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[ "Section::::Measurement of energy content of food.\n\nIn the past, a bomb calorimeter was used to determine the energy content of food by burning a sample and measuring a temperature change in the surrounding water. Today, this method is not commonly used in the USA and has been succeeded by calculating the energy content indirectly from adding up the energy provided by energy-containing nutrients of food (such as protein, carbohydrates, and fats). The fibre content is also subtracted to account for the fact that fibre is not digested by the body.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Caloric theory\n", "Calorie amounts found on food labels are based on the Atwater system. The accuracy of the system is disputed, despite no real proposed alternatives. For example, a 2012 study by a USDA scientist concluded that the measured energy content of a sample of almonds was 32% lower than the estimated Atwater value. Furthermore, it is known that some calories are lost in waste, without ever having been chemically converted or stored. The driving mechanism behind caloric intake is absorption, which occurs largely in the small intestine and distributes nutrients to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries by means of osmosis, diffusion and active transport. Fat, in particular is emulsified by bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder where it is released to the small intestine via the bile duct. A relatively lesser amount of absorption, composed primarily of water, occurs in the large intestine.\n", "In the European Union, along the \"old\" rules (Directive 90/496, amended), the information (usually in panel format) is most often labelled \"Nutrition Information\" (or equivalent in other EU languages). An example is shown on the right. The panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity — or of the product — and often also for a defined \"serving\", as an option. First will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules.\n", "Section::::Chemical analysis.\n", "Section::::Detection of phase transitions.\n", "Nutritional rating systems\n\nNutritional rating systems are methods of ranking or rating food products or food categories to communicate the nutritional value of food in a simplified manner to a target audience. Rating systems are developed by governments, nonprofit organizations, or private institutions and companies.\n\nThe methods may use point systems to rank or rate foods for general nutritional value or they may rate specific food attributes such as cholesterol content. Graphics or other symbols may be used to communicate the ratings to the target audience.\n", "All percentages are \"percentages of calories\", not of weight or volume. To understand why, consider the determination of an amount of \"10% free sugar\" to include in a day's worth of calories. For the same amount of calories, free sugars take up less volume and weight, being refined and extracted \"from the competing carbohydrates in their natural form\". In a similar manner, all the items are in competition for various categories of calories.\n\nThe representation as a pyramid is not precise, and involves variations due to the alternative percentages of different elements, but the main sections can be represented.\n", "To facilitate comparison, specific energy or energy density figures are often quoted as \"calories per serving\" or \"kilocalories per 100 g\". A nutritional requirement or consumption is often expressed in calories per day. One gram of fat in food contains nine calories, while a gram of either a carbohydrate or a protein contains approximately four calories. Alcohol in a food contains seven calories per gram.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "An example is a coffee-cup calorimeter, which is constructed from two nested Styrofoam cups and a lid with two holes, allowing insertion of a thermometer and a stirring rod. The inner cup holds a known amount of a solvent, usually water, that absorbs the heat from the reaction. When the reaction occurs, the outer cup provides insulation. Then\n\nwhere\n", "The calorie equals the amount of thermal energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius degree, from a temperature of 14.5 degrees Celsius, at a pressure of 1 atm. For thermochemistry a calorie of 4.184 J is used, but other calories have also been defined, such as the International Steam Table calorie of 4.1868 J. Food energy is measured in large calories or kilocalories, often simply written capitalized as \"Calories\" (= 10 calories).\n\nSection::::Atom physics and chemistry.\n", "The measurement of heat changes is performed using calorimetry, usually an enclosed chamber within which the change to be examined occurs. The temperature of the chamber is monitored either using a thermometer or thermocouple, and the temperature plotted against time to give a graph from which fundamental quantities can be calculated. Modern calorimeters are frequently supplied with automatic devices to provide a quick read-out of information, one example being the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC).\n\nSection::::Systems.\n", "Nutrition analysis\n\nNutrition analysis refers to the process of determining the nutritional content of foods and food products. The process can be performed through a variety of certified methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Laboratory analysis.\n\nTraditionally, food companies would send food samples to laboratories for physical testing. \n\nTypical analysis includes:\n\nMoisture (water) by loss of mass at 102 °C,\n\nProtein by analysis of total nitrogen, either by Dumas or Kjeldahl methods,\n\nTotal fat, traditionally by a solvent extraction, but often now by secondary methods such as NMR,\n\nCrude ash (total inorganic matter) by combustion at 550C,\n", "Estimated dietary fibre by various AOAC methods such as 985.29,\n\nSodium (and thereby Salt) either by flame photometry, AA or ICP-OES,\n\nTotal sugars, normally by a liquid chromatography technique, such as IC-HPAED or HPLC-RI,\n\nFatty acids by GC-FID,\n\nCarbohydrates and energy values are normally calculated from these analytical values.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Software.\n\nSoftware is available as an alternative to laboratory nutrition analysis. This software typically utilizes a database of ingredients that have previously been laboratory tested. The user can input ingredient data by matching their ingredients to ingredients found in the database; the analysis can then be calculated.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Online nutrition analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- calorie – a basic measure of energy that has been replaced by the SI unit the joule; in physics it approximates the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °C which is about 4.184 joules. The Calories in food ratings (spelled with a capital C) and nutrition are ‘big C’ Calories or kcal.\n\nBULLET::::- calorific value – the energy content of a fuel measured as the heat released on complete combustion.\n", "The label begins with a standard serving measurement, calories are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are total fat, sodium, carbohydrates and protein; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown: calories, calories from fat, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.\n", "Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake. In the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In the United States, the equivalent mandatory labels display only \"Calories\" (kilocalories), often as a substitute for the name of the quantity being measured, food energy; an additional kilojoules figure is optional and is rarely used. In Australia and New Zealand, the food energy must be stated in kilojoules (and optionally in kilocalories as well), and other nutritional energy information is similarly conveyed in kilojoules. The energy available from the respiration of food is usually given on labels for 100 g, for a typical serving size (according to the manufacturer), and/or for the entire pack contents.\n", "Section::::Constant flux calorimetry.\n\nA recent development in calorimetry, however, is that of constant flux cooling/heating jackets. These use variable geometry cooling jackets and can operate with cooling jackets at substantially constant temperature. These reaction calorimeters tend to be much simpler to use and are much more tolerant of changes in the process conditions (which would affect calibration in heat flow or power compensation calorimeters).\n", "Section::::DTA.\n", "BULLET::::- Estimating values from other sources, including manufacturers food labels, scientific literature and FCDBs from other countries.\n\nSection::::Food composition dataset.:History.\n\nSome of the earliest work related to detecting adulterated foods and finding the active components of medicinal herbs.\n", "The FCC has two primary sections: monographs and appendices. Monographs are listed alphabetically and typically cover a single ingredient. Monographs, where applicable, provide information about each ingredient, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical structure\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical formula\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular weight\n\nBULLET::::- INS Number\n\nBULLET::::- CAS Registry Number\n\nBULLET::::- Function\n\nBULLET::::- Definition\n\nBULLET::::- Packaging\n\nBULLET::::- Storage\n\nBULLET::::- Labeling requirements\n\nBULLET::::- IR spectra\n", "Section::::Methodology.\n\nFoodpairing starts with a chemical analysis of a food. The aroma compounds are determined with the aid of gas chromatography, which in most cases is coupled with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). The odorants are also quantified with other techniques. \"Key odorants\" can be identified by comparing the concentrations of the odorants with their respective \"flavor threshold\". Key odorants are the compounds that a human will effectively smell. They are defined as every compound that is present in concentrations higher than their specific flavor threshold.\n", "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.\n", "In industry, the standard proximates are:\n\nBULLET::::- Ash\n\nBULLET::::- Moisture\n\nBULLET::::- Proteins\n\nBULLET::::- Fat\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrates (calculated)\n\nAnalytically, four of the five constituents are obtained via chemical reactions and experiments. The fifth constituent, carbohydrates, are calculated based on the determination of the four others. Proximates should nearly always account for 100% of a food product; any deviation from 100% displays the resolution of the chemical test, as small variations in the way each test is performed accumulate or overlap the compositional make-up.\n", "BULLET::::1. Extra virgin olive oil: virgin olive oil which has a free acidity (expressed in oleic acid equivalents), of not more than 0.8 grams per 100 grams, and the other characteristics of which correspond to those fixed for this category in the IOC standard.\n\nBULLET::::2. Virgin olive oil: virgin olive oil which has a free acidity of not more than 2 grams per 100 grams and the other characteristics of which correspond to those fixed for this category in the IOC standard\n", "Section::::Food composition dataset.\n\nFood composition datasets (FCDBs) or food composition tables are resources that provide detailed food composition data (FCD) on the nutritionally important components of foods. FCDBs provide values for energy and nutrients including protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins and minerals and for other important food components such as fibre.\n\nBefore computer technology, these resources existed in printed tables with the oldest tables dating back to the early 19th century.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Cautions.\n\nOne of the most prominent features of many markets is their overall stability — or \"marketing inertia\". Thus, in their essential characteristics they change very slowly, often over decades — sometimes centuries — rather than over months.\n", "BULLET::::- In this process the corporate actors are of equal importance as those others; corporate identity pertains to the company (the group of corporate actors) as well as to the relevant others;\n\nSection::::Organizational point of view.:Best practices.\n\nThe following four key brand requirements are critical for a successful corporate identity strategy.\n\nBULLET::::- Differentiation. In today's highly competitive market, brands need to have a clear differentiation or reason for being. What they represent needs to stand apart from others in order to be noticed, make an impression, and to ultimately be preferred.\n", "Section::::Underlying internal factors.\n\nPositioning is an important marketing concept. The main purpose of positioning is often to create the right perceptions in comparison to competitors. Thus, it creates competitive advantage. This positioning, or competitive advantage, is based on creating the right \"image\" or \"identity\" in the minds of the target group. This positioning decision exists of selecting the right core competencies to build upon and emphasize.\n\nTherefore, both corporate identity and core competencies are underlying internal factors of competitive advantage.\n\nSection::::Underlying internal factors.:Corporate identity.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Individual product brand\" – For example, Procter & Gamble’s Pampers or Unilever's Dove. The individual brands are presented to consumers, and the parent company name is given little or no prominence. Other stakeholders, like shareholders or partners, will know the producer by its company name.\n", "The second principle is branding. Large companies wanting to reach a new demographic may use a secret brand to establish clout among that demographic. This imprint brand may use the distribution network of the parent brand, but ship from a dummy company. Alternatively, the secret brand may employ individuals posing as independent agents to distribute goods to specialty stores. The theory behind these strategies is that it allows the parent company to expand its demographic without compromising the brand identity of its \"open\" brand.\n", "On the other hand recent studies have shown that we have to use retailers in order to provide a integrated journey for customer to decision, because at the evaluate stage of Consumer Decision Journey, consumers didn’t start with search engines; rather, they went directly to Amazon.com and other retail sites that, with their rich and expanding array of product-comparison information, consumer and expert ratings, and visuals, were becoming the most important influencers.\n", "Secret brand\n\nA secret brand is any design or manufacturing company that does not advertise or overtly label its products. The products are generally considered luxury goods intended for exclusive clientele.\n\nSection::::Marketing strategy.\n", "BULLET::::- Relevance. Brands need to connect to what people care about out in the world. To build demand, they need to understand and fulfil the needs and aspirations of their intended audiences.\n\nBULLET::::- Coherence. To assure credibility with their audiences, brands must be coherent in what they say and do. All the messages, all the marketing communications, all the brand experiences, and all of the product delivery need to hang together and add up to something meaningful.\n", "The continuously increasing importance attended to products with a brand signet on it led to the application of brands to otherwise anonymous products. Sharing of production between an anonymous producing company or manufacturer and selling through a brand owner without specific interest to produce the product by itself does not add any real value for the customer. The value of the product is seen raised with the branding by some added value in prestigiousness and possibly some assurance of qualities relevant to the user. Hence the product may be sold in the market with or without the branding, however the brand owner tries to increase sales in the identical quality just with the comparative competitive advantage of the branding.\n", "Industrial markets\n\nIn industrial markets, organizations regard the 'heavy users' as 'major accounts' to be handled by senior sales personnel and even managers; whereas the 'light users' may be handled by the general sales force or by a dealer.\n\nPortfolios of brands\n", "The evolving economy with increasingly competitive markets is creating a greater stress on developing brands that aim at being widely recognized by the public. When the public trust brands, loyalties are developed when consuming.\n\nSection::::Leading brands and the role of branding agencies.:Leading brands: Coca-Cola.\n", "The same can be said for advertisements. Generally, people are familiar with Nike, Puma and New Balance. A fairly new shoe company would have to work harder to gain customers. If a person/company is virtually unknown, they must create a sense of trust, believability in themselves and their product. People need to see evidence that the person/company can be trusted. The well-known person/company has to live up to the previous expectations and not disappoint those who have shown up to see them speak and possibly purchase product. The advertising and marketing industry calls this brand management.\n", "There are multitudes of external factors that may influence an organizations identity. For example, a city with oppressive civil rights laws is likely to affect the diversity of an organizations identity within its jurisdiction accordingly and vice versa. Factors such as competition also play a major role in the identity an organization may assume. This is observable in the way that companies often point out distinct characteristic in their products when compared to others that may be almost entirely the same. For example, a burger chain may point out its antibiotic free meat compared to its competitors.\n", "When a brand communicates a brand identity to a receiver, it runs the risk of the receiver incorrectly interpreting the message. Therefore, a brand should use appropriate communication channels to positively \"…affect how the psychological and physical aspects of a brand are perceived\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Endorsed brands,\" and \"sub-brands\" – For example, Nestle KitKat, Cadbury Dairy Milk, Sony PlayStation or Polo by Ralph Lauren. These brands include a parent brand – which may be a corporate brand, an umbrella brand, or a family brand – as an endorsement to a sub-brand or an individual, product brand. The endorsement should add credibility to the endorsed sub-brand in the eyes of consumers.\n", "Traditionally, the people responsible for positioning brands have concentrated on the differences that set each brand apart from the competition. But emphasizing differences isn't enough to sustain a brand against competitors. Managers should also consider the frame of reference within which the brand works and the features the brand shares with other products.\n\nThree questions about a brand can help:\n\nBULLET::::1. Have we established a frame? A frame of reference signals to consumers the goal they can expect to achieve by using a brand.\n", "In the second section, Klein discusses how brands use their size and clout to limit the number of choices available to the public – whether through market dominance (e.g., Wal-Mart) or through aggressive invasion of a region (e.g., Starbucks). Klein argues that each company's goal is to become the dominant force in its respective field. Meanwhile, other corporations, such as Sony or Disney, simply open their own chains of stores, preventing the competition from even putting their products on the shelves.\n", "Influencing the statistical probabilities facing a consumer choosing from a portfolio of preferred brands, which is required in this context, is a very different role for a brand manager; compared with the — much simpler — one traditionally described of recruiting and holding dedicated customers. The concept also emphasizes the need for managing continuity.\n\nSection::::Issues.\n", "Once consumers become fans they are typically very loyal, which can create positive word of mouth for a brand. Fans become a valuable asset boosting the status and reputation. Different perceptions of brands can be pinned down to a person’s origin or religion which creates a difficulty when trying to enter a market or gain market share (Chen, Su, Lin, 2011). Businesses need to be aware of the types of products or services they introduce to a specific market, by insuring they are culturally sensitive they may retain or even gain some fans.\n", "Andrew Ehrenberg, then of the London Business School said that consumers buy 'portfolios of brands'. They switch regularly between brands, often because they simply want a change. Thus, 'brand penetration' or 'brand share' reflects only a statistical chance that the majority of customers will buy that brand next time as part of a portfolio of brands they prefer. It does not guarantee that they will stay loyal.\n", "This section also discusses the way that corporations merge with one another in order to add to their ubiquity and provide greater control over their image. ABC News, for instance, is allegedly under pressure not to air any stories that are overly critical of Disney, its parent company. Other chains, such as Wal-Mart, often threaten to pull various products off their shelves, forcing manufacturers and publishers to comply with their demands. This might mean driving down manufacturing costs or changing the artwork or content of products like magazines or albums so they better fit with Wal-Mart's image of family friendliness.\n", "On the other end of the extreme, luxury and high-end premium brands may create advertisements or sponsor teams merely for the \"overall feeling\" or goodwill generated. A typical \"no-brand\" advertisement might simply put up the price (and indeed, brand managers may patrol retail outlets for using their name in discount/clearance sales), whereas on the other end of the extreme a perfume brand might be created that does not show the actual use of the perfume or Breitling may sponsor an aerobatics team purely for the \"image\" created by such sponsorship. Space travel and brand management for this reason also enjoys a special relationship.\n", "IMC and branding are both relevant marketing tools for increasing the brand loyalty of consumers. The decisions made around communications and branding should be based on solid and factual market research about the consumers. If the brand or the IMC do not seem to be relevant to the target market, consumers will not pay attention. An example of this is that high customization, creativity and a more direct voice is recommended for messages directed towards generation Y consumers as generation Y want to be treated differently from the rest of the market and marketers should acknowledge this.\n", "Procter & Gamble is a leading exponent of this approach to branding, running as many as ten detergent brands in the US market. This also increases the total number of \"facings\" it receives on supermarket shelves. Sara Lee, on the other hand, uses the approach to keep the very different parts of the business separate—from Sara Lee cakes through Kiwi polishes to L'Eggs pantyhose. In the hotel business, Marriott uses the name Fairfield Inns for its budget chain (and Choice Hotels uses Rodeway for its own cheaper hotels).\n", "The idea of a secret brand works off of one or more of three economic principles. The first is scarcity value. The secret brand creates products with highly specific, unique qualities, usually very subtle and invisible to the casual observer. These qualities do not necessarily improve the performance of the product and can be inefficiencies (e.g., using heavy-weight denim for casual clothes). The customer purchases the product for its rarity; to have something that is very difficult to acquire.\n" ]

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[ "Not all brands hide their ownership and location." ]

[ "Generally, a martial artist engaged in breaking will practice by repeatedly hitting hard surfaces. Masutatsu Oyama, a famous breaker who was known for breaking the horns off bulls, would use trees. In karate, a device called a makiwara is used; this device has found more popular use by practitioners of other martial arts today. In the past, Shaolin and other earlier martial artists would use many different types of devices in order to condition themselves, not always for simply breaking, but using the same concepts used today. For instance, there is Iron Palm, Iron Shin, Iron Shirt, Iron Head, and other types of training which center around conditioning various parts of the body so they could withstand or give blows such as what is seen today in martial arts breaking. Many Chinese systems also are of the school of thought that \"internal energy\" or Chi is used when breaking, which is not dependent upon muscle strength and body weight.\n", "Though fundamentally different, the 4th kind of break — the \"impulse break\" — is often confused with a speed break (i.e. the first one of the 2 types noted above), because the striking implement often moves at a high velocity, despite the success of the break not depending on such speed. But moving your hand or foot or other body part very quickly, is where the similarity ends. The energy transmission from an impulse break derives not from mass displacement, but from wave transmission (e.g. as an ocean wave hits a beach). The mass of the hand/foot/etc. typically does not travel through the medium, but only goes as far as necessary to deliver the wave—this results in an extremely brief contact with the face of the brick or board and it's the wave itself that causes the striking surface to flex and buckle. The less flexible the striking surface, the more likely it is to break. An advanced aspect of this type of break can be seen where several bricks are placed on supports without spacers, and the person performing the break chooses which brick will break, e.g. breaking ONLY the middle brick of 3 stacked bricks, although the top or bottom brick could just as easily be targeted. This feat was demonstrated in China in the early part of the last century, by well-known qi-gong masters, many who performed it with 5 or 7 bricks or slabs of concrete, and the really talented masters could break two bricks, even if unconnected to one another (e.g. breaking the third and sixth bricks in a stack of 7).\n", "Breaking, the discipline of destroying inanimate materials such as wooden boards, bats, ice or bricks is a feature common to several Asian martial arts. It can be seen in its oldest form within some branches of Chinese Kung Fu such as Iron Shirt Chi Gung, where iron bars are smashed off the bare heads of martial arts experts, typically Shaolin monks.\n", "USBA/WBA Founder Drew Serrano, producer of the documentary \"Breaking All Records\", encourages practitioners to gradually increase the difficulty and amount of a material to avoid injury. He suggests that beginners should start with wood boards and increase the amount as technical prowess increases. Once a level of comfort, both physically and mentally, is reached, harder materials such as concrete can be attempted.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nThe Chinese martial arts can utilize a wide variety of open and closed hand strikes. Hardening the hands is also considered by some to supplement speed and strength lost through aging. Iron palm practitioners often demonstrate their abilities by breaking hard objects such as bricks, coconuts, stones and boards with their bare hands or in some cases hitting a steel object rapidly without sustaining injury.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n\nIron Palm also called Tie Zhang in Chinese utilizes 5 different striking techniques, they are as follows.\n\nBULLET::::1. Slapping - utilizes the whole palm\n\nBULLET::::2. Throwing - utilizes the back of the hand\n", "The original arm blocks were taught with palm up, wrist bent, to form a trapping motion as well as to block and/or strike with the radius bone.\n\nBeginners in Isshin-ryu are taught to use their forearms to block in order to strengthen their forearms while working toward becoming a black belt. When one attains a black belt in Isshin-ryu they understand the purpose for the block is to use the knuckles on the inside of an attacker's arm where are the soft tissue is emphasizing a hard strike to soft tissue. Therefore, there really are no blocks in Isshin-ryu.\n", "The third method, \"soft breaks\", also known as \"ki\" breaks almost always involve the use of \"flat hand\" strikes; primarily the palm, as it's easier to accomplish a successful break with forward momentum, but sometimes the back of the hand (in a semi outstretched configuration) it utilized to exhibit the person's prowess, as this alternate method usually entails certain conditioning of the hand to endure the stress of impact (see note on Wolff's Law above) as well as using a less natural arm position when delivering the blow. The material is usually supported, horizontally, on two ends. The breaker raises their hand and lets it fall with no tension or significant flexing of the muscles, instead relying mostly on gravity, in order to palm strike the material. The material is broken by a complete energy transfer all the way through, in a direct line from the palm to the other side of the material. The impact also passes through a wider, more dispersed area and from a martial art perspective therefore causes more damage than other strikes, if delivered to a human adversary. This break is akin to striking a person with a slap, although more energy is transferred into the target than what is typically conveyed by a mere slap. Thus, such a palm strike can cause significant internal damage while leaving few signs of the damage externally (possibly a red mark but not much else), whereas a punch or similar strike, would tend to cause recognizably more external damage, such as bruising, swelling, etc., regardless of how much internal disruption was inflicted. Any person of any age, such as elderly people up to 80 and 90 years of age, can do this break with little injury to themselves. The most serious repercussions may be a palm that tingles afterward, should the break be unsuccessful. This method of break, even if utilizing more than one piece of material and additionally done with no spacers, is easily attainable by people of any age or gender, provided they have sufficiently practiced the technique. There are 2 reference videos at the bottom of the page: one shows Rudy Timmerman Sajanim, of the National Korean Martial Arts Association and the 9th degree Kong Shin Bup grandmaster, doing a multiple brick soft break, and another shows him teaching this unique soft breaking technique at a seminar.\n", "Johnson became friends with Bruce Lee, and the two did demonstrations of strength and speed together. “Bruce [Lee] was the only man who could ever ‘handle’ me - of course, he never knew Dr. Cheng.” Lee was quoted in Johnson’s book as saying, “All things are possible with the great Masters.”\n", "Martial Artists and breaking champions Craig and Paul Pumphrey demolish everything from boats and cars to houses using only their bare hands. For each challenge, they join forces with a team of experts in material science and engineering to review the object of their destruction from every possible angle before taking it apart, using physics and know-how to determine the most effective approach. The duo also enjoys a little friendly competition throughout the challenges. Each \"Human Wrecking Balls\" episode revealed the final outcome of the Pumphrey’s ripping and smashing, as well as the various experiments they put to the test.\n", "BULLET::::- Thunder Break - Uses enemies Ki to create lightning, it disrupts an enemies Ki flow, the effectiveness of the technique depends on many separate factors, the user's skill level in the art and current condition when using Thunder Break, and the opponent's toughness and body density, with these factors the effect of the disruption can be very damaging or very weak.\n", "In ITF Taekwondo sparring competitions, using maximum force is not allowed due to the focus being on correct technique over technique effect. Breaking boards or bricks is therefore used as a way to test the power of the competitor. Taekwondo competition breaking may be roughly divided into two main categories:\n\nPower breaking. The power of a technique is measured by breaking single or multiple stacked boards. Stacked boards are commonly placed on raised supports on the ground.\n", "Speed breaking. A single board is held lightly between the fingertips of an assistant, at advanced levels the board is tossed into the air. Regardless of the power of a technique, if the board is not hit with the requisite speed in the correct places it will not break.\n", "Breaking can often be seen in karate, taekwondo and pencak silat. Spetsnaz are also known for board and brick breaking, but not all styles of martial arts place equal emphasis on it or use it. In styles where striking and kicking are less important and there is an emphasis on grappling or weaponry, breaking is less prominent. Traditional Japanese martial art schools place little, if any, emphasis on board-breaking, although the art of breaking objects was known as \"tameshiwari\", while the similar practice of Tameshigiri or 'test cutting' is used in sword arts.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Holds and joint locks are used primarily for control of an aggressor. They are primarily defensive, but at more advanced levels can be interpreted as attacks. At the 4th dan black belt there is also taught 30 special attack techniques using variations and combinations of basic locks.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Throws, Re-Direction and Blocks.\n", "Taped boards are sometimes used to lessen the amount of human influence from the holders for a break. It is very difficult to hold a stack of boards more than 4 inches steadily enough for challenging break. Therefore, some strikers will tape a stack of boards together to make a \"brick\" for their holders to hold. Usually however, test breaks at promotions and events are done without taped boards.\n", "The general principles used in martial arts breaking training is similar to the same principles used for most athletics. The body adapts to stress. There are generally three areas a martial arts breaker wishes to force their body to adapt to: the bones, the skin (calluses), and muscles (for both mass and speed). The general principle here — for instance, for the bones — is found in Wolff's law, which states that the skeletal system will, after healing, be stronger if injury is put to it. Craig Edmunds demonstrates this theory after breaking hand in seminar measuring bone density then measuring bone density after healing. In this manner the breaking practitioner operates not unlike a bodybuilder who works out with weights, then takes a period of rest to heal and allow the muscles to come back stronger.\n", "BULLET::::- Palm Block - Sonbadak Naeryo Makgi is a standard block used to deflect incoming kicks and punches. The open hand is raised up to shoulder height and thrust directly down to meet the attackers limb. The heel of the hand makes contact with the attacker’s forearm in case of a punch, or shin in case of a kick. Although simple, it requires a lot of partner training to get the timing of this Taekwondo block correct.\n", "Both the speed and power breaks deliver the energy required to overcome the tensor and flexion forces of the board through \"mass displacement\", where the kinetic energy is given by 1/2 m*v. That is, either the speed of the striking implement (hand/foot/etc.) has to be high enough, or the striker must be strong enough to increase effective mass brought into the break (i.e. his or her body weight) to exceed the brick/board's threshold. For single boards, it is generally easy (as in the casual person has a sufficient reserve of mass) to reach this threshold through a power break.\n", "This kind of training is called \"progressive resistance training\"; see Weight training for more information. Often differences in body structure can be seen in the form of calcium deposits between a breaking practitioner and a non-practitioner. Mike Reeves, a champion breaker, advocates in his book the usage of a makiwara and knuckle push-ups. With knuckle push-ups, he recommends starting on softer floor material and working your way up to concrete.\n", "Section::::Blocks.\n\nTaekwondo blocks known as Makgi are used to stop and deflect an incoming attack. They engage various parts of the arm with the hand and are held in different positions such as knife-hand, closed fist etc. Each block is suitable for a particular kind of attack and may be combined with another punch or kick to make a counter-attack.\n", "In the Quentin Tarantino directed \"\", the protagonist (Uma Thurman) learns a variation of the technique as part of her training to exact revenge on her would-be killers. She learns to punch through thick planks of wood, from a distance equal to the length of her fingers. She eventually uses the technique to break out of a wooden coffin, after being buried alive.\n\nIn the 2015 movie Ip Man 3, Donnie Yen uses the one inch punch against his final opponent, Master Zhang. Ip Man will later impart this skill to Bruce Lee.\n", "In Isshin-Ryu it is believed that the vertical punch is faster than the cork-screw punch: three vertical hand punches can be generated in the time of two cork-screw punches.\n\nIsshin-Ryu arm blocks are performed today with the muscle at the intended contact point as opposed to other styles that block with the bone. By using the two bones and the muscle to form a block, less stress is created against the defender's arm, increasing the ability to absorb a strike.\n", "BULLET::::- The Iron Shirt defensive body technique was demonstrated by a Shaolin warrior monk, who was hit with a wooden staff across the back while he was pushing down on a blunt spear by the base of his throat at over 2100 pounds of force that would have killed an ordinary man, and yet was unscathed and unbruised.\n\nSection::::Weapon tests.\n\n\"All weapons were rated on range, control and impact.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eskrima sticks and the bō were revealed to show extension of range and good control, but would break if sufficient impact was delivered.\n", "Section::::Principles.:Economy of motion.:Simultaneous parrying and punching.\n", "The principle of underlies all classical Bujutsu methods and was adopted by the developers of the Budō disciplines. Acting according to the principle of Jū, the classical warrior could intercept and momentarily control his enemy's blade when attacked, then, in a flash, could counter-attack with a force powerful enough to cleave armor and kill the foe. The same principle of Jū permitted an unarmed exponent to unbalance and hurl his foe to the ground.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Physical principle.\n", "The concept of Odic force was criticized by the scientific community as there was no reliable or replicable data for its existence. In the 19th century it was described as quackery by critics and is regarded today as an example of pseudoscience.\n\nScience writer Martin Gardner in his book \"Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science\" (1957) noted that \"scientists were unable to duplicate the baron's experiments.\"\n\nRobert Todd Carroll in \"The Skeptic's Dictionary\" has written:\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nRisk factors for osteoporotic fracture can be split between nonmodifiable and (potentially) modifiable. In addition, osteoporosis is a recognized complication of specific diseases and disorders. Medication use is theoretically modifiable, although in many cases, the use of medication that increases osteoporosis risk may be unavoidable.\n\nCaffeine is not a risk factor for osteoporosis.\n\nIt is more common in females than males.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Nonmodifiable.\n", "BULLET::::- Type IIA SUGRA: N = (1, 1)\n\nBULLET::::- IIA SUGRA from 11d SUGRA\n\nBULLET::::- Type IIB SUGRA: N = (2, 0)\n\nBULLET::::- Type I gauged SUGRA: N = (1, 0)\n\nBULLET::::- 9d SUGRA theories\n\nBULLET::::- Maximal 9d SUGRA from 10d\n\nBULLET::::- T-duality\n\nBULLET::::- N = 1 Gauged SUGRA\n", "Additionally, it was found that individuals with a higher pro-inflammatory ratio TNFα/IL-10 had a significantly higher incidence of death due to cardiovascular disease in old age. Yet, it was hypothesized that this genotype was prevalent because higher ratios of TNFα/IL-10 allow individuals to more effectively combat infection during reproductive years.\n\nSickle cell anemia, Beta-thalassemia, and cystic fibrosis are some other examples of the role antagonistic pleiotropy may play in genetic disorders.\n\nSection::::Ubiquity.\n", "Section::::Generalizations.:Kerr/CFT correspondence.\n\nAlthough the AdS/CFT correspondence is often useful for studying the properties of black holes, most of the black holes considered in the context of AdS/CFT are physically unrealistic. Indeed, as explained above, most versions of the AdS/CFT correspondence involve higher-dimensional models of spacetime with unphysical supersymmetry.\n", "In 2013 CERN looked for an antigravity effect in an experiment designed to study the energy levels within antihydrogen. The antigravity measurement was just an \"interesting sideshow\" and was inconclusive.\n\nSection::::Hypothetical solutions.:General-relativistic \"warp drives\".\n", "BULLET::::- The vertical distance between each vertical set of pivot points must be exactly the same\n\nBULLET::::- In order to be balanced front-to-back the balance must either have two sets of two arms located around a central fulcrum or must have two fulcra supporting a single set of arms\n\nBULLET::::- The weight of the arms on each side of the fulcrum must be equal (unless see above)\n\nBULLET::::- The arms must be rigid and inflexible\n\nBULLET::::- Gravitational force or rotational G force must be acting uniformly on the balance\n", "The human body is better at surviving g-forces that are perpendicular to the spine. In general when the acceleration is forwards (subject essentially lying on their back, colloquially known as \"eyeballs in\") a much higher tolerance is shown than when the acceleration is backwards (lying on their front, \"eyeballs out\") since blood vessels in the retina appear more sensitive in the latter direction.\n", "In Newton's law of universal gravitation, gravity was an external force transmitted by unknown means. In the 20th century, Newton's model was replaced by general relativity where gravity is not a force but the result of the geometry of spacetime. Under general relativity, anti-gravity is impossible except under contrived circumstances.\n\nSection::::Hypothetical solutions.:Gravity shields.\n", "The notion that a causally effective incorporeal body is even coherent requires the belief that something can affect what's material, without physically existing at the point of effect. A ball can directly affect another ball by coming in direct contact with it, and is visible because it reflects the light that directly reaches it. An incorporeal field of influence, or immaterial body could not perform these functions because they have no physical construction with which to perform these functions. Following Newton, it became customary to accept action at a distance as brute fact, and to overlook the philosophical problems involved in so doing.\n", "In Arthur C. Clarke's short story \"Technical Error\" (also titled \"The Reversed Man\"), a technician working on a giant superconducting generator is accidentally \"inverted\" into his mirror image, right down to the coins in his pocket. When he is found to be starving despite an apparently-healthy diet, the culprit is determined to be the amino acids in his food, which are natural amino acids and opposite in chirality to those his body now requires.\n\nIsaac Asimov's short story \"Left to Right\" concerns an unknown \"change in parity\", and mentions biological incompatibilities due to chirality as one possible consequence.\n", "Section::::Evolution of FMO gene family.\n", "Von Reichenbach did not tie Odic force into other vitalist theories. Baron von Reichenbach expounded the concept of Odic force in detail in a book-length article, \"Researches on Magnetism\", \"Electricity\", \"Heat and Light in their Relations to Vital Forces\", which appeared in a special issue of a respected scientific journal, \"Annalen der Chemie und Physik\". He said that (1) the Odic force had a positive and negative flux, and a light and dark side; (2) individuals could forcefully \"emanate\" it, particularly from the hands, mouth, and forehead; and (3) the Odic force had many possible applications.\n", "BULLET::::- Rat Catcher (2002)\n", "The mechanical principle of attraction is used to explain the tendency of bodies to move toward each other. But attraction is merely a general name that describes an effect. It does not signify the cause of the observed motion. All efficient causes are produced by the will of a mind or spirit (mind or spirit being that which thinks, wills, and perceives). Gravitation (mutual attraction) is said to be universal. We, however, don't know if gravitation is necessary or essential everywhere in the universe. Gravitation depends only on the will of the mind or spirit that governs the universe.\n", "Odic force\n\nThe Odic force (also called Od [õd], Odyle, Önd, Odes, Odylic, Odyllic, or Odems) is the name given in the mid-19th century to a hypothetical vital energy or life force by Baron Carl von Reichenbach. Von Reichenbach coined the name from that of the Norse god Odin in 1845. The study of Odic force is called \"odology\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Sensitivity lost by increases in either arm weight or pan/column weight can be counteracted only through decreased static friction in the pivot points\n", "Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a potential while nonconservative forces are not.\n\nSection::::Potential energy.:Conservative forces.\n", "Although some may argue that braces have a negative impact on sport performance, the effectiveness of their mechanical stability make them of high priority and necessity. Due to the high incidence of ankle injury, the control of stability and body sway remain of most importance in reduction of injury and better quality of life.\n\nThe term \"kinetics\" is also used to refer to chemical kinetics, particularly in chemical physics and physical chemistry.\n\nIn such uses, a qualifier is often used or implied, for example: \"physical kinetics\", \"crystal growth kinetics\", and so on.\n", "As a result, it may be not just a coincidence that in general relativity the gravitational field alone has no well-defined stress–energy tensor, only the pseudotensor one.\n\nTherefore, the property (2) cannot be completely justified in a theory with exact Lorentz symmetry which the general relativity is.\n", "One possible solution to the cosmological gravitino problem is the split supersymmetry model, where the gravitino mass is much higher than the TeV scale, but other fermionic supersymmetric partners of standard model particles already appear at this scale.\n", "In gravity theories with extended supersymmetry (extended supergravities), a graviphoton is normally a superpartner of the graviton that behaves like a photon, and is prone to couple with gravitational strength, as was appreciated in the late 1970s. Unlike the graviton, however, it may provide a \"repulsive\" (as well as an attractive) force, and thus, in some technical sense, a type of anti-gravity. Under special circumstances, then, in several natural models, often descending from five-dimensional theories mentioned, it may actually cancel the gravitational attraction in the static limit. Joël Scherk investigated semirealistic aspects of this phenomenon, thereby opening up an ongoing search for physical manifestations of the mechanism.\n", "There has been some development of ligands to prevent biomolecule damage and facilitate removal in \"in vitro\" applications. However, it has been found that different ligand environments of complexes can still affect metabolism and uptake, introducing an unwelcome perturbation in cellular function.\n\nSection::::Copper-Free click chemistry.:Bioorthogonality.\n", "The Great Defender (Dwight Howard) is from another planet, like Skylar. His suit is indestructible and his powers consist of ice ball projection, superhuman strength, and spinning things at high speed on his fingertips like a basketball. Despite being six feet and 11 inches, he is the shortest person on his planet. He appeared in \"Pranks for Nothing\", where Kaz played a prank on him by super-gluing a coin to his hand. He later tricked Kaz and Oliver into thinking he spun the Earth on his finger and pretended that his powers weren't working. He then had Solar Flare heat up the hospital to make them think the Earth was hurling towards the sun and had Horace make them think they had to sacrifice themselves to save the Earth.\n" ]

[ "Opposite force means there should be anti-gravitation." ]

[ "Opposite force just means that when earth has a force of gravity on you, you also have a force on the earth. Your force doesn't move the earth because the mass of the earth is so large." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Opposite force means there should be anti-gravitation." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Opposite force just means that when earth has a force of gravity on you, you also have a force on the earth. Your force doesn't move the earth because the mass of the earth is so large." ]

[ "There are two theories why the paternal mtDNA is not transmitted to the offspring. One is simply the fact that paternal mtDNA is at such a lower concentration than the maternal mtDNA and thus it is not detectable in the offspring. A second, more complex theory, involves the digestion of the paternal mtDNA to prevent its inheritance. It is theorized that the uniparental inheritance of mtDNA, which has a high mutation rate, might be a mechanism to maintain the homoplasmy of cytoplasmic DNA.\n\nSection::::Medicine and disease.\n", "It is now understood that the tail of the sperm, which contains additional mtDNA, may also enter the egg. This had led to increased controversy about the fate of paternal mtDNA.\n", "An IVF technique known as mitochondrial donation or mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) results in offspring containing mtDNA from a donor female, and nuclear DNA from the mother and father. In the spindle transfer procedure, the nucleus of an egg is inserted into the cytoplasm of an egg from a donor female which has had its nucleus removed, but still contains the donor female's mtDNA. The composite egg is then fertilized with the male's sperm. The procedure is used when a woman with genetically defective mitochondria wishes to procreate and produce offspring with healthy mitochondria. The first known child to be born as a result of mitochondrial donation was a boy born to a Jordanian couple in Mexico on 6 April 2016.\n", "In human mitochondrial genetics, there is debate over whether or not paternal mtDNA transmission is possible. Many studies hold that paternal mtDNA is never transmitted to offspring. This thought is central to mtDNA genealogical DNA testing and to the theory of mitochondrial Eve. The fact that mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited enables researchers to trace maternal lineage far back in time. Y chromosomal DNA, paternally inherited, is used in an analogous way to trace the agnate lineage.\n", "Prior to the development of MRT, and in places where it is not legal or feasible, the reproductive options for women who are at risk for transmitting mtDNA disease and who want to prevent transmission were using an egg from another woman, adoption, or childlessness.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Tissue function.\n\nAutologous mitochondria extracted from healthy tissue and supplied to damaged tissue has been used to treat cardiac-compromised newborns. Alternatives to the approach include use of an extracorporeal membrane oxygenator (ECMO) or tissue/organ transplantation.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n", "Spindle transfer, where the nuclear DNA is transferred to another healthy egg cell leaving the defective mitochondrial DNA behind, is a potential treatment procedure that has been successfully carried out on monkeys. Using a similar pronuclear transfer technique, researchers at Newcastle University led by Douglass Turnbull successfully transplanted healthy DNA in human eggs from women with mitochondrial disease into the eggs of women donors who were unaffected. In such cases, ethical questions have been raised regarding biological motherhood, since the child receives genes and gene regulatory molecules from two different women. Using genetic engineering in attempts to produce babies free of mitochondrial disease is controversial in some circles and raises important ethical issues. A male baby was born in Mexico in 2016 from a mother with Leigh syndrome using spindle transfer.\n", "As mentioned, the main advantage of using mtDNA is its high copy number. However, there are a few disadvantages of using mtDNA as opposed to nuclear DNA. Since mtDNA is inherited maternally and passed to each offspring, all members of the maternal familial line will share a haplotype. A haplotype \"is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent\". The sharing of this haplotype among family members can cause an issue in forensic samples because these samples are often mixtures that contain more than one DNA contributor. Deconvolution and interpretation of mtDNA mixtures is more difficult than that of nuclear DNA and some laboratories choose not to attempt the process Since mtDNA does not recombine, the genetic markers are not as diverse as autosomal STRs are in the case of nuclear DNA. Another issue is that of heteroplasmy. Heteroplasmy is when an individual has more than one type of mtDNA in their cells. This can cause an issue in the interpretation of data from questioned forensic samples and known samples that contain mtDNA. Having adequate knowledge and understanding of heteroplasmy can help ensure successful interpretation.\n", "Relevant mutations are found in about 0.5% of the population and disease affects around one in 5000 individuals (0.02%)—the percentage of people affected is much smaller because cells contain many mitochondria, only some of which carry mutations, and the number of mutated mitochondria need to reach a threshold in order to affect the entire cell, and many cells need to be affected for the person to show disease.\n\nThe average number of births per year among women at risk for transmitting mtDNA disease is estimated to approximately 150 in the United Kingdom and 800 in the United States.\n", "In sexual reproduction, paternal mitochondria found in the sperm are actively decomposed, thus preventing \"paternal leakage\". Mitochondria in mammalian sperm are usually destroyed by the egg cell after fertilization. In 1999 it was reported that paternal sperm mitochondria (containing mtDNA) are marked with ubiquitin to select them for later destruction inside the embryo. Some in vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques, particularly intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) of a sperm into an oocyte, may interfere with this.\n", "The mixing of maternal and paternal mtDNA was thought to have been found in chimpanzees in 1999 and in humans in 1999 and 2018, resulting this last finding quite impressive, as biparental mtDNA was observed in subsequent generations in three different familias, leading to the conclusion that, although the maternal transmission dogma remains strong, there is evidence that paternal transmission do exist and there is a probably a mechanism which, if elucidated, can be a new tool in reproductive field, for example, avoiding the mitochondrial replacement therapy, and just using this mechanism so that the offspring inherit the paternal mitochondria. However, there has been only a single documented case of 90% human paternal mitochondrial DNA transmission. \n", "In most multicellular organisms, mtDNA is inherited from the mother (maternally inherited). Mechanisms for this include simple dilution (an egg contains on average 200,000 mtDNA molecules, whereas a healthy human sperm has been reported to contain on average 5 molecules), degradation of sperm mtDNA in the male genital tract and in the fertilized egg; and, at least in a few organisms, failure of sperm mtDNA to enter the egg. Whatever the mechanism, this single parent (uniparental inheritance) pattern of mtDNA inheritance is found in most animals, most plants and also in fungi.\n", "A related approach uses autologous mitochondria taken from healthy tissue to replace the mitochondria in damaged tissue. Transfer techniques include direct injection into damaged tissue and injection into vessels that supply blood to the tissue.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n\nIn vivo fertilisation via MRT involves preimplantation genetic screening of the mother, preimplantation genetic diagnosis after the egg is fertilized, and in vitro fertilization. It has all the risks of those procedures.\n", "Paternal mtDNA transmission\n\nIn genetics, paternal mtDNA transmission and paternal mtDNA inheritance refer to the incidence of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) being passed from a father to his offspring. Paternal mtDNA inheritance is observed in a small proportion of species; in general, mtDNA is passed unchanged from a mother to her offspring, making it an example of non-Mendelian inheritance. In contrast, mtDNA transmission from both parents occurs regularly in certain bivalves.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "The controversy about human paternal leakage was summed up in the 1996 study \"Misconceptions about mitochondria and mammalian fertilization: Implications for theories on human evolution.\" The following quotation comes from the abstract to that peer-reviewed study printed in the \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\":\n", "In polar body transfer, a polar body (a small cell with very little cytoplasm that is created when an egg cell divides) from the recipient is used in its entirety, instead of using nuclear material extracted from the recipient's normal egg; this can be used in either MST or PNT. This technique was first published in 2014 and as of 2015 it had not been consistently replicated, but is considered promising as there is a greatly reduced chance for transmitting mitochondria from the recipient because polar bodies contain very few mitochondria, and it does not involve extracting material from the recipient's egg.\n", "In exceptional cases, human babies sometimes inherit mtDNA from both their fathers and their mothers resulting in mtDNA heteroplasmy.\n\nSection::::Mitochondrial inheritance.:Female inheritance.\n", "In plants, it has also been reported that mitochondria can occasionally be inherited from the father, e.g. in bananas. Some Conifers also show paternal inheritance of mitochondria, such as the coast redwood, \"Sequoia sempervirens\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Y-chromosomal Adam\n\nBULLET::::- Patrilineality\n\nBULLET::::- Matrilineality\n\nBULLET::::- Human mitochondrial genetics\n\nBULLET::::- Human migration\n\nBULLET::::- RecLOH\n\nBULLET::::- List of genetic genealogy topics\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- (as PDF)\n\nBULLET::::- Paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA (PDF) by Marianne Schwartz and John Vissing, 2002\n\nBULLET::::- PubMed:\n\nBULLET::::- search results for \"paternal leakage\"\n\nBULLET::::- search results for \"paternal mtDNA\"\n\nBULLET::::- search results for \"father's mtDNA\"\n", "In SCNT, not all of the donor cell's genetic information is transferred, as the donor cell's mitochondria that contain their own mitochondrial DNA are left behind. The resulting hybrid cells retain those mitochondrial structures which originally belonged to the egg. As a consequence, clones such as Dolly that are born from SCNT are not perfect copies of the donor of the nucleus. This fact may also hamper the potential benefits of SCNT-derived tissues and organs for therapy, as there may be an immunoresponse to the non-self mtDNA after transplant.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "Paternal mtDNA inheritance in animals varies. For example, in Mytilidae mussels, paternal mtDNA \"is transmitted through the sperm and establishes itself only in the male gonad.\" In testing 172 sheep, \"The Mitochondrial DNA from three lambs in two half-sib families were found to show paternal inheritance.\" An instance of paternal leakage resulted in a study on chickens. There has been evidences that paternal leakage is an integral part of the inheritance of \"Drosophila simulans\".\n\nSection::::In humans.\n", "Human males incubating fetuses are a subject of popular imagination and a recurring theme in speculative fiction. In some very rare genetic conditions, genotypical males develop as female and possess the anatomy required for gestation; these intersex women have carried fetuses to term and given birth. In the absence of uterus transplantation, cases of viable ectopic pregnancies in females provide a potential model for successful pregnancy in males, but any attempt at such would be extremely dangerous for both the father and the fetus. \n\nSection::::Non-human animals.\n", "In addition, both procedures used in MRT entail their own risks. On one level, the procedures physically disrupt two oocytes, removing nuclear genetic material from the recipient egg or fertilized egg, and inserting the nuclear genetic material into the donor unfertilized or fertilized egg; the manipulations for both procedures may cause various forms of damage that were not well understood as of 2016.\n", "There is also the potential for treating diseases associated with mutations in mitochondrial DNA. Recent studies show SCNT of the nucleus of a body cell afflicted with one of these diseases into a healthy oocyte prevents the inheritance of the mitochondrial disease. This treatment does not involve cloning but would produce a child with three genetic parents. A father providing a sperm cell, one mother providing the egg nucleus, and another mother providing the enucleated egg cell.\n", "Disease and Disorders: NUMT insertion into the genome can be problematic. Transposition of NUMTs into genome has also been associated with human diseases. De novo integration of NUMT pseudogenes into the nuclear genome has an adverse effect in some cases, promoting various disorders and aging. MtDNA integration into coding genes in the germline cells has dramatic consequences for embryo development and, in many cases, is lethal. Few NUMT pseudogenes associated with diseases are found within exons or at the exon–intron boundaries of human genes. For example, the patients with mucolipidosis syndrome inherit a mutation caused by insertion of a 93bp fragment of mitochondrial ND5 into exon 2 of the R403C mucolipin gene. This is the first case of a heritable disorder due to the NUMT insert. Despite the small treatment group, Stem Cell transplant found to be effective and lysosomal enzyme levels seemed to normalize after transplant in at least one case. The Pallister–Hall syndrome, a developmental disorder, in another example, where a functional disorder of a key developmental gene results from a \"de novo\" insertion of a 72bp mtDNA fragment into \"GLI3\" exon 14 in chromosome 7, which results in central and postaxial polydactyly, bifid epiglottis, imperforate anus, renal abnormalities including cystic malformations, renal hypoplasia, ectopic ureteral implantation, and pulmonary segmentation anomalies such as bilateral bilobed lungs. A splice site mutation in the human gene for plasma factor VII that causes severe plasma factor VII deficiency, bleeding disease, results from a 251-bp NUMT insertion. As the last known example, a 36-bp insertion in exon 9 of the USH1C gene associated with Usher syndrome type IC is the NUMT. No certain curse has yet found for Usher syndrome, however, a current clinical study on 18 volunteers is taking place to determine the influence of UshStat both in a short and a long-term period. This study has been started in September 2013 and is estimated to be done by October 2023.\n", "BULLET::::- Interaction between mtDNA and nuclear genome – A good example is cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). CMS occurs in many plants. mtDNA mutations are responsible for this phenomenon. However, nuclear restorer genes (Rf or Fr) could infer male fertility. Therefore, interaction between mtDNA and nuclear genes could be one of mechanisms that counteract deleterious effects of male-specific mtDNA mutations\n\nBULLET::::- Positive assortative mating and kin selection could also relieve fitness cost of male-specific deleterious mtDNA mutations, while negative assortative mating has an opposite function. So, we should be careful when outbreeding endangered species.\n\nSection::::Significance for evolution.\n", "In pronuclear transfer, an oocyte is removed from the recipient, and fertilized with sperm. The donor oocyte is fertilized with sperm from the same person. The male and female pronuclei are removed from each fertilized egg prior to their fusing, and the pronuclei from the recipient's fertilized egg are inserted into the fertilized egg from the donor. As with MST, a small amount of cytoplasm from the donor egg may be transferred, and as with MST, the fertilized egg is allowed to form a blastocyst, which can then be investigated with preimplantation genetic diagnosis to check for mitochondrial mutations, prior to being implanted in the recipient's uterus.\n" ]

