and is notable in its \"protracted absences.\" Romeo journeys in solitary walks into the woods surrounding Verona to lament his ill-fated romance with Rosaline and remove him from a world occupied by more human matters.\n", "There is a small garden, enclosed by a network and used as an aviary, a fish farm with jets of water, and the secret garden of Flora with an Italian nymphaeum. The heart of the park is the Nymphaeum of Winds, named for the statues personifying the winds, where the paths converge. \n", "\"The concept of a year round natural microcosmic forest, which would contain plants and trees indigenous to pre-colonial New York is fresh and intriguing and is desperately needed for our city.\" – Ed Koch, Former New York City Mayor\n\n\"After making art of quiet distinction for over 30 years, Alan Sonfist suddenly finds himself close to the spotlight. His concern for the fragility of nature, rather than for its sublimeness or monumentality, makes him a forerunner of the new ecological sensibility.\" – Michael Brenson, New York Times\n", "Section::::History.:Caroline Wordsworth.\n", "Through first-person narration, the reader is immersed at the start of the story in the drab life that people live on North Richmond Street, which seems to be illuminated only by the verve and imagination of the children who, despite the growing darkness that comes during the winter months, insist on playing \"until [their] bodies glowed.\" Even though the conditions of this neighbourhood leave much to be desired, the children's play is infused with their almost magical way of perceiving the world, which the narrator dutifully conveys to the reader:\n", "During the 20th century it continued to spread along railway lines and found a liking for waste places and bombed sites after World War II which have a lot in common with the volcanic regions of home.\n\nRecently, this and other \"Senecio\" and their differing tastes for self-incompatibility and self-compatibility have been the subject of study for the purposes of understanding the evolution of plant species as the genus finds new homes and pollen partners throughout the world: \n", "Median planters were constructed as part of a streetscape improvement project in 1994. In the spring, hundreds of thousands of tulips bloom from mid April until the end of May. In 2008, a public art installation of kinetic sculptures designed by local and international architects was placed in the garden beds.\n", "Section::::\"San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)\".\n", "The narrator describes his experience walking in the streets of St. Petersburg. He loves the city at night, and feels comfortable in it. He no longer feels comfortable during the day because all the people he is used to seeing are not there. He drew his emotions from them: if they were happy, he was happy; if they were despondent, he was despondent. New faces made him feel alone. As he walked, the houses would talk to him and tell him how they were being renovated or painted a new color or being torn down.\n", "The local author H. E. Bates often would come through the village on his nocturnal walks in the 1920s and 1930s. It was on one of the night walks that he got the inspiration for his first novel, \"The Two Sisters\", when he saw a light burning in a cottage window.\n", "In 2007 Demeter introduced of the Jelly Belly Collection (based on Jelly Belly jelly bean recipes), Crayon (which smells like a new box of crayons)\"smells like that fresh box of crayons on the first day of school\"), Pure Soap, and Egg Nog.\n\nIn 2015, Demeter launched in the United Kingdom as The Library of Fragrance, because the name \"Demeter,\" which references the ancient Greek goddess of the harvest, is already in use by another company there. That year, Demeter / The Library of Fragrance launched Mountain Air, which is a scent representing the clean air of Alaska. \n", "Its entry into European gardens was most likely through the Arab-Norman culture of Sicily, but, as the garden historian John Harvey has said, \"surprisingly little is known, historically or archaeologically, of the cultural life of pre-Norman Sicily\". In the mid-14th century the Florentine Boccaccio in his \"Decameron\" describes a walled garden in which \"the sides of the alleys were all, as it were, walled in with roses white and red and jasmine; insomuch that there was no part of the garden but one might walk there not merely in the morning but at high noon in grateful shade.\" Jasmine water also features in the story of Salabaetto in the \"Decameron\". \"Jasminum officinale\", \"of the household office\" where perfumes were distilled, was so thoroughly naturalized that Linnaeus thought it was native to Switzerland. As a garden plant in London it features in William Turner's \"Names of Herbes\", 1548.\n", "O the land of an unclouded day,\n\nO they tell me of a home where no storm clouds rise,\n\nO they tell me of an unclouded day.\n\nO they tell me of a home where my friends have gone,\n\nO they tell me of that land far away,\n\nWhere the tree of life in eternal bloom\n\nSheds its fragrance through the unclouded day.\n\n[Refrain]\n\nO they tell me of a King in His beauty there,\n\nAnd they tell me that mine eyes shall behold\n\nWhere He sits on the throne that is whiter than snow,\n", "The poem, \"In a Southern Garden\", by Dorothea Mackellar is believed to relate to her early home, \"Dunara\":\n\npoem\n\n\"And a chorus rises valiantly from\n\nClose-shaded by the balsams\n\nIt is evening in a garden by the\n\nA garden near the lights of\n\n/poem\n", "Section::::History.:Post World War II trends.\n", "\"To find a word or a set of words we felt curated the whole thing, \"Bloom\" was it. And it was based on feeling and just a belief in the word. It actually has more weight for me than it has an ethereal quality. It came about where it made sense. [...] For things to feel right, it definitely has to sit for a while and I think that's why it's not ethereal for me. I associate that word with fleeting or not having any substance, I don't know. [...] I'm just saying that for us there's a certain intensity with this record, and I think the word \"bloom\" is an attempt at that.\"\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "\"Human patterns of usage - paths and walks, lookouts, picnic areas and car parks touched a chord of recognition for professionals and public alike - this is our landscape, this can be truer to our character than English parks or French formality, and so many times more pleasurable.\"\n" ]

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[ "From behaviourists such as B. F. Skinner come the learning theories, which state that complex behaviour is learned gradually through the modification of simpler behaviours. Imitation and reinforcement play important roles in these theories, which state that individuals learn by duplicating behaviours they observe in others and that rewards are essential to ensuring the repetition of desirable behaviour. As each simple behaviour is established through imitation and subsequent reinforcement, the complex behaviour develops. When verbal behaviour is established the organism can learn through rule-governed behaviour and thus not all action needs to be contingency shaped.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nFor many years, ethologists have studied the ways that behavior can change in response to changes in external stimuli or changes in the internal state of an organism. In a parallel literature, psychologists studying learning and cognition have spent years documenting the many ways that experiences in the past can affect the behavior an individual expresses at the current time. Interest in behavioral plasticity gained prominence more recently as an example of a type of phenotypic plasticity with major consequences for evolutionary biology.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary causes and consequences.\n", "One example of a releaser is the beak movements of many bird species performed by newly hatched chicks, which stimulates the mother to regurgitate food for her offspring. Other examples are the classic studies by Tinbergen on the egg-retrieval behaviour and the effects of a \"supernormal stimulus\" on the behaviour of graylag geese.\n\nOne investigation of this kind was the study of the waggle dance (\"dance language\") in bee communication by Karl von Frisch.\n\nSection::::Learning.\n\nSection::::Learning.:Habituation.\n", " While some species-typical behavior is learned from parents, it's also sometimes the product of a fixed action pattern, also known as an innate releasing mechanism (IRM). In these instances, a neural network is 'programmed' to create a hard-wired, instinctive behavior in response to an external stimulus. When a blind child hears news that makes her happy, she's likely to smile in response; she never had to be taught to smile, and she never learned this behavior by seeing others do it. Similarly, when kittens are shown a picture of a cat in a threatening posture, most of them arch their backs, bear their teeth, and sometimes even hiss, even though they've never seen another cat do this. Many IRMs can be explained by the theory of evolution - if an adaptive behavior helps a species survive long enough to be fruitful and multiply (such as a cat hissing in order to discourage an attack from another creature), the genes that coded for those brain circuits are more likely to be passed on. A heavily studied example of a fixed action pattern is the feeding behavior of the Helisoma trivolvis (pulmonata), a type of snail. A study has shown that the intricate connections within the buccal ganglia (see nervous system of gastropods) form a central system whereby sensory information stimulates feeding in the helisoma. More specifically, a unique system of communication between three classes of neurons in the buccal ganglia are responsible for forming the neural network that influences feeding.\n", "The following is an example of co-regulation between a mother and her infant, from \"Emotional Development: The Organization of Emotional Life in the Early Years\". This scenario exemplifies a mother maintaining her infant's engagement via variations in her voice, facial expressions, and body language. She sensitively elicits behaviors from the infant and adds more stimulation when appropriate. Likewise, the infant indicates and maintains the mutual engagement with her own facial expressions, vocalizations, and body language.\n\nSection::::Proposed criteria.\n", "Human behavior is believed to be influenced by the endocrine system and the nervous system. It is most commonly believed that complexity in the behavior of an organism is correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior.\n\nSection::::Models.:Animal behavior.\n", "Shaping sometimes fails. An oft-cited example is an attempt by Marian and Keller Breland (students of B.F. Skinner) to shape a pig and a raccoon to deposit a coin in a piggy bank, using food as the reinforcer. Instead of learning to deposit the coin, the pig began to root it into the ground, and the raccoon \"washed\" and rubbed the coins together. That is, the animals treated the coin the same way that they treated food items that they were preparing to eat, referred to as “food-getting” behaviors. In the case of the raccoon, it was able to learn to deposit one coin into the box to gain a food reward, but when the contingencies were changed such that two coins were required to gain the reward, the raccoon could not learn the new, more complex rule. After what could be characterized as expressions of frustration, the raccoon resorts to basic “food-getting” behaviors common to its species. These results show a limitation in the raccoon’s cognitive capacity to even conceive of the possibility that two coins could be exchanged for food, irrespective of existing auto-shaping contingencies. Since the Breland's observations were reported many other examples of untrained responses to natural stimuli have been reported; in many contexts, the stimuli are called \"sign stimuli\", and the related behaviors are called \"sign tracking\". \n", "Having a clear coding system is key to achieving high levels of inter-observer reliability. Observers and researchers must come to a consensus ahead of time regarding how behaviors are defined, and what constructs these behaviors represent. For example, in Thomas Dishion's study on the cyclical nature of deviancy in male adolescent dyads, he explicitly defines the ways in which each behavior was recorded and coded. A \"pause,\" for instance, was defined as three or more seconds of silence; a \"laugh\" coded for all positive affective reactions. This is the level of detail that must be attained when creating a coding system for a particular study.\n", "Section::::Individual differences in behavioral plasticity.\n", "Section::::The Neuroscience of Species-Typical Behavior.\n\nSpecies-typical behaviors are almost always a product of nervous systems, meaning that they're created and influenced by species' genetic code and social and natural environment; this implies that they are strongly influenced by evolution. The phenomenon of the breast crawl is a classic example of this: the vast majority of human newborns, when placed on a reclined mother’s abdomen, will find and begin to suckle on one of the mother’s breasts without any assistance.\n\nSection::::The Neuroscience of Species-Typical Behavior.:Brain Structures.\n", "Once an integrated behavior tree has been composed, there are a number of important operations that can be performed upon it.\n\nSection::::Key concepts.:Operations on integrated behavior trees.:Inspection: defect detection and correction.\n", "These two broad categories can be further broken down into two other important classifications. When an external stimulus elicits or \"activates\" an immediate response (an immediate effect on behavior), then the organism is demonstrating contextual plasticity. This form of plasticity highlights the concept that external stimuli in a given context activate neural and hormonal mechanisms or pathways which already exist inside the organism. In contrast, if an organism's current behavior is altered by past experiences, then the animal is said to be exhibiting developmental or \"innate\" behavioral plasticity. This form of plasticity is generally thought to require new neuronal pathways to form.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Non-routine:\" Any behavior that incurs disrupting a routine is considered not simple. Simple behaviors are usually part of routines and hence easy to follow.\n\nSection::::General theories and models.:Fogg Behavior Model.:Triggers.\n", "Species with complex nervous systems (esp. mammals), in addition to acting based on instinct and basic sensory stimuli, need to learn how to engage in certain activities. Because of the ways in which their nervous systems develop, they are frequently adept at learning certain behaviors at specific times in their lives.\n\nBULLET::::- White-crowned sparrows are particularly adept at learning songs between the ages of fifteen and fifty days.\n", "BULLET::::- the coherent behavior of each component referred to in the requirements.\n\nThese genetic parallels, in another context, were originally spelled by Woolfson, (A. Woolfson, Living Without Genes, Flamingo, 2000)\n", "Behavioral plasticity can be broadly organized into two types: exogenous and endogenous. Exogenous plasticity refers to the changes in behavioral phenotype (i.e., observable behaviors) caused by an external stimulus, experience, or environment. Endogenous plasticity encompasses plastic responses that result from changes in internal cues, such as genotype, circadian rhythms, and menstruation.\n", "When many individuals residing within the same area employ social learning, local traditions can be formed and cultural transmission can occur. These learned behavior complexes shared by individuals appear in the population generation after generation and persist in the behavioral repertoire of individual organisms even following removal from the immediate learning situation. One of the most commonly recognized examples of tradition in animals is found in songbirds, in which the same song pattern is transmitted from generation to generation by vocal imitation. Even \"alien\" syllable types not produced by their biological parents can be learned by finches raised by foster canaries in the lab.\n", "According to the social learning theory (more recently expanded as social cognitive theory), behavioural change is determined by environmental, personal, and behavioural elements. Each factor affects each of the others. For example, in congruence with the principles of self-efficacy, an individual's thoughts affect their behaviour and an individual's characteristics elicit certain responses from the social environment. Likewise, an individual's environment affects the development of personal characteristics as well as the person's behavior, and an individual's behaviour may change their environment as well as the way the individual thinks or feels. Social learning theory focuses on the reciprocal interactions between these factors, which are hypothesised to determine behavioral change.\n", "Invariant behavior patterns have a morphological basis, mainly in neuronal structures common to all members of a species and, depending on the kind of behavior, may also be common to a genus or family or a whole order, e.g., primates, or even to a whole class, e.g., mammals. In such structures we can retrace and follow the evolutionary process by which the environment produced structures, especially nervous systems and brains, which generate adaptive behavior. In organisms with a high level of organization, the processes in which the ethologist is especially interested are those genetically preprogrammed motor and perceptual processes that facilitate social interaction and communication, such as facial expression and vocalization. If we consider the most highly developed means of communication, language and speech, which is found in humans alone, the question arises as to the biological foundation of this species-specific behavior and perceptual skill. The ethologist examines this question primarily from the point of view of ontogenetic development.\n", "Finally, there are classical behavioural disorders that are genetically simple in their etiology, such as Huntington's disease. Huntington's is caused by a single autosomal dominant variant in the \"HTT\" gene, which is the only variant that accounts for any differences among individuals in their risk for developing the disease, assuming they live long enough. In the case of genetically simple and rare diseases such as Huntington's, the variant formula_33 and the formula_36 are simultaneously large.\n\nSection::::General findings.:Additional general findings.\n", "One example of fixed action patterns is the courtship and aggression behaviour of the male three-spined stickleback during the mating season, described in a series of studies by Niko Tinbergen. During spring, male sticklebacks change colour, establish a territory and build a nest. They attack male sticklebacks that enter their territory, but court females and entice them to enter the nest to lay eggs. Tinbergen used crude models of sticklebacks to investigate which features of male and female sticklebacks elicited attack and courtship behaviour from male sticklebacks. Tinbergen's main findings were that male sticklebacks responded in a relatively invariant way and attacked a model with a red belly, but in contrast, courted a model with a swollen belly.\n", "Section::::Parental care and family conflicts.:Familial conflict.\n", "A useful distinction to make when looking at behavioral plasticity is between potential and realized plasticity. Potential plasticity refers to the ability of a given phenotypic trait to vary in its response to variation in stimuli, experiences, or environmental conditions. Thus, potential plasticity is the theoretical range in behavioral plasticity that could be expressed. This value is never truly known, but serves more as a baseline in plasticity models. Realized plasticity, on the other hand, refers to the extent to which a given phenotype actually varies in response to changes in a specific stimulus, experience, or environmental condition.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::People's Republic of China.\n", "BULLET::::- Commercial Bank of Ethiopia Headquarters, Ethiopia\n\nBULLET::::- Addis Ababa National Stadium, Ethiopia\n\nBULLET::::- Renovation of the Alexander Hamilton Bridge, New York City, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Ventilation shafts for the 7 Subway Extension, New York City, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Sukh Chayn Gardens Housing Estate is a gated community in the suburbs of Lahore, Pakistan.\n\nBULLET::::- Federation Tower, Tower A (Ostturm), Moscow: Europe's highest skyscraper\n\nBULLET::::- Shanghai World Financial Center, Shanghai\n", "The use of architecture to fuel tourism in the PRC has been highly successful. As of 2015, China is the fourth most visited country in the world, after France, United States, and Spain, with 56.9 million international tourists per year. Foreign exchange income was 45.8 billion U.S. dollars, the world's fourth largest in 2010. The number of domestic tourist visits totaled 1.61 billion, with a total income of 777.1 billion yuan. While certainly all of this tourism cannot be attributed to architecture alone, a significant number of the tourist sites visited possess inherent architectural value.\n\nSection::::Corporate.\n", "Art Gensler, founder of Gensler, credited Xia as \"designer of the building (Shanghai Tower)\". Xia was also credited as having \"helped the firm score the Shanghai Tower contract and led the team’s work on it\", and as \"the design principal for Gensler on the project.\"\n", "In 1930s, China has emerged a large number of outstanding architects, known as the Chinese architects \"self-reliance\" period. Du Guangan was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1930 Graduate School of Architecture. He taught at the Department of Architecture in Northeastern University. Also he had worked with Liang Sicheng to carry out the study of ancient Chinese architecture, and completed the history of Chinese architecture at the end of the war. He has designed many excellent buildings for Qingdao, and actively participates in the construction of new China after the founding of the PRC.\n\nSection::::Feminism movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Construction Achievement Project of the Year Award from the American Society of Civil Engineers, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- ENR Best of the Best Award, 2016\n\nFulton Center, New York, NY:\n\nBULLET::::- Project of the Year by New York State Society of Professional Engineers, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond Award by American Council of Engineering Companies of New York, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Excellence Honorable Mention Award by Center for Active Design, 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Best of Design Awards by The Architect's Newspaper, 2015\n\nBULLET::::- MASterworks Best New Building Award by the Municipal Art Society of New York, 2015\n", "In Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony possessed of largely Portuguese-style architecture, in the capital city, Maputo, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building In East Timor, also a former Portuguese colony, the PRC funded and promoted the construction of that country's foreign ministry and funded the creation of a new East Timor embassy in Beijing despite the long-standing antagonism between the two parties.\n", "This is the stage of the prosperity and development of Chinese modern architecture. During 1920 to 1930, Shanghai, Tianjin, Beijing, Nanjing and other major cities and some provincial capitals, building activities are increasing. Nanjing, Shanghai, respectively, the \"Capital Plan\" and \"Big Shanghai Urban Plan\", the construction of a number of administrative buildings. The Construction of residential buildings, in Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Hankou and some cities in the northeast, a number of high-rise buildings with higher levels of modernization have been built. Especially in Shanghai, has 28 high-rise buildings over 10 stories in the period. Building technology has made great progress in these 20 years. Many high-rise, large, long-span, complex projects to achieve a high construction quality. Some of the buildings in the design and technical equipment has been close to the foreign advanced level. The ranks of Chinese architects have grown. The architects who returned from abroad have set up the Chinese architects ' office and have set up the architectural specialty in the middle and higher schools, introduced and disseminated the architectural technology and creative ideas of the developed countries.\n", "This is the stagnation period of Chinese modern architecture. During the anti-Japanese war, China's construction industry was in a state of depression. After the Second World War, many countries were actively engaged in post-war construction and the construction activities were very active. Through the spread of Western architectural books and the introduction of a few newly returned architects, Chinese architects have more contact with the thought of modern architecture abroad. Only in this period, China is in the domestic war environment, there are few construction activities, and modern architectural trend of thought has no great influence on Chinese construction practice.\n", "The People's Republic of China (PRC) is currently engaged in a prolonged public relations campaign with many other nations, the developing world particularly. This campaign has been termed a \"charm offensive\" by Joshua Kurlantzick in his book of the same name. Among the many elements of soft power used by the PRC is that of architecture. China has a rich architectural tradition to draw from and to publicize with. This allows the PRC government to promote tourism to famous architectural sites like the Great Wall or the Forbidden City. Furthermore, a rich architectural history combined with a desire to spread pro-PRC sentiment means that PRC funding of building projects abroad is increasingly common. \". . . Many scholars associated China's aid with giant white-elephant projects, like large buildings and ministries and similar structures.\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2013: Best Tall Building Worldwide – CCTV Headquarters, Beijing – 12th Annual CTBUH Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Best Futura Project – DUO, Singapore – MIPIM Asia Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Green Mark Gold Plus – The Interlace, Singapore – Building and Construction Authority\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Best Architecture – The Interlace, Singapore – Asia Pacific Property Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Architecture's Ten Best – CCTV Headquarters, Beijing – The New Yorker\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Best Building Site – CCTV Headquarters, Beijing – Wallpaper* Magazine\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Best New Global Design – CCTV Headquarters, Beijing – International Architecture Awards\n", "BULLET::::- Footnote on Yingzao Fashi, 1981, China Architecture & Building Press ()\n\nSection::::Cultural Revolution.\n", "BULLET::::- Ding Shizhao, ‘55: Project Management Specialist, Project Management Institute of Peking University and honorary director of the British Royal Institution of Chartered senior construction engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Yang Shiqin, ‘56: the former president of Harbin Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Wang Yifei, ‘57: Embryologist, former president of Shanghai Second Medical University\n\nBULLET::::- Song Baoyun, ‘57: the former vice president of Dalian Railway, China's continuous extrusion technology, one of the founders\n\nBULLET::::- Xing Tonghe, ‘57: Architect, Shanghai Modern Architectural Design Group chief architect, architectural design of the Shanghai World Expo Center\n\nBULLET::::- Wang Shenghong, ‘59: the former president of Peking University\n", "Tourism is a major contributor to the economy. In 2017, this sector contributed about CNY 8.77 trillion (US$1.35 trillion), 11.04% of the GDP, and contributed direct and indirect employment of up to 28.25 million people. There were 139.48 million inbound trips and five billion domestic trips. China is now #1 in the number of skyscrapers (buildings taller than 200m), accounting for about 50% of world's total. In four years—2015 through 2018—China built 310 skyscrapers, while the corresponding number for the US was 33.\n\nSection::::Economy.:Economic history and growth.:Hi-Tech Industry in China.\n", "Section::::History.:THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY.\n\nSection::::History.:THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY.:1920s Established “Shanghai Style\".\n\nThe Shanghai office was opened. Saturation piling was introduced to allow buildings to rise above three storeys. The Hong Kong Shanghai Bank was completed on the famous Shanghai Bund. The Shanghai Customs Building was completed, establishing a distinctive “Shanghai Style”.\n\nSection::::History.:THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY.:1930s During the war.\n", "BULLET::::- Construction Achievement Project of the Year Award by the ASCE Metropolitan Section, 2015\n\nRiver Bluff High School, Lexington, SC:\n\nBULLET::::- Excellence in Construction Awards, 2013\n\nWest Eighth Street–New York Aquarium station, Brooklyn, NY:\n\nBULLET::::- Best of 2004 Award by New York Construction, 2004\n\nBULLET::::- Design Award by AIA New York State, 2006\n\nPower Plant, Astoria, NY:\n\nBULLET::::- New York Tri-State's Top 40 Projects by New York Construction, 2005\n\nBULLET::::- Best of 2006 by ENR New York, 2006\n\nBULLET::::- New Project Award by General Building Contractors, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Building of America Award by Real Estate & Construction Review, 2009\n", "In 1988, Wu and Dai designed the architecture school of Tongji University. At the time Chinese universities were poorly financed; they were given a budget of only US$570,000 for the building. The building was well received, and they were subsequently commissioned to design the university's Run Run Shaw Building and the Graduate School Building.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 Electron Department, Dongguan Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 Liberal Art Department, Dongguan Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 Computer Department, Dongguan Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 Tri-house\n\nSection::::Awards.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 2012 WA Chinese Architecture Award, Shortlist, for Spiral Gallery\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Year's Design Vanguard of 2011, by Architectural Record (USA)\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Second Prize, 2010 CA’ASI Chinese New Architecture\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Honorable award, 2010 Far Eastern Outstanding Architectural Design Award, Kindergarten in Jiading New Town\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Honorable Award, 2010 WA China Architecture Awards, Kindergarten in Jiading New Town\n", "Section::::History.:THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY.:1950s.\n\nThe new Chartered Bank and Bank of China buildings were completed, continuing the firm's “Shanghai Style”. The grand Goodwood Park Hotel was completed in Singapore, reflecting a distinctive South East Asian tropical style.\n\nSection::::History.:THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY.:1960s.\n\nThe Hilton Hotel, Choi Hung Housing Estate and AIA Building were completed in a modern style, the latter two winning the Hong Kong Institute of Architects award.\n\nSection::::History.:THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY.:1970s Jardine House.\n", "2000s: U.S. expansion continued with the acquisition of Miami-based H.J. Ross Associates, Inc., Northern California's CCS Planning and Engineering, multi-location FRA Engineering and Architecture, and Medina Consultants on the East Coast. The acquisitions strengthened the firm's services in the areas of ITS/traffic engineering and transportation engineering through its aviation and rail and transit line of businesses for such projects as Miami International Airport's expansion project. In Asia, TYLI oversaw the design of major bridges in China's fast-growing central region, including the Shibanpo Bridge and the Caiyunba Bridge in Chongqing, and the Second Wujiang Bridge in Fulin.\n", "BULLET::::- Inter IKEA, Wuxi and Wuhan\n\nBULLET::::- Gleneagles Medini Hospital, Malaysia\n\nBULLET::::- Changi General Hospital, Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- Sandhill Plaza, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- YCIS International School, interior design, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- Ordos Airport, Inner Mongolia\n\nBULLET::::- Sephora Flagship Store, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- Paul & Shark Flagship Store, Hong Kong\n\nBULLET::::- New Shanghai International Tower, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- Shanghai Hong Kong New World Tower, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- You You International Plaza, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Zizhu Campus, Shanghai\n\nBULLET::::- Özdilek Centre, Istanbul\n\nBULLET::::- Survam Knowledge Park, Gurgaon, Haryana, India\n\nBULLET::::- Xiamen International Conference Centre, Xiamen\n\nBULLET::::- Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport, Xiamen\n\nBULLET::::- Haikou Meilan Airport Terminal, Haikou\n", "2011 - AIA San Francisco Chapter: Constructed Realities: Architectural Detail Honor Award br\n\n2011 - Architect Magazine: R + D Award br\n\n2010 - Beijing Modern: Top Ten Building Prizebr\n\n2010 - China Tien-Yow Jeme: Civil Engineering Prizebr\n\n2010 - Urban Land Institute: Award for Excellence: Finalist br\n\n2009 - Beijing Municipal Information Department: Beijing Top Ten Buildings Awardbr\n\n2008 - AIA Hong Kong: Merit Award br\n\n2008 - Chicago Athenaeum: American Architecture Awardbr\n\n2008 - Chicago Athenaeum: International Architecture Award br\n\n2008 - MIPIM Asia: Business Centre Category br\n", "Brookfield Place Glass Pavilion, New York, NY:\n\nBULLET::::- Award of Merit: Office/Retail/Mixed-Use by ENR, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Innovative Design in Engineering and Architecture with Structural Steel (IDEAS2) and Merit Award for Excellence by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Outstanding Public Space for 2014 by the Greater New York Construction User Council, 2014\n\nOne Thousand Museum, Miami, FL\n\nBaha Mar Mega Resort, Nassau, The Bahamas\n\nSection::::Other projects.\n\nSection::::Other projects.:Infrastructure.\n\nBULLET::::- Pulaski Skyway, South Kearny, NJ\n\nBULLET::::- Wittpenn Bridge, Kearn NJ\n\nBULLET::::- Replacement of Shore (Belt) Parkway Bridge over Gerritsen Inlet Bridge, New York, NY\n", "As a result, many foreign law firms, including the United States' Baker & McKenzie and Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, along with several British firms, incorporated consulting firms in their home countries or in Hong Kong and then set up subsidiaries in Beijing or Shanghai to provide legal services.\n", "BULLET::::- MIPIM Asia Green Building Award 2010 - Parkview Green\n\nBULLET::::- AIA Merit Award for Un-built Project 2010 - Hanimaadhoo Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Quality Building Award Finalist of Residential Category 2010 - One LaSalle\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong Institute of Engineers Structural Excellence Award - ESF Discovery College\n\nBULLET::::- LEED Platinum 2009 - Parkview Green\n\nBULLET::::- Top 5 Best Airports Worldwide (Multiple Years) - Rajiv Gandhi International Airport\n\nBULLET::::- AIA Merit Award for Interior Design 2002 - Hong Kong Housing Authority Exhibition Centre\n\nBULLET::::- AIA Honor Award for Un-built Project 2001 - Shenzhen MTR Depot and Office Building\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background and early claims.\n\nWhen the first periodic table of the elements was published by Dmitri Mendeleev in the early 1870s, it showed a \" — \" in place after uranium similar to several other places for then-undiscovered elements. Other subsequent tables of known elements, including a 1913 publication of the known radioactive isotopes by Kasimir Fajans, also show an empty place after uranium, element 92.\n", "Uranium minerals were derived from uraniferous pegmatites in the sediment source areas. These deposits are restricted to the Archean and early Paleoproterozoic and do not occur in sediments younger than about 2200 million years when oxygen levels in the atmosphere reached a critical level, making simple uranium oxides no longer stable in near-surface environments.\n", "The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring rare elements.\n", "Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, uranium is only naturally formed by the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers. Primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r-process, because the s-process (slow neutron capture) is too slow and cannot pass the gap of instability after bismuth. Besides the two extant primordial uranium isotopes, U and U, the r-process also produced significant quantities of U, which has a shorter half-life and has long since decayed completely to Th, which was itself enriched by the decay of Pu, accounting for the observed higher-than-expected abundance of thorium and lower-than-expected abundance of uranium. While the natural abundance of uranium has been supplemented by the decay of extinct Pu (half-life 0.375 million years) and Cm (half-life 16 million years), producing U and U respectively, this occurred to an almost negligible extent due to the shorter half-lives of these parents and their lower production than U and Pu, the parents of thorium: the Cm:U ratio at the formation of the Solar System was .\n", "Exactly because the different uranium isotopes have different half-lives, when the Earth was younger, the isotopic composition of uranium was different. As an example, 1.7×10 years ago the NA of U was 3.1% compared with today's 0.7%, and for that reason a natural nuclear fission reactor was able to form, something that cannot happen today.\n", "The eight naturally occurring very rare, highly radioactive elements (polonium, astatine, francium, radium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and plutonium) are not included, since any of these elements that were present at the formation of the Earth have decayed away eons ago, and their quantity today is negligible and is only produced from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.\n", "On rare occasions, earlier in geologic history when uranium-235 was more abundant, uranium ore was found to have naturally engaged in fission, forming natural nuclear fission reactors. Uranium-235 decays at a faster rate (half-life of 700 million years) compared to uranium-238, which decays extremely slowly (half-life of 4.5 billion years). Therefore, a billion years ago, there was more than double the uranium-235 compared to now.\n", "All of the elements with higher atomic numbers have been first discovered in the laboratory, with neptunium and plutonium later also discovered in nature. They are all radioactive, with a half-life much shorter than the age of the Earth, so any primordial atoms of these elements, if they ever were present at the Earth's formation, have long since decayed. Trace amounts of neptunium and plutonium form in some uranium-rich rock, and small amounts are produced during atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons. These two elements are generated from neutron capture in uranium ore with subsequent beta decays (e.g. U + n → U → Np → Pu).\n", "The Oklo uranium ore deposits are the only known sites in which natural nuclear reactors existed. Other rich uranium ore bodies would also have had sufficient uranium to support nuclear reactions at that time, but the combination of uranium, water and physical conditions needed to support the chain reaction was unique, as far as is currently known, to the Oklo ore bodies.\n", "Another factor which probably contributed to the start of the Oklo natural nuclear reactor at 2 billion years, rather than earlier, was the increasing oxygen content in the Earth's atmosphere. Uranium is naturally present in the rocks of the earth, and the abundance of fissile was at least 3% or higher at all times prior to reactor startup. Uranium is soluble in water only in the presence of oxygen. Therefore, the rising oxygen levels during the aging of the Earth may have allowed uranium to be dissolved and transported with groundwater to places where a high enough concentration could accumulate to form rich uranium ore bodies. Without the new aerobic environment available on Earth at the time, these concentrations probably could not have taken place.\n", "Note that there are two breaks where the unstable (radioactive) elements technetium (atomic number 43) and promethium (atomic number 61) would be. These elements are surrounded by stable elements, yet both have relatively short half lives (~ 4 million years and ~ 18 years respectively). These are thus extremely rare, since any primordial initial fractions of these in pre-Solar System materials have long since decayed. These two elements are now only produced naturally through the spontaneous fission of very heavy radioactive elements (for example, uranium, thorium, or the trace amounts of plutonium that exist in uranium ores), or by the interaction of certain other elements with cosmic rays. Both technetium and promethium have been identified spectroscopically in the atmospheres of stars, where they are produced by ongoing nucleosynthetic processes.\n", "On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of nuclear transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides. For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.\n", "In the universe, thorium is among the rarest of the primordial elements, because it is one of the two elements that can be produced only in the r-process (the other being uranium), and also because it has slowly been decaying away from the moment it formed. The only primordial elements rarer than thorium are thulium, lutetium, tantalum, and rhenium, the odd-numbered elements just before the third peak of r-process abundances around the heavy platinum group metals, as well as uranium. In the distant past the abundances of thorium and uranium were enriched by the decay of plutonium and curium isotopes, and thorium was enriched relative to uranium by the decay of U to Th and the natural depletion of U, but these sources have long since decayed and no longer contribute.\n", "Criticality in nature is uncommon. At three ore deposits at Oklo in Gabon, sixteen sites (the so-called Oklo Fossil Reactors) have been discovered at which self-sustaining nuclear fission took place approximately 2 billion years ago. Unknown until 1972 (but postulated by Paul Kuroda in 1956), when French physicist Francis Perrin discovered the Oklo Fossil Reactors, it was realized that nature had beaten humans to the punch. Large-scale natural uranium fission chain reactions, moderated by normal water, had occurred far in the past and would not be possible now. This ancient process was able to use normal water as a moderator only because 2 billion years before the present, natural uranium was richer in the shorter-lived fissile isotope U (about 3%), than natural uranium available today (which is only 0.7%, and must be enriched to 3% to be usable in light-water reactors).\n", "There are several themes of uranium ore deposit formation, which are caused by geological and chemical features of rocks and the element uranium. The basic themes of uranium ore genesis are host mineralogy, reduction-oxidation potential, and porosity.\n\nUranium is a highly soluble, as well as a radioactive, heavy metal. It can be easily dissolved, transported and precipitated within ground waters by subtle changes in oxidation conditions. Uranium also does not usually form very insoluble mineral species, which is a further factor in the wide variety of geological conditions and places in which uranium mineralization may accumulate.\n", "Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The remaining 11 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. Of these 11 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium and uranium. The remaining 6 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, neptunium, and plutonium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.\n", "Uranium is also found associated with certain igneous rocks, such as granite and porphyry. The Olympic Dam deposit in Australia is an example of this type of uranium deposit. It contains 70% of Australia's share of 40% of the known global low-cost recoverable uranium inventory.\n\nSection::::Genesis of common ores.:Titanium and zirconium.\n", "Any elements with atomic number 94-118 present at the formation of the earth about 4.6 billion years ago have decayed sufficiently rapidly into lighter elements relative to the age of Earth that any atoms of these elements that may have existed when the Earth formed have long since decayed. Atoms of synthetic elements now present on Earth are the product of atomic bombs or experiments that involve nuclear reactors or particle accelerators, via nuclear fusion or neutron absorption.\n", "There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not \"primordial\"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions. Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth. Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust. Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.\n", "The first element discovered through synthesis was technetium—its discovery being definitely confirmed in 1937. This discovery filled a gap in the periodic table, and the fact that no stable isotopes of technetium exist explains its natural absence on Earth (and the gap). With the longest-lived isotope of technetium, Tc, having a 4.21-million-year half-life, no technetium remains from the formation of the Earth. Only minute traces of technetium occur naturally in the Earth's crust—as a spontaneous fission product of uranium-238 or by neutron capture in molybdenum ores—but technetium is present naturally in red giant stars.\n\nSection::::History.:Curium.\n", "Section::::Radium series (or uranium series).\n\nThe decay chain of U is commonly called the \"radium series\" (sometimes \"uranium series\"). Beginning with naturally occurring uranium-238, this series includes the following elements: astatine, bismuth, lead, polonium, protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, and thorium. All are present, at least transiently, in any uranium-containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The decay proceeds as:\n", "Section::::Occurrence.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Origin.\n", "Trace amounts of the neptunium isotopes neptunium-237 and -239 are found naturally as decay products from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. In particular, Np and Np are the most common of these isotopes; they are directly formed from neutron capture by uranium-238 atoms. These neutrons come from the spontaneous fission of uranium-238, naturally neutron-induced fission of uranium-235, cosmic ray spallation of nuclei, and light elements absorbing alpha particles and emitting a neutron. The half-life of Np is very short, although the detection of its much longer-lived daughter Pu in nature in 1951 definitively established its natural occurrence. In 1952, Np was identified and isolated from concentrates of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo: in these minerals, the ratio of neptunium-237 to uranium is less than or equal to about 10 to 1.\n", "This loss in is exactly what happens in a nuclear reactor. A possible explanation, therefore, was that the uranium ore had operated as a natural fission reactor. Other observations led to the same conclusion, and on September 25, 1972, the CEA announced their finding that self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions had occurred on Earth about 2 billion years ago. Later, other natural nuclear fission reactors were discovered in the region.\n\nSection::::Fission product isotope signatures.\n\nSection::::Fission product isotope signatures.:Neodymium.\n", "Of the elements with atomic numbers 1 to 92, most can be found in nature, having stable (such as hydrogen), or very long half-life (such as uranium) isotopes, or are created as common products of the decay of uranium and thorium (such as radon). The exceptions are elements 43, 61, 85, and 87; all four occur in nature, but only in very minor branches of the uranium and thorium decay chains, and thus all save element 87 were first discovered by synthesis in the laboratory rather than in nature (and even element 87 was discovered from purified samples of its parent, not directly from nature).\n" ]