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[ "The main risk for diabetes patients is controlling glucose levels. There has been lots of research done on the positive effects of physical activity on lowering glucose levels. Physical exercise can include walking or swimming and does not have to be cardio intensive. If patients are able to perform 30 minutes of exercise most days of the week, they can significantly lower their chances of having type II diabetes. Resistance exercise has been shown to improve insulin and glucose levels greatly by helping to manage blood pressure levels, cardiovascular risk, glucose tolerance, and lipids. \n\nSection::::Exercise and diabetes studies.\n", "One danger for diabetes patients is cardiovascular disease, including lipids and blood glucose levels. Poor aerobic exercise has also been linked to cardiovascular diseases, and by improving the level of aerobic activity, and therefore decreasing plasma insulin levels, the danger of cardiovascular disease significantly decreases. \n", "Diabetes and exercise\n\nThis article describes the influence of exercise on the persons who suffer from diabetes. \n\nSection::::Diabetes mellitus.\n\nDiabetes mellitus, also known as type II diabetes, is a disease that affects over three million people in the U.S. per year. This disease affects the glucose levels in the body by causing them to rise higher than normal. In type II diabetic patients, the body develops an insulin resistance that initiates an increase in blood glucose levels.\n\nSection::::Exercise and diabetes.\n", "The New England Journal of Health performed a study on the effect of physical activity on men with diabetes mellitus. The study was one in which questionnaires were given to 5,990 males who had attended the University of Pennsylvania. These men were chosen based on their lifestyles and their risk for getting diabetes. The men ranged from ages 39 to 68 and their body mass indexes ranged from 14.1 to 46.0. To measure physical activity, their kilocalories per week were measured. The energy expenditure in kilocalories was measured, and the results showed that the more physical activity done, the lower the chance of diabetes. About 50 percent of the men who increased their kilocalorie rate by increasing their physical activity were able to avoid getting the disease. \n", "A proper diet and exercise are the foundations of diabetic care, with a greater amount of exercise yielding better results. Exercise improves blood sugar control, decreases body fat content and decreases blood lipid levels, and these effects are evident even without weight loss. Aerobic exercise leads to a decrease in HbA and improved insulin sensitivity. Resistance training is also useful and the combination of both types of exercise may be most effective.\n", "Exercise is a particularly potent tool for glucose control in those who have diabetes mellitus. In a situation of elevated blood glucose (hyperglycemia), moderate exercise can induce greater glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations. As stated above, the mechanism for this glucose disposal is independent of insulin, which makes it particularly well-suited for people with diabetes. In addition, there appears to be an increase in sensitivity to insulin for approximately 12–24 hours post-exercise. This is particularly useful for those who have type II diabetes and are producing sufficient insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to insulin signaling. However, during extreme hyperglycemic episodes, people with diabetes should avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with ketoacidosis. Exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA's.\n", "Onset of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or prevented through proper nutrition and regular exercise. Intensive lifestyle measures may reduce the risk by over half. The benefit of exercise occurs regardless of the person's initial weight or subsequent weight loss. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of diabetes by about 28%. Evidence for the benefit of dietary changes alone, however, is limited, with some evidence for a diet high in green leafy vegetables and some for limiting the intake of sugary drinks. There is an association between higher intake of sugar-sweetened fruit juice and diabetes, but no evidence of an association with 100% fruit juice. A 2019 review found evidence of benefit from dietary fiber.\n", "There is evidence that prediabetes is a curable disease state. Intensive weight loss and lifestyle intervention, if sustained, may improve glucose tolerance substantially and prevent progression from IGT to type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) study found a 16% reduction in diabetes risk for every kilogram of weight loss. Reducing weight by 7% through a low-fat diet and performing 150 minutes of exercise a week is the goal. In observational studies, individuals following vegetarian diets are about half as likely to develop diabetes, compared with non-vegetarians. The ADA guidelines recommend modest weight loss (5–10% body weight), moderate-intensity exercise (30 minutes daily), and smoking cessation.\n", "The risk of ischemic heart disease and diabetes mellitus is reduced by almost a third in adults who participate in 150 minutes of moderate physical activity each week (or equivalent). In addition, physical activity assists weight loss and improves blood glucose control, blood pressure, lipid profile and insulin sensitivity. These effects may, at least in part, explain its cardiovascular benefits.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Diet.\n", "Many interventions to promote healthy lifestyles have been shown to prevent diabetes. A combination of diet and physical activity promotion through counselling and support programs decrease weight, improve systolic blood pressure, improve cholesterol levels and decrease risk of diabetes.\n", "Type II diabetes is also intricately linked to obesity, and there may be a connection between type II diabetes and how fat is stored within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. Likely due to this connection, weight loss from both exercise and diet tends to increase insulin sensitivity in the majority of people. In some people, this effect can be particularly potent and can result in normal glucose control. Although nobody is technically cured of diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications; however, regain of weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Metabolic changes.:Oxygen.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nSupervised exercise programs have been shown in small studies to improve exercise capacity by several measures.\n\nOral sucrose treatment (for example a sports drink with 75 grams of sucrose in 660 ml.) taken 30 minutes prior to exercise has been shown to help improve exercise tolerance including a lower heart rate and lower perceived level of exertion compared with placebo.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- March 24 – According to a landmark study in \"The New England Journal of Medicine\", an orally administered Takeda Pharmaceutical called pioglitazone, marketed as \"Actos\", shows 72 percent effectiveness at the prevention of the development of type 2 diabetes in pre-diabetic subject participants. Ralph DeFronzo, M.D., study leader and professor in the School of Medicine and chief of the diabetes division at The University of Texas Health Science Center in San Antonio, stated that \"It's a blockbuster study. The 72 reduction is the largest decrease in the conversion rate of pre-diabetes to diabetes that has ever been demonstrated by any intervention, be it diet, exercise or medication.\n", "BULLET::::- Known vascular disease\n\nBULLET::::- Markers of insulin resistance (PCOS, acanthosis nigricans)\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nThe American College of Endocrinology (ACE) and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) have developed \"lifestyle intervention\" guidelines for preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes:\n\nBULLET::::- Healthy diet (a diet with limited saturated fats, no trans fats, refined sugars, and refined grains, as well as limited the intake of sodium and total calories)\n\nBULLET::::- Physical fitness (30–45 minutes of cardiovascular exercise per day, 3-5 days a week)\n\nBULLET::::- Weight loss by as little as 5–10 percent may have a significant impact on overall health\n", "Research from 1995 also challenged the theory of hyperglycemia as the cause of diabetic complications. The fact that 40% of diabetics who carefully controlled their blood sugar nevertheless developed neuropathy made clear other factors were involved. \n\nIn a 2013 meta-analysis of 6 randomized controlled trials involving 27,654 patients, tight blood glucose control reduced the risk for some macrovascular and microvascular events but without effect on all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Autoimmune processes.\n", "BULLET::::- The glucose cycle is a system which is affected by two factors: entry of glucose \"into\" the bloodstream and also blood levels of insulin to control its transport \"out\" of the bloodstream\n\nBULLET::::- As a system, it is sensitive to diet and exercise\n\nBULLET::::- It is affected by the need for user anticipation due to the complicating effects of time delays between any activity and the respective impact on the glucose system\n", "High blood cholesterol - 50% more likely to have elevated blood cholesterol levels.\n\nDiabetes Type 2 - non-insulin dependent accounts for nearly 90% of all cases of diabetes. Researchers estimate that 88 to 97% of type 2 diabetes cases diagnosed in overweight people are a direct result of obesity\n\nCongestive heart failure - obesity increases the risk of congestive heart failure, a potentially fatal condition in which the heart muscle weakens, progressively losing the ability to pump blood.\n", "Preventing diabetes mellitus type 2 – entails a lifestyle with a routine, regime, or self care program that includes the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Maintaining a healthy weight –\n\nBULLET::::- Proper nutrition –\n\nBULLET::::- Regular physical exercise – in addition to helping to maintain a healthy weight, sufficient vigorous physical exercise increases cells' sensitivity to insulin, and can thus prevent and possibly revert insulin resistance.\n\nBULLET::::- Medication – specific medications have been shown to be able to prevent type 2 diabetes. However, the disease can often be delayed through proper nutrition and regular exercise.\n\nSection::::Treating diabetes.\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin\n", "Anti-diabetic medication may reduce cardiovascular risk in people with Type 2 Diabetes, although evidence is not conclusive. A meta-analysis in 2009 including 27,049 participants and 2,370 major vascular events showed a 15% relative risk reduction in cardiovascular disease with more-intensive glucose lowering over an average follow-up period of 4.4 years, but an increased risk of major hypoglycemia.\n", "Elevated levels of free fatty acids and triglycerides in the blood stream and tissues also have been found in many studies to occur in states of insulin resistance. Triglyceride levels are driven by a variety of dietary factors.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Sedentary lifestyle.\n\nSedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of development of insulin resistance. It has been estimated that each 500 kcal/week increment in physical activity related energy expenditure, reduces the lifetime risk of type 2 diabetes by 9%. A different study found that vigorous exercise at least once a week reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes in women by 33%.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Protease inhibitors.\n", "The \"Diabetes Prevention Program\" (DPP) showed that exercise and diet were nearly twice as effective as metformin at reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes. However, the participants in the DPP trial regained about 40% of the weight that they had lost at the end of 2.8 years, resulting in a similar incidence of diabetes development in both the lifestyle intervention and the control arms of the trial. One 2009 study found that carbohydrate deficit after exercise, but not energy deficit, contributed to insulin sensitivity increase.\n", "BULLET::::- Maintaining a healthy weight\n\nBULLET::::- Regular physical activity\n\nBULLET::::- Managing blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Managing cholesterol levels\n\nBULLET::::- Quit/ Avoid smoking\n\nAlthough there is no direct cure for Type 2 diabetes the Australian Government: Department of Health has put in place guidelines to assure that children and adolescents receive the suggested period of time engaging in physical activity. Some of their suggestions are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- shift from a low to moderate activity level\n\nBULLET::::- participate in more vigorous activity rather than moderate intensity exercise- you will save time and therefore have more time for friends and family\n", "Blockage or closing of the arteries of the lower limbs impairs blood flow to the legs and results in significant reduction in physical capacity. Alternate exercise prescriptions to walking are considered. Aerobic exercises such as arm-cranking or cycling are recommended. Risk factors for disease progression should also be taken into account when aiming to improve waling ability. Functional capacity should be determined prior to commencement of prescribe exercise programs.\n\nSection::::For specific diseases.:Diabetes mellitus.\n\nThe number of individuals diagnosed with diabetes mellitus are rapidly increasing and a lot of evidence suggests this is due to an insufficiently active lifestyle.\n", "The Journal of the American Association looked at the effect that physical activity had on diabetic patients who took diabetes medications. The patients were all assigned a personal trainer who helped them perform routine exercises five to six times a week and keep a stable diet for the duration of the 12-month study. Doctors monitored these patients and slowly started reducing their medications. If their glucose levels remained stable, the medication continued to decrease, but if it increased, the medication was added back to keep the patient’s diabetes controlled. At the end of the 12 months, 73 percent of the participants were on a reduced medication list as a result of this lifestyle change. 56 percent of the patients had made so much progress that they could be taken off all their previous medications and control their diabetes by maintaining this new, healthier regime. The improvement of the patients’ lifestyle by keeping active and eating correctly was shown to help manage diabetes mellitus.\n", "The risk of progression to diabetes and development of cardiovascular disease is greater than for impaired fasting glucose.\n\nAlthough some drugs can delay the onset of diabetes, lifestyle modifications play a greater role in the prevention of diabetes. Patients identified as having an IGT may be able to prevent diabetes through a combination of increased exercise and reduction of body weight. \"Drug therapy can be considered when aggressive lifestyle interventions are unsuccessful.\"\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Subclinical diabetes.\n" ]

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[ "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "In India, hundreds die every year from summer heat waves, including more than 2,500 in the year 2015. Later that same summer, the 2015 Pakistani heat wave killed about 2,000 people. An extreme 2003 European heat wave caused tens of thousands of deaths.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nHyperthermia can also be deliberately induced using drugs or medical devices and is being studied and applied in clinical routine as a treatment of some kinds of cancer.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat cramps\n\nBULLET::::- Hot flash\n\nBULLET::::- Rhabdomyolysis\n\nBULLET::::- Occupational heat stress\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- American Red Cross Tips to Beat the Heat\n", "Workers who are working in laundries, bakeries, restaurant kitchens, steel foundries, glass factories, brick-firing and ceramic plants, electrical utilities, smelters, and outdoor workers such as construction workers, firefighters, farmers, and mining workers are more vulnerable to exposure to extreme heat. Effects of heat stress include:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased irritability\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydration\n\nBULLET::::- Heat stroke\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic heat exhaustion\n\nBULLET::::- Cramps, rashes, and burns\n\nBULLET::::- Sweaty palms and dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Increased risk of other accidents\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of concentration and ability to do mental tasks and heavy manual work\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep disturbances, sickness, and susceptibility to minor injuries\n", "The square root of the product of thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat capacity is called thermal effusivity, and tells how much heat energy the body absorbs or releases in a certain amount of time per unit area when its surface is at a certain temperature. Since the heat taken in by the cooler body must be the same as the heat given by the hotter one, the surface temperature must lie closer to the temperature of the body with the greater thermal effusivity. The bodies in question here are human feet (which mainly consist of water) and burning coals.\n", "Section::::Contraindications.\n\nEach Physical Agent or Modality has a different contraindication based on how the tool affects the normal physiologic function of the body and how the tool affects the type of condition possessed by the site to be treated on the patient/client of the PT. Improper and uninformed use of these modalities can sometimes cause severe irreversible damage. EX: ultrasound/electrotherapy on the abdomen of a pregnant patient can harm the baby. Excessive heat with use of hot packs may cause first to second degree burns.\n\nSection::::Categories.\n\nThermal\n\nBULLET::::- deep-heating agents\n\nBULLET::::- superficial heating agents\n\nBULLET::::- cooling agents\n\nMechanical\n\nBULLET::::- traction\n", "As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body’s core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body’s “thermostat.” This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nHeat is primarily generated in muscle tissue, including the heart, and in the liver, while it is lost through the skin (90%) and lungs (10%). Heat production may be increased two- to four-fold through muscle contractions (i.e. exercise and shivering). The rate of heat loss is determined, as with any object, by convection, conduction, and radiation. The rates of these can be affected by body mass index, body surface area to volume ratios, clothing and other environmental conditions.\n", "The signs and symptoms of HSAN5 appear early, usually at birth or during infancy. People with HSAN5 lose the ability to feel pain, heat, and cold. Deep pain perception, the feeling of pain from injuries to bones, ligaments, or muscles, is especially affected in people with HSAN5. Because of the inability to feel deep pain, affected individuals suffer repeated severe injuries such as bone fractures and joint injuries that go unnoticed. Repeated trauma can lead to a condition called Charcot joints, in which the bones and tissue surrounding joints are destroyed.\n", "One may observe that the heat flow is directly related to the thermal conductivities of the bodies in contact, formula_6 and formula_7, the contact area formula_4, and the thermal contact resistance, formula_9, which, as previously noted, is the inverse of the thermal conductance coefficient, formula_1.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n\nMost experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between\n\n0.000005 and 0.0005 m² K/W (the corresponding range of thermal contact\n", "The ability to feel pain or changes in temperature can be affected by damage to the fibers in the sensory nerve. This can cause a failure to notice injuries such as a cut or that a wound is becoming infected. There may also be a lack of detection of heart attacks or other serious conditions. The lack of detection of pain and other sensations is a particularly large problem for those with diabetes, which contributes to the rate of lower limb amputations among this population. Overall, the poor sensation and detection may lead to changes in skin, hair, joint, and bone damage over the years for many people.\n", "At temperatures greater than , proteins begin losing their three-dimensional shape and start breaking down. This results in cell and tissue damage. Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin. They include disruption of the skin's sensation, ability to prevent water loss through evaporation, and ability to control body temperature. Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium.\n", "The concept of thermal comfort is closely related to thermal stress. This attempts to predict the impact of solar radiation, air movement, and humidity for military personnel undergoing training exercises or athletes during competitive events. Values are expressed as the wet bulb globe temperature or the discomfort index. Generally, humans do not perform well under thermal stress. People's performances under thermal stress is about 11% lower than their performance at normal thermal wet conditions. Also, human performance in relation to thermal stress varies greatly by the type of task which the individual is completing. Some of the physiological effects of thermal heat stress include increased blood flow to the skin, sweating, and increased ventilation.\n", "Heat stroke occurs when thermoregulation is overwhelmed by a combination of excessive metabolic production of heat (exertion), excessive environmental heat, and insufficient or impaired heat loss, resulting in an abnormally high body temperature. In severe cases, temperatures can exceed . Heat stroke may be \"non-exertional\" (classic) or \"exertional\".\n\nSection::::Causes.:Exertional.\n", "When an energy transfer to or from a body is only as heat, the state of the body changes. Depending on the surroundings and the walls separating them from the body, various changes are possible in the body. They include chemical reactions, increase of pressure, increase of temperature, and phase change. For each kind of change under specified conditions, the heat capacity is the ratio of the quantity of heat transferred to the magnitude of the change. For example, if the change is an increase in temperature at constant volume, with no phase change and no chemical change, then the temperature of the body rises and its pressure increases. The quantity of heat transferred, , divided by the observed temperature change, , is the body's heat capacity at constant volume:\n", "Section::::Brain.:Hyperthermia.\n\nHumans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature.\n\nSection::::Fatigue.\n\nSection::::Fatigue.:Intense activity.\n", "Nociceptors are responsible for processing pain and temperature changes. The burning pain and irritation experienced after eating a chili pepper (due to its main ingredient, capsaicin), the cold sensation experienced after ingesting a chemical such as menthol or icillin, as well as the common sensation of pain are all a result of neurons with these receptors.\n\nProblems with mechanoreceptors lead to disorders such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Neuropathic pain - a severe pain condition resulting from a damaged sensory nerve\n", "Thermal trauma is any burn-related injury that can potentially lead to serious outcomes. There are various causes of thermal trauma, including fire, radiant heat, radiation, chemical, or electrical contact, that can affect a person in many ways based on factors from anatomical and physiological factors. Depending on the severity of the burns, quick management and transport to an appropriate burn facility may be necessary to prevent loss of life. Various classification scales exist for use with thermal trauma to determine the severity of the burns, which is used to determine the resources used and for statistical collection. The initial assessment is critical in determining the extent of injuries and what will be needed to manage an injury, and treating immediate life threats.\n", "Although Carathéodory himself did not state such a definition, following his work it is customary in theoretical studies to define heat, , to the body from its surroundings, in the combined process of change to state from the state , as the change in internal energy, , minus the amount of work, , done by the body on its surrounds by the adiabatic process, so that .\n", "Radio frequency (RF) energy at power density levels of 1-10 mW/cm or higher can cause measurable heating of tissues. Typical RF energy levels encountered by the general public are well below the level needed to cause significant heating, but certain workplace environments near high power RF sources may exceed safe exposure limits. A measure of the heating effect is the specific absorption rate or SAR, which has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg). The IEEE and many national governments have established safety limits for exposure to various frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR, mainly based on ICNIRP Guidelines, which guard against thermal damage.\n", "Another explanation for underreporting is the social attenuation in most contexts of heat waves as a health risk. As shown by the deadly French heat wave in 2003, heat wave dangers result from the intricate association of natural and social factors.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Psychological and sociological effects.\n", "The CNS can be divided into the brain and spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories. Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS. The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli. The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously.\n", "Section::::Thermal assays.\n\nSensitivity to acute thermal stimulation is the most common test used in live species pain research. The behavioral reflex evoked by noxious heat stimuli is a relatively good predictor of pain sensitivity and its reduction through various analgesics. \n\nOne significant limitation of thermal assays lies in the specificity and validity of results in animals as models of human pain. Very little is known about the functional mechanics of nociceptive afferents in murine subjects, thus the translation of any pain response observed from these animals to humans is questionable.\n\nSection::::Thermal assays.:Tail withdrawal.\n", "The effect of PPE on hyperthermia has been noted in fighting the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Western Africa. Doctors and healthcare workers were only able to work 40 minutes at a stretch in their protective suits, fearing heat strokes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Other.\n\nOther rare causes of hyperthermia include thyrotoxicosis and an adrenal gland tumor, called pheochromocytoma, both of which can cause increased heat production. Damage to the central nervous system, from brain hemorrhage, status epilepticus, and other kinds of injury to the hypothalamus can also cause hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Heat stroke, also known as sun stroke, defined as hyperthermia with a body temperature greater than because of environmental heat exposure; potentially fatal\n\nBULLET::::- Heat syncope, fainting or dizziness as a result of overheating\n\nBULLET::::- Heat tetany, craps and even seizures caused by calcium and/or magnesium loss due to excessive sweating in short periods of stress in high heat\n", "In addition to physical stress, excessive heat causes psychological stress, to a degree which affects performance, and is also associated with an increase in violent crime. High temperatures are associated with increased conflict both at the interpersonal level and at the societal level. In every society, crime rates go up when temperatures go up, particularly violent crimes such as assault, murder, and rape. Furthermore, in politically unstable countries, high temperatures are an aggravating factor that lead toward civil wars.\n" ]

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[ "Doming (television)\n\nDoming is a phenomenon found on some CRT televisions in which parts of the shadow mask become heated. In televisions that exhibit this behavior, it tends to occur in high-contrast scenes in which there is a largely dark scene with one or more localized bright spots. As the electron beam hits the shadow mask in these areas it heats unevenly. The shadow mask warps due to the heat differences, which causes the electron gun to hit the wrong colored phosphors and incorrect colors to be displayed in the affected area.\n", "Some screensavers move around, such as those on DVD players, or those on some televisions that move around paused video after a long period of inactivity.\n", "Using higher-quality cables such as those with ribbon cords that have properly shielded coaxial cables inside might help in reducing a 'ghosting' effect, but it does not always completely eliminate it due to various factors. A more permanent method is to remove pin 19 (Video Out) from the SCART plug that is put into the TV, preventing a signal from being broadcast by the TV into the cable, so it cannot cross-talk with the incoming signal.\n", "If the ghost is seen on the left of the main picture, then it is likely that the problem is pre-echo, which is seen in buildings with very long TV downleads where an RF leakage has allowed the TV signal to enter the tuner by a second route. For instance, plugging in an additional aerial to a TV which already has a communal TV aerial connection (or cable TV) can cause this condition.\n\nSection::::Digital ghosting.\n", "Section::::Background and recording.:Writing.\n", "In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent by \"magnetic deflection\", a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic instrument.\n", "With phosphor-based electronic displays (for example CRT-type computer monitors or plasma displays), non-uniform use of pixels, such as prolonged display of non-moving images (text or graphics), gaming, or certain broadcasts with tickers and flags, can create a permanent ghost-like image of these objects or otherwise degrade image quality. This is because the phosphor compounds which emit light to produce images lose their luminance with use. Uneven use results in uneven light output over time, and in severe cases can create a ghost image of previous content. Even if ghost images are not recognizable, the effects of screen burn are an immediate and continual degradation of image quality.\n", "The human eye has a characteristic called Phi phenomenon. Quickly displaying successive scan images will allow the apparent illusion of smooth motion. Flickering of the image can be partially solved using a long persistence phosphor coating on the CRT, so that successive images fade slowly. However, slow phosphor has the negative side-effect of causing image smearing and blurring when there is a large amount of rapid on-screen motion occurring.\n", "Logically, the TV is on top and ends the \"up\" chain-path, translating the electrical info into an image and sound. From the same logical point of view the info stream, wherever it originates, may need processing such as decrypting (decoding, descrambling) or adding captioning/subtitles. In this case the info stream is sent logically \"down\" to dedicated function devices. From the last processing device the info stream is sent logically \"up\" to the TV, through all the chain-path. Another case is when the info stream is sent \"down\" and not expected to be sent back \"up\", for example when sent to a recorder.\n", "BULLET::::- Multipath distortion, because radio frequency waves may take paths of different length (by reflecting from buildings, transmission lines, aircraft, clouds, etc.) to reach the receiver. In addition, RF leaks may allow a signal to enter the set by a different path; this is most common in a large building such as a tower block or hotel where one TV antenna feeds many different rooms, each fitted with a TV aerial socket (known as pre-echo). By getting a better antenna or cable system it can be eliminated or mitigated.\n", "In a normal NTSC video signal there are 525 \"lines\" of video signal. These are split into two half-images, known as \"fields\", sent every 60th of a second. These images merge on-screen, and in-eye, to form a single frame of video updated every 30th of a second. Each line of each field takes 63.5 μs to send; 50.3 μs of video and 13.2 μs amount of \"dead time\" on each end used to signal the television that the line is complete, known as the horizontal blanking interval (HBI). When the scanning process reaches the end of the screen it returns to the top during the vertical blanking interval (VBI), which, like the HBI requires some \"dead time\" to properly frame the signal on the screen. In this case the dead time is represented by unused lines of the picture signal, normally the top 22 lines of the frame.\n", "Before the advent of LCD screens, most computer screens were based on cathode ray tubes (CRTs). When the same image is displayed on a CRT screen for long periods, the properties of the exposed areas of phosphor coating on the inside of the screen gradually and permanently change, eventually leading to a darkened shadow or \"ghost\" image on the screen, called a screen burn-in. Cathode ray televisions, oscilloscopes and other devices that use CRTs are all susceptible to phosphor burn-in, as are plasma displays to some extent.\n", "Commonly called a \"cold start\" fault, another type of TAB failure shows up when the display has been turned off long enough for the LCD to cool down or shrink enough so the bond is in open circuit. This fault is often seen as a ghosting double, or triple, image on one side of the display, with shadowing or dulling of the other part of the screen. A common test for this problem is to use a 50% and a 75% grey test signal. The fault often disappears as the LCD sheet heats up and expands into the frame; flexing the TV when this is happening will immediately reveal if this is a TAB fault. Cold start TAB faults tend to get worse, as the regular heating and cooling of the bond, from powering the display on and off, causes further cracking.\n", "Section::::CRT.\n", "Because of bandwidth problems in the interface card that replaced the TV's tuner, the display loses horizontal sync if large areas of white are displayed. A simple half-hour hardware fix corrects the problem.\n", "BULLET::::- Rectifier tubes (5U4, 80, etc.), usually due to shorted capacitors or other substantial short circuits within the device. The power supply's output may be easily disconnected from the rest of the circuit in order to determine whether the overload is occurring in the supply or elsewhere.\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal and vertical output tubes in television sets (6CD6, 21LU8, etc.), usually due to a shorted coupling capacitor upsetting the bias or the driving oscillator operating well out of its design range. Deflection yokes are sometimes faulty.\n", "The standard NTSC video image contains some lines (lines 1–21 of each field) that are not visible (this is known as the Vertical Blanking Interval, or VBI); all are beyond the edge of the viewable image, but only lines 1–9 are used for the vertical-sync and equalizing pulses. The remaining lines were deliberately blanked in the original NTSC specification to provide time for the electron beam in CRT-based screens to return to the top of the display.\n", "Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible \"thunk\" or loud hum, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are switched on. Visually, this causes the image to shake dramatically for a short period of time. A degauss option is also usually available for manual selection in the operations menu in such appliances.\n", "In consumer equipment, it is usually a sign of a shorted or badly mistuned load, or a badly out-of-bias condition. When testing, repairing or restoring vacuum tube-based equipment, it is wise to watch the plates of all the tubes for this condition.\n\nSection::::Dangers.\n", "A conventional CRT consists of an electron gun at the back of the tube that is aimed at a thin layer of phosphor at the front of the tube. Depending on the role, the beam of electrons emitted by the gun is steered around the display using magnetic (television) or electrostatic (oscilloscope) means. When the electrons strike the phosphor, the phosphor \"lights up\" at that location for a time, and then fades away. The length of time the spot remains is a function of the phosphor chemistry.\n", "Quality differences exist in SCART cables. While a proper SCART cable uses miniature coaxial cables for the video signals, cheap SCART cables often use plain wires for all signals, resulting in a loss of image quality and greatly reducing the maximum cable length. A common problem on a cheap SCART cable is that a TV outputs a composite video signal from its internal tuner and this is induced or cross-talked onto an incoming video signal due to inadequate or non-existent screening; the result is ghostly images or shimmering superimposed on the incoming signal. To non-destructively verify if a SCART cable uses coaxial cables, unscrew the strain relief at the SCART connector and fold open the plastic shell.\n", "To accelerate the electrons from the cathode to the screen with sufficient velocity, a very high voltage (EHT or Extra High Tension) is required, from a few thousand volts for a small oscilloscope CRT to tens of kV for a larger screen color TV. This is many times greater than household power supply voltage. Even after the power supply is turned off, some associated capacitors and the CRT itself may retain a charge for some time and therefore dissipate that charge suddenly through a ground such as an inattentive human grounding a capacitor discharge lead.\n\nSection::::Security concerns.\n", "The audio portion uses FM, which has the desirable property that a stronger signal tends to overpower interference from weaker signals due to the capture effect. Even when ghosts are particularly bad in the picture, there may be little audio interference.\n\nSection::::Analog ghosting.:Pre-echo.\n", "SCART allows a connected device to bring it in and out of \"standby\" mode or to switch it to the AV channel. A VCR or other playback device will optimally power on when a cassette is inserted, power on the TV (or switch it to video mode) and then start playing immediately if the cassette's write protection tab is absent. When turned off, the VCR will ask the TV to power off, which it will do if it had been powered on by the VCR's request and if it remained in video mode. Only some TVs will do this—most only implement automatic switching to and from the SCART input.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Digital storage tapes.\n\nStiction may also manifest itself on computer tapes (9 track tape etc.). The magnetic surface of the tape would be heated against the read head in the tape deck, and when the tape stopped moving would cool slightly and \"glue\" onto the read head. This could be avoided by configuring the software so that the tape could be read continuously.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Amateur astronomy.\n" ]

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[ "For Miscanthus planted on marginal land limited by cold temperatures (Moscow), the reduction in atmospheric CO2 is estimated to be 19.2 tonnes per hectare per year (7.7 tonnes per acre), with fossil energy savings of 273 GJ per hectare per year (110 GJ per acre). For marginal land limited by drought (Turkey), the atmospheric CO2 level can potentially be reduced with 24 tonnes per hectare per year (9.7 tonnes per acre), with fossil energy savings of 338 GJ per hectare per year (137 tonnes per acre).\n", "The USDA has an online calculator for how much carbon is sequestered in various types of forests.\n\nSection::::Tree farming and climate change.:and forest health.\n", "In the 1990s, the Men of the Trees organization in Australia conducted remineralization trials on many species of trees in Australia with significant results, such as five times the growth of tree seedlings of one variety of eucalyptus, compared to the untreated controls.\n\nBarry Lynes wrote \"Climate Crime\" in 1985 chronicling the case for global cooling, and Robert Felix, author of \"Not by Fire But By Ice\" echoed concerns about re-glaciation, expressed by Hamaker and Bryant, which he documented at Ice Age Now. \n", "Mammoth is outgassing large amounts of carbon dioxide out of its south flank, near Horseshoe Lake, causing mazuku in that area. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the ground ranges from 20 to 90 percent CO. Measurements of the total discharge of carbon dioxide gas at the Horseshoe Lake tree-kill area range from per day. This high concentration causes trees to die in six regions that total about in size (see photo).\n", "A 1993 review of scientific greenhouse studies found that a doubling of concentration would stimulate the growth of 156 different plant species by an average of 37%. Response varied significantly by species, with some showing much greater gains and a few showing a loss. For example, a 1979 greenhouse study found that with doubled concentration the dry weight of 40-day-old cotton plants doubled, but the dry weight of 30-day-old maize plants increased by only 20%.\n", "BULLET::::- Old-growth forests also store large amounts of carbon above and below the ground (either as humus, or in wet soils as peat). They collectively represent a very significant store of carbon. Destruction of these forests releases this carbon as greenhouse gases, and may increase the risk of global climate change. Although old-growth forests therefore serve as a global carbon dioxide sink, they are not protected by international treaties, because it is generally thought that ageing forests cease to accumulate carbon. However in forests between 15 and 800 years of age, net ecosystem productivity (the net carbon balance of the forest including soils) is usually positive - old-growth forests accumulate carbon for centuries and contain large quantities of it.\n", "Older research reflects the view that standing water in GTRs permanently damages trees and acorn production. (Young et al. 1995, Wigley and Filer 1989). However, more current research (King et al. 2006) shows that when managed properly, green tree reservoirs can be very productive. Many researchers have found that production in GTRs is highest when managers try to emulate natural hardwood wetlands (Fredrickson and Reid 1988, King and Allen 1996). In 1985, 95% of GTRs were flooded annually and for longer than the dormancy season of the forest (Wigley and Filer 1989).\n", "Tree-planting projects can cause conflicts with indigenous people who are displaced or otherwise find their use of forest resources curtailed. For example, a World Rainforest Movement report documents land disputes and human rights abuses at Mount Elgon. In March 2002, a few days before receiving Forest Stewardship Council certification for a project near Mount Elgon, the Uganda Wildlife Authority evicted more than 300 families from the area and destroyed their homes and crops. That the project was taking place in an area of on-going land conflict and alleged human rights abuses did not make it into project report.\n", "Photosynthetically fixed carbon in terrestrial plants is depleted in C compared to atmospheric CO. This depletion is slight in C4 plants but much greater in C3 plants which form the bulk of terrestrial biomass worldwide. Depletion in CAM plants vary between the values observed for C3 and C4 plants. In addition, most fossil fuels originate from C3 biological material produced tens to hundreds of millions of years ago. C4 plants did not become common until about 6 to 8 million years ago, and although CAM photosynthesis is present in modern relatives of the Lepidodendrales of the Carboniferous lowland forests, even if these plants also had CAM photosynthesis they were not a major component of the total biomass.\n", "Concerns: New Zealand emits over 80 million tonnes of greenhouse gases (measured in CO-equivalents) every year, approximately 45% of which (36 million tonnes) is CO. Between 1990 and 2016, the net uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) decreased by nearly 23 percent (down to 23 million tonnes a year) due to more intensive harvesting of planted forests. On top of this, a typical hardwood tree takes about 40 years to remove approximately one ton of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. \n", "A forest sequesters carbon in its trees. The forest removes carbon dioxide from the air as trees grow and returns it to the air as trees die and rot or burn. As long as the forest is experiencing net growth, the forest is reducing the amount of carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas, from the air. Furthermore, if timber is regularly removed from the forest and turned into lasting wood products, those products continue sequestering carbon, while the replacement tree farm trees absorb more carbon dioxide, thus effecting a continuous reduction in greenhouse gas.\n", "BULLET::::- Research done by the Swiss Canopy Crane Project suggests that slow-growing trees only are stimulated in growth for a short period under higher CO levels, while faster growing plants like liana benefit in the long term. In general, but especially in rainforests, this means that liana become the prevalent species; and because they decompose much faster than trees their carbon content is more quickly returned to the atmosphere. Slow growing trees incorporate atmospheric carbon for decades.\n\nSection::::Impacts.:Species migration.\n", "\"Taxus canadensis\" is also being harvested in northern Ontario, Québec and Atlantic Canada as the plant is a source of the class of poisonous chemicals known as taxanes, which have been a focus for cancer research. \"T. canadensis\" is much more abundant than the near-threatened \"Taxus brevifolia\" (Pacific yew), and the \"greens\" (new growth) can be harvested sustainably every five years, instead of stripping the bark and killing the plant.\n", "A study carried out by environmental scientist Professor Brendan Mackey of the Australian National University in 2009 identified that mountain ash forests in Victoria’s Central Highlands are the best in the world at locking up carbon. Mackey and colleagues found the highest amount of carbon was contained in a forest located in the O'Shannassy River catchment, which held of carbon. This area was a stand of unlogged mountain ash over 100 years old, which had had minimal human disturbance. They further calculated that a \"E. regnans\"-dominated forest with trees up to 250 years old and a well-established mid-storey and upper storey could store up to of carbon.\n", "Responsible forestry practices do not contribute to greenhouse gases because the forest is allowed to regenerate following fiber harvesting. For this reason wood can be considered to be an essentially carbon-neutral source of energy.\n\nSection::::Drawbacks.\n", "One proposed method is by so-called \"artificial trees\". This concept, proposed by climate scientist Wallace S. Broecker and science writer Robert Kunzig, imagines huge numbers of artificial trees around the world to remove ambient CO. The technology is now being pioneered by Klaus Lackner, the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions (CNCE) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University, whose artificial tree technology can suck up to 1,000 times more CO from the air than real trees can at a rate of about one ton of carbon per day if the artificial tree is approximately the size of an actual tree. The CO would be captured in a filter and then removed from the filter and stored.\n", "Old-growth forests have the potential to impact climate change, but climate change is also impacting old-growth forests. As the effects of global warming grow more substantial, the ability of old-growth forests to sequester carbon is affected. Climate change showed an impact on the mortality of some dominant trees species, as observed in the Korean pine. Climate change also showed an effect on the composition of species when forests were surveyed over a 10- and 20-year period, which may disrupt the overall productivity of the forest.\n\nSection::::Logging in old-growth forests.\n", "BULLET::::- Large evergreen trees with dense foliage collect the most particulate matter.\n\nBULLET::::- The Chicago study determined that trees removed approximately 234 tonnes of particulate matter less than 10 micrometres (PM10) in 1991.\n\nBULLET::::- Large healthy trees greater than 75 cm in trunk diameter remove approximately 70 times more air pollution annually (1.4 kg/yr) than small healthy trees less than 10 cm in diameter (0.02 kg/yr).\n\nSection::::Biogenic volatile organic compounds.\n", "All biomass crops sequester carbon. For example, soil organic carbon has been observed to be greater below switchgrass crops than under cultivated cropland, especially at depths below . For Miscanthus x giganteus, McCalmont et al. found accumulation rates ranging from 0.42 to 3.8 tonnes per hectare per year, \n", "The area around Cultus Lake is known for its large ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir and western white pine, sometimes rising to tall. However, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the large pines are being weakened by competing understory fir trees and mountain pine beetle attacks. If the trend is not reversed, there will be a shift in tree species (and tree size) from pine and Douglas-fir to white fir.\n", "A study across the Chicago region determined that trees removed approximately 17 tonnes of carbon monoxide (CO), 93 tonnes of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 98 tonnes of nitrogen dioxide (NO), and 210 tonnes of ozone (O) in 1991.\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon sequestration\n\nUrban forest managers are sometimes interested in the amount of carbon removed from the air and stored in their forest as wood in relation to the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere while running tree maintenance equipment powered by fossil fuels.\n\nBULLET::::- Interception of particulate matter\n", "One should note that successful sequestration is dependent on planting sites, as the best soils for sequestration are those that are currently low in carbon. The varied results displayed in the graph highlights this fact. \n", "Members of the sedge family Cyperaceae, and members of numerous families of eudicots – including Asteraceae (the daisy family), Brassicaceae (the cabbage family), and Euphorbiaceae (the spurge family) – also use .\n\nTrees which use include \"Paulownia\".\n\nSection::::Plants that use carbon fixation.:Converting plants to.\n", "Fundamentally, the below-ground carbon accumulation works as a GHG mitigation tool because it removes CO2 from the above-ground CO2 circulation (the circulation from plant to atmosphere and back into plant.) The above-ground circulation is driven by photosynthesis and combustion – first, the miscanthus fields absorb CO2 and assimilates it as carbon in its tissue both above and below ground. When the above-ground carbon is harvested and burned, it is released back into the atmosphere, in the form of CO2. However, an equivalent amount of CO2 (and possibly more, if the biomass is expanding) is absorbed back by next season's growth, and the cycle repeats.\n", "\"Hymenaea courbaril\" has been used as a model organism to study the effect of increased concentration on the rate of photosynthesis in neotropical regions.\n\nWhen the concentration of was increased from an ambient reference level of 360ppm to 720ppm, the photosynthetic assimilation in the seedlings doubled. This suggests the species could play an important role in greenhouse gas sequestration, as atmospheric is expected to reach ca. 700 ppm by the year 2075 if current levels of fossil fuel consumption are maintained.\n" ]

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[ "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n", "where \"k\" is a temperature-dependent constant, \"p\" is the partial pressure and \"c\" is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid. Thus the partial pressure of CO in the gas has increased until Henry's law is obeyed. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid has decreased and the drink has lost some of its fizz.\n", "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n", "Section::::Theory.\n\nThe separatory funnel runs on the concept of \"like dissolves like\", with different solutes being preferentially soluble in certain solvents. While a separatory funnel is being shaken, the two solvents mix and share a large surface area, which allows each solute to migrate to the solvent in which it is more soluble.\n", "Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First, gravitation causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to osmotic pressure causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and Laplace pressure causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under disjoining pressure, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (T1 process) or collective (even of the \"avalanche\" type).\n", "This extraction mechanism, however, operates in an optimal interval of crystal fraction. If there is a low crystal fraction, convection still operates in the system, thus halting crystal settling and liquid extraction. However, if the crystal fraction is very high, the system starts behaving like a solid within the timescales of applied stress in the system (Maxwell time).\n\nSection::::Eruption.\n", "A ball resting in a hollow on a slope is a simple example of metastability. If the ball is only slightly pushed, it will settle back into its hollow, but a stronger push may start the ball rolling down the slope. Bowling pins show similar metastability by either merely wobbling for a moment or tipping over completely. A common example of metastability in science is isomerisation. Higher energy isomers are long lived as they are prevented from rearranging to their preferred ground state by (possibly large) barriers in the potential energy.\n", "BULLET::::- In order to remove any large bubbles from the surface, some baristas tap the jug on a bench before pouring\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally a barista may use less-than-full pressure from the steam wand, if they are steaming a very small amount of milk (variable pressure is usually only a feature on professional machines)\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.\n", "BULLET::::- Bubbles of carbon dioxide \"nucleate\" shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid.\n", "BULLET::::- The un-mixing or segregation of unlike grains under vibration and flow. An example of this is the so-called Brazil nut effect where Brazil nuts rise to the top of a packet of mixed nuts when shaken.The cause of this effect is that when shaken, granular (and some other) materials move in a circular pattern. some larger materials (Brazil nuts) get stuck while going down the circle and therefore stay on the top.\n", "The energy supplied to the dislocation is:\n\nformula_20\n\nwhere formula_21 is the applied stress, formula_22is the Burgers vector, and formula_23is the area of the slip plane.\n\nThus, the overall expression for the rate of dislocation glide can be rewritten as:\n\nformula_24\n\nThus, the numerator formula_25 is the energy coming from the stress and the denominator formula_26is the thermal energy. This expression is derived from a model from which plastic strain does not devolve from atomic diffusion.\n", "where \"C\" is a constant, \"D\" is the solute diffusivity, formula_12 is the solute concentration, and formula_13 is the misfit parameter, formula_14 is the applied stress. So it could be seen from the equation above, \"m\" is 3 for solute drag creep. Solute drag creep shows a special phenomenon, which is called the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect. When the applied stress becomes sufficiently large, the dislocations will break away from the solute atoms since dislocation velocity increases with the stress. After breakaway, the stress decreases and the dislocation velocity also decreases, which allows the solute atoms to approach and reach the previously departed dislocations again, leading to a stress increase. The process repeats itself when the next local stress maximum is obtained. So repetitive local stress maxima and minima could be detected during solute drag creep.\n", "Bubble nucleation happens when the a volatile becomes saturated. Actually the bubbles are composed of molecules that tend to aggregate spontaneously in a process called homogeneous nucleation. The surface tension acts on the bubbles shrinking the surface and forces them back to the liquid. The nucleation process is greater when the space to fit is irregular and the volatile molecules can ease the effect of surface tension. The nucleation can occur thanks to the presence of solid crystals, which are stored in the magma chamber. They are perfect potential nucleation sites for bubbles. If there is no nucleation in the magma the bubbles formation might appear really late and magma becomes significantly supersaturated. The balance between supersaturation pressure and bubble's radii expressed by this equation: ∆P=2σ/r, where ∆P is 100 MPa and σ is the surface tension. If the nucleation starts later when the magma is very supersaturated, the distance between bubbles becomes smaller. Essentially if the magma rises rapidly to the surface, the system will be more out of equilibrium and supersaturated. When the magma rises there is competition between adding new molecules to the existing ones and creating new ones. The distance between molecules characterizes the efficiency of volatiles to aggregate to the new or existing site. Crystals inside magma can determine how bubbles grow and nucleate.\n", "When a soft drink bottle is carbonated, it is pressurized with carbon dioxide to higher than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Eventually the dissolved CO and the CO in the headspace above the liquid reach a dynamic equilibrium, where the amount of CO dissolving in the liquid equals the amount of CO escaping the solution into the headspace, at a pressure of approximately 2 atmospheres. The bottle remains in this dynamic equilibrium until the first time that the cap is removed.\n", "Nucleation in microcellular foaming\n\nNucleation in Microcellular plastic is an important stage which decides the final cell size, cell density and cell morphology of the foam. In the recent past, numerous researchers have put their efforts in studying the cell nucleation phenomenon in microcellular polymers.\n\nStudies were performed with the ultrasound induced nucleation during microcellular foaming of Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene polymers. M.C.Guo studied nulceation under the shear action. As the shear got enhanced, the cell size diminished and thereby increased the cell density in the foam.\n", "The white lamellae frequently segue into shapes of wispy trails. Real experiments in liquids showed that such structures arise after a collapse of traveling bubble cavitation.\n\nSection::::Other Explanations.\n", "One of the factors that can initiate magma eruption is phase separation of the liquid and crystal components of the crystal mush. As the magma develops over time and the crystal content of the magma increases, phase separation is taking place and the liquid phase of the magma is pushed up, driven by its buoyancy as a result of its lower density. Volcanoes, as valves of the open system, provide the path for gas release and magma eruption. The amount of dissolved gases may be a further factor that controls the eruption event. The deeper the magma chamber is located, the higher is the amount of gas that can be dissolved in the magma (high pressure conditions), especially in andesitic and rhyolitic magmas. As phase separation occurs and the liquid fraction increases along with decreasing pressure, the emission of gas increases. This process is expressed by a high fraction of bubbles that drive the liquid phase toward the earth surface. In addition, the higher the content of dissolved water and other gases, the more violent the eruption will be.\n", "BULLET::::- Note: Acetylene cylinders contain an inert packing material, which may be agamassan, and are filled with a solvent such as acetone or dimethylformamide. The acetylene is pumped into the cylinder and it dissolves in the solvent. When the cylinder is opened the acetylene comes back out of solution, much like a carbonated beverage bubbles when opened. This is a workaround to acetylene's property to explode when pressurized above 200 kPa or liquified.\n\nBULLET::::- carbon dioxide in the form of a soft drink\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case IV.\n", "The simplest example of a stably stratified flow is an incompressible flow with density decreasing with height.\n\nIn a compressible gas such as the atmosphere, the relevant measure is the vertical gradient of the entropy, which must increase with height for the flow to be stably stratified.\n", "It is worth noting that depending on the crystal structure, this behavior can be different. For example, face-centered cubic (FCC) metals remain ductile even at low temperatures, so a plastic zone is always present.\n\nSection::::Effect of grains and inclusions on crack propagation.:Presence of inclusions.\n", "where formula_11 is the second of the two parameters in this simple model, it is the, assumed constant, growth velocity of a crystal.The integration of this equation between formula_12 and formula_13 will yield the total extended volume that appears in the time interval\n\nOnly a fraction of this extended volume is real; some portion of it lies on previously transformed material and is virtual. Since nucleation occurs randomly, the fraction of the extended volume that forms during each time increment that is real will be proportional to the volume fraction of untransformed formula_15. Thus\n\nrearranged\n\nand upon integration\n", "Although CO is most common for beverages, nitrogen gas is sometimes deliberately added to certain beers. The smaller bubble size creates a smoother beer head. Due to the poor solubility of nitrogen in beer, kegs or widgets are used for this.\n\nIn the laboratory, a common example of effervescence is seen if hydrochloric acid is added to a block of limestone. If a few pieces of marble or an antacid tablet are put in hydrochloric acid in a test tube fitted with a bung, effervescence of carbon dioxide can be witnessed.\n", "Caking properties must be considered when designing and constructing bulk material handling equipment. Powdered substances that need to be stored, and flow smoothly at some time in the future, are often pelletized or made into pills.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "BULLET::::- Cleavage: This typically occurs preferentially parallel to higher density planes.\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic deformation: Dislocation glide occurs preferentially parallel to higher density planes. The perturbation carried by the dislocation (Burgers vector) is along a dense direction. The shift of one node in a more dense direction requires a lesser distortion of the crystal lattice.\n", "Section::::Background.:Strain-rate sensitivity.\n\nThe strain-rate sensitivity of the flow stress formula_26 is defined as\n\nwhere formula_28 is the flow stress and formula_29 is the strain rate produced under the indenter. For nanoindentation experiments which include a holding period at constant load (i.e. the flat, top area of the load-displacement curve), formula_26 can be determined from\n\nThe subscripts formula_32 indicate these values are to be determined from the plastic components \"only\".\n\nSection::::Background.:Activation volume.\n\nInterpreted loosely as the volume swept out by dislocations during thermal activation, the activation volume formula_33 is\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Physical characteristics.\n\nHydra is irregular in shape, measuring along its longest axis and its shortest axis measuring across. This gives Hydra the measured dimensions of .\n", "Neptune's moon Proteus is the largest irregularly shaped natural satellite. All other known natural satellites that are at least the size of Uranus's Miranda have lapsed into rounded ellipsoids under hydrostatic equilibrium, i.e. are \"round/rounded satellites\". The larger natural satellites, being tidally locked, tend toward ovoid (egg-like) shapes: squat at their poles and with longer equatorial axes in the direction of their primaries (their planets) than in the direction of their motion. Saturn's moon Mimas, for example, has a major axis 9% greater than its polar axis and 5% greater than its other equatorial axis. Methone, another of Saturn's moons, is only around 3 km in diameter and . The effect is smaller on the largest natural satellites, where their own gravity is greater relative to the effects of tidal distortion, especially those that orbit less massive planets or, as in the case of the Moon, at greater distances.\n", "There are 19 natural satellites in the Solar System that are known to be massive enough to be close to hydrostatic equilibrium. Alan Stern calls these \"satellite planets\", although the term \"major moon\" is more common.\n\nSeveral of these were once in equilibrium but are no longer: these include all of the moons listed for Saturn apart from Titan and Rhea. Other moons that were once in equilibrium but are no longer very round, such as Saturn's Phoebe, are not included. Satellites are listed first in order from the Sun, and second in order from their parent body.\n\nSection::::Notes.\n", "In any case, while the overall shape of the planet is a conical stepped pyramid, it is clearly much broader (several thousand kilometers) than it is tall (around 100 km).\n\nSection::::Setting.:Structure and scale.:Moon.\n\nThe single moon orbiting Alofmethbin is quoted as being approximately the same size as the planet Mars. The moon as seen from Alofmethbin is described as appearing two-and-a-half times bigger than Earth's moon. If this refers to the moon's angular width, we can infer that the moon orbits Alofmethbin at a distance of approximately 300,000 km.\n\nSection::::Story and characters.\n\nSection::::Story and characters.:Major characters.\n\nSection::::Story and characters.:Major characters.:Robert Wolff/Lord Jadawin.\n", "Solar System objects more massive than 10 kilograms (one yottagram [Yg]) are known or expected to be approximately spherical. Astronomical bodies relax into rounded shapes (ellipsoids), achieving hydrostatic equilibrium, when their own gravity is sufficient to overcome the structural strength of their material. Objects made of ice become round more easily than those made of rock, and many icy objects are spheroidal at far lower sizes. The cutoff boundary for roundness is somewhere between 100 km and 200 km in radius.\n", "The outermost sphere is that of the fixed stars, which remains perfectly stationary. Then follow those of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Earth, Venus and Mercury, which each revolve about the Sun from west to east with successively shorter periods of revolution, Saturn's being between 29 and 30 years, Jupiter's between 11 and 12, Mars's between 2 and 3, Earth's exactly one, Venus's between 8 and 9 months, and Mercury's between 2 and 3 months. The Moon's sphere, however, revolves around the Earth in a period of one month, and moves with it around the Sun like an epicycle.\n", "The Earth–Moon system is unique in that the ratio of the mass of the Moon to the mass of Earth is much greater than that of any other natural-satellite–planet ratio in the Solar System. At 3,474 km (2,158 miles) across, the Moon is 0.273 times the diameter of Earth. This is five times greater than the next largest moon-to-planet diameter ratio (with Neptune's largest moon at 0.055, Saturn's at 0.044, Jupiter's at 0.038 and Uranus' as 0.031). For the category of planetoids, among the five that are known in the Solar System, Charon has the largest ratio, being half (0.51) the diameter of Pluto.\n", "Earth undulates as the shape of its lowest potential energy changes daily due to the gravity of the Sun and Moon as they move around with respect to the Earth. This is what causes tides in the oceans' water, which can flow freely along the changing potential.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Shapes of other bodies.\n\nThe IAU definitions of planet and dwarf planet require that a Sun-orbiting body has undergone the rounding process to reach a roughly spherical shape, an achievement known as hydrostatic equilibrium. The same spheroidal shape can be seen from smaller rocky planets like Mars to gas giants like Jupiter.\n", "When an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid covering its surface would form a liquid surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. If the body does not rotate, it will be a sphere, but the faster it rotates, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. If such a rotating body were to be heated until it melted, its overall shape would not change when liquid. The extreme example of a non-spherical body in hydrostatic equilibrium is , which is twice as long along its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces come into effect as well, distorting it into a prolate spheroid. An example of this is Jupiter's moon Io, which is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System due to effects of tidal heating. Tidal forces also cause a body's rotation to gradually become tidally locked, such that it always presents the same face to its companion. An extreme example of this is the Pluto–Charon system, where both bodies are tidally locked to each other. Earth's Moon is also tidally locked, as are many satellites of the gas giants.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Equatorial ridge.\n", "BULLET::::2. Moment of inertia parameters. True (physical) libration of the Moon measured via Lunar laser ranging constrains the normalized polar moment of inertia to 0.394 ± 0.002. This is very close to the value for a solid object with radially constant density, which would be 2/5 = 0.4 (for comparison, Earth's value is 0.33). The normalized polar moment of inertia for a hollow Moon would be close to the value 2/3 for a thin sphere.\n\nSection::::In literature.\n\nBULLET::::- H.G. Wells, \"The First Men in The Moon\" (1901). Wells describes fictional insectoids who live inside a hollow Moon.\n", "The Hill sphere of an astronomical body is the region in which it dominates the attraction of satellites. The outer shell of that region constitutes a zero-velocity surface. To be retained by a planet, a moon must have an orbit that lies within the planet's Hill sphere. That moon would, in turn, have a Hill sphere of its own. Any object within that distance would tend to become a satellite of the moon, rather than of the planet itself. One simple view of the extent of the Solar System is the Hill sphere of the Sun with respect to local stars and the galactic nucleus.\n", "Section::::Earth-Moon system.:Relative size.\n\nThe Moon is exceptionally large relative to Earth: Its diameter is more than a quarter and its mass is 1/81 of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, though Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto, at 1/9 Pluto's mass. The Earth and the Moon's barycentre, their common centre of mass, is located (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath Earth's surface.\n", "Section::::Non-spherically symmetric objects.\n\nMost real astronomical objects are not absolutely spherically symmetric. One reason for this is that they are often rotating, which means that they are affected by the combined effects of gravitational force and centrifugal force. This causes stars and planets to be oblate, which means that their surface gravity is smaller at the equator than at the poles. This effect was exploited by Hal Clement in his SF novel \"Mission of Gravity\", dealing with a massive, fast-spinning planet where gravity was much higher at the poles than at the equator.\n", "The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io. However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about or less, around 20% of the radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well defined, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Surface geology.\n", "Derived from crater counting data from \"New Horizons\", the surface of Hydra is estimated to be about four billion years old. Large craters and indentations on Hydra suggest that it may have lost some of its original mass from impact events since its formation.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Physical characteristics.:Rotation.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface features.\n", "BULLET::::- Ganymede page at \"The Nine Planets\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ganymede page at \"Views of the Solar System\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ganymede Crater Database from the Lunar and Planetary Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Images of Ganymede at JPL's Planetary Photojournal\n\nBULLET::::- Movie of Ganymede's rotation from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\nBULLET::::- Ganymede map from \"Scientific American\" article\n\nBULLET::::- Ganymede map with feature names from Planetary Photojournal\n\nBULLET::::- Ganymede nomenclature and Ganymede map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Ganymede and other outer solar system satellites\n", "Section::::Geology.\n\nIo is slightly larger than Earth's Moon. It has a mean radius of (about 5% greater than the Moon's) and a mass of 8.9319 kg (about 21% greater than the Moon's). It is a slight ellipsoid in shape, with its longest axis directed toward Jupiter. Among the Galilean satellites, in both mass and volume, Io ranks behind Ganymede and Callisto but ahead of Europa.\n\nSection::::Geology.:Interior.\n", "Outline of the Moon\n\nThe following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Moon:\n\nMoon – Earth's only permanent natural satellite. It is one of the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, and the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits (its primary). It is the second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known (after Jupiter's satellite Io).\n\nSection::::What type of thing is the Moon?\n\nThe Moon can be described as all of the following:\n", "The table shows the values of the sphere of gravity of the bodies of the solar system in relation to the Sun (with the exception of the Moon which is reported relative to Earth).:\n\nSection::::Increased accuracy on the SOI.\n\nThe Sphere of influence is, in fact, not quite a sphere. The distance to the SOI depends on the angular distance formula_6 from the massive body. A more accurate formula is given by\n\nformula_7\n\nAveraging over all possible directions we get\n\nformula_8\n\nSection::::Derivation.\n", "Except for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.\n\nSome of the larger small Solar System bodies may be reclassified in future as dwarf planets, pending further examination to determine whether or not they are in hydrostatic equilibrium.\n", "' has been found to be a member of the Haumea family fragment due to its Haumea-like orbit and the detection of water ice on its surface. This means ' could have an albedo of up to 0.7, resulting in a small size close to . However, its actual albedo is unknown; if its albedo turns out to be lower, it would result in a larger size estimate.\n\nAny icy body with a diameter equal to or greater than is expected to be spherical. Many small icy low-density moons, such as Mimas and Miranda are known to be spherical.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Shape.\n", "Section::::External links.:All moons.\n\nBULLET::::- Natural Satellite Physical Parameters (JPL-NASA, with refs – last updated July 2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Moons of the Solar System (The Planetary Society, as of March 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- JPL's Solar System Dynamics page\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary Names: Planet and Satellite Names and Discoverers\n\nBULLET::::- \"Upper size limit for moons explained\" Kelly Young. \"Nature\" (vol 441, p. 834) 14 June 2006\n\nBULLET::::- Images of planets and major moons (not to scale)\n\nBULLET::::- The Planetary Society – Moon Montage(s)\n\nBULLET::::- Album of moon images by Kevin M. Gill\n\nBULLET::::- The Atlas of Moons by the National Geographic Society\n\nSection::::External links.:Jupiter's moons.\n" ]

[ "The moon is perfectly spherical." ]

[ "Gravity tends to pull objects like the moon into nearly spherical shapes." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The moon is perfectly spherical.", "The moon is perfectly spherical." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Gravity tends to pull objects like the moon into nearly spherical shapes.", "Gravity tends to pull objects like the moon into nearly spherical shapes. " ]