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[ "All through history, availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. In Britain, the suffix \"-wich\" in a placename means it was once a source of salt, as in Sandwich and Norwich. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Today, salt is almost universally accessible, relatively cheap, and often iodized.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "There is more salt in animal tissues, such as meat, blood, and milk, than in plant tissues. Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food, but agriculturalists, feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter, need to supplement their diet with salt. With the spread of civilization, salt became one of the world's main trading commodities. It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. In the Middle East, salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement, and the ancient Hebrews made a \"covenant of salt\" with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him. An ancient practice in time of war was salting the earth: scattering salt around in a defeated city to prevent plant growth. The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem, and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War (146 BC).\n", "Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation.\n", "Salt has played a prominent role in determining the power and location of the world's great cities. Liverpool rose from just a small English port to become the prime exporting port for the salt dug in the great Cheshire salt mines and thus became the entrepôt for much of the world's salt in the 19th century.\n", "Salt was of high value to the Jews, Greeks, Tamils, Chinese, Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. Aside from being a contributing factor in the development of civilization, salt was also used in the military practice of salting the earth by various peoples, beginning with the Assyrians.\n", "In ancient times salt was used as part of religious offerings in Egypt and even for preparation of the afterlife. Funeral offerings of salt were given to Egyptian tombs out of consideration for the deceased as well as food such as salted birds and fish to be eaten in the afterlife. Salt was used in combination with natron in the desiccation process. Salt was also used as a currency of trade between the Phoenicians and their surrounding empire of the Mediterranean. Researchers have suggested that even the Mayans salted their fish and meat to meet their dietary needs and to use it as a good which could be traded easily as it would be able to stored for longer times due to the preservative nature of salt. \n", "Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At the time of Brahmanic sacrifices, in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon, salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith. In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.\n", "Health effects of salt\n\nThe health effects of salt are the conditions associated with the consumption of either too much or too little salt. Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl) and is used in food for both preservation and flavor. Sodium ions are needed in small quantities by most living things, as are chloride ions. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body. The sodium ion itself is used for electrical signaling in the nervous system.\n", "Because of its importance in human metabolism, salt has long been an important commodity, as shown by the English word \"salary\", which derives from \"salarium\", the wafers of salt sometimes given to Roman soldiers along with their other wages. In medieval Europe, a compound of sodium with the Latin name of \"sodanum\" was used as a headache remedy. The name sodium is thought to originate from the Arabic \"suda\", meaning headache, as the headache-alleviating properties of sodium carbonate or soda were well known in early times. Although sodium, sometimes called \"soda\", had long been recognized in compounds, the metal itself was not isolated until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. In 1809, the German physicist and chemist Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the names \"Natronium\" for Humphry Davy's \"sodium\" and \"Kalium\" for Davy's \"potassium\". The chemical abbreviation for sodium was first published in 1814 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in his system of atomic symbols, and is an abbreviation of the element's New Latin name \"natrium\", which refers to the Egyptian \"natron\", a natural mineral salt mainly consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate. Natron historically had several important industrial and household uses, later eclipsed by other sodium compounds.\n", "During India's independence movement, Mohandas Gandhi organized the Salt Satyagraha protest to demonstrate against the British salt tax.\n\nSection::::History.:Cities and wars.:English \"-wich towns\".\n", "Since only some plants need sodium and those in small quantities, a completely plant-based diet will generally be very low in sodium. This requires some herbivores to obtain their sodium from salt licks and other mineral sources. The animal need for sodium is probably the reason for the highly conserved ability to taste the sodium ion as \"salty.\" Receptors for the pure salty taste respond best to sodium, otherwise only to a few other small monovalent cations (Li, NH, and somewhat to K). Calcium ion (Ca) also tastes salty and sometimes bitter to some people but, like potassium, can trigger other tastes.\n", "Salt is present in most foods, but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods (such as canned foods and especially salted foods, pickled foods, and snack foods or other convenience foods), where it functions as both a preservative and a flavoring. Dairy salt is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products. Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration, salting was one of the main methods of food preservation. Thus, herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g, while kipper, its preserved form, contains 990 mg. Similarly, pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1,480 mg, and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g. Salt is also used in cooking, such as with salt crusts. The main sources of salt in the Western diet, apart from direct use of sodium chloride, are bread and cereal products, meat products and milk and dairy products.\n", "Nonetheless, many studies have identified other uses and nutritional benefits from other micronutrients that exist at these sites, including selenium (Se), cobalt (Co) and/or molybdenum (Mo). In addition to the utilization of mineral licks, many animals suffer from traffic collisions as they gather to lick salts accumulated on road surfaces. Animals also consume soil (geophagy) to obtain minerals, such as moose from Canada mining for minerals from the root wads of fallen trees.\n\nSection::::Artificial salt licks.\n", "In American history, salt has been a major factor in outcomes of wars. In the Revolutionary War, the British used Loyalists to intercept Revolutionaries' salt shipments and interfere with their ability to preserve food. During the War of 1812, salt brine was used to pay soldiers in the field, as the government was too poor to pay them with money. Before Lewis and Clark set out for the Louisiana Territory, President Jefferson in his address to Congress mentioned a mountain of salt, 180 miles long and 45 wide, supposed to lie near the Missouri River, which would have been of inconceivable value, as a reason for their expedition.\n", "During the late Roman Empire and throughout the Middle Ages salt was a precious commodity carried along the salt roads into the heartland of the Germanic tribes. Caravans consisting of as many as forty thousand camels traversed four hundred miles of the Sahara bearing salt to inland markets in the Sahel, sometimes trading salt for slaves: Timbuktu was a huge salt and slave market.\n\nSalt in Chinese history was both a driver of technological development and a stable source of revenue for the imperial government.\n\nSection::::History.:Cities and wars.\n", "Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6,000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara on camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.\n", "Two thirds of the world's production of the decahydrate (Glauber's salt) is from the natural mineral form mirabilite, for example as found in lake beds in southern Saskatchewan. In 1990, Mexico and Spain were the world's main producers of natural sodium sulfate (each around 500,000 tonnes), with Russia, United States and Canada around 350,000 tonnes each. Natural resources are estimated at over 1 billion tonnes.\n", "All through history, the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. What is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, which was a salt mine, providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC. Even the name Solnitsata means \"salt works\".\n", "Salt created and destroyed empires. The salt mines of Poland led to a vast kingdom in the 16th century, only to be demolished when Germans brought in sea salt (which most of the world considered superior to rock salt). Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over spices. However, Genoese Christopher Columbus and Giovanni Caboto would later destroy the Mediterranean trade by introducing the New World to the market.\n", "Salt also played a role in Chinese society and culture. Salt is one of the \"seven necessities of life\" mentioned in proverbs and \"salty\" is one of the \"five flavors\" which form the cosmological basis of Chinese cuisine. Song Yingxing, author of the 17th century treatise, \"The Exploitation of the Works of Nature\" explained the essential role of salt:\n\nSection::::Types and geographical distribution.\n\nTraditional Chinese writers and modern scholars agree that there are at least five types of salt found in different regions of what is now China:\n", "Section::::Salt production.:Open pan production from brine.\n", "Sodium occurs naturally in most foods. The most common form of sodium is sodium chloride, which is table salt. Milk, beets, and celery also naturally contain sodium, as does drinking water, although the amount varies depending on the source. Sodium is also added to various food products. Some of these added forms are monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate.\n", "Salt, also referred to as table salt or by its chemical formula NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. All life has evolved to depend on its chemical properties to survive. It has been used by humans for thousands of years, from food preservation to seasoning. Salt's ability to preserve food was a founding contributor to the development of civilization. It helped to eliminate dependence on seasonal availability of food, and made it possible to transport food over large distances. However, salt was often difficult to obtain, so it was a highly valued trade item, and was considered a form of currency by certain peoples. Many salt roads, such as the via Salaria in Italy, had been established by the Bronze age.\n", "Section::::Contents.\n\nThe book is divided into three sections.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Life of Salt\" – This section treats the history of salt from its supposed first use by humans for preservation approximately 12,000 years ago. Salt took on increasing importance in the Neolithic period as humans developed agriculture and domestication of wild plants and animals. Salt-preserved foods and treated animal hides enabled wider travel and the construction of empires; salt is written about in ancient religious scriptures and has played a large part in the development of some economies.\n", "In the second half of the 19th century, industrial mining and new drilling techniques made the discovery of more and deeper deposits possible, increasing mine salt's share of the market. Although mining salt was generally more expensive than extracting it from brine via solar evaporation of seawater, the introduction of this new source reduced the price of salt due to a reduction of monopolization. Extraction of salt from brine is still heavily used; for example, vacuum salt produced by British Salt in Middlewich has 57% of the UK market\n\nSection::::Other salt uses.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Just Ladies Fitness is a women-only fitness facility, although some men work there in management and maintenance. It was argued at the tribunal that women attend the facility because they feel demeaned by men gazing at them at unisex facilities. The facility also claimed that because it is cleaner, has smaller weights that are more suitable for females, and because it has prenatal fitness classes their women-only admission policy was justified. The managers argued that women pay higher fees at their facility than at other fitness facilities and that this proves that some females feel that going to a female only fitness facility is necessary, but does not constitute sexual discrimination.\n", "Firstly, the tribunal found that the complainant was not adversely affected by the denial of membership. His claim that the facility was nearer his home was incorrect, his claim that the free initial membership period was not significant and since he had not pursued other opportunities to join other gyms, the tribunal found he had no serious intention of working out at a facility, as he had never gone to any fitness facilities before, and did not attend any after he was denied membership at \"Just Ladies Fitness\".\n", "Section::::Tribunal decision.\n\nThe Human Rights Tribunal ruled that the complainant had failed to prove on a balance of probabilities all the elements required to demonstrate that illegal discrimination had happened. Stopps still has the right to appeal the BCHRT's decision.\n", "Second, the tribunal found that the complainant failed to prove that his dignity has been adversely affected by his denial of membership. In British Columbia, one cannot receive compensation for being discriminated against unless one also proves that the discrimination demeaned their dignity, and Mr. Stopps failed to prove that his dignity had been significantly demeaned.\n", "However, when defending against a disparate impact claim that alleges age discrimination, an employer does not need to demonstrate necessity; rather, it must simply show that its practice is reasonable.\n\nSection::::Enforcing entities.\n", "In 2016, CalFit itself abruptly closed doors on members in Hong Kong and Singapore, some who had been sold lifetime memberships.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Watchdog complaints in Hong Kong.\n", "Lisa MacDonald filed an application under the \"Ontario Human Rights Code\" alleging that she had been discriminated against in respect of services on the basis of sex with respect to a request for admission to a women's only fitness facility in 2006.\n", "On October 2, 2004 Vancouver resident Ralph Stopps applied to the Just Ladies Fitness facility in Metrotown and was denied membership because he is male. Stopps filed a complaint with the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal on November 21, 2006 that he was discriminated against because of his gender, violating s. 8 of the \"Human Rights Code,\" which prohibits discrimination by sex. The tribunal, a panel of 9 females and 3 males, rendered its decision that the complainant had not established that he was discriminated against.\n\nSection::::The respondent.\n", "McLachlin found that the Meiorin test for determining if a standard is a \"bona fide\" occupational requirement applied not just in the employment context but to all circumstances of discrimination where accommodation may be available.\n", "Employers are generally allowed to consider characteristics that would otherwise be discriminatory if they are bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQ). For example, a manufacturer of men's clothing may lawfully advertise for male models.\n\nSection::::Exceptions.:Religious Employment Discrimination.\n", "In 1993, Toni Cassista filed a lawsuit against Community Foods, a store in Santa Cruz, California, when she was not hired because of her size. The California Supreme Court ruled in her favor, creating a precedent of discrimination based on weight. Currently, all other states can fire employees for gaining weight because due to at-will employment. A study from Yale University shows that 10 percent of women and 5 percent of men experience weight discrimination at work.\n", "An employer's refusal to employ a qualified job applicant on prohibited grounds is clearly discriminatory with respect to employment. It is also clearly discriminatory with respect to employment to refuse to continue current employment (meaning to dismiss, demote, retire, deny any benefit or promotion, etc.) based on prohibited grounds. However, any differential treatment based on prohibited grounds may constitute discrimination, including dress codes and appearance requirements.\n\nSection::::Notable Rulings and Case Law.:Employment.:BFOR/Q Defence.\n", "The company took legal action against 522 of its members between 30 March and 15 September 1999 for non-payment of subscriptions. Many of these were in fact members who did not want to renew and had allowed their membership to lapse, or who had not given the required 1-month's notice stipulated in the contract. The judge at the Small Claims Court criticised the company for allowing the credit to roll on for at least one month before taking action. The company argued that its policy was to avoid unilateral termination by them as it would cause members to pay a rejoining fee.\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Monitor complaints in Singapore.\n\nCalifornia Fitness clubs in Singapore were hit by a significant number of consumer complaints filed against them with the Consumers Association of Singapore (CASE) between 2011 and 2014. Gripes against California Fitness and a rival True Fitness made up more than three-quarters of 86 complaints involving fitness clubs filed last year with the former receiving 35 complaints against it in 2013. As of April 2014 nine complaints were filed against California Fitness with CASE.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:California WOW Xperience.\n", "In 1993, the Grondahl brothers hired Chris Rondeau, Planet Fitness’ current CEO, to work the front desk. Rondeau and the Grondahls recognized that there was a greater opportunity to serve a much larger segment of the population if they changed the gym environment, both in attitude and format, by creating a non-intimidating, low-cost model. Planet Fitness then became known as the \"Judgement Free Zone,\" aimed more at the average user than the bodybuilder type of fitness enthusiast. As early as March 2015, the \"Judgement Free Zone\" policy has been expanded to allow trans women to use the women's locker room. The policy states that \"members and guests may use all gym facilities based on their sincere self-reported gender identity.\"\n", "BULLET::::6. To prove infringement of sec. 99 it is not sufficient to show discrimination based on mere locality; it must also be shown that, as a consequence of the discrimination, tangible benefits, advantages, facilities or immunities are given to persons or corporations.\n", "Section::::Types.:Nationality.\n\nDiscrimination on the basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality.\n", "Section::::Current membership and charter.\n\nThe AGSM is a private 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that sets its own rules for who is allowed to become a member. The current charter, held under Title 36 § 211 of the United States Code, was established on June 12, 1984.\n", "Stopps v Just Ladies Fitness (Metrotown) Ltd\n\nStopps v Just Ladies Fitness (Metrotown) Ltd was a discrimination by sex case heard before the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal that was significant in Canadian law because it found that a women-only admission policy of a public gym was not discrimination.\n\nSection::::The complainant.\n", "Disparate treatment is what most people commonly think of discrimination- intentional. Under this theory, the employee must belong to a protected class, apply and be qualified for a job where the employer was seeking applicants, and get rejected from the job. The job position must then still be open post-rejection for a discrimination case to be made.\n", "Clause 2 states: “Except as expressly authorised by this Constitution, there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent, gender or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of property or the establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation or employment.”\n", "In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that a mandatory fitness test for those seeking to become firefighters in British Columbia unfairly discriminated against women. The test had been based on the physiology of male firefighters. The Court ruled that employers must show that any required workplace tests are necessary, and that there has been some effort to accommodate individuals.\n\nFemale-focused camps to train young women in firefighting skills have been created by fire departments in Ottawa and London, Ontario, and have led to similar camps being established in the U.S.\n", "In 2008, the Nevada Equal Rights Commission ruled in favor of a man who claimed a local gym offering free memberships to women was discriminatory. The ruling is thought to have had wide ramifications for ladies' night promotions across the state.\n", "Discrimination happens when a person is treated unfairly or less-favourably than other people in the same or similar circumstances. Discrimination can also occur against the relatives and associates of the people with disabilities. Discrimination is only unlawful if it happens in one of the areas of activity set out in the Act, including employment, education, or government activity. The New Zealand Human Rights Commission provided a formula to help determine whether an activity or a practice amounts to unlawful discrimination. The following components must be present for the discrimination to be unlawful:\n", "In January 2019, the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services added sexual orientation and gender identity to their discrimination workplace policy.\n\nSection::::Discrimination protections.:\"Glenn v. Brumby\".\n" ]

[ "All discrimination is illegal." ]

[ "Only certain sets of people may not be discriminated against." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All discrimination is illegal.", "All discrimination is illegal." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Only certain sets of people may not be discriminated against.", "Only certain sets of people may not be discriminated against." ]