[ "Section::::Vanishing race.\n", "BULLET::::- Buckskin Ben's Wild West and Dog and Pony Show (1908) Benjamin Stalker\n\nBULLET::::- Buckskin Bill's Wild West (1900)\n\nBULLET::::- Bud Atkinson's Circus and Wild West (early 1900s) - Toured Australia in 1912\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders\n\nBULLET::::- California Frank's All-Star Wild West (1911) - Frank Hafley\n\nBULLET::::- Colonel Cummins' Wild West Indian Congress and Rough Riders of the World - Frederick T. Cummins\n\nBULLET::::- Congress of Rough Riders and Ropers|Zach Mulhall's Congress of Rough Riders and Ropers\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond Dick's Congress of World's Western Champions\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Wild Wild West: The Night of the Iron Tyrants\" a comic book by Millennium Publications\n\nSection::::Amusement parks and attractions.\n\nBULLET::::- The Wild Wild Wild West Stunt Show, a former attraction at Universal Studios Florida\n\nBULLET::::- Wild West Falls, formerly Wild Wild West, a log ride at Warner Bros. Movie World, Gold Coast, Australia\n\nSection::::Casinos.\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Wild West, a bar and casino expansion of Bally's Atlantic City in New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- Thunderbird Wild Wild West Casino, per List of casinos in Oklahoma\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Wild West Gambling Hall & Hotel, a small casino in Las Vegas, Nevada\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nThere are two ‘Wests’ – the historical West in which farmers, ranchers, miners, prostitutes and criminals pursued their happiness, and the mythic West that took deep root in the American imagination. Western novels (dime novels, pulp fiction), mainstream literature (Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales), newspapers, and plays portrayed the West as both a barren landscape full of savages and a romanticized idealistic way of living for rugged men.\n", "In Bridger's Wells, Nevada in 1885, Art Croft (Harry Morgan) and Gil Carter (Henry Fonda) ride into town and enter Darby's Saloon. The atmosphere is subdued due to recent incidents of cattle-rustling. Art and Gil are suspected to be rustlers because they have rarely been seen in town.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre-1850s.\n\nThe predecessor of the western in American literature emerged early with tales of the frontier. The most famous of the early 19th-century frontier novels were James Fenimore Cooper's five novels comprising the \"Leatherstocking Tales\". Cooper's novels were largely set in what was at the time the American frontier: the Appalachian Mountains and areas west of there. As did his novel \"The Prairie\" (1824), most later westerns would typically take place west of the Mississippi River.\n\nSection::::History.:1850s–1900.\n", "Chris Drake and Paul Sorensen were cast as deputies-turned-bandits Burt Alvord and Billy Stiles, who operated in the Arizona Territory early in the 20th century.Morris Ankrum and John Smith, later of NBC's \"Cimarron City\" and \"Laramie\", played businessmen Chris Evans and John Sontag, respectively, who turn to train robbery to thwart the Southern Pacific Railroad. Jimmie Dodd of \"The Mickey Mouse Club\" appears as a deputy in this episode, which takes considerable liberty with historical facts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gunsmoke\"'s first television season episode \"Reunion '78\" features a showdown between cowboy Jerry Shand, who has just arrived in Dodge City, and long-time resident Andy Cully, hardware dealer, who was one of Quantrill's Raiders. Shand hails from Lawrence, Kansas, and has an old score to settle.\n\nBULLET::::- Have Gun—Will Travel- The Teacher (1958). The episode mentions Quantrill’s Raiders. A schoolteacher wants to teach the school children about both sides of the Civil War and the people which hail from the North don’t like it.\n", "Between 1887 and World War I, over 1,000 Native Americans went \"Wild Westing\" with Buffalo Bill's Wild West. Most Wild Westers were Oglala Lakota from Pine Ridge, South Dakota, the first Lakota people to go Wild Westing.\n", "In the 75th volume of the French comic book series \"Lucky Luke\" (\"L'Homme de Washington\"), published in 2008, both James West and Artemus Gordon have a minor guest appearance, albeit the names have been changed to \"James East\" and \"Artémius Gin\".\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.\n", "The major type of banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of the West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang, Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch and hundreds of others who preyed on banks, trains, stagecoaches, and in some cases even armed government transports such as the Wham Paymaster Robbery and the Skeleton Canyon Robbery. Some of the outlaws, such as Jesse James, were products of the violence of the Civil War (James had ridden with Quantrill's Raiders) and others became outlaws during hard times in the cattle industry. Many were misfits and drifters who roamed the West avoiding the law. In rural areas Joaquin Murieta, Jack Powers, Augustine Chacon and other bandits terrorized the state. When outlaw gangs were near, towns would occasionally raise a posse to drive them out or capture them. Seeing that the need to combat the bandits was a growing business opportunity, Allan Pinkerton ordered his National Detective Agency, founded in 1850, to open branches out West, and they got into the business of pursuing and capturing outlaws. There was plenty of business thanks to the criminals such as the James Gang, Butch Cassidy, Sam Bass, and dozens of others. To take refuge from the law, outlaws would use the advantages of the open range, remote passes and badlands to hide. While some settlements and towns in the frontier also house outlaws and criminals, which were called \"outlaw towns\".\n", "Section::::\"Wild West\" show.\n", "Section::::History.:Outlaws.\n\nThe arrival of the railroad on July 4, 1879 brought with it businesses, development and new residents, both respectable and dubious. Murderers, robbers, thieves, gamblers, gunmen, swindlers, vagrants, and tramps poured in, transforming the eastern side of the settlement into a virtually lawless brawl. Among the notorious characters were such legends of the Old West as: dentist Doc Holliday and his girlfriend Big Nose Kate, Jesse James, Billy the Kid, Wyatt Earp, Mysterious Dave Mather, Hoodoo Brown, and Handsome Harry the Dancehall Rustler.\n", "In 19th- and early 20th-century media, enormous popular attention was focused on the Western United States in the second half of the 19th century, from the 1860s to the 1890s, a period sometimes called the \"Old West\" or the \"Wild West\". Such media typically exaggerated the romance, anarchy, and chaotic violence of the period for greater dramatic effect. This eventually inspired the Western genre of film, which spilled over into television shows, novels, and comic books, as well as children's toys, games and costumes.\n", "BULLET::::- Russell Simpson as Matt Keeler, villainous editor of \"The Brimstone News\" and member of the Secret Seven\n\nBULLET::::- Walter Miller as Doc Hardy, an old friend of Wade\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Stevens as Buckskin Frank, one of Keeler's henchmen\n\nBULLET::::- Frank McGlynn Jr. as Larry Munro, goldmine owner framed by Keeler\n\nBULLET::::- Francis McDonald as Assayer Purvis, member of the Secret Seven\n\nBULLET::::- Al Bridge as Steve Claggett, one of Keeler's henchmen\n\nBULLET::::- Chief Thunderbird as Chief Red Hatchet, one of Keeler's henchmen\n\nBULLET::::- Robert McClung as Harmonica Kid\n\nBULLET::::- Edward LeSaint as Sheriff\n", "Wild westers educated the American and European public about Native American history and culture. The Wild Wester community was a diverse group, including U.S. Army Indian Scouts from the Great Sioux War; famous prisoners of war such as Lakota Chief Sitting Bull, Ghost Dancers Kicking Bear and Short Bull; Apache Chief Geronimo; Carlisle Indian School students Luther Standing Bear and Frank C. Goings; and Chiefs Iron Tail and Red Shirt, who became international celebrities. Chief Iron Tail was the most famous Native American of his day; a popular subject for professional photographers, he had his image circulated across the continents. Chief Red Shirt was popular with journalists and newspapers and was the most quoted Wild Wester celebrity. Early dime novels, Wild West shows and Golden Age photographers, portraitists and movie-makers created the theatrical image and portrayal of the Lakota people as the iconic American Indian mounted warrior. This popular perception in the United States and Europe was created by Lakota performers in their historic reenactments of the Sioux Wars; demonstrations of Lakota horse culture and equestrian skills; and ceremonial dancing, cooking and music.\n", "Most performers spent one or two seasons on the road; some Wild Westers became cowboys, stuntmen for films, artisans, musicians, educators, authors, movie actors and entrepreneurs. Chief Flying Hawk was a veteran of Wild West shows over 30 years, from about 1898 to 1930.\n", "The Western as a specialized genre got its start in the \"penny dreadfuls\" and later the \"dime novels\". Published in June 1860, \"Malaeska; the Indian Wife of the White Hunter\" is considered the first dime novel. These cheaply made books were hugely successful and capitalized on the many stories that were being told about the mountain men, outlaws, settlers, and lawmen who were taming the western frontier. Many of these novels were fictionalized stories based on actual people, such as Billy the Kid, Buffalo Bill, Wyatt Earp (who was still alive at the time), Wild Bill Hickok, and Jesse James.\n", "Section::::21st century Wild Westing.\n", "On the vast mountainous Montana vista, to the soft strains of a \"ride 'em\" chorus, horned cattle are quietly herded until raiders divert them. Hearing shots, Dare (Wayne) \"This is no time to think\" in a tall white hat, and hungry dark-mustached wiry side-kick lightning-rod salesman Dink Hooley (an uncredited Syd Saylor) mis-call \"the winning side\", add their wild mustangs to confusion and dusty stampede at jerky triple time of original silent film. Rough shrubby terrain provides a dangerous battleground. \n", "List of Old West gunfights\n\nThis is a list of Old West gunfights. Gunfights have left a lasting impression on American frontier history; many were retold and embellished by dime novels and magazines like Harper's Weekly during the late 19th century. The most notable shootouts took place in Arizona, California, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Some like the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral were the outcome of long-simmering feuds and rivalries but most were the result of a confrontation between outlaws and law enforcement.\n\nSection::::List.\n\nBULLET::::- Bellevue War, April 1, 1840, Bellevue, Iowa\n", "Wild West (disambiguation)\n\nWild West often refers to the American frontier period of the Western United States in the 19th century. \n\nWild West may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Films.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild West\" (serial), a 1925 film serial\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild West\", a 1946 film featuring Eddie Dean, Roscoe Ates and Lash LaRue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild West\", a 1992 film starring Naveen Andrews\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Games.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild West\" (role-playing game), published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1981\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild West\", a Nintendo DS video game made by Happy Happening\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.\n", "Since 1887, Wild Westing has been a family tradition with several hundred Pine Ridge families. Between 1906 and 1915, 570 individuals from Pine Ridge went Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill and other shows. Often entire families worked together, and the tradition of the Wild Wester community is not unlike that of circus communities. Frank C. Goings, the recruiting agent for Buffalo Bill and other Wild West shows at Pine Ridge, was a Carlisle alumnus and Wild Wester with experience as a performer, interpreter and chaperone. Goings carefully chose the famous chiefs, the best dancers, the best singers, and the best riders; screened for performers willing to be away from home for extended periods of time; and coordinated travel, room and board. Travelling with his wife and children, and for many years toured Europe and the United States with Buffalo Bill's Wild West, Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Real West and the Sells Floto Circus.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Villains.\n", "BULLET::::- Crime. The author details various crimes that took place in Utah, but in one book explains that 20th Century Hollywood distorted the image of American West as a place of anarchy and lawlessness, which was not quite true due to the law enforcement of those days. In many cases of crime presented, Tom or John helped get to the bottom of it, often with their help of the town marshal, their Uncle Mark.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Persistent organic pollutants.\n\nIt was estimated that global production of plastics is approximately 250 mt/yr. Their abundance has been found to transport persistent organic pollutants, also known as POPs. These pollutants have been linked to an increased distribution of algae associated with red tides.\n\nSection::::Effects on the environment.\n", "Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that \"almost all plastic products\" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.\n", "There are also other types of degradable materials that are not considered to be biopolymers, because they are oil-based, similar to other conventional plastics. These plastics are made to be more degradable through the use of different additives, which help them degrade when exposed to UV rays or other physical stressors. yet, biodegradation-promoting additives for polymers have been shown not to significantly increase biodegradation.\n", "Although biodegradable and degradable plastics have helped reduce plastic pollution, there are some drawbacks. One issue concerning both types of plastics is that they do not break down very efficiently in natural environments. There, degradable plastics that are oil-based may break down into smaller fractions, at which point they do not degrade further.\n\nSection::::Reduction efforts.:Incineration.\n", "Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or ultra-violet radiation, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation.\n\nSome modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface (aerobic), whereas other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems (anaerobic).\n", "A tremendous amount of plastic waste litters our planet every year, and its cost is huge. According to the UNEP 2014 Yearbook, plastic contamination threatens marine life, tourism, fisheries and businesses and the overall natural capital cost for plastic waste is $75 billion each year. Since plastics don't biodegrade but photodegrade, plastics in the fields or water just break down into small pieces. Plants and animals then absorb these toxic pieces and enter the human food chain. When the toxic materials are in the human food chain it may then lead to fatal consequences such as cancer and birth defects.\n", "Additives added to plastics during manufacturing may leach into the environment after the plastic item is discarded; additives in microplastics in the ocean leach into ocean water and in plastics in landfills may escape and leach into the soil and then into groundwater.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Section::::Reduction efforts.:Biodegradable and degradable plastics.\n\nThe use of biodegradable plastics has many advantages and disadvantages. Biodegradables are biopolymers that degrade in industrial composters. Biodegradables do not degrade as efficiently in domestic composters, and during this slower process, methane gas may be emitted.\n", "Section::::Types of plastic debris.:Macrodebris.\n\nPlastic debris is categorized as macrodebris when it is larger than 20 mm. These include items such as plastic grocery bags. Macrodebris are often found in ocean waters, and can have a serious impact on the native organisms. Fishing nets have been prime pollutants. Even after they have been abandoned, they continue to trap marine organisms and other plastic debris. Eventually, these abandoned nets become too difficult to remove from the water because they become too heavy, having grown in weight up to 6 tons.\n\nSection::::Decomposition of plastics.\n", "Atmospheric pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, etc.), in combination with solar radiation, can also be responsible for severe damage. Acid-base induced chemical changes may also be responsible for much pollution-caused damage. Unsaturated alkyl and aromatic compounds may act as catalysts in the photooxidation of polymers. In the presence of sulfur dioxide and oxygen, ultraviolet radiation causes crosslinking of polyethylene and polypropylene and is responsible for the rapid loss of color in pigmented coatings.\n", "Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (e.g.: plastic bottles and much more) in the Earth's environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, and humans. Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized into micro-, meso-, or macro debris, based on size. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, and as a result levels of plastic production by humans are high. However, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade. Together, these two factors have led to a high prominence of plastic pollution in the environment.\n", "Plastic debris is categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary plastics are in their original form when collected. Examples of these would be bottle caps, cigarette butts, and microbeads. Secondary plastics, on the other hand, account for smaller plastics that have resulted from the degradation of primary plastics.\n\nSection::::Types of plastic debris.:Microdebris.\n", "Proper storage of plastics can help slow down the degrading process of plastics. Plastics are currently stored with a RH Level of 50% with the storage temperature at 18 degrees Celsius with no light coming into contact with the objects. Although the composition of each plastic material can be different it is difficult to determine one unifying storage care plan ,thus understanding the composition of the plastic can help determine their preferred climate levels. Keeping plastics at a stable low temperature or considering placing these objects either in cold storage or in oxygen impermeable bags helps slow degradation.\n", "The Getty Conservation Institute's project, the Preservation of Plastics, focuses specifically on coordinating the comparison of a wide range of analytical techniques for plastics identification and to participate in a details study into the physical and aging properties of a few key classes of polymer specifically. As with the Modern Paints project, if the conservators can learn more about these new materials being used, they can develop a procedure for how to treat them.\n\nSection::::Current major research projects.:Modern Paints Project.:Outdoor Sculpture Research Project.\n", "Recent changes in plastic manufacturing, as a result of environmental concerns, towards biodegradable plastics, have a potentially negative effect upon the long term stability of such objects within museum collections.\n\nSection::::Identification and composition of plastics.\n", "One study shows estimates of 5.25 trillion individual pieces of microplastcs, weighing nearly 267,000 tons are currently floating in our oceans. It has been estimated that since being invented, 8.3 billion tons of plastics has been produced, with 80% (6.64 billion tons) being dumped in landfills, on land, and in the oceans. Plastic particles don't biodegrade or break down and instead just fragment into smaller pieces. If current trends in the amount of plastics flowing into our oceans continues, combined with overfishing, will result in plastics outweighing fish in the oceans by 2050.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Pacific garbage patch\n", "Section::::Environmental and social effects.\n\nPlastic pollution from illegal dumping poses health risks to wildlife. Animals often mistake plastics for food, resulting in intestinal entanglement. Slow-degrading chemicals, like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), nonylphenol (NP), and pesticides also found in plastics, can release into environments and subsequently also be ingested by wildlife.\n", "Section::::Reduction efforts.:Collection.\n", "Understanding the different types of plastic chemical degradation as this helps determine what not to expose plastics to As the polymers that are composed of the plastics can deteriorate easily by changes in temperature, water or light it is important to understand how these affect the polymers. Listed below are the chemical reactions that occur with the deterioration of the polymer's structure.\n", "There are varying rates of recycling per type of plastic, and in 2011, the overall plastic recycling rate was approximately 8% in the United States. Approximately 2.7 million tons of plastics were recycled in the U.S. in 2011. Some plastics are recycled more than others; in 2011 \"29 percent of HDPE bottles and 29 percent of PET bottles and jars were recycled.\"\n", "Some scientists suggest that by 2050 there could be more plastic than fish in the oceans.\n\nSection::::Manufactured products.:Pesticides.\n\nThe environmental impact of pesticides is often greater than what is intended by those who use them. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including nontarget species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food. Pesticide contaminates land and water when it escapes from production sites and storage tanks, when it runs off from fields, when it is discarded, when it is sprayed aerially, and when it is sprayed into water to kill algae.\n", "BULLET::::- Ozone-Induced degradation will deteriorate saturated and unsaturated polymers when the polymer is exposed to \"ozone in the air\" will speed the process of deterioration. A test is conducted to see if the objects has been exposed by taking small samples and analyzed using an FTIR.\n\nBULLET::::- Catalytic Degradation Mainly focuses on plastic waste polymers as they are transformed into hydrocarbons\n\nBULLET::::- Biodegradation is when the surface or the strength of the plastic changes, these properties allow it to decompose or mineralize by carbon dioxide and water.\n", "Plastics are made from petrochemicals. These chemicals don't fit back into the ecologies around us. Scientific studies show that these chemicals are toxic to humans — we know this when we smell plastics burning. Eventually, plastics that are littered, burned or dumped degrade into these poisonous chemicals. Over time, these chemicals leach into the land, air and water, and are absorbed by plants and animals. Eventually, they reach us, causing congenital disabilities, hormonal imbalances, and cancer. Even engineered dump sites are not a solution. Whether it is ten years, or one hundred, these chemicals will eventually seep into the biosphere, which may then in turn affect human health.\n", "As of 2018, about 380 million tons of plastic is produced worldwide each year. From the 1950s up to 2018, an estimated 6.3 billion tons of plastic has been produced worldwide, of which an estimated 9% has been recycled and another 12% has been incinerated. This large amount of plastic waste enters the environment, with studies suggesting that the bodies of 90% of seabirds contain plastic debris. In some areas there have been significant efforts to reduce the prominence of free range plastic pollution, through reducing plastic consumption, litter cleanup, and promoting plastic recycling.\n", "Some researchers suggest that by 2050 there could be more plastic than fish in the oceans by weight.\n\nSection::::Types of plastic debris.\n" ]

[ "plastic decays in sunlight", "Sunlight causes plastic to decay." ]

[ "plastic doesn't decay in a biologic sense, it just breaks down but doesn't go away.", "Sunlight only causes plastic to fade or become brittle but not decay." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "plastic decays in sunlight", "Sunlight causes plastic to decay." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "plastic doesn't decay in a biologic sense, it just breaks down but doesn't go away.", "Sunlight only causes plastic to fade or become brittle but not decay." ]

[ "Some of the justices were sympathetic to Berger's arguments. Vice Chief Justice Rebecca Berch described the mandatory minimum and consecutive sentencing rules, as well as the exclusion of probation, parole or pardon as a \"triple whammy,\" observing that \"it far exceeds the sentence imposed for similar crimes in any jurisdiction and exceeds the penalties regularly imposed in Arizona for crimes that result in serious bodily injury or even death to victims.\"\n", "Section::::Legal appeal and overturn of sentence.\n", "The crime rate in the United States unexpectedly fell sharply in the 1990s, in almost all demographic and geographic areas, and a portion of the drop has been attributed to the incapacitation effect. Beginning in the mid-1990s, sentences began to lengthen due to habitual felon statutes being passed in many states as well as changes in sentencing statutes which reduced the credit inmates could amass to reduce the amount of time they were held in prison.\n", "Section::::Missouri.\n\nBoone County\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Ferguson was convicted of the 2001 murder of sports editor Kent Heitholt and sentenced to 40 years in prison. His conviction was overturned in 2013 and he was released after key witnesses recanted their testimony.\n\nSt. Louis County\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Briscoe was convicted of a 1982 rape and robbery and sentenced to 45 years in prison. DNA tests exonerated him in 2006 and identified the real guilty criminal Larry Smith.\n\nLincoln County\n", "BULLET::::- Cornelius Dupree was convicted of aggravated robbery, which was alleged to have been committed during a rape in 1979. He was sentenced to 75 years in prison and paroled during the summer of 2010. After DNA evidence cleared him of the crime, he was declared innocent in January 2011. His 30 years of imprisonment is the longest of any exonerated inmate in Texas.\n\nJefferson County\n", "Since the 1840s, many jurisdictions, including the federal courts, have adopted a practice of having a probation officer prepare a presentence investigation report to inform the court as to the defendant's characteristics, including his criminal record, if any. In the 1970s, the length of incarceration had increased in response to the rising of crime rates in the United States. By the 1980s, state legislatures began to reduce judicial discretion in sentencing terms and conditions. This was especially true in cases of life imprisonment, which between 1992 and 2003 increased by 83% due to the implementation of three strikes laws. Short term sentencing, mandatory minimums, and guideline-based sentencing began to remove the human element from sentencing. They also required the judge to consider the severity of a crime in determining the length of an offender's sentence.\n", "Section::::Indeterminate sentencing.\n\nIn some states, a judge will sentence criminals to an indeterminate amount of time in prison for certain crimes. This period is often between 1 and 3 years (on the short end) and 5–50 years on the upper end. The legislature generally sets a short, mandatory minimum sentence that an offender must spend in prison (e.g. one-third of the minimum sentence, or one-third of the high end of a sentence). The parole board then sets the actual date of prison release, as well as the rules that the parolee must follow when released.\n", "Sentencing law sometimes includes \"cliffs\" that result in much stiffer penalties when certain facts apply. For instance, an armed career criminal or habitual offender law may subject a defendant to a significant increase in his sentence if he commits a third offence of a certain kind. This makes it difficult for fine gradations in punishments to be achieved.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Scholarship.\n\nIn his 2004 article, Steven Levitt attributes part of the decline in the crime rate seen beginning in the mid-1990s to the inability of inmates to recidivate as sentences for crimes, especially for repeat offenders, had been greatly increased. Examples of these laws include back-to-back life sentences, three-strikes sentencing, and other habitual offender laws. In the United States, states that one of the purposes of criminal sentencing is to \"protect the public from further crimes of the defendant\". Quite simply, those incarcerated cannot commit further crimes against society.\n", "In 2008 there was an amendment to sections 2 and 3 of the South African Criminal Procedure Act (51 of 1977) known as the Criminal Procedure Amendment Act (65 of 2008). This new law came into effect on the 6th May 2009. In summary, the new law says that those convicted of a minor offense, determined by the type of sentence imposed, 10 or more years ago, qualify for the expungement of their criminal record. The sentence must have been a suspended jail term, correctional supervision or a fine.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.\n", "The minimum nominal sentence that can be imposed is ten years, but the sentencing judge can extend it if the prisoner's criminal history or the nature of the prisoner's offending warrants it.\n", "Section 718.2 applies the totality principle by stating that: \"c) where consecutive sentences are imposed, the combined sentence should not be unduly long or harsh;\" This is so as to \"avoid sentences that cumulatively are out of proportion to the gravity of the offences.\" In application it requires Canadian courts to craft a global sentence of all offences that is not excessive. If the total sentence is excessive the court must adjust the sentence so that the \"total sentence is proper\".\n\nBULLET::::1. The global sentence considerably exceeds the \"normal\" level of the most serious of the individual offences.\n", "Criminal convictions remain on record for an indefinite period. Under certain conditions, the Court will expunge convictions after 15 years in an exceptional sentence, 10 years if there conviction of the sentence does not exceed 5 years, 5 years if the sentence of imprisonment does not exceed one year.\n\nSection::::Denmark.\n", "There are six criminal history categories. Each category is associated with a range of criminal history points. Thus, for example, a defendant with 0 or 1 criminal history points would be in Criminal History Category I, while a defendant with 13 or more criminal history points would be in Criminal History Category VI. The criminal history points are calculated by adding 3 points for each prior sentence of imprisonment exceeding one year and one month; adding 2 points for each prior sentence of imprisonment of at least sixty days but not more than 13 months; adding 1 point for each prior sentence of less than sixty days; adding 2 points if the defendant committed the instant offense while under any criminal justice sentence, including probation, parole, supervised release, imprisonment, work release, or escape status; adding 2 points if the defendant committed the instant offense less than two years after release from imprisonment on a sentence of sixty days or more or while in imprisonment or escape status on such a sentence, except that if 2 points are added committing the offense while under a criminal justice sentence, adding only 1 point for this item; and adding 1 point for each prior sentence resulting from a conviction of a crime of violence that did not receive any points because such sentence was counted as a single sentence, up to a total of 3 points for this item.\n", "BULLET::::- However, as one can be sentenced to life without parole, another way to be sentenced for life in prison is a minimum number of years spent in jail depending on the life expectancy of the prisoner. Thus the prisoner will then spend the rest of his or her life in prison.\n", "During a long sentence, an offender can take full advantage of the programs that the prison has, including rehab for drug abuse or alcohol abuse, anger management, mental health, and so on, so when the offender completes the rehab or program he may be released upon request from authorities with a lower risk of recidivism. This process tries to combat the tendency of prisoners leaving incarceration after a long sentence to go back to offending in short order, without any attempt at correcting their ways.\n\nSection::::Determinate sentencing.\n", "Overturned convictions in the United States\n\nThis is a list of notable overturned convictions in the United States.\n\nSection::::Alabama.\n\nBlount County\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Wilson was convicted of the 1912 murder of his wife and child and sentenced to life in prison. He was exonerated in 1918 when they were both found living in Indiana.\n\nJackson County\n\nBULLET::::- The Scottsboro Boys were nine black juveniles convicted of an alleged 1931 rape of a white girl, eight of whom were initially sentenced to die by the electric chair. All were later either pardoned or had their convictions overturned.\n\nJefferson County\n", "BULLET::::- if the judgement imposed a financial punishment or a sentence of imprisonment up to one month for an offence committed with intention, or a sentence of imprisonment for up to two months for an act committed by negligence, the criminal record ceases ten years after the sentence has been served.\n\nIn the aforementioned cases, the certificates are destroyed upon the validity of the reasons provided.\n", "Section::::Political and judicial career.:\"De jure\" decision.\n", "In the Northern Territory, a prisoner serving one or more indefinite sentence(s) has a nominal sentence set at 70% of the sentence that would have been imposed if the prisoner were not dangerous, 20 years (25 years in some circumstances) if the sentence imposed would have been one or more consecutive sentences of life imprisonment, or any other term as is fixed by the court. \n\nThe indeterminate sentence must be reviewed by the court when the nominal sentence has expired and every three years afterward.\n\nSection::::Australia.:Australian Capital Territory, Queensland and Victoria.\n", "BULLET::::- Anthony Ray Hinton was wrongfully convicted in 1985 of the murder of two men in Birmingham and sentenced to death. The Supreme Court ruled in 2014 that his defence was inadequate and he was exonerated in 2015 by a Jefferson Court judge after spending nearly 30 years in prison.\n\nSection::::Arizona.\n\nMaricopa County\n\nBULLET::::- Ray Krone was sentenced to death for the 1991 murder of a bar manager. Bite marks found on the victim were said to match Krone's teeth. DNA tests exonerated Krone in 2001 and identified the real killer Kenneth Phillips.\n", "MacKenzie found that incapacitating offenders who continue to commit crimes at high rates is effective, it works best as a part of a multi-tiered approach. In addition, the effects of incarceration on the families and children of the inmate may be increasing the likelihood of future criminal activities.\n\nIn the Victorian Jury Sentencing Study, incapacitation was the second most popular predominant sentencing purpose for judges, while for jurors, it was only the fifth ranking purpose.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:United States.\n", "Australia, Mexico, New Zealand and some other countries employ a system of mandatory restorative justice, in which the criminal must apologize to the victim or provide some form of reparation instead of being imprisoned for minor crimes. In serious crimes, some other form of punishment is still used.\n\nSection::::People sentenced to mandatory sentences.\n\nBULLET::::- Weldon Angelos – 55 years for possessing a handgun while he sold $350 worth of marijuana to a police informant on three separate occasions\n\nBULLET::::- Leandro Andrade – 50 years without parole for theft of nine video tapes\n", "Totality principle\n\nThe totality principle is a common law principle which applies when a court imposes multiple sentences of imprisonment. The principle was first formulated by David Thomas in his 1970 study of the sentencing decisions of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales:\n\nSection::::Application.\n\nSection::::Application.:United Kingdom.\n", "The Sentencing Table in the Guidelines Manual shows the relationship between these two factors; for each pairing of offense level and criminal history category, the Table specifies a sentencing range, in months, within which the court may sentence a defendant. For example, for a defendant convicted on an offense with a total offense level of 22 and a criminal history category of I, the Guidelines recommend a sentence of 41–51 months. If, however, a person with an extensive criminal history (Category VI) committed the same offense in the same manner in the same modern timeline and not during the older guideline periods, the Guidelines would recommend a sentence of 84–105 months.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Commercially available sea salts on the market today vary widely in their chemical composition. Although the principal component is sodium chloride, the remaining portion can range from less than 0.2 to 10% of other salts. These are mostly calcium, potassium, and magnesium salts of chloride and sulfate with substantially lesser amounts of many trace elements found in natural seawater. The moisture content can also vary from less than 1 to over 12%. Though the composition of commercially available salt may vary, the ionic composition of natural saltwater is relatively constant.\n\nSection::::Historical production.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nIn addition to the familiar domestic uses of salt, more dominant applications of the approximately 250 megatons per year production (2008 data) include chemicals and de-icing.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Chemicals production.\n\nSalt is used, directly or indirectly, in the production of many chemicals, which consume most of the world's production.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Chemicals production.:Chlor-alkali industry.\n\nIt is the starting point for the chloralkali process, which provides the world with chlorine and sodium hydroxide according to the chemical equation\n", "Black lava salt is a marketing term for sea salt harvested from various places around the world that has been blended and colored with activated charcoal. The salt is used as a decorative condiment to be shown at the table.\n\nSection::::Health.\n\nThe health consequences of eating sea salt or regular table salt are the same, as the content of sea salt is still mainly sodium chloride. Table salt is more processed than sea salt to eliminate minerals and usually contains an additive such as silicon dioxide to prevent clumping.\n", "Although sea salt is sometimes promoted as being healthier than table salt, both forms have the same sodium content.\n\nSection::::Labeling.\n", "The world production of sodium sulfate, almost exclusively in the form of the decahydrate amounts to approximately 5.5 to 6 million tonnes annually (Mt/a). In 1985, production was 4.5 Mt/a, half from natural sources, and half from chemical production. After 2000, at a stable level until 2006, natural production had increased to 4 Mt/a, and chemical production decreased to 1.5 to 2 Mt/a, with a total of 5.5 to 6 Mt/a. For all applications, naturally produced and chemically produced sodium sulfate are practically interchangeable.\n\nSection::::Production.:Natural sources.\n", "Sea salt\n\nSea salt is salt that is produced by the evaporation of seawater. It is used as a seasoning in foods, cooking, cosmetics and for preserving food. It is also called bay salt, solar salt, or salt. Like mined rock salt, production of sea salt has been dated to prehistoric times. There is no scientific evidence that consuming sea salt instead of more refined sodium chloride salts has any health benefit.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.:Substitution.\n\nSome agencies are substituting beer, molasses, and beet juice instead of road salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Food industry and agriculture.\n\nMany microorganisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage.\n", "Iodine, an element essential for human health, is present only in small amounts in sea salt. Iodised salt is table salt mixed with a minute amount of various salts of the element iodine.\n\nStudies have found some microplastic contamination in sea salt from the US, Europe and China. Sea salt has also been shown to be contaminated by fungi that can cause food spoilage as well as some that may be mycotoxigenic.\n", "A hybrid technology in which seaweed is treated heterogeneously as in the semirefined process exists, but alcohol or high salt levels are used to inhibit dissolution. This process is often used on South American seaweeds and gives some of the cost benefits of semirefined processing, while allowing a wider range of seaweeds to be processed, however, the naturally low cellulose levels in some South American seaweeds allow them to be heterogeneously processed and still be sold under the EU refined specification.\n\nSection::::Production.:Grades.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nNaS adopts the antifluorite structure, which means that the Na centers occupy sites of the fluoride in the CaF framework, and the larger S occupy the sites for Ca.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nIndustrially NaS is produced by carbothermic reduction of sodium sulfate often using coal:\n\nIn the laboratory, the salt can be prepared by reduction of sulfur with sodium in anhydrous ammonia, or by sodium in dry THF with a catalytic amount of naphthalene (forming sodium naphthalenide):\n\nSection::::Reactions with inorganic reagents.\n\nThe sulfide ion in sulfide salts such as sodium sulfide can incorporate a proton into the salt by protonation:\n", "Two thirds of the world's production of the decahydrate (Glauber's salt) is from the natural mineral form mirabilite, for example as found in lake beds in southern Saskatchewan. In 1990, Mexico and Spain were the world's main producers of natural sodium sulfate (each around 500,000 tonnes), with Russia, United States and Canada around 350,000 tonnes each. Natural resources are estimated at over 1 billion tonnes.\n", "For practical reasons salinity is usually related to the sum of masses of a subset of these dissolved chemical constituents (so-called \"solution salinity\"), rather than to the unknown mass of salts that gave rise to this composition (an exception is when artificial seawater is created). For many purposes this sum can be limited to a set of eight major ions in natural waters, although for seawater at highest precision an additional seven minor ions are also included. The major ions dominate the inorganic composition of most (but by no means all) natural waters. Exceptions include some pit lakes and waters from some hydrothermal springs.\n", "The salting-out process used in the manufacture of soaps benefits from the common-ion effect. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Addition of sodium chloride reduces the solubility of the soap salts. The soaps precipitate due to a combination of common-ion effect and increased ionic strength.\n\nSea, brackish and other waters that contain appreciable amount of sodium ions (Na) interfere with the normal behavior of soap because of common-ion effect. In the presence of excess Na, the solubility of soap salts is reduced, making the soap less effective.\n\nSection::::Buffering effect.\n", "Studies have found some microplastic contamination in sea salt from the US, Europe and China. The health effects of this contamination are unknown because, as of 2017, no studies on the question had been performed.\n\nSection::::Dietary recommendations.\n\nRecommended intakes of salt are usually expressed in terms of sodium intake as an Adequate Intake (AI) and a Tolerable upper intake level (Upper Limit or UL). Salt (as sodium chloride) contains 39.3 percent of sodium by weight.\n", "The size of lithium and potassium ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast, rubidium and caesium ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly. The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl), which has an index of 1. Potassium, as potassium chloride (KCl), is the principal ingredient in salt substitutes and has a saltiness index of 0.6.\n", "In the colonial New World, slaves were brought from Africa to rake salt on various islands in the West Indies, Bahamas and particularly Turks and Caicos Islands. \n\nToday, salt labelled \"sea salt\" in the US might not have actually come from the sea, as long as it meets the FDA's purity requirements. All mined salts were originally sea salts since they originated from a marine source at some point in the distant past, usually from an evaporating shallow sea.\n\nSection::::Taste.\n", "Saltwater soaps are potassium salts rather than sodium salts. Both sodium and potassium are alkali metals. The relatively high concentration of salt (sodium chloride) in seawater lowers the solubility of soaps made with sodium hydroxide, due to the salting out effect. Potassium soaps are more soluble in seawater than sodium soaps and so are more effective with seawater. In places that do not have fresh water or need to conserve it, cleaning can be done with the use of salt water and saltwater soap.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Evaporator (marine)\n\nBULLET::::- Navy shower\n\nBULLET::::- Potassium hydroxide\n\nBULLET::::- Elephant toothpaste\n", "Another formerly major use for sodium sulfate, notably in the US and Canada, is in the Kraft process for the manufacture of wood pulp. Organics present in the \"black liquor\" from this process are burnt to produce heat, needed to drive the reduction of sodium sulfate to sodium sulfide. However, due to advances in the thermal efficiency of the Kraft recovery process in the early 1960s, more efficient sulfur recovery was achieved and the need for sodium sulfate makeup was drastically reduced\n", "Sodium sulfide is primarily used in the kraft process in the pulp and paper industry.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Cleanser.\n\nSince at least medieval times, people have used salt as a cleansing agent rubbed on household surfaces. It is also used in many brands of shampoo, toothpaste and popularly to de-ice driveways and patches of ice.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Optical usage.\n", "Section::::Biochemistry.\n\nIon gradients are crucial to many major biological functions on a cellular level. Consequently, the ionic composition of an organism's internal environment is highly regulated with respect to its external environment. Osmoconformers have adapted so that they utilize the ionic composition of their external environment, which is typically seawater, in order to support important biological functions. For instance, seawater has a high concentration of sodium ions, which helps support muscle contraction and neuronal signaling when paired with high internal concentrations of potassium ions.\n", "The Solvay process recycles its ammonia. It consumes only brine and limestone, and calcium chloride is its only waste product. The process is substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, which generates two waste products, calcium sulfide and hydrogen chloride. The Solvay process quickly came to dominate sodium carbonate production worldwide. By 1900, 90% of sodium carbonate was produced by the Solvay process, and the last Leblanc process plant closed in the early 1920s. \n", "Salt produced at the Hutchinson Salt Company is called rock salt, and about 500,000 tons is mined each year. It is principally used for industrial purposes and for de-icing highways. When finely ground, it is used for feeding livestock. It is not used for table salt or other purposes requiring a very pure type of salt.\n\nIn contrast, salt produced through the evaporation process produces common table salt, as well as salt used by pharmaceutical companies, food processors, and agricultural and chemical businesses.\n", "Some gourmets believe sea salt tastes better and has a better texture than ordinary table salt. In applications that retain sea salt's coarser texture, it can provide a different mouth feel, and may change flavor due to its different rate of dissolution. The mineral content also affects the taste. The colors and variety of flavors are due to local clays and algae found in the waters the salt is harvested from. For example, some boutique salts from Korea and France are pinkish gray, some from India are black. Black and red salts from Hawaii may even have powdered black lava and baked red clay added in. Some sea salt contains sulfates. It may be difficult to distinguish sea salt from other salts, such as pink Himalayan salt, Maras salt from the ancient Inca hot springs, or rock salt (halite).\n", "Chloride cell\n\nChloride cells are cells in the gills of teleost fishes which pump excessive sodium and chloride ions out into the sea against a concentration gradient in marine fish. Alternatively, in the gills of freshwater teleost fish, they pump sodium and chloride ions into the fish, also against a concentration gradient.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n" ]

[ "Only sodium chloride is considered salt." ]

[ "More than sodium chloride is considered salt." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Only sodium chloride is considered salt.", "Only sodium chloride is considered salt. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "More than sodium chloride is considered salt.", "More than sodium chloride is considered salt. " ]

[ "Tatts Keno was administered by Tattersall's and played in most areas that offer their lottery products (Victoria, Tasmania and Australian Capital Territory) – Tatts Keno could not be played in the Northern Territory. Tatts Keno was a daily game, and entries could vary from 3 to 10 spots.\n", "In addition to the Saturday Tattslotto draw, most states and territories' lottery corporations hold their own lottery draws, playable only in their state (or states, in the case of Tattersalls) of their jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::State Lotto Draws.:Lotto Strike.\n", "The following prize divisions can be won (cumulative probability refers to the probability of winning that division or a higher division, thus the chance of winning any prize is 1 in 85):\n\nSection::::Lotto.:Monday & Wednesday Lotto.\n", "Section::::Former Lottery Games.:Intralot.:Lucky 5 Red or Black.\n\nFirst drawn on 1 June 2009, and drawn daily at 7:30pm. Games cost $0.55 each (including agent's commission) with a minimum of two games. Five numbers from 35 are drawn, plus either \"red\" or \"black\". A jackpot (minimum $50,000) is won for matching all five numbers plus the correct colour, with fixed minor prizes down to four numbers, or three with the correct colour.\n\nSection::::Former Lottery Games.:Intralot.:Lucky 3.\n", "Entries cost $1.10 each (including agent's commission), with a minimum purchase of 3 games, and can only be purchased via \"quick pick\". Prizes are won for matching the four corners, or a diagonal cross, within the first 25 numbers, or a \"full house\" within 50 numbers (with odds of 1:212,085). A jackpot \"snowball\" prize (minimum $500,000) is won if a \"full house\" is made within 44 numbers (odds of 1:14,638,344).\n", "In recent years Superdraws have seen guaranteed First Division prize pools of around $20 million. Since 1999, the last Superdraw of each year is often known as a \"Megadraw\" – its guaranteed First Division pool is larger still, with the 2006 Megadraw's First Division pool amassing $33 million.The end-of-year Megadraw – which began as a \"Millennium Megadraw\" on 31 December 1999 – is conducted on or around New Year's Eve; First Division pools in these draws are generally $30 million or more.\n", "Lotto Strike, launched in 1995 is a statewide companion game to NSW Lotto played in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory only, and administered by New South Wales Lotteries. Originally based on NSW Lotto's Monday and Wednesday draws, Lotto Strike also became available for play on Saturday Lotto after the midweek NSW Lotto changes in 2004 (instead of Super 66). Lotto Strike costs $1 per game plus agent's commission, and must be bought at the same time as a normal Lotto entry for that draw.\n", "This section refers to 'traditional' draw style lotteries offered by Australian lottery organisations. In this type of game, a set number of tickets – typically in the low six figures – are offered for sale in each draw. A set of numbers are then drawn (these days by a random number generator) and are awarded prizes, with many consolation prizes often offered.\n\nSection::::Draw Lotteries.:Lucky Lotteries.\n", "To play you pick a \"Set\" of eight numbers from a range of one to 37. This set will then be entered into the next seven days draws and you must play a minimum of two sets to participate.\n\nTwo bonus numbers are drawn after the main eight numbers, giving ten numbers drawn in total. These numbers are used to determine other prizes. To win the jackpot, you must match all eight regular numbers:\n\nSection::::Trackside.\n", "\"Lucky Keno\" is a keno game operated by Intralot, and played in their territories of Victoria and Tasmania. It is drawn daily at 8:00pm (Melbourne time). The game started as \"Lucky Keno 70\", with 20 numbers drawn from 70 (instead of the traditional 80) twice a day. The original game had a Spot 10/Match 10 prize of $400,000, and a \"bonus\" wager offered a jackpot which increased this to a minimum of $1 million.\n", "Section::::Set For Life.:Game Structure.\n", "Prizes are awarded to players who match at least three of the six drawn numbers, with prizes increasing for matching more of the drawn numbers. All players who match all six drawn numbers win equal shares of the jackpot; the chance of doing so is 1 in 20,358,520. If four, five, or six balls are matched, the relevant prize is divided equally between all who match that many balls. If no player matches all six numbers, the jackpot is added to that of the next Lotto draw—a \"Rollover\".\n", "Monday & Wednesday Lotto is a lotto game played in all states and territories. It started life as a New South Wales-only game administered by New South Wales Lotteries, with its first draw on 5 November 1979. Its current logo (as promoted in its home state) features a large red \"1\" lottery ball, originally referred to as \"The Big One\". NSW Lotto was the only lotto game played in the state until the introduction of Oz Lotto in 1994 – New South Wales being the last state to join the Australian Lotto Bloc, in 2000.\n", "In the draw, six numbered balls are drawn without replacement from a set of 52 balls numbered from 1 to 52. A further \"Bonus Ball\" is also drawn, which affects only players who match five numbers.\n", "Lotto Strike's winning numbers are the \"first four balls drawn in order\" from the corresponding Lotto draw. To win a prize, players must match at least one of their selected balls in the same position as the winning numbers (e.g. player's 2nd number matchies winning 2nd number, etc.). Numbers can be selected manually or through computer \"auto-pick\". Entries can also be \"boxed\", producing 24 standard games allowing the numbers to be matched in any order.\n", "Tatts 2 was a Tattersall's product played only in its territories. It is one of the simplest games that can be played. A player selected 2 numbers from (1–99) in each game; which cost 55c. Each night at about 7:00 two numbers from (1–99) were drawn.\n", "Since the expansion of New South Wales' \"Monday and Wednesday Lotto\" interstate, Superdraws have also appeared on Monday Lotto, where a First Division pool of $5 million is offered. As a single-state game NSW Lotteries ran more occasional promotions, such as \"Anniversary Weeks\" based around the anniversary of NSW Lotto's beginnings in November 1979.\n\nSection::::Prize Home Lottery.\n", "Section::::Super 66.\n\nSuper 66 is an Australian lottery game played in all states except New South Wales (which plays Lotto Strike instead). It is a product of Tattersalls and is played on a Saturday night, drawn just \n\nafter the main Tattslotto draw. Super 66 costs $1.10 per game. A six-digit \"winning number\" is drawn, and players win prizes by matching either its first or last digits.\n", "The odds of winning (in a 6/45 lottery) the Lotto jackpot are 1 in 8,145,060. The odds of getting a match-5+bonus are 1 in 1,357,510; the odds of a match-5 are 1 in 1,221,759; the odds of a match 4+bonus are 1 in 14,290; the odds of a match-4 are 1 in 148,995; the odds of a match-3+bonus are 1 in 579; and the odds of a match-3 are 1 in 14,190.\n", "Set For Life differs significantly from other Australian lotteries, in that the top prize is not paid out in one lump sum, but rather as a fixed sum of $20,000 AUD per month over the course of 20 years (unless more than four people win the top prize in which case the total prize pool of $19,200,000 is split evenly between the winners via monthly instalments, e.g. If 5 people win the top prize each will receive $16,000 a month). Other prize divisions are paid in full, however. There are eight prize tiers in total and draws are held every single day at 9pm AEST.\n", "In the main game of Lotto, six balls and one bonus ball are drawn from a Smartplay Halogen II machine containing 40 balls numbered 1 to 40. To win First Division (the top prize), one has to simply mark off all six numbers on the same line.\n", "Oz Lotto\n\nOz Lotto is a national lottery game, owned by Tatts Group and administered by its lottery brand 'the Lott' in all Australian States with the exception of Western Australia, where the lottery is administered by Lotterywest. The draw takes place each Tuesday at 8.30pm AEST. It was introduced on and promoted as Australia's first fully national lottery game, at a time when New South Wales was not a part of the Australian Lotto Bloc. Each game costs $1.10 plus agent's commission.\n", "Players select three digits, and may choose to bet on those three digits being drawn in any order, in that specific order, or both. Games can be played for either 50 cents or $1.00, and can be bought up to seven days in advance. Prizes are fixed according to the probability of winning, with the highest possible prize being $500 for a \"straight-up\" $1 wager.\n\nSection::::Draw Lotteries.\n", "First drawn on 1 June 2009, and similar to Lotterywest's \"Cash 3\" game above: a three-digit number is drawn each night at 6:30pm. Games cost $1.10 each (including agent's commission). Exact matches of the number win a fixed $500 prize; matches of the number in \"any order\" win a fixed $20 prize. Unlike Cash 3, the \"any order\" wins are a consolation prize to the \"exact order\" major prize, rather than a separate bet.\n\nSection::::Former Lottery Games.:Intralot.:Lucky Keno.\n", "In each draw, a first, second and third prize is drawn, as well as a number of smaller prizes down to $10. \"One-off prizes\" are awarded to tickets that are one ticket number either side of each cash prize, with a $1,000 cash prize for being one-off first prize, and a number of free tickets for an advance draw of the same lottery for being one-off any other cash prize. (Free tickets are always awarded as a sequential run of numbers.)\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Some loose-jointed people are able to pop a joint out of its socket without pain, thereby making it difficult to determine if a joint is dislocated without medical examination such as an X-ray. However, as long as the joint socket is the right shape, most extreme bends can be achieved without dislocating the joint. Actual dislocations are rarely used during athletic contortion acts since they make the joint more unstable and prone to injury, and a dislocated limb cannot lift itself or support any weight.\n\nSection::::List of notable contortionists.\n", "For glenohumeral instability, the therapeutic program depends on specific characteristics of the instability pattern, severity, recurrence and direction with adaptations made based on the needs of the patient. In general, the therapeutic program should focus on restoration of strength, normalization of range of motion and optimization of flexibility and muscular performance. Throughout all stages of the rehabilitation program, it is important to take all related joints and structures into consideration.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nBULLET::::- Each joint in the body can be dislocated, however, there are common sites where most dislocations occur. The following structures are the most common sites of joint dislocations:\n", "The condition frequently is not noted until late childhood, as function may be normal, especially in unilateral cases. Increased wrist motion may compensate for the absent forearm motion. It has been suggested that individuals whose forearms are fixed in greater amounts of pronation (over 60 degrees) face more problems with function than those with around 20 degrees of fixation. Pain is generally not a problem, unless radial head dislocation should occur.\n", "A number of surgical interventions are available, depending on the nature and location of the pathology. Surgery may be done arthroscopically or as open surgery. The impinging structures may be removed in surgery, and the subacromial space may be widened by resection of the distal clavicle and excision of osteophytes on the under-surface of the acromioclavicular joint. Damaged rotator cuff muscles can be surgically repaired.\n\nA 2019 review found that the evidence does not support decompression surgery in those with more than 3 months of shoulder pain without a history of trauma.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Television writer and producer Janette Barber said that for three years, she had been increasingly unable to walk, and eventually began to use a wheelchair, due to severe ankle pain originally diagnosed as tendinitis. She was later diagnosed and treated for TMS. According to Barber, she was \"pain-free one week after [Sarno's] lecture\" and able to walk and run within a few months, notwithstanding her \"occasional\" relapses of pain.\n\nBULLET::::- The late actress Anne Bancroft said that she saw several doctors for back pain, but only Sarno's TMS treatment helped her.\n", "BULLET::::- The shape of the ends of the bones—Some joints normally have a large range of movement, such as the shoulder and hip. Both are ball and socket joints. If a shallow rather than a deep socket is inherited, a relatively large range of movement will be possible. If the socket is particularly shallow, then the joint may dislocate easily.\n", "There are three main types of dislocations: anterior, posterior, and inferior.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Anterior (forward).\n\nIn over 95% of shoulder dislocations, the humerus is displaced anteriorly. In most of those, the head of the humerus comes to rest under the coracoid process, referred to as sub-coracoid dislocation. Sub-glenoid, subclavicular, and, very rarely, intrathoracic or retroperitoneal dislocations may also occur.\n\nAnterior dislocations are usually caused by a direct blow to, or fall on, an outstretched arm. The patient typically holds his/her arm externally rotated and slightly abducted.\n", "The medical community uses several different techniques for stabilizing the posterior region of the spine. The most radical of these techniques is spinal fusion. In recent years/decades spinal surgeons have begun to rely more heavily on mechanical implants, which provide increased stability without so severely limiting the recipient’s range of motion. A number of devices have been developed that allow the recipients near natural range of motion while still providing some support. In many cases the support offered by such devices is insufficient, leaving the physician with few other choices than spinal fusion. \n", "In Figure 1 in the review, the types of injuries attributed to manipulation of the cervical spine are shown, and Figure 2 shows the type of practitioner involved in the resulting injury. For the purpose of comparison, the type of practitioner was adjusted according to the findings by Terrett.\n\nThe review concluded:\n\nEdzard Ernst has written:\n\nSection::::Emergency medicine.\n\nIn emergency medicine joint manipulation can also refer to the process of bringing fragments of fractured bone or dislocated joints into normal anatomical alignment (otherwise known as 'reducing' the fracture or dislocation). These procedures have no relation to the HVLA thrust procedure.\n", "Elbow dislocations constitute 10% to 25% of all injuries to the elbow. The elbow is one of the most commonly dislocated joints in the body, with an average annual incidence of acute dislocation of 6 per 100,000 persons. Among injuries to the upper extremity, dislocation of the elbow is second only to a dislocated shoulder.\n\nA full dislocation of the elbow will require expert medical attention to re-align, and recovery can take approximately 8–14 weeks.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Infection.\n", "Very few cases recover to complete mobility without surgical intervention. Some patients are able to strengthen their shoulders to limit the day to day dull ache, but with limited mobility and function. Surgery reattaches the labrum to the glenoid through the use of surgical anchors.\n\nSection::::SLAP tear (lesion).:Recovery.\n", "Shoulder reduction may be accomplished with a number of techniques including traction-countertraction, external rotation, scapular manipulation, Stimson technique, Cunningham technique, or Milch technique. Pain can be managed during the procedures either by procedural sedation and analgesia or injected lidocaine into the shoulder joint. Injecting lidocaine into the joint may be less expensive and faster. If a shoulder cannot be relocated in the emergency room, relocation in the operating room may be required. This situation occurs in about 7% of cases.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Post-reduction.\n", "Many invasive spine procedures involve the removal of bone, muscle, and ligaments to access and treat problematic areas. In some cases, thoracic (mid-spine) conditions require a surgeon to access the problem area through the rib cage, dramatically lengthening recovery time.\n\nArthroscopic procedures (also endoscopic spinal procedures) allow access to and treatment of spinal conditions with minimal damage to surrounding tissues. Recovery times are greatly reduced due to the relatively small size of incision(s), and many patients are treated as outpatients. Recovery rates and times vary according to condition severity and the patient's overall health.\n\nArthroscopic procedures treat\n", "Therapeutic injections of corticosteroid and local anaesthetic may be used for persistent impingement syndrome. The total number of injections is generally limited to three due to possible side effects from the corticosteroid. A 2017 review found corticoestroid injections only give small and transient pain relief.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "To simulate O'Brien's posture, John Hawkes used a soccer-ball-sized piece of foam which he laid onto the left side of his back in order to curve his spine. Consequently, some of his organs began to migrate, and he was told by his chiropractor that now his spine does not have enough movement. Nonetheless, he said it is \"a minute amount of pain compared to what many disabled people face minute-to-minute.\" Hawkes also practiced dialing the phone using a \"mouth stick\".\n\nSection::::Production.:Casting.\n", "Voluntary closing users can generate prehension forces equivalent to the normal hand, up to or exceeding one hundred pounds. Voluntary closing GRIPS require constant tension to grip, like a human hand, and in that property, they do come closer to matching human hand performance. Voluntary opening split hook users are limited to forces their rubber or springs can generate which usually is below 20 pounds.\n\nSection::::Current technology and manufacturing.:Body-powered arms.:Feedback.\n", "Joint dislocations are caused by trauma to the joint or when an individual falls on a specific joint. Great and sudden force applied, by either a blow or fall, to the joint can cause the bones in the joint to be displaced or dislocated from normal position. With each dislocation, the ligaments keeping the bones fixed in the correct position can be damaged or loosened, making it easier for the joint to be dislocated in the future.\n", "Most patients who find themselves restrained naturally think they can free themselves by pulling hard at the restraints. But the restraints are made out of plastic mesh, which cannot be broken by being pulled with human strength. Other patients attempt to unfasten the restraints around the wrist, but find they cannot reach the fastener unless they have abnormally flexible joints. Some do manage to slip their hands through the cuff, though competent workers prevent this from happening.\n", "Arthroscopic stabilization surgery has evolved from the Bankart repair, a time-honored surgical treatment for recurrent anterior instability of the shoulder. However, the failure rate following Bankart repair has been shown to increase markedly in patients with significant bone loss from the glenoid (socket). In such cases, improved results have been reported with some form of bone augmentation of the glenoid such as the Latarjet operation.\n\nAlthough posterior dislocation is much less common, instability following it is no less challenging and, again, some form of bone augmentation may be required to control instability.\n", "Paralysis can be seen in breeds of dogs that are chondrodysplastic. These dogs have short legs, and may also have short muzzles. Their intervertebral disc material can calcify and become more brittle. In such cases, the disc may rupture, with disc material ending up in the spinal canal, or rupturing more laterally to press on spinal nerves. A minor rupture may only result in paresis, but a major rupture can cause enough damage to cut off circulation. If no signs of pain can be elicited, surgery should be performed within 24 hours of the incident, to remove the disc material and relieve pressure on the spinal cord. After 24 hours, the chance of recovery declines rapidly, since with continued pressure, the spinal cord tissue deteriorates and dies.\n", "In 2018 two distinct research teams from Minnesota's Mayo Clinic and Kentucky's University of Louisville managed to restore some mobility to patients suffering from paraplegia with an electronic spinal cord stimulator. The theory behind the new spinal cord stimulator is that in certain cases of spinal cord injury the spinal nerves between the brain and the legs are still alive, but just dormant. On 1 November 2018 a third distinct research team from the University of Lausanne published similar results with a similar stimulation technique in the journal Nature.\n", "In 2013, he was a co-author on a paper which for the first time showed that surgical decompression is an effective procedure to treat cervical spondylotic myelopathy, a common disease of the spine that can lead to paralysis.\n", "A dislocated joint usually can be successfully reduced into its normal position only by a trained medical professional. Trying to reduce a joint without any training could substantially worsen the injury.\n\nX-rays are usually taken to confirm a diagnosis and detect any fractures which may also have occurred at the time of dislocation. A dislocation is easily seen on an X-ray.\n", "When individual peripheral synovial joints are manipulated, the distinct force-time phases that occur during spinal manipulation are not as evident. In particular, the rapid rate of change of force that occurs during the thrust phase when spinal joints are manipulated is not always necessary. Most studies to have measured forces used to manipulate peripheral joints, such as the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints, show no more than gradually increasing load. This is probably because there are many more tissues restraining a spinal motion segment than an independent MCP joint.\n\nSection::::Biomechanics of joint manipulation.:Kinematics.\n", "Some joints are more at risk of becoming dislocated again after an initial injury. This is due to the weakening of the muscles and ligaments which hold the joint in place. The shoulder is a prime example of this. Any shoulder dislocation should be followed up with thorough physiotherapy.\n\nOn field reduction is crucial for joint dislocations. As they are extremely common in sports events, managing them correctly at the game at the time of injury, can reduce long term issues. They require prompt evaluation, diagnosis, reduction, and postreduction management before the person can be evaluated at a medical facility.\n" ]

[ "Contortionists dislocate their joints to fit into small spaces." ]

[ "Contortionists do not dislocate their joints." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Contortionists dislocate their joints to fit into small spaces." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Contortionists do not dislocate their joints." ]

[ "BULLET::::- \"U. p. nebulicola\" Osgood, 1903\n\nBULLET::::- \"U. p. osgoodi\" Merriam, 1900\n\nBULLET::::- \"U. p. parryii\" Richardson, 1825\n\nBULLET::::- \"U. p. plesius\" Osgood, 1900\n\nBULLET::::- \"U. p. stejnegeri\" J. A. Allen, 1903\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- Some animals store food for the winter and live on it instead of hibernating completely. This is the case for squirrels, beavers, skunks, badgers, and raccoons.\n\nBULLET::::- Resistance is observed when an animal endures winter but changes in ways such as color and musculature. The color of the fur or plumage changes to white (in order to be confused with snow) and thus retains its cryptic coloration year-round. Examples are the rock ptarmigan, Arctic fox, weasel, white-tailed jackrabbit, and mountain hare.\n", "Section::::Species.\n\nBULLET::::- Genus Glaucomys\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glaucomys volans\" – southern flying squirrel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glaucomys sabrinus\" – northern flying squirrel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glaucomys oregonensis\" – Humboldt's flying squirrel\n\nSection::::Gliding.\n", "BULLET::::- Southern flying squirrel, \"Glaucomys volans\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern flying squirrel, \"Glaucomys sabrinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Humboldt's flying squirrel, \"Glaucomys oregonensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Hylopetes\", Southeast Asia\n\nBULLET::::- Particolored flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes alboniger\"\n\nBULLET::::- Afghan flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes baberi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bartel's flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes bartelsi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gray-cheeked flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes lepidus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Palawan flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes nigripes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Indochinese flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes phayrei\"\n\nBULLET::::- Jentink's flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes platyurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sipora flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes sipora\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-cheeked flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes spadiceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sumatran flying squirrel, \"Hylopetes winstoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Iomys\", Malaysia and Indonesia\n\nBULLET::::- Javanese flying squirrel (Horsfield's flying squirrel), \"Iomys horsfieldi\"\n", "Section::::Predation and disease.\n", "In the Inyo National Forest there are several records of large numbers of migrating mule deer falling to their deaths by slipping on ice while crossing mountain passes. This has occurred when heavy snowfalls have persisted until fall, and have been turned to ice by frequent thawing and freezing. In 2003 a rain-on-snow event encased the ground in ice, resulting in the starvation of 20,000 muskoxen on Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic.\n\nSaiga Antelope (2015)\n", "The range of \"S. deppei\" overlaps with many other squirrel species. This includes areas of Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Chiapas. This area contains the Tikal National Park (in Guatemala) and populations of these squirrels can be seen around the Mayan Ruins. Research has been done in this area to see if the impact of humans would affect the population of animals in these high tourists areas and it was found that higher populations of \"S. deppei\" were seen around the ruins than in a controlled area. According to IUCN the population of \"S. deppei\" is stable.\n\nSection::::Distribution.:Habitat.\n", "In relation to temperature and precipitation, common ravens are exposed to changing seasons with climate extremes. Within the common raven species, the degree of climatic seasonality is related to the magnitude of fluctuations in basal metabolic rate and total evaporative water loss. For instance, populations living in Alberta are subjected to both extremely cold temperatures in the winter and very hot and dry weather during the summer months. Furthermore, the common raven is not known to migrate long distances to avoid the winter season, so it is required to regulate and cope with the environmental conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Douglas squirrel, \"T. douglasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- American red squirrel, \"T. hudsonicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mearns's squirrel, \"T. mearnsi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe Pteromyini – flying squirrels\"\n\nBULLET::::- Subtribe Glaucomyina\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Eoglaucomys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kashmir flying squirrel, \"E. fimbriatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Glaucomys\" – New World flying squirrels\n\nBULLET::::- Southern flying squirrel, \"G. volans\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern flying squirrel, \"G. sabrinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Humboldt's flying squirrel, \"G. oregonensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Hylopetes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Particolored flying squirrel, \"H. alboniger\"\n\nBULLET::::- Afghan flying squirrel, \"H. baberi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bartel's flying squirrel, \"H. bartelsi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gray-cheeked flying squirrel, \"H. lepidus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Palawan flying squirrel, \"H. nigripes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Indochinese flying squirrel, \"H. phayrei\"\n", "BULLET::::- Red and white giant flying squirrel, \"P. alborufus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted giant flying squirrel, \"P. elegans\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hodgson's giant flying squirrel, \"P. magnificus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bhutan giant flying squirrel, \"P. nobilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Indian giant flying squirrel, \"P. philippensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese giant flying squirrel, \"P. xanthotis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese giant flying squirrel, \"P. leucogenys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red giant flying squirrel, \"P. petaurista\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Pteromys\" – Old World flying squirrel\n\nBULLET::::- Siberian flying squirrel, \"P. volans\"\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese dwarf flying squirrel, \"P. momonga\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Pteromyscus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Smoky flying squirrel, \"P. pulverulentus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Trogopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Complex-toothed flying squirrel, \"T. xanthipes\"\n", "BULLET::::- Indian crested porcupine, \"Hystrix indica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Suborder: Sciurognathi\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Sciuridae (squirrels)\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Sciurinae\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe: Sciurini\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Sciurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Caucasian squirrel, \"Sciurus anomalus\" LR/nt (pallescens ssp)\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Callosciurinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Funambulus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern palm squirrel, \"Funambulus pennantii\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Xerinae\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe: Xerini\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Spermophilopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Long-clawed ground squirrel, \"Spermophilopsis leptodactylus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe: Marmotini\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Spermophilus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow ground squirrel, \"Spermophilus fulvus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Castoridae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Castor\"\n\nBULLET::::- European beaver, \"Castor fiber\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Gliridae (dormice)\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Leithiinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Dryomys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Forest dormouse, \"Dryomys nitedula\" LR/nt\n", "During the winter in Kansas, osage orange is a staple item supplemented with seeds of the Kentucky coffee tree (\"Gymnocladus dioicus\") and honey locust (\"Gleditsia triacanthos\"), corn, wheat, eastern cottonwood (\"Populus deltoides\" var. \"deltoides\") bark, ash seeds, and eastern red cedar (\"Juniperus virginiana\") berries. In the spring, fox squirrels feed primarily on buds of elm, maple, and oaks but also on newly sprouting leaves and insect larvae.\n", "After consummating their relationship in a motel, Rod and Nathalie wake up to find that their town is under attack from eagles and vultures. The birds spit acid and explode into flames upon striking the ground. (On the DVD commentary, the director explained that was because they became mutated and toxic due to global warming.) Rod and Nathalie escape from the motel by joining up with an ex-Marine named Ramsey and his girlfriend Becky. As they leave town, they rescue two young children, Susan and Tony, whose parents have been killed by the birds.\n", "BULLET::::- Jentink's flying squirrel, \"H. platyurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sipora flying squirrel, \"H. sipora\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-cheeked flying squirrel, \"H. spadiceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sumatran flying squirrel, \"H. winstoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Iomys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Javanese flying squirrel, \"I. horsfieldi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mentawi flying squirrel, \"I. sipora\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Petaurillus\" – pygmy flying squirrels\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser pygmy flying squirrel, \"P. emiliae\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hose's pygmy flying squirrel, \"P. hosei\"\n\nBULLET::::- Selangor pygmy flying squirrel, \"P. kinlochii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Petinomys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Basilan flying squirrel, \"P. crinitus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Travancore flying squirrel, \"P. fuscocapillus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whiskered flying squirrel, \"P. genibarbis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hagen's flying squirrel, \"P. hageni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Siberut flying squirrel, \"P. lugens\"\n", "Section::::Research Interests.:Wildlife Conservation.\n\nSection::::Research Interests.:Wildlife Conservation.:Ground Squirrels.\n", "The most apparent causes of Abert's squirrel mortality are food shortage and injuries (such as broken teeth) that lead to mortality.\n\nSection::::Ecology and behaviour.:Reproduction.\n", "Some studies have found that because the Perote ground squirrel is a seasonal species, it is more affected by climate change, increasing the risk of extinction. Seasonal species are more vulnerable because they are forced to do all their annual activities in a shorter amount of time. They do not migrate and have to adjust their activities, such as hibernation, with the current climate.\n\nThe squirrel also has predators such as the long-tailed weasel (\"Mustela frenata\") and domestic dogs, which have impacts on population.\n\nSection::::Future.\n", "BULLET::::- Many arctic birds and mammals can change their heat dissipation and metabolic rate in response to changes in temperature, as different populations of the same species display different averages depending on their current climate.\n\nBULLET::::- In arctic foxes (\"Alopex lagopus),\" starvation experiments indicate that the body mass in the arctic fox is regulated according to a seasonally changing set point and not by the availability of food. The basic metabolic rate varies seasonally being lower in winter than summer. The fur thickness can increase 140% from summer to winter.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "They are \"one of the most vegetarian of all the ground squirrels\". In the early part of the season, they primarily eat succulent fresh vegetation. When the vegetation grows more tough, they are inclined to eat more grains and seeds. By the end of the season, they appear enormously fat. Examination of stomach contents from a group of 43 squirrels revealed vegetable matter in all cases. Nothing but vegetation was found in 86% of the stomachs, while 2% contained traces of other mammals and 14% contained insect remains.\n", "Because squirrels cannot digest cellulose, they must rely on foods rich in protein, carbohydrates, and fats. In temperate regions, early spring is the hardest time of year for squirrels because the nuts they buried are beginning to sprout (and thus are no longer available to eat), while many of the usual food sources have not yet become available. During these times, squirrels rely heavily on the buds of trees. Squirrels, being primarily herbivores, eat a wide variety of plants, as well as nuts, seeds, conifer cones, fruits, fungi, and green vegetation. Some squirrels, however, also consume meat, especially when faced with hunger. Squirrels have been known to eat small birds, young snakes, and smaller rodents, as well as bird eggs and insects. Indeed, some tropical squirrel species have shifted almost entirely to a diet of insects.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Diet.\n\nIts diet consists of leaves, seeds, cones, buds, sprouts, nuts, berries and occasionally bird eggs and nestlings. When alder and birch catkins are plentiful, the squirrel may store them for the winter in old woodpecker holes or similar nooks.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Reproduction.\n", "Each species of birds carries defense mechanisms like resistances and the ability to fight disease. With the changing climate and atmosphere, many species are losing their ability to fight particular diseases. These bird species are becoming more susceptible to disease, which results to the downfall of extinction. The most common disease affecting birds is Salmonellosis, which originates from the Latin name of salmonella. Infected birds pass bacteria in their fecal droppings. Other birds then become ill when they eat food contaminated by the droppings.\n", "BULLET::::- Mindanao flying squirrel, \"P. mindanensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Arrow flying squirrel, \"P. sagitta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Temminck's flying squirrel, \"P. setosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Vordermann's flying squirrel, \"P. vordermanni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Subtribe Pteromyina\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Aeretes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Groove-toothed flying squirrel, \"A. melanopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Aeromys\" – large black flying squirrels\n\nBULLET::::- Black flying squirrel, \"A. tephromelas\"\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas's flying squirrel, \"A. thomasi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Belomys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hairy-footed flying squirrel, \"B. pearsonii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Biswamoyopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Namdapha flying squirrel, \"B. biswasi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Laotian giant flying squirrel, \"B. laoensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Gaoligong flying squirrel, \"B. gaoligongensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Eupetaurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Woolly flying squirrel, \"E. cinereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Petaurista\"\n", "Calgary also has a large population of black squirrels, mostly descendants of escaped zoo animals from 1929. The Calgary zoo was founded in 1929 with, among other animals, 6 black squirrels donated by the Toronto Parks Department. During a massive flood which hit the city and inundated the zoo in 1929, these unusually large and aggressive Toronto black squirrels escaped and proceeded to displace the native Calgary red squirrels. As in Toronto, these squirrels are now predominant among the Calgary squirrel population.\n", "The average mass specific BMR and total BMR are 37% and 27% lower in the winter than the summer. The Arctic fox decreases its BMR via metabolic depression in the winter to conserve fat storage and minimize energy requirements. According to the most recent data, the lower critical temperature of the Arctic fox is at −7 °C in the winter and 5 °C in the summer. It was commonly believed that the Arctic fox had a lower critical temperature below −40 °C. However, some scientists have concluded that this stat is not accurate since it was never tested using the proper equipment.\n" ]

[ "If it is negative 15 degrees, then birds and squirrels should not be able to survive in the severe weather." ]

[ "Birds created nests in order to shield them from the cold, whilst squirrels hibernate in enclosed spaces and hibernate while share space, these strategies allow the birds and the squirrels to survive during extreme temperatures." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If it is negative 15 degrees, then birds and squirrels should not be able to survive in the severe weather.", "If it is negative 15 degrees, then birds and squirrels should not be able to survive in the severe weather." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Birds created nests in order to shield them from the cold, whilst squirrels hibernate in enclosed spaces and hibernate while share space, these strategies allow the birds and the squirrels to survive during extreme temperatures.", "Birds created nests in order to shield them from the cold, whilst squirrels hibernate in enclosed spaces and hibernate while share space, these strategies allow the birds and the squirrels to survive during extreme temperatures." ]

[ "4K resolution Blu-ray discs augment the existing Blu-ray protections. First, players must be dedicated devices that use protected hardware paths to ensure the entire process chain (from media to display) is not compromised. Second, some media require the use of players able to access the Internet for additional verification.\n\nSection::::Notable payloads.\n\nOver time, software publishers (especially in the case of video games) became creative about crippling the software in case it was duplicated. These games would initially show that the copy was successful, but eventually render themselves unplayable via subtle methods.\n", "BULLET::::- Bohemia Interactive Studio developed a unique and very subtle protection system for its game \"\". Dubbed FADE, if it detects an unauthorized copy, it does not inform the player immediately but instead progressively corrupts aspects of the game (such as reducing the weapon accuracy to zero) to the point that it eventually becomes unplayable. The message \"Original discs don't FADE\" will eventually appear if the game is detected as being an unauthorized copy.\n", "BULLET::::- \"EarthBound\" is well-documented for its extensive use of checksums to ensure that the game is being played on legitimate hardware. If the game detects that it is being played on a European SNES, it refuses to boot, as the first of several checksums has failed. A second checksum will weed out most unauthorized copies of the game, but hacking the data to get past this checksum will trigger a third checksum that makes enemy encounters appear much more often than in an authorized copy, and if the player progresses through the game without giving up (or cracks this protection), a final checksum code will activate before the final boss battle, freezing the game and deleting all the save files. A similar copy protection system was used in \"Spyro: Year of the Dragon\", although it only uses one copy protection check at the beginning of the game (see below).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zork\" games such as \"Beyond Zork\" and \"Zork Zero\" came with \"feelies\" which contained information vital to the completion of the game. For example, the parchment found from Zork Zero contained clues vital to solving the final puzzle. However, whenever the player attempts to read the parchment, they are referred to the game package.\n\nBULLET::::- The Lenslok system used a plastic prismatic device, shipped with the game, which was used to descramble a code displayed on screen.\n", "Code inserted into content can add information to the output that specifically identifies the player, and in a large-scale distribution of the content, can be used to trace the player. This may include the fingerprint of a specific player.\n\nSection::::Weaknesses.\n", "From a technical standpoint, it would seem theoretically impossible to completely prevent users from making copies of the media they purchase, as long as a \"writer\" is available that can write to blank media. The basic technical fact is that all types of media require a \"player\" — a CD player, DVD player, videotape player, computer or video game console. The player has to be able to read the media in order to display it to a human. In turn, then, logically, a player could be built that first reads the media, and then writes out an exact copy of what was read, to the same type of media.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"\" a character named Zoe will tell the player outside the room containing the balloon to Midday Garden Home and several other areas that the player is using an unlicensed copy. This conversation purposely corrupts data. When corrupted, the game would not only remove stray gems and the ability to progress in certain areas but also make the final boss unbeatable, returning the player to the beginning of the game (and removing the save file at the same time) after about 8 seconds into the battle.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Metal Gear Solid\" and many other computer games require a piece of information from the game's jewel case for the player to progress after a certain point, making unauthorized copies effectively worthless without the original jewel case; however, in the present day, said information can be easily be found on the Internet.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft removes Windows Vista and Microsoft Office from various torrent trackers.\n\nBULLET::::- Certain SNES games such as \"Super Mario All Stars\" and \"Donkey Kong Country\" may sometimes show warning screens, usually caused by dirty or damaged cartridges or use of third-party peripherals.\n", "All of these methods proved to be troublesome and tiring for the players, and as such greatly declined in usage by the mid-1990s, at which point the emergence of CDs as the primary video game medium made copy protection largely redundant, since CD copying technology was not widely available at the time.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"\", if the game code detects what it believes to be an unauthorized copy, an invincible scorpion-like monster is spawned in the beginning of the game with high speeds, melee attacks, and attacks from a range with twin chainguns making the game extremely difficult and preventing the player to progress further. Also in the level \"Under the Iron Cloud\", the player's character will spin out-of-control looking up in the air.\n", "Floppy disks were later displaced by CDs as the preferred method of distribution, with companies like Macrovision and Sony providing copy protection schemes that worked by writing data to places on the CD-ROM where a CD-R drive cannot normally write. Such a scheme had been used for the PlayStation and could not be circumvented easily without the use of a modchip.\n", "Some game developers, such as Markus Persson, have encouraged consumers and other developers to embrace the reality of unlicensed copying and utilize it positively to generate increased sales and marketing interest.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Videotape.\n\nCompanies such as Macrovision and Dwight Cavendish provided schemes to videotape publishers making copies unusable if they were created with a normal VCR. All major videotape duplicators licensed Macrovision or similar technologies to copy protect video cassettes for their clients or themselves.\n", "BULLET::::- Manuals containing information and hints vital to the completion of the game, like answers to riddles (\"Conquests of Camelot\", \"King's Quest 6\"), recipes of spells (\"King's Quest 3\"), keys to deciphering non-Latin writing systems (\"Ultima\" series, see also Ultima writing systems), maze guides (\"Manhunter\"), dialogue spoken by other characters in the game (\"Wasteland\", \"Dragon Wars\"), excerpts of the storyline (most \"Advanced Dungeons and Dragons\" games and \"Wing Commander I\"), or a radio frequency to use to communicate with a character to further a game (\"Metal Gear Solid\").\n", "Many games use the \"code checksumming\" technique to prevent alteration of code to bypass other copy protection. Important constants for the game - such as the accuracy of the player's firing, the speed of their movement, etc. - are not included in the game but calculated from the numbers making up the machine code of other parts of the game. If the code is changed, the calculation yields a result which no longer matches the original design of the game and the game plays improperly.\n", "Bohemia Interactive have used a form of technology since \"\", wherein if the game copy is suspected of being unauthorized, annoyances like guns losing their accuracy or the players being turned into a bird are introduced. Croteam, the company that released \"\" in November 2011, implemented a different form of DRM wherein, instead of displaying error messages that stop the illicit version of the game from running, it causes a special invincible foe in the game to appear and constantly attack the player until he or she is killed.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Regional Lockout.\n", "BULLET::::- As a more satirical nod to the issue, if the thriller-action game \"Alan Wake\" detects that the game is cracked or a pirated copy, it will replace tips in loading screens with messages telling the player to buy the game. If a new game is created on the copied game, an additional effect will take place. As a more humorous nod to \"piracy\", Alan Wake will gain a black Eyepatch over his right eye, complete with a miniature Jolly Roger.\n", "During the 1980s and 1990s, video games sold on audio cassette and floppy disks were sometimes protected with an external user-interactive method that demanded the user to have the original package or a part of it, usually the manual. Copy protection was activated not only at installation, but every time the game was executed.\n", "BULLET::::- cannot be faked, copied, or retroactively applied to an unprotected medium using typical hardware and software.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Filesystems / Dummy files.\n", "Most of the very few cases that have been brought before a court ended with the conviction of the modchip merchant or the manufacturer under the respective country's anti-circumvention laws. A small number of cases in the United Kingdom and Australia were dismissed under the argument that a system's copy protection mechanism would not be able to prevent the actual infringement of copyright—the actual process of copying game media—and therefore cannot be considered an effective technical protection measure protected by anti-circumvention laws. In 2006, Australian copyright law has been amended to effectively close this legal loophole.\n", "The PlayStation 3, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4 use Blu-ray BD-ROM discs. In addition to any protection provided by the consoles themselves, the BD-ROM format's specification allows for a ROM-Mark which cannot be duplicated by consumer-level recorders. While the BD-ROM format does provide considerable capacity (up to 100 gigabytes per disc with potential revision to provide more), increased consumer bandwidth availability combined with the increased size of games distributed through online channels (approaching 100 gigabytes for some titles) is rendering this point moot. To prevent the consoles themselves being hacked and used as a means to defeat these protections (as happened with the Wii and partially with the PlayStation 3), contemporary consoles employ trusted hardware paths that authenticate the internal hardware and software prior to operation.\n", "BULLET::::- An unauthorized copy of \"Pokémon Black and White\" and their sequels will run as if it was normal, but the Pokémon will not gain any experience points after a battle. This has since been solved by patching the game's files.\n\nBULLET::::- If \"Ace Attorney Investigations 2\" detects an illegitimate or downloaded copy of the game, it will convert the entire game's text into the game's symbol based foreign language, Borginian, which cannot be translated in any way.\n", "Software distributors, and in particular distributors of computer games, often make use of various copy protection schemes to prevent software running from any media besides the original CD-ROMs. This differs somewhat from audio CD protection in that it is usually implemented in both the media and the software itself. The CD-ROM itself may contain \"weak\" sectors to make copying the disc more difficult, and additional data that may be difficult or impossible to copy to a CD-R or disc image, but which the software checks for each time it is run to ensure an original disc and not an unauthorized copy is present in the computer's CD-ROM drive.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Superior Soccer\" had no outward signs of copy protection, but if it decided it was not a legitimate copy, it would make the soccer ball in the game invisible, making it impossible to play the game.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Sid Meier's Pirates\", if the player entered in the wrong information, they could still play the game, but the difficulty would be increased substantially.\n", "BULLET::::- On a copied version of the original PC version of \"Postal\", as soon as the game was started, the player character would immediately shoot himself in the head.\n", "Nintendo's Wii and Nintendo GameCube have their own specialty format for copy protection. It is based on DVD/miniDVD (Game Cube) technology; each disc contains some deliberately placed defects. The exact positions of these defects, which differ for each produced disc, is encoded encrypted in the BCA of each disc. The BCA is readable on most standard DVD-ROM Drives, but consumer burners can reproduce neither the BCA nor the defects. As an additional obfuscation mechanism, the on-disc sector format is a little bit different from normal DVDs. Nevertheless, it can be read using some consumer DVD-ROM drives with a firmware modification or \"debug mode\". It is also possible to hack the Wii to install unlicensed software, some of which can use the Wii's own drive to create disc images and then play these copies.\n" ]

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[ "The introduction of captives of unknown pedigree can pose a threat to native populations. Domestic fowl have threatened endemic species such as \"Gallus g. bankiva\" while pheasants such as the ring-necked pheasant and captive cheer pheasants of uncertain origin have escaped into the wild or have been intentionally introduced. Green peafowl of similar mixed origins confiscated from local bird dealers have been released into areas with native wild birds.\n", "Until recently, it was thought that the resplendent quetzal could not be bred or held for any long time in captivity, and indeed it was noted for usually killing itself soon after being captured or caged. For this reason it is a traditional symbol of liberty. However, the Miguel Álvarez del Toro Zoo in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, Mexico has kept this species since 1992, and in 2004 breeding in captivity was announced. A chick hatched and reached the age of six weeks at the time of the report.\n", "They are certainly not \"beginner's birds\" and will usually not thrive if they are not provided with a spacious aviary where a small flock can be kept in company of a few other small and harmless birds. It is possible to keep a pair or a single bird in a cage, but they will be sluggish and unhealthy if they are not let out to fly and socialize with humans frequently. Trade in wild-caught specimens is strongly restricted; in any case, these should be rejected because they are extremely tough to accustomize to aviary conditions. It is usually impossible, even for expert aviculturalists, to keep wild-caught birds alive for more than a few months. Captive-bred birds of several species are available, and these are far more hardy, though inexperienced aviculturalists should avoid them nonetheless.\n", "BULLET::::- Red-winged laughingthrush: One escaped pair of this curious bird have apparently bred on the Isle of Man.\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-fronted canary: Cage bird escapes on occasion, though they often do not last long in our climate.\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic canary: Escapes have survived for some time in the wild, though they are not thought to have bred.\n\nBULLET::::- Common waxbill: Cagebird escapes of several species from time to time.\n", "BULLET::::- The ducks of the Peabody Hotel in Memphis, Tennessee, who, in a tradition dating back to the 1930s, are escorted from their penthouse palace down the elevator every day of the year at 11:00 a.m., cross a red carpet to a Sousa march, and spend the day in the lobby fountain, returning home with equal ceremony at 5:00 p.m.\n\nBULLET::::- The gulls who saved the Mormon pioneers from a cricket infestation.\n\nBULLET::::- The Hollywood Freeway chickens are a feral colony living under the Vineland Avenue off-ramp of the Hollywood Freeway in Los Angeles.\n", "Untamed birds which are not allowed out of their cages regularly, such as most finches and canaries, require larger cages that are long enough to permit some flight. The bars should be spaced so that curious birds cannot stick their heads out of the cage and become stuck. The cage should also have non-toxic paint, because birds tend to gnaw at the cage, and if the paint is consumed, they can die from poisoning.\n", "Cagebirds such as canaries, budgerigars, cockatoos, lovebirds, quails, finches, and parrots are popular pets, whether for their song, their behaviour, their colourful plumage, or their ability to mimic speech. Among reasons for their popularity is that they can be kept in homes too small or otherwise unsuitable for dogs or cats. The cagebird trade in some parts of the world threatens certain species with extinction, when birds are illegally captured in the wild. For example, in Indonesia, at least 13 species are close to extinction including the Indonesian national bird, the Javan hawk-eagle, while five subspecies including the scarlet-breasted lorikeet may have become extinct in the wild.\n", "In many countries, including the United States and Australia, wildlife rehabilitation requires a license and/or permit. In these countries, it is against the law to rehabilitate (or in some cases possess) a wild animal without permits. In the United States, rehabilitation permits, requirements, and procedures for all animals other than birds vary from state to state.Rehabilitation of birds in the U.S. requires, per the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, that a permit be obtained from both the state wildlife agency and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. The only birds rehabilitators can admit without a federal permit are common birds considered to be introduced invasive species: rock doves, European starlings, and house sparrows; although some licensed rehabilitation facilities cannot accept introduced species species as a condition of their licensing.\n", "In Africa, \"Crex\" species may be hunted by the leopard, serval, cats, the black-headed heron, dark chanting goshawk, African hawk-eagle, Wahlberg's eagle, and black sparrowhawk. In South Africa, newly hatched African crake chicks were taken by a boomslang.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n\nIn Brazil, various exotic birds are smuggled out of the country. In Moose Lake, Minnesota, a crate with a male Spix's macaw hatchling falls out of a truck and is found by a little girl named Linda Gunderson, who names him Blu. Over the next 15 years, Linda comes to own a bookstore. Highly domesticated and unable to fly because he is scared to, Blu is ridiculed frequently by the Canada geese that come by outside of Linda's bookstore.\n", "The government of Nepal confiscated all birds. One of which was a booted eagle called Barry that had been given to the Parahawking Project for care by the British Embassy in Kathmandu after being mauled by a dog and had extensive feather damage. Barry was taken in by Kathmandu Central Zoo who insisted he was a black kite and eventually released him to a nearby forest despite not being able to fly at the time.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Paragliding\n\nBULLET::::- Falconry\n\nBULLET::::- Birds of prey\n\nBULLET::::- Pokhara\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- www.parahawking.com – Scott Mason's official Parahawking website\n", "In general, the larger and the more active the bird, the larger the cage one should use. The amount of time the bird will spend in the cage each day is also a factor. A bird that is caged most of the time requires far more space than a bird caged only at night.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The owner of such a bird, if selected, will be given a reasonable compensation on a contract basis. The owner and the parrot will travel in a limousine with the parrot's name engraved in gold on the door and will stay only at the best hotels. The parrot will be furnished a gold cage and its life insured. The parrot will visit large drugstores, perform at conventions, etc., and may be presented on radio and television. The Le Blanc Corporation has a triple A high credit rating.\"\n\nSection::::The Hadacol Caravan.\n", "BULLET::::- Wisdom, a wild female Laysan albatross. She is the oldest confirmed wild bird in the world as well as the oldest banded bird in the world.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- The Capitoline geese, who warned of an imminent attack on Rome by the Gauls in 390 BC.\n\nBULLET::::- The cliff swallows that return from Villa Ventana, Argentina every year to the Mission San Juan Capistrano in California on (or around) March 19.\n", "BULLET::::- Eight pairs of spoonbills fledged 14 young at Holkham NNR, Norfolk, the second year spoonbills fledged here.\n\nBULLET::::- Norway donated sixteen white-tailed eagles as part of the East Scotland sea eagle reintroduction project.\n\nBULLET::::- The first record of a displaying great snipe came from 11–16 May at Cley where one was seen lekking.\n\nBULLET::::- Red-backed shrike bred on Dartmoor for the second consecutive year. This species bred in the UK until the 1990s and last bred on Dartmoor in 1970.\n\nBULLET::::- Seabirds in Scotland continue to struggle with poor breeding performances in many colonies.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Britain.:Migrant and wintering birds.\n", "It is preferable to obtain birds bred in captivity, rather than birds caught in the wild. Wild birds may harbor diseases such as avian polyomavirus. Captured wild lovebirds also may mourn the loss of association with a mate or a flock. Their age is likely to be unknown, and they may have an unsuitable personality for domestication. Currently, lovebirds are no longer imported from the wild in the United States. Contrary to what their name might suggest, lovebirds are not necessarily best kept in pairs; paired lovebirds are less likely to have intense relationships with humans. Birds socialised from a very early age, while being brought up by parents, make very good pets. The practice of hand-feeding young psittacines, including lovebirds, outside of a medical emergency has been outlawed in the Netherlands since 1 July 2014 and lovebird chicks should stay with their parents until they can eat independently, at minimum 55 days after hatching. However, single birds require frequent attention to stay happy, and if the owner has limited time to spend daily with a single lovebird, it is preferable to give the lovebird a companion of the same species, or a companion of another parrot species known to get along well with lovebirds. It is important to use cages suitable for smaller birds, as wide-spaced bars can cause damage to these small hookbills. Lovebirds can become very interactive with humans, and when comfortable, will willingly perch on a finger or shoulder.\n", "From 2000 through 2010, the American Eagle Foundation has released 101 captive-hatched and/or orphaned bald eaglets from its artificial nesting tower located on Douglas Lake in Dandridge, Tennessee. Many of these young birds were captive-hatched by non-releasable permanently disabled parent eagles at the American Eagle Foundation's Dollywood-based raptor facility. The American Eagle Foundation has participated in the release of hundreds of other bald eaglets in other locations in cooperation with the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.\n\nSection::::Free flights.\n", "In the UK, pigeons are covered under the \"General Licences\" and can be humanely culled by the land owner or their agent for a variety of reasons (mainly crop protection). It is illegal to kill/destroy nests for any reason other than those listed under the general licences.\n\nIn the United States, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which protects native birds, does not apply to feral pigeons, starlings, or English sparrows, because they are introduced species. It is usually legal to kill feral pigeons in the U.S. Methods such as poisons may be regulated, however.\n", "In the United States, a license is required to possess any bird which falls under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (MBTA), and so the rehabilitators are under loose scrutiny from their state wildlife management authority as well as the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.\n\nRaptors that cannot be released back into the wild are sometimes used for education or transferred to licensed falconers. Some states require that birds that cannot be placed or released be euthanized. Most states do not allow rehabilitators to keep raptors under their rehabilitation permit for more than a few months.\n", "Outside their native range, escaped birds frequently establish themselves in areas with a suitable climate and can then colonize new areas nearby. Escaped cage-birds established in the wild and such populations have been recorded in the West Indies (Puerto Rico since 1971), Hawaii (since 1883), Australia, Japan and southern United States, mainly in Florida and California. In Oahu, Hawaii, they compete for habitats with the tricolored munia and tend to be rare where this competitor is present.\n\nSection::::Status and conservation.\n", "In 2006 all 35 villages (now 41 villages) agreed to make bird protection part of their traditional regulations (“awig-awig”). Since then, the FNPF has rehabilitated and released various Indonesian birds, most notably the critically endangered Bali starling which is endemic to Bali but whose numbers in the wild had declined to less than 10 in 2005. After a two-year program by FNPF in which 64 cage bred birds were rehabilitated and released onto Nusa Penida, their number had increased to over 100 in 2009. Other released birds include the Java sparrow, Mitchell's lorikeet and sulphur crested cockatoo.\n\nSection::::Dive sites.\n", "Although becoming quite rare in southeast Europe and southern Spain, the ruddy shelduck is still common across much of its Asian range. It may be this population which gives rise to vagrants as far west as Iceland, Great Britain and Ireland. However, since the European population is declining, it is likely that most occurrences in western Europe in recent decades are escapes or feral birds. Although this bird is observed in the wild from time to time in eastern North America, no evidence has been found that this is a genuine case of vagrancy. Feral ruddy shelduck have bred successfully in several European countries. In Switzerland the ruddy shelduck is considered an invasive species that threatens to displace native birds. Despite actions taken to reduce numbers, the population of ruddy shelduck in Switzerland increased from 211 to 1250 individuals in the period from 2006 to 2016.\n", "Because of the damage they do, there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings. Within the natural breeding range, this may be affected by legislation. For example, in Spain, this is a species hunted commercially as a food item, and has a closed season, whereas in France, it is classed as a pest, and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year. In Great Britain, Starlings are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which makes it \"illegal to intentionally kill, injure or take a starling, or to take, damage or destroy an active nest or its contents\". The Wildlife Order in Northern Ireland allows, with a general licence, \"an authorised person to control starlings to prevent serious damage to agriculture or preserve public health and safety\". This species is migratory, so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected. In Europe, the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long-term results. Non-lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case.\n", "Another minor threat is the capture of individuals for the international zoo trade, which increased markedly in the late 1980s. Although captivity of Storm's storks may be a solution to support the global population, these birds may be unsuitable to reintroduce to their natural habitat because they have become too tame. In Singapore, the price of this species on bird markets doubled ($300 to $600) in the early 1990s. However, there is no evidence that they have international trade value.\n\nSection::::Relationship to humans.\n", "BULLET::::- Black-faced cuckooshrike \"Coracina novaehollandiae\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brown falcon \"Falco berigora\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brown goshawk \"Accipter fasciatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brown thornbill \"Acanthiza pusilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- Clamorous reed warbler \"Acrocephalus stentoreus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common blackbird \"Turdus merula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common bronzewing \"Phaps chalcoptera\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common myna \"Acridotheres tristis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common starling \"Sturnus vulgaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Crested pigeon \"Ocyphaps lophotes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Crested shrike-tit \"Falcunculus frontatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Crimson rosella \"Platycercus elegans\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dusky moorhen \"Gallinula tenebrosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dusky woodswallow \"Artamus cyanopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern rosella \"Platycercus eximius\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern spinebill \"Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern yellow robin \"Eopsaltria australis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian coot \"Fulica atra\"\n\nBULLET::::- European goldfinch \"Carduelis carduelis\"\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- List of Japanese films of 1984\n\nBULLET::::- List of Swedish films of the 1980s\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Was 1984 the greatest year in movies ever?\" by Chris Nashawaty - \"Entertainment Weekly\" online\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 Domestic Grosses at Box Office Mojo\n\nBULLET::::- Top 1984 Movies at the Domestic Box Office at The Numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Top 1984 Movies at the International Box Office at The Numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Top 1984 Movies at the Worldwide Box Office at The Numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Top-US-Grossing Titles Released 1984-01-01 to 1984-12-31 at IMDb\n\nBULLET::::- Most Popular Feature Films Released 1984-01-01 to 1984-12-31 at IMDb\n", "Section::::Production.:Pre-production.\n\nPre-production officially began by early December 2017 in the United Kingdom. That same month, director Patty Jenkins stated that the film would be another great love story with a new love interest being introduced. In April 2018, the film was confirmed to be set in the 1980s. The next month, production designer Aline Bonetto (\"Amélie\", \"Wonder Woman\") was announced to be returning for the sequel, as well as Academy Award winner Lindy Hemming, also returning as costume designer.\n\nSection::::Production.:Casting.\n", "As of April 2016, upon speaking with the Huntingburg City Office, film historian Adam Nichols was informed of and shown a museum located upstairs in the city office where several props, costumes, media, and production stills are displayed featuring this film and the 1992 film \"A League of Their Own\" that was also partially filmed in Huntingburg.\n", "The film was shot in Connecticut. Taking place in the 1980s, the film was made with 16mm film, giving it a retro stylistic look that matched the decade. Similarly, some aspects of the culture of the 1980s (i.e. feathered hair, Samantha's 1980 Sony Walkman, The Fixx's 1983 song \"One Thing Leads to Another\", The Greg Kihn Band's 1981 song \"The Breakup Song (They Don't Write 'Em)\", and the Volvo 240 sedan) are seen in the film as signifiers of the decade. The cinematography of the film also reflects the methods used by directors of the time. For instance, West often has the camera zoom in on characters (rather than dolly in as is now common in film), a technique that was often used in horror films of the 1970s and continued to be used into the 1980s. Other stylistic signifiers include opening credits (which became less common in films in the decades after the 1980s) in yellow font accompanied by freeze-frames and the closing credits being played over a still image of the final scene.\n", "\"This Modern Age\" is notable also for Crawford playing a blonde. According to a biography, she \"wore her hair that color because the actress who was originally to play the part of the mother, Marjorie Rambeau (who'd played her mother in Laughing Sinners), was a blonde. When Rambeau became ill, the part was recast with a brunette actress, Pauline Frederick, whom Joan greatly admired. Joan's scenes had already been shot, and the difference in hair color was not reason enough to reshoot them. Besides, there was no reason why a brunette mother couldn't have a blonde-haired daughter - or maybe she was just into peroxide.\"\n", "It was filmed largely in the Country Walk subdivision off Coffee Bluff Road in Savannah, Georgia (called Shelby, Indiana in the movie), using the Gaslight Addition and Old Town Cemetery, highlighting the downtown area. Additional filming was done in Statesboro, Georgia in locations including the Bulloch County Court House (also featured in the film \"1969\") and the building now housing the Averitt Center for the Arts.\n", "Some have considered the 1980s in retrospect as one of the weaker decades for American cinema in terms of the qualities of the films released. Quentin Tarantino (director of \"Pulp Fiction\") has voiced his own view that the 1980s was one of the worst eras for American films. Film critic Kent Jones also shares this opinion. However, film theorist David Bordwell countered this notion, saying that the \"megapicture mentality\" was already existent in the 1970s, which is evident in the ten highest-grossing films of that decade, as well as with how many of the filmmakers part of New Hollywood were still able to direct many great pictures in the 1980s (Martin Scorsese, Brian de Palma, etc.).\n", "It was partially filmed at Thousand Oaks Boulevard in Thousand Oaks, California.\n\nSection::::Production.:21st Century restoration.\n\nIn 2013 \"It Happened One Night\" underwent digital restoration. A new wet-gate master was produced by Sony Colorworks for scanning at 4K. The images were digitally treated at Prasad Corporation to remove dirt, tears, scratches, and other artefacts. Care was taken to preserve the original look of the film.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "1980s in film\n\nThe decade of the 1980s in Western cinema saw the return of studio-driven pictures, coming from the filmmaker-driven New Hollywood era of the 1970s. The period was when \"high concept\" films gained popularity, where movies were to be easily marketable and understandable, and, therefore, they had short cinematic plots that could be summarized in one or two sentences. The modern Hollywood blockbuster is the most popular film format from the 1980s. Producer Don Simpson is usually credited with the creation of the high-concept picture of the modern Hollywood blockbuster.\n", "BULLET::::- Thriller: The 1980s saw an immense amount of thriller films, many being of an erotic nature, including \"Fatal Attraction\" (1987) and \"Body Heat\" (1981). Perhaps two of the most influential examples of 80s thriller films were David Lynch's bizarre cult classic \"Blue Velvet\" (1986), which dealt with the underworld of a seemingly idyllic American suburbia, a subject which has spawned many inferior imitations well into the first decade of the 21st century and Stanley Kubrick's horror/thriller \"The Shining\" (1980).\n", "The decade also saw an increased amount of nudity in film and the increasing emphasis in the American industry on film franchises, especially in the science fiction, horror and action genres. Much of the reliance on these effect-driven blockbusters was due in part to the \"Star Wars\" films at the advent of this decade and the new cinematic effects it helped to pioneer. The teen comedy subgenre also rose in popularity during this decade.\n", "Working titles for the film included \"The Mozart of Madison Avenue\" and \"California\". It was shot in New York City and Los Angeles during the holiday season of 1977. The cast provided their own wardrobes. Hack, who in real life was nearsighted, wore her own glasses.\n", "Filming also took place in Richmond, Virginia, including overhead shots of the city, including 95 South passing the train station. Many background extras were reused in different scenes, and people with period correct 60s and 70s cars were encouraged to participate. Arlington Steward's car in particular is a Buick Electra, although characters in the movie refer to it as Lincoln Town Car (an entirely different car model, which was not yet in production at the time the movie is set).\n", "In the list, where revenues are equal numbers, the newer films are listed lower, due to inflation making the dollar-amount lower compared to earlier years.\n\nSection::::Trends.\n\nThe films of the 1980s covered many genres, with hybrids crossing between multiple genres. The trend strengthened towards creating ever-larger blockbuster films, which earned more in their opening weeks than any previous film, due in part to staging releases when audiences had little else to choose.\n", "Filming began on March 10, 2014 in Vancouver and continued through May 5. On March 11, 2014 filming at the Hotel Vancouver commenced. Anamorphic lenses and minimal use of steadicams were employed to provide greater authenticity for scenes set in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. The films \"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes\" and \"How to Marry a Millionaire\" served as inspiration for the period color tone and saturation.\n\nSection::::Production.:Music.\n\nWhile Rob Simonsen scored the film, Lana Del Rey contributed a song titled \"Life Is Beautiful\". The song is featured in the film's trailer but is not included in the soundtrack.\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Melkonian acknowledges that there are a number of continuity problems, which are probably due to the low budget. In the kitchen scene, the faces of some crew members can be seen reflected in the front of the microwave oven. Also, there are various instances of things during the movie that didn't exist in the 1970s being clearly visible (or heard, since the Blue Oyster Cult song \"Burnin' for You\" wasn't released until 1981). For example, there are many points when the kitchen scene takes place near a busy road, in which cars from the 1980s and 1990s are clearly visible. There is also a point in the movie where a sign for the crafts store Michaels, which didn't exist until 1984, is also clearly visible. The fashion trends of the 1990s are clearly visible in the movie as well: for example, Joe and Hubbs are seen wearing sweatshirts tied around their waists and Joe wearing ripped jeans, which are reminiscent of grunge fashion.\n", "Additionally, various celebrities who were popular in the 1980s, including Ricardo Montalbán, Hervé Villechaize, Tammy Faye Bakker, Madonna, President Ronald Reagan and the band Hall & Oates, are shown via archival footage.\n\nThe character Eddie Plant's physical appearance and personality are styled after real-life competitive gamer Billy Mitchell, who at the time was considered a world champion at both \"Pac-Man\" and \"Donkey Kong\", though his records would be rescinded in 2018 due to allegations of cheating.\n", "We said this movie is a stylized movie, it's not so different from the world of a musical. And there were a few other things that contributed to that direction. One was the decision on Universal's part, a crazy decision, to shoot the movie almost entirely in the studio under a tarpaulin. They built this gigantic tarpaulin, and the Battery and all these other places were built as real places. The Richlands. And just so you know, this is the early ’80s and you had stylized films—like \"New York, New York\"—that were all done on set and that idea was in the air. That idea of a totally artificial universe. The point is that we had in mind one sentence inspired by George Lucas: “in a galaxy long ago,” a futuristic past. That was in our heads...there's the past and there's the future, sort of.\n", "The use of the term \"present-day\" can also detract from media as, in the case of movies and books, it directly reveals the age of the media. For example, the movie, The Terminator, has a title card near the beginning labelling it as taking place in the present day, even though the events are shown to occur in 1984 which was true to the initial release of the movie. This can have the effect of making the movie or book a lot less believable because it is labelled as the present day but the technologies and modern culture in the media effectively display the past and not the present, nullifying the effectiveness of the term 'present day'.\n", "Babes of 1981: Olivia Newton-John, Donna Dixon, Valerie Bertinelli, Kathleen Turner and Sandra Day O'Connor\n\nHunks of 1981: Patrick Duffy, Burt Reynolds, Harrison Ford, Mick Jagger and Richard Simmons\n\nPSA of 1981: Girl Scouts in Gymnastics\n\nThen and Now 1981: Tom Cruise (Then: \"Endless Love\" - $33 Million / Now: Endless Cash - $25 Million), Movie Tickets (Then: $3.00 / Now: $10.00), and Suntan Lotion (Then: Tanning oil / Now: Hawaiian Tropic Ozone SPF 70)\n\nMr. & Ms. 1981: Tom Selleck and Sheena Easton\n", "The following are references to year 1987 in fiction:\n\nSection::::In fiction.:Film.\n\nBULLET::::- \"13 Going on 30\" (2004): The scenes where Jenna is thirteen take place in New Jersey on May 26, 1987.\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Psycho\" (2000): According to director Mary Harron on the DVD commentary, the film is set around the end of 1987. Patrick Bateman is seen reading Zagat's Survey of this year as well.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fargo\" (1996): The film takes place in Minnesota, 1987\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adventureland\" (2009): The film takes place in Pittsburgh, summer 1987\n", "Significant clothing trends of the 1980s include shoulder pads, jean jackets, leather pants, aviator jackets, jumpsuits, Members Only jackets, skin-tight acid-washed jeans, Izod and \"Preppy\" polo shirts, leggings and leg warmers (popularized in the film \"Flashdance\"), off-the-shoulder shirts, and cut sweatshirts (again, popularized in the film \"Flashdance\"). Miniskirts made a dramatic comeback in the mid-1980s after a ten-year absence. Makeup on the 1980s was aggressive, shining and colorful. They gave big attention to their lips, eyebrows and cheeks. They used a lot of blush and a big eyeliner was always necessary.\n", "In 2010, McGann said that he sometimes meets viewers who believe the film was actually shot in the 1960s, saying \"It comes from the mid-1980s, but it sticks out like a Smiths record. Its provenance is from a different era. None of the production values, none of the iconography, none of the style remotely has it down as an 80s picture.\"\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n", "Then and Now 1980: Sony Walkman with Cassette (Then: $169.00 / Now: $19.95), Ross Harris (Then: Movie star of \"Airplane!\" / Now: Video star of Hootie and the Blowfish's \"Sad Caper\"), and The Big Gulp (Then: 32 oz. / Now: 64 oz.)\n\nMr. & Ms. 1980: Ronald Reagan and Daisy Duke\n\nBorn in 1980: Christina Aguilera, Post-it notes, ethnic Barbie dolls and Macaulay Culkin\n\nEnd Credit Video is Devo's \"Whip It\"\n\nSection::::Topics covered by year.:1981.\n\nBULLET::::- Cable Television and MTV\n\nBULLET::::- \"Porky's\"\n\nBULLET::::- Reagan assassination attempt\n\nBULLET::::- Pope John Paul II assassination attempt\n\nBULLET::::- The Royal Wedding\n", "Comedy writer/producer Tom Scharpling has noted that \"Class of 1984\" is one of his favorite films. Scharpling would often reference the film on his weekly call in radio program \"The Best Show on WFMU\".\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Sequels.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.:Console games.\n", "The PS2 headset connects via USB 1.1 on the front of the console. The headset is most commonly used in online multiplayer games; however, it can also be used in some karaoke style games, for voice control, and to enhance the immersive experience of some single player games.\n\nSection::::Other accessories.:Headphone Splitter.\n\n3.5mm Audio Stereo Y Splitter can transfer audio from Playstation to 2 output devices including headphones, headset, speakers and more\n\nSection::::Other accessories.:Network Adapter.\n", "The console can either be connected to the Mix Rack, which contains all FOH I/O, DSP and stage I/O in one rack, or to the combination of an FOH rack and a Stage Rack. The FOH rack contains the DSP and a small amount of inputs and outputs, and the Stage Rack contains the main stage I/O. They are linked using a digital snake cable, with an option to use a redundant cable in parallel. There can be a maximum of two Stage Racks linked to one FOH rack.\n\nSection::::Console products.:Profile.\n", "Logitech Media Server also works with networked music players, such as the Roku SoundBridge M1001, although Logitech does not officially support these competing products. Chumby devices also support streaming music from a Logitech Media Server, as does the Rio Receiver when running replacement software to emulate the SliMP3 device, although it is limited to modest bitrates (<128kps). In late 2015 support was added via a plugin to use Google's Chromecast Audio device as a headless player which can then be connected to any audio system or powered speakers.\n", "Soundcard to radio interfaces typically use isolation transformers on both the send and receive audio paths\n\nto eliminate hum caused by ground-loops.\n\nRecently introduced interfaces also incorporate their own sound card and can be powered and run from the computer via a single USB connection.\n\nSection::::Resistance to interference.\n", "Section::::Game controllers.:Logitech Cordless Precision Controller.:2.4 GHz wireless.\n\nUnlike the first-party SIXAXIS and DualShock 3 controllers, which use Bluetooth, the Cordless Precision controller uses a proprietary 2.4 GHz wireless technology. As a result, it requires a USB dongle to communicate with the console. The controller may also be used on a PC, as the dongle acts as a standard USB HID.\n\nSection::::Game controllers.:Logitech Cordless Precision Controller.:Accessories.\n\nSection::::Game controllers.:Logitech Cordless Precision Controller.:Accessories.:Battery packs.\n", "During E3 2009, Sony unveiled plans to release a motion controller later to be named PlayStation Move at GDC 2010. It was released on September 15, 2010, in Europe; September 19, 2010, in North America and October 21, 2010, in Japan.\n\nOn October 13, 2010, Sony announced an official surround sound system for PS3 through the official PlayStation YouTube channel.\n\nThe PlayStation 3 can also use DualShock 4 controller initially via USB cable, but Firmware update 4.60 enabled wireless connection.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Statistics regarding reliability.\n", "RCA Audio adapter allows users to connect directly from the Xbox 360 console to supported stereo systems via RCA connectors. It Also includes an optical output jack and 3.5 or 1/8\" headphone jack. This adapter allows users to run audio directly from their console to their home stereo system in order to eliminate the high latency that comes with running audio through an HDMI adapter to TV speakers.\n\nSection::::Hardware Options.:Headphone Extension Cable.\n", "The controller features several input and output connectors: a stereo headset jack (3.5 mm OMTP TRRS connector), a micro-USB port and an extension port. It can be charged via microUSB, a dedicated charging station, or the console (even when the console is off). It also includes a mono speaker, like the Wii Remote, and is the second major controller in video game history to have such feature.\n", "BULLET::::- Dolby Digital Live is a real-time hardware encoding technology for interactive media such as video games. It converts any audio signals on a PC or game console into the 5.1-channel Dolby Digital format and transports it via a single S/PDIF cable. A similar technology known as DTS Connect is available from competitor DTS.\n", "On October 13, 2010, Sony announced an official surround sound system for the PS3 through the official PlayStation YouTube channel.\n\nSection::::Audio/Visual Peripherals.:Headsets.\n", "PlayStation 2 Headset\n\nThe PlayStation 2 Headset is a USB headset used with the PlayStation 2. While the original headset was produced by Logitech and distributed with \"\", other headsets that support the \"usb-audio\" class may be compatible.\n\nThe PlayStation 2 headset can also be used on PCs as it is a standard USB headset. No drivers are required in Windows, Mac OS X or Linux.\n", "Guitar controllers for the PlayStation 2 may connect either to the system's controller ports or via USB; other than the original SG controllers, most PS2 controllers are wireless via a transceiver dongle. All those on the PlayStation 3 connect to the system via USB; most do so wirelessly via a USB transceiver dongle. On the Xbox 360, guitar controllers may be connected either by USB or wirelessly using the console's integrated 2.4 GHz wireless technology (dependent on the particular controller).\n\nSection::::Guitar controllers.:PlayStation 2 SG controllers.\n", "Most broadcast automation systems will have a series of common device drivers built in, for example Sony VTR control (aka Sony Serial), Louth Video Disk Control Protocol (VDCP, a proprietary communications protocol), General Purpose Interface (GPI), or Grass Valley Group M21 Master Control. This ensures that a broadcast automation system bought \"off the shelf\" will at least be able to ingest and playout content, although may not be able to take advantage of more efficient methods of control. Most server, and especially most digital on-screen graphic and character generator (CG) manufacturers will have a specific device driver for their device, with increasing degrees of complexity, and different automation companies will include these drivers to enhance their product or to fit a customers need.\n", "There were several SoundBridge models: The M1000, the M500 and the M2000. There was also a tabletop model called the SoundBridge Radio that had built-in speakers, an AM/FM radio, and an alarm clock. \n\nSoundBridge models sold in most countries were manufactured and sold by Pinnacle Systems, under a license from Roku. Although some Pinnacle models were similar or identical in hardware, Pinnacle didn't have a licence for the DAAP protocol, so Pinnacle models couldn't directly connect to iTunes. Pinnacle and Roku promote the Firefly Media Server as an alternative that offers similar functionality. Pinnacle models include:\n", "BULLET::::- DTS Neo:PC: This is a technology based on the matrix surround technology, which transforms any stereo content (MP3, WMA, CD Audio, or games) into a simulated 7.1-channel surround sound experience. The 7.1-channel surround sound is output as a DTS stream for output via a S/PDIF cable port.\n\nSection::::DTS technologies.:DTS Play-Fi.\n", "Section::::Systems operation.:Audio systems.\n\nSections of track trigger various audio sequences stored onboard 16-gig EEPROM storage, which also stores motion sequence programming.\n\nSection::::Systems operation.:Motion systems.\n\nSection::::Systems operation.:Motion systems.:Propulsion.\n\nPropulsion is generated through the hydraulic system. Refer to the hydraulic system overview below.\n\nSection::::Systems operation.:Motion systems.:Hydraulics.\n", "Section::::Accessories.:Messenger Kit.\n\nThe Messenger Kit consists of a wired Xbox 360 headset and a small keyboard known as the \"Chatpad\". The Chatpad connects to the front of the controller and may be used for any standard text input on the console. It is not currently compatible with the wireless gaming receiver.\n\nSection::::Non-gaming uses.\n\nThe United States Navy has announced that it plans to use Xbox 360 controllers to control periscopes on new \"Virginia\"-class submarines, for both cost and familiarity reasons.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "The most common professional stage in-ear monitor system employs the use of a wireless system to send the mix to the IEMs. This system contains a transmitter and a receiver pack about the size of a pack of cards that is worn by the performer. There is generally a transmitter for each monitor mix and there is always a receiver for each IEM. The transmitters usually output either one stereo mix or two mono mixes. When the transmitters are set up for two mono mixes, one transmitter can be used for two different mixes. Any number of receivers can receive a single mix.\n", "PlayStation 3 controllers are compatible with Bluetooth-equipped Apple Macintosh computers, with no external software required. Workarounds have been created allowing the Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers to be used on PCs and Android devices despite this limitation, using custom software and Bluetooth drivers or in the case of Android, an App and Root access.\n", "Many wireless mobile headsets use Bluetooth technology, supported by many phones and computers, sometimes by connecting a Bluetooth adapter to a USB port. Since version 1.1 Bluetooth devices can transmit voice calls and play several music and video formats, but audio will not be played in stereo unless the cell phone or media device, and the headset, both have the A2DP profile.\n\nSection::::Wireless.\n", "All official cables (except for the HDMI cable) connect to the Xbox 360's AV connector and are compatible with all Xbox 360 models. Analog stereo audio is output by these cables by RCA connectors, with the exception of the \"Advanced SCART AV Cable\", where it is delivered via the SCART connector's audio pins. With the exception of the \"VGA HD AV Cable\" cable and \"HDMI Audio Adapter\", all cables are also capable of outputting SD video at 480i/60 Hz (\"NTSC\" or \"PAL60\", depending on console region) and 576i/50 Hz (\"PAL\"; only available on PAL region consoles). A TOSLINK optical S/PDIF connector was integrated into the AV connector (console side) of many pre-2010 (grey) Xbox 360 AV cables, allowing output of \"stereo LPCM\", \"Dolby Digital 5.1\" and \"Dolby Digital with WMA Pro\" audio. These do not feature on current AV cables. All official AV-based cables (except the \"HDMI Audio Adapter\") physically block the HDMI port when plugged into equipped models; on pre-2010 (grey) cables this is due to the size of the connector, while 2010 (black) cables feature a plastic tab for this purpose.\n", "In the HDA design, when the plug is not inserted, the codec sends the audio directly to the speakers (the audio does not go out to the front panel and then loop back to the speakers). When the plug is inserted, the isolated switch inside the jack informs the motherboard, and the codec sends audio to the headphones. A similar isolated switch is used to detect when a microphone has been plugged in.\n", "The Universal Media Remote can be used to control several functions of the console, including the Windows Media Center functions if connected to the network. It communicates with the console via infrared through a receiver port on the front of the console.\n\nAll standard controllers for the system feature a 2.5 mm headset jack to allow the use of wired headsets for voice chatting. They also feature a custom USB connector, which is currently only used for connection of the chatpad keyboard accessory.\n", "BULLET::::1. Dedicated systems have all required components packaged into a single piece of equipment, usually a console with a high quality remote controlled video camera. These cameras can be controlled at a distance to pan left and right, tilt up and down, and zoom. They became known as PTZ cameras. The console contains all electrical interfaces, the control computer, and the software or hardware-based codec. Omnidirectional microphones are connected to the console, as well as a TV monitor with loudspeakers and/or a video projector. There are several types of dedicated videoconferencing devices:\n" ]