[ "Bottled water is often stored as part of an emergency kit in case of natural disaster. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) says the \"safest\" and \"most reliable\" source of drinking water is store bought bottled water. Commonly, disaster management experts recommend storing of water per person, per day for at least three days. This amount is intended to include water for drinking and cooking as well as water for hand washing, washing dishes, and personal hygiene. Factory-containers of water have an indefinite shelf life, as long as they remain unopened and undamaged. The sell-by date is voluntarily and individually set by manufacturers to indicate the length of time that they believe the water will taste and smell fresh, rather than to indicate any issue of contamination or food safety.\n", "BULLET::::- Reisner, M., \"Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water\". Penguin Books, New York. 1986.\n\nBULLET::::- United Nations World Water Development Report. Produced every three years.\n\nBULLET::::- St. Fleur, Nicholas. The Water in Your Glass Might Be Older Than the Sun. \"The water you drink is older than the planet you're standing on.\" \"The New York Times\" (15 April 2016)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- OECD Water statistics\n\nBULLET::::- The World's Water Data Page\n\nBULLET::::- FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT\n\nBULLET::::- The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database\n\nBULLET::::- US Geological Survey Water for Schools information\n", "Bathroom products and toiletries usually state a time in months from the date the product is opened, by which they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., \"12M\" means use the product within 12 months of opening). Similarly, some food products say \"eat within X days of opening\".\n\nSection::::Parallel names.:Open dating.\n", "Section::::1990s.\n\nBULLET::::- Pavement were bottled during a Lollapalooza event in West Virginia in 1995 with mud. A rock hit Stephen Malkmus in the chest, causing Malkmus to storm off stage, abruptly ending their set. The incident is featured in the documentary Slow Century.\n\nBULLET::::- Everclear front man Art Alexakis was pegged in the mouth with a full water bottle at some point during the So Much for the Afterglow tour. The bottle knocked loose one of his front teeth.\n", "It should be acknowledged that a durable life date is NOT an indicator of food safety. Once something is opened, depending on how it is stored, the shelf life can change. For example, an open box of crackers meant to expire in two weeks, will expire much faster should the seal be left open after each use.\n\nSection::::Requirements.:Geographical indications.\n", "According to a 1999 NRDC study, in which roughly 22 percent of brands were tested, at least one sample of bottled drinking water contained chemical contaminants at levels above strict state health limits. Some of the contaminants found in the study could pose health risks if consumed over a long period of time. The NRDC report conceded that \"most waters contained no detectable bacteria, however, and the level of synthetic organic chemicals and inorganic chemicals of concern for which [they] were tested were either below detection limits or well below all applicable standards.\" Meanwhile, a report by the Drinking Water Research Foundation found that of all samples tested by NRDC, \"federal FDA or EPA limits were allegedly exceeded only four times, twice for total coliforms and twice for fluorides.\"\n", "Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise. Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers. Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Durable life\": The period between when a prepackaged package is packaged for resale and when it is good until; based on proper conditions. When the product expires, meaning that it is no longer fit for consumption, it is known as the expiry or best before date. An expiration date in one in which the manufacturer does not recommend the product be consumed (they can be located on any label panel).\n\nAccording to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, the following foods are exempted from having to have a durable life or packaging date:\n", "For the water supply, FEMA recommends commercially bottled water kept in a cool, dark place. As an alternative, FEMA recommends using disinfected food-grade water containers to store tap water and replacing the water every six months.\n\nSection::::Emergency preparedness.:Bottled water in emergency response.\n\nSection::::Emergency preparedness.:Bottled water in emergency response.:Hurricanes.\n", "The Canadian Food Inspection Agency produces a \" Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising\" which sets out a \"Durable Life Date\". The authority for producing the guide comes from the Food and Drugs Act. The guide sets out what items must be labelled and the format of the date. The month and day must be included and the year if it is felt necessary and must be in the format year/month/day. However, there is no requirement that the year be in four digits.\n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Regulations in Hong Kong.\n", "Section::::Enforcement.:Regulations in the European Union.:Regulations in the UK.\n\nAccording to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs dates must be in the day/month or day/month/year format. Technical expertise should be hired for regular end of shelf life safety and quality testing. Shelf life trials should be conducted using the same ingredients, equipment, procedures and manufacturing environment as will be used during the actual production. \n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Regulation in the US.\n", "Test have found 83% of 159 water samples from around the world were contaminated with plastic fibers.\n\nSection::::Water quality.:Improved water sources.\n", "Metal water bottles are growing in popularity. Made primarily from stainless steel or aluminum, they are durable and retain minimal odor or taste from previous contents. Aluminum bottles often contain a plastic resin or epoxy liner to protect contents from taste and odor transfer. Although most liners are now BPA-free, older and less expensive models can contain BPA.\n", "Bottled water may have reduced amounts of copper, lead, and other metal contaminants since it does not run through the plumbing pipes where tap water is exposed to metal corrosion; however, this varies by the household and plumbing system.\n", "Section::::Maintenance.\n\nAll bottled water coolers need to be periodically cleaned to prevent mineral build-up inside the heating tank, also known as scaling. The frequency of the cleaning can be determined by the concentration of the minerals and the amount of water used. Descaling agents such as citric acid can be used for this cleaning process.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Sometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the \"best before\" date in a clearly visible location. In this case, wording like \"best before see bottom\" or \"best before see lid\" might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated.\n\nSection::::Parallel names.:Use by.\n", "Several countries have banned the use of plastics containing BPA used for water and other food items. Leaching of phthalates from PVC (resin identification code 3) is also a concern, but PVC is no longer used for water bottles.\n", "The most common packaging material for single-serve, non-carbonated bottled water in the United States and Europe is Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic. Marked in many countries with resin identification code number “1,” PET is 100% recyclable, though recycling rates vary by region. In 2014, approximately 1.8 billion pounds of post-consumer PET bottles were collected in the United States and 1.75 million metric tons (approximately 3.9 billion pounds) were collected in the European Union, making it the most recycled plastic in both the United States and Europe. In the United States, the recycling rate for PET packaging was 31.8% in 2014; in the European Union, the recycling rate for PET packaging for the same period was approximately 52%.\n", "In the United States, bottled water and tap water are regulated by different federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates bottled water and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the quality of tap water. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act the EPA has set maximum contaminant levels for approximately 90 contaminants that might be found in drinking water and 15 secondary maximum contaminant levels.\n", "The first TMY collection was based on 229 locations in the US and was collected between 1948 and 1980. The second edition of the TMY is called \"TMY2\". It is based on 239 stations collecting data between 1961 and 1990. The TMY2 data include Precipitable water column (precipitable moisture), which is important in predicting radiative cooling. The third, and latest TMY collection (TMY3) was based on data for 1020 locations in the USA including Guam, Puerto Rico, and US Virgin Islands, derived from a 1976-2005 period of record where available, and a 1991-2005 period of record for all other locations.\n", "A study has recently found that the vast majority of bottled water contains microplastics. Following this, the World Health Organization has launched a review into the safety of drinking microplastics. Analysis of some of the world's most popular bottled water brands found that more than 90% contained tiny pieces of plastic\n", "Use by indicates a legal date beyond which it is not permissible to sell a food product (usually one that deteriorates fairly rapidly after production) due to the potential serious nature of consumption of pathogens. Leeway is sometimes provided by producers in stating display until dates so that products are not at their limit of safe consumption on the actual date stated (this latter is voluntary and not subject to regulatory control). This allows for the variability in production, storage and display methods.\n\nSection::::Consumer labeling.:United States.\n", "Once the partial pressure of the CFC (or SF) is derived, it is then compared to the atmospheric time histories for CFC-11, CFC-12, or SF in which the pCFC directly corresponds to the year with the same. The difference between the corresponding date and the collection date of the seawater sample is the average age for the water parcel. The age of a parcel of water can also be calculated using the ratio of two CFC partial pressures or the ratio of the SF partial pressure to a CFC partial pressure.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Public water systems are required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide households in their service territories with a Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) that provides information on the quality of their water during the previous year. Such disclosures are not required by the FDA of any packaged food or beverage product, including bottled water. All packaged foods and beverages, must be manufactured according to FDA regulations and must meet all applicable quality and safety standards.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Pharmacological techniques are often continued in conjunction with other treatment options. Doses of pain medications needed often drop substantially when combined with other techniques, but rarely are discontinued completely. Tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline, and sodium channel blockers, mainly carbamazepine, are often used to relieve chronic pain, and recently have been used in an attempt to reduce phantom pains. Pain relief may also be achieved through use of opioids, ketamine, calcitonin, and lidocaine.\n\nSection::::Management.:Deep-brain stimulation.\n", "For moderate pain, tramadol, codeine, dihydrocodeine, and hydrocodone are used, with nicocodeine, ethylmorphine and propoxyphene and dextropropoxyphene less commonly.\n\nDrugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain, for example, amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it and/or with an NSAID.\n\nWhile opiates are often used in the management of chronic pain, high doses are associated with an increased risk of opioid overdose.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Opioids.\n", "Interventional pain management\n\nInterventional pain management or interventional pain medicine is a medical subspecialty which treats pain with invasive interventions such as facet joint injections, nerve blocks (interrupting the flow of pain signals along specific nervous system pathways), neuroaugmentation (including spinal cord stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation), vertebroplasty, kyphoplasty, nucleoplasty, endoscopic discectomy and implantable drug delivery systems.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Spinal cord stimulation.\n", "Section::::Medications.:Mild pain.\n\nParacetamol (acetaminophen), or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) such as ibuprofen.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Mild to moderate pain.\n\nParacetamol, an NSAID and/or paracetamol in a combination product with a weak opioid such as tramadol, may provide greater relief than their separate use. Also a combination of opioid with acetaminophen can be frequently used such as Percocet, Vicodin, or Norco.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Moderate to severe pain.\n", "Section::::Treatments.:Herbal products.\n\nThere is no good evidence that herbal products (nutmeg or St John's wort) are useful for treating neuropathic pain.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Dietary supplements.\n", "Breastfeeding during painful procedures has been found to be more effective in controlling pain than placebo or positioning. Breastmilk or 'sugar' water has a similar effect, though studies in preterm infants have yet to be done. Skin-to-skin care (kangaroo care) is thought be effective for pain control during painful procedures.\n\nFor children and adolescents who experience chronic pain- behavioral treatment, relaxation training, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and acupuncture have been proven to be effective for some patients.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medication.\n", "Many episodes of pain come from muscle exertion or strain, which creates tension in the muscles and soft tissues. This tension can constrict circulation, sending pain signals to the brain. Heat application eases pain by:\n\nBULLET::::- dilating the blood vessels surrounding the painful area. Increased blood flow provides additional oxygen and nutrients to help heal the damaged muscle tissue.\n\nBULLET::::- stimulating sensation in the skin and therefore decreasing the pain signals being transmitted to the brain\n\nBULLET::::- increasing the flexibility (and decreasing painful stiffness) of soft tissues surrounding the injured area, including muscles and connective tissue.\n", "Delivery of an opioid such as morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl, sufentanyl or meperidine directly into the subarachnoid cavity (the space between the spinal cord's inner, waterproof sheath and its outer protective sheaths) provides enhanced analgesia with reduced systemic side effects, and has reduced the level of pain in otherwise intractable cases. The anxiolytic clonidine, or the nonopioid analgesic ziconotide, and local anesthetics such as bupivacaine, ropivacaine or tetracaine may also be infused along with the opioid.\n\nSection::::Epidural infusion.\n", "There is no treatment which modifies the disease course of PHN; therefore, controlling the affected person's symptoms is the main goal of treatment. Medications applied to the skin such as capsaicin or topical anesthetics (e.g., lidocaine) are used for mild pain and can be used in combination with oral medications for moderate to severe pain. Oral anticonvulsant medications such as gabapentin and pregabalin are also approved for treatment of PHN. Tricyclic antidepressants reduce PHN pain but their use is limited by side effects. Opioid medications are not generally recommended for treatment except in specific circumstances and under the care of a pain specialist due to mixed evidence of efficacy and concerns about potential for abuse and addiction.\n", "Section::::Medications.:Antidepressants and antiepileptic drugs.\n", "Most opioid treatment used by patients outside of healthcare settings is oral (tablet, capsule or liquid), but suppositories and skin patches can be prescribed. An opioid injection is rarely needed for patients with chronic pain.\n", "Epidural opioid analgesia\n\nEpidural opioid analgesia is a technique to reduce pain from labour. Opioids act by interacting with specific receptors in the dorsal horn and dorsal roots of the spinal cord. Most often, it is given in combination with bupivacaine as opioids alone are not able to provide adequate pain-relief. In combination with local anaesthetics, pain relief is rapid, shivering is decreased and motor blockade is more dense.The common side effects are urinary retention and pruritus.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Many people use alternative medicine treatments including drugs for pain relief. There is some evidence that some treatments using alternative medicine can relieve some types of pain more effectively than placebo. The available research concludes that more research would be necessary to better understand the use of alternative medicine.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Psychotropic agents.\n\nOther psychotropic analgesic agents include ketamine (an NMDA receptor antagonist), clonidine and other α-adrenoreceptor agonists, and mexiletine and other local anaesthetic analogues.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Other drugs.\n", "Non-pharmacological treatment for children to help relieve periodic pain includes counseling and behavior modification therapy.The American Association of Pediatrics states that psychological interventions, such as relaxation and cognitive strategies, have strong evidence for pain management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Acute pain treatment.\n\nThe approach to acute pain should take into account the severity of the pain. Non-opioid analgesics, such as acetaminophen and NSAIDs, can be used alone to treat mild pain. For moderate to severe pain, it is optimal to use a combination of multiple agents, including opioid and non-opioid agents. \n\nSection::::Management.:Acute pain treatment.:Postoperative pain.\n", "Other drugs are often used to help analgesics combat various types of pain, and parts of the overall pain experience, and are hence called analgesic adjuvant medications. Gabapentin—an anti-epileptic—not only exerts effects alone on neuropathic pain, but can potentiate opiates. While perhaps not prescribed as such, other drugs such as Tagamet (cimetidine) and even simple grapefruit juice may also potentiate opiates, by inhibiting CYP450 enzymes in the liver, thereby slowing metabolism of the drug. In addition, orphenadrine, cyclobenzaprine, trazodone and other drugs with anticholinergic properties are useful in conjunction with opioids for neuropathic pain. Orphenadrine and cyclobenzaprine are also muscle relaxants, and therefore particularly useful in painful musculoskeletal conditions. Clonidine has found use as an analgesic for this same purpose, and all of the mentioned drugs potentiate the effects of opioids overall.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Peripheral nerve stimulation.\n\nThe use of peripheral nerve stimulation, or PNS, for the relief of chronic pain states was first reported over 30 years ago. Recent studies have demonstrated that electrical stimulation of nerves leads to inhibitory input to the pain pathways at the spinal cord level. PNS is most effective in the treatment of neuropathic pain (e.g., posttraumatic neuropathy, diabetic neuropathy) when the nerve lesion is distal to the site of stimulation.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation.\n", "BULLET::::- Topical administration of cream, gel, ointment, liquid, or spray of anaesthetic dissolved in DMSO or other solvents/carriers for deeper absorption\n\nBULLET::::- Infiltration\n\nBULLET::::- Brachial plexus block\n\nBULLET::::- Epidural (extradural) block\n\nBULLET::::- Spinal anesthesia (subarachnoid block)\n\nBULLET::::- Iontophoresis\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Acute pain.\n\nAcute pain may occur due to trauma, surgery, infection, disruption of blood circulation, or many other conditions in which tissue injury occurs. In a medical setting, pain alleviation is desired when its warning function is no longer needed. Besides improving patient comfort, pain therapy can also reduce harmful physiological consequences of untreated pain.\n", "From the Food and Drug Administration's website: \"According to the National Institutes of Health, studies have shown that properly managed medical use of opioid analgesic compounds (taken exactly as prescribed) is safe, can manage pain effectively, and rarely causes addiction.\"\n", "Some antidepressant and antiepileptic drugs are used in chronic pain management and act primarily within the pain pathways of the central nervous system, though peripheral mechanisms have been attributed as well. They are generally used to treat nerve brain that results from injury to the nervous system. Neuropathy can be due to chronic high blood sugar levels (diabetic neuropathy); and viruses, such as shingles; phantom limb pain; or post-stroke pain. These mechanisms vary and in general are more effective in neuropathic pain disorders as well as complex regional pain syndrome. A common anti-epileptic drug is gabapentin, and an example of an antidepressant would be amitriptyline.\n", "Medicine treats injury and pathology to support and speed healing; and treats distressing symptoms such as pain to relieve suffering during treatment and healing. When a painful injury or pathology is resistant to treatment and persists, when pain persists after the injury or pathology has healed, and when medical science cannot identify the cause of pain, the task of medicine is to relieve suffering. Treatment approaches to chronic pain include pharmacological measures, such as analgesics, antidepressants and anticonvulsants, interventional procedures, physical therapy, physical exercise, application of ice and/or heat, and psychological measures, such as biofeedback and cognitive behavioral therapy.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Acute pain is usually managed with medications such as analgesics and anesthetics. Caffeine when added to pain medications such as ibuprofen, may provide some additional benefit. Ketamine can be used instead of opiods for short term pain. Management of chronic pain, however, is more difficult, and may require the coordinated efforts of a pain management team, which typically includes medical practitioners, clinical pharmacists, clinical psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners.\n", "Local anesthetic injections into the nerves or sensitive areas of the stump may relieve pain for days, weeks, or sometimes permanently, despite the drug wearing off in a matter of hours; and small injections of hypertonic saline into the soft tissue between vertebrae produces local pain that radiates into the phantom limb for ten minutes or so and may be followed by hours, weeks or even longer of partial or total relief from phantom pain. Vigorous vibration or electrical stimulation of the stump, or current from electrodes surgically implanted onto the spinal cord, all produce relief in some patients.\n", "Sensitization, in the clinical sense of the word, is a phenomenon in which nociceptors in an area beyond a tissue injury exhibit decreased thresholds for activation. Sensitization can be initiated by inflammatory prostaglandins or leukotrienes and are therefore the targets of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) which block key enzymes in their synthesis. Additionally, opioid drugs suppress nociceptions by binding to endogenous opioid receptors.\n\nSection::::Clinical neurological disorders.:Sleep and arousal.\n", "BULLET::::- Skeletal muscle relaxers may also be used. Their short term use has been shown to be effective in the relief of acute back pain. However, the evidence of this effect has been disputed, and these medications do have negative side-effects.\n\nBULLET::::- In people with nerve root pain and acute radiculopathy, there is evidence that a single dose of steroids, such as dexamethasone, may provide pain relief.\n" ]

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[ "Pain relievers reduce swelling which causes you to feel less pain." ]

[ "The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds.\n\nIn a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr.Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr.Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant.\n\nSection::::Description.:Feathers.\n", "To obtain steady images while flying or when perched on a swaying branch, birds hold the head as steady as possible with compensating reflexes. Maintaining a steady image is especially relevant for birds of prey. Because the image can be centered on the deep fovea of only one eye at a time, most falcons when diving use a spiral path to approach their prey after they have locked on to a target individual. The alternative of turning the head for a better view slows down the dive by increasing drag while spiralling does not reduce speeds significantly.\n\nSection::::Perception.:Edges and shapes.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Head toss:\" This behavior, shown by every observed dog, is a prompt for attention, food or a sign of frustration, expressed in varying degrees depending on the level of arousal. In the complete expression, the head is swept to one side, nose rotated through a 90° arc to midline, then rapidly returned to the starting position. The entire sequence takes 1–2 seconds. The mildest expression is a slight flick of the head to the side and back. During this behavior, the characteristic contrasting black and white chin markings are displayed.\n", "Singing behaviour:\n", "The neck of a bird is composed of 13–25 cervical vertebrae enabling birds to have increased flexibility. A flexible neck allows many birds with immobile eyes to move their head more productively and center their sight on objects that are close or far in distance. Most birds have about three times as many neck vertebrae as humans, which allows for increased stability during fast movements such as flying, landing, and taking-off. The neck plays a role in head-bobbing which is present in at least 8 out of 27 orders of birds, including Columbiformes, Galliformes, and Gruiformes. Head-bobbing is an optokinetic response which stabilizes a birds surroundings as they alternate between a thrust phase and a hold phase. Head-bobbing is synchronous with the feet as the head moves in accordance with the rest of the body. Data from various studies suggest that the main reason for head-bobbing in some birds is for the stabilization of their surroundings, although it is uncertain why some but not all bird orders show head-bob.\n", "Overall, the HVC auditory motor neurons in swamp sparrows are very similar to the visual motor mirror neurons discovered in primates. Like mirror neurons, the HVC neurons:\n\nBULLET::::- Are located in a premotor brain area\n\nBULLET::::- Exhibit both sensory and motor properties\n\nBULLET::::- Are action-specific – a response is only triggered by the \"primary song type\"\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nStarting from sitting in Dandasana, one knee is bent, keeping the knee on the floor, so the foot is just in front of the groin, and the other leg is taken straight back. For the completed pose bend the knee of the rear leg, and grasp the foot or ankle with one or both hands. \n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nIn Supported [King] Pigeon or Salamba Kapotasana, the rear leg is straight out and the hands are on the ground beside the hips, so the backbend is reduced. If comfortable, the back may be arched and the gaze directed straight upwards.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "All \"Geophaps\" pigeons exhibit a bowing display during courtship. The Spinifex pigeon and Crested pigeon's display is performed with a raising and fanning out of the tail with their folded wings partly opened to display their iridescent wing marks to their potential partner. The other members of the \"Geophaps\" displays and bows in a very similar manner.\n", "A light-mediated mechanism that involves the eyes and is lateralized has been examined somewhat, but developments have implicated the trigeminal nerve in magnetoception. Research by Floriano Papi (Italy, early 1970s) and more recent work, largely by Hans Wallraff, suggest that pigeons also orient themselves using the spatial distribution of atmospheric odors, known as olfactory navigation.\n\nOther research indicates that homing pigeons also navigate through visual landmarks by following familiar roads and other man-made features, making 90-degree turns and following habitual routes, much the same way that humans navigate.\n", "Research by Jon Hagstrum of the US Geological Survey suggests that homing pigeons use low-frequency infrasound to navigate. Sound waves as low 0.1 Hz have been observed to disrupt or redirect pigeon navigation. The pigeon ear, being far too small to interpret such a long wave, directs pigeons to fly in a circle when first taking air, in order to mentally map such long infrasound waves.\n", "This species also has a head-shaking display that appears as a greeting between pairs and in threat to other individuals. The bird assumes a crouched over position with head lowered and crest flattened and thrusts forward shaking the bill and head.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Breeding.\n\nBreeding occurs throughout the year with highest levels during spring and summer, coinciding with peak rainfall periods and increased supply of food.\n", "All species of Pigeons and Doves are described as having short necks and legs, and a short, slender bill.\n", "Even though the mockingbird was able to mimic the FM sweeps of cardinals by employing the same motor pattern—switching mid-syllable from right syrinx to left syrinx—the mockingbird did not perform the transition seamlessly. This indicates that precise unilateral control of song production in the syrinx of certain birds, such as cardinals, has allowed them to become unique vocal specialists.\n\nSection::::Possible functions.\n", "Tumbler pigeons\n\nTumbler pigeons are varieties of domesticated pigeons descendant from the rock dove that have been selected for their ability to tumble or roll over backwards in flight.\n\nThis ability has been known in domesticated breeds of pigeons for centuries. In Wendell Levi's book \"The Pigeon\", reference is made to pigeons with this tumbling ability existing in India before the year 1590. Charles Darwin, in his book \"The Origin of Species\", makes reference to the Short-faced Tumbler which was a popular breed during his lifetime, and still can be found exhibited at pigeon shows today.\n", "Pigeons showed mirror-related behaviours during the mirror test.\n\nSection::::Discrimination abilities of pigeons.\n", "Section::::Calls.\n\nThree distinct calls have been described. The first, ‘coo-oo, eee’, might be related to nestlings. The second, ‘coo-oo, ooo’, is distinctly louder but still soft. The third, ‘cor-or’, is \"a quiet, croaky, almost guttural utterance\", not unlike the call of the domestic pigeon. During times of flocking and mass feeding, this pigeon has a short raucous call. This last call has been described as \"a distant flying fox or domestic pig\".\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Male and female pigeons show different behaviours. The \"coo\" of males is louder and more insistent, especially when courting. Display behaviour also differs between the sexes. Most notably, a male often turns 360 degrees with an inflated crop and a loud \"coo\", to show interest in a female or to defend or discourage another pigeon from entering its territory (usually a nesting box), while females almost never turn full circle, but rather do a 270-degree back-and-forth rotational motion.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "In 2007, researchers at east China's Shandong University of Science and Technology implanted micro electrodes in the brain of a pigeon so they could remotely control it to fly right or left, or up or down.\n\nSection::::Uses and justification.\n", "At first, the female invariably walks or flies a short distance away and the male follows her until she stops. At this point, he continues the bowing motion and very often makes full- or half-pirouettes in front of the female. The male then proceeds to feed the female by regurgitating food, as they do when feeding the young.\n\nThe male then mounts the female, rearing backwards to be able to join their cloacae. The mating is very brief with the male flapping his wings to maintain balance on top of the female.\n\nSection::::Breeding.:Nesting.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Calls and displays.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n", "This bird has an cooing advertising call that consist of a loud, deep, guttural \"'neah-ah, neah-ah, neah-ah, neah-ah\" or \"naw-aw, naw-naw\" or \"uh-wah, uh-wah, uh-wah\". This call is so deep in timber that it is comes described as cow-like. A call, probably consisting of an excitement call, has been described as a crow-like \"krawk, krawk\".\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "BULLET::::- Pigeons can remember large numbers of individual images for a long time, e.g. hundreds of images for periods of several years.\n\nAll these are capacities that are likely to be found in most mammal and bird species. In addition pigeons have unusual, perhaps unique, abilities to learn routes back to their home from long distances. This homing behaviour is different from that of birds that learn migration routes, which usually occurs over a fixed route at fixed times of the year, whereas homing is more flexible; however similar mechanisms may be involved.\n", "Section::::Birds.:Rhynchokinesis.\n\nRhynchokinesis is an ability possessed by some birds to flex their upper beak or rhinotheca. Rhynchokinesis involves flexing at a point some way along the upper beak - either upwards, in which case the upper beak and lower beak or gnathotheca diverge, resembling a yawn, or downwards, in which case the tips of the beaks remain together while a gap opens up between them at their midpoint.\n" ]

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[ "The English Amateur Swimming Association (at the time called the Swimming Association of Great Britain) first started a \"plunging championship\" in 1883. The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937.\n\nSection::::History.:Fancy diving.\n\nDiving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made from a greater height. This tradition evolved into 'fancy diving', while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as 'Plain diving'.\n", "Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the first modern diving competitions were held in England in the 1880s. The exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races. The 1904 book \"Swimming\" by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865. The 1877 edition to \"British Rural Sports\" by John Henry Walsh makes note of a \"Mr. Young\" plunging 56 feet in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, a swimmer named Drake could cover 53 feet.\n", "Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event. The 1908 Olympics in London added 'fancy diving' and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were first allowed to participate in the diving events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm.\n\nIn the 1928 Olympics, 'plain' and 'fancy' diving was amalgamated into one event – 'Highboard Diving'. The diving event was first held indoors in the Empire Pool for the 1934 British Empire Games and 1948 Summer Olympics in London.\n\nSection::::Competitive diving.\n", "The term \"technical diving\" can be traced back to the cover story of the first issue of \"AquaCorps\" magazine, in early 1990, titled \"call it \"High-Tech\" Diving\" by Bill Hamilton, describing the current state of recreational diving beyond the generally accepted limits, such as, deep, decompression and mixed gas diving. By mid 1991, the magazine was using the term \"technical diving\", as an analogy with the established term \"technical (rock) climbing\". In the US the Occupational Safety and Health Administration categorises diving which is not occupational as \"recreational diving\" for purposes of exemption from regulation. This is also the case in some other countries, including South Africa.\n", "It was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. They demonstrated their acrobatic techniques from the 10m diving board at Highgate Pond and stimulated the establishment of the Amateur Diving Association in 1901, the first organization devoted to diving in the world (later amalgamated with the Amateur Swimming Association). Fancy diving was formally introduced into the championship in 1903.\n\nSection::::History.:Olympic era.\n", "The term \"technical diving\" has been credited to Michael Menduno, who was editor of the (now defunct) diving magazine \"aquaCorps Journal\". The concept and term, \"technical diving\", are both relatively recent advents, although divers have been engaging in what is now commonly referred to as technical diving for decades.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "Recreational diving or sport diving is diving for the purpose of leisure and enjoyment, usually when using scuba equipment. The term \"recreational diving\" may also be used in contradistinction to \"technical diving\", a more demanding aspect of recreational diving which requires greater levels of training, experience and equipment to compensate for the more hazardous conditions associated with the disciplines. Breath-hold diving for recreation also fits into the broader scope of the term, but this article covers the commonly used meaning of \"scuba diving for recreational purposes, where the diver is not constrained from making a direct near-vertical ascent to the surface at any point during the dive\".\n", "Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under especially challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry.\n", "Diving at the Summer Olympics\n\nDiving was first introduced in the official programme of the Summer Olympic Games at the 1904 Games of St. Louis and has been an Olympic sport since. It was known as \"fancy diving\" for the acrobatic stunts performed by divers during the dive (such as somersaults and twists). This discipline of Aquatics, along with swimming, synchronised swimming and water polo, is regulated and supervised by the International Swimming Federation (FINA), the international federation (IF) for aquatic sports.\n", "In England, the practice of high diving – diving from a great height – gained popularity; the first diving stages were erected at the Highgate Ponds at a height of 15 feet in 1893 and the first world championship event, the National Graceful Diving Competition, was held there by the Royal Life Saving Society in 1895. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either 15 or 30 feet.\n", "The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronised swimming, water polo and open water swimming. Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a governing body with the other aquatic sports.\n", "BULLET::::- In Greg Iles' novel \"Blood Memory\" (2005), the main character Cat Ferry is an odontologist and a freediver.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" Series 3 added a freediver (Will Benjamin played by Luke Mitchell) as a regular. Freediving is featured in some episodes.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Greater Meaning of Water\" (2010) is an independent film about competitive constant weight freediving, focusing on the 'zen' of freediving.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Canadian television series \"Corner Gas\", the character Karen Pelly (Tara Spencer-Nairn) competed in static apnea, ranking fifth in Canada with a personal best of over six minutes.\n", "Diving (sport)\n\nDiving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, usually while performing acrobatics. Diving is an internationally recognized sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Big Blue\" (1988) is a romantic film about two world-class freedivers, a heavily fictionalized depiction of the rivalry of freedivers Jacques Mayol and Enzo Maiorca.\n\nBULLET::::- In the movie \"Phoenix Blue\" (2001), protagonist Rick is a musician who freedives competitively.\n\nBULLET::::- The children's novel \"The Dolphins of Laurentum\" by Caroline Lawrence (2003), which takes place in ancient Rome, describes the applications of freediving (sponge and pearl diving) and its hazards, as one of the principal characters, as well as the main antagonist, try to beat each other to a sunken treasure.\n", "Examples of freediving activities are: traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronized swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of \"competitive apnea\" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.\n\nHistorically, the term \"free diving\" was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity. Such diving usually emphasizes the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasize what goes on once the diver enters the water. The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training. Entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is underwater swimming.\n", "Canoe and kayak diving\n\nCanoe diving and Kayak diving are recreational diving where the divers paddle to a diving site in a canoe or kayak carrying all their gear in or on the boat to the place they want to dive. Canoe or kayak diving gives the diver independence from dive boat operators, while allowing dives at sites which are too far to comfortably swim, but are sufficiently sheltered.\n", "Diving\n\nDiving usually refers to:\n\nBULLET::::- Diving (sport), the sport of jumping into deep water\n\nBULLET::::- Underwater diving, human activity underwater for recreational or occupational purposes\n\nDiving or Dive may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Sports.\n\nBULLET::::- Dive (American football), a type of play in American football\n\nBULLET::::- Diving (association football), a simulation of being fouled\n\nBULLET::::- Diving (ice hockey), embellishing an infraction in an attempt to draw a penalty\n\nBULLET::::- Sport diving (sport), competitive scuba diving using recreational techniques in a swimming pool\n\nBULLET::::- Taking a dive, intentionally losing a match, especially in boxing\n\nSection::::Film and television.\n", "Diving may be performed for various reasons, both personal and professional. Recreational diving is purely for enjoyment and has several specialisations and technical disciplines to provide more scope for varied activities for which specialist training can be offered, such as cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and deep diving.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Recreational.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"South Sea Adventure\" (1952) by Willard Price the Hunt brothers, marooned on a coral island, use free diving to collect both pearls and fresh water.\n\nBULLET::::- In Ian Fleming's (1964) James Bond novel \"You Only Live Twice\", the character Kissy Suzuki is an ama diver. This connection was also mentioned in the film version.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Man from Atlantis\" was a 1970s TV series which featured a superhero with the ability to breathe underwater and freedive in his own special way.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Silent World\" received an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature, and the Palme d'Or award at the Cannes Film Festival.\n\nBULLET::::- 1958:\n\nBULLET::::- The U.S. television series \"Sea Hunt\" began. It introduced scuba diving to the television audience. It ran until 1961.\n\nBULLET::::- USS \"Nautilus\" completed the first ever voyage under the polar ice to the North Pole and back.\n\nBULLET::::- The Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) (World Underwater Federation) was founded in Brussels.\n\nBULLET::::- August 1959: YMCA SCUBA Program was founded.\n", "In competition, the dives are referred to by a schematic system of three- or four-digit numbers. The letter to indicate the position is appended to the end of the number.\n\nThe first digit of the number indicates the dive group as defined above.\n", "Initially, diving as a sport began by jumping from \"great heights\". Then it was exclusively practiced by gymnasts as they found it exciting with a low probability of injury. It then evolved into \"diving in the air\" with water as the safety landing base. Efforts by Thomas Ralph to name the sport \"springing\" were not realized, as the term \"diving\" was by then firmly rooted. It soon became a sporting event pursued by many enthusiasts. In the early years of the sport, finding suitable places to jump was an issue, and people started jumping from any high place – in Europe and the United States they started jumping from bridges, then diving head first into the water. This evolved into \"fancy diving\" in Europe, and, particularly in Germany and Sweden, as a gymnastic act. The sport further improved with gymnastic acts being performed during the diving process, and was then given the names \"springboard diving\" and \"high fancy diving\", which were events in the Olympics of 1908 and 1912. The first diving event as a sport, however, was in 1889 in Scotland with a diving height of . Today, in Latin America, diving by professionals from heights of or more is a common occurrence.\n", "The international rules of competition contain the following four objectives for Sport Diving - firstly, encourage the further development of recreational scuba diving equipment and technique; secondly, promote scuba diving activities in localities that are remote from suitable diving sites or where open water activity may be prohibited by seasonal or adverse weather conditions; thirdly, to provide an opportunity for recreational scuba divers to practice and improve technique; and fourthly, the promotion of scuba diving carried out in swimming pools as a spectator sport for underwater diving enthusiasts.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- A source of significant video delay is found in pixelated television displays (LCD, Plasma display, DLP) which utilize complex video signal processing to convert the resolution of the incoming video signal to the native resolution of the pixelated display, for example converting standard definition video to be displayed on a high definition display. \"Lip-flap\" may exceed 200 ms at times.\n\nBULLET::::- In broadcast television, it is not unusual for lip-sync error to vary by over 100 ms (several video frames) from time to time.\n", "To keep two sequences playing at the same rate (in sync). A slide show or a series of video clips can be synced to the beat on an audio track. A talking-head video needs to maintain lip-sync, so that the audio matches the mouth movements of the speaker.\n\nSection::::S.:Synchronizing.\n\nMaintaining two or more scanning processes in phase.\n\nSection::::T.\n\nSection::::T.:Target Size.\n\nA generalized use class aspect that specifies the size of the object of interest with respect to the field of view. See also, the Target Size topic for video quality requirements considerations.\n\nSection::::T.:Tearing.\n", "SMPTE standard ST2064, published in 2015, provides technology to reduce or eliminate lip-sync errors in digital television. The standard utilizes audio and video fingerprints taken from a television program. The fingerprints can be recovered and used to correct the accumulated lip-sync error. When fingerprints have been generated for a TV program, and the required technology is incorporated, the viewer's display device has the ability to continuously measure and correct lip-sync errors.\n\nSection::::Timestamps.\n", "As happens with ballet in the physical world, live music is sometimes performed for the dance. In 2008, the ballet \"Shuzenji\" was performed occasionally with Solary Clary (Sora Izumikawa in physical life) singing and playing the music live in real-time while the virtual performers danced. \n\nOne virtual possibility involves using a machinima, a pre-recorded video in of virtual dancers, with which the live performers could interact. This was first done in 2009 in \"Degas Dances\".\n", "Because the film track and music track are recorded separately during the creation of a music video, artists usually lip-sync their songs and often imitate playing musical instruments as well. Artists also sometimes move their lips at a faster speed than the recorded track, to create videos with a slow-motion effect in the final clip, which is widely considered to be complex to achieve. Similarly, some artists have been known to lip-sync backwards for music videos such that, when reversed, the singer is seen to sing forwards while time appears to move backwards in his or her surroundings. \n", "Since the necessary frames were never photographed, new frames must be fabricated. Sometimes the new frames are simply repeats of the preceding frames but more often they are created by interpolating between frames. (Often this interpolation is, effectively, a short dissolve between still frames). Many complicated algorithms exist that can track motion between frames and generate intermediate frames within that scene. It is similar to half-speed, and is not true slow-motion, but merely longer display of each frame.\n\nSection::::In action films.\n", "Presentation time stamps (PTS) are embedded in MPEG transport streams to precisely signal when each audio and video segment is to be presented, to avoid AV-sync errors. However, these timestamps are often added after the video undergoes frame synchronization, format conversion and preprocessing, and thus the lip sync errors created by these operations will not be corrected by the addition and use of timestamps.\n", "Teenage viral video star Keenan Cahill openly lip-syncs popular songs on his YouTube channel. His popularity has increased as he included guests such as rapper 50 Cent in November 2010 and David Guetta in January 2011, sending him to be one of the most popular channels on YouTube in January 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ballet Shoes (film)\" (2007) - Three adopted sisters, Pauline, Petrova and Posy Fossil where each has a different talent: acting, machinery and ballet.\n", "BULLET::::- MOS/Sync – Sync-sound cameras are able to both maintain a constant speed (usually crystal lock) and run quietly enough not to be heard by the sound recordist. MOS cameras do not meet either one or both of these requirements, and are usually used either for applications where camera noise is not a concern, or non-standard camera speeds are required. A camera is also deemed MOS if it cannot hold a constant speed, regardless of its noise levels.\n", "Another of the ways in which virtual dance can expand more than physical dance is in the use of photographs. In traditional, physical dance, photos may be projected on a screen above a stage, but in a virtual world, the photo can become the stage, and the dancers can interact with it in a way not possible physically. This was first done in 2010 in \"one nine four two\", a memorial to the true fate of the Czech town of Lidice in World War II which was destroyed by Nazis.\n", "Dance technology allows for innovative art forms, such as collaborative network performances and \"The Dance Technology Project\", Atlanta Ballet and Georgia Institute of Technology, with its first performance, \"Non Sequitur,? of a ballerina dancing with a computer animated \"virtual\" dancer was shown on CNN's \"Future Watch\" program, May 1994.\n", "Double-system cameras are generally categorized as either \"sync\" or \"non-sync.\" Sync cameras use crystal-controlled motors that ensure that film is advanced through the camera at a precise speed. In addition, they're designed to be quiet enough to not hamper sound recording of the scene being shot. Non-sync or \"MOS\" cameras do not offer these features; any attempt to match location sound to these cameras' footage will eventually result in \"sync drift\", and the noise they emit typically renders location sound recording useless.\n", "BULLET::::- \"End Love\" is a stop motion dance video filmed in one continuous 18-hour take and sped up in post-production. The video's choreography included OK Go sleeping overnight in the park where the video was filmed as cameras continued to roll. The band announced an open call for fans to participate in the video and a group of fan volunteers is featured at the end of the video. The video contains a range of frame-rate speeds, from one frame per second stop motion to super slow motion at 30 times the normal speed. During filming, a goose living in the park followed the band, and consequently shows up throughout the video. He was nicknamed \"Orange Bill\" by band members.\n", "A music video for the popular song directed by Dre Films was released on February 14, 2015. It features his longtime girlfriend and model Tanaya Henry. In the beginning of the music video, Trey picks Tanya up, his love interest, and heads to the club, but changes his mind and decides to take her back to his house instead. In no time, he removes her article of clothing, pours her a drink and make out by the fireplace and on the balcony. Toward the end of the video, Trey takes off his shirt, while his model co-star and love interest Tanya Henry is chilling and smoking a joint.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "The music video for \"The One Moment\" features the members of OK Go interacting with various props on an initially stark-white set. Many of the props are inflated balloons filled with colored liquid that splash across the set pieces and the band members as they are ruptured in time to the music. The bulk of the video is shown in slow motion, at times slowed at 20,000% from real-time speed to match the beat of the song.\n", "Section::::In video games.:First-person shooters.\n", " The second type of slow motion is achieved during post production. This is known as \"time-stretching\" or \"digital slow motion\". This type of slow motion is achieved by inserting new frames in between frames that have actually been photographed. The effect is similar to overcranking as the actual motion occurs over a longer time.\n", "\"The video is set in Barcelona at the Olympic Diving site. I lie down for the whole video, which I thought was a very cunning plan. But then I ended up having to sing directly into the camera when the sun was right next it, so tears were streaming down my face! Videos always have a painful moment. It's either too hot or it's too cold or there's always something. That's part of the fun, I guess\"\n\nSection::::Live performances.\n", "The \"Cherry Lips\" video was first made commercially available in QuickTime format on the CD-ROM enhanced section of the \"Cherry Lips\" CD singles. A remastered version of the \"Cherry Lips\" music video was included on Garbage's 2007 greatest hits DVD \"Absolute Garbage\", and made available as a digital download via online music services later the same year.\n", "According to Lieberman, the video—including both the band's main performance and the skyline shots—was filmed in a continuous shot consisting of over one million frames of film. The average time compression on the video for most of OK Go's parts is about 270x from real-time, while the slowed down segments were 32 times slower than real-time. The skyline footage was compressed by 172,800 times, condensing each 24 hours into a 0.5 second shot.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Synopsis.\n", "When the music video for the song was leaked online, Keith Girard of celebrity gossip site The Improper wrote that the music video for \"Slow Down\" had elements of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. Keith says that \"Selena Gomez’s new video for song “Slow Down” contains some eerie parallels to the death of Princess Diana. Selena races through the Paris streets in a vintage Mercedes similar to Diana’s on the night she was killed in a car crash.\" Caroline Bologna of Hollywood.com picked up on the matter on the same day and mentioned how the footage of the vintage car speeding through tunnels is similar to the princess' death.\n", "Synchronization may or may not be present in virtual dance. Synchronization of dancers in a group can be either automated, for example by all of them using the same HUD, or done by individual dancers on their own improvisation.\n\nOne form of virtual dance is \"live moving in free synchronization\" which is created by the independent use of animations by different dancers at the same time. A dancer will mix animations and override one by the other—coordinating by sight their own movement with movement of other dancers in the group to express feelings and mood in virtual dance.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "However, many users see this as quite unnecessary, because they generally know what they need and don't want to go through the site's mechanics (such as filling out forms over and over) to get said file. Also, there may be bugs in the site's detection and/or download methods, thus forcing the user to obtain the file directly. Another example is when the site maintainer tries to identify the user's platform, and the user is simply using something other than the target platform to download the file (for example, using a Microsoft Windows system to download a Linux program, where the same program is built and offered for both platforms).\n", "Most IP networks are designed for users to download more than they upload, usually with an expected (Download:Upload) ratio of 3:1 or more.\n\nSegmented downloading, when used by only 20% of an ISP's user base, can upset the ISP's network to a point of requiring substantial reprogramming of routers and a rethink of network design.\n\nBULLET::::- Traditional \"web object\" caching technology (like the Squid proxy) is of no use here.\n", "An issue inherent to indiscriminate link prefetching involves the misuse of \"safe\" HTTP methods. The HTTP GET and HEAD requests are said to be \"safe\", i.e., a user agent that issues one of these requests should expect that the request results in no change on the recipient server. However, it is common for website operators to use these requests outside of this constraint. Plain hyperlinks (which almost universally result in GET requests) are often used to implement logout functionality and account verification, e.g., when a user completes an account creation form, and an automated service sends a verification e-mail to the user's given e-mail address. Similarly, it is entirely possible for a hosting service to provide a Web front end to manage files, including links that delete one or more files. Users who visit pages containing these types of links, (whilst using a browser which employs an indiscriminate link prefetcher), might find that they have been logged out or that their files have been deleted.\n", "In 2015, researchers from Pennsylvania State University found that a considerable amount of extensions on Firefox violated the private browsing policy based on an investigation of the top 2,000 extensions. Many extensions maintain their own profile folders on the local machine, and most of them will not wipe the browsing data after the private browsing session ends. This violation even happens on some most popular extensions with millions of users on Firefox.\n", "BULLET::::- Users may be exposed to more security risks by downloading more pages, or from un-requested sites (additionally compounded as drive-by downloads become more advanced and diverse).\n\nBULLET::::- Users may violate acceptable-use policies of their network or organisation if prefetching accesses unauthorised content.\n\nIn the case of mobile devices or for users with a limited bandwidth allowance, prefetching may result in an unnecessary costly drain on limited bandwidth.\n\nIn the case of prerendering, Google warns that improper use may result in the aforementioned increased bandwidth usage, slower loading of other links, and slightly stale content.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cache prefetching\n", "In a group of users that has insufficient upload-bandwidth, with demand higher than supply. Segmented downloading can however very nicely handle traffic peaks, and it can also, to some degree, let uploaders upload \"more often\" to better utilize their connection.\n\nData integrity issues\n\nBULLET::::- Very simple implementations of segmented downloading technology can often result in varying levels of file corruption, as there often is no way of knowing if all sources are actually uploading segments of the same file.\n", "In \"Specht v. Netscape\", the Second Circuit Court of Appeals looked at the enforceability of a browse-wrap contract entered into on the Netscape website. Users of the site were urged to download free software available on the site by clicking on a tinted button labeled \"download\". Only if a user scrolled down the page to the next screen did he come upon an invitation to review the full terms of the program's license agreement, available by hyperlink. The plaintiffs, who had not seen the agreement, downloaded the software and then were later sued for violations of federal privacy and computer fraud statutes arising from the use of the software. The Second Circuit then noted that an essential ingredient to contract formation is the mutual manifestation of assent. The court found that \"a consumer's clicking on a download button does not communicate assent to contractual terms if the offer did not make clear to the consumer that clicking on the download button would signify assent to those terms.\" Because the plaintiffs were not put on notice of these terms they were not bound by them.\n", "Due to the profile copying at login and logout, a roaming profile set up using the default configuration can be extremely slow and waste considerable amounts of time for users with large amounts of data in their account.\n\nWhen Microsoft designed Internet Explorer, the programmers made an explicit decision to store cookies and favorites as tiny individual files less than a kilobyte each, rather than storing this data as a single large consolidated file. Microsoft also stores shortcut files in the \"Recent\" profile folder, linking to recently opened files and folders.\n", "Additionally, there are a number of criticisms regarding the privacy and resource usage implications of link prefetching:\n\nBULLET::::- Users and website operators who pay for the amount of bandwidth they use find themselves paying for traffic for pages the user might not actually visit, and advertisers might pay for viewed ads on sites that are never visited.\n\nBULLET::::- Web statistics such as browser usage, search engine referers, and page hits may become less reliable due to registering page hits that were never seen by the user.\n", "Due to a vulnerability commonly known as DLL hijacking, DLL spoofing, DLL preloading or binary planting, many programs will load and execute a malicious DLL contained in the same folder as a data file opened by these programs. The vulnerability was discovered by Georgi Guninski in 2000.\n\nIn August 2010 it gained worldwide publicity after ACROS security rediscovered it again and many hundreds of programs were found vulnerable.\n\nPrograms that are run from unsafe locations, i.e. user-writable folders like the \"Downloads\" or the \"Temp\" directory, are almost always susceptible to this vulnerability.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Drive-by downloads may happen when visiting a website, opening an e-mail attachment or clicking a link, or clicking on a deceptive pop-up window: by clicking on the window in the mistaken belief that, for example, an error report from the computer's operating system itself is being acknowledged or a seemingly innocuous advertisement pop-up is being dismissed. In such cases, the \"supplier\" may claim that the user \"consented\" to the download, although the user was in fact unaware of having started an unwanted or malicious software download. Similarly if a person is visiting a site with malicious content, the person may become victim to a drive-by download attack. That is, the malicious content may be able to exploit vulnerabilities in the browser or plugins to run malicious code without the user’s knowledge.\n", "In software development, products which compete often will use specification lists of competitive products to add features, presuming that they must provide all of the features of the competitive product, plus add additional functionality. This can lead to \"feature creep\" in which it is considered necessary to add all of a competitor's features whether or not customers will use them.\n", "Note that BITS does not necessarily measure the actual bandwidth. BITS versions 3.0 and up will use Internet Gateway Device counters, if available, to more accurately calculate available bandwidth. Otherwise, BITS will use the speed as reported by the NIC to calculate bandwidth. This can lead to bandwidth calculation errors, for example when a fast network adapter (10 Mbit/s) is connected to the network via a slow link (56 kbit/s).\n\nSection::::Technology.:Jobs.\n", "A study done by How-To Geek in 2015 revealed that Download.com was packaging malware inside their installers. The test was done in a virtual machine where the testers downloaded the Top 10 apps. These all contained crapware/malware; one example was the KMPlayer installer, which installed a rogue antivirus named 'Pro PC Cleaner' and attempted to execute codice_1. Some downloads, specifically YTD, were completely blocked by Avast.\n", "BULLET::::- Data corruption problems have led to most programs using segmented downloading using some sort of checksum or hash algorithm to ensure file integrity (to receive file intact) and uniqueness (to not receive bits of other similar files).\n\nBULLET::::- Usually MD5 and SHA-1 hashes are preferred in most segmented download protocols, but CRC-64-ECMA would suffice in most cases. In cases where only MPEG files are being sent CRC-32-MPEG would also be acceptable.\n", "The case of the first letter indicates whether the chunk is critical or not. If the first letter is uppercase, the chunk is critical; if not, the chunk is ancillary. Critical chunks contain information that is necessary to read the file. If a decoder encounters a critical chunk it does not recognize, it must abort reading the file or supply the user with an appropriate warning.\n", "BULLET::::- When installing applications whose size is 130-150kb using the Nokia PC suite, an error message appears saying that the file is too large to be installed on the phone although the maximum size that can be installed on the Nokia 6070 is 150kb. Applications which have a size of 130-150kb can be installed via OTA (over-the-air) download using GPRS.\n\nBULLET::::- Sometimes, when the phone is using GPRS and the memory is about to become full (due to the internet cache being enabled), the phone crashes and White Screen of Death appears.\n", "BULLET::::- Local Settings: Functionally similar to \"Application Data\", and contains a second subfolder of that name. It also contains the temporary files generated by Windows programs themselves, and as a result of Internet Explorer's online activities. For standalone computers the two folders are functionally similar, but on networks employing Roaming profiles, the \"Local Settings\" folder is not included in the profile synchronization process. Thus, data in the \"Local Settings\" folder will not be copied between computers when the user roams.\n", "BULLET::::- Downloading a \"download manager\" application which then downloads the desired file (which is similar to downloading a stub, but is used for more than one file or package from the same site).\n\nThe maintainers of the site may have arguably good reasons for these impediments, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- being able to inform (email) users of available updates so as to reduce the time software is vulnerable\n", "Some security experts and cryptographers found out that all released Netscape versions had major security problems with crashing the browser with long URLs and 40 bits encryption keys.\n", "In February 2013, a vulnerability with the webarchive format was discovered and reported by Joe Vennix, a Metasploit Project developer. The exploit allows an attacker to send a crafted webarchive to a user containing code to access cookies, local files, and other data. Apple's response to the report was that it will not fix the bug, most likely because it requires action on the users' part in opening the file.\n\nSection::::Converting for other browsers.\n", "The characteristics of the user interface often force the decision on a designer. For instance, a drawing package could require download of an initial image from a server, and allow all edits to be made locally, returning the revised drawing to the server upon completion. This would require a thick client and might be characterised by a long delay to start and stop (while a whole complex drawing was transferred), but quick to edit.\n", "The count info in the record is important if the processing is reduced more than one time. If we did not add the count of the records, the computed average would be wrong, for example:\n\nIf we reduce files #1 and #2, we will have a new file with an average of 9 contacts for a 10-year-old person ((9+9+9+9+9)/5):\n", "Windows Update uses the Background Intelligent Transfer Service (BITS) to download the updates, using idle network bandwidth. However BITS will use the speed as reported by the network interface (NIC) to calculate bandwidth. This can lead to bandwidth calculation errors, for example when a fast network adapter (e.g. 10 Mbit/s) is connected to the network via a slow link (e.g. 56 kbit/s) - according to Microsoft \"BITS will compete for the full bandwidth [of the NIC] ... BITS has no visibility of the network traffic beyond the client.\"\n", "File servers tend to only transfer large files several megabytes in size at the fastest possible network speed. Hundreds of very small files only a kilobyte per file can reduce network performance by 90%. As a profile ages and accumulates hundreds to thousands of cookies, favorites, and Recent items, the login and logout times become progressively slower, even though these files occupy only a few megabytes of profile data.\n" ]

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[]

[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "This type of industrial melanism has only affected such moths as obtain protection from insect-eating birds by resting on trees where they are concealed by an accurate resemblance to their background (over 100 species of moth in Britain with melanic forms were known by 1980). No species which hide during the day, for instance, among dead leaves, is affected, nor has the melanic change been observed among butterflies.\n\nThis is, as shown in many textbooks, \"evolution in action\".\n", "Leaves are very important to a plant in that they create an avenue where photosynthesis and thermoregulation can occur. Evolutionarily, the environmental contribution to leaf shape allowed for a myriad of different types of leaves to be created in the means of balancing energy production with the plants’ fitness. The shape of the leaf is important and not only depends on genetics, but also the environment that the plant lives in. Environmental factors, such as light and humidity have been shown to affect leaf morphology, giving rise to the question of how this shape change is controlled at the molecular level. \n", "Leaf insects are camouflaged taking on the appearance of leaves. They do this so accurately that predators often are not able to distinguish them from real leaves. In some species the edge of the leaf insect's body even has the appearance of bite marks. To further confuse predators, when the leaf insect walks, it rocks back and forth, to mimic a real leaf being blown by the wind.\n", "The most startling adaptation of \"Lithops\" is the colouring of the leaves. The leaves are fenestrated, and the epidermal windows are patterned in various shades of cream, grey, and brown, with darker windowed areas, dots, and red lines, according to species and local conditions. The markings function as remarkable camouflage for the plant in its typical stone-like environment. As is typical of a window plant, the green tissue lines the inside of the leaves and is covered with translucent tissue beneath the epidermal windows.\n", "Section::::Alternative explanations.:Immunity.\n\nIn 1921, the evolutionary biologist Richard Goldschmidt argued that the observed increase in the melanic form of the black arches moth, \"Lymantria monacha\", could not have been caused by mutation pressure alone, but required a selective advantage from an unknown cause: he did not consider camouflage as an explanation.\n", "Section::::In animals.:Other ways of hiding outlines.\n\nThe outlines of an animal's body can be made hard to see by other methods, such as by using a highly irregular outline. For example, the comma butterfly, \"Polygonia c-album\", is highly cryptic when its wings are closed, with cryptic colours, disruptive pattern, and irregular outer margins to the wings.\n\nSection::::In plants.\n", "It has been suggested that some patterns of leaf variegation may be part of a defensive strategy employed by plants to deceive adult leaf miners into thinking that a leaf has already been preyed upon.\n\nSection::::Relationship with humans.\n", "BULLET::::17. Birds, etc. Appendages, and their part in 'obliteration'\n\nBULLET::::18. Birds: miscellany. \"Mimicry\" (vs 'obliteration')\n\nBULLET::::19. Birds, concluded\n\nBULLET::::20. Mammals\n\nBULLET::::21. Mammals, continued\n\nBULLET::::22. Mammals, concluded\n\nBULLET::::23. Fishes\n\nBULLET::::24. Reptiles and Amphibians\n\nBULLET::::25. Caterpillars\n\nBULLET::::26. A glance at Insects other than Lepidoptera\n\nBULLET::::27. Butterflies and Moths\n\nSection::::Outline.\n", "Genotypes often give rise to specific phenotypes, however leaves have phenotypic plasticity. This means that different leaves could have the same gene but present a different form every time based on environmental factors. Plants are sessile beings so this phenotypic plasticity allows the plant to take in information from its environment and respond without changing its location and simultaneously increasing its fitness. \n", "Spieth 1947; “No experimental evidence exist to indicate how much or how little coloration of the imaginal individuals of this genus is independent of the environment in which the nymphs develop. Circumstantial evidence Spieth (1938) indicates, and such evidence is constantly accumulating, that the environment may play a part in determining the degree of coloration of the adults”\n\nSpieth 1947; “When confronted with a large series, especially from the areas around the Great Lakes, more “intermediate” than “typical” specimens are invariably found”\n", "Section::::Camouflage and mimicry.\n", "In 2008, researchers studying the presence or absence of a dorsal stripe suggested that it has independently evolved several times in \"Timema\" species and is an adaptation for crypsis on needle-like leaves. All of the eight \"Timema\" species with a dorsal stripe have at least one host plant with needle-like foliage. Of the thirteen unstriped species, seven feed only on broadleaf plants. Four (\"T. ritense\", \"T. podura\", \"T. genevievae\", and \"T. coffmani\") rest during the day on the host plant's trunk rather than its leaves and have bodies that are brown, gray, or tan. Only two species (\"T. nakipa\" and \"T. boharti\") have green unstriped morphs that feed on needle-like foliage; both are generalist feeders that also feed on broadleaf hosts.\n", "Not only can we classify the degree of insect camouflage using a gradient, we can also study all aspects of the surrounding environment as gradients. For instance, a 1 percent camouflage may not be distinguishable from no camouflage under bright daylight. But as light fades and night sets in, there is a critical moment when the 1 percent camouflage helps an insect escape detection by its predator, while its companion with no camouflage is eaten. The same principle can be applied to the distance between prey and predator, to the angle of view, to the skill or the age of a creature, etc.\n", "Insects may also take on different types of camouflage, another type of cypsis. These include resembling a uniformly colored background as well as being light below and dark above, or countershaded. Additionally, camouflage is effective when it results in patterns or unique morphologies that disrupt outlines so as to better merge the individual into the background.\n\nSection::::Hiding.:Cost and benefit perspective.\n", "A common cause of variegation is the masking of green pigment by other pigments, such as anthocyanins. This often extends to the whole leaf, causing it to be reddish or purplish. On some plants however, consistent zonal markings occur; such as on some clovers, bromeliads, certain \"Pelargonium\" and \"Oxalis\" species. On others, such as the commonly grown forms of Coleus, the variegation can vary widely within a population.\n\nIn \"Nymphaea lotus\", the tiger lotus, leaf variegations appear under intense illumination.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Pathological.\n", "In some cases even the cocoons spun by the larvæ are modified by the surrounding colours; and still more curious changes are effected in the larva itself when ... the same species feeds on several plants having differently-coloured leaves. Even the presence of numerous dark twigs has been shown to cause a corresponding change of colour in the larva of the peppered moth (\"Amphidasis betularia\").\"\n", "Section::::Evolutionary adaptation.\n\nIn the course of evolution, leaves have adapted to different environments in the following ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Waxy micro- and nanostructures on the surface reduce wetting by rain and adhesion of contamination (\"See Lotus effect\").\n\nBULLET::::- Divided and compound leaves reduce wind resistance and promote cooling.\n\nBULLET::::- Hairs on the leaf surface trap humidity in dry climates and create a boundary layer reducing water loss.\n\nBULLET::::- Waxy plant cuticles reduce water loss.\n\nBULLET::::- Large surface area provides a large area for capture of sunlight.\n", "Larval breeding-places include small collections of water in larger fallen leaves, old tins and bottles, snail shells, plant axils, cut bamboo, and rarely tree holes. Some species seem to breed exclusively in plant axils; the majority are most frequently found in fallen leaves in forest habitat. They are strongly bottom-dwelling, so much so that when the water is poured out of a leaf containing them, most remain on the surface of the leaf until washed off; larvae of species collected in Uganda and Sierra Leone have been observed crawling over the surface of the leaf.\n", "It has been suggested that some patterns of leaf variegation may be part of a defensive \"masquerade strategy.\" In this, leaf variegation may appear to an insect leaf miner that the leaf is already infested, and this may reduce parasitization of the leaf by leaf miners.\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n", "Plants can avoid overheating by minimising the amount of sunlight absorbed and by enhancing the cooling effects of wind and transpiration. Plants can reduce light absorption using reflective leaf hairs, scales, and waxes. These features are so common in warm dry regions that these habitats can be seen to form a ‘silvery landscape’ as the light scatters off the canopies. Some species, such as \"Macroptilium purpureum\", can move their leaves throughout the day so that they are always orientated to avoid the sun (\"paraheliotropism\"). Knowledge of these mechanisms has been key to breeding for heat stress tolerance in agricultural plants.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the principal morphological characters distinguishing shade and sun leaves in modern species of \"Liquidambar\", and on their implications for identifying leaf polymorphisms in fossil members of this genus that could otherwise be used to establish unwarranted new species, is published by Maslova \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on fossil pollen of members of the group Ericales from five Eocene localities in the United Kingdom, Austria, Germany and China, aiming to describe fossil pollen types and compare them with the most similar looking pollen of modern species, is published by Hofmann (2018).\n", "Although the moths are cryptically camouflaged and rest during the day in unexposed positions on trees, they are predated by birds hunting by sight. The original camouflage (or crypsis) seems near-perfect against a background of lichen growing on trees. The sudden growth of industrial pollution in the nineteenth century changed the effectiveness of the moths' camouflage: the trees became blackened by soot, and the lichen died off. In 1848 a dark version of this moth was found in the Manchester area. By 1895 98% of the peppered moths in this area were black. This was a rapid change for a species that has only one generation a year.\n", "Because of phenotypic plasticity, it is hard to explain and predict the traits when plants are grown in natural conditions unless a explicit environment index can be obtained to quantify environments. Identification of photothermal time from a critical growth periods being highly correlated with sorghum flowering time enables such predictions.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Phytohormones and Leaf Plasticity.\n", "Section::::Proposed physical mechanisms.:Plants.\n\nImaging of biophotons from leaves has been used as a method for Assaying R Gene Responses. These genes and their associated proteins are responsible for pathogen recognition and activation of defense signaling networks leading to the hypersensitive response, which is one of the mechanisms of the resistance of plants to pathogen infection. It involves the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which have crucial roles in signal transduction or as toxic agents leading to cell death.\n", "In the following century Caspar Friedrich Wolff was able to follow the development of organs from the \"growing points\" or apical meristems. He noted the commonality of development between foliage leaves and floral leaves (e.g. petals) and wrote: \"In the whole plant, whose parts we wonder at as being, at the first glance, so extraordinarily diverse, I finally perceive and recognize nothing beyond leaves and stem (for the root may be regarded as a stem). Consequently all parts of the plant, except the stem, are modified leaves.\"\n" ]