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[ "The initial inspiration came from Robert Cailliau, a Belgian computer scientist who developed together with Tim Berners-Lee the World Wide Web. The project trained over 700 school teachers from 170 schools across Europe in basic HTML using a simple text editor, the only affordable web creation tool at that time. Following that, teachers created more than 70 international collaborative educational projects that resulted in an exponential growth in Europe of teacher communities and educational activities using the World Wide Web.\n", "Web for Schools\n\nThe Web for Schools project was funded by the European Commission as part of its ESPRIT programme and ran from 1996-03-01 to 1998-02-28. It was a transformative project at the basis of the uptake of the World Wide Web in European schools.\n", "Versions of Internet Explorer for other operating systems have also been produced, including an Xbox 360 version called Internet Explorer for Xbox and for platforms Microsoft no longer supports: Internet Explorer for Mac and Internet Explorer for UNIX (Solaris and HP-UX), and an embedded OEM version called Pocket Internet Explorer, later rebranded Internet Explorer Mobile made for Windows CE, Windows Phone and previously, based on Internet Explorer 7 for Windows Phone 7.\n", "It all started in 1999. The initial objective of the developers was to support teachers and educational stuff in their first steps towards the collaborative usage of new digital media and provide them with a secure online environment. The further development of the software was driven by the educational and organisational needs of various educational institutions. This institution-oriented approach has been pursued by WebWeaver in its standard version since 2004.\n\nSection::::Idea.\n", "Software that CGA used during this school year:\n\nBULLET::::- Cheops\n\nBULLET::::- Nagios\n\nBULLET::::- MRTG\n\nBULLET::::- Sigila (self-made: Sistema Integral de Gestión de Incidencias y Localización de Averias or Integral System to Manage and Localize system's Breakdowns)\n\nBULLET::::- Unattended Operating System installations\n\nBULLET::::- PXE\n\nBULLET::::- SystemImager\n\nBULLET::::- Tools to share and security\n\nBULLET::::- NFS\n\nBULLET::::- LDAP\n\nBULLET::::- rsync\n\nSection::::School year 2005–06.\n\nBULLET::::- 618 for the two purpose (for e-Government and for educational process)\n\nBULLET::::- A total of 105.000 PCs\n\nCGA omitted the use of this software tools because they were not useful for a big Network with 105.000 PC:\n\nBULLET::::- Cheops\n", "Microsoft spent over US$100 million a year in the late 1990s, with over 1000 people working on IE by 1999 during the development of IE5.\n\nThe rendering behavior of Internet Explorer 5.x lives on in other browsers' quirks modes. Internet Explorer 5 is no longer available for download from Microsoft. However, archived versions of the software can be found on various websites.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Ericom AccessNow has been deployed at schools to enable student and faculty access to Windows applications and desktops from Google Chromebooks. Richland School District Two is deploying browser-based access to 30,000 students using Ericom AccessNow at 35 K-12 schools as part of the district's \"1 Two 1\" initiative to make computers available to every student in grade 3 through 12.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The product also included Microsoft Math, language and literature resources (book summaries), and research tools (such as access to an online version of Encarta). Student 2006 was the first version of the product and a new version was produced by Microsoft every year until 2009.\n", "At the beginning of the 2013-2014 school year, Manchester High School officially became a \"Google school,\" and every student and staff member received a Google Chromebook. This was made possible by the Nellie Mae Grant, along with other grants. The purpose of the \"Chromebooks in the classroom\" initiative was to bring students into a 21st-century learning environment. The school has adapted Google Chrome as its main operating system, and the use of Chromebooks has exceeded that of desktops at Manchester High School. All work is stored virtually in the cloud, allowing access through any computer with a modern browser.\n", "There is no doubt that the Web has proved to be a main focus for language teachers, who are making increasingly imaginative use of its wide range of facilities: see Dudeney (2007) and Thomas (2008). Above all, the use of Web 2.0 tools calls for a careful reexamination of the role of the teacher in the classroom (Richardson 2006).\n\nSection::::Corpora and concordancers.\n", "According to StatCounter Internet Explorer's marketshare fell below 50% in September 2010. In May 2012, Google Chrome overtook Internet Explorer as the most used browser worldwide, according to StatCounter. \n\nSection::::Market adoption and usage share.:Industry adoption.\n", "BULLET::::- \"NetLogo,\" written in Java and Scala, is a development environment for building and exploring scientific models, specifically agent-based models. It is in widespread use both in science research (Science papers using NetLogo) and in educational contexts, including elementary, secondary schools, universities and museums.\n", "Section::::Textbooks and publishing.\n\nThe software was used in electronic publishing. In order to use a textbook or other learning tool published in the WebCT format, some publishers require the student to purchase a password at the bookstore or to obtain it online. The software permitted integration of material prepared locally with material purchased from publishers.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n\nWebCT's user interface has been criticized as needlessly complex and unintuitive. The \"Vista\" version of the product represented an attempt to derive balance between flexibility and ease of use, however it has also been the target of ease-of-use criticisms.\n", "The first Internet Explorer was derived from Spyglass Mosaic. The original Mosaic came from NCSA, but since NCSA was a public entity it relied on Spyglass as its commercial licensing partner. Spyglass in turn delivered two versions of the Mosaic browser to Microsoft, one wholly based on the NCSA source code, and another engineered from scratch but conceptually modeled on the NCSA browser. Internet Explorer was initially built using the Spyglass, not the NCSA source code. The license to Microsoft provided Spyglass (and thus NCSA) with a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's revenues for the software.\n", "In September 2005, a formal library room was built and is now filled with over 12,000 books including picture, fiction, non-fiction, and reference books. Two years later 2007, an impending donation from Rotary International for an additional 10 computers prompted the building of a second story computer center at Open Windows. The center was completed in April, 2007. By this time, the mission had been expanded to include enhancing technology skills and to provide educational programming and tutoring for students.\n\nSection::::Programs.\n", "The Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon, who, according to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Review of 2003, used source code from Spyglass, Inc. Mosaic, which was an early commercial web browser with formal ties to the pioneering National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) Mosaic browser. In late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to NCSA Mosaic, Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly.\n", "When IE6 was released, it included a number of enhancements over its predecessor, Internet Explorer 5. It and its layout engine Trident are required for many programs including Microsoft Encarta. IE6 improved support for Cascading Style Sheets, adding a number of properties that previously had not been implemented and fixing bugs such as the Internet Explorer box model bug. In Windows XP, IE6 introduced a redesigned interface based on the operating system's default theme, Luna.\n", "BULLET::::7. ICT training to all visually challenged teachers in the state using the free software – ORCA.\n\nSection::::Public awareness.\n\nThe project also engaged in organizing statewide awareness campaign, exposing the everyday computer user to the possibilities and advantages of using Linux-based software. Resource persons of the IT@School project in these sessions, demonstrate how there is a free software alternative to each and every computer application that an average user requires on a daily basis.\n\nSection::::E-governance.\n", "Internet Explorer for UNIX\n\nInternet Explorer for UNIX is a discontinued graphical web browser that was available free of charge and produced by Microsoft for use in the X Window System on Solaris or HP-UX. Development ended with a version of Internet Explorer 5 in 2001 and support for it was completely discontinued in 2002.\n\nSection::::Development history.\n", "In 2010 the school banned memory sticks and USB devices by preventing the school's networked computers from recognising such devices which could infect the network with viruses.\n\nSince 2010-11 a room addition in the school's Learning Resource Centre (LRC) has been used for activities such as presentations by visitors. The computers in the LRC were also upgraded to Windows 7 with Microsoft Office 2010 software, and as of 2016 all computers in the school use Microsoft Office 2013.\n", "Internet Explorer was once the most widely used web browser, attaining a peak of about 95% usage share by 2003. This came after Microsoft used bundling to win the first browser war against Netscape, which was the dominant browser in the 1990s. Its usage share has since declined with the launch of Firefox (2004) and Google Chrome (2008), and with the growing popularity of operating systems such as Android and iOS that do not support Internet Explorer. Estimates for Internet Explorer's market share are about 2.58% across all platforms or by StatCounter's numbers ranked 6th, while on desktop, the only platform on which it has ever had significant share (e.g., excluding mobile and Xbox) it is ranked 4th at 5.13%, after macOS's Safari; even only managing third rank after Firefox when including IE's successor Edge share (others place IE 3rd with 8.44% after Firefox); (browser market share is notoriously difficult to calculate). Microsoft spent over per year on Internet Explorer in the late 1990s, with over 1,000 people involved in the project by 1999.\n", "Browser Helper Objects are also used by many search engine companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, such as search engine toolbars. Because of the use of COM, it is possible to embed web-browsing functionality in third-party applications. Hence, there are a number of Internet Explorer shells, and a number of content-centric applications like RealPlayer also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing web pages within the applications.\n\nSection::::Removal.\n", "Support for all versions of IE on Windows XP ended effective April 8, 2014 due to its end-of-life. On January 12, 2016, support for IE8 on all supported Windows operating systems ceased, due to new support policies dictating that only the newest version of IE available for a supported version of Windows is supported. Only Internet Explorer 11 is to be supported, except for Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, where only Internet Explorer 9 is supported, and Windows Server 2012, where only Internet Explorer 10 is supported.\n\nSection::::History.:Language support.\n", "Section::::Market adoption and usage share.\n", "In a 2008 MSNBC article, Tim Berners-Lee said that lack of support in Internet Explorer was responsible for holding back the widespread adoption by webmasters of several new open technology standards, specifically scalable vector graphics (SVG), supported elsewhere since 2001, but only available in Internet Explorer using a 3rd party plugin (until the release of Internet Explorer 9).\n\nSection::::System requirements.\n\nIE7 requires at least:\n\nBULLET::::- 233 MHz processor\n\nBULLET::::- Windows XP SP2.\n\nBULLET::::- Super VGA (800 × 600) monitor with 256 colors.\n\nBULLET::::- Mouse or compatible pointing device.\n" ]

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[ "Inside the Space Port, the planet screen at the front of the station has been changed to reflect the overlay, as well. While viewing the planet, a green \"storm\" appears over the planet, causing interruptions to the video feed. Static appears, then a blue screen, reminiscent of the Windows Blue Screen of Death, saying \"LOSS OF SIGNAL...,\" \"SEARCHING...\" and \"SIGNAL ESTABLISHED\". Outside on the dome, five projections play, with several Halloween-themed color schemes appearing between these projection shows:\n", "On September 30, 2018, Star announced on Twitter that \"Mic Dicta\" had ended.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Parts of the film were shot in Monument Valley, Utah.\n\nSection::::Release and reception.\n\n\"Starman\" grossed $2,872,022 in its opening weekend, debuting at number 6. It was released the same week as David Lynch's film \"Dune\" and a week after the release of Peter Hyams' film \"2010: The Year We Make Contact\". The film grossed a total of $28,744,356 from its domestic (US and Canada) run.\n", "The film was later converted into the IMAX format for projection in IMAX cinemas. Deakins was unaware that the film was to be released on IMAX until after he had made the decision to shoot the film with the Arri Alexa cameras, and was unhappy with the IMAX tests made from his footage as the colours \"didn't look great\". After exploring the IMAX system further and discovering that the IMAX Corporation was using their proprietary re-mastering process, Deakins had further tests made without the process and found that \"the images looked spectacular on the big IMAX screen\", quelling his doubts about the format.\n", "BULLET::::- The original Starman appears among the Justice Society in the \"\" episode \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\". He is voiced by Jeff Bennett.\n\nBULLET::::- Machinima Inc. and DC Entertainment were producing a live-action web series based on an updated version of the original concept, titled \"DC's Hero Project\".\n\nBULLET::::- The character of Starman will appear on the upcoming DC Universe series \"Stargirl\", portrayed by Joel McHale. He is a combination of Starman and the Star-Spangled Kid, Sylvester Pemberton.\n", "The original license to use the character artwork was time-limited. Though the license was renewed multiple times, in 2018, Satriani and Marvel could not come to terms on a price, and so the cover art was replaced. , digital retailers such as iTunes and Spotify display an alternative artwork that does not feature the Silver Surfer.\n\nSection::::Release and reception.\n", "BULLET::::- In a chase scene about 13 minutes into \"Auton 3: Awakening\", the Autons have shadows longer than their own bodies, the sun being low in the sky. However, 10 seconds later they are seen with much shorter shadows, revealing that different parts of the chase were filmed at significantly different times of day.\n\nBULLET::::- US retailer Who North America (http://www.whona.com) contributed US$10,000 to the Auton 3 project.\n", "BULLET::::- Nicholas Verdi as Ramos\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nAfter \"many delays\" due to Adkins' busy schedule, filming began on December 1, 2014, and wrapped on February 3, 2015.\n\nSection::::Release.\n\nOn September 16, 2015, the worldwide premiere took place on Polish television. It will receive a limited theatrical release and VOD release in the United States on December 4.\n\nSection::::Release.:Marketing.\n", "\"Starman Annual\" #1 shows a possible future for Shade as the protector of a Utopian planet thousands of years from the present. As with the current Shade, he enjoys telling tales of his past. The planet's technology and possibly the planet itself seemed to be made almost entirely out of Cosmic Rod technology inspired by Starman and his legacy.\n\nSection::::Powers and abilities.\n", "Section::::In other media.:Television.:Arrowverse.\n\nJohn Barrowman portrays Malcolm Merlyn / Dark Archer in The CW's live-action \"Arrowverse\", where he serves as Oliver Queen's nemesis. The digital comic \"Arrow: The Dark Archer\" reveals that his birth name is Arthur King.\n", "BULLET::::- The Sun was visited in a surprise visit by Quentin Tarantino, Samuel L. Jackson and Kurt Russell in 2016, because the theatre was one of the select few Australian venues for the roadshow 70mm presentation of \"The Hateful 8\", and Tarantino was impressed by the theatre's attempt to secure a proper 70mm projector just so they could show this film. The trio happened to be in Melbourne promoting the film and thought it would give the audience in attendance a memorable experience.\n", "Section::::Logos.\n\nThe first ANT1 logo was coloured with gold with ANT flattened 20 degrees to the right and the number 1 is bolded at size 2. At the left edges of the number 1, two lines starting from A to 1. The line at the top is short and the line at the bottom is long. The logo appeared at the top-left on the screen. Due to its brightness, the logo could cause burn-in on rear projection and plasma TVs. A defined image of the logo will appear permanently on the TV screen.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Arrow\" TV show's Malcolm Merlyn is alluded in \"Lego Dimensions\". Green Arrow mentions that Captain Jack Harkness of \"Doctor Who\" looks familiar (a nod to the fact that both characters are portrayed by John Barrowman).\n\nBULLET::::- Malcolm Merlyn appears as a main character in \"Lego DC Super-Villains\", with John Barrowman returning to the role.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Merchandise.\n", "BULLET::::- This story was one of the original outlines conceived for the writers' bible. Executive producer Gerry Anderson thought that effects supervisor Brian Johnson would be able to save money by filming most of the visual effects against the real sky and with natural lighting. As it turns out, the wires supporting the models were always visible; the method would have cost much more than filming in the Bray Studios' stages and the idea was abandoned.\n", "BULLET::::- DC Collectibles has released two 6.75-inch action figures of Merlyn in their \"Arrow\" TV show line. In March 2015, a Dark Archer figure was released. A slightly remolded and repainted version of this figure with a new unmasked head sculpt, based on season three of the series, was later released in June 2016, this time labeled as \"Malcolm Merlyn\".\n\nBULLET::::- Funko has released a 2016 SDCC exclusive POP! vinyl figure of Malcolm Merlyn in their \"Arrow\" television series line.\n\nBULLET::::- A GameStop exclusive vinyl collectible of Malcolm Merlyn has been released in Dorbz's \"Arrow\" television series wave.\n", "Abin Sur's home planet of Ungara has been featured during a storyline about refugees. Two Lanterns, Jessica Cruz and Simon Baz, bring 'Molites' to Ungara, but not all are welcoming. Simon and Jessica make friends with several Ungarans who honor the nobility of Abin Sur and thus have no problems with the Molites. \n\nSection::::Spaceship.\n", "\"Beyond the Black Rainbow\" was financed by DVD residuals from \"Tombstone\" (1993), directed by Panos' father. The film was shot in three weeks using a modified Panavision 35 mm camera. This was suggested by cinematographer Norm Li, for he noted that Panos' references – mostly films from the '70s and '80s – \"were all grainy, colorful, and full of texture\", and he felt the 35 mm format was \"the only way to shoot.\"\n\nSection::::Style.\n\nSection::::Style.:Visuals.\n", "For the Sky Tower set (built on a soundstage in Baton Rouge), Kosinski and cinematographer Claudio Miranda worked closely with visual special-effects house Pixomondo to establish both environment and lighting by the use of 21 front-screen projectors aimed at a huge wraparound backdrop to form one continuous image, rather than blue screen backdrops. The backdrop consisted of a single seamless piece of painted white muslin, , which was wrapped around the set for 270-degree coverage. This enabled the full environment to be captured in camera, and assisted in lighting up to 90 percent of the set.\n", "English title: PHOTON\n\nOriginal title: PHOTON\n\nRunning time (min): 107\n", "Sal Mallimo, from Mimondo Productions, used the service sporadically for his \"Saturday Night Live\", \"The Venture Bros\" titles, and trailers. One day Mallimo had a cold and sent his Art Director, who learned about Ed’s expertise, liked his work, and asked him to create a star field for a teaser of \"Star Trek\". Barry Rappaport, interviewed by ADA, remembers: \"Ed was doing the star fields for our teaser, and he came up with a trick by sandwiching the high contrast kodaliths on an opal glass under the camera, and …a \"glow\" came out!!\" Today the glow is part of film grammar and special effects tools.\n", "Plummer said of the filming, \"Give me Rome any day. I'll do porno in Rome, as long as I can get to Rome. Getting to Rome was the greatest thing that happened in that for me. I think it was only about three days in Rome on that one. It was all shot at once\". Discussing his role as the Emperor, he said, \"How can you play the Emperor of The Universe? What a wonderful part to play. It puts God in a very dicey moment, doesn't it? He's very insecure, God, when the Emperor’s around\". \n", "While attending the New Zealand Children's Academy, he also had small roles in Cloud 9's \"Revelations - The Initial Journey\" and the Disney Channel Original Movie \"You Wish!\" as well as many theatrical and musical productions across New Zealand.\n", "One of the faintest constellations in the night sky, Mensa contains no apparently bright stars—the brightest, Alpha Mensae, is barely visible in suburban skies. At least three of its star systems have been found to have exoplanets, and part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, several star clusters and a quasar lie in the area covered by the constellation.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Hood, who was born in South Africa, chose to film \"Eye in the Sky\" in his home country. Filming began in South Africa in September 2014. Since the South African Civil Aviation Authority did not grant filmmakers permission to fly real drones in the country's airspace for the production, they used visual effects to display the drones. Hood found practical locations throughout South Africa that substituted for settings in the film: an area that looked like Surrey for Mirren's character, clubs that looked located in Las Vegas, and Beaufort West which was a backdrop for the state of Nevada in the United States. Filming concluded on 4 November 2014. None of the four lead actors—Mirren, Rickman, Paul, and Abdi—met one another during production, instead filming alone with Hood due to their characters' separate locations in the film. For example, despite the two costarring in a pair of films (\"Eye in the Sky\" and the animated feature \"Help! I'm a Fish\"), Aaron Paul and Alan Rickman had never met each other in person, according to Paul himself in an interview with \"The Guardian\".\n", "Kiner continued his work with the franchise for the animated series \"Star Wars Rebels\" (2014), which also incorporates Williams' themes.\n\nRyan Shore serves as the composer for \"Star Wars: Forces of Destiny\" (2017–present).\n\nSection::::Style.\n\nSection::::Style.:Inspiration.\n" ]

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[ "In the United States most utilities bill only to the nearest 100 or 1,000 gallons (10 to 100 ft., 1 to 10 m), and often only read the leftmost 4 or 5 numbers on the display wheels. Using the above example, they would read and bill 1,234, rounding to 1,234,000 gallons based on a 1,000 gallon billing resolution. The most common rounding for a particular size meter is often indicated by differently coloured number wheels, the ones ignored being black, and the ones used for billing being white.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n", "Section::::Range of applications.\n\nSettling basins are used as a separation mechanism to eliminate rejected products (i.e. waste solids management strategies) of a specified size and quantity in various fields, such as aquaculture, mining, dairy, food processing, alcohol production and wine making. Regular draining and desilting of settling basins is required to maintain satisfactory performance.\n\nSection::::Range of applications.:Aquaculture.\n", "BULLET::::- Slurry density - The slurry density (percent solids) determines retention time. The settling rate and viscosity of the slurry are functions of the slurry density. The viscosity, in turn, controls the gas mass transfer and the leaching rate.\n\nBULLET::::- Numbers of tanks - Agitated tank leach circuits are typically designed with no less than four tanks and preferably more to prevent short-circuiting of the slurry through the tanks.\n", "Employees of oil refineries in the disaster area have stated on online forums that their refineries filled tanks with water in order to prevent them from floating away. However, typical pre-Katrina industry standards on the Gulf Coast were based on a heavy rain event, and did not anticipate a full inundation of water around the storage tanks.\n", "Petrol interceptors work on the premise that some hydrocarbons such as petroleum and diesel float on the top of water. The contaminated water enters the interceptor typically after flowing off roads or forecourts and entering a channel drain before being deposited into the first tank inside the interceptor. The first tank builds up a layer of the hydrocarbon as well as other scum. Typically petrol interceptors have 3 separate tanks each connected with a dip pipe, as more liquid enters the interceptor the water enters into the second tank leaving the majority of the hydrocarbon behind as it cannot enter the dip pipe, whose opening into the second tank is below the surface of the water. However some of the contaminants may by chance enter the second tank. This second tank will not build up as much of the hydrocarbon on its surface. As before, the water is pushed into the third tank, by fluid dynamics, as more water enters the second. The third tank should be practically clear of any hydrocarbon floating on its surface. As a precaution, the outlet pipe is also a dip pipe. When the water leaves the third tank via the outlet pipe it should be contaminant free.\n", "There is an increasing concern over the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum underground storage tanks (USTs) of gas stations. BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/ml). Similar to the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL), will “float” upon the water table in the aquifer.\n", "BULLET::::- , in India, an artificial lake or reservoir of any size\n\nBULLET::::- , used for fluid mechanics experiments\n\nBULLET::::- a container which holds a supply of air for breathing underwater\n\nBULLET::::- , for watering livestock\n\nBULLET::::- , in India, a well or reservoir built as part of a temple complex\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Research on \"Plastic Chemical Tanks\" by Mech Group, an example of Plastic Cylinder tanks (plastic-polyethylene-tanks) published by Justin Roberts\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Use of storage tanks and vessels in Oil & Gas industry\n", "Chemical contact tank of FDA and NSF polyethylene construction, allows for retention time for chemical treatment chemicals to \"contact\" (chemically treat) with product water.\n\nGround water tank, made of lined carbon steel, may receive water from a water well or from surface water, allowing a large volume of water to be placed in inventory and used during peak demand cycles.\n", "A water spot is an area of dried mineral deposits left on a surface after being allowed to air dry. Water quality, specifically the amount and type of minerals in the local water supply as measured by the total suspended solids or TSS test and other mineral levels such as sodium level, has a big effect on how severe water spots can be, for example on an automobile or dishes. Water spots can be avoided by drying after washing using a \"shammy\" cloth or towel for a car and a good drying cycle in a dishwasher, or by manual drying or good drainage after manually washing dishes.\n", "Section::::Registers.\n", "Section::::Assessment of main process characteristics.:Settlement of flocculent particles.\n\nIn a horizontal sedimentation tank, some particles may not follow the diagonal line in Fig. 1, while settling faster as they grow. So this says that particles can grow and develop a higher settling velocity if a greater depth with longer retention time. However, the collision chance would be even greater if the same retention time were spread over a longer, shallower tank. In fact, in order to avoid hydraulic short-circuiting, tanks usually are made 3–6 m deep with retention times of a few hours.\n\nSection::::Assessment of main process characteristics.:Zone-settling behaviour.\n", "BULLET::::- Block valve station: These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are usually located every 20 to , depending on the type of pipeline. Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines. The location of these stations depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the trajectory of the pipeline and/or the operational conditions of the line.\n", "This arrangement occurs on many toll roads and some interstate freeways and is called an oasis or service plaza. In many cases, these centres might have a food court or restaurants. In the United Kingdom these are called Motorway service areas.\n", "BULLET::::3. Flocculation: The water travels into the mixing and settling basins, where large mechanical mixers (flocculators) gently agitate the water. This further mixes the water with the coagulant chemicals and allows sufficient time for the larger suspended particles in the water to bind together and form “floc.”\n\nBULLET::::4. Sedimentation: The floc particles, which are heavier than the surrounding water, settle to the bottom of the basin, forming a layer of material that is later removed.\n", "Section::::Introduction to the area.\n", "Today, every household has been supplied with plastic tanks to catch the rainwater and they no longer need to go to the catchment building. However, in times of water shortage tankers may fill up from here to take to the homes.\n\nSection::::Rubbish dump.\n", "Additionally, a large amount of effluent is pumped out to sea, and major extensions of this effluent pipe were carried out in 1987 and 1999, though Saiccor maintained for many years that the effluent was largely harmless. A well-known act was when Saiccor chief executive was challenged to drink a glass of effluent at a company function.\n", "It is referred to in the pilot episode for the That '70s Show sitcom, as well as in the twenty-first episode of the fifth season.\n\n\"Gashole\" (2010), a documentary film about the history of oil prices and the future of alternative mentions multiple stories regarding engines that use water to increase mileage efficiency.\n\n\"Like Water for Octane,\" an episode of \"The Lone Gunmen\", is based on a \"water-powered\" car that character Melvin Frohike saw with his own eyes back in 1962.\n", "Petrol interceptor\n\nA petrol interceptor is a trap used to filter out hydrocarbon pollutants from rainwater runoff. It is typically used in road construction and on Petrol Station forecourts to prevent fuel contamination of streams carrying away the runoff.\n", "Section::::Involvement Against Water Contamination.\n", "Detention basins and water tanks can be defined as community-built and household water stores, filled by rainwater, groundwater infiltration or surface runoff. They are usually open, and therefore exposed to high levels of evaporation. They can be a great help to farmers in helping them overcome dry spells. However, they can promote vector-borne diseases such as malaria or schistosomiasis.\n", "BULLET::::- Chapter 12 - Fuel Piping\n\nBULLET::::- Chapter 13 - Health Care Facilities and Medical Gas and Vacuum Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Chapter 14 - Firestop Protection\n\nBULLET::::- Chapter 15 - Alternate Water Sources for Nonpotable Applications\n\nBULLET::::- Chapter 16 - Nonpotable Rainwater Catchment (Rainwater Harvesting) Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Chapter 17 - Referenced Standards\n\nBULLET::::- Appendix A - Recommended Rules for Sizing the Water supply System\n\nBULLET::::- Appendix B - Explanatory Notes on Combination Waste and Vent Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Appendix C - Alternate Plumbing Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Appendix D - Sizing Storm Water Drainage Systems\n", "Section::::Details.\n\nBULLET::::- Average width:\n\nBULLET::::- Basin permanence index:\n\nBULLET::::- Approximate flushing rate: 2.1 volumes per year\n\nBULLET::::- Relative depth: 0.43%\n\nBULLET::::- Shoreline development index: 1.70\n\nBULLET::::- Volume development index: 2.1\n\nBULLET::::- In-lake total phosphorus retention index: 0.7\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Hand-washing: When water is stored in tanks for consumption hand-washing can become a factor in the tank lacks a proper faucet system, or if there is a lack of education on the risks posed by using hands for water consumption. It was found in a 2009 study that water tanks in Tanzania contained 140-180% more fecal indicator bacteria than the water they were supplied with.\n\nBULLET::::- Fertilizer Runoff\n\nSection::::Contamination.:Common Risks.\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorosis\n\nBULLET::::- Arsenic Poisoning\n\nBULLET::::- Bacteria and other organic contaminants\n\nSection::::Contamination.:Decontamination.\n", "The costs of metering include:\n\nBULLET::::- Investment costs to purchase, install and replace meters,\n\nBULLET::::- Recurring costs to read meters and issue bills based on consumption instead of bills based on monthly flat fees.\n\nWhile the cost of purchasing residential meters is low, the total life cycle costs of metering are high. For example, retrofitting flats in large buildings with meters for every flat can involve major and thus costly plumbing work.\n\nSection::::Problems.\n" ]

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[ "Significant early cave paintings, executed in ochre, have been found in Kakadu, Australia. Ochre is not an organic material, so carbon dating of these pictures is often impossible. Sometimes the approximate date, or at least, an epoch, can be surmised from the painting content, contextual artifacts, or organic material intentionally or inadvertently mixed with the inorganic ochre paint, including torch soot.\n", "Section::::Dating.\n\nThe cave contains some of the oldest known cave paintings, based on radiocarbon dating of \"black from drawings, from torch marks and from the floors\", according to Jean Clottes. Clottes concludes that the \"dates fall into two groups, one centered around 27,000–26,000 BP and the other around 32,000–30,000 BP.\" As of 1999, the dates of 31 samples from the cave had been reported. The earliest, sample Gifa 99776 from \"zone 10\", dates to 32,900 ± 490 BP.\n", "By 2011, more than 80 radiocarbon dates had been taken, with samples from torch marks and from the paintings themselves, as well as from animal bones and charcoal found on the cave floor. The radiocarbon dates from these samples suggest that there were two periods of creation in Chauvet: 35,000 years ago and 30,000 years ago. This would place the occupation and painting of the cave within the Aurignacian period. \n", "In 2009, cavers discovered drawings in Coliboaia Cave in Romania, stylistically comparable to those at Chauvet. An initial dating puts the age of an image in the same range as Chauvet: about 32,000 years old.\n", "Dates taken from charcoal, ostrich egg shell, bone samples and the deposits ranged from the MSA to LSA. (There is also evidence that the site was used during the historical period: a nylon button and European glass beads were found in the top layers of excavations at the site.) LSA layers included hammer stones and grindstones, along with bone artifacts and mircolithics. Pottery sherds, ostrich egg shell beads, and mongongo shells were also uncovered. MSA deposits included stone blades as well as other lithic tools.\n\nSection::::Archaeology.:Red Paintings.\n", "In Wales, the paleolithic burial called the Red Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in paleolithic sites at Pech Merle in France (ca. 25,000 years old), and the cave of Altamira in Spain (ca. 16,500–15,000 BC). The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse coloured with yellow ochre estimated to be 17,300 years old.\n", "A 2018 study claimed an age of 64,000 years for the oldest examples of (non-figurative) cave art in Iberia, which would imply production by Neanderthals rather than modern humans. In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.\n\nSection::::Dating.\n", "Noted sites containing early art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in Libya (A Unesco World Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad. Rock carvings at the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa have been dated to this age. Contentious dates as far back as 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in Tanzania. A site at the Apollo 11 Cave complex in Namibia has been dated to 27,000 years.\n", "BULLET::::- Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory has a large collection of ochre paintings. Ochre is a not an organic material, so carbon dating of these pictures is impossible. Sometimes the approximate date, or at least an epoch, can be guessed from the content.\n\nBULLET::::- The Sydney region has important rock engravings.\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Grenfell Historic Site near Cobar, western New South Wales has important ancient rock-drawings.\n\nBULLET::::- The Murujuga (Burrup Peninsula) area of Western Australia near Karratha is estimated to be home to between 500,000 and 1 million individual engravings.\n", "The oldest known cave painting is a red hand stencil in Maltravieso cave, Cáceres, Spain. It has been dated using the uranium-thorium method to older than 64,000 years\n\nand was made by a Neanderthal.\n\nThe oldest date given to an animal cave painting is now a bull dated circa as over 40 000 years, at Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave, East Kalimantan, Borneo, Indonesia. Before this discovery, the oldest known cave painting was a depiction of a pig with a minimum age of 35,400 years, at Timpuseng cave in Sulawesi, Indonesia.\n", "In Australia, cave paintings have been found on the Arnhem Land plateau showing megafauna which are thought to have been extinct for over 40,000 years, making this site another candidate for oldest known painting; however, the proposed age is dependent on the estimate of the extinction of the species seemingly depicted. Another Australian site, Nawarla Gabarnmang, has charcoal drawings that have been radiocarbon-dated to 28,000 years, making it the oldest site in Australia and among the oldest in the world for which reliable date evidence has been obtained.\n", "About 1,500 negative handprints have also been found in 30 painted caves in the Sangkulirang area of Kalimantan; preliminary dating analysis as of 2005 put their age in the range of 10,000 years old. \n\nA 2014 study based on uranium–thorium dating dated a Maros hand stencil to a minimum age of 39,900 years. \n\nA painting of a babirusa was dated to at least 35.4 ka, placing it among the oldest known figurative depictions worldwide.\n\nThe Padah-Lin Caves of Burma contain 11,000-year-old paintings and many rock tools.\n", "Among the artifacts were 191 remnants of clay pots that were painted and / or bore markings or characters. Among them are 25 vessels that have been labeled with symbols and are partially provided with writings.\n", "Red ochre paintings of human hands, fish, bulls, bison, deer and other objects are visible at the rock shelter. The art has not been directly dated. The walls of the cave have also been decorated with carved patterns. More than 300 cupules have been documented in the rockshelter.\n", "Nearly 340 caves have now been discovered in France and Spain that contain art from prehistoric times. Initially, the age of the paintings had been a contentious issue, since methods like radiocarbon dating can produce misleading results if contaminated by samples of older or newer material, and caves and rocky overhangs (where parietal art is found) are typically littered with debris from many time periods. But subsequent technology has made it possible to date the paintings by sampling the pigment itself, torch marks on the walls, or the formation of carbonate deposits on top of the paintings. The subject matter can also indicate chronology: for instance, the reindeer depicted in the Spanish cave of Cueva de las Monedas places the drawings in the last Ice Age.\n", "Pygmies creating these paintings is the number one theory about who created this art. Even without radiocarbon dating there are some way to estimate the dates. Through the excavation of sites such as Nyero, artifacts, uncovered projectile points, date to about 15,000 B.P. The artifacts can fairly confidently be dated to the Later Stone Age. This means that rock paintings can be associated with the Later Stone Age as well, not with one hundred percent confidence though.\n\nSection::::Later Stone Age (LSA).\n", "In 2011, archaeologists found a small rock fragment at Blombos Cave, about east of Cape Town on the southern cape coastline in South Africa, among spear points and other excavated material. After extensive testing for seven years, it was revealed that the lines drawn on the rock were handmade and from an ochre crayon dating back 73,000 years. This makes it the oldest known rock painting.\n\nSection::::Paleolithic cave art by region.:Australia.\n", "Cave paintings from the Indonesian island of Sulawesi are situated in the Caves in the district of Maros were dated based on Uranium–thorium dating in a 2014 study. The oldest dated image was a hand stencil, given a minimum age of 39,900 years. A painting of a babirusa was dated to at least 35.4 ka, placing it among the oldest known figurative depictions worldwide.\n", "BULLET::::- El Castillo cave, one of the Monte Castillo caves (Spain) – contains decorations in red ochre paint which has been blown onto the walls in the forms of hand stencils as long as 37,000 years ago, and painted dots. One faint red dot has been dated to 40,800 years ago, making it the oldest dated cave decoration in the world. It is 5,000-10,000 years older than caves so-far found in France.\n", "Further study by French archaeologist Jean Clottes has revealed much about the site. The dates have been a matter of dispute but a study published in 2012 supports placing the art in the Aurignacian period, approximately 32,000–30,000 years BP. A study published in 2016 using additional 88 radiocarbon dates showed two periods of habitation, one 37,000 to 33,500 years ago and the second from 31,000 to 28,000 years ago with most of the black drawings dating to the earlier period.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "The artefacts were delivered from the excavation site to the camp, in the evenings they were washed and re-grouped. About 7 hours was scheduled for working in the cave per day. Armstrong was mainly dealing with following the paintings on the wall, marking the collected artefacts and sometimes their sorting during the excavations period: \n\n\"“After careful consideration, I have decided to term the industry represented by the artefacts derived from the thickest deposit in the cave, amounting to over 10 feet, \"Bambata Culture.\"\" \n\nSection::::Cultural layers.\n", "Multispectral imaging has been used to study pigments at Naj Tunich cave. These studies show that at least three different pigments were used to create the images within the cave. Multispectral imaging also showed that the images show signs of “over-painting, repainting or touching up” by the artists.\n\nSection::::Modern Impact on the Site.\n", "Locating the earliest art work depends upon the suitability of the thing proposed as art with respect to a consensually agreed definition, as to those necessary factors characteristic of something fulfilling the purpose of artistic creation.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe earliest human artistic representations are thought by modern anthropologists to be African rock art made from red ochre around 100,000 B.C. in South Africa. The cave where the ochre mix was found, the Blombos Cave, also contained snail shell jewellery and engraved stones dating from 75,000 years ago.\n", "Of relevance here are the fragments of ochre recovered from the lowest occupation levels during the 2012 and 2015 excavations at Madjedbebe, some of which have ground facets. These are a tantalising suggestion that even at this early time people were engaging in some form of artistic pursuit, whether that was painting motifs on the walls of the shelter, or decorating objects or themselves with the ground ochre.\n", "In 2008 an ochre processing workshop consisting of two toolkits was uncovered in the 100,000-year-old levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Analysis shows that a liquefied pigment-rich mixture was produced and stored in the shells of two \"Haliotis midae\" (abalone), and that ochre, bone, charcoal, grindstones and hammer-stones also formed a composite part of the toolkits. As both toolkits were left in situ, and as there are few other archaeological remains in the same layer, it seems the site was used primarily as a workshop and was abandoned shortly after the pigment-rich compounds were made. Dune sand then blew into the cave from the outside, encapsulated the toolkits and by happenstance ensured their preservation before the next occupants arrived, possibly several decades or centuries later.\n" ]

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[ "Sometiomes objects found around the painting are tested to get an idea of the age. " ]

[ "Another possibility is that since much of the meat of a chicken is taken from the chest, which contains the white 'fast fibers' that are necessary for the short, fast flight of a fleeing chicken, it tastes like these other animals due to similar concentrations of fast fibers in the parts that are used for meat. The taste difference is usually attributed to low concentrations of the iron-containing protein myoglobin, a high concentration being more typical of vertebrates and tissues adapted for slow, sustained exertion. Myoglobin-rich meat is contrariwise often called red meat.\n", "As an explanation of why unusual meats would taste more like chicken than common alternatives such as beef or pork, different possibilities have been offered. One idea is that chicken is seen as having a bland taste compared to other meats because fat contributes more flavor than muscle (especially in the case of a lean cut such as a skinless chicken breast), making it a generic choice for comparison. Also, chicken reportedly has lower levels of glutamates that contribute to the \"savory\" aspect of taste known as umami; processing other meats could also lower glutamate levels and make them taste more like chicken. Modern poultry, particularly mass-produced chicken and turkey, is particularly bland in taste, as animals are bred for large muscle mass that grows faster than naturally breeding fowl; trace chemicals in the meat that would give it a distinctive flavor would thus be dispersed through larger amounts of muscle with less time to accumulate, thus giving lower concentrations per ounce of meat and creating a more generic taste.\n", "Wild turkeys, while technically the same species as domesticated turkeys, have a very different taste from farm-raised turkeys. Almost all of the meat is \"dark\" (including the breast) with a more intense flavor. The flavor can also vary seasonally with changes in available forage, often leaving wild turkey meat with a gamier flavor in late summer, due to the greater number of insects in its diet over the preceding months. Wild turkey that has fed predominantly on grass and grain has a milder flavor. Older heritage breeds also differ in flavor.\n", "Another suggestion, made by Joe Staton of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, is that meat flavors are fixed based on the \"evolutionary origin\" of the animal. Specifically, he noted that tetrapods largely taste like chicken, whereas other animals usually do not. Accordingly, birds (the most numerous form of meat by type) would (in most cases) naturally taste more like chicken than mammals. Furthermore, because dinosaurs are ancestral to birds, their meat would hypothetically have also tasted like chicken. However, the meat of other fowl often tastes nothing like chicken; for example, pheasant meat is described as a \"unique\" flavor and ostrich meat is considered very similar to beef. \n", "Wild turkeys, while technically the same species as domestic turkeys, have a very different taste from farm-raised turkeys. In contrast to domestic turkeys, almost all wild turkey meat is \"dark\" (even the breast) and more intensely flavored. The flavor can also vary seasonally with changes in available forage, often leaving wild turkey meat with a gamier flavor in late summer due to the greater number of insects in its diet over the preceding months. Wild turkey that has fed predominantly on grass and grain has a milder flavor. Older heritage breeds also differ in flavor.\n", "Chickens often come with labels such as \"roaster\", which suggest a method of cooking based on the type of chicken. While these labels are only suggestions, ones labeled for stew often do not do well when cooked with other methods.\n", "Seafood, however, would logically have a more distinctive flavor. (The extent of its divergence is not consistent; tuna was said to taste enough like chicken that a prominent tuna canner named its product Chicken of the Sea.) Also, although mammals are tetrapods, very few mammals taste like chicken, which implies that there had been a mutation that changed their flavor on that branch of the evolutionary tree.\n", "Section::::Size and weight.\n\nThe domestic turkey is the eighth largest living bird species in terms of maximum mass at 39 kg (86 lbs).\n\nSection::::Turkey breeds.\n\nBULLET::::- The Broad Breasted White is the commercial turkey of choice for large scale industrial turkey farms, and consequently is the most consumed variety of the bird. Usually the turkey to receive a \"presidential pardon\", a U.S. custom, is a Broad Breasted White.\n\nBULLET::::- The Broad Breasted Bronze is another commercially developed strain of table bird.\n\nBULLET::::- The Standard Bronze looks much like the Broad Breasted Bronze, except that it is single breasted, and can naturally breed.\n", "Section::::Variants.\n\nOther tikka masala dishes replace chicken with lamb, fish, or paneer.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Capons (castrated cocks) produce more and fattier meat. For this reason, they are considered a delicacy and were particularly popular in the Middle Ages.\n\nSection::::Edible components.\n\nBULLET::::- Main\n\nBULLET::::- Breast: These are white meat and are relatively dry.\n\nBULLET::::- Leg: Comprises two segments:\n\nBULLET::::1. The \"drumstick\"; this is dark meat and is the lower part of the leg,\n\nBULLET::::2. the \"thigh\"; also dark meat, this is the upper part of the leg.\n\nBULLET::::- Wing: Often served as a light meal or bar food. Buffalo wings are a typical example. Comprises three segments:\n", "Although the age of the egg and the conditions of its storage have a greater influence, the bird's diet affects the flavor of the egg. For example, when a brown-egg chicken breed eats rapeseed (canola) or soy meals, its intestinal microbes metabolize them into fishy-smelling triethylamine, which ends up in the egg. The unpredictable diet of free-range hens will produce likewise, unpredictable egg flavors. Duck eggs tend to have a flavor distinct from, but still resembling, chicken eggs.\n", "Lamb is often sorted into three kinds of meat: forequarter, loin, and hindquarter. The forequarter includes the neck, shoulder, front legs, and the ribs up to the shoulder blade. The hindquarter includes the rear legs and hip. The loin includes the ribs between the two.\n\nLamb chops are cut from the rib, loin, and shoulder areas. The rib chops include a rib bone; the loin chops include only a chine bone. Shoulder chops are usually considered inferior to loin chops; both kinds of chops are usually grilled. Breast of lamb (baby chops) can be cooked in an oven.\n", "Section::::Local varieties.:Palestine and Syria.\n\nTraditional Levantine cooking includes a variety of Pilaf known as \"Maqlubeh\", known across the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean. The rice pilaf which is traditionally cooked with meats, eggplants, tomatoes, potatoes, and cauliflower also has a fish variety known as \"Sayyadiyeh\", or the Fishermen's Dish.\n\nSection::::Local varieties.:Turkey.\n\nHistorically, mutton stock was the most common cooking liquid for Turkish pilafs, which according to 19th century American sources was called \"pirinç\".\n", "Armenian kinds of rice are discussed by Rose Baboian in her cookbook from 1964 which includes recipes for different pilafs, most rooted in her birthplace of Aintab in Turkey. Baboian recommends that the noodles be stir-fried first in chicken fat before being added to the pilaf. Another Armenian cookbook written by Vağinag Pürad recommends to render poultry fat in the oven with red pepper until the fat mixture turns a red color before using the strained fat to prepare pilaf.\n", "BULLET::::- Bozartma (lamb stew) is a Caucasian soup with lamb popular in Georgia and Azerbaijan. The word \"bozartma\" is derived from the Turkish word \"bozartmaq\" which means 'cooked chunk of meat'. Lamb shank needs to be steamed for a long time before it is fully cooked.\n\nBULLET::::- Chicken soup exists in almost every cuisine, and in Azerbaijani as well. There is no concrete recipe, chicken can be combined with different varieties of herbs, spices, dried fruits and etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Young lamb — a milk-fed lamb between six and eight weeks old\n\nBULLET::::- Spring lamb — a milk-fed lamb, usually three to five months old, born in late winter or early spring and sold usually before 1 July (in the northern hemisphere).\n", "Lamb tongue is popular in Middle Eastern cuisine both as a cold cut and in preparations like stews.\n\nSection::::Cuts.\n\nSection::::Cuts.:UK, Canada, and other Commonwealth countries.\n\nApproximate zones of the usual UK cuts of lamb:\n\nBULLET::::- Scrag end (of neck)\n\nBULLET::::- Middle neck\n\nBULLET::::- Best End (of neck)\n\nBULLET::::- Loin\n\nBULLET::::- Chump (and chump chops)\n\nBULLET::::- Leg (gigot in Scotland)\n\nBULLET::::- Shank\n\nBULLET::::- Shoulder\n\nBULLET::::- Breast\n\nSection::::Cuts.:US and Ireland.\n\nBULLET::::- Square cut shoulder – shoulder roast, shoulder chops and arm chops\n\nBULLET::::- Rack – rib chops and riblets, rib roast\n\nBULLET::::- Loin – loin chops or roast\n", "Meat is present though not as prominent, and typically is either stewed in dishes like Yankee pot roast and New England boiled dinner or braised, as in a picnic ham; these dishes suit the weather better as summers are humid and hot but winters are raw and cold, getting below 0 °C for most of the winter and only just above it by March. The roasting of whole turkeys began here as a centerpiece for large American banquets, and like all other East Coast tribes, the Native American tribes of New England prized wild turkeys as a source of sustenance and later Anglophone settlers were enamored of cooking them using methods they knew from Europe: often that meant trussing the bird and spinning it on a string or spit roasting. Today turkey meat is a key ingredient in soups, and also a favorite in several sandwiches like the Pilgrim. For lunch, hot roast beef is sometimes chopped finely into small pieces and put on a roll with salami and American or provolone cheese to make a steak bomb. Bacon is often maple cured, and often bacon or salt pork drippings are an ingredient in corn chowder, a cousin of the clam chowder. Veal consumption was prevalent in the North Atlantic States prior to World War II. A variety of linguiça is favored as a breakfast food, brought with Portuguese fisherman and Brazilian immigrants. In contrast with some parts of the United States, lamb (although less so mutton or goat) is a popular roasted or grilled meat across diverse groups in New England. Dairy farming and its resultant products figure strongly on the ingredient list, and homemade ice cream is a summertime staple of the region: it was a small seasonal roadside stand in Vermont that eventually became the internationally famous Ben and Jerry's ice cream. Vermont is known for producing farmhouse style cheeses, especially a type of cheddar. The recipe goes all the way back to colonial times when English settlers brought the recipe with them from England and found the rocky landscape eminently suitable to making the cheese. Today Vermont has more artisanal cheese makers per capita than any other state, and diversity is such that interest in goat's milk cheeses has become prominent.\n", "Turkey as food\n\nTurkey meat, commonly referred to as just turkey, is the meat from turkeys, typically domesticated turkeys. It is a popular poultry dish, especially in North America, where it is traditionally consumed as part of culturally significant events such as Thanksgiving and Christmas, as well as in standard cuisine.\n\nSection::::Preparation and production.\n", "Turkeys are usually baked or roasted in an oven for several hours, often while the cook prepares the remainder of the meal. Sometimes, a turkey is brined before roasting to enhance flavor and moisture content. This is done because the dark meat requires a higher temperature to denature all of the myoglobin pigment than the white meat (very low in myoglobin), so that fully cooking the dark meat tends to dry out the breast. Brining makes it possible to fully cook the dark meat without drying the breast meat. Turkeys are sometimes decorated with turkey frills, paper frills or \"booties\" that are placed on the end of drumsticks or bones of other cutlets.\n", "Section::::Dishes and foods.:Meat dishes.\n\nBULLET::::- Consisted of chicken or lean veal, Döner kebap is a common Turkish fast food.\n\nBULLET::::- Tantuni (similar to \"dürüm\", meat cut in very small pieces, served with lavash, a specialty from the Mersin province of Turkey)\n\nBULLET::::- Kuzu güveç (lamb cooked in earthenware casserole)\n\nBULLET::::- Pastırmalı kuru fasulye (white kidney bean stew with pastırma)\n\nBULLET::::- Kuzu kapama (spring lamb stewed)\n\nBULLET::::- Haşlama (boiled lamb with vegetables and lemon juice)\n", "The main variation to traditional hot chicken is in the application of the spice paste: before breading or after breading, and whether or not additional spices are applied. Recipes, cooking methods, and preparation steps for hot chicken are often closely guarded secrets, proprietary to the specific restaurant, so the appearance of the chicken may vary widely.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Hot fish.\n", "Tandoori chicken is a dish popular on the Indian subcontinent consisting of chicken roasted in a cylindrical clay oven, a tandoor, and prepared with yogurt and spices. \n\nThe Levantine Arab shawarma, Turkish döner kebap and Greek gyros can be made from a variety of meats, one of which is chicken. The Taiwanese version of shawarma, \"shāwēimǎ\" (Chinese: 沙威瑪), is nearly always chicken.\n", "Turkeys are usually baked or roasted in an oven for several hours, often while the cook prepares the remainder of the meal. Sometimes, a turkey is brined before roasting to enhance flavor and moisture content. This is necessary because the dark meat requires a higher temperature to denature all of the myoglobin pigment than the white meat (which is very low in myoglobin), so that fully cooking the dark meat tends to dry out the breast. Brining makes it possible to fully cook the dark meat without drying the breast meat. Turkeys are sometimes decorated with turkey frills prior to serving.\n", "Turkeys are sold sliced and ground, as well as \"whole\" in a manner similar to chicken with the head, feet, and feathers removed. Frozen whole turkeys remain popular. Sliced turkey is frequently used as a sandwich meat or served as cold cuts; in some cases where recipes call for chicken, it can be used as a substitute. Ground turkey is sold, and frequently marketed as a healthy alternative to ground beef. Without careful preparation, cooked turkey is usually considered to end up less moist than other poultry meats such as chicken or duck.\n" ]