[ "Insect DNA knows what the environment looks like and changes to match it.", "Insect's DNA know what the environment looks like and are able to choose and adapt to camoflauge themselves to look like the environment." ]

[ "The environment selects only those with DNA that helps them to survive by killing off the others. ", "The DNA of insects doesn't know what color to adapt to at all, it's likely that the insects just evolved based off of what insects survive." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Insect DNA knows what the environment looks like and changes to match it.", "Insect's DNA know what the environment looks like and are able to choose and adapt to camoflauge themselves to look like the environment." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The environment selects only those with DNA that helps them to survive by killing off the others. ", "The DNA of insects doesn't know what color to adapt to at all, it's likely that the insects just evolved based off of what insects survive." ]

[ "The 3310 is known for being reasonably durable due to its casing and construction, a feature which is often humorously exaggerated in online communities. Numerous videos also exist of the phone being put through increasingly-severe damage tests to test the phone's strength, including being dropped from a great height (sometimes while being protected with makeshift cases made from various objects), being crushed by heavy objects or being struck by vehicles or hammers, many times of which the phone proved its record.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "The device body is made of a material called \"Liquidmorphium\" which is described by the manufacturer as an “unbendable” metal that's stronger than titanium or steel and more resistant to shock and screen breakages.\n", "BULLET::::- : Gives a Phone Braver the ability to deconstruct surface matter like walls. First used by Seven, though Grinder was still not fully perfected for Phone Bravers to use until later. On its own it can create small quakes. It created by Hirofumi, using the \"Silverman\" manga as an inspiration. Its model number is BST-P006.\n\nBULLET::::- : A mini laptop computer that can be used as a kind of power suit for Seven. It can attach two Boost Phones. Its model number is BST-P007.\n", "The Droid Turbo 2 is an Android smartphone sold in the United States under the Verizon Droid brand. Outside of the United States, it is branded as the Moto X Force. It was released on October 27, 2015. This phone is marketed as having \"the world's first shatterproof screen.\"\n\nSection::::ZUK-branded phones.\n\nSection::::ZUK-branded phones.:Z1.\n", "Devices can face resistance to drops of up to 3m to concrete, fully sealed against dust and are submersible in up to 1.5 meter of water for up to 30 minutes, meeting IP68 certification requirements. The devices can operate in temperatures ranging from -20 °C to 60 °C, and are tested for resistance to impact, shock, vibration, altitude and extreme humidity.\n", "The LifeProof Nüüd is a technology that exposes the original screen of the device while protecting the phone from water, dirt, snow, and drop damage. This allows for zero visual interference, glare, loss of contrast or touch interference. The technology is currently supported on the iPhone 5, iPhone 5s, iPhone 5c, iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus, iPhone 6s, iPhone 6s Plus, iPhone SE, iPhone 7, iPhone 7 Plus, Galaxy S3, Galaxy S4, Galaxy S5, iPad, and iPad Mini.\n", "CNET TV torture-tested an S III by cooling it to , placing it in a heat-proof box and heating it to , and submerging it in water—the S III survived all three tests. The phone also did not exhibit any scratches when a key was repeatedly scraped against the display. However, Android Authority later carried out a drop test with the purpose of comparing the S III and the iPhone 5. The screen on the S III shattered on the second drop test, while the iPhone received only minor scuffs and scratches on the metal composite frame after three drop tests.\n\nSection::::Features.:Software and services.\n", "Nokia 3720 classic\n\nThe Nokia 3720 classic is a mobile phone by Nokia announced in July 2009 and manufactured in Hungary. The phone runs the Series 40 6th edition platform. \n\nThis phone is IP54 rated against water, dust and is also shock proof. This makes the phone Nokia's first IP certified device. Nokia has released videos showing how rugged this device is such as being placed under water, kicked by a rugby boot and hit by a golf club.\n\nSection::::Technical specifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Series 40 6th Edition\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60529/Level IP54 certified to be water and dust resistant\n", "The internal components are situated between two panels of aluminosilicate glass, described by Apple as being \"chemically strengthened to be 20 times stiffer and 30 times harder than plastic,\" theoretically allowing it to be more scratch resistant and durable than the prior models.\n\nIn fall 2010, pentalobe screws started to replace the Philips screws used in post-repair units in the US and in production units in Japan.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "BULLET::::- : Appeared in \"Sōsuke Takimoto Case File\". Called and buddied with Blackbird, colored green with an arabesque design. He is a character like an Edokko. He is the only Phone Braver who is actively working while not officially registered yet. He is the same model as Seven, and his model number is PB-CMP-TEST06.\n", "Section::::\"Sleds\" inside safety cells.\n\nThe 2004 Pininfarina \"Nido\" Experimental Safety Vehicle locates crumple zones \"inside\" the survival cell. Those interior crumple zones decelerate a sled-mounted survival cell.\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Anderson Godwin, a convicted murderer in South Carolina who had his sentence reduced from death by the electric chair, sat on the metal toilet in his cell while fixing his television. When he bit one of the wires, the resultant electric shock killed him. Another convicted murderer, Laurence Baker in Pittsburgh, was electrocuted while listening to the television on home-made earphones while sitting on a metal toilet.\n", "Section::::Appearances.:In other media.\n\nIn a filler episode of \"Dragon Ball Z\", Android 18 attends a party with her family. Android #18 is featured in the special \"\", being saved by Krillin from having a building collapse on both her and her daughter after it was hit by Aka's .\n", "BULLET::::- Whilst being constantly interrupted during a phone call by a man waiting to use a phone booth in the 1994 film \"Dumb and Dumber\" (Frederick Stoller), Joe 'Mental' Mentalino (Mike Starr) punches him, smashing the glass in the phone booth and knocking the man out.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Callbox\n\nBULLET::::- Hotspot (Wi-Fi)\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive kiosk\n\nBULLET::::- KX telephone boxes\n\nBULLET::::- Mojave phone booth\n\nBULLET::::- Payphone\n\nBULLET::::- Police box\n\nBULLET::::- Red telephone box\n\nBULLET::::- Giles Gilbert Scott, the English architect who designed the iconic red telephone box.\n\nBULLET::::- Phonebooth stuffing\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Memory card, headset phones and power-charging port are on the right side. USB port, 2 volume buttons, and the camera shutter button on the left side. The Nokia 6650 fold uses a BP-4L battery (1.5 Ah), physically larger than a standard cell battery. An extremely reliable & sturdy unit. A vanguard again, its earlier namesake of some 6-years ago, the old 6650 candybar telephone was the first 3G cell phone by Nokia.\n\nSection::::AT&T Variant.\n", "BULLET::::- Smart glass was used in the bathroom in \"\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dimmable smart glass was featured in the 2014 film, \"\", in the S.H.I.E.L.D. office in Washington, D.C.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glass was featured in the 2014 animated feature \"Big Hero 6\", used by Tadashi Hamada for his office.\n\nBULLET::::- In the fifth season of \"Angel\", smart glass lines the interior wall of Angel's office, and can be frosted over at the flick of a switch under Angel's desk. (The fictional vampire-safe \"necro-tempered glass\" lines the \"outer\" walls of the building.)\n", "As soon as class lets out, Sid and Tiger rescue the phone, relieved it isn't damaged. As they ponder how the phone knew the correct answer, Sid and Pierre see Angie and her friends being walked to their next class by Virgile and his entourage.\n", "The unit is held closed by magnets, and can be opened with a single hand by pushing the lid of the phone away from the hinge mechanism. The hinge itself is spring-loaded, so that when cracked it actively swings fully open.\n", "BULLET::::- 1877: Scientific instruments displayed by Messrs. J. W. Sutton and Co.\n\nBULLET::::- 1878: Microphone made and exhibited by Mr. J. W. Sutton. Telephones, of which there are several, exhibited by Mr. W. J. Cracknell and H. Starke of the Telegraph Department, and Mr, J. W. Sutton\n", "The moving parts and hinges can wear out or break. The most serious common problem arose because of a design fault in the screen cable where tooling holes caused unnecessary stressing due to additional bending of the cable at this point each time the Psion Series 5 was opened or closed and eventually leading to failure of the cable, which caused a serious display malfunction and the appearance of horizontal lines on the screen. The screen cable to the Psion Series 5 was more durable than the screen cable of the Psion Series 5mx. There was an after-market cable available for the 5mx which aimed to eliminate this problem.\n", "Section::::Contact failures.\n\nElectrical contacts exhibit ubiquitous contact resistance, the magnitude of which is governed by surface structure and the composition of surface layers. Ideally contact resistance should be low and stable, however weak contact pressure, mechanical vibration, corrosion, and the formation of passivizing oxide layers and contacts can alter contact resistance significantly, leading to resistance heating and circuit failure.\n", "Section::::Products.:The gTool ScreenJack.\n\nThe gTool ScreenJack was created in 2014. It is the world’s first professional iPhone opening tool. The tool enabled the user to open the iPhone 5, iPhone5S and iPhone 5C with ease without compromising the faulty phone any further.\n\nSection::::Products.:The gTool iCorner.\n\nThe gTool iCorner is used to rectify dented corners and sidewalls on iPads and iPhones. It works as a vice which fits over the affected area and when the knob is turned, it conforms the corner back to its original shape.\n\nSection::::Products.:The gTool PanelPress.\n", "The safety standards in the US are set by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC has based its standards primarily on those standards established by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) a Congressionally chartered scientific organization located in the WDC area and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), specifically Subcommittee 4 of the \"International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety\".\n\nSwitzerland has set safety limits lower than the ICNIRP limits for certain \"sensitive areas\" (classrooms, for example).\n\nSection::::Lawsuits.\n", "Cherry Mobile Flare S7 series' specifications and design were leaked ahead of their launch on October 12, 2018. Its design for the S7 Deluxe and Plus series were using the long notch from the iPhone XS\n\nIn 2016, Cherry Mobile established official presence in Europe. It started distributing its products in Germany.\n\nSection::::Cubix.\n", "iPhone 7 is rated IP67 water and dust resistant, although tests have resulted in malfunctions, specifically distorted speakers, after water exposure. The warranty does not cover any water damage to the phone.\n\niPhone 7's home button uses a capacitive mechanism for input rather than a physical push-button, as on previous models, meaning direct skin contact (or a capacitive glove) is required to operate the device. Physical feedback is provided via a Taptic Engine vibrator, and the button is also pressure-sensitive. iPhone 7 retains the 3D Touch display system introduced on the iPhone 6S, providing pressure-sensitive touchscreen input.\n" ]

[ "Phone screen should crack whenever it is dropped." ]

[ "Phone screens are much more durable than most people believe. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Phone screen should crack whenever it is dropped." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Phone screens are much more durable than most people believe. " ]

[ "A system similar to the Bosch inline mechanical pump was built by SPICA for Alfa Romeo, used on the Alfa Romeo Montreal and on U.S. market 1750 and 2000 models from 1969 to 1981. This was designed to meet the U.S. emission requirements with no loss in performance and it also reduced fuel consumption.\n\nSection::::History and development.:Development in gasoline/petrol engines.:Electronic injection.\n", "Many motorcycles still use carburetored engines, though all current high-performance designs have switched to EFI.\n\nNASCAR finally replaced carburetors with fuel-injection, starting at the beginning of the 2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season.\n\nSection::::System components.\n\nSection::::System components.:System overview.\n\nThe process of determining the necessary amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are known as fuel metering. Early injection systems used mechanical methods to meter fuel, while nearly all modern systems use electronic metering.\n\nSection::::System components.:Determining how much fuel to supply.\n", "In 1997 Nissan released the Leopard featuring the VQ30DD equipped with direct injection.\n", "BULLET::::- Various sensors (some of the sensors required are listed here)\n\nSection::::System components.:Engine control unit.\n\nThe engine control unit is central to an EFI system. The ECU interprets data from input sensors to, among other tasks, calculate the appropriate amount of fuel to inject.\n\nSection::::System components.:Fuel injector.\n", "Bosch superseded the D-Jetronic system with the \"K-Jetronic\" and \"L-Jetronic\" systems for 1974, though some cars (such as the Volvo 164) continued using D-Jetronic for the following several years. In 1970, the Isuzu 117 Coupé was introduced with a Bosch-supplied D-Jetronic fuel injected engine sold only in Japan. In 1984 Rover fitted Lucas electronic fuel injection, which was based on some L-Jetronic patents, to the S-Series engine as used in the 200 model.\n", "In 2004 Isuzu produced the first GDi engine sold in a mainstream American vehicle, standard on the 2004 Axiom and optional on the 2004 Rodeo. Isuzu claimed the benefit of GDi is that the vaporizing fuel has a cooling effect, allowing a higher compression ratio (10.3:1 versus 9.1:1) that boosts output by , and that 0-to-60 mph times drop from 8.9 to just 7.5 seconds, with the quarter-mile being cut from 16.5 to 15.8 seconds.\n", "In Japan, the Toyota Celica used electronic, multi-port fuel injection in the optional 18R-E engine in January 1974. Nissan offered electronic, multi-port fuel injection in 1975 with the Bosch L-Jetronic system used in the Nissan L28E engine and installed in the Nissan Fairlady Z, Nissan Cedric, and the Nissan Gloria. Nissan also installed multi-point fuel injection in the Nissan Y44 V8 engine in the Nissan President. Toyota soon followed with the same technology in 1978 on the 4M-E engine installed in the Toyota Crown, the Toyota Supra, and the Toyota Mark II. In the 1980s, the Isuzu Piazza and the Mitsubishi Starion added fuel injection as standard equipment, developed separately with both companies history of diesel powered engines. 1981 saw Mazda offer fuel injection in the Mazda Luce with the Mazda FE engine and, in 1983, Subaru offered fuel injection in the Subaru EA81 engine installed in the Subaru Leone. Honda followed in 1984 with their own system, called PGM-FI in the Honda Accord, and the Honda Vigor using the Honda ES3 engine.\n", "An early use of indirect gasoline injection dates back to 1902, when French aviation engineer Leon Levavasseur installed it on his pioneering Antoinette 8V aircraft powerplant, the first V8 engine of any type ever produced in any quantity.\n\nAnother early use of gasoline direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the ultra lean-burn principle; fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a spark plug. They are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene.\n", "Section::::Various injection schemes.:Central port injection.\n\nFrom 1992 to 1996 General Motors implemented a system called Central Port Injection or Central Port Fuel Injection. The system uses tubes with poppet valves from a central injector to spray fuel at each intake port rather than the central throttle-body. Fuel pressure is similar to a single-point injection system. CPFI (used from 1992 to 1995) is a batch-fire system, while CSFI (from 1996) is a sequential system.\n\nSection::::Various injection schemes.:Multipoint fuel injection.\n", "With its origins beginning with the CX500 and CX650 turbocharged motorcycles in 1982 and 1983, respectively, Honda's PGM-FI made its way into their automobiles in the early 1980s with the ER engine equipped City Turbo. The system gained popularity in the late 1980s in their Accord and Prelude models with A20A, A20A3 & A20A4 engines (Honda A engine), and its motorcycles later on. In 1998, Honda built its third motorcycle with fuel injection; the VFR800FI.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "Programmed fuel injection\n\nProgrammed Fuel Injection, or PGMFI/PGM-FI, is the name given by Honda to a proprietary digital electronic fuel injection system for internal combustion engines with port injection. It is available since the early 1980s. This system has been implemented on motorcycles, automobiles, and outboard motors.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In the 1980s, Skoda manufactured a small number of rear-engined cars with Renix fuel injection. These were originally destined for Canada but ended up in Europe. These are usually known as 135 GLi or 135 RiC. Fuel system parts may be available from Chrysler-Jeep dealers.\n\nSection::::Volvo applications.\n", "In 1980, Motorola (now NXP Semiconductors) introduced the first electronic engine control unit, the EEC-III. Its integrated control of engine functions (such as fuel injection and spark timing) is now the standard approach for fuel injection systems. The Motorola technology was installed in Ford North American products.\n\nSection::::Elimination of carburetors.\n", "BULLET::::- Fuel tank and tank ventilation system:\n\nThe fuel tank, tank filler neck and evaporative canister are made of stainless steel. Both the fuel pump and fuel filter are completely sealed inside the gas tank and require a complete replacement of the gas tank if either the fuel pump or filter fail.\n\nBULLET::::- Crankcase ventilation system:\n\nThe crankcase ventilation valve is incorporated in the aluminum cylinder head cover.\n\nBULLET::::- System components used to achieve SULEV tailpipe emission requirements:\n\nBULLET::::1. Dual down stream catalytic converters\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Warm up\" catalytic converters – high cell density technology\n", "Unit injector fuel systems are being used on wide variety of vehicles and engines; commercial vehicle from manufacturers such as Volvo, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, CAT, Navistar International and passenger vehicles from manufacturers such as Land Rover and Volkswagen Group, among others, and locomotives from Electro-Motive Diesel.\n\nThe Volkswagen Group mainstream marques used unit injector systems (branded \"Pumpe Düse\", commonly appreviated to \"PD\") in their Suction Diesel Injection (SDI) and Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engines, however this fuel injection method has been superseded by a common-rail design, such as the new 1.6 TDI.\n", "Fuel saving device\n\nFuel saving devices are sold on the aftermarket with claims to improve the fuel economy and/or the exhaust emissions of any purport to optimize ignition, air flow, or fuel flow in some way. An early example of such a device sold with difficult-to-justify claims is the 200 mpg carburetor designed by Canadian inventor Charles Nelson Pogue.\n", "Features of the current firmware related to fuel injection:\n\nBULLET::::- Simultaneous (all injectors open at the same time), central (throttle-body) injection, two banks alternating (two injectors or two banks of injectors fire alternately) and semi-sequential injection (injectors fire by pairs). In the nearest future full-sequential injection support will be added\n\nBULLET::::- Speed-density method of estimating airflow into an engine (MAP and IAT sensors are used)\n\nBULLET::::- Open-loop IAC (closed-loop algorithm (PID) will be implemented in the nearest future)\n\nBULLET::::- Closed loop control of AFR using oxygen sensor. Ability to set voltage threshold, integrator step etc.\n", "BULLET::::- 135 and 155 (Discontinued) – Updated 125 and 145 models\n\nBULLET::::- 185 (Discontinued) – The first machine to use the Cummins 5.9L engine\n\nBULLET::::- 1115 and 1135 (Discontinued) – The first smaller Fastrac with hydrostatic steering\n\nBULLET::::- 2115 and 2135 (Discontinued) – Updated 1115 and 2135 models\n\nBULLET::::- 2150 (Discontinued)- Larger 2000 series machine (No 4WS option)\n\nBULLET::::- 3155 and 3185 (Discontinued) – Upgraded machines developed from the 155 and 185\n\nBULLET::::- 3190 and 3220 (Discontinued) – Machines fitted with Cummins 5.9L engines using electronic fuel injection\n", "The first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines used the ultra-lean-burn principle and injected the fuel in the end of the compression stroke and then ignited it with a spark plug, it was often started on gasoline and then switched over to run on diesel or kerosene. The Hesselman engine was a low compression design constructed to run on heavy fuel oils.\n", "Fuel injection\n\nFuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector.\n\nAll diesel engines use fuel injection by design. Petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke.\n", "Modern gasoline engines also use direct injection, which is referred to as gasoline direct injection. This is the next step in evolution from multi-point fuel injection, and offers another magnitude of emission control by eliminating the \"wet\" portion of the induction system along the inlet tract.\n", "An early example of gasoline direct injection was the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines used the ultra lean burn principle and injected the fuel in the end of the compression stroke and then ignited it with a spark plug, it was often started on gasoline and then switched over to run on diesel or kerosene. The Texaco Controlled Combustion System (TCCS) was a multifuel system developed in the 1950s which closely resembled the Hesselman design. The TCCS was tested in UPS delivery vans and was found to have an overall increase in economy of about 35%.\n", "Eminox's exhaust products include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Diesel Particulate Filter Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel Borne Catalyst System\n\nBULLET::::- Diesel Oxidation Catalyst Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Spark Arrestors\n\nBULLET::::- Stainless Steel Stacks\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic Monitoring Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Selective Catalytic Reduction Systems\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In 2009, Ferrari began selling the front-engine California with a direct injection system, and announced the 458 Italia will also feature a direct injection system, a first for Ferrari mid-rear engine setups. Porsche also began selling the 997 and Cayman equipped with direct injection. Ford produced the new generation Taurus SHO and Flex with a 3.5 L twin-turbo EcoBoost V-6 with direct injection. The Jaguar Land Rover AJ-V8 Gen III 5.0 L engine (introduced in August 2009 for the 2010 model year) features spray-guided direct injection.\n", "The \"ship in a bottle\" fuel tank is a manufacturing design developed by TI Automotive in Rastatt, Germany wherein all fuel delivery components including the pump, control electronics and most hosing are encased within a blow-molded plastic fuel tank, and named after the traditional ship-in-a-bottle mechanical puzzle. The technique was developed to reduce fuel vapor emissions in response to Partial Zero-Emission Vehicle (PZEV) requirements. The first application was for the 2005 Ford GT.\n\nSection::::Automotive fuel tanks.:Racing fuel cell.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "It is common for a volume of the Serial Set to be composed of a combination of documents and reports. Some of these reports may be one to two pages in length, while others can be hundreds of pages long. Although congressional in name, there are thousands of executive branch publications (e.g., the \"Annual Report of the Secretary of War\" and \"Official Records of the American Civil War\") included within its pages. It is this rich combination of legislative and executive publications that account for its tremendous value as a primary source for American history.\n", "Bills are usually assigned consecutive numbers, given in the order of their introduction, to facilitate identification. Usually a bill cannot become enacted until it has been read on a certain number of days in each house. Upon introduction, a bill is usually read by its title only, constituting the first reading of the bill. Because a bill is usually read by title only, it is important that the title give the members notice of the subject matter contained in the bill.\n\nSection::::Duties and influence.:Lawmaking process.:Committees.\n\nSection::::Duties and influence.:Lawmaking process.:Committees.:General information.\n", "The \"Statutes at Large\", however, is not a convenient tool for legal research. It is arranged strictly in chronological order so that statutes addressing related topics may be scattered across many volumes. Statutes often repeal or amend earlier laws, and extensive cross-referencing is required to determine what laws are in force at any given time.\n", "Omnibus bills can be an alternative market to logrolling. Various clauses are added to a bill to satisfy all involved parties sufficiently. However, large bills, like the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, require an in depth knowledge of 1,000 plus pages. Many sections of these types of bills are initially opposed but are later supported because of special benefit clauses (Evans 1994).\n", "Usually, each group of Pages, typically referred to as a \"class\", consists of between 45 and 75 students. Fall and spring classes tend to have between 60 and 72 Pages, while summer session classes are larger, being between 70 and 75 Pages. Thus, not every representative can nominate a Page. During the fall term of the 110th Congress, only 52 Pages were appointed by representatives, making it the smallest Page class in many years.\n", "A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes. Such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through an enormous number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect.\n", "BULLET::::- Volumes 1–124 of the \"Statutes at Large\" made available by the Constitution Society\n\nBULLET::::- Public and private laws from 104th Congress (1995) to present from the Government Printing Office, in slip law format with Statutes at Large page references\n\nBULLET::::- Early United States Statutes includes Volumes 1 to 44 (1789–1927) of the \"Statutes at Large\" in DjVu and PDF format, along with rudimentary OCR of the text.\n\nBULLET::::- United States Statutes and the United States Code: Historical Outlines, Notes, Lists, Tables, and Sources from the Law Librarians' Society of Washington, DC\n", "Sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own \"appendix\" volume of the \"Statutes at Large\". For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large ().\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Revised Statutes of the United States\"\n\nBULLET::::- Procedures of the United States Congress\n\nBULLET::::- Enrolled Bill\n\nBULLET::::- \"Federal Register\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States Reports\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"California Statutes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laws of Florida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laws of Illinois\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laws of New York\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laws of Pennsylvania\"\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Lee, U.S. Senator from Utah, Lee \"has been photographed gesturing with his portable Constitution\" and he rotates between copies printed by the Joint Committee on Printing, copies printed by the Bicentennial Commission on the Constitution, and copies printed by the Cato Institute\n\nBULLET::::- William Van Alstyne, constitutional scholar, professor of the William & Mary Marshall-Wythe School of Law\n", "The most important executive communication is usually the president's annual message which contains a lengthy budget proposal. Drafting statutes is an art that requires \"great skill, knowledge, and experience.\" Congressional committees sometimes draft bills after studies and hearings covering periods of a year or more.\n", "Early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases, because appellate decisions from many American courts were not regularly reported until the mid-19th century. Lawyers and judges used English legal materials to fill the gap. Citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the legal problems of the American people. The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910. By 1879 one of the delegates to the California constitutional convention was already complaining: \"Now, when we require them to state the reasons for a decision, we do not mean they shall write a hundred pages of detail. We [do] not mean that they shall include the small cases, and impose on the country all this fine judicial literature, for the Lord knows we have got enough of that already.\"\n", "The Serial Set does not normally include the text of congressional debates, bills, resolutions, hearings, committee prints, and publications from congressional support agencies such as the Government Accountability Office and the Congressional Budget Office. Proceedings of the Congress are published in the Congressional Record, while committee hearings and prints in most cases are published separately through the Government Printing Office (GPO). However, by special order some 300 selected committee hearings were included, especially in the 19th and early 20th centuries.\" Coverage for the period 1789 to 1817 is via the separate compilation American State Papers, which consists of 38 volumes. The two series overlap, as \"American State Papers\" covers through 1838.\n", "Section::::Legislative stages.\n\nBills are generally considered through a number of readings. This refers to the historic practice of the clerical officers of the legislature reading the contents of a bill to the legislature. While the bill is no longer read, the motions on the bill still refer to this practice.\n", "In the United States, acts of Congress, such as federal statutes, are published chronologically in the order in which they become law – often by being signed by the President, on an individual basis in official pamphlets called \"slip laws\", and are grouped together in official bound book form, also chronologically, as \"session laws\". The \"session law\" publication for Federal statutes is called the United States Statutes at Large. Any given act may be only a single page, or hundreds of pages, in length. An act may be classified as either a \"Public Law\" or a \"Private Law\".\n", "BULLET::::- How Our Laws Are Made, by the Parliamentarian of the House of Representatives (PDF).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Volumes 1 to 18 (1789–1875) of the \"Statutes at Large\" made available by the Library of Congress\n\nBULLET::::- Volumes 1 to 64 (1789–1951) of the \"Statutes at Large\" made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS.org\n\nBULLET::::- Volumes 65 to 125 (1951–2011) of the \"Statutes at Large\" made available by the GPO and the Library of Congress via FDsys\n\nBULLET::::- Sortable by Bills Enacted into Laws, Concurrent Resolutions, Popular Names, Presidential Proclamations, or Public Laws.\n", "Section::::Countries.:United States.\n\nThe \"Congressional Record\" is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress. It is published by the United States Government Publishing Office, and is issued when the United States Congress is in session. Indexes are issued approximately every two weeks. At the end of a session of Congress, the daily editions are compiled in bound volumes constituting the permanent edition.\n", "The Constitution, in Article I, Section 5, requires Congress to keep a journal of its proceedings, although the House and Senate Journals are separate publications from the \"Congressional Record\", and include only a bare record of actions and votes, rather than verbatim texts of the debates.\n", "When published in bound volumes, the legislative history documents are placed in separate volumes apart from the rest of the materials published by \"U.S.C.C.A.N\". Prior to the 99th Congress, the legislative history materials in \"U.S.C.C.A.N.\" contained only a House or Senate report. Since the 99th Congress (1985–87), the legislative history materials in \"U.S.C.C.A.N.\" have included the House or Senate report, the committee report, and any presidential signing statements. \"U.S.C.C.A.N.\" is considered a more readily accessible source for some of these materials, like committee reports, than the originals. As a result, it is recommended by the \"Bluebook\" as a citation source in addition to the original document.\n", "United States Congressional Serial Set\n\nThe United States Congressional Serial Set began in 1817 as the official collection of reports and documents of the United States Congress. The collection was published in a \"serial\" fashion, hence its name.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Pages traditionally form a Model Congress program in the Fall, and a Model United Nations in the Spring. For example, the House Model Congress program met weekly in the Agriculture Committee within the Longworth House Office Building. This began in 1997 and lasted, with only one missing year, through 2005. The Model Congress typically is a format for the Pages to voice their opinions on the matters before the House at the time and for Pages to practice parliamentary skills, including public speaking. Prior to this, Pages frequently did this on the floor of the House, after the closing gavel.\n", "Initially, the Senate had only six Pages. Following the First World War, priority was given to candidates who were young boys from needy families. The six Pages were required to be present for every sitting of the Senate, but the sitting hours at the time did not conflict with school. As the work of the Senate expanded and its sitting hours tended to interfere with school, the decision was made to select university students as Pages. This practice began in 1971 and the Pages were required to organize their schedules around the sitting hours of the Senate.\n", "When it was tabled in the Parliament, there was significant concerns from civil libertarians and the Opposition that the Bill was passed far too quickly for those voting on it to actually read the document closely, and that insufficient physical copies of the bill had been given to the Opposition to read before a vote was held.\n", "This tedious method of updating and using legal books made sense in the days when each page of a hardcover book was typeset by hand from raw copy. It was easier to typeset a small 30-page pamphlet every year, rather than an entire 300-page book. \n\nToday, many legal reference books are now maintained in real time on legal databases as \"living\" electronic documents with all amendments continuously merged in. Modern imagesetters, platesetters, desktop publishing software, and offset printing have almost completely automated the process of typesetting such books. \n", "BULLET::::- 1980: The Joint Committee on the Library released a policy statement regarding the publication of CRS written products: that said \"the long-standing policy of confidentiality in the work of CRS for individual congressional clients should be maintained\" and gave cost as part of its reason. A subsequent statement referred to \"the legislative process and .. the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution.\n\nBULLET::::- 1990: Facing a challenge, the Senate Majority Leader reiterated the importance of \"protecting the work done by CRS in preparing communications to the Members and committees of Congress\": and elaborated\n", "Legislative indexing was a major activity of the Legislative Reference Service during its first ten years (1916–1924), and the staff of the Law library began keeping a card index to Latin American laws in the late 1920s. This was eventually published as the Index to Latin American Legislation in a two volume set in 1961, with two supplements - in 1973 and 1978 - covering the years from 1961 through 1975. The indexing of Latin American legislation continued, being adapted to existing information-processing technology as it developed from the 1970s through the 1990s.\n" ]

[ "Congressional bills are thousands of pages long." ]

[ "Most are not that long. Ones that are that long make the news and you hear about them more. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Congressional bills are thousands of pages long." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Most are not that long. Ones that are that long make the news and you hear about them more. " ]

[ "In South Africa, Muscat of Alexandria is known as \"\"Hanepoot\"\" and was the fourth-most widely planted white wine grape variety in the country until the early 2000s. While some of the plantings were used for wine production, particularly for fortified wine, many plantings were used for the production of grape concentrate and raisins. In California, there is still more plantings of Muscat of Alexandria than any other Muscat variety, with most of these grapes going into anonymous jug wines from the Central Valley. As in many other places in the world, the grape had a long history of use in the United States as a raisin variety, though in the 1920s, plantings of Muscat of Alexandria began to decline as producers turned to more popular seedless grape varieties.\n", "In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the genus \"Vitis\" proliferate in the wild across the continent, and were a part of the diet of many Native Americans, but were considered by early European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. In the 19th century, Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts, cultivated seeds from wild \"Vitis labrusca\" vines to create the Concord grape which would become an important agricultural crop in the United States.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Also in the 19th century, Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts, cultivated seeds from wild \"labrusca\" vines to create the Concord grape which would become an important agricultural crop in the United States.\n\nSection::::Vine characteristics.\n", "The thick skins of Plassa allowed the grape to stay fresh after harvest, making it prized as a table grape, but over time it use as a table grape wine and now it is used solely for wine production.\n\nSection::::Viticulture.\n", "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n", "The grape is eaten fresh, processed to make wine or juice, or dried to produce raisins. Cultivars of \"Vitis vinifera\" form the basis of the majority of wines produced around the world. All of the familiar wine varieties belong to \"Vitis vinifera\", which is cultivated on every continent except for Antarctica, and in all the major wine regions of the world.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nWild grapes were harvested by neolithic foragers and early farmers. For thousands of years, the fruit has been harvested for both medicinal and nutritional value; its history is intimately entwined with the history of wine.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAmpelographers believe that, despite its name, Uva Tosca originated in the Emilia-Romagna region where it was first described in 1644 by Italian agronomist Vincenzo Tanara. Tanara noted that the grape made pale-colored \"reddish wine\" that was very healthy to consume and somewhat sweet and spicy.\n", "In California, the first vineyard and winery was established by Spanish Catholic missionaries in 1769. California has two native grape varieties, but they make very poor quality wine. Therefore, the missionaries used the Mission grape, which is called Criolla or \"colonialized European\" in South America. Although a \"Vitis vinifera\", it is a grape of \"very modest\" quality. The first secular vineyard was established in Los Angeles by an immigrant from Bordeaux, Jean-Louis Vignes. Dissatisfied with the Mission grape, he imported vines from France. By 1851 he had 40,000 vines under cultivation and was producing of wine per year. \n", "The first crop of \"V. amurensis\" was during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria (1931-1945). In Jilin in northeast China, the Japanese created the first wineries producing wine from wild grapes \"V. amurensis\".\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Other legends.\n\nAnother legend of the grape variety's origin, based on the name Syrah, is that it was brought from Syracuse by the legions of Roman Emperor Probus sometime after AD 280. This legend also lacks documentary evidence and is inconsistent with ampelographic findings.\n\nSection::::History.:Rise to fame.\n", "Theories about the origins of Muscat grapes date ancestors of the varieties back to the ancient Egyptians and Persians of early antiquity (c. 3000-1000 BCE) while some ampelographers, such as Pierre Galet, believe that the family of Muscat varieties were propagated during the period of classical antiquity (c. 800 BCE to 600 CE) by the Greeks and Romans. However, while domestic wine production had a long history in ancient Egypt and Persia and classical writers such as Columella and Pliny the Elder did describe very \"muscat-like\" grape varieties such as \"Anathelicon Moschaton\" and \"Apianae\" that were very sweet and attractive to bees (Latin \"apis\"), there is no solid historical evidence that these early wine grapes were members of the Muscat family.\n", "While the grape's name harkens to the city of Alexandria and suggest an ancient Egyptian origin, DNA analysis has shown that Muscat of Alexandria is the result of a natural crossing between \"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\" and the Greek wine grape \"Axina de Tres Bias\". Though as \"Axina de Tres Bias\" has also been historically grown in Sardinia and Malta, the precise location and origins of Muscat of Alexandria cannot be determined. Compared to \"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\", Muscat of Alexandria tends to produce large, moderately loose clusters of large oval-shaped berries that are distinctive from the much smaller, round berries of \"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\".\n", "\"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\" and Muscat of Alexandria, themselves, have crossed and have produced at least 14 different grape varieties, 5 of which are mostly cultivated in South America and 9 still found in Italy though none are of major use in wine production. More notable and widely planted offspring have come from \"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\" and Muscat of Alexandria crossing with other grape varieties, such as the Argentine wine grapes of \"Cereza\", \"Torrontés Riojano\" and \"Torrontés Sanjuanino\", stemming from a cross of Muscat of Alexandria with \"\"Listán negro\"\" (also known as the \"Mission grape\")\n", "The grape's origins have been assumed to be Italy, where it is supposed to have been brought to Burgundy some time in the thirteenth century by monks of the Reigny Abbey. The vine's high yields and productivity made it a popular plant that soon led to overproduction in neighboring areas. In 1732, the Parliaments of nearby Besançon and Vermonton banned any additional plantings. The grape continued to be produced in the Yonne department where it was used as a blending component in \"Crémant de Bourgogne\" wines from Auxerrois and as a blending partner with Aligoté and, to a lesser extent, Chardonnay.\n", "The state of California was first introduced to \"Vitis vinifera\" vines, a species of wine grapes native to the Mediterranean region, in the 18th century by the Spanish, who planted vineyards with each mission they established. The wine was used for religious sacraments as well as for daily life. The vine cuttings used to start the vineyards came from Mexico and were the descendant of the \"common black grape\" (as it was known) brought to the New World by Hernán Cortés in 1520. The grape's association with the church caused it to become known as the Mission grape, which was to become the dominant grape variety in California until the 20th century.\n", "In the United States, the variety has a long history of being grown in California, particularly in the Russian River AVA, where it was known as Early Burgundy due to its tendency to ripen early in the harvest season. In the late 20th century, ampelographer Paul Truel was able to identify most plantings of Californian Early Burgundy to be Abouriou. In recent years, other growers and DNA analysis have discovered that not all Early Burgundy plantings were Abouriou with some being the German and Austrian variety Blauer Portugieser instead. A small number of Abouriou vines in the Russian River AVA were initially planted in 1890 by Giuseppe Martinelli and the grapes produced from these vines are still used today to make wine.\n", "Mission (grape)\n\nMission grapes are a variety of \"Vitis vinifera\" introduced from Spain to the western coasts of North and South America by Catholic for use in making sacramental, table, and fortified wines.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Of the more than 200 grape varieties sharing \"Muscat\" (or one of its synonyms) in their name, the majority are not closely related to each other. The exception are the members of the \"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\" and Muscat of Alexandria families. In the early 21st century, DNA analysis showed that Muscat of Alexandria was, itself, a natural crossing of \"Muscat blanc à Petits Grains\" and a black-skinned table grape variety from the Greek islands known as \"Axina de Tres Bias\". Rarely seen outside of Greece, \"Axina de Tres Bias\" (also known as \"\"Heftakilo\"\") is also grown in Malta and Sardinia.\n", "Old vine grapes are crushed by some northern Californian producers and made into a fruity white wine of interesting character in both dry and sweet versions. This grape is mainly grown in California to provide backbone, due to its natural acidic character, for white \"jug wine\" blends.\n\nIt is also widely grown in South Africa where it is known as Colombar, the wine gives lovely flavours of Guava, and to a lesser extent in Australia and Israel.\n\nSection::::Synonyms.\n", "The oldest known grape-producing vine is a Žametovka vine growing in Maribor in Slovenia, which is known to have been alive in the 17th century; it produces a token of about 35 to 55 kg grapes each year, which is fermented and put into about 100 miniature bottles.\n\nIn the South Tyrol wine region of northeast Italy, a more-than 350-year-old vine of Versoaln planted at Castel Katzenzungen is being used to produce wine with the fruit of the old vine blended with the fruit of younger plantings to produce approximately 500 bottles a year.\n", "Outside of California, plantings of the grape can be found in Washington State as well as in Missouri and Texas.\n\nSection::::Wine regions.:Other New World regions.\n\nIn Mexico, plantings of Carignan are found in the states of Aguascalientes, Sonora, and Zacatecas. In Chile, old vines of plantings of Carignan are grown without irrigation in the Maule region which accounted for the majority of the country's plantings of the grape in 2008. In Argentina there was just of the grape while Uruguay had planted in 2009.\n", "Ampelographers and wine historians consider Fiano a \"classical vine\" of southern Italy that likely has its origins in ancient Roman viticulture and perhaps may have even been cultivated by the ancient Greeks before them. Wine writer Jancis Robinson notes that some historians speculate that Fiano may have been the grape behind the Roman wine \"Apianum\" that was produced in the hills above Avellino. The wine was produced by a grape known to the Romans as \"vitis apiana\", with the root of \"apiana\" being the Latin for bees. Even today bees are strongly attracted to sugary pulp of Fiano grapes and are a prevalent sight in the vineyards around Avellino.\n", "Section::::Muscat de Beaumes de Venise AOC.\n\nNearly two thousand years ago, Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History: \"The Muscat grape has been grown for a long time in Beaumes and its wine is remarkable\".\n\nIn 1248, St. Louis took supplies of it with him on his 7th Crusade, and during the early 14th century, at the time of the reign of Pope Clement V, production was increased by 70 hectares to cater for the demand from the Popes' Palace in Avignon. \n", "It has been put forward by Ampelographists that Mourvèdre may be the parent to the esteemed grape Mavrud, or that at least Mavrud is a clone of Mourvèdre, imported into Bulgaria by the Romans.\n\nSection::::Viticulture.\n" ]

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[ "Cured meats have been specifically produced to be edible for a long time. The curing process was used for generations to preserve pork before the invention of refrigeration. During the curing process the meat is dried in salt, which helps to prevent the build-up of harmful organisms, and then is hung to be exposed to the elements, producing an exterior layer of mold which helps to protect the meat inside.\n", "Processed meats without \"added nitrites\" may be misleading as they may be using naturally occurring nitrites from celery instead.\n\nSection::::Chemical actions.:Smoke.\n\nMeat can also be preserved by \"smoking\". If the smoke is hot enough to slow-cook the meat, this will also keep it tender. One method of smoking calls for a smokehouse with damp wood chips or sawdust. In North America, hardwoods such as hickory, mesquite, and maple are commonly used for smoking, as are the wood from fruit trees such as apple, cherry, and plum, and even corncobs.\n", "Eating cured meat products has been linked to a small increase in gastric cancer, as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The negative effects are presumed to be caused by nitrates and nitrites, as well as nitrosamines which are formed by nitrites reacting with meat. These risks are generally regarded as minimal, and regulations in the United States limit ingoing nitrites to 156 parts per million (0.0156%) (less for bacon) as a precautionary measure.\n\nSection::::Salt-cured and brined products.:Curing salt blends.\n", "The concept of fermentation—allowing beneficial or benign organisms to grow in food to prevent destructive or toxic ones from growing, with respect to meat, has been around for thousands of years. This is evident in the presence of various types of sausages found globally. Also, environmental conditions dictate what food processes are used, as seen in the Mediterranean and southern Europe, where \"meat products are dried to lower water activity (Aw) values, taking advantage of the long dry and sunny days, while in northern Europe, fermented sausages require smoking for further preservation.\"\n", "Semi-dried meats like salamis and country style hams are processed first with salt, smoke, sugar, acid, or other \"cures\" then hung in cool dry storage for extended periods, sometimes exceeding a year. Some of the materials added during the curing of meats serve to reduce the risks of food poisoning from anaerobic bacteria such as species of Clostridium that release botulinum toxin that can cause botulism. Typical ingredients of curing agents that inhibit anaerobic bacteria include nitrates. Such salts are dangerously poisonous in their own right and must be added in carefully controlled quantities and according to proper techniques. Their proper use has however saved many lives and much food spoilage.\n", "Studies examining the amount of PhIP in cooked meats have shown that high levels of exposure are possible. Doneness levels of meat (rare, medium, well-done, and very well-done) are factors in the development of PhIP. Methods to reduce formation of PhIP in meats include decreasing the temperature at which the meat is cooked, decreasing the length of cooking time, pre-heating meat in the microwave oven (which reduces creatine), and marinating the meat.\n\nSection::::Dietary intake of PhIP.\n", "BULLET::::- Smithfield ham a specific form of the country ham, A 1926 Statute of Virginia (passed by the Virginia General Assembly) first regulated the usage of the term \"Smithfield Ham\". Smithfield hams are a specific variety of country hams which are cured by the long-cure, dry salt method and aged for a minimum period of six months within the limits of the town of Smithfield, Virginia, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Soppressata an Italian dry salami. Two principal types are made, a cured dry sausage typical of Basilicata, Apulia and Calabria, and a very different uncured salami, native to Tuscany and Liguria.\n", "Nitrates or nitrites may be added to provide additional color and inhibit growth of harmful bacteria from the genus \"Clostridium\". Salt, acidity, nitrate/nitrite levels, and dryness of the fully cured salami combine to make the uncooked meat safe to consume. High quality, fresh ingredients are important to helping prevent deadly microorganisms and toxins from developing.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n", "Some traditional cured meat (such as authentic Parma ham and some authentic Spanish chorizo and Italian salami, ...) are cured with salt alone. Today, potassium nitrate and sodium nitrite (in conjunction with salt) are the most common agents in curing meat, because they bond to the myoglobin and act as a substitute for the oxygen, thus turning myoglobin red . More recent evidence shows that these chemicals also inhibit the growth of the bacteria that cause the disease botulism. The combination of table salt with nitrates or nitrites, called curing salt, is often dyed pink to distinguish it from table salt. Neither table salt, nor any of the nitrites or nitrates commonly used in curing (e.g. sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, and potassium nitrate) is naturally pink.\n", "Some meat is cured by smoking, which is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to the smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often wood. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is more often used now, and beech to a lesser extent. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods are commonly used for smoking. Meat can also be cured by pickling, preserving in salt or brine (see salted meat and other curing methods). Other kinds of meat are marinated and barbecued, or simply boiled, roasted, or fried.\n", "BULLET::::- Vinegar\n\nBULLET::::- Wine\n\nThe maker usually ferments the raw meat mixture for a day, then stuffs it into either an edible natural or inedible cellulose casing, and hangs it up to cure. Some recipes apply heat to about 40 °C (104 °F) to accelerate fermentation and drying. Higher temperatures (about 60 °C (140 °F)) stop the fermentation when the salami reaches the desired pH, but the product is not fully cooked (75 °C (167 °F) or higher). Makers often treat the casings with an edible mold (\"Penicillium\") culture. The mold imparts flavor, helps the drying process, and helps prevent spoilage during curing.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing process.\n", "BULLET::::- Salumi Italian cured meat products that are predominantly made from pork. It comes from the Italian word \"salume\", pl. \"salumi\" \"salted meat\", derived from Latin \"sal\" \"salt\". The term salumi also encompasses bresaola, which is made from beef, and also cooked products such as mortadella and prosciutto cotto.\n\nBULLET::::- Secca de bœuf a type of dried salted beef made in Entrevaux. Similar to the Swiss \"Bindenfleisch\", it is typically eaten as a starter.\n", "Section::::Animal foods.:Dried meats.:G.\n\nBULLET::::- Genoa salami an American variety of salami commonly believed to have originated in the area of Genoa. It is normally made from pork, but may also contain beef or be all beef. It is seasoned with garlic, salt, black and white peppercorns, fennel seeds, and red or white wine.\n\nSection::::Animal foods.:Dried meats.:H.\n", "A survival technique since prehistory, the preservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, and social importance worldwide.\n\nSection::::History.:Traditional methods.\n\nFood curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat.\n", "BULLET::::- Tapa a Philippine food made dried or cured beef, mutton or venison, although other meats or even fish may be used. It's prepared using thin slices of meat that are cured with salt and spices as a method of preserving it.\n\nBULLET::::- Tsamarella a Cypriot traditional food. It consists of meat, usually goat meat, that is salted and cured for preservation. The process of preparation traditionally involves drying in the sun.\n", "Fresh sausages are simply seasoned ground meats that are cooked before serving. Fresh sausages normally do not use cure (Prague powder #1) although cure can be used if desired. In addition fresh sausages typically do not use smoke flavors, although liquid smoke can be used. Fresh sausages are never smoked in a cold smoker because of the danger of botulism.\n\nThe primary seasoning agents in fresh sausages are salt and sugar along with various savory herbs and spices, and often vegetables, including onion and garlic.\n", "Section::::Necessity of curing.\n\nUntreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling.\n\nIf kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change color and exude a foul odor, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism. Salt-curing processes have been developed since antiquity in order to ensure food safety without relying on artificial anti-bacterial agents.\n", "BULLET::::- Pepperoni an American variety of salami, usually made from cured pork and beef. Pepperoni is characteristically soft, slightly smoky, and bright red in color.\n\nBULLET::::- Pinnekjøtt In Norway, a main course dinner dish of lamb or mutton., its preparation uses a traditional method for food preservation utilizing curing, drying and in some regions also smoking.\n\nBULLET::::- Pitina an Italian cold cut with origin in the mountain valleys of Tramonti di Sopra and River Cellina of the province of Pordenone in northeastern Italy.\n\nBULLET::::- Presunto the name given to dry-cured ham from Portugal. Many varieties exist.\n", "Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n\nMaintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.\n\nNew techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Curing.\n", "Meat preservation as a survival technique dates back to ancient times. Indigenous peoples of Southern Africa, such as the Khoikhoi, preserved meat by slicing it into strips, curing it with salt, and hanging it up to dry. European seafarers preserved meat for their long journeys by curing meat in salt or brine. European settlers (Dutch, German, French) who arrived in southern Africa in the early 17th century used vinegar in the curing process, as well as saltpetre (potassium nitrate). The potassium nitrate in saltpeter kills\" Clostridium botulinum\", the deadly bacterium that causes botulism, while the acidity of the vinegar inhibits its growth. According to the World Health Organization, \"C. botulinum\" will not grow in acidic conditions (pH less than 4.6); therefore the toxin will not be formed in acidic foods. The antimicrobial properties of certain spices have also been drawn upon since ancient times. The spices introduced to biltong by the Dutch include pepper, coriander, and cloves. In January 2017, a research group at the University of Beira Interior in Portugal published a study on the antimicrobial properties of coriander oil (coriander being one of the main spices in the most basic of biltong recipes) against 12 bacterial strains, and found that 10 of the 12 strains of bacteria were killed with a relatively mild concentration of coriander oil (1.6%). In the two strains that were not effectively killed, \"Bacillus cereus\" and \"Enterococcus faecalis\", the coriander oil reduced their growth significantly.\n", "Section::::Cured fish dishes.\n\nBULLET::::- \"anchovies\" — Europe and Southeast Asia, brine-preserved, fermented, or dried\n\nBULLET::::- \"bacalhau\" — Portugal and Spain, Cod cured in salt, then dried. It needs to be re-hydrated and de-salted before use.\n\nBULLET::::- \"dried cod\" — Norway and Italy, dried, fermented cod. The cod is soaked before use.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bottarga\" — salted and cured fish roe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceviche\" — cured fish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jeotgal\" — Korean fermented aquatic animal(i.g. fish) with salt and spices\n\nBULLET::::- \"Po (food)\" — Korean dried marine fish (especially Alaska pollock)\n", "Meat preservation in general (of meat from livestock, game, and poultry) comprises the set of all treatment processes for preserving the properties, taste, texture, and color of raw, partially cooked, or cooked meats while keeping them edible and safe to consume. Curing has been the dominant method of meat preservation for thousands of years, although modern developments like refrigeration and synthetic preservatives have begun to complement and supplant it.\n", "Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCAs in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below creates \"negligible amounts\" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat. Nitrosamines are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. Ascorbate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.\n", "BULLET::::- Salami cured sausage, fermented and air-dried meat, originating from one or a variety of animals. Historically, salami was popular among Southern European peasants because it can be stored at room temperature for periods of up to 30–40 days once cut, supplementing a possibly meager or inconsistent supply of fresh meat. Varieties of salami are traditionally made across Europe.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"This article was partially translated from the French Wikipedia.\"\n\nBULLET::::- McGee, Harold. \"On Food and Cooking\" (revised). New York, NY: Scribner, 2004.\n\nBULLET::::- Bertolli, Paul. \"Cooking by Hand\". New York, NY: Clarkson Potter/Publishers, 2003.\n\nBULLET::::- National Research Council Academy of Life Sciences. \"The Health Effects of Nitrate, Nitrite and N-Nitroso Compounds\". Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1981.\n\nBULLET::::- Article in The Scientist, Volume 13, No. 6:1, Mar. 15, 1999 (registration required).\n\nBULLET::::- Post on April 29, 2012 \"Making Cured Meats\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- National Center for Home Food Preservation - Curing Foods\n" ]