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[ "Chestnut trains by fasting and by stretching his stomach with milk, water and protein supplements. Since the start of his competitive eating career, his competition weight has varied from . After winning his sixth consecutive hot dog eating contest in 2012 by eating 68 hot dogs, he stated, \"I will not stop until I reach 70. This sport isn't about eating. It's about drive and dedication, and at the end of the day, hot dog eating challenges both my body and my mind.\"\n\nSection::::World records held.\n\nSection::::World records held.:2006.\n", "On 12 October 2008, he consumed 45 slices of pizza, winning the \"Famous Famiglia World Pizza Eating Championship\", which was held in New York's Times Square. This would be a brief record until Bertoletti would consume 47 slices a few weeks later.\n\nSection::::History.:2009.\n\nOn February 21, 2009, he consumed 10 and a half pounds of macaroni and cheese in seven minutes during halftime at the San Jose Stealth lacrosse game, beating out his contestants and adding another world record to his name.\n", "Rich LeFevre\n\nRich LeFevre (nickname \"The Locust\") is a competitive eater from Henderson, Nevada. Rich and his wife, Carlene LeFevre, are said to form the \"First Family of Competitive Eating\" in spite of having normal weights and ages above 70, and are both top ranked members of the International Federation of Competitive Eating. The childless couple has combined to take two of the top seven places in Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest in 2003, 2004, and 2005. He competed at Wing Bowl XIV in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in which he placed second behind Joey Chestnut, another IFOCE champion.\n", "The argument that competitive eating can cause weight gain, which may lead to obesity and elevated cholesterol and blood pressure, is common. The potential damage that competitive eating can cause to the human digestive system was the subject of a 2007 study by the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. The study observed professional eater Tim Janus, who ate 36 hot dogs in 10 minutes before doctors intervened. It was concluded that through training, Janus' stomach failed to have normal muscle contractions called peristalsis, a function which transfers food from the stomach down the digestive tract.\n", "In addition to running and working out five days a week, his training regimen involves focusing on the food item to be consumed six to eight weeks before a competition so that he becomes acclimated to eating massive quantities of the food. While practicing for the 2017 Nathan's competition, he consumed as many as 1,000 hot dogs. His technique for hot dog competitive eating is to eat two hot dogs, chewed just enough to swallow, followed by two buns softened with water. He stops eating for as long as two days after a competition, before resuming his usual diet.\n", "On July 4, 2011, Patrick took second place in the Nathan's Famous Hot Dog Eating contest by eating 55 hot dogs in ten minutes.\n\nSection::::Competitive eating career.:2012.\n\nOn January 23, 2012, Patrick took first place in The Isle Boonville World Boneless Buffalo Wing Eating Championship by eating of buffalo wings in 10 minutes.\n\nOn September 9, 2012, Patrick took first place in Wild Eggs National Pancake Eating Championship by eating 50 king pancakes in 10 minutes.\n\nSection::::Competitive eating career.:2013.\n", "For a marquee event like the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, some eaters, like current contest champion Joey Chestnut, will begin training several months before the event with personal time trials using the contest food. Retired competitive eater Ed \"Cookie\" Jarvis trained by consuming entire heads of boiled cabbage followed by drinking up to two gallons of water every day for two weeks before a contest. Due to the risks involved with training alone or without emergency medical supervision, the IFOCE actively discourages training of any sort.\n\nSection::::Televised contests.\n", "Food energy listings, such as calorie and fat content, are provided in most episodes; not all episodes have this information, due to either insufficient data or not being applicable (as is in the case of 'deleted scenes' episodes).\n\nSection::::2015.\n\nStarting with episode #284, the \"Next time, we eat...\" ending is no longer used. Also, starting with episode #286, episodes end with a plug for Harley's YouTube channel unless otherwise noted.\n\nSection::::2016.\n", "Mike Golic is a spokesperson for Nutrisystem after losing more than 50 lbs on the diet; however, Bob Golic has outdone his younger brother, dropping more than 140 lbs and returning to his high school weight of 245 lbs.\n\nGolic lives with his family in Solon, Ohio. He is married to Karen Baughman (1996–present) and has 3 children.\n\nHis wife Karen was a ballerina and Raiderette, and he performed The Nutcracker with her at the Akron Civic Theatre in Akron, Ohio in 2006.\n", "The Publishers Weekly review of the book said that “Nerz chronicles his amusing adventures in the perverse, repellent, strangely heroic world of competitive eating…with glee and good humor.” The New York Times Book Review compared the author’s style to that of Grantland Rice, an early 20th-century American sportswriter known for his elegant prose. Calling the author “more mythifier than journalist,” the Times Book Review added that the competitive eaters he profiled “are indeed a colorful, varied bunch, even without the pro-wrestling-style personalities the IFOCE encourages.”\n", "Section::::Joint intracellular and extracellular digestion in cnidarians.\n\nJoint intracellular and extracellular digestion In hydra and other cnidarians, the food is caught by the tentacles and ingested through the mouth into the single large digestive cavity, the gastrovascular cavity. Enzymes are secreted from the cells bordering this cavity and poured on the food for extracellular digestion. Small particles of the partially digested food are engulfed into the vacuoles of the digestive cells for intracellular digestion. Any undigested and un-absorbed food is finally thrown out of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Invert digestive systems are bags and tubes.\n", "Other medical professionals contend that binge eating can cause stomach perforations in those with ulcers and gulping large quantities of water during training can lead to water intoxication, a condition which dilutes electrolytes in the blood. Gastroparesis, also known as stomach paralysis, is also a concern among those who routinely stretch their stomachs beyond capacity. The condition may lead to the stomach's inability to contract and lose its ability to empty itself. Side effects of gastroparesis include chronic indigestion, nausea and vomiting.\n\nSection::::Criticisms and dangers.:Deaths.\n", "BULLET::::- Series 3. Episode 2. John Harrison: Lost 56 lbs. Average 7.0 lbs per week. 14.8% of bodyweight lost.\n", "Timothy DeLaGhetto made an appearance on the February 3, 2014 episode \"Snack Stadium\". Both Tony Hawk and Hannah Hart made another appearance on the February 11 episode, \"Ballpark Pizza\".\n\nArnold Schwarzenegger made two appearances on Epic Meal Time in 2014, the first on the March 4 episode \"The Steak & Egger Sandwich\", and the second on the April 29 episode \"Kaiserschwarzeneggar Protein Tank\".\n\nSection::::Income method.\n", "Many professional competitive eaters undergo rigorous personal training in order to increase their stomach capacity and eating speed with various foods. Stomach elasticity is usually considered the key to eating success, and competitors commonly train by drinking large amounts of water over a short time to stretch out the stomach. Others combine the consumption of water with large quantities of low calorie foods such as vegetables or salads. Some eaters chew large amounts of gum in order to build jaw strength.\n", "In 2007, Tim was a test subject in a documentary, \"The Science of Speed Eating\" from National Geographic. He underwent an upper gastrointestinal series and was shown to have a stomach that expands four times larger than a normal stomach. His digestive rate of the stomach was also slower than a normal human.\n", "In June 2013, he participated in the Big Wiener Eating Contest fundraiser held at Mo’s Mustang Market. The same month, he also attended the Taco Eating Contest at the Bethalto City Park. The competition marked the fiftieth anniversary of the Bethalto Jaycees Country Fair.\n\nSection::::Career.:Competitive eating.:Records and style.\n", "Chestnut started off 2008 very well by setting two new world records: (1) he devoured 241 wings in 30 minutes at the Wing Bowl XVI in Philadelphia on February 1(The record was broken by Takeru Kobayashi at the Wing Bowl XX in 2011. Kobayashi ate 337 wings), and (2) he ate 78 matzo balls during Kenny & Ziggy's World Matzoh Ball Eating Championship in Houston, Texas on March 2.\n", "Eat This Book\n\nEat This Book is a book by Ryan Nerz which explores the world of competitive eating. Published by St. Martin's Press in 2006, \"Eat This Book\" provides a firsthand look into this sometimes controversial sport. Nerz, who spent a year as an emcee for the International Federation of Competitive Eating, has firsthand insight into the competitive eating phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "LeFevre was originally known as a superstar in the long game of competitive eating who didn't care for the short, eight- to 12-minute contests of the IFOCE. Since the earliest days of his career, LeFevre has excelled in longer, 30- to 45-minute events. However, the distance man has adapted recently, competing in the shorter contests and compiling an impressive list of victories. He has won several difficult contests and seems as comfortable with a short contest as most other eaters on the circuit.\n", "Gorske ate his 29,000th Big Mac on December 8, 2016. He also maintains that he has no (known) health issues and has not had reason to visit a doctor. At his doctor visit on April 26, 2011, his first since 1985, his cholesterol level was 156 mg/dl, which is below the average of 208 mg/dl.\n\nOn May 4th, 2018, Gorske ate his 30,000th Big Mac.\n\nGorske worked as a correctional officer at Waupun Correctional Institution for 25 years. He retired in May 2011.\n\nSection::::Appearances.\n", "BULLET::::- Meat pies: 23 meat pies in 10 minutes (Bay St. Louis, Mississippi on March 5, 2016) at The Silver Slipper World Meat Pie Eating Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Poutine: 25.5 lbs of poutine in 10 minutes (Toronto, Ontario, Canada on October 1, 2016) at the 7th Annual Smoke's Poutinerie World Poutine Eating Championship\n\nSection::::World records held.:2017.\n\nBULLET::::- Glazed Doughnuts: 55 doughnuts in 8 minutes (Santa Monica, California on June 2, 2017) at The Salvation Army National Donut Day World Donut Eating Championship\n", "On October 13, 2012, Chestnut won the Third Annual Smoke's Poutinerie World Poutine Eating Championships in Toronto, Ontario by consuming 19 boxes (9.5 pounds) of poutine in 10 minutes.\n\nSection::::History.:2013.\n\nOn July 4, 2013, Chestnut successfully defended his title at Nathan's 98th Annual Hot Dog Eating Contest at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York. He beat his own world record of 68 by consuming 69 HDB in 10 minutes, which earned him his 7th \"Mustard Belt\" for this competition.\n", "On October 28, 2007, between 2:33 and 2:41, Chestnut ate 103 Krystal burgers in the Krystal Square Off World Hamburger Eating Championship in Chattanooga, Tennessee. This was Chestnut's personal best, and is the new world record.\n\nSection::::History.:2008.\n", "In the stomach, assorted acids and the enzyme pepsin break down food. Pepsin allows for the further breakdown of proteins into amino acid chains. Other enzymes include resin and lipase. Additionally, the stomach absorbs some water, as well as ions and lipid-soluble compounds.\n\nSection::::Digestive system.:Small intestine.\n" ]

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[ "To see that it is the equation of a conic section, we isolate for formula_9:\n", "where \"M\" is the system magnification. The object plane transmittance above can now be re-written in a slightly modified form:\n\nwhere the various terms have been simply multiplied and divided in the exponent by \"M\", the system magnification. Now, the equations may be substituted above for image plane coordinates in terms of object plane coordinates, to obtain,\n\nAt this point another coordinate transformation can be proposed (\"i\".\"e\"., the Abbe sine condition) relating the object plane wavenumber spectrum to the image plane wavenumber spectrum as\n", "Now, let\n\nTherefore,\n\nNext, we can use Euler's formula to obtain a real sinusoid with amplitude , angular frequency , and phase angle .\n\nThus, the resulting solution becomes:\n\nand\n\nSection::::Time domain solution.:Initial conditions.\n\nThe initial conditions that would satisfy this result are:\n\nand\n\nSection::::Series circuit.\n", "This equation gives a sine wave for a single dimension; thus the generalized equation given above gives the displacement of the wave at a position \"x\" at time \"t\" along a single line.\n\nThis could, for example, be considered the value of a wave along a wire.\n\nIn two or three spatial dimensions, the same equation describes a travelling plane wave if position \"x\" and wavenumber \"k\" are interpreted as vectors, and their product as a dot product. \n", "The phase-amplitude converter creates the sample-domain waveform from the truncated phase output word received from the PA. The PAC can be a simple read only memory containing 2 contiguous samples of the desired output waveform which typically is a sinusoid. Often though, various tricks are employed to reduce the amount of memory required. This include various trigonometric expansions, trigonometric approximations and methods which take advantage of the quadrature symmetry exhibited by sinusoids. Alternatively, the PAC may consist of random access memory which can be filled as desired to create an arbitrary waveform generator.\n\nSection::::Spurious products.\n", "in agreement with the periodic character of the sought wave solutions and with \"ψ\"(\"ξ\") the phase of the trigonometric functions sin and cos. From this form, the following descriptions of various terms in equations () and () can be obtained:\n\nUsing these in equations () and (), the following ordinary differential equation relating \"ψ\" and \"ξ\" is obtained, after some manipulations:\n", "Section::::Types.:Digital VFOs.:Digital frequency synthesis.\n\nThe electronic and digital techniques involved in this include:\n\nBULLET::::- Direct digital synthesis (DDS): Enough data points for a mathematical sine function are stored in digital memory. These are recalled at the right speed and fed to a digital to analog converter where the required sine wave is built up.\n", "The MNA uses the element's \"branch constitutive equations\" or BCE, i.e., their voltage - current characteristic and the Kirchhoff's circuit laws. The method is often done in four steps, but it can be reduced to three:\n\nStep 1\n", "BULLET::::3. A low-pass filter (blue trace) rounds the pulses by removing the high frequency components. All systems are low pass to some extent. Note that the phase of the sine wave is different for the lowpass and the highpass cases, due to the phase distortion of the filters.\n\nBULLET::::4. A slightly non-linear transfer function (purple), this one gently compresses the peaks of the sine wave, as may be typical of a tube audio amplifier. This generates small amounts of low order harmonics.\n", "BULLET::::- 2 inverted continuous semicircles located in the same plane is formula_1. It is independent of the circle radius;\n\nBULLET::::- a sine function (over a whole number \"n\" of half-periods), which can be calculated by computing the sine curve's arclength on those periods, is formula_2\n\nWith similar opposite arcs joints in the same plane, continuously differentiable:\n\nSection::::Rivers.\n\nIn studies of rivers, the sinuosity index is similar but not identical to the general form given above, being given by:\n", "Section::::Characteristics of the model.:Phase response curve.\n\nIn general, given a scalar phase model of the form\n\nwhere formula_85 represents the perturbation current, a closed form solution of the phase response curve (PRC) does not exist.\n\nHowever, the theta model is a special case of such an oscillator and happens to have a closed-form solution for the PRC. The theta model is recovered by defining formula_1 and formula_2 as\n\nIn the appendix of Ermentrout 1996, the PRC is shown to be formula_90.\n\nSection::::Similar models.\n\nSection::::Similar models.:Plant's model.\n", "to obtain the final equation for the image plane field in terms of image plane coordinates and image plane wavenumbers as:\n\nFrom Fourier optics, it is known that the wavenumbers can be expressed in terms of the spherical coordinate system as\n\nIf a spectral component is considered for which formula_18, then the coordinate transformation between object and image plane wavenumbers takes the form\n", "Modeling for VCOs is often not concerned with the amplitude or shape (sinewave, triangle wave, sawtooth) but rather its instantaneous phase. In effect, the focus is not on the time-domain signal but rather the argument of the sine function (the phase). Consequently, modeling is often done in the phase domain.\n\nThe instananeous frequency of a VCO is often modeled as a linear relationship with its instantaneous control voltage. The output phase of the oscillator is the integral of the instantaneous frequency.\n\nFor analyzing a control system, the Laplace transforms of the above signals are useful.\n\nSection::::Design and circuits.\n", "In both illustrations, along the axes is a series of shorter blue vectors which are scaled down versions of the longer blue vectors. These shorter blue vectors are extrapolated out into the block of black vectors which fill a volume of space. Notice that for a given plane, the black vectors are identical, indicating that the magnitude and direction of the electric field is constant along that plane.\n", "With a fixed voltage formula_12 across the junction, the phase will vary linearly with time and the current will be an AC current with amplitude formula_7 and frequency formula_14. The complete expression for the current drive formula_15 becomes:\n\nThis means a Josephson junction can act as a perfect voltage-to-frequency converter.\n\nSection::::The effect.:The inverse AC Josephson effect.\n\nIf the phase takes the form formula_17, the voltage and current will be\n\nThe DC components will then be\n\nHence, for distinct AC voltages, the junction may carry a DC current and the junction acts like a perfect frequency-to-voltage converter.\n\nSection::::Josephson phase.\n", "In linear circuits, due to the superposition principle, the output of a circuit is equal to the sum of the output due to its DC sources alone, and the output from its AC sources alone. Therefore, the DC and AC response of a circuit is often analyzed independently, using separate DC and AC equivalent circuits which have the same response as the original circuit to DC and AC currents respectively. The composite response is calculated by adding the DC and AC responses:\n", "When the input to an LTI system is sinusoidal, the output is sinusoidal with the same frequency, but it may have a different amplitude and some phase shift. Using an oscilloscope that can plot one signal against another (as opposed to one signal against time) to plot the output of an LTI system against the input to the LTI system produces an ellipse that is a Lissajous figure for the special case of . The aspect ratio of the resulting ellipse is a function of the phase shift between the input and output, with an aspect ratio of 1 (perfect circle) corresponding to a phase shift of ±90° and an aspect ratio of ∞ (a line) corresponding to a phase shift of 0° or 180°.\n", "BULLET::::- (c) The resonance frequency counter used as a sine wave readout. \"Note the nasty sudden jump at the reset.\"\n\nBULLET::::- (d) The inverted base frequency counter.\n\nBULLET::::- (e) Multiplying c by d. \"The sudden jump in\" c \"is now leveled out.\"\n", "DC to AC power conversion is the result of power switching devices, which are commonly fully controllable semiconductor power switches. The output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values, producing fast transitions rather than smooth ones. For some applications, even a rough approximation of the sinusoidal waveform of AC power is adequate. Where a near sinusoidal waveform is required, the switching devices are operated much faster than the desired output frequency, and the time they spend in either state is controlled so the averaged output is nearly sinusoidal. Common modulation techniques include the carrier-based technique, or Pulse-width modulation, space-vector technique, and the selective-harmonic technique.\n", "Section::::Development.\n", "Section::::Harmonic multiplication.\n\nIn some applications, such as harmonic multiplication, a large signal amplitude alternating voltage is applied across a varicap to deliberately vary the capacitance at signal rate to generate higher harmonics, which are extracted through filtering. If a sine wave current of sufficient amplitude is applied driven through a varicap, the resultant voltage gets \"peaked\" into a more triangular shape, and odd harmonics are generated.\n", "The relationship between velocity and frequency (or wavelength) is inherent in the characteristic equations. In the case of the plate, these equations are not simple and their solution requires numerical methods. This was an intractable problem until the advent of the digital computer forty years after Lamb's original work. The publication of computer-generated \"dispersion curves\" by Viktorov in the former Soviet Union, Firestone followed by Worlton in the United States, and eventually many others brought Lamb wave theory into the realm of practical applicability. Experimental waveforms observed in plates can be understood by interpretation with reference to the dispersion curves.\n", "Section::::Two-segment chord.\n\nFigure 2 is Ming Antu's model of a 2-segment chord. Arc \"BCD\" is a part of a circle with unit (\"r = 1\") radius. \"AD\" is the main chord, arc \"BCD\" is bisected at \"C\", draw lines BC, CD, let BC = CD = \"x\" and let radius AC = 1.\n\nApparently, formula_4 \n", "Section::::Examples.:Computing sines.\n\nMost computers only perform basic arithmetic operations and cannot directly calculate the sine of a given value. Instead, they use the CORDIC algorithm or a complex formula such as the following Taylor series to compute the value of sine to a high degree of precision:\n", "Section::::History.\n" ]

[]

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[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. For this reason, almost all manufacturers have built in an option to turn the feature off or lower the effect strength.\n", "Section::::History.:Development.:Equipment.\n", "The Fox show \"Arrested Development\" used an elaborate post-production process to adjust colors and brightness levels to match those of film stock.\n", "In the years since digital cinema cameras and projectors have become commonplace, anamorphic has experienced a considerable resurgence of popularity, due in large part to the higher base ISO sensitivity of digital sensors, which facilitates shooting at smaller apertures.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Development.:Optical characteristics.\n", "Section::::Side effects.:Soap opera effect.\n\nAs a byproduct of the perceived increase in framerate, motion interpolation may introduce a \"video\" (versus \"film\") look. This look is commonly referred to as the \"soap opera effect\" (SOE), in reference to the distinctive appearance of most broadcast television soap operas or pre 2000s multicam sitcoms, which were typically shot using less expensive 60i video rather than film.\n", "Storaro feels in the future of cinema, films will be photographed in either high-definition video for small, intimate digital projection theaters, or in 65 mm for \"big audience... large screen\" films. In the cinematographer's opinion, as all films will be one of the two formats, he suggests a common aspect ratio compromise of 2.00:1 (mathematical average of 65 mm 2.20:1 and HD 1.78:1) be adopted for all films, 65 mm theatrical, HD theatrical and television.\n", "The movies typically employ smaller crews, and rarely feature expensive special effects. Although a film's expenses would be lessened by filming using video, as the movies were contracted by television studios, these films were required to be shot on 35 mm film. Various techniques are often employed to \"pad\" television movies with low budgets and underdeveloped scripts, such as music video-style montages, flashbacks, or repeated footage, and extended periods of dramatic slow motion footage. However, the less expensive digital 24p video format has made some quality improvements on the television movie market.\n", "Section::::Aspect ratio.\n", "\"Loving\" was shot on 35mm film with small Panavision Millennium XL2 cameras in a distributed aspect ratio of 2.35:1 by Adam Stone. For lenses, Stone used a specially-made anamorphic type built by Panavision to which he attributes part of the effectiveness for the high shot looking down on Richard, as he proposes to Mildred in a grassy field, to which Stone states, \"We were a modestly budgeted movie and to have people like Dave Dodson and Dan Sasaki at Panavision reserve and tweak those lenses for us – knowing they are in high demand for much bigger movies – made all the difference.\" He concludes by stating, \"For that scene in particular, whatever you hit was the lens' sweet spot. They are so awesome.\" Of the anamorphic format, Stone stated, \"Anamorphic is how we shot \"Shotgun Stories\" (2007), it's how we shot \"Mud\" (2012), it's how we shot \"Midnight Special\" (2016), and now it's how we shot \"Loving\".\"\n", "Film is absolutely right for this project. It has scale, big exterior locations and that's something that still challenges HD ... The HD cameras available to us on our budget are still vulnerable in difficult weather conditions [encountered during filming]. There's no doubt that what we've got on 35mm is just so much more detailed. It has so much more depth of field and richness than we could have got on HD.\n\nSection::::Production.:Historical inaccuracies.\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Zeiss AG + ARRI: Master Anamorphics\n\nBULLET::::- Cooke Optics:\n", "Another use of mattes in filmmaking is to create a widescreen effect. In this process, the top and bottom of a standard frame are matted out, or \"masked,\" with black bars, i.e. the film print has a thick frame line. Then the frame within the full frame is enlarged to fill a screen when projected in a theater.\n", "Section::::History.:Recent use.\n\nAlthough the anamorphic widescreen format is still in use as a camera format, it has been losing popularity in favour of \"flat formats\", mainly Super 35. (In Super 35, the film is shot flat, then matted, and optically printed as an anamorphic release print.) There can be several reasons for this:\n\nBULLET::::- An anamorphic lens can create artifacts or distortions, as described above.\n\nBULLET::::- An anamorphic lens is more expensive than a spherical lens.\n\nBULLET::::- An anamorphic lens is often slower than a similar spherical lens, and thus requires more light and makes shooting low-light scenes more difficult.\n", "Digital cable channels are touted as being able to offer a higher quality picture than their analog counterparts. This is often true, with a dramatic improvement in chroma resolution (120 lines for NTSC versus 270 for digital). However, digital compression has a tendency to soften the quality of the television picture, particularly of channels that are more heavily compressed. Pixelation and other artifacts are often visible.\n\nSection::::Digital cable.:Set-top boxes.\n", "This treatment of space consists of four main aspects: centering, balancing, frontality, and depth. Persons or objects of significance are mostly in the center part of the picture frame and never out of focus. Balancing refers to the visual composition, i. e., characters are evenly distributed throughout the frame. The action is subtly addressed towards the spectator (frontality) and set, lighting (mostly three-point lighting, especially high-key lighting), and costumes are designed to separate foreground from the background (depth).\n\nSection::::Style.:Relations of systems.\n\nThe aspects of space and time are subordinated to the narrative element.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Regarding the diminished image quality, film reviewer Roger Ebert wrote about the film \"Counterpoint\" (1968): \"The movie is shot in Techniscope, a process designed to give a wide-screen picture while saving film and avoiding payment of royalties to the patented processes like Panavision. In this film, as in 'Harry Frigg', Techniscope causes washed-out color and a loss of detail. Universal shouldn't be so cheap.\"\n\nRecent films shot with 2-perf 35 mm \"Techniscope\" include \"I'm Yours\" (2012), \"Silver Linings Playbook\" (2012), \"Argo\" (2012), and \"Too Late\" (2015).\n\nSection::::Techniscope's commercial revival.\n", "In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely. \"Anchorman 2\" was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while \"The Wolf of Wall Street\" was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Section::::Film-out of live action video.:High definition (HD) digital video.\n\nHigh definition digital video can be shot at a variety of frame rates, including 29.97 interlaced (like NTSC) or progressive; or 25 interlaced (like PAL) or progressive; or even 24-progressive (just like film). HD, if shot in 24-progressive, scans nearly perfectly to film without the need of a frame or field conversion process. Other issues remain though, based on the different resolutions, color spaces, and compression schemes that exist in the high-definition video world.\n\nSection::::Film-out of computer graphics and animation.\n", "The film was shot in the anamorphic format, with cinematographer Bojan Bazelli using Panavision C- and G-Series lenses. Daytime exteriors—about 70 percent of the film—were shot on Kodak VISION3 50D 5203 35mm film with Panavision Panaflex Platinum and Arriflex 435 cameras; interiors and nighttime exteriors were shot digitally with Arri Alexa Studio cameras.\n", "Section::::Standards conversion methods in common use.:Nyquist subsampling.:How it works.\n\nIn a typical image transmission setup, all stationary images are transmitted at full resolution. Moving pictures possess a lower resolution visually, based on complexity of interframe image content.\n\nWhen one uses Nyquist subsampling as a standards conversion technique, the horizontal and vertical resolution of the material are reduced – this is an excellent method for converting HDTV to standard definition television, but it works very poorly in reverse.\n", "Section::::Displaying movie content on a TV.\n\nAs movies are usually filmed at a rate of 24 frames per second, while television sets operate at different rates, some conversion is necessary. Different techniques exist to give the viewer an optimal experience.\n\nThe combination of content production, playback device, and display device processing may also give artifacts that are unnecessary. A display device producing a fixed 60 fps rate cannot display a 24 fps movie at an even, judder-free rate. Usually, a is used, giving a slight uneven movement.\n", "Section::::Problems in film and television.\n", "Because of higher television production budgets in the US, and a preference for the look of film, many prerecorded TV shows were, in fact, captured onto film at 24 Hz.\n\nSource material filmed at 24 Hz is converted to roughly 60 Hz using the technique called , which includes inserting variable number of duplicate frames, with additional slowdown by the factor of 1.001, if needed. Occasionally, inter-frame mixing is used to smooth the judder.\n", "BULLET::::- 2.76:1 (~11:4): Ultra Panavision 70/MGM Camera 65 (65 mm with 1.25× anamorphic squeeze). Used only on a handful of films between 1957 and 1966 and two films in the 2010s, for some sequences of \"How the West Was Won\" (1962) with a slight crop when converted to three strip Cinerama, and films such as \"It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World\" (1963) and \"Ben-Hur\" (1959). Quentin Tarantino used it for The Hateful Eight (2015), Gareth Edwards for Rogue One (2016), Kirill Serebrennikov for Summer (2018).\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "A study by the Australian Institute of Criminology of 162 attempted or actual contract murders in Australia between 1989 and 2002 indicated that the most common reason for murder-for-hire was insurance policies payouts. The study also found that the average payment for a \"hit\" was $15,000 with variation from $5,000 up to $30,000 and that the most commonly used weapons were firearms. Contract killings accounted for 2% of murders in Australia during that time period.\n", "Although there is a wide range of research on the consequences of sexual violence on victims, there is little information on the economic effect, especially for economically vulnerable victims such as Black and Latina women. These consequences of sexual violence disproportionately harm these specific demographics, because they make up a large portion of the group afflicted by income-poverty and asset poverty. Simply being from one of these poverty backgrounds increases the risk of sexual violence and discourages victims from reporting a rape crime as there is less confidence in the police services and there is a higher crime rate in areas of poverty.\n", "BULLET::::- The life-style or routine activities of people alter the opportunity structure of crime, thereby explicitly influencing crime. High victimization rates of certain social categories can be explained by their choice of routine activities. Changes in routine activities in recent years (e.g., away-from-home travel, single-person households, and labor-force participation of both spouses) leave a high percentage of homes unattended during the day and night and place people in relatively unguarded environments.\n", "Section::::Community-based efforts.:Prevention programs.\n\nSeveral research based rape prevention programs have been tested and verified through scientific studies. \n\nThe Men's Program, also known as the One in Four program, by John Foubert focuses on empathy toward rape survivors and intervention of sexual assault situations. Men who participated in program committed 40 percent fewer acts of sexually coercive behavior and any sexual coercion committed was eight times less severe than a control group. Participants reported more success with intervention and a greater willingness to help as a bystander.\n", "The likelihood of falling victim to crime relates to both demographic and geographic characteristics. Overall, men, minorities, the young, and those in urban areas are more likely to be crime victims. The likelihood of perpetrating crime also relates to demography.\n\nIn 2010, according to the UNODC, 67.5% of all homicides in the United States were perpetrated using a firearm. The costliest crime in terms of impact on victims, and the most underreported crime is rape, in the United States.\n\nSection::::Incarceration.\n", "Section::::Victimology.\n\nFeminists argue criminological texts neglect the victimisation of women; the victimisation of women is forgotten:\n\nBULLET::::- Three out of four women will be victims of violent crimes during their lives.\n\nBULLET::::- Violence is the leading cause of injuries to women aged 15 to 44.\n\nBULLET::::- 50 per cent of homeless women and children are fleeing domestic violence.\n\nBULLET::::- Less than 1 per cent of rape victims have collected damages.\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic violence costs the state between 5-10 billion each year.\n", "occupations that carry a relatively high risk of sexual violence, particularly sex work. It also creates enormous pressures for them to find or maintain jobs, to pursue trading activities and, if studying, to obtain good grades, all of which render them vulnerable to sexual coercion from those who can promise these things. Poorer women are also more at risk of intimate partner violence, of which sexual violence is often a manifestation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Female homicides in Ciudad Juárez\n\nBULLET::::- Thordis Elva - Rape victim who later collaborated with her assailant to author a book about the experience\n", "The Green Dot program by Dorothy Edwards also focuses on bystanders and instructs using both motivational speeches and peer education. Program participation is associated with reductions in rape myth acceptance and increased bystander intervention.\n\nSection::::Community-based efforts.:Community activism by men.\n", "BULLET::::- 2012: Senior Constable Cary Coolican, for saying \"Many sexual assault victims were too drunk or stoned to remember the details of the attacks… we would be encouraging people to make responsible choices regarding who they drink with and the quantity that is consumed. Some decisions may result in risky behaviour and unsafe actions.\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Professor Paul Wilson: \"My findings were remarkably similar to studies in California and Scandinavia which suggest child victims of adult sex offenders are generally willing or active participants, and that they not infrequently initiate the sexual relationship.\"\n", "While penetrative rape generally does not involve the use of a condom, in some cases a condom is used. Use of a condom significantly reduces the likelihood of pregnancy and disease transmission, both to the victim and to the rapist. Rationales for condom use include: avoiding contracting infections or diseases (particularly HIV), especially in cases of rape of sex workers or in gang rape (to avoid contracting infections or diseases from fellow rapists); eliminating evidence, making prosecution more difficult (and giving a sense of invulnerability); giving the appearance of consent (in cases of acquaintance rape); and thrill from planning and the use of the condom as an added prop. Concern for the victim is generally not considered a factor.\n", "The lifestyle/exposure theory is a model of victimology that posits that the likelihood an individual will suffer a personal victimization depends heavily upon the concept of life style. Most victims are victimised at night. The lifestyle theory is constructed upon several premises. The most important of the premises are:\n\nBULLET::::- The uneven distribution of criminal victimization across space and time. This translates to the occurrence of high-risk places and high-risk times.\n\nBULLET::::- Offenders do not constitute a representative sample of the general population. This translates to the occurrence of high-risk persons.\n", "In locations where rape kits are available, a lack of trained examiners may still impede the ability of victims to undergo timely sexual assault examinations. Shortages force victims to wait hours for an exam or to travel long distances in order to have a rape kit performed within the recommended 72 hour timeframe. These effects have been seen in Canada and rural America, where the shortage of examiners has recently been identified.\n", "BULLET::::- Prevention programs undertaken by RCCs may be part of their educational programs, including teaching definitions of sexual violence, attempts to change survivor-blaming attitudes, engaging in role plays, fostering problem solving strategies, and even teaching self-defense to women so that they may fight off a potential assailant. Part of RCC efforts at prevention entail teaching women rape avoidance, i.e. behavioral strategies to reduce one’s chances of getting raped.\n", "In the 1980s, date or acquaintance rape first gained acknowledgment. Rape crisis centers were created to serve survivors of all forms of sexual violence during any phase of their healing process. Rape crisis centers and other community-based service providers continue to grow and serve their communities by providing direct services and prevention programming.\n", "Viswalingam interviewed New South Wales Police Commissioner Ken Moroney about the extent to which many cases of rape have become particularly violent and gruesome, and asked why sex crimes are growing in number in society. The link between violent pornography and sex crimes was also examined in this episode. A medical ethicist Dr. Amin Abboud noted that sex had been trivialized and needed to be placed back into the context of emotional connections and intimacy and that sex should be rediscovered as part of love. In an interview, Orthodox Rabbi Shmuley Boteach stated that modern relationships collapse when people lose interest in the sex and that sex has become the sole measure and importance in a relationship.\n", "In 2015, URI published a report on the connection between domestic violence and pet ownership that drew from two years of data collected from the URIPALS program.\n\nSection::::Economic empowerment.\n\nUrban Resource Institute (URI) has several economic empowerment programs aimed at helping domestic violence survivors become self-sufficient and recover from economic abuse.\n", "Intimate partner and sexual violence have serious short- and long-term physical, mental, sexual and reproductive health problems for victims and for their children, and lead to high social and economic costs. These include both fatal and non-fatal injuries, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.\n", "\"Payback rape\", also called \"punishment rape\" or \"revenge rape\", is a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the Pacific Islands. It consists of the rape of a female, usually by a group of several males, as revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers. The rape is meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behavior towards the perpetrators. Payback rape is sometimes connected to tribal fighting.\n\nSection::::War rape.\n", "There are few programmes outside of the criminal justice system which are targeting perpetrators of sexual violence, generally aimed at men convicted of male-on-female sexual assault, who form a significant portion of criminal cases of sexual violence. A common response of men who commit sexual violence is to deny both that they are responsible and that what they are doing is violent. These programs, found mainly in Industrialized nations, work with male perpetrators to make them admit responsibility and be publicly seen as responsible for their actions. One way of achieving this is for programmes that target male perpetrators of sexual violence to collaborate with support services for victims, which would potentially be a revictimization of rape victims and be a poor choice of action unless the rape perpetrator is highly contrite and apologetic, as well as with campaigns against sexual violence. \n", "Due to the high prevalence and devastating consequences of IPV, approaches to decrease and prevent violence from re-occurring is of upmost importance. Initial police response and arrest is not always enough to protect victims from recurrence of abuse; thus, many states have mandated participation in batterer intervention programs (BIPs) for men who have been charged with assault against an intimate partner. Most of these BIPs are based on the Duluth Model and incorporate some cognitive behavioral techniques.\n", "BULLET::::- A critical development of the crime opportunity theory is that crime itself breeds crime. One way this can happen is when one person victimizes another who then victimizes a third person, and so on. This is called a \"Van Dijk chain\", named after the Dutch criminologist who has studied victimization and helped formulate the crime opportunity theory.\n\nSection::::Empirical support.\n", "Many news sources reported similar occurrences in the Washington Metropolitan Area. In discussing the case of a perpetrator of multiple robberies in that region, a Washington, D.C. police officer from that police force's Gay & Lesbian Liaison Unit said \"We've definitely seen an increase in online dating crimes in the past five years\" and added that victims of internet dating crimes are \"overwhelmingly men cruising for sex.\"\n", "Bertrand Russell (who was awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature) in his book \"Marriage and Morals\" (1929) deplored the situation of married women. He wrote \"Marriage is for woman the commonest mode of livelihood, and the total amount of undesired sex endured by women is probably greater in marriage than in prostitution.\"\n\nSection::::Legal aspect.:20th and 21st century criminalization.\n", "In a 1996 three-year longitudinal study of 4,000 American women, physician Melisa Holmes estimated from data from her study that forced sexual intercourse causes over 32,000 pregnancies in the United States each year. Physician Felicia H. Stewart and economist James Trussell estimated that the 333,000 assaults and rapes reported in the US in 1998 caused about 25,000 pregnancies, and up to 22,000 of those pregnancies could have been prevented by prompt medical treatment, such as emergency contraception.\n\nSection::::Rape-pregnancy incidence.:Rate.\n", "While some advocacy groups, such as the White Ribbon Campaign, focus on male violence against women, the underlying social problem is much broader and far more complex, that the Police and government agencies recognise is a cryptic social problem that places a significant burden on New Zealand society as a whole.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n" ]

[ "Rape is about sexual gratification. ", "Rape is simply about sexual gratification." ]

[ "Rape is more about beating the system and sexual gratification is secondary.", "The primary thrill gained by a rapist is by overpowering and beating the system." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Rape is about sexual gratification. ", "Rape is simply about sexual gratification." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Rape is more about beating the system and sexual gratification is secondary.", "The primary thrill gained by a rapist is by overpowering and beating the system." ]

[ "In 2018, a framed copy of the work spontaneously shredded during an auction, by way of a mechanical device Banksy had hidden in the frame. Banksy authenticated he was responsible for the shredding and gave the altered piece a new name, \"Love Is in the Bin\". Sotheby said it was \"the first work in history ever created during a live auction.\"\n\nSection::::History.\n", "It was reported that the artist uploaded a video of the event onto Instagram, showing the construction of the shredding mechanism and frame, but deleted the post. Banksy has released another video indicating that the painting was intended to be shredded completely, showing the painting being shredded with the words: \"In rehearsals it worked every time\".\n\nSection::::Speculations.\n\nIt has been speculated that a man seen filming the shredding was Banksy or someone connected to him.\n\nShortly after the auction, Josh Gilbert, an artist and blacksmith, noted what he thought were a number of inconsistencies with the work shredding itself.\n", "In 2018, Banksy created a piece live, as it was being auctioned. The piece, titled, Love is in the Bin, was originally the painting, Girl with Balloon, before it was shredded at Sotheby's. While the bidding was going on, a shredder was activated from within the frame, and the piece was partially shredded, thus creating a new piece.\n\nSection::::Political and social themes.\n", "Sotheby's London sold the painting at auction on 5 October 2018, at an artist-record price of £1,042,000. Within seconds of the gavel drop, the canvas began sliding out of the bottom of the frame and shredding itself to the audible sound of a siren and the surprise exclamations of attendees. The work was housed in a deep frame and was plugged in to facilitate built-in electrical lights, which powered the hidden paper shredder as well. Sotheby's said they had no foreknowledge of the mechanism. \n", "On 5 October 2018, a 2006 framed copy of the artwork was auctioned at Sotheby's selling for £1,042,000 – a record high for the artist. Moments after the closing bid, the artwork began to self-destruct by means of a hidden mechanical paper shredder that Banksy had built into the frame bottom. Only the lower half shredded. Banksy released an image of the shredding on Instagram with the words \"Going, going gone..\". Sotheby's said \"We have not experienced this situation in the past where a painting spontaneously shredded\", leading some market watchers to speculate the remains of the painting will be worth even more. Banksy released a video of the shredding and how the shredder was installed into the frame in case the picture ever went up for auction.\n", "BULLET::::- August 13 - Despite warning signs, a man in his sixties is hospitalized after falling into a cavity created in a gallery floor at the Serralves Museum in Porto, Portugal, for the 1992 Anish Kapoor work \"Descent into Limbo\" (titled after the 1492 painting by Andrea Mantegna).\n\nBULLET::::- October 5 - A version of Banksy's artwork \"Balloon Girl\" is auctioned at Sotheby's in London for £1,042,000. Moments after the closing bid, the artwork partially shreds itself by means of a paper shredder hidden in the frame to become \"Love Is in the Bin\".\n", "In October 2018, one of Banksy's works, \"Balloon Girl\", was sold in an auction at Sotheby's in London for £1.04m. However, shortly after the gavel dropped and it was sold, an alarm sounded inside of the picture frame and the canvas passed through a shredder hidden within the frame, partially shredding the picture. Banksy then posted an image of the shredding on Instagram captioned \"Going, going, gone...\". After the sale, the auction house acknowledged that the self-destruction of the work was a prank by the artist. The prank received wide news coverage around the world, with one newspaper stating that it was \"quite possibly the biggest prank in art history.\" Joey Syer, co-founder of an online platform facilitating art dealer sales, told the \"Evening Standard\": \"The auction result will only propel this further and given the media attention this stunt has received, the lucky buyer would see a great return on the £1.02M they paid last night, this is now part of art history in its shredded state and we'd estimate Banksy has added at a minimum 50% to its value, possibly as high as being worth £2m+.\" A man seen filming the shredding of the picture during its auction has been suggested to be Banksy. Banksy has since released a video on how the shredder was installed into the frame and the shredding of the picture, explaining that he had surreptitiously fitted the painting with the shredder a few years previously, in case it ever went up for auction. To explain his rationale for destroying his own artwork, Banksy quoted Picasso: \"The urge to destroy is also a creative urge\". (Although Banksy cited Picasso, this quote is usually attributed to Mikhail Bakunin.) It is not known how the shredder was activated. Banksy has released another video indicating that the painting was intended to be shredded completely. The video shows a sample painting completely shredded by the frame and says: \"In rehearsals it worked every time...\".\n", "Self-destruct mechanisms are sometimes employed to prevent an apparatus or information from being used by unauthorized persons in the event of loss or capture. For example, they may be found in high-security data storage devices (e.g. IronKey), where it is important for the data to be destroyed to prevent compromise.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Pranking.\n\nSome artworks may have mechanisms in them to destruct themselves in front of many eyes watching. An example is the painting Love is in the Bin by Banksy, which shredded itself right after a £1 million auction at Sotheby's London on 5 October 2018.\n\nSection::::Use in fiction.\n", "The woman who won the bidding at the auction decided to go through with the purchase. The partially shredded work has been given a new title, \"Love is in the Bin\", and it was authenticated by Banksy's authentication body Pest Control. Sotheby released a statement that said \"Banksy didn't destroy an artwork in the auction, he created one,\" and called it \"the first artwork in history to have been created live during an auction.\"\n\nSection::::Career.:2018.:\"Season's Greetings\".\n", "In December 2008, \"The Little Diver\", a Banksy image of a diver in a duffle coat in Melbourne, Australia, was destroyed. The image had been protected by a sheet of clear perspex; however, silver paint was poured behind the protective sheet and later tagged with the words \"Banksy woz ere\". The image was almost completely obliterated.\n\nSection::::Career.:2008.:The Cans Festival (2008).\n", "BULLET::::- In April 2014, \"Mobile Lovers\" in Bristol (painted onto plyboard) was removed by crowbar, and resided in Broad Plains Boys Club. Banksy confirmed that the club was entitled to claim ownership of the piece in a letter. The Broad Plains Boys Club sold \"Mobile Lovers\" for £403,000 to a private collector in order to keep the club running.\n\nBULLET::::- A mural depicting a soldier with the face of a Lego figure was detached from its original location at Schleifmühlgasse, Vienna, Austria.\n", "The painting is an adaptation of Banksy's 2002 mural \"Girl with Balloon\", rare as a unique work rather than a print. It was given by him to a friend shortly after the \"Barely Legal\" exhibition in 2006. Banksy has said he prepared the self-destruct mechanism at this time in case the work was ever put up for auction.\n\nSection::::Auction and self-destruction.\n", "Section::::History.:Shredding at auction.\n", "BULLET::::- On 22 June 2009, \"Well Hung Lover\", on the side of Brook Sexual Health Clinic in Park Street, Bristol, and voted for retention by 93% of the public in a 2006 council poll, was spattered with blue paint in an overnight paint bomb attack.\n", "The project has become a major touring exhibition showing in London, Birmingham, Belfast, Trieste, Moscow, St Petersburg and Tel Aviv. It is due to show in Tokyo in April 2019.\n\nIn March 2019, as The Bureau of Lost Culture, Coates and Heartfield cut audio by Massive Attack, Jonsi, Noam Chomsky amongst others onto X-ray for 'The Library of Dangerous Thoughts' project by the University of the Underground\n\nSection::::Other work.\n\nCoates has worked extensively with various London arts organisations. \n", "BULLET::::- In March 2007 one of Banksy's early pieces, a 25 ft-long artwork featuring a collection of blue shapes with the artist's trademark tag, on the side of garages in Albion Road, Easton, Bristol, was mistakenly painted over by graffiti-removal contractors Nordic. They had been asked by Bristol City Council to tackle graffiti adjacent to the Banksy work, but wrongly targeted the piece itself. Within days someone sprayed the words \"\"Wot no Banksy?\"\" over the contractors' plain paintwork.\n", "Marina Cashdan wrote: \"His studio is an ecosystem—and an efficient one—in which the artist’s methodical and ritualistic process makes for a consistent upcycling of materials across the space: when he spray-paints, he uses a canvas as the drop cloth; that canvas becomes the start of a painting; and that painting has two fates: one sliding door is going under the razor and the industrial sander, before being coated with layers of pigments and primed, sanded, and primed, a process repeated until the desired effect is reached; the other fate is to be martyred into chips or dust.\"\n", "After the shredding, there was a negotiation with the buyer to confirm the sale, and on 11 October it was agreed that the sale would go through at the original price. The work was renamed by Banksy's representatives from \"Girl with Balloon\" to \"Love is in the Bin\". Market watchers speculated that the self-destruction would increase the artwork's value. Sotheby's released a statement that called it \"the first artwork in history to have been created live during an auction\".\n", "Hirst is also known to volunteer repair work on his projects after a client has made a purchase. For example, this service was offered in the case of the suspended shark purchased by Steven A. Cohen.\n\nSection::::Hirst business ventures.:Restaurant ventures.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Parachuting Rat\", one of the last surviving example of Banksy's Melbourne street art, accidentally painted over by council contractors in March 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- In February 2011 a mural behind Westwood Village Urban Outfitters in Westwood Village, Los Angeles, depicting a child holding a machine gun loaded with coloured crayons, was defaced with black paint just days before the 83rd Academy Awards for which his documentary film \"Exit Through The Gift Shop\" had been nominated.\n", "In the East Village, Banksy's fifth work was housed in a delivery truck as a \"mobile garden,\" which included theatrical property showing a rainbow, waterfall, and butterflies. The following day Banksy posted a photo of a tracking device he found under the vehicle.\n", "BULLET::::- In August 2013 the Banksy which was defaced in 2012 depicting a child drawing a robot at the Grosvenor Hotel in Torquay was covered up by the hotel owners as an attempt to stop vandals doing more damage. In 2012 the image of the boy was damaged by vandals throwing acid on it, all that remained was the robot. The robot has now been boarded up and preserved underneath, the hotel owners claim.\n\nBULLET::::- Several other Banksy works in New York City were defaced in October 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Mickey Mouse-inspired \"Livin' the Dream\", removed from Sunset Boulevard, Los Angeles and destroyed; in 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- Mural entitled \"Caution\", detached from a wall in Boyle Heights, Los Angeles; in 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parachuting Rat\" in Melbourne, Australia was accidentally destroyed in May 2012 by builders installing new plumbing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Slave Labour\", a 2012 mural depicting a child making union flag bunting and regarded as a critical social commentary on the Queen's Diamond Jubilee, prised from the wall of a Poundland shop in Wood Green, Haringey, North London in 'mysterious circumstances' on 13 February 2013. An attempt to sell it in the US 10 days later, at the Fine Arts Auction Miami art house on 23 February, was halted at the last minute after Haringey residents began a campaign for its return.\n", "Section::::\"Better Out Than In\".\n\nMost of the works that make up the October 2013 \"Better Out Than In\" series in New York City have been defaced or destroyed, some just hours after the piece was unveiled.\n\nBULLET::::- At least one defacement was identified as done by a competing artist, OMAR NYC, who spray-painted over Banksy's red mylar balloon piece in Red Hook. OMAR NYC also defaced some of Banksy's work in May 2010.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Life cycle.:Biological immortality.\n\nMost jellyfish species have a relatively fixed life-span, which varies by species from hours to many months (long-lived mature jellyfish spawn every day or night; the time is also fairly fixed and species-specific). The medusa of \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" is the only form known to have developed the ability to return to a polyp state, by a specific transformation process that requires the presence of certain cell types (tissue from both the jellyfish bell surface and the circulatory canal system).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Turritopsis dohrnii\", a jellyfish (phylum Cnidaria, class Hydrozoa, order Anthoathecata), after becoming a sexually mature adult, can transform itself back into a polyp using the cell conversion process of transdifferentiation. \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" repeats this cycle, meaning that it may have an indefinite lifespan. Its immortal adaptation has allowed it to spread from its original habitat in the Caribbean to \"all over the world\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydra\" is a genus belonging to the phylum Cnidaria, the class Hydrozoa and the order Anthomedusae. They are simple fresh-water predatory animals possessing radial symmetry.\n", "Section::::Organisms.:Jellyfish.\n\n\"Turritopsis dohrnii\", or \"Turritopsis nutricula\", is a small () species of jellyfish that uses transdifferentiation to replenish cells after sexual reproduction. This cycle can repeat indefinitely, potentially rendering it biologically immortal. This organism originated in the Caribbean sea, but has now spread around the world. Similar cases include hydrozoan \"Laodicea undulata\" and scyphozoan \"Aurelia\" sp.1.\n\nSection::::Organisms.:Lobsters.\n", "Turritopsis dohrnii\n\nTurritopsis dohrnii, the immortal jellyfish, is a species of small, biologically immortal jellyfish found in the Mediterranean Sea and in the waters of Japan. It is one of the few known cases of animals capable of reverting completely to a sexually immature, colonial stage after having reached sexual maturity as a solitary individual. Others include the jellyfish \"\" and \"Aurelia\" sp.1.\n", "Turritopsis\n\nTurritopsis is a genus of hydrozoans in the family Oceaniidae.\n\nSection::::Species.\n\nAccording to the \"World Register of Marine Species\", this genus includes the following species:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis chevalense\" – \"species inquirenda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" also known as the \"Benjamin Button jellyfish\", or the \"immortal jellyfish\". It can reverse its life cycle and transform itself back to a polyp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis fascicularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis lata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis minor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis nutricula\" (several separate species, including the \"immortal jellyfish\", were formerly classified as \"T. nutricula\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis pacifica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis pleurostoma\" – \"species inquirenda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis polycirrha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Turritopsis rubra\"\n", "Theoretically, this process can go on indefinitely, effectively rendering the jellyfish biologically immortal, although in practice individuals can still die. In nature, most \"Turritopsis\" are likely to succumb to predation or disease in the medusa stage, without reverting to the polyp form.\n\nThe capability of biological immortality with no maximum lifespan makes \"T. dohrnii\" an important target of basic biological, aging and pharmaceutical research.\n\nThe \"immortal jellyfish\" was formerly classified as \"T. nutricula\".\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zoo\" season 2 episode 6 \"Sex, Lies and Jellyfish\" – The team searches for immortal jellyfish to find a cure for animal mutations.\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Kratts Videos \"Meeting the Immortal Jellyfish\" – During the rescue of the Bowhead whale from Zach, Martin and Chris are thrown from the Tortuga, ending up in the Sea of Japan with a group of jellyfish. But these jellyfish are different. They're called the Immortal jellyfish and can live forever. With the help of Aviva, Martin and Chris activate with Immortal jellyfish powers and soon discover the highs and lows of living forever.\n", "An unusual species, \"Turritopsis dohrnii\", formerly classified as \"Turritopsis nutricula\", might be effectively immortal because of its ability under certain circumstances to transform from medusa back to the polyp stage, thereby escaping the death that typically awaits medusae post-reproduction if they have not otherwise been eaten by some other ocean organism. So far this reversal has been observed only in the laboratory.\n\nSection::::Life history and behavior.:Locomotion.\n", "This ability to reverse the biotic cycle (in response to adverse conditions) is unique in the animal kingdom, and allows the jellyfish to bypass death, rendering \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" potentially biologically immortal. The process has not been observed in their natural habitat, in part because the process is quite rapid, and because field observations at the right moment are unlikely. Regardless, most individual medusae are likely to fall victim to the general hazards of life as Megaplankton, including being eaten by predators or succumbing to disease.\n", "Kubota reported that during a two-year period, his colony rebirthed itself 11 times. Kubota regularly appears on Japanese television to talk about his immortal jellyfish and has recorded several songs about them.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Blacklist\" season 2 episode 17 \"The Longevity Initiative\" – a billionaire tech mogul whose fascination with immortality led him to develop and fund a research team for just that purpose. Leading the research is a scientist who has been injecting the cells of \"T. dohrnii\" into humans in order to hopefully force their cells to regenerate.\n", "The rate of ageing varies substantially across different species, and this, to a large extent, is genetically based. For example, numerous perennial plants ranging from strawberries and potatoes to willow trees typically produce clones of themselves by vegetative reproduction and are thus potentially immortal, while annual plants such as wheat and watermelons die each year and reproduce by sexual reproduction. In 2008 it was discovered that inactivation of only two genes in the annual plant \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" leads to its conversion into a potentially immortal perennial plant. The oldest animals known so far are 15,000-year-old Antarctic sponges, which can reproduce both sexually and clonally.\n", "Section::::Non-senescence.\n\nDaniel Martinez claimed in a 1998 article in \"Experimental Gerontology\" that \"Hydra\" are biologically immortal. This publication has been widely cited as evidence that \"Hydra\" do not senesce (do not age), and that they are proof of the existence of non-senescing organisms generally. In 2010, Preston Estep published (also in \"Experimental Gerontology\") a letter to the editor arguing that the Martinez data \"refute\" the hypothesis that \"Hydra\" do not senesce.\n", "A recent study has found that \"A. aurita\" are capable of lifecycle reversal where individuals grow younger instead of older, akin to the \"immortal jellyfish\" \"Turritopsis dohrnii\". plus, moon jellyfish have more\"craters\" based on their size\n\nSection::::Predators.\n", "Immortal cell lines of cancer cells can be created by induction of oncogenes or loss of tumor suppressor genes. One way to induce immortality is through viral-mediated induction of the large T‑antigen, commonly introduced through simian virus 40 (SV-40).\n\nSection::::Organisms.\n\nAccording to the Animal Aging and Longevity Database, the list of organisms with negligible aging (along with estimated longevity in the wild) includes:\n\nBULLET::::- Blanding's turtle (\"Emydoidea blandingii\") – 77 years\n\nBULLET::::- Olm (\"Proteus anguinus\") – 102 years\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern box turtle (\"Terrapene carolina\") – 138 years\n\nBULLET::::- Red sea urchin (\"Strongylocentrotus franciscanus\") – 200 years\n", "BULLET::::- Rougheye rockfish (\"Sebastes aleutianus\") – 205 years\n\nBULLET::::- Ocean quahog clam (\"Arctica islandica\") – 507 years\n\nIn 2018, scientists working for Calico, a company owned by Alphabet, published a paper in the journal \"eLife\" which presents possible evidence that Heterocephalus glaber (Naked mole rat) do not face increased mortality risk due to aging.\n\nSection::::Organisms.:Bacteria and some yeast.\n", "The mollusc’s long life came to an end in 2006 when the British researchers – unaware of the animal’s impressive age – opened up its shell to examine it.\n\nSection::::Revision of age.\n", "Cheloniologists have somewhat recently discovered that chelonians' organs display negligible senescence. This discovery has prompted researchers to do more investigation into the chelonian genome and its impacts on longevity.\n\nSection::::Phylogeny of extant chelonians.\n\nThe following phylogeny of extant chelonians is based on the work of Crawford et al. (2015) and Guillon et al. (2012).\n\nSection::::Conservation of chelonians.\n", "While \"Hydra\" immortality is well-supported today, the implications for human aging are still controversial. There is much optimism; however, it appears that researchers still have a long way to go before they are able to understand how the results of their work might apply to the reduction or elimination of human senescence.\n\nSection::::Genomics.\n\nAn orthologome analysis done within the last decade demonstrated that \"Hydra\" share a minimum of 6071 genes with humans. \"Hydra\" is becoming an increasingly better model system as more genetic approaches become available. A draft of the genome of \"Hydra magnipapillata\" was reported in 2010.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Reverse engineering is Dabiri's newest research focus. In July 2012, a team composed of Caltech and Harvard students and professors published a paper that outlined a tissue engineering method for building a jellyfish out of rat heart muscle cells and a silicon polymer. On a basic level, the function of a jellyfish - using a muscle to pump a fluid - \"is similar to that of a human heart, which makes the animal a good biological system to analyze for use in tissue engineering.\" The next step this research will take is towards a self-sustaining prototype - one that can gather food and activate muscular contractions internally.\n", "While immortalised cell lines often originate from a well-known tissue type, they have undergone significant mutations to become immortal. This can alter the biology of the cell and must be taken into consideration in any analysis. Further, cell lines can change genetically over multiple passages, leading to phenotypic differences among isolates and potentially different experimental results depending on when and with what strain isolate an experiment is conducted.\n\nSection::::Role and uses.:Limitations.:Contamination with other cells.\n", "The controversial unlimited life span of \"Hydra\" has attracted much attention from scientists. Research today appears to confirm Martinez' study. \"Hydra\" stem cells have a capacity for indefinite self-renewal. The transcription factor \"forkhead box O\" (FoxO) has been identified as a critical driver of the continuous self-renewal of \"Hydra\". In experiments, a drastically reduced population growth resulted from FoxO down-regulation. \n", "Nomura's jellyfish\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nThe diameter when fully grown is slightly greater than the height of an average man. The species was named in tribute to Mr. Kan'ichi Nomura (C18–C19), Director General of the Fukui Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station, who in early December 1921 sent a specimen in a 72-litre wooden tank to Professor Kishinouye, who found that it was unknown and spent some time at the station to study living specimens.\n", "The long, thin tentacles which emanate from the bell's subumbrella have been characterised as “extremely sticky”; they also have stinging cells. The tentacles of larger specimens may trail as long as or more, with the tentacles of the longest known specimen measured at in length. This unusual length – longer than a blue whale – has earned it the status of one of the longest known animals in the world.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "BULLET::::- A bivalve mollusc (\"Arctica islandica\") (aka \"Ming\", lived 507±2 years.)\n\nSection::::In animals.:Exceptions.\n\nBULLET::::- Some jellyfish species, including \"Turritopsis dohrnii\", \"Laodicea undulata\", and \"Aurelia\" sp.1, are able to revert to the polyp stage even after reproducing (so-called life cycle reversal), rather than dying as in other jellyfish. Consequently, these species are considered biologically immortal and have no maximum lifespan.\n\nBULLET::::- There may be no natural limit to the \"Hydra\"'s life span, but it is not yet clear how to estimate the age of a specimen.\n", "The increasingly common giant Nomura's jellyfish, \"Nemopilema nomurai\", found in some, but not all years in the waters of Japan, Korea and China in summer and autumn is another candidate for \"largest jellyfish\", in terms of diameter and weight, since the largest Nomura's jellyfish in late autumn can reach in bell (body) diameter and about in weight, with average specimens frequently reaching in bell diameter and about in weight. The large bell mass of the giant Nomura's jellyfish can dwarf a diver and is nearly always much greater than the Lion's Mane, whose bell diameter can reach .\n" ]

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[ "After the third bombing, the APD began to investigate the connections between the victims. House's father was close friends with Mason's grandfather. Both of the elder men attend the same church and are prominent members of the African-American community in Austin. Police also cautioned the public against opening suspicious packages, and advised them to call the police instead. Because the bombs appeared to target the east side of Austin, which predominantly consists of poorer, African-American and Latino residents, local activists questioned whether the police advisory and investigation was delayed. By March 20, the police had received more than 1,200 calls about suspicious packages. \n", "Over 500 agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) assisted local police in the investigation. Representative Michael McCaul called it \"probably the biggest investigation since the Boston bombings.\" Former Deputy Director of the FBI Weldon L. Kennedy told news outlets he believed the culprit was a single, highly organized and efficient person because of the rapid pace of the bombings, use of package bombs, and apparent proficiency in the creation of explosives. By March 20, Texas Governor Greg Abbott had allocated $265,000 in government spending for the investigation.\n", "Investigators also obtained a witness sketch of the man. Conditt was captured on security videotape at the FedEx store in Sunset Valley, where he had shipped two explosive devices. The surveillance footage captured a red 2002 Ford Ranger with no license plate; investigators examined records for all matching cars in Texas for white males possibly in their 20s. The footage also captured the man wearing pink construction gloves sold at Home Depot stores; by examining \"hours of surveillance video from Home Depot locations in and around Austin\" investigators were able to find footage showing what appeared to be the same man. This evidence allowed investigators to narrow the range of persons of interest to a small number of people.\n", "At least one neighbor of Conditt noticed several people sitting in parked cars along the street on the night of March 20, which she now believes were unmarked police vehicles quietly staking out his house. Early on March 21, police moved in to make an arrest. They tracked him to a hotel room in Round Rock (north of Austin), then onto Interstate 35, where they pulled him over at around 2:00a.m. (CDT). As SWAT officers approached, he detonated a bomb in the vehicle, killing himself and injuring one officer, prompting other officers to fire upon the vehicle. The Austin Police Department closed a southbound section of the interstate where FBI and ATF agents were dispatched to investigate.\n", "A series of bombings occurred in Austin in March 2018.\n\nSection::::Government and law.:City government.\n", "On March 2, 2018, 39-year-old Anthony Stephan House was killed by picking up an apparent package bomb at his home. Austin Police Department Assistant Chief Joseph Chacon floated a theory that House might have bombed himself, perhaps while assembling the device. He also told residents not to worry. The police response was characterized by multiple commentators as anemic and inadequate, with the possible reason being racial bias.\n", "After the first bombing, the Austin Police Department (APD) announced it was investigating the death of House as a possible homicide. Chief Brian Manley said \"we have no reason to believe this is anything beyond an isolated incident that took place at this residence, and no reason to believe this is in any way linked to a terrorist act. But we are not making any assumptions. We are conducting a thorough investigation to rule that out.\" On the following Monday, March 5, Austin police identified the first victim as Anthony Stephan House, and said the death was being treated as suspicious. The first police theory was that House was an unintended victim who was killed by a bomb meant for someone else, perhaps a suspected drug dealer who lived in the neighborhood. Assistant Chief Joseph Chacon said police \"can't rule out that Mr. House didn't construct this himself and accidentally detonate it, in which case it would be an accidental death.\" Later, police began to investigate House's finances.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n\nIn response to the bombings, FedEx instituted a new policy on April 2nd 2018 requiring all retail customers to provide government photo identification that includes their return address to ship packages. \n\nSection::::Contemporary incidents.\n", "Police discovered the bombs used some common household ingredients. As part of the investigation, agents collected and reviewed receipts and sales records from stores for suspicious purchases of those components. This review identified Mark Anthony Conditt as a person of interest. Specifically, a large purchase of nails (to be used as shrapnel in the bombs) by Conditt at a Home Depot in Round Rock alerted investigators, as well as uncommon batteries used in the bombs that came from Asia. A federal search warrant was obtained for Conditt's IP address, and the evidence gathered indicated he had used Google to search for information on shipping. \n", "Police first offered a reward of $65,000 for information leading to an arrest and conviction of the bomber or bombers. Later, this sum was increased to $100,000 and the Texas Governor's office added another $15,000.\n\nSection::::Suspect.\n\nSection::::Suspect.:Police search and death of suspect.\n", "On March 20, a man was burned by a device described as an \"artillery simulator device\" in a donation box at a Goodwill in South Austin, and was taken to St. David's South Austin Medical Center. ATF agents and police officers quickly responded to the scene, and firefighters of the Austin Fire Department (AFD) evacuated the building of civilians. The Austin Police Department announced shortly afterward via Twitter that this appeared unrelated to the serial bomber.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Improvised explosive device\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Kaczynski, American domestic terrorist who used package bombs from 1978 to 1995\n", "Section::::Suspect.:Biographical sketch and motives.\n", "Austin police officially connected the March 2 bombing following the bombings on March 12. The first three packages were not mailed, but instead placed near victims' homes. Two of the first three bombs were triggered upon being picked up, and another triggered upon being opened. The fourth bomb was activated by tripwire. The fifth bomb was triggered in a sorting facility in Schertz, and the sixth was discovered and disarmed in a similar sorting facility in Austin. A FedEx store in the Austin suburb of Sunset Valley was cordoned off early in the morning of March 20 after local police tracked down the origin of the package that exploded at the sorting facility in Schertz.\n", "Section::::Investigation.:Serial bombing connections.\n", "On March 12, 17-year-old Draylen Mason was killed and his mother injured by an explosion, and another explosion that day seriously injured 75-year-old Esperanza Herrera, who was visiting her elderly mother's house. The second of the March 12 bombs was reportedly addressed to a different address.\n", "Conditt moved out of his family's home a few years before the bombings and into a house nearby that he bought with his father and lived in with two roommates. He spent several years as an employee of Crux Manufacturing, which makes semiconductors, but he was fired eight months before the bombings for poor performance. He had no criminal record. \n", "On December 3, 2015, the FBI took over as the leading federal law enforcement agency on the case, treating the probe as a counter-terrorism investigation. The FBI conducted a \"massive\" investigation, and by December 7, 2015, had already conducted about 400 interviews and collected about 320 pieces of evidence. On January 5, 2016, the FBI began investigating what the perpetrators' activities were during an 18-minute period from 12:59p.m. to 1:17p.m. on the day of the shooting, and they appealed to the public for assistance. Investigators believe that the two were driving around the city in an apparent attempt to remotely detonate the explosive device they left behind at the scene of the attack.\n", "A suspected tripwire-activated package bomb injured two men (a 22-year-old and a 23-year-old) in a residential neighborhood in southwest Austin on March 18. The men suffered serious, although not life-threatening, injuries. Unlike the previous bombs, which were left on doorsteps, this bomb was left on the side of the road, attached to a \"Caution: Children at Play\" sign. Following this fourth blast, Austin Police warned the public of a \"serial bomber\" possessing \"a higher level of sophistication, a higher level of skill\" than initially thought.\n", "Austin serial bombings\n\nThe Austin serial bombings occurred between March 2 and 22, 2018, mostly in Austin, Texas. In total, five package bombs exploded, killing two people and injuring another five. The suspect, 23-year-old Mark Anthony Conditt of Pflugerville, Texas, blew himself up inside his vehicle after he was pulled over by police on March 21, also injuring a police officer.\n\nSection::::Bombings.\n", "Police found a 25-minute video on Conditt's phone in which he described the devices and confessed to the bombings, but the video does not explain how he chose his victims. Austin police chief Brian Manley described the video as \"the outcry of a very challenged young man talking about challenges in his life that led him to this point.\" He declined to label Conditt a domestic terrorist, because \"he does not at all mention anything about terrorism, nor does he mention anything about hate.\" Texas Governor Greg Abbott wondered \"Was his goal to terrorize, or did he have some other type of agenda? Obviously, there was terror.\" The video will not be released during the investigation. On March 29, after criticism of his earlier statements, Chief Manley reversed his stance and called Conditt \"a domestic terrorist for what he did to us\".\n", "Prior to the attack, ISIL had urged followers and sympathizers who were unable to join the fighting in the Syrian Civil War to carry out jihad in their home countries. Approximately three hours prior to the start of the contest, the FBI had alerted the Garland Police Department that a suspected extremist, identified as gunman Elton Simpson, was \"interested in the event\" and could show up there. However, FBI officials later clarified they had no reason to believe an actual attack would occur at the contest. Officers later stated that they were not aware of the alert.\n\nSection::::Background.:Location.\n", "At 5:08p.m., the explosive devices placed by Farook were discovered by an FBI SWAT officer. They were later detonated individually by a bomb squad, with the last detonation occurring at 8:37p.m. Earlier, at 11:33a.m., an abandoned roller luggage bag was found in a second-floor office and mistaken for a suspicious device, but was deemed safe by 2:22p.m. The Inland Regional Center was declared clear by authorities at 9:29p.m.\n", "In Walnut Creek (north of Austin) some of Houston's agents were surpassed by angry citizens who then recovered some of the stolen documents and returned them to Austin.\n", "The FBI had been monitoring the two attackers for years and an undercover agent was right behind them when the first shots were fired. The injured security guard filed a lawsuit against the FBI in October 2017, claiming the FBI was partially responsible for his injuries.\n\nThe Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) claimed responsibility for the attack plot, the first time the militant group took credit for an attack in the United States. ISIL's claim of responsibility was not verified, and U.S. officials stated that the attack appears to have been inspired, but not directed, by ISIL.\n", "The injured security guard, Bruce Joiner, filed a federal lawsuit in October 2017 against the FBI and DOJ. His suit argues the bureau \"solicited, encouraged, directed and aided members of ISIS in planning and carrying out the May 3 attack,\" and is asking for just over $8 million damages. Evidence submitted to court in previous cases confirm that an FBI undercover agent was in communication with the attackers and present at the Culwell Center during the attack. When he saw the attack underway he attempted to flee and was promptly stopped at gunpoint by Garland police.\n" ]

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[ "This new trend also frees IT departments from having to keep up with new technology available on the market, which in recent years has become a complex and constantly growing challenge.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n\nThe Middle East has one of the highest adoption rates (about 80%) of the practice worldwide in 2012.\n\nAccording to research by Logicalis, high-growth markets (including Brazil, Russia, India, UAE, and Malaysia) demonstrate a much higher propensity to use their own device at work. Almost 75% of users in these countries did so, compared to 44% in the more mature developed markets.\n", "United States privacy legislation tends to be adopted on an \"ad hoc\" basis, with legislation arising when certain sectors and circumstances require (e.g., the Video Privacy Protection Act of 1988, the Cable Television Protection and Competition Act of 1992, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, HIPAA (US)). Therefore, while certain sectors may already satisfy the EU Directive, at least in part, most do not. The United States prefers what it calls a 'sectoral' approach to data protection legislation, which relies on a combination of legislation, regulation, and self-regulation, rather than governmental regulation alone. Former US President Bill Clinton and former Vice-President Al Gore explicitly recommended in their \"Framework for Global Electronic Commerce\" that the private sector should lead, and companies should implement self-regulation in reaction to issues brought on by Internet technology.\n", "Furthermore, people may sell their devices and forget to wipe sensitive information before the handover. Family members may share devices such as tablets; a child could play games on a parent's tablet and accidentally share sensitive content via email or other means such as Dropbox.\n\nIT security departments wishing to monitor usage of personal devices must ensure that they monitor only activities that are work-related or access company data or information.\n", "There are increasing incidences across the world that involve censorship in Google, banning information from the general population. Google Maps' Street View, for example, does not cover military bases in the U.S. out of security concerns. The European Union also suggested that the Street View violates EU privacy laws.\n\nSection::::Notable Cases.:Facebook.\n", "It is more difficult for the firm to manage and control the consumer technologies and make sure they serve the needs of the business. Firms need an efficient inventory management system that keeps track of the devices employees are using, where the device is located, whether it is being used, and what software it is equipped with. If sensitive, classified, or criminal data lands on a U.S. government employee's device, the device is subject to confiscation.\n", "After Germany and France either passed or nearly passed data localization laws, the European Union was considering restrictions on data localization laws in 2017. Data localization laws are often seen as protectionist and would thus violate European Union competition law.\n\nSection::::Data localization laws and scope.\n\nSection::::Data localization laws and scope.:National laws.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia – health records\n\nBULLET::::- Canada in Nova Scotia and British Columbia – public service providers: all personal data\n\nBULLET::::- China – personal, business, and financial data\n\nBULLET::::- Germany – telecommunications metadata\n\nBULLET::::- India – Payment System Data\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.\n\nAlthough the ability of staff to work at any time from anywhere and on any device provides real business benefits, it also brings significant risks. Companies must deploy security measures to prevent information ending up in the wrong hands. According to an IDG survey, more than half of 1,600 senior IT security and technology purchase decision-makers reported serious violations of personal mobile device use.\n\nVarious risks arise from BYOD, and agencies such as the UK Fraud Advisory Panel encourage organisations to consider these and adopt a BYOD policy.\n", "Google Earth has been viewed by some as a threat to privacy and national security, leading to the program being banned in multiple countries. Some countries have requested that certain areas be obscured in Google's satellite images, usually areas containing military facilities.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some users prefer using alternative app stores to avoid using Google services as part of their philosophy. Alternative app stores may also be easier to navigate for users and allow them to find apps easier due to different algorithms or display of apps but users using either third-party app stores or Google Play cannot be certain that the apps they are installing have been checked for malware or computer viruses.\n", "As part of enterprise mobility, an alternative approach are corporate-owned, personally enabled devices (COPE). Under such policies, the company purchases and provides devices to their employees, but the functionality of a private device is enabled to allow personal usage. The company maintains all of these devices similarly to simplify its IT management; the organization will have permission to delete all data on the device remotely without incurring penalties and without violating the privacy of its employees.\n\nSection::::BYOD policy.\n", "Data localization\n\nData localization or data residency law requires data about a nations' citizens or residents be collected, processed, and/or stored inside the country, often before being transferred internationally, and usually transferred only after meeting local privacy or data protection laws, such as giving the user notice of how the information will be used and obtaining their consent.\n", "Technology companies and multinational organizations often oppose data localization laws because they impact efficiencies gained by regional aggregation of data centers and unification of services across national boundaries. Some vendors, such as Microsoft, have used data storage locale controls as a differentiating feature in their cloud services.\n\nSection::::International treaties and laws.\n\nWhile the Trans-Pacific Partnership included language that would have prohibited data localization restrictions among participants, the treaty was abandoned and never took effect.\n", "The geographic location of data helps determine privacy and confidentiality. The location of clients should be taken into account. For example, clients in Europe won't be interested in using datacenters located in United States, because that affects the guarantee of the confidentiality of data. In order to deal with that problem, some cloud computing vendors have included the geographic location of the host as a parameter of the service-level agreement made with the customer, allowing users to choose themselves the locations of the servers that will host their data.\n", "Data localization builds upon the concept of data sovereignty that regulates certain data types by the laws applicable to the data subject or processor. While data sovereignty may require that records about a nation's citizens or residents follow its personal or financial data processing laws, data localization goes a step further in requiring that initial collection, processing, and storage occur first within the national boundaries. In some cases, data about a nation's citizens or residents must also be deleted from foreign systems before being removed from systems in the data subject's nation.\n\nSection::::Motivations and concerns.\n", "Google adhered to the Internet censorship policies of China, enforced by means of filters colloquially known as \"The Great Firewall of China\". As a result, all Google services except for Chinese Google Maps are blocked from access within mainland China without the aid of VPNs, proxy servers, or other similar technologies. \"The Intercept\" reported in August 2018 that Google is developing for the people's Republic of China a censored version of its search engine (known as Dragonfly) \"that will blacklist websites and search terms about human rights, democracy, religion, and peaceful protest\".\n", "The reasoning behind this approach has as much to do with American laissez-faire economics as with different social perspectives. The First Amendment of the United States Constitution guarantees the right to free speech. While free speech is an explicit right guaranteed by the United States Constitution, privacy is an implicit right guaranteed by the Constitution as interpreted by the United States Supreme Court, although it is often an explicit right in many state constitutions.\n", "At the regional level there are at least three main jurisdictions where data rights are seen differently: China/India, the United States and the European Union. In the latter personal data was given special protection under the 2018 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).\n\nThe GDPR thus became the fifth of the 24 types of legislation listed in Annex 1 Table of existing and proposed European Directives and Regulations in relation to data. \n", "Because of this, in theory the transfer of personal information from the EU to the US is prohibited when equivalent privacy protection is not in place in the US. American companies that would work with EU data must comply with the Safe Harbour framework. The core principles of data protected are limited collection, consent of the subject, accuracy, integrity, security, subject right of review and deletion. As a result, customers of international organizations such as Amazon and eBay in the EU have the ability to review and delete information, while Americans do not. In the United States the equivalent guiding philosophy is the Code of Fair Information Practice (FIP).\n", "There are significant differences between the EU data protection and US data privacy laws. These standards must be met not only by businesses operating in the EU but also by any organization that transfers personal information collected concerning citizens of the EU. In 2001 the United States Department of Commerce worked to ensure legal compliance for US organizations under an opt-in Safe Harbor Program. The FTC has approved TRUSTe to certify streamlined compliance with the US-EU Safe Harbor.\n\nSection::::Current enforcement.\n", "The greatest issue related to Internet privacy internationally is that of data collection. At this point in time, the U.S. and the European Union had separate sets of privacy policies, making it increasingly difficult for companies such as Google to exist globally without violating such policies. Google is just one example of a large company whose primary goal is to make money by serving their product, web browsing, to consumers. Consumers, however, are concerned with the quality of that product and their privacy. Online data collection by search engines allows Internet businesses to track consumer's online roadmap, everything from the sites they visit to the purchases they make. This poses problems globally to those who are web users around the world, especially in a world where there is no overarching privacy policy. The general consensus of this issue regarding international privacy violations at the time of Fleischer's U.N. address is that, since the Internet is global, the privacy policies should also be global and unified.\n", "Another interesting area for spyware vendors is the increasing amount of mobile devices being shipped. Distributors of advertisements have already turned their eyes to these devices. So far this development have not utilized the geographic position data stored in these devices. However, during the time of this writing companies are working on GPS-guided ads and coupons destined for mobile phones and hand-held devices. In other words, development of location-based marketing that allow advertising companies to get access to personal geographical data so that they can serve geographically dependent ads and coupons to their customers. Once such geographic data is being harvested and correlated with already accumulated personal information, another privacy barrier has been crossed.\n", "In 1995, the EU adopted the Data Protection Directive, which regulates the processing of personal data within the EU. There were significant differences between the EU data protection and equivalent U.S. data privacy laws. These standards must be met not only by businesses operating in the EU but also by any organization that transfers personal information collected concerning a citizen of the EU. In 2001 the United States Department of Commerce worked to ensure legal compliance for US organizations under an opt-in Safe Harbor Program. The FTC has approved a number of US providers to certify compliance with the US-EU Safe Harbor. Since 2010 Safe Harbor is criticised especially by German publicly appointed privacy protectors because the FTC’s will to assert the defined rules hadn’t been implemented in a proper even after revealing disharmonies.\n", "According to the Data Protection Directive, companies operating in the European Union are not permitted to send personal data to \"third countries\" outside the European Economic Area, unless they guarantee adequate levels of protection, \"the data subject himself agrees to the transfer\" or \"if Binding corporate rules or Standard Contractual Clauses have been authorised.\" The latter means that privacy protection can be at an organizational level, where a multinational organization produces and documents its internal controls on personal data or they can be at the level of a country if its laws are considered to offer protection equal to the EU.\n", "Policy approaches have also been discussed in recent years which intend to revise relevant guidelines or propose new regulations to better manage location-based service applications. The current technology state does not have a sufficiently aligned policies and legal environment, and there are efforts from both academia and industry trying to address this issue. Two uniformly accepted and well- established requirements are the users' awareness of location privacy policies in a specific service and their consents of sending their personal location to a service provider. Besides these two approaches, researchers have also been focusing on guarding the app markets, since an insecure app market would expose unaware users to several privacy risks. For example, there have been identified much malware in the Android app market, which are designed to carry cyber attacks on Android devices. Without effective and clear guidelines to regulate location information, it would generate both ethical and lawful problems. Therefore, many guidelines have been discussed in years recently, to monitor the use of location information.\n", "The United States Department of Commerce runs a certification program which it calls \"Safe Harbor\" and which aims to harmonize data privacy practices in trading between the United States of America and the stricter privacy controls of the European Union Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of personal data. For more information, see Safe Harbor Principles.\n" ]

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[ "More recently introduced electronic starters use a different method to preheat the cathodes. They may be designed to be plug-in interchangeable with glow starters for use in standard fittings. They commonly use a purpose-designed semiconductor switch and \"soft start\" the lamp by preheating the cathodes before applying a controlled starting pulse which strikes the lamp first time without flickering; this dislodges a minimal amount of material from the cathodes during starting, giving longer lamp life than possible with the uncontrolled impulses to which the lamp is subjected in a switchstart. This is claimed to prolong lamp life by a factor of typically 3 to 4 times for a lamp frequently switched on as in domestic use, and to reduce the blackening of the ends of the lamp typical of fluorescent tubes. The circuit is typically complex, but the complexity is built into the IC. Electronic starters may be optimized for fast starting (typical start time of 0.3 seconds), or for most reliable starting even at low temperatures and with low supply voltages, with a startup time of 2–4 seconds. The faster-start units may produce audible noise during start-up.\n", "Some lamp types contain a little neon, which permits striking at normal running voltage, with no external ignition circuitry. Low pressure sodium lamps operate this way. The simplest ballasts are just an inductor, and are chosen where cost is the deciding factor, such as street lighting. More advanced electronic ballasts may be designed to maintain constant light output over the life of the lamp, may drive the lamp with a square wave to maintain completely flicker-free output, and shut down in the event of certain faults.\n\nSection::::Types.:Form factors.\n", "Not all devices can be used on a dimmer. Fluorescent lamps are not dimmable with incandescent lamp dimmers; certain models of compact fluorescent lamps are dimmable but cost more. Motorized appliances such as fans, etc. generally will not operate as expected on a dimmer.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Wiring and interfering sources.\n", "Some types of lamp are also sensitive to switching cycles. Rooms with frequent switching, such as bathrooms, can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box. Compact fluorescent lamps are particularly sensitive to switching cycles.\n\nSection::::Public lighting.\n\nThe total amount of artificial light (especially from street light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. This light is the source of light pollution that burdens astronomers and others.\n\nSection::::Uses other than illumination.\n", "The switches may be single or multiple, designed for indoor or outdoor use. Optional extras may include dimmer-controls, environmental protection, weather and security protection. In residential and light commercial lighting systems, the light switch directly controls the circuit feeding the lamps. In larger lighting systems, for example warehouses or outdoor lighting systems, the required current may be too high for a manual switch. In these systems light switches control lighting contactors, a relay that allows the manual light switch to operate on a lower voltage or with smaller wiring than would be required in the main lighting circuit.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe automatic lampchanger was invented by Charles Wallace and patented in 1928. This original model held two headlight lamps from a Model T automobile. The United States Lighthouse Service had these in common use by the 1930s, as they moved to convert all navigational lights to electricity.\n\nSection::::Types in current use.\n\nLamp changers in current use may have two, four, or six lamps and use either a spring-loaded mechanism or an electric motor to change lamps when required. They are used in aerodrome beacons and marine navigational aids.\n", "Some wall switch modules offer a feature called \"local dimming\". Ordinarily, the local push button of a wall switch module simply offers on/off control with no possibility of locally dimming the controlled lamp. If local dimming is offered, holding down the push button will cause the lamp to cycle through its brightness range.\n\nHigher end modules have more advanced features such as programmable on levels, customizable fade rates, the ability to transmit commands when used (referred to as 2-way devices), and \"scene\" support.\n", "With automated starters such as glow starters, a failing tube will cycle endlessly, flickering as the lamp quickly goes out because the emission mix is insufficient to keep the lamp current high enough to keep the glow starter open. This runs the ballast at higher temperature. Some more advanced starters time out in this situation, and do not attempt repeated starts until power is reset. Some older systems used a thermal over-current trip to detect repeated starting attempts and disable the circuit until manually reset. The switch contacts in glow starters are subject to wear and inevitably fail eventually, so the starter is manufactured as a plug-in replaceable unit.\n", "Non-Dims are often used to allow switched equipment such as motors, hazers or other similar electrical equipment to be triggered as part of a lighting cue. Sometimes house work lights or stage work lights can be controlled using a non-dimmed circuit. It is also sometimes used to provide power to intelligent lights, however this may not be considered desirable as any mistakes made at the Lighting control console could interrupt the power supply to the fixture which often are not capable of hot restrike (turning on the lamp again while power is still connected) due to their use of a Metal halide lamp or similar lamp.\n", "Different tell-tales can convey different kinds of information. One type lights or blinks to indicate a failure (as of oil pressure, engine temperature control, charging current, etc.); lighting and blinking indicate progression from warning to failure indication. Another type lights to alert the need for specific service after a certain amount of time or distance has elapsed (e.g., to change the oil).\n", "Many different circuits have been used to operate fluorescent lamps. The choice of circuit is based on AC voltage, tube length, initial cost, long term cost, instant versus non-instant starting, temperature ranges and parts availability, etc.\n", "Most multi-function sets feature eight to sixteen moving light functions. Some very common functions are fading and chasing. More extravagant and less common functions are stepping on and two-channel flashing. These lights usually come in sets of 140 or 150. This is because to give the chasing effect, bulbs must be arranged in four circuits of 35 (sets of 140) or three circuits of 50 (sets of 150). These light sets use even less power than a regular set of 150, because the lights are not always on, and therefore the bulbs also do not get as hot.\n", "Before the 1960s, four-pin thermal starters and manual switches were used. A mechanism then widely used for preheating, still in common use, is a glow switch starter (illustrated). It consists of a normally open bi-metallic switch in a small sealed gas-discharge lamp containing inert gas (neon or argon).\n", "In the 1980s there was a strong requirement to make commercial lighting more controllable so that it could become more energy efficient. Initially this was done with analog control, allowing fluorescent ballasts and dimmers to be controlled from a central source. This was a step in the right direction, but cabling was complicated and therefore not cost effective. \n", "Where lighting circuits must not be accidentally switched off, for example, corridor and restroom lighting controls in public buildings such as schools, a tamper-resistant switch may be installed. These require a key to operate and so discourage casual or accidental operation of the switch.\n\nSection::::Variations on design.:Voltage class.\n\nIn North American commercial and industrial lighting installations, lighting installed on 480Y/277 V 3-phase circuits uses voltages higher than the rating of common 120 V switches.\n\nSection::::Variations on design.:Mercury switch.\n", "If in that room you also have a free standing lamp plugged into a power point and you also want to control this from your automation system, you will need to have that power point individually wired back to the electrical switchboard.\n\nSo if you want to individually control every light fitting and every power point or power outlets then each one of these devices must be individually wired back to the electrical switchboard. As you can see this start to become quite a lot of electrical cabling so planning is essential.\n", "Electronic starters only attempt to start a lamp for a short time when power is initially applied, and do not repeatedly attempt to restrike a lamp that is dead and unable to sustain an arc; some automatically shut down a failed lamp. This eliminates the re-striking of a lamp and the continuous flickering of a failing lamp with a glow starter. Electronic starters are not subject to wear and do not need replacing periodically, although they may fail like any other electronic circuit. Manufacturers typically quote lives of 20 years, or as long as the light fitting. Starters are inexpensive, typically less than 50¢ for the short-lived glow type (depending upon lamp power), and perhaps ten times more for the electronic type .\n", "However, \"stationary appliances\" (such as fans) and most “luminaires” may be controlled by a remote switch, which would switch the supply via the socket-outlet concerned. Exceptions could be devices such as illuminated “Exit” signs, which require connection to the power supply at all times.\n", "An automatic lamp changer (or lampchanger) is a device used to ensure that a navigational light such as a marine lighthouse or aero beacon stays lit even if a bulb burns out. Numerous types exist. The common design elements are an array of two or more lamps (or bulbs), installed on a mounting which can rotate to various positions. Each position brings a different lamp into the focal point of an optical assembly. Since signal and navigational lights use sophisticated optics to focus the beam, lampchangers are designed to position the new bulb at the focal point with high precision. The device automatically detects when the currently active lamp has ceased to function and moves the next lamp into place.\n", "Early experimental incandescent lamps employed wire leads which had to be connected to screw terminals, but this was inconvenient for commercial use. The Edison organization used simple wooden receptacles with internal copper strips for lamps on the commercial steamship \"SS Columbia\", the first ship to use electric light bulbs. These sockets included key switches, but required bulbs to be mounted upright.\n", "There are usually two three-way switches near the top of the floor lamp to operate the bulbs. One controls the three-way center bulb, and the other turns on one, two, or all three (or four) of the peripheral bulbs. The center bulb may be very high power (often a three-way, 100-200-300 watt bulb), where the others are usually 60 watts or less. Some models have a night light in the base operated by a foot switch. \n", "More complex electronic ballasts use programmed start. The output frequency is started above the resonance frequency of the output circuit of the ballast; and after the filaments are heated, the frequency is rapidly decreased. If the frequency approaches the resonant frequency of the ballast, the output voltage will increase so much that the lamp will ignite. If the lamp does not ignite, an electronic circuit stops the operation of the ballast.\n", "Today, torchère lamps use fluorescent or halogen light bulbs. Halogen torchères usually have a TRIAC dimmer circuit built into the stem. The same circuit will not work in a fluorescent torchère for the same reason that it will not work in other types of fluorescent applications: namely, because the pulsing will cause the arc in the fluorescent tube to become erratic. This is overcome by adjusting the pulse-width modulation in the electronic ballast instead; and most fluorescent torchères use this method.\n", "Single-pole illuminated switches derive the power to energize their in-built illuminating source (usually, a \"neon\" lamp) from the current passing through the lamp(s) which they control. Such switches work satisfactorily with incandescent lamps, halogen lighting, and non-electronic fluorescent fixtures, because the small current required for the switch's illuminating source is too small to produce any visible light from such devices controlled by the illuminated switch. However, if they control only compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and/or LED lamps, the small amount of current required to energize the lighting source within switch also slowly charges the internal input capacitor in the electronic ballast of the CFL or LED until the voltage across it rises to the point where it produces a brief discharge through the CFL. This cycle may repeat indefinitely, resulting in repetitive brief flashing of the lamp(s) (and the light inside the switch) while the illuminated switch is in the \"off\" position.\n", "Section::::Principles of operation.:Starting.:Semi-resonant start.\n" ]

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[ "Decompression incidents are not uncommon on military and civilian aircraft, with approximately 40–50 rapid decompression events occurring worldwide annually. However, in most cases the problem is manageable, injuries or structural damage rare and the incident not considered notable. One notable, recent case was Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 in 2018, where an uncontained engine failure ruptured a window, causing a passenger to be partially blown out.\n", "Unplanned loss of cabin pressure at altitude is rare but has resulted in a number of fatal accidents. Failures range from sudden, catastrophic loss of airframe integrity (explosive decompression) to slow leaks or equipment malfunctions that allow cabin pressure to drop.\n", "To maintain a pressure in the cabin equivalent to an altitude close to sea level would, at a cruising altitude around , create a pressure difference between inside the aircraft and outside the aircraft that would require greater hull strength and weight. Most people do not suffer ill effects up to an altitude of , and maintaining cabin pressure at this equivalent altitude significantly reduces the pressure difference and therefore the required hull strength and weight. A side effect is that passengers experience some discomfort as the cabin pressure changes during ascent and descent to the majority of airports, which are at low altitudes.\n", "In 2004, the TV show \"MythBusters\" examined if explosive decompression occurs when a bullet is fired through the fuselage of an airplane by informally using a pressurised aircraft and several scale tests. The results of these tests suggested that the fuselage design does not allow people to be blown out. Professional pilot David Lombardo states that a bullet hole would have no perceived effect on cabin pressure as the hole would be smaller than the opening of the aircraft's outflow valve. NASA scientist Geoffrey A. Landis points out though that the impact depends on the size of the hole, which can be expanded by debris that is blown through it. Landis went on to say that \"it would take about 100 seconds for pressure to equalise through a roughly hole in the fuselage of a Boeing 747.\" He then stated that anyone sitting next to the hole would have half a ton of force pulling them in the direction of it. On April 17, 2018 a seat-belted woman on Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 was partially blown through an airplane window that had been broken due to debris from an engine failure. Although the other passengers were able to pull her back inside, she later died from her injuries.\n", "Section::::Aviation safety hazards.:Human factors.:Other human factors.\n\nHuman factors incidents are not limited to errors by pilots. Failure to close a cargo door properly on Turkish Airlines Flight 981 in 1974 caused the loss of the aircraft – however, design of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the accident. In the case of Japan Airlines Flight 123 in 1985, improper repair of previous damage led to explosive decompression of the cabin, which in turn destroyed the vertical stabilizer and damaged all four hydraulic systems which powered all the flight controls.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.:Human factors.:Controlled flight into terrain.\n", "If a pressurized aircraft suffers a pressurization failure above 10,000 feet (~3,000 meters), then it could be deemed as an emergency. Should this situation occur, the aircraft should begin an emergency descent and oxygen masks should be activated for all occupants. In the majority of passenger aircraft, the passengers' oxygen masks are activated automatically if the cabin pressure falls below the atmospheric pressure equivalent of 14,000 feet (~4,500 meters).\n\nSection::::Travel class.\n\nSection::::Travel class.:First class.\n", "Pressurization becomes increasingly necessary at altitudes above above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude. For private aircraft operating in the US, crew members are required to use oxygen masks if the cabin altitude stays above 12,500 ft for more than 30 minutes, or if the cabin altitude reaches 14,000 ft at any time. At altitudes above 15,000 ft, passengers are required to be provided oxygen masks as well. On commercial aircraft, the cabin altitude must be maintained at or less. Pressurization of the cargo hold is also required to prevent damage to pressure-sensitive goods that might leak, expand, burst or be crushed on re-pressurization. The principal physiological problems are listed below.\n", "Aircraft cabin pressure is commonly pressurized to a \"cabin altitude\" of 8000 feet or less. That means that the pressure is , which is the ambient pressure at . Note that a lower cabin altitude is a higher pressure. The cabin pressure is controlled by a \"cabin pressure schedule\", which associates each aircraft altitude with a cabin altitude. The new airliners such as the Airbus A350 and Boeing 787 will have lower maximum cabin altitudes which help in passenger fatigue reduction during flights.\n", "Section::::Effects of the disaster and findings.\n\nThe Comet's pressure cabin had been designed to a safety factor comfortably in excess of that required by British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCAR)—the requirement was 1.33 times \"P\" with an ultimate load of 2 times \"P\" (where \"P\" is the cabin's \"Proof\" pressure), but the safety factor used in the Comet was 2.5 times \"P\"—hence the accident led to revised estimates for the safe loading strength requirements of airliner pressure cabins.\n", "Section::::Results of a loss of pressure control in a pressurized water reactor.\n\nWhen pressure control is lost in a reactor plant, depending on the level of heat being generated by the reactor plant, the heat being removed by the steam or other auxiliary systems, the initial pressure, and the normal operating temperature of the plant, it could take minutes or even hours for operators to see significant trends in core behaviour.\n", "Just over two years after the incident, the final report of the event was released on 22 November 2010.\n\nFrom the summary released by the ATSB:\n\n\"On 25 July 2008, a Boeing Company 747-438 aircraft carrying 369 passengers and crew rapidly depressurised following the forceful rupture of one of the aircraft's emergency oxygen cylinders in the forward cargo hold. The aircraft was cruising at 29,000 ft and was 55 minutes into a flight between Hong Kong and Melbourne.\"\n", "Of the 142 people on board, 2 passengers sustained serious injuries; 41 passengers and the captain sustained minor injuries; and 94 passengers, 3 flight attendants, and the first officer sustained no injuries. The airplane sustained extensive exterior damage and some internal damage to the passenger cabin. During the accident sequence, the forward service door (1R) escape slide inflated inside the airplane; the nose gear collapsed; and the forward dual flight attendant jumpseat, which was occupied by two flight attendants, partially collapsed.\n", "A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew. Above , a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a \"time of useful consciousness\" up to 10–15 seconds for a conditioned athlete. At Concorde's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger jets would not be effective and passengers would soon suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach, a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and noting Concorde's higher operating altitude, concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be a rapid descent. Continuous positive airway pressure would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the pilots through masks.\n", "Section::::Airbus and Boeing.\n\nThe Airbus A320 was the first commercial aircraft to incorporate full flight-envelope protection into its flight-control software. This was instigated by former Airbus senior vice president for engineering Bernard Ziegler. In the Airbus, the flight envelope protection cannot be overridden completely, although the crew can fly beyond flight envelope limits by selecting an alternate \"control law\". Boeing in the Boeing 777 has taken a different approach by allowing the crew to override flight envelope limits using excessive force on the flight controls.\n\nSection::::Incidents.\n\nSection::::Incidents.:China Airlines Flight 006.\n", "Against this objection, Airbus has responded that an A320 in the situation of Flight 006 \"never would have fallen out of the air\n\nin the first place: the envelope protection would have automatically kept it in level flight in spite of the drag of a stalled engine\".\n\nSection::::Incidents.:FedEx Flight 705.\n", "BULLET::::- Japan Airlines Flight 123, a Boeing 747, on 12 August 1985. A faulty repair years earlier had weakened the aircraft's rear pressure bulkhead, which failed in flight. The vertical stabilizer and much of the aircraft's empennage was blown off during the decompression. The decompression also ruptured all four hydraulic lines which controlled the aircraft's mechanical flight controls. The pilots were able to continue flying the aircraft with very limited control, but after 32 minutes the aircraft crashed into a mountain, killing 520 of the 524 people aboard in the deadliest single aircraft disaster in history.\n", "Prior to 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were type certified to fly up to , without being required to meet special conditions related to flight at high altitude. In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25–87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin-pressure specifications, for new designs of aircraft types. For aircraft certified to operate above 25,000 feet (FL 250; 7,600 m), it \"must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system.\" In the event of a decompression which results from \"any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable,\" the aircraft must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding for more than 2 minutes, nor exceeding an altitude of at any time. In practice, that new FAR amendment imposes an operational ceiling of 40,000 feet on the majority of newly designed commercial aircraft.\n", "The world's first commercial jet airliner was the British de Havilland Comet (1949) designed with a service ceiling of . It was the first time that a large diameter, pressurized fuselage with windows had been built and flown at this altitude. Initially, the design was very successful but two catastrophic airframe failures in 1954 resulting in the total loss of the aircraft, passengers and crew grounded what was then the entire world jet airliner fleet. Extensive investigation and groundbreaking engineering analysis of the wreckage led to a number of very significant engineering advances that solved the basic problems of pressurized fuselage design at altitude. The critical problem proved to be a combination of an inadequate understanding of the effect of progressive metal fatigue as the fuselage undergoes repeated stress cycles coupled with a misunderstanding of how aircraft skin stresses are redistributed around openings in the fuselage such as windows and rivet holes.\n", "Before 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were assigned a type certificate to fly up to without having to meet high-altitude special conditions. In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25-87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin pressure specifications for new-type aircraft designs. Aircraft certified to operate above \"must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system\". In the event of a decompression that results from \"any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable\", the plane must be designed such that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding for more than 2 minutes, nor to an altitude exceeding at any time. In practice, that new Federal Aviation Regulations amendment imposes an operational ceiling of on the majority of newly designed commercial aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers can apply for a relaxation of this rule if the circumstances warrant it. In 2004, Airbus acquired an FAA exemption to allow the cabin altitude of the A380 to reach in the event of a decompression incident and to exceed for one minute. This allows the A380 to operate at a higher altitude than other newly designed civilian aircraft.\n", "When the airplane exceeds its critical Mach number (such as during stall prevention or recovery), then drag increases or Mach tuck occurs, which can cause the aircraft to upset, lose control, and lose altitude. In either case, as the airplane falls, it could gain speed and then structural failure could occur, typically due to excessive \"g\" forces during the pullout phase of the recovery.\n", "Groundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, but this has occurred to the de Havilland Comet in 1954 after multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 in 1979 after the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 due to engine loss, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2013 after its battery problems, and the Boeing 737 MAX in 2019 after two crashes preliminarily tied to a flight control system.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.:Foreign object debris.\n", "\"Cabin Pressure\" (released in home video as \"Hijack'd\") was reviewed in \"The Movie Scene\", \"... 'Cabin Pressure' isn't so much a movie but a collection of movie cliches surrounding a troubled plane, in this case a completely computer operated plane. As such we have a former pilot with a drinking problem, a disgruntled former employee looking for revenge, of course a troubled plane but on top of that so much cheese that \"Cabin Pressure\" is one of those movies which becomes entertaining for what is bad.\"\n", "Section::::Causes of a loss of pressure control.\n\nMany failures in a reactor plant or its supporting auxiliaries could cause a loss of pressure control, including:\n", "The Comet's pressure cabin had been designed to a safety factor comfortably in excess of that required by British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (2.5 times the cabin proof test pressure as opposed to the requirement of 1.33 times and an ultimate load of 2.0 times the cabin pressure) and the accident caused a revision in the estimates of the safe loading strength requirements of airliner pressure cabins.\n", "On August 12, 1985, Japan Air Lines Flight 123, a Boeing 747-SR100, experienced cabin decompression 12 minutes after takeoff from Haneda Airport in Tokyo, Japan, at 24,000 feet. The decompression was caused by failure of a previously repaired aft pressure bulkhead. Cabin air rushed into the unpressurized fuselage cavity, overpressurizing the area and causing failure of the auxiliary power unit (APU) firewall and the supporting structure for the vertical fin. The vertical fin separated from the airplane. Hydraulic components located in the aft body were also severed, leading to a rapid depletion of all four hydraulic systems. The loss of the vertical fin, coupled with the loss of all four hydraulic systems, left the airplane extremely difficult, if not impossible, to control in all three axes. Lack of independence of four hydraulic systems from a single failure event was a zonal hazard. The aircraft struck a mountain at forty-six minutes after takeoff with 520 fatalities and 4 survivors.\n" ]