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[ "For an arbitrary number, formula_1, normally represented by the sequence of decimal digits, formula_2, the digit sum is formula_3. The difference between the original number and its digit sum is \n\nBecause numbers of the form formula_5 are always divisible by 9 (since formula_6), replacing the original number by its digit sum has the effect of casting out \n\nlots of 9.\n\nSection::::Digital roots.\n", "The method works because the original numbers are 'decimal' (base 10), the modulus is chosen to differ by 1, and casting out is equivalent to taking a digit sum. In general any two 'large' integers, \"x\" and \"y\", expressed in any smaller \"modulus\" as \"x\"' and \"y' \" (for example, modulo 7) will always have the same sum, difference or product as their originals. This property is also preserved for the 'digit sum' where the base and the modulus differ by 1.\n", "There are other interesting patterns involving multiples of nine:\n\nBULLET::::- 12345679 × 9 = 111111111\n\nBULLET::::- 12345679 × 18 = 222222222\n\nBULLET::::- 12345679 × 81 = 999999999\n\nThis works for all the multiples of 9. is the only other such that a number is divisible by \"n\" if and only if its digital root is divisible by \"n\". In base-\"N\", the divisors of have this property. Another consequence of 9 being , is that it is also a Kaprekar number.\n\nThe difference between a base-10 positive integer and the sum of its digits is a whole multiple of nine. Examples:\n", "The concept of a decimal digit sum is closely related to, but not the same as, the digital root, which is the result of repeatedly applying the digit sum operation until the remaining value is only a single digit. The digital root of any non-zero integer will be a number in the range 1 to 9, whereas the digit sum can take any value. Digit sums and digital roots can be used for quick divisibility tests: a natural number is divisible by 3 or 9 if and only if its digit sum (or digital root) is divisible by 3 or 9, respectively. For divisibility by 9, this test is called the rule of nines and is the basis of the casting out nines technique for checking calculations.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\n14, 49, –21 and 0 are multiples of 7, whereas 3 and –6 are not. This is because there are integers that 7 may be multiplied by to reach the values of 14, 49, 0 and –21, while there are no such \"integers\" for 3 and –6. Each of the products listed below, and in particular, the products for 3 and –6, is the \"only\" way that the relevant number can be written as a product of 7 and another real number:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_1\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4\n\nBULLET::::- formula_5 is a rational number, not an integer\n", "When multiplying, a useful thing to remember is that the factors of the operands still remain. For example, to say that 14 × 15 was 211 would be unreasonable. Since 15 is a multiple of 5, the product should be as well. Likewise, 14 is a multiple of 2, so the product should be even. Furthermore, any number which is a multiple of both 5 and 2 is necessarily a multiple of 10, and in the decimal system would end with a 0. The correct answer is 210. It is a multiple of 10, 7 (the other prime factor of 14) and 3 (the other prime factor of 15).\n", "Casting out nines is a quick way of testing the calculations of sums, differences, products, and quotients of integers, known as long ago as the 12th century.\n\nSix recurring nines appear in the decimal places 762 through 767 of , see Six nines in pi.\n\nIf dividing a number by the amount of 9s corresponding to its number of digits, the number is turned into a repeating decimal. (e.g. )\n\nThere are nine Heegner numbers.\n\nSection::::Mathematics.:Probability.\n", "Because both ten and twelve have two unique prime factors, the number of divisors of \"b\" for \"b\" = 10 or 12 grows quadratically with the exponent \"n\" (in other words, of the order of \"n\").\n\nSection::::Fractions and irrational numbers.:Recurring digits.\n", "In base 10 a positive number is divisible by 9 if and only if its digital root is 9. That is, if any natural number is multiplied by 9, and the digits of the answer are repeatedly added until it is just one digit, the sum will be nine:\n\nBULLET::::- 2 × 9 = 18 (1 + 8 = 9)\n\nBULLET::::- 3 × 9 = 27 (2 + 7 = 9)\n\nBULLET::::- 9 × 9 = 81 (8 + 1 = 9)\n", "Another is used for \"calculating\" the multiples of 9 up to 9 × 10 using one's fingers. Begin by holding out both hands with all fingers stretched out. Now count left to right the number of fingers that indicates the multiple. For example, to figure 9 × 4, count four fingers from the left, ending at your left-hand index finger. Bend this finger down and count the remaining fingers. Fingers to the left of the bent finger represent tens, fingers to the right are ones. There are three fingers to the left and six to the right, which indicates 9 × 4 = 36. This works for 9 × 1 up through 9 × 10.\n", "If the procedure described in the preceding paragraph is repeatedly applied to the result of each previous application, the eventual result will be a single-digit number from which \"all\" 9s, with the possible exception of one, have been \"cast out\". The resulting single-digit number is called the \"digital root\" of the original. The exception occurs when the original number has a digital root of 9, whose digit sum is itself, and therefore will not be cast out by taking further digit sums.\n", "As an example, consider the multiplication of 58 with 213. After writing the multiplicands on the sides, consider each cell, beginning with the top left cell. In this case, the column digit is 5 and the row digit is 2. Write their product, 10, in the cell, with the digit 1 above the diagonal and the digit 0 below the diagonal (see picture for Step 1).\n\nIf the simple product lacks a digit in the tens place, simply fill in the tens place with a 0.\n", "The importance of 12 has been attributed to the number of lunar cycles in a year, and also to the fact that humans have 12 finger bones (phalanges) on one hand (three on each of four fingers). It is possible to count to 12 with the thumb acting as a pointer, touching each finger bone in turn. A traditional finger counting system still in use in many regions of Asia works in this way, and could help to explain the occurrence of numeral systems based on 12 and 60 besides those based on 10, 20 and 5. In this system, the one (usually right) hand counts repeatedly to 12, displaying the number of iterations on the other (usually left), until five dozens, i. e. the 60, are full.\n", "However, in order to do this sum and recompose the number, now the addition tables for the duodecimal system have to be used, instead of the addition tables for decimal most people are already familiar with, because the summands are now in base twelve and so the arithmetic with them has to be in duodecimal as well. In decimal, 6 + 6 equals 12, but in duodecimal it equals 10; so, if using decimal arithmetic with duodecimal numbers one would arrive at an incorrect result. Doing the arithmetic properly in duodecimal, one gets the result:\n", "To \"cast out nines\" from a single number, its decimal digits can be simply added together to obtain its so-called digit sum. The digit sum of 2946, for example is 2 + 9 + 4 + 6 = 21. Since 21 = 2946 − 325 × 9, the effect of taking the digit sum of 2946 is to \"cast out\" 325 lots of 9 from it. If the digit 9 is ignored when summing the digits, the effect is to \"cast out\" one more 9 to give the result 12.\n", "The duodecimal system (also known as base 12, dozenal, or rarely uncial) is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. The number twelve (that is, the number written as \"12\" in the base ten numerical system) is instead written as \"10\" in duodecimal (meaning \"1 dozen and 0 units\", instead of \"1 ten and 0 units\"), whereas the digit string \"12\" means \"1 dozen and 2 units\" (i.e. the same number that in decimal is written as \"14\"). Similarly, in duodecimal \"100\" means \"1 gross\", \"1000\" means \"1 great gross\", and \"0.1\" means \"1 twelfth\" (instead of their decimal meanings \"1 hundred\", \"1 thousand\", and \"1 tenth\").\n", "Any non-negative integer can be written as 9×n + a, where 'a' is a single digit from 0 to 8, and 'n' is some non-negative integer.\n\nThus, using the distributive rule, (9×n + a)×(9×m + b)= 9×9×n×m + 9(am + bn) + ab. Since the first two factors are multiplied by 9, their sums will end up being 9 or 0, leaving us with 'ab'. In our example, 'a' was 7 and 'b' was 5. We would expect that in any base system, the number before that base would behave just like the nine.\n\nSection::::Limitation to casting out nines.\n", "For single digit numbers simply duplicate the number into the tens digit, for example: 1 × 11 = 11, 2 × 11 = 22, up to 9 × 11 = 99.\n\nThe product for any larger non-zero integer can be found by a series of additions to each of its digits from right to left, two at a time.\n", "If, for example, you wanted to multiply 9 by 3, you observe that the sum and difference are 12 and 6 respectively. Looking both those values up on the table yields 36 and 9, the difference of which is 27, which is the product of 9 and 3.\n\nAntoine Voisin published a table of quarter squares from 1 to 1000 in 1817 as an aid in multiplication. A larger table of quarter squares from 1 to 100000 was published by Samuel Laundy in 1856, and a table from 1 to 200000 by Joseph Blater in 1888.\n", "BULLET::::- Repeated application of this procedure to the results obtained from previous applications until a single-digit number is obtained. This single-digit number is called the \"digital root\" of the original. If a number is divisible by 9, its digital root is 9. Otherwise, its digital root is the remainder it leaves after being divided by 9.\n", "If a calculation was correct before casting out, casting out on both sides will preserve correctness. However, it is possible that two previously unequal integers will be identical modulo 9 (on average, a ninth of the time).\n\nThe operation does not work on fractions, since a given fractional number does not have a unique representation.\n\nSection::::A variation on the explanation.\n", "Next, the hundreds-column. The hundreds-digit of the first number is 6, while the hundreds-digit of the second number is 2. The sum of six and two is eight, but there is a carry digit, which added to eight is equal to nine. Write the 9 under the line in the hundreds-column:\n\nNo digits (and no columns) have been left unadded, so the algorithm finishes, yielding the following equation as a result:\n\nSection::::Successorship and size.\n\nThe result of the addition of one to a number is the \"successor\" of that number. Examples:br\n\nthe successor of zero is one,br\n", "To easily multiply 2 digit numbers together between 11 and 19 a simple algorithm is as follows (where a is the ones digit of the first number and b is the ones digit of the second number):\n\nSection::::Methods and techniques.:Calculating products: \"a\" × \"b\".:Using hands: 6–10 multiplied by another number 6–10.\n\nThis technique allows a number from 6 to 10 to be multiplied by another number from 6 to 10.\n", "Many numeral systems of ancient civilisations use ten and its powers for representing numbers, possibly because there are ten fingers on two hands and people started counting by using their fingers. Examples are Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals. Very large numbers were difficult to represent in these old numeral systems, and only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large numbers. These difficulties were completely solved with the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system for representing integers. This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called \"decimal fractions\" or \"decimal numbers\" for forming the \"decimal numeral system\".\n", "The method taught in school for multiplying decimal numbers is based on calculating partial products, shifting them to the left and then adding them together. The most difficult part is to obtain the partial products, as that involves multiplying a long number by one digit (from 0 to 9):\n\nSection::::Signed numbers.\n" ]

[ "multiples of 9 sum to 9" ]

[ "It is not multiples of 9 that sum to 9 but some use of the mod function on the multiples of 9 that will allow a sum to result in 9." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "multiples of 9 sum to 9" ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is not multiples of 9 that sum to 9 but some use of the mod function on the multiples of 9 that will allow a sum to result in 9." ]

[ "The United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world. In 2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U.S. high school students No. 40 globally in Math and No. 24 in Science and Reading. The President of the National Center on Education and the Economy said of the results \"the United States cannot long operate a world-class economy if our workers are, as the OECD statistics show, among the worst-educated in the world\". Former U.S. Education Secretary John B. King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U.S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the \"U.S. News & World Report\", of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, eight are American (the other two are Oxford and Cambridge, in the United Kingdom).\n", "The United States is one of three OECD countries where the government spends more on schools in rich neighborhoods than in poor neighborhoods, with the others being Turkey and Israel.\n", "The Internationals Approach to teaching has been studied by researchers at Stanford University School Redesign Network and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. The Stanford study, led by Linda Darling-Hammond and her team of researchers, found \"the Internationals Network for Public Schools (Internationals) is an important model that originated in New York City and has shown itself to be both successful and adaptable\" in California. Michelle Fine and a team of researchers from the Graduate Center of the City University of New York found that students at the three oldest International schools outperformed both English Language Learners and Native English Speakers (in New York City) in graduation rates and college going rates. The International schools also maintained lower drop out rates than ELL students and English only students.\n", "Despite this high level of funding, U.S. public schools lag behind the schools of other rich countries in the areas of reading, math, and science. A further analysis of developed countries shows no correlation between per student spending and student performance, suggesting that there are other factors influencing education. Top performers include Singapore, Finland and Korea, all with relatively low spending on education, while high spenders including Norway and Luxembourg have relatively low performance. One possible factor is the distribution of the funding. In the US, schools in wealthy areas tend to be over-funded while schools in poorer areas tend to be underfunded. These differences in spending between schools or districts may accentuate inequalities, if they result in the best teachers moving to teach in the most wealthy areas. The inequality between districts and schools led to 23 states instituting school finance reform based on adequacy standards that aim to increase funding to low-income districts. A 2018 study found that between 1990 and 2012, these finance reforms led to an increase in funding and test scores in the low income districts; which suggests finance reform is effective at bridging inter-district performance inequalities. It has also been shown that the socioeconomic situation of the students family has the most influence in determining success; suggesting that even if increased funds in a low income area increase performance, they may still perform worse than their peers from wealthier districts.\n", "US college students come from three major sources: the US K-12 pipeline, adult or non-traditional students, and foreign students. Projections about future enrollment patterns are based on demographic projections about these groups.\n\nSection::::Educational pipeline.:K–12 education.\n\nThe US ranks third from the bottom among OECD nations, in terms of is poverty gap and 4th from the bottom in terms of poverty rate Jonathan Kozol has described these inequalities in K-12 education in Savage Inequalities and The Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling\n\nin America.\n", "According to a 2009 report by UNESCO, changes in the university structure in the late 20th and early 21st century have led to increasing access to or \"massification\" of higher education which has, in turn, resulted in both a diversification of the student population but also a general decrease in academic standards globally.\n\nSection::::UK.\n", "Section::::Global evidence.:International comparisons.\n\nCompared to other nations, the United States is among some of the highest spenders on education per student behind only Switzerland and Norway. The per-pupil spending has even increased in recent years but the academic achievement of students has remained stagnant.\n", "Stephen Krassen, professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and Mel Riddile of the NASSP attributed the relatively low performance of students in the United States to the country's high rate of child poverty, which exceeds that of other OECD countries. However, individual US schools with poverty rates comparable to Finland's (below 10%), as measured by reduced-price school lunch participation, outperform Finland; and US schools in the 10–24% reduced-price lunch range are not far behind.\n", "The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has however placed Peru at the bottom of the ranking in all three categories (Math, science and reading) in 2012 compared to the 65 nations participating in the study of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.\n", "Section::::Governance and funding.:Funding for K–12 schools.\n\nAccording to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000. However, the United States is ranked 37th in the world in education spending as a percentage of gross domestic product. All but seven of the leading countries are developing countries; ranked high because of a low GDP.\n", "Section::::Issues.:Attainment.:Wider economic impact.\n\nCurrent education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geography. In an economic analysis, consulting firm McKinsey & Company reports that closing the educational achievement gap between the United States and nations such as Finland and Korea would have increased US GDP by 9-to-16% in 2008.\n", "BULLET::::- Globalization: American universities are increasingly being exported to locations around the globe through the opening of satellite and affiliate campuses. This practice—exemplified by schools like New York University, Carnegie Mellon University, and Duke University—often seems to be profit-driven rather than beneficent, with universities receiving large sums of money from local governments in exchange for the presence of the school's brand. For many scholars, the so-called “global university” is merely a perpetuation of Western hegemony.\n", "Many education nonprofits and programs in the United States seek to address the growing, academic disparities between racial and socioeconomic groups. In the U.S, exam scores of poor students, who are often Latino or black, are lower than those of white, middle-class students. Students who attend schools with 50% or more children in poverty greater concentration are more likely to fall below the U.S standards in mathematics and reading. Not only that, but as access to higher education becomes increasingly crucial to earning a stable income, it has also become more costly in the nation. This issue has exacerbated the problem of equal access to college, as the typical black or Latino family do not possess a tenth of the wealth of the typical white family.\n", "School dropout rates between 2009 and 2010 were around 10% of young males and 7% of young women. Only 44% of children in foster care graduate from high school compared to 81% of their peers.\n\nSection::::At-risk students globally.:Mexico.\n", "BULLET::::5. Networking and Recognizing Districts, Schools, and Educators to drive implementation and innovation\n\nBULLET::::6. Global Experiences for Students and Educators including teacher exchange, educational travel, virtual exchange, and global academic competitions\n\nSection::::American universities global education programs.\n\nUniversities in the United States have recently been expanding on the degree programs relating to global education. Many universities offer Bachelor Degree programs and certifications in Global Education, M.S. degrees in Global and International Education, M.A. degrees in International Education, and doctorate degrees in International Education.\n\nSection::::Careers.\n", "“At virtually every level, education in America tends to perpetuate rather than compensate for existing inequalities. The reasons are threefold. First, the K through 12 education system is simply not very strong and thus is not an effective\n", "BULLET::::3. There is imbalance in regional coverage. The regions and languages covered at a particular institution are a function of idiosyncratic patterns of faculty recruitment. Nationally, there is reasonable coverage of Western Europe and Latin America and most European languages compared to limited coverage of Africa and the Middle East. For students enrolled in foreign languages, Spanish is the most popular followed by the other major languages of Western Europe; 6 percent enroll in Asian languages. Languages of the Middle East make up only 2 percent (1.3 being Hebrew and .5 percent Arabic). The languages of Africa constitute only 0.15 percent of enrollments.\n", "Issues of structural inequality are probably also at fault for the low numbers of students from underserved backgrounds graduating from college. Out of the entire population of low-income youth in the US, only 13% receive a bachelor's degree by the time they are 28. Students from racial minorities are similarly disadvantaged. Hispanic students are half as likely to attend college than white students and black students are 25% less likely. Despite increased attention and educational reform, this gap has increased in the past 30 years.\n", "Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees. The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%. The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the world.\n\nSection::::Demographics.:Education.:Higher education.\n\nThe United States has many competitive private and public institutions of higher education. The majority of the world's top universities listed by different ranking organizations are in the U.S. There are also local community colleges with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition.\n", "On September 26, 2012, in an interview with Michael Coren, Ray Pennings the chair and coordinator of the Cardus Education Survey described what the report examined.\n\nThe report states that \"Canada's government schools perform very well in international rankings, but by many measures, Canada's non-government schools perform at even higher levels.\" \n", "Concern about science education and science standards has often been driven by worries that American students lag behind their peers in international rankings. One notable example was the wave of education reforms implemented after the Soviet Union launched its Sputnik satellite in 1957. The first and most prominent of these reforms was led by the Physical Science Study Committee at MIT. In recent years, business leaders such as Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates have called for more emphasis on science education, saying the United States risks losing its economic edge. To this end, Tapping America's Potential is an organization aimed at getting more students to graduate with science, technology, engineering and mathematics degrees. Public opinion surveys, however, indicate most U.S. parents are complacent about science education and that their level of concern has actually declined in recent years.\n", "Another explanation has to do with family structure. Professor Lino Graglia has suggested that Blacks and Hispanics are falling behind in education because they are increasingly raised in single-parent families.\n", "BULLET::::- Graduate certification graduates for educational leaders are not included in these numbers above.\n\nSpring, 2009 FAU institutional effectiveness data report that 742 of all COE degree seeking graduate students are female with 186 male students. Approximately 29% of the COE's graduate degree seeking students are ethnic minorities (Asian or Pacific Islander, Black, Hispanic, Non-Resident Alien).\n\nSection::::Palm Pointe Educational Research School at Tradition.\n", "In 2018, Universitas 21 (U21), the network of research-intensive universities, ranked the US first globally for overall higher education, but only 15th when GDP was factored into the equation. Accounting for GDP, the top 10 nations for higher education in 2018 were Finland, the United Kingdom, Serbia, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, South Africa, Israel and New Zealand.\n", "Section::::Findings: School Effects on Graduate Outcomes.:1. Cultural, Economic, and Social Engagement.\n\nBased on the survey, The Cardus Report suggests a number of conclusions about the cultural, economic and social engagement of non-government school graduates. First, in terms of income, there is no significant difference between all the groups compared to government school graduates.\n" ]

[ "The United States shouldn't be a leader of education when it is worse off than other developed countries." ]

[ "Due to wealth inequality, the first division universities are mainly attended by wealthy children who have benefited from am expensive education, American universities do better compared to foreign universities that possess a more open admissions policy." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The United States shouldn't be a leader of education when it is worse off than other developed countries.", "The United States shouldn't be a leader of education when it is worse off than other developed countries." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Due to wealth inequality, the first division universities are mainly attended by wealthy children who have benefited from am expensive education, American universities do better compared to foreign universities that possess a more open admissions policy.", "Due to wealth inequality, the first division universities are mainly attended by wealthy children who have benefited from am expensive education, American universities do better compared to foreign universities that possess a more open admissions policy." ]

[ "Other causes of water hammer are pump failure and check valve slam (due to sudden deceleration, a check valve may slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic characteristic of the check valve and the mass of the water between a check valve and tank). To alleviate this situation, it is recommended to install non-slam check valves as they do not rely on gravity or fluid flow for their closure. For vertical pipes, other suggestions include installing new piping that can be designed to include air chambers to alleviate the possible shockwave of water due to excess water flow.\n", "In water supply systems, water is normally maintained at a significant pressure to enable water to flow from the tap, shower, or other fixture. Water pressure may fail or be reduced when a water main bursts, pipes freeze, or there is unexpectedly high demand on the water system (for example, when several fire hydrants are opened). Reduced pressure in the pipe may allow contaminated water from the soil, from storage, or from other sources to be drawn up into the system.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "One of the most common fail-safe systems is the overflow tube in baths and kitchen sinks. If the valve sticks open, rather than causing an overflow and damage, the tank spills into an overflow. Another common example is that in an elevator the cable supporting the car keeps spring-loaded brakes open. If the cable breaks, the brakes grab rails, and the elevator cabin does not fall.\n", "In areas that are situated on or near to geological fault lines it is common practice to protect the plant from potential earthquake activity. In such plant there will be a very large requirement for dynamic restraints. Fluid disturbance can be caused by the effect of pumps and compressors or occasionally fluid in a liquid state entering a pipe intended for the transportation of gas or steam. Some system functions such as rapid valve closure, pulsation due to pumping and the operation of safety relief valves will cause irregular and sudden loading patterns within the piping system. The environment can cause disturbance due to high wind load or in the case of offshore oil and gas rigs, impact by ocean waves.\n", "All of the equipment used in a pipe bursting operation is powered by one or multiple hydraulic power generators.\n\nSection::::Other applications.\n\nPipe bursting may also be used to expand pipeline carrying capacity by replacing smaller pipes with larger ones, or \"upsizing.\" Extensive proving work by the gas and water industries has demonstrated the feasibility of upsizing gas mains, water mains and sewers. Upsizing from 100mm to 225mm diameter is now well established, and pipes of up to 36 inch diameter and greater have been replaced.\n", "On the other hand, when an upstream valve in a pipe closes, water downstream of the valve attempts to continue flowing creating a vacuum that may cause the pipe to collapse or implode. This problem can be particularly acute if the pipe is on a downhill slope. To prevent this, air and vacuum relief valves or air vents are installed just downstream of the valve to allow air to enter the line to prevent this vacuum from occurring.\n", "Leaking pipes: The electric charge of an electrical circuit and its elements is usually almost equal to zero, hence it is (almost) constant. This is formalized in Kirchhoff's current law, which does not have an analogy to hydraulic systems, where the amount of the liquid is not usually constant. Even with incompressible liquid the system may contain such elements as pistons and open pools, so the volume of liquid contained in a part of the system can change. For this reason, continuing electric currents require closed loops rather than hydraulics' open source/sink resembling spigots and buckets.\n", "The effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of 15 mm pipe running from the iron main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted, so high flow. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and limed 22 mm iron pipe, so their kitchen tap flow will be small.\n", "A downstream valve will function as an over-pressure valve when the inter-stage pressure is raised sufficiently to overcome the spring pre-load. If the first stage leaks and the inter-stage over-pressurizes, the second stage downstream valve opens automatically. if the leak is bad this could result in a \"freeflow\", but a slow leak will generally cause intermittent \"popping\" of the DV, as the pressure is released and slowly builds up again.\n\nSection::::Mechanism and function.:Single-hose two-stage open-circuit demand regulators.:Second-stage or Demand valve.:Servo-controlled valves.\n", "The maximum pressure rating of a metering pump is actually the top of the discharge pressure range the pump is guaranteed to pump against at a reasonably controllable flow rate. The pump itself is a pressurizing device often capable of exceeding its pressure rating, although not guaranteed to. For this reason, if there is any stop valve downstream of the pump, a pressure relief valve should be placed in between to prevent overpressuring of the tubing or piping line in case the stop valve is inadvertently shut while the pump is running. The relief valve setting should be below the maximum pressure rating that the piping, tubing, or any other components there could withstand. \n", "Throttling valves are used to control the amount or pressure of a fluid allowed to pass through, and are designed to withstand the stress and wear caused by this type of operation. Because they may wear out in this usage, they are often installed alongside isolation valves which can temporarily disconnect a failing throttling valve from the rest of the system, so it can be refurbished or replaced.\n", "The restraint system will be designed to cater for all of these influences. A restraint is a device that prevents either the pipe work or the plant to which the pipe work is connected being damaged due to the occurrence of any one or more of the above\n", "A water main break happens when a hole or crack develops in a main and causes it to rupture. They typically result from the external corrosion of the pipe. The water typically finds its way to the surface due to the extreme amount of pressure the water is under. Millions of gallons of water can flow from a single break. In order to get the break under control, the water is shut off and the section of pipe that ruptured is replaced.\n", "Just as the primary loads have their origin in some force, secondary loads are caused by displacement of some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage tank may be under load if the tank nozzle to which it is connected moves down due to tank settlement. Similarly, pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards because the vessel nozzle moves up due to vessel expansion. Also, a pipe may vibrate due to vibrations in the rotating equipment it is attached to.\n\nDisplacement Loads:\n\nBULLET::::- Load due to Thermal Expansion of pipe\n", "Section::::Kick.:Causes.:Lost circulation.\n\nAnother cause of kick during completion/workover operations is lost circulation. Loss of\n\ncirculation leads to a drop of both the fluid level and hydrostatic pressure in a well. If the\n\nhydrostatic pressure falls below the reservoir pressure, the well kicks. Three main causes of lost circulation are:\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive pressure overbalance\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive surge pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Poor formation integrity\n\nSection::::Kick.:Causes.:Abnormal pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- A hydropneumatic device similar in principle to a shock absorber called a 'Water Hammer Arrestor' can be installed between the water pipe and the machine, to absorb the shock and stop the banging.\n\nBULLET::::- Air valves often remediate low pressures at high points in the pipeline. Though effective, sometimes large numbers of air valves need be installed. These valves also allow air into the system, which is often unwanted.\n\nBULLET::::- Shorter branch pipe lengths.\n", "Corrosion occurs when the parent metal oxidises (as iron rusts, for example) and gradually the integrity of the plant equipment is compromised. The corrosion products can cause similar problems to scale, but corrosion can also lead to leaks, which in a pressurised system can lead to catastrophic failures.\n", "Section::::Hydraulic fittings.\n\nHydraulic systems use high fluid pressure, such as the hydraulic actuators for bulldozers and backhoes. Their hydraulic fittings are designed and rated for much greater pressure than that experienced in general piping systems, and they are generally not compatible with those used in plumbing. Hydraulic fittings are designed and constructed to resist high-pressure leakage and sudden failure.\n\nSection::::Connection methods.\n", "There is a risk associated to the \"overload\" operation. \n\nInside the the pressures inside the two chambers are balanced: during the overload both command reservoir and brake pipe pressures rise proportionally. \n\nAs said they are gradually lowered back to but it may happen that the command reservoir \"gets struck\" to a higher pressure, while the pipe pressure is lower. This keeps the connection between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake cylinders and consequently the brakes in effect. \n", "Alternatively, a specialized backflow preventer valve may be installed at strategic locations in the plumbing system wherever there is a risk of contaminated fluids entering the water supply pipes. These valves are used where there is not sufficient vertical clearance or physical space to install an air gap, or when pressurized operation or other factors rule out use of an air gap. Because these valves use moving parts, they are often required to be inspected or tested periodically.\n\nSection::::Regulatory requirements.\n", "Pipes are usually either supported from below or hung from above (but may also be supported from the side), using devices called pipe supports. Supports may be as simple as a pipe \"shoe\" which is akin to a half of an I-beam welded to the bottom of the pipe; they may be \"hung\" using a clevis, or with trapeze type of devices called pipe hangers. Pipe supports of any kind may incorporate springs, snubbers, dampers, or combinations of these devices to compensate for thermal expansion, or to provide vibration isolation, shock control, or reduced vibration excitation of the pipe due to earthquake motion. Some dampers are simply fluid dashpots, but other dampers may be active hydraulic devices that have sophisticated systems that act to dampen peak displacements due to externally imposed vibrations or mechanical shocks. The undesired motions may be process derived (such as in a fluidized bed reactor) or from a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake (design basis event or DBE).\n", "Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system. Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to result only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures and waste of water. Pressure in an urban water system is typically maintained either by a pressurised water tank serving an urban area, by pumping the water up into a water tower and relying on gravity to maintain a constant pressure in the system or solely by pumps at the water treatment plant and repeater pumping stations.\n", "However, sudden closing of a valve in a piping system may lead to water hammer or implosion so in special cases there may be additional items connected to the shutoff valve, such as a pressure relief valve or an aerator valve. \n\nSection::::Measuring performance.\n", "Additionally, this might reduce the process speed and availability of process equipment. The main mechanical problem tends to be when foam enters the system as air is a poor lubricant, meaning metal to metal contact can occur.\n\nSection::::Industrial problems.:Mechanical problem factors.\n\nMechanical factors that may generate foam and entrapped air:\n\nBULLET::::- Leaky seals on pumps\n\nBULLET::::- High pressure pumps\n\nBULLET::::- Poor system design (tank, pump inlet, outlet and manifold design)\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure release\n\nThe main classes of air that are of concern to the mechanical systems are:\n", "An example of where backflow would harm the water supply is the use of well washing devices inside underground sewerage pumping stations. At times untreated sewerage may contain a variety of harmful gases that will effectively break down and deteriorate concrete wells, hence well washers are utilised to spray water and wash down contaminated concrete walls of a well. All well washers are installed with RPZ Devices in case a pumping station breaks down, and the sewerage level rises above the well washer, causing backflow down the water supply line.\n" ]

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[ "Many older LEDE (\"live end, dead end\") control room designs featured so-called \"Haas kickers\" – reflective panels placed at the rear to create specular reflections which were thought to provide a wider stereo listening area or raise intelligibility. However, what is beneficial for one type of sound is detrimental to others, so Haas kickers, like compression ceilings, are no longer commonly found in control rooms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Binaural fusion\n\nBULLET::::- Franssen effect\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Floyd Toole \"Sound Reproduction\", Focal Press (July 25, 2008), Chapter 6\n", "If digital components are being used, latency must be taken into account. If the normal analog method is used for a digital compressor, the signals traveling through the parallel pathways will arrive at the summing mixer at slightly different times, creating unpleasant comb-filtering and phasing effects. The digital compressor pathway takes a little more time to process the sound—on the order of 0.3 to 3 milliseconds longer. Instead, the two pathways must both have the same number of processing stages: the \"straight\" pathway is assigned a compression stage which is \"not\" given an aggressively high ratio. In this case, the two signals both go through compression stages, and both pathways are delayed the same amount of time, but one is set to do no dynamic range compression, or to do very little, and the other is set for high amounts of gain reduction.\n", "To provide more safety margin for design uncertainties, often \"A\" is increased to two or three times \"A\" on the right side of this equation. See Sansen or Huijsing and article on step response.\n\nSection::::Example of pole splitting.:Slew rate.\n\nThe above is a small-signal analysis. However, when large signals are used, the need to charge and discharge the compensation capacitor adversely affects the amplifier slew rate; in particular, the response to an input ramp signal is limited by the need to charge \"C\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Frequency compensation\n\nBULLET::::- Miller effect\n\nBULLET::::- Common source\n\nBULLET::::- Bode plot\n\nBULLET::::- Step response\n", "Bridging an amplifier increases the power that can be supplied to one loudspeaker, but it does not increase the amplifier's total available power. Because a bridge amplifier operates in mono mode, a second identical amplifier is required for stereo operation. For bridged amplifiers, damping factor is cut in half. Because the amplifier's bridged output is floating, it should never be grounded or it may damage the amplifier.\n\nSection::::Bridged amplifier.:Quadrupled power myth.\n", "A paralleled amplifier configuration uses multiple amplifiers in parallel, i.e., two or more amplifiers operating in-phase into a common load.\n\nIn this mode the available output CURRENT is doubled but the output voltage remains the same. The output impedance of the pair is now halved.\n", "This would be true if the amplifier in bridged mode were used to drive loudspeakers of the same impedance used in stereo mode. However, in this case, the current through the loudspeaker and the amplifier would also double, which could exceed the amplifier ratings and lead to overheating and finally destruction of the amplifier. In fact, the minimum impedance of the loudspeaker in bridged mode should be double the minimum impedance rated for stereo mode. \n\nConsequently, operating a pair of existing amplifier channels in bridge mode doubles available power output to the load.\n\nSection::::Paralleled amplifier.\n", "A common way to do this is so that the front-panel has a \"step\" (as shown in the above image) where the tweeter mounts at some distance behind the woofer. This step can cause more errors in summing than the time delay between the drivers due to the diffraction of the tweeter's sound waves around the step. Sloping and rounding the edges of the step helps in reducing diffraction, but it cannot be eliminated completely. Also, the more gradual the slope, greater is the vertical separation between the drivers, which in turn again causes thinning of the lobe (i.e., increase in vertical directivity) at the crossover frequency.\n", "BULLET::::- Horizontal bi-amping uses one amplifier to power both bass drivers (woofers) and the second amplifier to power both treble drivers (tweeter) or the midrange and treble drivers together. Horizontal bi-amping has the advantage of allowing two different amplifiers that sound better than each other for bass or for treble.\n", "Two identical amplifiers are most often encountered in a common case, with a common power supply, and would normally be regarded as a stereo amplifier. Any conventional stereo amplifier can be operated in bridge or parallel mode provided that the common loudspeaker terminals (normally black) are connected and common to the ground rail within the amplifier. \n", "Peter Walker was also attributed with the famous hifi quote \"the perfect amplifier is a straight wire with gain\" --- the implication being that nothing would be added, and nothing taken away from the signal, just a bigger version of the same thing at one end. It was an aim, a goal, a description of the perfect amplifier - nobody, including Mr. Walker, ever said they'd attained that goal, and even if they did, the chances were that they were severely handicapped by their test equipment at the time.\n", "Tube amplifiers have sufficiently higher output impedances that they normally included multi-tap output transformers to better match to the driver impedance. Sixteen ohm drivers (or loudspeakers systems) would be connected to the 16-ohm tap, 8 ohm to the 8 ohm tap, etc.\n", "Section::::Resistance.\n\nResistance is by far the most important specification of speaker wire. Low-resistance speaker wire allows more of the amplifier's power to energize the loudspeaker's voice coil. The performance of a conductor such as speaker wire is therefore optimised by limiting its length and maximising its cross-sectional area. Depending on the hearing ability of the listener, this resistance begins to have an audible effect when the resistance exceeds 5 percent of the speaker's impedance.\n", "When two or more speakers are used in the same cabinet, or when two cabinets are used together, the speakers can be wired in parallel or in series, or in a combination of the two (e.g., two 2x10\" cabinets, with the two speakers wired in series, can be connected together in parallel). Whether speakers are wired in parallel or in series affects the impedance of the system. Two 8 ohm speakers wired in parallel have 4 ohm impedance. Guitarists who connect multiple cabinets to an amplifier must consider the amp's minimum impedance. Parallel vs. series also affects tone and sound. Speakers wired in parallel slightly dampen[s] and restrain[s] them, giving what some describe as \"tighter response\" and \"smoother breakup\". Some describe speakers wired in series (usually no more than two) as sounding \"...looser, giving a slightly more raw, open and edgy sound.\"\n", "On the other hand, the dominant pole compensation in transistor amplifiers is precisely controlled: exactly as much of it can be applied as needed to strike a good compromise for the given application.\n\nThe effect of dominant pole compensation is that gain is reduced at higher frequencies. There is increasingly less NFB at high frequencies due to the reduced loop gain.\n", "Similarly, in two adjacent conductors carrying alternating currents flowing in opposite directions, such as are found in power cables and pairs of bus bars, the current in each conductor is concentrated into a strip on the side facing the other conductor.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nThe additional resistance increases power losses which, in power circuits, can generate undesirable heating. Proximity and skin effect significantly complicate the design of efficient transformers and inductors operating at high frequencies, used for example in switched-mode power supplies.\n", "When the voltage of C1 right-hand plate (Q2 base voltage) becomes positive and reaches 0.6 V, Q2 base-emitter junction begins diverting a part of R2 charging current. Q2 begins conducting and this starts the avalanche-like positive feedback process as follows. Q2 collector voltage begins falling; this change transfers through the fully charged C2 to Q1 base and Q1 begins cutting off. Its collector voltage begins rising; this change transfers back through the almost empty C1 to Q2 base and makes Q2 conduct more thus sustaining the initial input impact on Q2 base. Thus the initial input change circulates along the feedback loop and grows in an avalanche-like manner until finally Q1 switches off and Q2 switches on. The forward-biased Q2 base-emitter junction fixes the voltage of C1 right-hand plate at 0.6 V and does not allow it to continue rising toward +\"V\".\n", "Since two amplifiers are being used in opposite polarity, using the same power supply, there is no need for the use of a DC blocking capacitor between the amplifier and the load. This saves cost & space, and there is no power reduction at low frequency due to the capacitor.\n", "BULLET::::- Each amplifier must have as little output DC offset as possible (ideally zero offset) at no signal, otherwise the amplifier with the higher offset will try to drive current into the one with lesser offset thereby increasing dissipation. Equal offsets are also not acceptable since this will cause unwanted current (and dissipation) in the load. These are taken care of by adding an offset nulling circuit to each amplifier.\n\nBULLET::::- The gains of the amplifiers must be as closely matched as possible so that the outputs don't try to drive each other when signal is present.\n", "Inside a room (auditorium) there are two loudspeakers at different positions. At the beginning of the presentation, loudspeaker 1 emits a sinusoidal signal with a steep attacking slope. Subsequently the power of this loudspeaker remains constant. The listeners can localize this loudspeaker easily. During the stationary part of the envelope the signal is very smoothly faded over from loudspeaker 1 to loudspeaker 2. Although loudspeaker 2 emits all the sound at the end, the listener's auditory events remain at the position of loudspeaker 1. This mislocalization remains, even if the test supervisor plugs off the cables of loudspeaker 1 demonstratively.\n", "Section::::Models.:The OTTO Series.\n\nThe Series “OTTO” amplifiers have an integrated X.O.T electronic crossover system allowing the realization of High-end multi-amplification systems, with no need of additional external electronic crossovers. As a matter of fact, under the X.O.T. concept, the finals are serially combined and the setting of the frequency cut is effected for every single section, directly on the related amplifiers. Every OTTO amplifier comes with two terminals protecting the connections and links.\n", "In class-AB operation, each device operates the same way as in class B over half the waveform, but also conducts a small amount on the other half. As a result, the region where both devices simultaneously are nearly off (the \"dead zone\") is reduced. The result is that when the waveforms from the two devices are combined, the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether. The exact choice of quiescent current (the standing current through both devices when there is no signal) makes a large difference to the level of distortion (and to the risk of thermal runaway, that may damage the devices). Often, bias voltage applied to set this quiescent current must be adjusted with the temperature of the output transistors. (For example, in the circuit shown at right, the diodes would be mounted physically close to the output transistors, and specified to have a matched temperature coefficient.) Another approach (often used with thermally tracking bias voltages) is to include small value resistors in series with the emitters.\n", "Figure 3 shows that to obtain the correct gain dependence on frequency, the second pole is at least a factor \"A\" higher in frequency than the first pole. The gain is reduced a bit by the voltage dividers at the input and output of the amplifier, so with corrections to \"A\" for the voltage dividers at input and output the pole-ratio condition for good step response becomes:\n\nUsing the approximations for the time constants developed above,\n\nor\n", "When designing tuning circuits with varicaps it is usually good practice to maintain the AC component of voltage across the varicap at a minimal level, usually less than 100 mV peak to peak, to prevent changing the diode capacitance too much, which would distort the signal and add harmonics.\n", "The RF voltage varies sinusoidally. Consider the time at which the voltage at electrode A passes through 0 and starts to become negative. Assuming that there is at least 1 free electron near A, that electron will begin to accelerate to the right toward electrode B. It will continue to accelerate and reach a maximum velocity ½ of a cycle later just as the voltage at electrode B begins to become negative. If the electron(s) from electrode A strike electrode B at this time and produce additional free electrons, these new free electrons will begin to accelerate toward electrode A. The process may then repeat causing multipactor. We now find the relationship between the plate spacing, RF frequency, and RF voltage that causes the strongest multipactor resonance.\n", "Some audiophiles feel that bi-wiring produces an audible improvement over standard single cabling. For example, John Atkinson, writing in \"Stereophile\", states that he observes \"subtle but important\" differences, particularly in reduction of treble hardness and improvement in bass control in one review.\n\nCritics of bi-wiring believe that both ways of making speaker connections are electrically equivalent (assuming no difference in speaker cable resistance), and thus cynically refer to the practice as \"buy-wiring\", implying it is nothing more than a marketing gimmick for buying more pairs of speaker wires.\n" ]

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[ "Visual texture, also referred to as \"implied texture\", is not detectable by our sense of touch, but by our sense of sight. Visual texture is the illusion of a real texture on a two-dimensional surface. Any texture perceived in an image or photograph is a visual texture. A photograph of rough tree bark is considered a visual texture. It creates the impression of a real texture on a two-dimensional surface which would remain smooth to the touch no matter how rough the represented texture is.\n", "Section::::Thin film textures.\n", "Section::::Microstructure Characterizations.\n\nTo quantify microstructural features, both morphological and material property must be characterized. Image processing is a robust technique for determination of morphological features such as volume fraction, inclusion morphology, void and crystal orientations. To acquire micrographs, optical as well as electron microscopy are commonly used. \n", "Another approach is to use local masks to detect various types of texture features. Laws originally used four vectors representing texture features to create sixteen 2D masks from the outer products of the pairs of vectors. The four vectors and relevant features were as follows:\n\nTo these 4, a fifth is sometimes added:\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n\nAnalysis of images will vary considerably according to application. Typical analysis includes determining where the edges of an object are, counting similar objects, calculating the area, perimeter length and other useful measurements of each object. A common approach is to create an image mask which only includes pixels that match certain criteria, then perform simpler scanning operations on the resulting mask. It is also possible to label objects and track their motion over a series of frames in a video sequence.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Image processing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Jan-Mark Geusebroek, Color and Geometrical Structure in Images, Applications in Microscopy,\n", "Part 606 describes this type of non-contact areal based method. The operating principle is based on a microscope optics with limited depth of field and a CCD camera. By scanning in vertical direction several images with different focus are gathered. This data is then used to calculate a surface data set for roughness measurement.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Surface roughness\n\nBULLET::::- Waviness\n\nBULLET::::- Surface metrology\n\nBULLET::::- MountainsMap: surface texture analysis software\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 16610: filters for surface texture\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 25178 on the ISO Web site\n", "Section::::Texture segmentation and figure-ground assignments.:Extremal edges and relative motion.\n\nAn extremal edge is a change in texture that suggests an object is in front of or behind another object. This can be due to a shading effect on the edges of one region of texture, giving the appearance of depth. Some extremal edge effects can overwhelm the segmentations of surroundedness or size. The edges perceived can also aid in distinguishing objects by examining the change in texture against an edge due to motion.\n", "Another common requirement is to take a series of images at a fixed position, but at different focal depths. Since most microscopic samples are essentially transparent, and the depth of field of the focused sample is exceptionally narrow, it is possible to capture images \"through\" a three-dimensional object using 2D equipment like confocal microscopes. Software is then able to reconstruct a 3D model of the original sample which may be manipulated appropriately. The processing turns a 2D instrument into a 3D instrument, which would not otherwise exist. In recent times this technique has led to a number of scientific discoveries in cell biology.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Resolution.\n\nThe scale of the desired measurement will help decide which type of microscope will be used.\n\nFor 3D measurements, the probe is commanded to scan over a 2D area on the surface. The spacing between data points may not be the same in both directions.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Non-Contact (optical microscopes).\n\nOptical measurement instruments have some advantages over the tactile ones as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- no touching of the surface (the sample can not be damaged)\n\nBULLET::::- the measurement speed is usually much higher (up to a million 3D points can be measured in a second)\n\nBULLET::::- some of them are genuinely built for 3D surface topography rather than single traces of data\n\nBULLET::::- they can measure surfaces through transparent medium such as glass or plastic film\n", "Embedding technique is a medium stage when doing a sectioning process. When preparing specimens, it is difficult to make uniform slices since the tissue is soft. Therefore, it is necessary to soak the tissue with a certain substance to harden the whole tissue, to facilitate the slicing. This process is called embedding. The substance used to embed tissue is embedding media, which is chosen depends on the category of the microscope, category of the micro tome, and category of tissue. Paraffin wax, whose melting point is from 56 to 62℃, is commonly used for embedding. \n", "Most modern instruments provide simple solutions for micro-photography and image recording electronically. However such capabilities are not always present and the more experienced microscopist will, in many cases, still prefer a hand drawn image to a photograph. This is because a microscopist with knowledge of the subject can accurately convert a three-dimensional image into a precise two-dimensional drawing. In a photograph or other image capture system however, only one thin plane is ever in good focus.\n", "Section::::Texture and materials properties.\n", "A recent development is the laser microtome, which cuts the target specimen with a femtosecond laser instead of a mechanical knife. This method is contact-free and does not require sample preparation techniques. The laser microtome has the ability to slice almost every tissue in its native state. Depending on the material being processed, slice thicknesses of 10 to 100 µm are feasible.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Sledge.\n", "Image textures can be artificially created or found in natural scenes captured in an image. Image textures are one way that can be used to help in segmentation or classification of images. For more accurate segmentation the most useful features are spatial frequency and an average grey level. To analyze an image texture in computer graphics, there are two ways to approach the issue: Structured Approach and Statistical Approach.\n\nSection::::Structured Approach.\n\nA structured approach sees an image texture as a set of primitive texels in some regular or repeated pattern. This works well when analyzing artificial textures.\n", "Visual texture or implied texture is the illusion of having physical texture. Every material and every support surface has its own visual texture and needs to be taken into consideration before creating a composition. As such, materials such as canvas and watercolour paper are considerably rougher than, for example, photo-quality computer paper and may not be best suited to creating a flat, smooth texture. Photography, drawings and paintings use visual texture both to portray their own subject matter realistically and with interpretation. Texture in these media is generally created by the repetition of the shape and line. Another example of visual texture is terrazzo or an image in a mirror.\n", "Section::::Current research.:Nanomaterial synthesis and deposition.\n", "BULLET::::- Botanical Microtomy Technique: hard materials like wood, bone and leather require a sledge microtome. These microtomes have heavier blades and cannot cut as thin as a regular microtome.\n\nBULLET::::- Spectroscopy (especially FTIR or Infrared spectroscopy) Technique: thin polymer sections are needed in order that the infra-red beam will penetrate the sample under examination. It is normal to cut samples to between 20 and 100 µm in thickness. For more detailed analysis of much smaller areas in a thin section, FTIR microscopy can be used for sample inspection.\n", "While most techniques focus on increases in lateral resolution there are also some techniques which aim to allow analysis of extremely thin samples. For example, sarfus methods place the thin sample on a contrast-enhancing surface and thereby allows to directly visualize films as thin as 0.3 nanometers.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Surpassing the resolution limit.:Structured illumination SMI.\n", "Section::::Commonly Used Methods.:Squashes.\n\nSquashes are methods, in which objects are crushed with force. This method is suitable for preparing both transparent and tender tissues. When preparing squashes slides, specimens are supposed to be thin and transparent so that objects can be observed clearly under microscopes.\n", "BULLET::::- Wang, T; Patel, R and Derby, B; Manufacture of 3-dimensional objects by reactive inkjet printing, Soft Matter, (2008) 4, 2513–2518\n\nBULLET::::- Wu, H Z; Roberts, S G and Derby, B; Residual stress distributions around indentations and scratches in polycrystalline Al2O3 and Al2O3/SiC nanocomposites measured using fluorescence probes, Acta Mater. (2008) 56, 140–149\n\nBULLET::::- Akhtar, R; Sherrat, M J; Bierswich, N; Derbyb B; Mummery P M; Qatson R E B and Schwarzer N, Nanoindentation of histological specimens using an extension of the Oliver and Pharr method. MRS Symp. Proc., (2008) 1097E, GG01-09\n", "Since the early 1970s individuals have been using the microscope as an artistic instrument. Websites and traveling art exhibits such as the Nikon Small World and Olympus Bioscapes have featured a range of images for the sole purpose of artistic enjoyment. Some collaborative groups, such as the Paper Project have also incorporated microscopic imagery into tactile art pieces as well as 3D immersive rooms and dance performances.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Close-up\n\nBULLET::::- Digital microscope\n\nBULLET::::- Macro photography\n\nBULLET::::- Microphotograph\n\nBULLET::::- Microscopy\n\nBULLET::::- USB microscope\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "As with any other imaging technique, there is the possibility of image artifacts, which could be induced by an unsuitable tip, a poor operating environment, or even by the sample itself, as depicted on the right. These image artifacts are unavoidable; however, their occurrence and effect on results can be reduced through various methods.\n\nArtifacts resulting from a too-coarse tip can be caused for example by inappropriate handling or de facto collisions with the sample by either scanning too fast or having an unreasonably rough surface, causing actual wearing of the tip.\n", "Section::::Visual texture.:Decorative texture.\n\nDecorative texture \"decorates a surface\". Texture is added to embellish the surface either that usually contains some uniformity. \n\nSection::::Visual texture.:Spontaneous texture.\n\nThis focuses more on the process of the visual creation; the marks of texture made also creates the shapes. These are often \"accidental\" forms that create texture.\n\nSection::::Visual texture.:Mechanical texture.\n\nTexture created by special mechanical means. An example of this would be photography; the grains and/or screen pattern that is often found in printing creates texture on the surface. This is also exemplified by designs in typography and computer graphics.\n\nSection::::Hypertexture.\n", "The simplest way to generate a large image from a sample image is to tile it. This means multiple copies of the sample are simply copied and pasted side by side. The result is rarely satisfactory. Except in rare cases, there will be the seams in between the tiles and the image will be highly repetitive.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Stochastic texture synthesis.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- \"Zoo\" season 2 episode 6 \"Sex, Lies and Jellyfish\" – The team searches for immortal jellyfish to find a cure for animal mutations.\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Kratts Videos \"Meeting the Immortal Jellyfish\" – During the rescue of the Bowhead whale from Zach, Martin and Chris are thrown from the Tortuga, ending up in the Sea of Japan with a group of jellyfish. But these jellyfish are different. They're called the Immortal jellyfish and can live forever. With the help of Aviva, Martin and Chris activate with Immortal jellyfish powers and soon discover the highs and lows of living forever.\n", "Kubota reported that during a two-year period, his colony rebirthed itself 11 times. Kubota regularly appears on Japanese television to talk about his immortal jellyfish and has recorded several songs about them.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Blacklist\" season 2 episode 17 \"The Longevity Initiative\" – a billionaire tech mogul whose fascination with immortality led him to develop and fund a research team for just that purpose. Leading the research is a scientist who has been injecting the cells of \"T. dohrnii\" into humans in order to hopefully force their cells to regenerate.\n", "Immortalised cell lines can also be cloned giving rise to a clonal population which can, in turn, be propagated indefinitely. This allows an analysis to be repeated many times on genetically identical cells, which is desirable for repeatable scientific experiments. The alternative, performing an analysis on primary cells from multiple tissue donors, does not have this advantage.\n", "Also, it has been theorized that the cells Carrel used were young enough to contain pluripotent stem cells, which, if supplied with a supporting telomerase-activation nutrient, would have been capable of staving off replicative senescence, or even possibly reversing it. Cultures not containing telomerase-active pluripotent stem cells would have been populated with telomerase-inactive cells, which would have been subject to the 50 ± 10 mitosis event limit until cellular senescence occurs as described in Hayflick's findings.\n\nSection::::History.:Experiment and discovery.\n", "Techniques to extend telomeres could be useful for tissue engineering, because they might permit healthy, noncancerous mammalian cells to be cultured in amounts large enough to be engineering materials for biomedical repairs.\n", "Some scientists have combined the two approaches, by first using one DNA label to label the immortal strands, allowing to adult stem cells to begin dividing asymmetrically, and then using a different DNA label to label the newly synthesized DNA. Thus, the adult stem cells will retain one DNA label and release the other within two divisions.\n\nSection::::Evidence.\n", "This ability to reverse the biotic cycle (in response to adverse conditions) is unique in the animal kingdom, and allows the jellyfish to bypass death, rendering \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" potentially biologically immortal. The process has not been observed in their natural habitat, in part because the process is quite rapid, and because field observations at the right moment are unlikely. Regardless, most individual medusae are likely to fall victim to the general hazards of life as Megaplankton, including being eaten by predators or succumbing to disease.\n", "Theoretically, this process can go on indefinitely, effectively rendering the jellyfish biologically immortal, although in practice individuals can still die. In nature, most \"Turritopsis\" are likely to succumb to predation or disease in the medusa stage, without reverting to the polyp form.\n\nThe capability of biological immortality with no maximum lifespan makes \"T. dohrnii\" an important target of basic biological, aging and pharmaceutical research.\n\nThe \"immortal jellyfish\" was formerly classified as \"T. nutricula\".\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::Further models.\n\nAfter Cairns first proposed the immortal DNA strand mechanism, the theory has undergone several refinements.\n\nIn 2002, he proposed that in addition to using immortal DNA strand mechanisms to segregate DNA, when the immortal DNA strands of adult stem cells undergo damage, they will choose to die (apoptose) rather than use DNA repair mechanisms that are normally used in non-stem cells. \n", "The immortal DNA strand hypothesis was proposed in 1975 by John Cairns as a mechanism for adult stem cells to minimize mutations in their genomes. This hypothesis proposes that instead of segregating their DNA during mitosis in a random manner, adult stem cells divide their DNA asymmetrically, and retain a distinct template set of DNA strands (parental strands) in each division. By retaining the same set of template DNA strands, adult stem cells would pass mutations arising from errors in DNA replication on to non-stem cell daughters that soon terminally differentiate (end mitotic divisions and become a functional cell). Passing on these replication errors would allow adult stem cells to reduce their rate of accumulation of mutations that could lead to serious genetic disorders such as cancer.\n", "Since these cells were cycling but continued to contain the BrdU label in their DNA, the researchers reasoned that they must be segregating their DNA using an immortal DNA strand mechanism. Joshua Merok \"et al.\" from the lab of James Sherley engineered mammalian cells with an inducible p53 gene that controls asymmetric divisions. BrdU pulse/chase experiments with these cells demonstrated that chromosomes segregated non-randomly only when the cells were induced to divide asymmetrically like adult stem cells. These asymmetrically dividing cells provide an \"in vitro\" model for demonstration and investigation of immortal strand mechanisms. \n", "- A study published in \"Nature\", in September 2010, by a team of researchers led by Miguel Godinho Ferreira solved a paradox related to telomeres, the protective tips of chromosomes. The broken chromosome ends generated by DNA damage are quickly joined together. However, telomeres are never tied to each other, thus allowing for the correct segregation of the genetic material into all cells. The researchers found that one of the histones neighbouring the telomeres lacks a chemical signal, thus rendering the DNA damage recognition machinery incapable of arresting the cell cycle.\n\nSection::::PhD Programmes.\n", "In early 2017, Harvard scientists headed by biologist David Sinclair announced they have tested a metabolic precursor that increases NAD+ levels in mice and have successfully reversed the cellular aging process and can protect the DNA from future damage. \"The old mouse and young mouse cells are indistinguishable\", David was quoted. Human trials are to begin shortly in what the team expect is 6 months at Brigham and Women's Hospital, in Boston.\n\nSection::::Attempts to engineer biological immortality in humans.:Criticism.\n", "In normal circumstances, without the presence of telomerase, if a cell divides repeatedly, at some point all the progeny will reach their Hayflick limit. With the presence of telomerase, each dividing cell can replace the lost bit of DNA, and any single cell can then divide unbounded. While this unbounded growth property has excited many researchers, caution is warranted in exploiting this property, as exactly this same unbounded growth is a crucial step in enabling cancerous growth. If an organism can replicate its body cells faster, then it would theoretically stop aging.\n", "To achieve the more limited goal of halting the increase in mortality rate with age, a solution must be found to the fact that any intervention to remove senescent cells that creates competition among cells will increase age-related mortality from cancer.\n\nSection::::Immortalism and immortality as a movement.\n", "Molecular techniques for quantifying telomeric sequences include pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), slot blot, horizontal gel electrophoresis, and Contour-clamped homogeneous electric field pulse field gel electrophoresis (CHEF-PFGE). In these techniques, purified genomic DNA is isolated and digested with restriction enzymes, such as HaeIII, HinfI, AluI, Sau3AI, EcoRI, EcoRV, PstI, SstI, BamHI, HindIII or BglII, and quantified by fluorometry.\n", "Section::::Organisms.:Jellyfish.\n\n\"Turritopsis dohrnii\", or \"Turritopsis nutricula\", is a small () species of jellyfish that uses transdifferentiation to replenish cells after sexual reproduction. This cycle can repeat indefinitely, potentially rendering it biologically immortal. This organism originated in the Caribbean sea, but has now spread around the world. Similar cases include hydrozoan \"Laodicea undulata\" and scyphozoan \"Aurelia\" sp.1.\n\nSection::::Organisms.:Lobsters.\n", "The production of a truly living organism (e.g. a simple bacterium) with no ancestors would be a much more complex task, but may well be possible to some degree according to current biological knowledge. A synthetic genome has been transferred into an existing bacterium where it replaced the native DNA, resulting in the artificial production of a new \"M. mycoides\" organism.\n", "Evidence for the immortal DNA strand hypothesis has been found in various systems. One of the earliest studies by Karl Lark \"et al.\" demonstrated co-segregation of DNA in the cells of plant root tips. Plant root tips labeled with tritiated thymidine tended to segregate their labeled DNA to the same daughter cell. Though not all the labeled DNA segregated to the same daughter, the amount of thymidine-labeled DNA seen in the daughter with less label corresponded to the amount that would have arisen from sister-chromatid exchange. Later studies by Christopher Potten \"et al.\" (2002), using pulse/chase experiments with tritiated thymidine, found long-term label-retaining cells in the small intestinal crypts of neonatal mice. These researchers hypothesized that long-term incorporation of tritiated thymidine occurred because neonatal mice have undeveloped small intestines, and that pulsing tritiated thymidine soon after the birth of the mice allowed the 'immortal' DNA of adult stem cells to be labeled during their formation. These long-term cells were demonstrated to be actively cycling, as demonstrated by incorporation and release of BrdU.\n", "Many unicellular organisms age: as time passes, they divide more slowly and ultimately die. Asymmetrically dividing bacteria and yeast also age. However, symmetrically dividing bacteria and yeast can be biologically immortal under ideal growing conditions. In these conditions, when a cell splits symmetrically to produce two daughter cells, the process of cell division can restore the cell to a youthful state. However, if the parent asymmetrically buds off a daughter only the daughter is reset to the youthful state—the parent isn't restored and will go on to age and die. In a similar manner stem cells and gametes can be regarded as \"immortal\".\n", "Section::::Clinical implications.:Cancer.:Telomerase Vaccines.\n\nTwo telomerase vaccines have been developed: GRNVAC1 and GV1001. GRNVAC1 isolates dendritic cells and the RNA that codes for the telomerase protein and puts them back into the patient to make cytotoxic T cells that kill the telomerase-active cells. GV1001 is a peptide from the active site of hTERT and is recognized by the immune system that reacts by killing the telomerase-active cells.\n\nSection::::Clinical implications.:Cancer.:Targeted apoptosis.\n", "Embryonic stem cells express telomerase, which allows them to divide repeatedly and form the individual. In adults, telomerase is highly expressed in cells that need to divide regularly (e.g., in the immune system), whereas most somatic cells express it only at very low levels in a cell-cycle dependent manner.\n\nSection::::Physical immortality.:Prospects for human biological immortality.:Technological immortality, biological machines, and \"swallowing the doctor\".\n", "Section::::Medical implications.:Relation to epigenetic clock.\n\nParadoxically, genetic variants in the TERT locus, which are associated with longer leukocyte telomere length,\n\nare associated with faster epigenetic aging rates in blood according to a molecular biomarker of aging known as epigenetic clock. Similarly, human TERT expression did not arrest epigenetic aging in human fibroblasts. \n\nSection::::Medical implications.:Gene therapy.\n", "Although evidence for this mechanism exists, whether it is a mechanism acting in adult stem cells in vivo is still controversial.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nTwo main assays are used to detect immortal DNA strand segregation: label-retention and label-release pulse/chase assays.\n", "Biologists have chosen the word \"immortal\" to designate cells that are not limited by the Hayflick limit, where cells no longer divide because of DNA damage or shortened telomeres. The first and still most widely used immortal cell line is HeLa, developed from cells taken from the malignant cervical tumor of Henrietta Lacks without her consent in 1951. Prior to the 1961 work of Leonard Hayflick, there was the erroneous belief fostered by Alexis Carrel that all normal somatic cells are immortal. By preventing cells from reaching senescence one can achieve biological immortality; telomeres, a \"cap\" at the end of DNA, are thought to be the cause of cell aging. Every time a cell divides the telomere becomes a bit shorter; when it is finally worn down, the cell is unable to split and dies. Telomerase is an enzyme which rebuilds the telomeres in stem cells and cancer cells, allowing them to replicate an infinite number of times. No definitive work has yet demonstrated that telomerase can be used in human somatic cells to prevent healthy tissues from aging. On the other hand, scientists hope to be able to grow organs with the help of stem cells, allowing organ transplants without the risk of rejection, another step in extending human life expectancy. These technologies are the subject of ongoing research, and are not yet realized.\n" ]

[ "It is theoretically possible to take stem cells from the Turritopsis Dohrnii and inject them into humans in order to create biologically immortal humans." ]

[ "Injecting stem cells into humans from the Turritopsis Dohrnii will result in the human being mutated into a jellyfish, making it impractical." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is theoretically possible to take stem cells from the Turritopsis Dohrnii and inject them into humans in order to create biologically immortal humans.", "It is theoretically possible to take stem cells from the Turritopsis Dohrnii and inject them into humans in order to create biologically immortal humans." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Injecting stem cells into humans from the Turritopsis Dohrnii will result in the human being mutated into a jellyfish, making it impractical.", "Injecting stem cells into humans from the Turritopsis Dohrnii will result in the human being mutated into a jellyfish, making it impractical." ]