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[ "Such methods are limited by the degree of instruction level parallelism (ILP), the number of non-dependent instructions in the program code. Some programs can run very well on superscalar processors due to their inherent high ILP, notably graphics. However, more general problems have far less ILP, thus lowering the possible speedups from these methods.\n", "HPU parallelism\n\nSince many (possibly hundreds) HPUs would be required to drive a single light-field display, it is important that the HPU be an independent processor, requiring minimal support logic and interconnect. The HPU interconnect framework should provide scene, command and sync buffering and relay throughout the topology. Ideally, neither the host system nor the individual HPUs would have knowledge of the interconnect topology or even the depth and breadth of the system.\n\nHogel parallelism (multivew point rendering)\n", "Since 2005 there has been interest in using the performance offered by GPUs for evolutionary computation in general, and for accelerating the fitness evaluation in genetic programming in particular. Most approaches compile linear or tree programs on the host PC and transfer the executable to the GPU to be run. Typically the performance advantage is only obtained by running the single active program simultaneously on many example problems in parallel, using the GPU's SIMD architecture. However, substantial acceleration can also be obtained by not compiling the programs, and instead transferring them to the GPU, to be interpreted there. Acceleration can then be obtained by either interpreting multiple programs simultaneously, simultaneously running multiple example problems, or combinations of both. A modern GPU can readily simultaneously interpret hundreds of thousands of very small programs.\n", "GPUs have very large register files, which allow them to reduce context-switching latency. Register file size is also increasing over different GPU generations, e.g., the total register file size on Maxwell (GM200) and Pascal GPUs are 6 MiB and 14 MiB, respectively. By comparison, the size of a register file on CPUs is small, typically tens or hundreds of kilobytes. \n\nSection::::GPU vs. CPU.:Energy efficiency.\n\nSeveral research projects have compared the energy efficiency of GPUs with that of CPUs and FPGAs.\n\nSection::::Stream processing.\n", "GPUs are designed specifically for graphics and thus are very restrictive in operations and programming. Due to their design, GPUs are only effective for problems that can be solved using stream processing and the hardware can only be used in certain ways.\n", "GPGPU is fundamentally a software concept, not a hardware concept; it is a type of algorithm, not a piece of equipment. Specialized equipment designs may, however, even further enhance the efficiency of GPGPU pipelines, which traditionally perform relatively few algorithms on very large amounts of data. Massively parallelized, gigantic-data-level tasks thus may be parallelized even further via specialized setups such as rack computing (many similar, highly tailored machines built into a \"rack\"), which adds a third layer many computing units each using many CPUs to correspond to many GPUs. Some Bitcoin \"miners\" used such setups for high-quantity processing.\n", "Section::::GPU vs. CPU.:Caches.\n\nHistorically, CPUs have used hardware-managed caches but the earlier GPUs only provided software-managed local memories. However, as GPUs are being increasingly used for general-purpose applications, state-of-the-art GPUs are being designed with hardware-managed multi-level caches which have helped the GPUs to move towards mainstream computing. For example, GeForce 200 series GT200 architecture GPUs did not feature an L2 cache, the Fermi GPU has 768 KiB last-level cache, the Kepler GPU has 1.5 MiB last-level cache, the Maxwell GPU has 2 MiB last-level cache and the Pascal GPU has 4 MiB last-level cache.\n\nSection::::GPU vs. CPU.:Register file.\n", "GPUs can only process independent vertices and fragments, but can process many of them in parallel. This is especially effective when the programmer wants to process many vertices or fragments in the same way. In this sense, GPUs are stream processors processors that can operate in parallel by running one kernel on many records in a stream at once.\n", "GPUs are originally devised to accelerate image processing and video stream rendering. Moreover, since modern GPUs have good ability to perform numeric computations in parallel with a relatively low cost and better energy efficiency, GPUs are becoming a popular alternative to replace supercomputers performing multidimensional DSP.\n\nSection::::GPGPU Computations.\n\nModern GPU designs are mainly based on the SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) computation paradigm. This type of GPU devices is so-called general-purpose GPUs (GPGPUs).\n", "In order to accelerate multidimensional DSP computations, using dedicated supercomputers or cluster computers is required in some circumstances, e.g., weather forecasting and military radars. Nevertheless, using supercomputers designated to simply perform DSP operations takes considerable money cost and energy consumption. Also, it is not practical and suitable for all multidimensional DSP applications.\n\nSection::::Existing Approaches.:GPU Acceleration.\n", "For highly parallel floating point math workloads, the cards can speed up large computations by more than 10 times; Folding@Home, the earliest and one of the most visible users of the GPGPU, obtained 20-40 times the CPU performance. Each pixel and vertex shader, or unified shader in later models, can perform arbitrary floating-point calculations.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Intel CPUs with integrated HD Graphics also have a CPU and GPU on a single die, but they do not offer HSA features (see below).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The theoretical single-precision processing power of a Fermi GPU in GFLOPS is computed as 2 (operations per FMA instruction per CUDA core per cycle) × number of CUDA cores × shader clock speed (in GHz). Note that the previous generation Tesla could dual-issue MAD+MUL to CUDA cores and SFUs in parallel, but Fermi lost this ability as it can only issue 32 instructions per cycle per SM which keeps just its 32 CUDA cores fully utilized. Therefore, it is not possible to leverage the SFUs to reach more than 2 operations per CUDA core per cycle.\n", "For some low-power mobile CPUs there is limited video decoding support, while none of the desktop CPUs have this limitation.\n\nSection::::Generations.:Haswell.\n\nOn 12 September 2012, Haswell CPUs were announced, with four models of integrated GPUs:\n", "In the past heterogeneous computing meant different ISAs had to be handled differently, while in a modern example, Heterogeneous System Architecture (HSA) systems eliminate the difference (for the user) while using multiple processor types (typically CPUs and GPUs), usually on the same integrated circuit, to provide the best of both worlds: general GPU processing (apart from the GPU's well-known 3D graphics rendering capabilities, it can also perform mathematically intensive computations on very large data-sets), while CPUs can run the operating system and perform traditional serial tasks.\n", "GPU switching is mostly used for saving energy by switching between graphic cards. The dedicated graphics cards consume much more power than integrated graphics but also provides higher 3D performances, which is needed for a better gaming and CAD experience. Following is a list of the TDPs of the most popular CPU with integrated graphics and dedicated graphics cards.\n\nThe dedicated graphics cards exhibit much higher power consumption than the integrated graphics on both platforms. Disabling them when no heavy graphics processing is needed can significantly lower the power consumption.\n\nSection::::Technologies.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Nvidia Optimus.\n", "Most video cards are not limited to simple display output. Their integrated graphics processor can perform additional processing, removing this task from the central processor of the computer. For example, Nvidia and AMD (previously ATI) produced cards render the graphics pipeline OpenGL and DirectX on the hardware level. In the later 2010s, there has also been a tendency to use the computing capabilities of the graphics processor to solve non-graphic tasks.\n", "Section::::GPU vs. CPU.\n", "In the most common scenario, environments such as PVM and MPI for loosely connected clusters and OpenMP for tightly coordinated shared memory machines are used. Significant effort is required to optimize an algorithm for the interconnect characteristics of the machine it will be run on; the aim is to prevent any of the CPUs from wasting time waiting on data from other nodes. GPGPUs have hundreds of processor cores and are programmed using programming models such as CUDA or OpenCL.\n", "BULLET::::- Doing \"global synchronization\" on the GPU is not very efficient, which forces the GPU to divide the kernel and do synchronization on the CPU. Given the variable number of multiprocessors and other factors, there may not be a perfect solution to this problem.\n\nBULLET::::- The bus bandwidth and latency between the CPU and the GPU may become a bottleneck.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Stream Processing\n\nBULLET::::- Heterogeneous System Architecture\n\nBULLET::::- NVIDIA Tesla similar solution by Nvidia\n\nBULLET::::- Intel Xeon Phi similar solution by Intel\n\nBULLET::::- Open Computing Language (OpenCL) – an industry standard\n", "Although an order of magnitude speedup can be reasonably expected (even from mainstream GPUs when computing in a streaming manner), not all applications benefit from this.\n\nCommunication latencies are actually the biggest problem. Although PCI Express improved this with full-duplex communications, getting a GPU (and possibly a generic stream processor) to work will possibly take long amounts of time. This means it's usually counter-productive to use them for small datasets. Because changing the kernel is a rather expensive operation the stream architecture also incurs penalties for small streams, a behaviour referred to as the \"short stream effect\".\n", "BULLET::::- DEM is computationally demanding, which is the reason why it has not been so readily and widely adopted as continuum approaches in computational engineering sciences and industry. However, the actual program execution times can be reduced significantly when graphical processing units (GPUs) are utilized to conduct DEM simulations, due to the large number of computing cores on typical GPUs. In addition GPUs tend to be significantly more energy efficient than conventional computing clusters when conducting DEM simulations i.e. a DEM simulation solved on GPUs requires less energy than when it is solved on a conventional computing cluster.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "CUDA and OpenCL as well as most other fairly advanced programming languages can use HSA to increase their execution performance. Heterogeneous computing is widely used in system-on-chip devices such as tablets, smartphones, other mobile devices, and video game consoles. HSA allows programs to use the graphics processor for floating point calculations without separate memory or scheduling.\n\nSection::::Rationale.\n", "In general, an algorithm can be performed over many clock cycles with few hardware resources, or over fewer clock cycles using a larger number of ALUs, registers and memories. Correspondingly, from one algorithmic description, a variety of hardware microarchitectures can be generated by an HLS compiler according to the directives given to the tool. This is the same trade off of execution speed for hardware complexity as seen when a given program is run on conventional processors of differing performance, yet all running at roughly the same clock frequency.\n\nSection::::Functionality.:Architectural constraints.\n", "The rationale behind HSA is to ease the burden on programmers when offloading calculations to the GPU. Originally driven solely by AMD and called the FSA, the idea was extended to encompass processing units other than GPUs, such as other manufacturers' DSPs, as well.\n\nModern GPUs are very well suited to perform single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) and single instruction, multiple threads (SIMT), while modern CPUs are still being optimized for branching. etc.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Crescent Moon.\n\nDuring the first two weeks, the Moon is called 'crescent' (when the illuminated portion increases) while it is 'falling' for the next two weeks.\n\nFor two weeks, the crescent Moon wanes before and waxes after new moon, or \"change of Moon\". The Moon when other than crescent or dark, is called a gibbous, waxing before and waning after full moon.\n\nSection::::Other items of interest.\n\nBecause the Moon is so bright, it is especially interesting to see objects \"superimposed\" on it. One particular point of interest is an ISS (International Space Station) transit.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The key to a blue moon is having lots of particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. It is rare, but volcanoes sometimes produce such clouds, as do forest fires. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons.\n\nSection::::Blue moons between 2009 and 2021.\n", "The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere. Common optical effects are the 22° halo ring, formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals of high cirrostratus clouds, and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.\n\nThe illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by formula_3, where formula_4 is the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer (on Earth) and the Sun).\n\nSection::::Earth-Moon system.:Tidal effects.\n", "There has been historical controversy over whether features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, the Moon should ideally not be viewed at its full phase. During a full moon, rays of sunlight are hitting the visible portion of the Moon perpendicular to the surface. As a result, there is less surface detail visible during a full moon than during other phases (such as the quarter and crescent phases) when sunlight hits the Moon at a much shallower angle. The brightness of a full moon as compared to a phase where a smaller percentage of the surface is illuminated tends to wash out substantial amounts of detail and can actually leave an afterimage on an observer's eye that can persist for several minutes. First quarter (six to nine days past new moon) is generally considered the best time to observe the Moon for the average stargazer. Shadows and detail are most pronounced along the \"terminator\", the dividing line between the illuminated (day side) and dark (night side) of the Moon.\n", "Section::::Phases of the Moon.:Earthshine.\n\nWhen the Moon as seen from Earth is a narrow crescent, Earth as viewed from the Moon is almost fully lit by the Sun. Often, the dark side of the Moon is dimly illuminated by indirect sunlight reflected from Earth, but is bright enough to be easily visible from Earth. This phenomenon is called earthshine and sometimes picturesquely described as \"the old moon in the new moon's arms\" or \"the new moon in the old moon's arms\".\n\nSection::::Calendar.\n", "Part II of the book, \"From the Earth to the Moon,\" focuses on Earth's orbit and atmosphere and the Moon, with particular emphasis on how photon scattering results in the sky appearing blue, the impact of axial tilt on seasons, the impact of the Moon's presence, and misconceptions regarding the \"Moon Size Illusion,\" explaining why and how the Moon appears larger when closer to the horizon.\n\nSection::::Content.:Skies at Night are Big and Bright.\n", "Section::::Work.:Moon illusion research.\n", "The amount of refracted light depends on the amount of dust or clouds in the atmosphere; this also controls how much light is scattered. In general, the dustier the atmosphere, the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed (compared to red light), leaving the resulting light a deeper red color. This causes the resulting coppery-red hue of the Moon to vary from one eclipse to the next. Volcanoes are notable for expelling large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, and a large eruption shortly before an eclipse can have a large effect on the resulting color.\n", "Section::::Visual presentation.:The Moon.\n\nEarth's Moon is a grey disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29-33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm's length, and is readily identified. Over 27.3 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)\n", "BULLET::::- A French mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (fr:\"premier\") quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (fr:\"dernier\") quarter looks like a 'd'. A more childlike mnemonic explains that the moon is a liar: the waxing moon looks like an upper-case D, which would correspond to the French verb \"décroître\" (meaning: to shrink) but since she (the moon) is \"une menteuse\" (a liar) she is in fact doing the opposite: growing. The waning moon looks like a(n upper-case) C, corresponding to the word \"croître\" (meaning: to grow), but will be a lie and therefore mean that the moon is 'shrinking'.\n", "A full moon is often thought of as an event of a full night's duration. This is somewhat misleading because its phase seen from Earth continuously waxes or wanes (though much too slowly to notice in real time with the naked eye). By definition, its maximum illumination occurs at the moment waxing stops. For any given location, about half of these maximum full moons may be visible, while the other half occurs during the day, when the full moon is below the horizon.\n", "Atmospheric refraction – the bending of the light from the Moon as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere – alters the observed declination of the Moon, more so at low elevation, where the atmosphere is thicker (deeper).\n\nNot all the maxima are observable from all places in the world – the Moon may be below the horizon at a particular observing site during the maximum, and by the time it rises, it may have a lower declination than an observable maximum at some other date.\n\nSection::::2006 standstill.\n", "Some TLPs may be caused by gas escaping from underground cavities. These gaseous events are purported to display a distinctive reddish hue, while others have appeared as white clouds or an indistinct haze. The majority of TLPs appear to be associated with floor-fractured craters, the edges of lunar maria, or in other locations linked by geologists with volcanic activity. However, these are some of the most common targets when viewing the Moon, and this correlation could be an observational bias.\n", "Another interesting phenomenon visible with the naked eye is Earthshine. Best visible shortly before or after new a moon (during the waning and waxing crescent phases respectively), Earthshine is the faint glow of the non-illuminated (night) side of the Moon caused by sunlight reflecting off the surface of Earth (which would appear nearly full to an observer situated on the Moon at this time) and onto the night side of the Moon. By the time the Moon reaches first its quarter however, the sunlight illuminated portion of the Moon becomes far too bright for Earthshine to be seen with the naked eye, however it can still be observed telescopically.\n", "Between \"different\" full moons, the Moon's angular diameter can vary from 29.43 arcminutes at apogee to 33.5 arcminutes at perigee—an increase of around 14% in apparent diameter or 30% in apparent area. This is because of the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit.\n\nSection::::Possible explanations.\n", "Section::::Visibility.\n", "Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon. This is caused by two main sources: \"airglow\" and \"scattered light\".\n", "Many factors can affect the appearance of the Moon during a lunar eclipse. The Moon's path through the Earth's umbra is important, but so too are the current conditions of the Earth's atmosphere. While the Earth's shadow blocks any direct light from striking the Moon during a lunar eclipse, some light is refracted through the Earth's atmosphere giving the Moon a red hue.\n", "The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around to at perigee (closest) and apogee (farthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it was closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1948, 14% closer than its farthest position in apogee. Reported as a \"supermoon\", this closest point coincided within an hour of a full moon, and it was 30% more luminous than when at its greatest distance because its angular diameter is 14% greater and formula_1. At lower levels, the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is provided by the following formula:\n", "BULLET::::1. Bright region around Copernicus\n\nBULLET::::2. Mare Nectaris\n\nBULLET::::3. Mare Humorum\n\nBULLET::::4. Bright region around Kepler\n\nBULLET::::5. Gassendi region\n\nBULLET::::6. Plinius region\n\nBULLET::::7. Mare Vaporum\n\nBULLET::::8. Lubiniesky region\n\nBULLET::::9. Sinus Medii\n\nBULLET::::10. Faintly shaded area near Sacrobosco\n\nBULLET::::11. Dark spot at foot of Mons Huygens\n\nBULLET::::12. Riphean Mountains\n", "The main visible effect (in longitude) of the variation of the Moon is that during the course of every month, at the octants of the Moon's phase that follow the syzygies (i.e. halfway between the new or the full moon and the next-following quarter), the Moon is about two thirds of a degree farther ahead than would be expected on the basis of its mean motion (as modified by the equation of the centre and by the evection). But at the octants that precede the syzygies, it is about two thirds of a degree behind. At the syzygies and quarters themselves, the main effect is on the Moon's velocity rather than its position.\n", "In the Northern Hemisphere, if the left (east) side of the Moon is dark, then the bright part is thickening, and the Moon is described as waxing (shifting toward full moon). If the right (west) side of the Moon is dark, then the bright part is thinning, and the Moon is described as waning (past full and shifting toward new moon). Assuming that the viewer is in the Northern Hemisphere, the right side of the Moon is the part that is always waxing. (That is, if the right side is dark, the Moon is becoming darker; if the right side is lit, the Moon is getting brighter.)\n", "Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a \"new Earth\", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n", "The most literal meaning of \"blue moon\" is when the moon (not necessarily a full moon) appears to a casual observer to be unusually bluish, which is a rare event. The effect can be caused by smoke or dust particles in the atmosphere, as has happened after forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951, and after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, which caused the moon to appear blue for nearly two years. Other less potent volcanoes have also turned the moon blue. People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of the El Chichón volcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused by Mount St. Helens in 1980 and Mount Pinatubo in 1991. In the Antarctic diary of Robert Falcon Scott for July 11, 1911 his entry says, \"... the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\". On that date the moon phase would have looked full.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- November 22, 2011, Scotland Neck, North Carolina, Roger Anthony, 61, died a day after being tasered whilst cycling. Police had been called after the deaf man had fallen off his bicycle. The caller said Anthony appeared drunk, and may have hurt himself.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012\n\nBULLET::::- March 18, 2012, Honeymoon Island, Florida, James Clifton Barnes, 37, was struggling but in handcuffs when tasered by Kenneth Kubler, a marine deputy. He stopped breathing, and died a few days later.\n", "BULLET::::- June 6, 2011, Oakland Park, Florida, James Doe, 31 years old, 130 pounds, is tasered while handcuffed and locked in the back of a power cruiser; he was kicking the doors and windows. He becomes unresponsive, and is pronounced dead at Florida Medical Center.\n\nBULLET::::- June 28, 2011, Northolt, United Kingdom, an 82-year-old was hospitalised for several days after his arrest.\n\nBULLET::::- August 6, 2011, Cincinnati, Ohio, an 18-year-old attending summer classes at the University of Cincinnati was struck by a campus officer's stun gun and died of cardiac arrest.\n", "BULLET::::- August 18, 2010, Dublin, California, Martin Harrison, a 50-year-old Oakland man being held in Santa Rita Jail, died after being shocked twice by a Taser during a fight with deputies. The fight occurred on Monday night, and he died in a hospital about 5 a.m. Wednesday.\n", "BULLET::::- April 8, 2012, Los Angeles, California, American pornographic actor Marlan A. Anderson (39 years old), better known as Sledge Hammer, was tasered twice in \"Drive Stun\" mode by Los Angeles Police Department during a struggle, went into cardiac arrest for at least 10 minutes, then slipped into a coma. He was taken off life support 5 days later and died. Autopsy results have yet to determine a cause for death and is the incident is under internal review by the LAPD.\n", "Concerns about the use of conducted electrical weapons have arisen from cases that include the death of the Polish immigrant Robert Dziekanski in the Vancouver, BC airport where he died after the RCMP officer, in spite of his training, repeatedly stunned him with a Taser. The report by forensic pathologist Charles Lee, of Vancouver General Hospital, listed the principal cause of death as \"sudden death during restraint\", with a contributory factor of \"chronic alcoholism\".\n", "Section::::Current market.\n\nSection::::Current market.:Tesla Suit.\n\nThe Tesla Suit is a mo-cap suit that also uses neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) to give the wearer sensations of touch, force and even warmth.\n\nSection::::Current market.:PrioVR.\n\nThe PrioVR is mo-cap suit which is available in three versions: the Core which comes with 8 sensors the upper body tracking; the Lite with 12 sensors for full body tracking; and the Pro with 17 sensors which adds for precision with the feet, shoulders and hips.\n\nSection::::Current market.:Perception Neuron.\n", "BULLET::::- March 18, 2012, Sydney, Australia, Roberto Laudisio Curti, a 21-year-old Brazilian student suspected of stealing a package of biscuits from a convenience store, died during a pursuit by police. CCTV footage shows police forcing the unarmed victim to collide with a glass window and tasering him with his back turned to the officers. The coroner did later find that Curti was suffering acute effects of LSD use. Witnesses said the victim was tasered at least four times and also capsicum sprayed.\n", "A similar incident occurred in Sydney, Australia, to Roberto Laudisio Curti, a 21-year-old tourist from Brazil. He died after repeated Taser application even after being physically apprehended (by the weight of several police officers lying on top of him compressing his chest and making it hard to breathe. He was pepper sprayed at the same time). The Coroner was scathing of the \"thuggish\" behaviour of the police. The repeated use of several Tasers was considered excessive and unnecessary.\n", "A later study done by Pierre Savard, Ing., PhD., Ecole Polythechnique de Montreal, et al., for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), reproduced the results of the Ruggieri study and indicated that the threshold of energy needed to induce deadly ventricular fibrillation decreased dramatically with each successive burst of pulses. The threshold for women may be less.\n", "Section::::Validity of \"excited delirium\" term.\n", "Several other legal blogs, including a post by the ACLU, in which Maria Kayanan, its Florida Associate Legal Director, criticizes the institution, stating that: \"The Eleventh Circuit's ruling licenses police officers to use Tasers as cattle prods to inflict gratuitous pain on a nonviolent handcuffed arrestee, simply to herd him towards a police car. The repeated and excruciatingly painful application of 50,000 volts of electricity was once the exclusive province of the agents and implements of torture, and cannot be condoned in a civilized society.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In January 2011, a California man named Rogelio Serrato died of smoke inhalation after a flashbang grenade launched by a police SWAT team ignited a fire in his home. The man was believed to have been hiding in the attic when the fire broke out.\n\nBULLET::::- In February 2011, a North Carolina SWAT police officer was injured at his home when a stun grenade accidentally detonated while he was attempting to secure his equipment. He underwent emergency surgery, but later died of his injuries.\n", "BULLET::::- June 4, 2012, Los Angeles, California, 50-year-old Studio City resident Angela Jones was tasered three times by California Highway Patrol. She went into cardiac arrest and was revived after CPR was performed by a CHP officer at the scene.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- March 18, 2013, Jordan Begley dies after police use Taser in Greater Manchester.\n", "BULLET::::- November 30, 2010, Colombes, France, a 38-year-old illegal immigrant from Mali dies after having been tasered twice by police, who said the man threatened officers with a hammer. Tear gas and a baton were also used, and an inquiry was ordered to determine the exact cause of death.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011\n\nBULLET::::- May 6, 2011, Boynton Beach, Florida, a female police officer is treated for hearing loss after a fellow officer deliberately places and activates a taser behind her ear.\n", "BULLET::::- August 6, 2013, Miami, Florida, Israel Hernandez, 18 years old, died after being shocked with a taser in the chest after Miami Beach police spotted him painting graffiti on an empty building. It was later confirmed that the cause of death was sudden cardiac death produced by the shock from the taser.\n\nBULLET::::- October 24, 2013, Edmonton, Alberta, Unidentified, 39-year-old man, died after being shocked with a taser by the Edmonton Police Service.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014\n", "The UCLA PD policy in effect at the time of the incident calls the Taser a \"less lethal device\" and says that \"although not absolutely prohibited, officers should give additional consideration to the unique circumstances involved prior to applying the Taser to ... Individuals who are handcuffed or otherwise restrained\" (4C). According to the policy, the \"Drive Stun\" capacity is appropriate \"to eliminate physical resistance from an arrestee in accomplishing an arrest or physical search\" (6A) as well as \"pain compliance against passive resistors\" (6B).\n", "BULLET::::- March 4, 2014, Miami Gardens, Florida, Treon Johnson, suspected of attacking several dogs, dies hours after being tasered and taken into custody by police.\n\nBULLET::::- September 14, 2014, Kansas City, Missouri, Bryce Masters' heart stopped after the probes from the stun gun struck him in close proximity to his heart. He was placed into a medically-induced coma and treated for lack of oxygen to the brain.\n", "BULLET::::- April 16, 2009, Robert Mitchell, a 5-foot 2-inch 110 lb 16-year-old with a learning disability, was tasered and died after fleeing a vehicle in which he was a passenger during a routine traffic stop.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010\n\nBULLET::::- May 21, 2010, Tybee Island, Georgia, an 18-year-old man with autism is injured after being tasered by police.\n\nBULLET::::- July 2010, A stand-off in Rothbury between British police and armed fugitive Raoul Moat ended after two tasers were discharged, possibly causing Moat to pull the trigger to end his own life. An inquest is ongoing.\n", "Court cases in recent years have addressed the legality of Taser use by police officers. In \"Bryan v. MacPherson\", the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that a Taser had been used in a way that constituted excessive force and hence a violation of the Fourth Amendment. In the latter case \"Mattos v. Agarano\", the same Court of Appeals found that in two situations involving Taser use, one in Drive Stun and one in dart mode, officers had used excessive force. According to an article in \"Police Chief\" magazine, this decision implies guidelines for the use of Tasers and other Electronic Control Devices in gaining compliance (in a setting where safety is not an issue), including that the officer must give warning before each application, and that the suspect must be capable of compliance, with enough time to consider a warning, and to recover from the extreme pain of any prior application of the Taser; and that Tasers must not be used on children, the elderly, and women who are visibly pregnant or inform the officer of their pregnancy.\n", "With a 600 ohm test load, the X2 Defender applies a variable voltage peaking at approximately 2000V, corresponding to a peak current of 3.3A. The widely quoted 50kV specification is an open circuit voltage and is not applied to a target in use. To ensure safe handling, the electric current only lasts a maximum of 5 seconds for every activation and the weapon can be equipped with a video camera and a data recorder. The electrical circuit is powerful enough to disrupt the sensory and motor nerves of a target, but was deemed safe by engineers associated with Taser International. General safety concerns and incidents have drawn criticism to all CEWs in use since they were made. CEWs can cause people to die in accidents where targets fall. \n", "A large-scale and generally well received trial by the New Zealand Police saw Tasers presented almost 800 times and fired over 100 times, but firing was \"ineffective\" about a third of the time. The Tasers had been \"unintentionally discharged\" more often than they had been used in the line of duty.\n", "However, on June 6, 2008, the company lost its first product-liability suit. The damages were reduced in the Court of Appeals in 2011.\n\nTASER lost its second product liability suit \n", "Another less lethal weapon that police officers often carry is an electroshock gun, also known as a Taser. The handheld electroshock weapon was designed to incapacitate a single person from a distance by using electric current to disrupt voluntary control of muscles. Someone struck by a Taser experiences stimulation of his or her sensory nerves and motor nerves, resulting in strong involuntary muscle contractions. Tasers do not rely only on pain compliance, except when used in Drive Stun mode, and are thus preferred by some law enforcement over non-Taser stun guns and other electronic control weapons.\n\nSection::::Police equipment.:Specialized weapons.\n", "In October 2009, Wired Magazine tested the product at Cetecom, an FCC-certified lab in Milpitas, California that tests cell phone radiation levels for handset manufacturers. Using a Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin head filled with a brain tissue simulating fluid. After a phone call simulation with and without the Pong case, it was found that the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) was reduced by 64.7% to 0.42 watts per kilogram.\n", "A study by the Potomac Institute concluded; \"Based on the available evidence, and on accepted criteria for defining product risk vs. efficacy, we believe that when stun technology is appropriately applied, it is relatively safe and clearly effective. The only known field data that are available suggest that the odds are, at worst, one in one thousand that a stun device would contribute to (and this does not imply “cause”) death. This figure is likely not different than the odds of death when stun devices are not used, but when other multiple force measures are. A more defensible figure is one in one hundred thousand.\"\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- The 2014 episode \"White Christmas\" of the British TV show \"Black Mirror\" features a procedure where copies of living subjects' minds are uploaded to \"cookies\", devices capable of running full brain emulation, and then used for household control jobs, judicial investigation, and criminal sentencing. An operator can also adjust the cookie speed to make the emulated mind experiment a different time scale, a feature used to apply a thousand-year long sentence to an individual's mind, which is served in a few hours of real-world time.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard K. Morgan's \"Altered Carbon\" (2002) and other \"Takeshi Kovacs\" books, where everyone has a \"cortical stack\" implanted at the base of their skull, soon after being born. The device then records all your memories and experiences in real-time. The stack can be \"resleeved\" in another body, be it a clone or otherwise, and/or backed up digitally at a remote location.\n", "Section::::Mind uploading.\n\nWhole brain emulation (WBE) or mind uploading (sometimes called mind copying or mind transfer) is the hypothetical process of copying mental content (including long-term memory and \"self\") from a particular brain substrate and copying it to a computational or storage device, such as a digital, analog, quantum-based, or software-based artificial neural network. The computational device could then run a simulation model of the brain information processing, such that it responds in essentially the same way as the original brain (i.e., indistinguishable from the brain for all relevant purposes) and experiences having a conscious mind.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2015 movie \"CHAPPiE\" the title character Chappie transfers the dying Deon's consciousness into a spare robot through a modified neural helmet.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2015 film \"Advantageous\", Gwen Koh is made to choose between having her consciousness transferred to a different body in order to keep her job as the face of a technology company or not having the resources to give her daughter the education that will maintain her position in a socially and economically stratified society.\n", "Mind uploading may potentially be accomplished by at least two methods: Copy-and-Transfer or Gradual Replacement of neurons. In the former method, mind uploading would be achieved by scanning and mapping the salient features of a biological brain, and then by copying, transferring and storing that information state into a computer system or another computational device. The simulated mind could be within a virtual reality or simulated world, supported by an anatomic 3D body simulation model. Alternatively, the simulated mind could reside in a computer that's inside (or connected to) a humanoid robot or a biological body.\n\nSection::::Space flight.\n", "BULLET::::- Alt Cunningham: A brilliant Netrunner and programmer, she invented the beta version of \"Soulkiller\", a program that would make a digital emulation or copy of a netrunner's mind. Arasaka kidnapped her and then extracted the information on how to make it. Then they made a more deadly version that would simultaneously fry the netrunner's mind after backing it up, allowing a Sysop to interrogate it at will. They then used it on Alt since she was of no further use to them. Her digital \"ghost\" broke free into the Net, but could not be reunited with her body.\n", "BULLET::::- In Greg Egan's novel \"Permutation City\" the protagonist creates digital copies of himself to conduct experiments that are also related to implications of artificial consciousness on identity\n\nBULLET::::- Puppet Master – \"Ghost in the Shell\" manga and anime\n\nBULLET::::- R2-D2 – exciteable astromech droid featured in all the \"Star Wars\" movies\n\nBULLET::::- Replicants – bio-robotic androids from the novel \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\" and the movie \"Blade Runner\" which portray what might happen when artificially conscious robots are modeled very closely upon humans\n", "In 2002, as part of Kevin Warwick's Project Cyborg, Warwick's wife, Irena, wore a necklace which was electronically linked to Warwick's nervous system via an implanted electrode array. The color of the necklace changed between red and blue dependent on the signals on Warwick's nervous system.\n", "BULLET::::- In the anime \"Sword Art Online\" the creator of a virtual reality MMO, Kayaba Akihko, scanned his brain with \"high output scan\" and uploaded it to the Internet.\n", "People can \"upload\" by recording the contents of their brains on computer disks. The individual then becomes a \"ghost\", an infomorph very easily confused with \"sapient artificial intelligence\". However, this technology has several problems as the solely available \"brainpeeling\" technique is fatal to the original biological lifeform being simulated, has a significant failure rate and the philosophical questions regarding personal identity remain equivocal. Any infomorph, regardless of its origin, can be plugged into a \"cybershell\", or a biological body, or \"bioshell\". Or, the individual can illegally make multiple \"xoxes\", or copies of themselves, and scatter them throughout the system, exponentially increasing the odds that at least one of them will live for centuries more, if not forever.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Thirteenth Floor\" (1999) is set in late 1990s Los Angeles, where Hannon owns a multibillion-dollar computer enterprise, and is the inventor of a newly completed virtual reality (VR) simulation of 1937 Los Angeles. But Hannon dies and his protégé eventually discovers that the 1990s Los Angeles itself is a simulation.\n\nBULLET::::- In the film \"The 6th Day\" (2000), the contents of a brain can be downloaded via the optic nerves, and copied to clones.\n", "The more intense research, concerning full in-brain interfaces, is being studied, but is in its infancy. Few can afford the huge cost of such enterprises, and those who can find the work slow-going and very far from the ultimate goals. Research has reached the level where limited control over a computer is possible using thought commands alone. After being implanted with a Massachusetts-based firm Cyberkinetics chip called BrainGate, a quadriplegic man was able to compose and check email.\n\nSection::::Prosthetics (\"Bodyware\").\n", "BULLET::::- Bishop – android crew member aboard the U.S.S. \"Sulaco\" in the movie \"Aliens\"\n\nBULLET::::- The uploaded mind of Dr. Will Caster, which presumably included his consciousness, from the film \"Transcendence\"\n\nBULLET::::- C-3PO – protocol droid featured in all the \"Star Wars\" movies\n\nBULLET::::- Chappie – \"CHAPPiE\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cohen (and other Emergent AIs) – Chris Moriarty's \"Spin\" Series\n\nBULLET::::- Commander Data – \"\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cortana (and other \"Smart AI\") – from the \"Halo\" series of games\n", "BULLET::::- Holly – ship's computer with an IQ of 6000, aboard the \"Red Dwarf\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hosts in the \"Westworld\" franchise\n\nBULLET::::- Jane – Orson Scott Card's \"Speaker for the Dead\", \"Xenocide\", \"Children of the Mind\", and \"Investment Counselor\"\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Five – \"Short Circuit\"\n\nBULLET::::- Joshua – \"WarGames\"\n\nBULLET::::- Keymaker – an \"exile\" sapient program in \"The Matrix\" franchise\n\nBULLET::::- \"Machine\" – android from the film \"The Machine\", whose owners try to kill her when they witness her conscious thoughts, out of fear that she will design better androids (intelligence explosion)\n\nBULLET::::- Mike – \"The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress\"\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Phantom 2040\" TV series (1994–) and videogame (1995), Maxwell Madison Sr., the husband of one of the series' main antagonists Rebecca Madison, is killed during a train wreck with the 23rd Phantom and his brainwaves are uploaded onto a computer mainframe. Rebecca plans to download his brainwaves into a living or artificial body to bring him back to life.\n\nBULLET::::- The second of the four \"TekWar\" TV movies, titled \"TekLords\" (1994), featured the uploaded intelligence of a drug lord's sister, who had been killed in an attempt on his life.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1985 TV movie \"\" and ABC Television series, TV reporter Edison Carter is copied into Network 23's computers creating the TV personality Max Headroom.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Dwarf\" (1988–1999), where a person's memories and personality can be recorded in just a few seconds and, upon their death, they can be recreated as a holographic simulation. Arnold Rimmer is an example of such a person.\n", "At S.T.A.R. Labs, Seattle Alan Barnes a paid research volunteer is part of a trial to trigger latent Extra Sensory Perception through the use of cybernetic implants. A process similar to technology later perfected by criminal researcher Cliff Carmicheal. The procedure made Barnes catatonic but left his mind active in a waking nightmare which was slowly driving him insane, Mindgame contacted him through his cybernetic implants and brings him out of his stupor. According to an attending physician Barnes is the only test subject to survive the procedure. The implants grant Barnes contact telepathy, broadcast technopathy which allows him to link with machines, and the ability to generate focused psionic blasts from his brain.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2014 movie \"\", Arnim Zola, a biochemist for HYDRA developed a terminal disease and he transferred his consciousness to a giant computer that took up the entire area of an old, abandoned S.H.I.E.L.D. facility in New Jersey.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2014 movie \"Transcendence\", Dr. Will Caster, an artificial intelligence researcher, is assassinated with a bullet laced with radioactive material and has his consciousness uploaded to several quantum processors (and eventually the internet) in order for him to survive in a digital form.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gap Cycle\" (\"The Gap into\"): In Stephen R. Donaldson's series of novels, the use (and misuse) of \"zone implant\" technology is key to several plotlines.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ghost in the Shell\" anime and manga franchise: Cyberbrain neural augmentation technology is the focus. Implants of powerful computers provide vastly increased memory capacity, total recall, as well as the ability to view his or her own memories on an external viewing device. Users can also initiate a telepathic conversation with other cyberbrain users, the downsides being cyberbrain hacking, malicious memory alteration, and the deliberate distortion of subjective reality and experience.\n", "By means of the implant, Warwick's nervous system was connected onto the Internet in Columbia University, New York. From there he was able to control the robot arm in the University of Reading and to obtain feedback from sensors in the finger tips. He also successfully connected ultrasonic sensors on a baseball cap and experienced a form of extra sensory input.\n", "In 2002 Kevin Warwick had an array of 100 electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his nervous system into the Internet to investigate enhancement possibilities. With this in place Warwick successfully carried out a series of experiments. With electrodes also implanted into his wife's nervous system, they conducted the first direct electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems of two humans.\n", "Anna Maria Marconi later rebuilt Living Brain, with digital components, when she summons it to confront Elliot Tolliver, after finding out that he's Otto Octavius.\n\nSection::::Fictional character history.:Chinese Living Brain.\n\nA new Living Brain appears in the Bar with No Name. In order to assist him out on trivia night at the Bar with No Name, the Answer unconvincingly introduces Living Brain as \"definitely not a Chinese-made knockoff of the Living Brain, no sir\".\n\nSection::::Powers and abilities.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Chrysalis\", a 2007 French movie about an experimental machine capable of partially uploading minds. Minds cannot function in purely digital form, they must be placed back into a human container.\n", "Rothblatt proposes the term \"mindware\" for software that is being developed with the goal of generating conscious AIs. Such software would read a person's \"mindfile\" to generate a \"mindclone.\" Rothblatt also proposes a certain level of governmental approval for mindware, like an FDA certification, to ensure that the resulting mindclones are well made.\n\nSection::::Method.:Calibration process.\n\nDuring the calibration process, the biological people are living at the same time as their artifact in silicon. The artifact in silicon is calibrated to be as close as possible to the person in question.\n", "Most importantly, this great computing capacity has enabled the creation of Copies, whole brain emulations of \"scanned\" humans which are detailed enough to allow for subjective conscious experience on the part of the emulation. Scanning has become safe enough and common enough to allow for a few wealthy or dedicated humans to afford to create backups of themselves. Copies do not yet possess human rights under the laws of any nation or international body.\n\nSection::::Story.:Part one.\n" ]

[ "You can download your consciousness int oa chip.", "Consciousness can be downloaded onto a chip. " ]

[ "The technology to do this does not exist currently. ", "Technology to download consciousness onto a chip does not exist yet. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "You can download your consciousness int oa chip.", "Consciousness can be downloaded onto a chip. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The technology to do this does not exist currently. ", "Technology to download consciousness onto a chip does not exist yet. " ]

[ "Disks around brown dwarfs have been found to have many of the same features as disks around stars; therefore, it is expected that there will be accretion-formed planets around brown dwarfs. Given the small mass of brown dwarf disks, most planets will be terrestrial planets rather than gas giants. If a giant planet orbits a brown dwarf across our line of sight, then, because they have approximately the same diameter, this would give a large signal for detection by transit. The accretion zone for planets around a brown dwarf is very close to the brown dwarf itself, so tidal forces would have a strong effect.\n", "A dwarf planet, by definition, is not massive enough to have gravitationally cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals: it is not known quite how large a planet must be before it can effectively clear its neighbourhood, but one tenth of the Earth's mass is certainly sufficient.\n\nThe smaller planets retain only silicates, and are terrestrial planets like Earth or Mars, though multiple-\"M\" super-Earths have been discovered. The interior structure of rocky planets is mass-dependent: for example, plate tectonics may require a minimum mass to generate sufficient temperatures and pressures for it to occur.\n", "A third suggested alignment was some sort of planetary conjunction occurring on 21 December 2012; however, there was no conjunction on that date. Multi-planet alignments did occur in both 2000 and 2010, each with no ill result for the Earth. Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System; larger than all other planets combined. When Jupiter is near opposition, the difference in gravitational force that the Earth experiences is less than 1% of the force that the Earth feels daily from the Moon.\n\nSection::::Doomsday theories.:Geomagnetic reversal.\n", "An orbit like that of Nibiru within our Solar System is inconsistent with celestial mechanics. David Morrison, NASA space scientist explains that after just one previous flyby of Earth, such as they claim happened in Sumerian times, Earth itself would no longer be in its current near circular orbit and would be likely to have lost its Moon. If Nibiru were a brown dwarf it would have even worse effects, as brown dwarfs are far more massive. Since Pluto is now frequently observed by backyard telescopes, any giant planet beyond Pluto would be easily observed by an amateur astronomer. And if such an object existed in our Solar System, it would have passed through the inner Solar System a million times by now. \n", "Section::::Implications for the early Solar System.:Giant planet tilts.\n", "According to the size criteria, the closest planetary mass objects by known radius or mass are:\n", "An exoplanet with a larger volume than that of Earth, or with a more complex terrain, or with a larger surface covered with liquid water, could be more hospitable for life than Earth. Since the volume of a planet tends to be directly related to its mass, the more massive it is, the greater its gravitational pull, which can result in a denser atmosphere.\n", "Section::::Formation, tidal evolution and habitability.\n", "If the protoplanet grows by accretion to more than about , its gravity become large enough to retain hydrogen in its atmosphere. In this case, it will grow into a gas giant. If the planet then begins migration, it may move well within its system's frost line, and become a hot Jupiter orbiting very close to its star, then gradually losing small amounts of mass as the star's radiation strips its atmosphere.\n", "Recent discoveries have uncovered planets that are thought to be similar in size or mass to Earth. \"Earth-sized\" ranges are typically defined by mass. The lower range used in many definitions of the super-Earth class is 1.9 Earth masses; likewise, sub-Earths range up to the size of Venus (~0.815 Earth masses). An upper limit of 1.5 Earth radii is also considered, given that above the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. A truly Earth-like planet, an Earth analog or \"Earth twin\", would need to meet many conditions beyond size and mass; such properties are not observable using current technology.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2252, the planetoid Orcus will have completed one orbit of the Sun since its discovery in 2004, based upon current orbital measurements which give it a period of 248 Earth years.\n\nBULLET::::- August 1, 2253 – Mercury occults Regulus (last occultation of Regulus by Mercury was on August 13, 364 BC).\n\nBULLET::::- June 9, 2255 – Transit of Venus.\n\nBULLET::::- 2256 to 2258 – Eris will reach perihelion for the first time since discovery.\n\nBULLET::::- October 6, 2271 – Close conjunction between Venus and Regulus, perhaps occultation of Regulus by Venus.\n", "Section::::Batygin and Brown hypothesis.:Mass and radius.\n", "The discovery of the low-density Earth-mass planet Kepler-138d shows that there is an overlapping range of \"masses\" in which both rocky planets and low-density planets occur. A low-mass low-density planets could be an ocean planet or super-Earth with a remnant hydrogen atmosphere, or a hot planet with a steam atmosphere, or a mini-Neptune with a hydrogen–helium atmosphere. Another possibility for a low-mass low-density planet is that it has a large atmosphere made up chiefly of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, or nitrogen.\n\nSection::::Physical parameters.:Radius, density, and bulk composition.:Massive solid planets.\n", "The fact that many large celestial objects are approximately spheres makes it easier to calculate their surface gravity. The gravitational force outside a spherically symmetric body is the same as if its entire mass were concentrated in the center, as was established by Sir Isaac Newton. Therefore, the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given mass will be approximately inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given average density will be approximately proportional to its radius. For example, the recently discovered planet, Gliese 581 c, has at least 5 times the mass of Earth, but is unlikely to have 5 times its surface gravity. If its mass is no more than 5 times that of the Earth, as is expected, and if it is a rocky planet with a large iron core, it should have a radius approximately 50% larger than that of Earth. Gravity on such a planet's surface would be approximately 2.2 times as strong as on Earth. If it is an icy or watery planet, its radius might be as large as twice the Earth's, in which case its surface gravity might be no more than 1.25 times as strong as the Earth's.\n", "On 1 April 1976, Moore stated to radio listeners that an astronomical event would take place at 9:47 a.m. that day, a conjunction of Jupiter and Pluto, which was expected to have an effect observable everywhere. As Pluto passed behind Jupiter, it would briefly cause a powerful combination of the two planets' gravitational forces which would noticeably decrease gravity on Earth. If listeners were to jump into the air at that exact moment, they would find they felt a floating sensation.\n", "The first super-Earth around a main-sequence star was discovered by a team under Eugenio Rivera in 2005. It orbits Gliese 876 and received the designation Gliese 876 d (two Jupiter-sized gas giants had previously been discovered in that system). It has an estimated mass of 7.5 Earth masses and a very short orbital period of just about 2 days. Due to the proximity of Gliese 876 d to its host star (a red dwarf), it may have a surface temperature of 430–650 kelvins and be too hot to support liquid water.\n\nSection::::Discoveries.:First in habitable zone.\n", "A larger planet is likely to have a more massive atmosphere. A combination of higher escape velocity to retain lighter atoms, and extensive outgassing from enhanced plate tectonics may greatly increase the atmospheric pressure and temperature at the surface compared to Earth. The enhanced greenhouse effect of such a heavy atmosphere would tend to suggest that the habitable zone should be further out from the central star for such massive planets.\n", "Furthermore, the gravitational forces of the other planets on a Counter-Earth would make \"its\" orbit unstable. Venus has 82% of the mass of Earth and would come within 0.3 AU of the location of a Counter-Earth every 20 months, providing considerable gravitational pull that over the years would move its orbit into sight of observers on Earth. If a Counter-Earth was much smaller than Earth, its location at the \"Sun–Earth L3\" Lagrangian point (see diagram), would mean the combined gravitational pull of the two large masses of Earth and Sun would provide \"precisely the centripetal force required to orbit with them\". But a small planet would be even more influenced by the orbit of Venus, Mars and Jupiter, making it even more unstable.\n", "A typical extrasolar \"hot Jupiter\", HD 209458 b, has a Hill sphere radius of 593,000 km, about eight times its physical radius of approx 71,000 km. Even the smallest close-in extrasolar planet, CoRoT-7b, still has a Hill sphere radius (61,000 km), six times its physical radius (approx 10,000 km). Therefore, these planets could have small moons close in, although not within their respective Roche limits.\n\nSection::::Solar System.\n\nThe following logarithmic plot shows the Hill radius (in km) of some bodies of the Solar System:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Interplanetary Transport Network\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\"-body problem\n\nBULLET::::- Sphere of influence (astrodynamics)\n\nBULLET::::- Sphere of influence (black hole)\n", "If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years, then on a time scale of 10 (10 quintillion) years the remaining planets in the Solar System will be ejected from the system by violent relaxation. If this does not occur to the Earth, the ultimate fate of the planet will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (Short Scale: 100 quintillion, Long Scale: 100 trillion) years.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Lava planet\n\nBULLET::::- Moving the Earth\n\nBULLET::::- Space and survival\n", "The hoax claims that the gravitational pull of Jupiter and Pluto combined will cause one to spend a significantly longer amount of time in the air due to an increase in gravitational pull from the distant planets; however, this is incorrect. Although other planets do exert a gravitational pull on humans on Earth, the amount is very small.\n", "Very-long-period giant planets may have been rogue planets that were captured, or formed close-in and gravitationally scattered outwards, or the planet and star could be a mass-imbalanced wide binary system with the planet being the primary object of its own separate protoplanetary disk. Gravitational instability models might produce planets at multi-hundred AU separations but this would require unusually large disks. For planets with very wide orbits up to several hundred thousand AU it may be difficult to observationally determine whether the planet is gravitationally bound to the star.\n", "Gas planets can have large solid cores. The Saturn-mass planet HD 149026 b has only two-thirds of Saturn's radius, so it may have a rock–ice core of 60 Earth masses or more. Corot-20b has 4.24 times Jupiter's mass but a radius of only 0.84 that of Jupiter; it may have a metal core of 800 Earth masses if the heavy elements are concentrated in the core, or a core of 300 Earth masses if the heavy elements are more distributed throughout the planet.\n", "The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of the Earth is about in radius. This is the maximum distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit the Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.\n\nEarth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its center. It is about 20 light-years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm.\n\nSection::::Orbit and rotation.:Axial tilt and seasons.\n", "Astronomers for many years ruled out red dwarfs as potential abodes for life. Their small size (from 0.08 to 0.45 solar masses) means that their nuclear reactions proceed exceptionally slowly, and they emit very little light (from 3% of that produced by the Sun to as little as 0.01%). Any planet in orbit around a red dwarf would have to huddle very close to its parent star to attain Earth-like surface temperatures; from 0.3 AU (just inside the orbit of Mercury) for a star like Lacaille 8760, to as little as 0.032 AU for a star like Proxima Centauri (such a world would have a year lasting just 6.3 days). At those distances, the star's gravity would cause tidal locking. One side of the planet would eternally face the star, while the other would always face away from it. The only ways in which potential life could avoid either an inferno or a deep freeze would be if the planet had an atmosphere thick enough to transfer the star's heat from the day side to the night side, or if there was a gas giant in the habitable zone, with a habitable moon, which would be locked to the planet instead of the star, allowing a more even distribution of radiation over the planet. It was long assumed that such a thick atmosphere would prevent sunlight from reaching the surface in the first place, preventing photosynthesis.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Since its introduction in 1995, the varicella vaccine has resulted in a decrease in the number of cases and complications from the disease. It protects about 70 to 90 percent of people from disease with a greater benefit for severe disease. Routine immunization of children is recommended in many countries. Immunization within three days of exposure may improve outcomes in children. Treatment of those infected may include calamine lotion to help with itching, keeping the fingernails short to decrease injury from scratching, and the use of paracetamol (acetaminophen) to help with fevers. For those at increased risk of complications, antiviral medication such as aciclovir are recommended.\n", "These serious complications (i.e. they can cause brain damage or death) are vastly more likely than similarly adverse vaccine events. Before the chickenpox vaccine became available 100 to 150 children in the U.S. died from chickenpox annually. The chickenpox vaccine is recommended by health officials as safer than infection by any means.\n", "There exist variations of pox parties that involve shipping infectious material. In many parts of the world shipping infectious items is illegal\n\nor tightly regulated.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness and risk.\n\nParents who expose their children to Varicella zoster virus in this manner may believe that a case of chickenpox is safer and more effective than receiving a vaccination. Similar ideas have been applied to other diseases such as measles. However, pediatricians have warned against holding pox parties, citing dangers arising from possible complications associated with chicken pox, such as encephalitis, chickenpox-associated pneumonia, and invasive group A strep.\n", "BULLET::::- Increasing environmental sanitation to promote hand washing and shoe wearing habits\n\nBULLET::::- Educating children at young ages at school and at home\n\nSpecific evidence-based interventions that may lower disease prevalence include:\n\nBULLET::::- Interventions at schools, focusing on the construction of pit latrines (ventilated and improved), providing clean drinking water and educating the students about hygiene\n\nBULLET::::- The SAFE (surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, environmental sanitation) strategy to address trachoma, primarily the facial cleanliness and the environmental sanitation components\n", "In the tropics, chickenpox often occurs in older people and may cause more serious disease. In adults, the pock marks are darker and the scars more prominent than in children.\n", "Anal Pap smear screening for anal cancer might benefit some subpopulations of men or women engaging in anal sex. No consensus exists, though, that such screening is beneficial, or who should get an anal Pap smear.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Cancer.:Cancers of the head and neck.\n\nOral infection with high-risk carcinogenic HPV types (most commonly HPV 16) is associated with an increasing number of head and neck cancers. This association is independent of tobacco and alcohol use.\n", "It is part of the routine immunization schedule in the US. Some European countries include it as part of universal vaccinations in children, but not all countries provide the vaccine due to its cost. In the UK as of 2014, the vaccine is only recommended in people who are particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. This is to keep the virus in circulation thereby exposing the population to the virus at an early age, when it is less harmful, and to reduce the occurrence of shingles in those who have already had chickenpox by repeated exposure to the virus later in life. In populations that have not been immunized or if immunity is questionable, a clinician may order an enzyme immunoassay. An immunoassay measures the levels of antibodies against the virus that give immunity to a person. If the levels of antibodies are low (low titer) or questionable, reimmunization may be done.\n", "The varicella vaccine is recommended in many countries. Some countries require the varicella vaccination or an exemption before entering elementary school. A second dose is recommended five years after the initial immunization. A vaccinated person is likely to have a milder case of chickenpox if they become infected. Immunization within three days following household contact reduces infection rates and severity in children.\n", "Catching \"wild\" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with \"pox parties\". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The CDC and corresponding national organisations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines—large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Chickenpox.\n", "Varicella can be lethal to adults with impaired immunity. The number of people in this high-risk group has increased, due to the HIV epidemic and the increased use of immunosuppressive therapies. Varicella is a particular problem in hospitals, when there are patients with immune systems weakened by drugs (e.g., high-dose steroids) or HIV.\n", "A number of strategies are geared towards prevention and control of alveolar echinococcosis—most of which are similar to those for cystic echinococcosis. For instance, health education programs, improved water sanitation, improved hygiene and de-worming of hosts (particularly red foxes) are all effective to prevent and control the spread of alveolar echinococcosis. Unlike cystic echinococcosis, however, where there is a vaccine against \"E. granulosus\", there is currently no canidae or livestock vaccine against \"E. multilocularis\".\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Polycystic echinococcosis.\n", "Complications can arise from this disease and can include\n\nBULLET::::- pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- diarrhea\n\nBULLET::::- seizures in children\n\nSection::::Varicella (Chickenpox).\n\nVaricella, commonly known as chickenpox, is a highly contagious disease that is very uncomfortable and sometimes serious. It is caused by the \"Varicella-zoster\" virus (VZV). Before the vaccine, about 4 million people each year in the United States would get chicken pox. About 10,600 people were hospitalized and 100 to 150 died each year.\n\nSection::::Varicella (Chickenpox).:Vaccine.\n", "Adults with latent VZV infection who are exposed intermittently to children with chickenpox receive an immune boost. This periodic boost to the immune system helps to prevent shingles in older adults. When routine chickenpox vaccination was introduced in the United States, there was concern that, because older adults would no longer receive this natural periodic boost, there would be an increase in the incidence of shingles.\n", "Treatment of chickenpox in children is aimed at symptoms while the immune system deals with the virus. With children younger than 12 years, cutting nails and keeping them clean is an important part of treatment as they are more likely to scratch their blisters more deeply than adults.\n\nAspirin is highly contraindicated in children younger than 16 years, as it has been related to Reye syndrome.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Adults.\n", "Experts say it is unlikely that these methods will transmit the chickenpox virus effectively or reliably, because the varicella virus cannot survive for very long on the surface of such items. However, it may be able to transmit other diseases, including hepatitis B, group A streptococcal infection, and staphylococcal infections — dangerous diseases to which the parents never intended to expose their children. Additionally, in the United States, deliberately sending infectious matter through the U.S. Postal Service is illegal.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A pox party (also flu party etc.) is a social activity where children are deliberately exposed to an infectious disease. Such parties were done before vaccines were available to, \"get it over with,\" or because it was believed childhood disease would be less severe than disease as an adult. For example, measles is more dangerous to adults than to children over 5 years old. Nowadays pox parties are typically organized by anti-vaccinationists who mistakenly think that vaccination is more dangerous than contracting the disease. Deliberately exposing people to diseases is discouraged by public health officials in favor of vaccination. Flu parties are also sometimes done. \n", "In the United States, chickenpox parties were popular before the introduction of the varicella vaccine in 1995. Children were also sometimes intentionally exposed to other common childhood illnesses, such as mumps and measles. Before vaccines became available, parents knew these diseases were almost inevitable.\n\nSection::::Flu parties.\n", "To maintain coherence with earlier historical accounts, Ford refers to \"the small pox epidemic\" of 1789–1791, but makes two words of \"small pox\" and reminds the reader that he believes the \"small pox\" in question was \"Chicken Pox, a small pox other than Smallpox\". This convention has been followed by some later writers.\n", "Primary varicella occurs in all countries worldwide. In 2015 chickenpox resulted in 6,400 deaths globally – down from 8,900 in 1990. There were 7,000 deaths in 2013.\n", "Infection in otherwise healthy adults tends to be more severe. Treatment with antiviral drugs (e.g. aciclovir or valaciclovir) is generally advised, as long as it is started within 24–48 hours from rash onset. Remedies to ease the symptoms of chickenpox in adults are basically the same as those used for children. Adults are more often prescribed antiviral medication, as it is effective in reducing the severity of the condition and the likelihood of developing complications. Antiviral medicines do not kill the virus but stop it from multiplying. Adults are advised to increase water intake to reduce dehydration and to relieve headaches. Painkillers such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) are recommended, as they are effective in relieving itching and other symptoms such as fever or pains. Antihistamines relieve itching and may be used in cases where the itching prevents sleep, because they also act as a sedative. As with children, antiviral medication is considered more useful for those adults who are more prone to develop complications. These include pregnant women or people who have a weakened immune system.\n", "Approximately 122 million people globally were affected by molluscum contagiosum as of 2010 (1.8% of the population). It is more common in children between the ages of one and ten years old. The condition has become more common in the United States since 1966. MC is not a reason to keep a child out of school or daycare.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not require state health departments to report infections of chickenpox, and only 31 states currently volunteer this information. However, in a 2013 study conducted by the social media disease surveillance tool called Sickweather, anecdotal reports of chickenpox infections on Facebook and Twitter were used to measure and rank states with the most infections per capita, with Maryland, Tennessee and Illinois in the top three.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Etymology.\n", "Because chickenpox is usually more severe in adults than it is in children, some parents deliberately expose their children to the virus, for example by taking them to \"chickenpox parties\". Doctors counter that children are safer getting the vaccine, which is a weakened form of the virus, rather than getting the disease, which can be fatal. Repeated exposure to chickenpox may protect against zoster.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nHumans are the only known species that the disease affects naturally. However, chickenpox has been caused in other primates, including chimpanzees and gorillas.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "During pregnancy the dangers to the fetus associated with a primary VZV infection are greater in the first six months. In the third trimester, the mother is more likely to have severe symptoms.\n\nFor pregnant women, antibodies produced as a result of immunization or previous infection are transferred via the placenta to the fetus.\n", "Chickenpox occurs in all parts of the world. In 2013 there were 140 million cases of chickenpox and herpes zoster worldwide. Before routine immunization the number of cases occurring each year was similar to the number of people born. Since immunization the number of infections in the United States has decreased nearly 90%. In 2015 chickenpox resulted in 6,400 deaths globally – down from 8,900 in 1990. Death occurs in about 1 per 60,000 cases. Chickenpox was not separated from smallpox until the late 19th century. In 1888 its connection to shingles was determined. The first documented use of the term \"chicken pox\" was in 1658. Various explanations have been suggested for the use of \"chicken\" in the name, one being the relative mildness of the disease.\n" ]

[ "Getting Chickenpox as a child is good. ", "Getting chicken pox as a child a good thing." ]

[ "Chickenpox can cause dangerous effects in children. ", "In children, there are possible dangerous effects of contracting the disease, and it can even be fatal." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Getting Chickenpox as a child is good. ", "Getting chicken pox as a child a good thing." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Chickenpox can cause dangerous effects in children. ", "In children, there are possible dangerous effects of contracting the disease, and it can even be fatal." ]

[ "BULLET::::- Characteristics of airstream – The characteristics of the airstream can have a significant impact on collector selection. For example, cotton fabric filters cannot be used where air temperatures exceed 180 °F (82 °C). Also, condensation of steam or water vapor can blind bags. Various chemicals can attack fabric or metal and cause corrosion in wet scrubbers.\n", "Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers and is directed into the baghouse compartment. The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface until air can no longer move through it. When a sufficient pressure drop (ΔP) occurs, the cleaning process begins. Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in isolation). When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.\n", "Air flow gives the bag structure. Dirty air flows through the bag from the inside, allowing dust to collect on the interior surface. During cleaning, gas flow is restricted from a specific compartment. Without the flowing air, the bags relax. The cylindrical bag contains rings that prevent it from completely collapsing under the pressure of the air. A fan blows clean air in the reverse direction. The relaxation and reverse air flow cause the dust cake to crumble and release into the hopper. Upon the completion of the cleaning process, dirty air flow continues and the bag regains its shape.\n", "Section::::Fabric filters.:Types of bag cleaning.:Pulse jet.\n\nThis type of baghouse cleaning (also known as pressure-jet cleaning) is the most common. A high pressure blast of air is used to remove dust from the bag. The blast enters the top of the bag tube, temporarily ceasing the flow of dirty air. The shock of air causes a wave of expansion to travel down the fabric. The flexing of the bag shatters and discharges the dust cake.\n", "A similar approach is used on many turboshaft-powered helicopters, such as the Mi-24, which use a \"vortex-type\" or \"centrifugal\" intake, in which the air is forced to flow through a spiral path before entering the engine; the heavier dust and other debris are forced outwards, where it is separated from the airflow before it enters the engine inlet.\n", "The principle of the dust catcher is that the dust-laden gas is given a sudden reverse in speed and direction. Because of their mass, the coarse dust particles cannot change their velocity easily, and hence settle to the bottom.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Basic oxygen furnace\n\nBULLET::::- Blast furnace zinc smelting process\n\nBULLET::::- Crucible steel\n\nBULLET::::- Extraction of iron\n\nBULLET::::- Water gas, produced by a \"steam blast\"\n\nBULLET::::- FINEX\n\nBULLET::::- Flodin process\n\nBULLET::::- , which covers ironworks of all kinds.\n\nBULLET::::- Laskill\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- American Iron and Steel Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Blast Furnace animation \n", "If fans are fitted to force air into the case more effectively than it is removed, the pressure inside becomes higher than outside, referred to as a \"positive\" airflow (the opposite case is called \"negative\" airflow). Worth noting is that positive internal pressure only prevents dust accumulating in the case if the air intakes are equipped with dust filters. A case with negative internal pressure will suffer a higher rate of dust accumulation even if the intakes are filtered, as the negative pressure will draw dust in through any available opening in the case\n", "BULLET::::- For belt-driven fans:\n\nBULLET::::- Check that the motor sheave and fan sheave are aligned properly.\n\nBULLET::::- Check for proper belt tension.\n\nBULLET::::- Check the passages between inlets, impeller blades, and inside of housing for buildup of dirt, obstructions, or trapped foreign matter.\n\nSection::::Fan and motor.:Electric motors.\n\nElectric motors are used to supply the necessary energy to drive the fan.\n", "Section::::Application Characteristics.:Air leakage in UFAD plenums.\n", "BULLET::::- Flat barren terrain, desert or tarmac: Flat conditions increase the likelihood of the hot-air \"fuel\" being a near constant. Dusty or sandy conditions will cause particles to become caught up in the vortex, making the dust devil easily visible, but are not necessary for the formation of the vortex.\n\nBULLET::::- Clear skies or lightly cloudy conditions: The surface needs to absorb significant amounts of solar energy to heat the air near the surface and create ideal dust devil conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).\n", "Dust devils can be seen by the dust stirred up at ground level, swept up by the secondary flow and concentrated in a central location. The accumulation of dust then accompanies the secondary flow upward into the region of intense low pressure that exists outside the influence of the ground.\n\nSection::::Examples of secondary flows.:Circular flow in a bowl or cup.\n", "Fabric filters or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry. They work by forcing dust laden air through a bag shaped fabric filter leaving the particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester and fiberglass and common fabric coatings include PTFE (commonly known as Teflon). The excess dust buildup is then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector.\n", "BULLET::::- Methods of disposal – Methods of dust removal and disposal vary with the material, plant process, volume, and type of collector used. Collectors can unload continuously or in batches. Dry materials can create secondary dust problems during unloading and disposal that do not occur with wet collectors. Disposal of wet slurry or sludge can be an additional material-handling problem; sewer or water pollution problems can result if wastewater is not treated properly.\n\nSection::::Fan and motor.\n\nThe fan and motor system supplies mechanical energy to move contaminated air from the dust-producing source to a dust collector.\n", "Section::::Application Characteristics.:Plenum air temperature rise.\n", "Squirrel-cage and wound-rotor motors are further classified according to the type of enclosure they use to protect their interior windings. These enclosures fall into two broad categories:\n\nBULLET::::- Open\n\nBULLET::::- Totally enclosed\n\nDrip-proof and splash-proof motors are open motors. They provide varying degrees of protection; however, they should not be used where the air contains substances that might be harmful to the interior of the motor.\n\nTotally enclosed motors are weather-protected with the windings enclosed. These enclosures prevent free exchange of air between the inside and the outside, but they are not airtight.\n", "BULLET::::- A combustible dust\n\nBULLET::::- The dust is suspended in the air at a sufficiently high concentration\n\nBULLET::::- There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)\n\nBULLET::::- There is an ignition source\n\nBULLET::::- The area is confined—a building can be considered an enclosure\n\nSection::::Conditions required.:Sources of dust.\n", "The spinning effect, along with surface friction, usually will produce a forward momentum. The dust devil is able to sustain itself longer by moving over nearby sources of hot surface air.\n\nAs available hot air near the surface is channeled up the dust devil, eventually surrounding cooler air will be sucked in. Once this occurs, the effect is dramatic, and the dust devil dissipates in seconds. Usually this occurs when the dust devil is not moving fast enough (depletion) or begins to enter a terrain where the surface temperatures are cooler.\n\nCertain conditions increase the likelihood of dust devil formation.\n", "BULLET::::- Light or no wind and cool atmospheric temperature: The underlying factor for sustainability of a dust devil is the extreme difference in temperature between the near-surface air and the atmosphere. Windy conditions will destabilize the spinning effect of a dust devil.\n\nSection::::Intensity and duration.\n", "The urban heat island which causes a city to heat up, caps the dust and other particulates at a low level in the atmosphere. If there is not a strong enough wind, then this dome that is created remains intact and causes that heated up air within the urban heat island. Though if the wind does blow strong enough, then this dome is blown downwind causing it to move out of the city.\n", "Section::::Application Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Application Characteristics.:UFAD cooling load.\n", "Cyclone separators are found in all types of power and industrial applications, including pulp and paper plants, cement plants, steel mills, petroleum coke plants, metallurgical plants, saw mills and other kinds of facilities that process dust.\n\nSection::::Inertial separators.:Centrifugal collectors.:Secondary-air-flow separators.\n", "In the early 1920s, John W. Newcombe invented a device that separated dust and particulates from the air. He called his new invention the \"Newcombe Separator\". The Newcombe Separator has a cup-shaped part at its center that spins at high speed, creating centrifugal force. Air can be pulled through holes in the separator, while anything with weight is effectively thrown outward from the separator, trapping it in the bottom of the machine. This air-cleaning device forever changed the method of collecting dust and contaminants from the home and workplace.\n", "Section::::Fabric filters.:Types of bag cleaning.:Cartridge collectors.\n\nCartridge collectors use perforated metal cartridges that contain a pleated, nonwoven filtering media, as opposed to woven or felt bags used in baghouses. The pleated design allows for a greater total filtering surface area than in a conventional bag of the same diameter, The greater filtering area results in a reduced air to media ratio, pressure drop, and overall collector size.\n", "BULLET::::- For a given system, an increase in exhaust volume will result in increases in static and total pressures. For example, for a 20% increase in exhaust volume in a system with 5 in. pressure loss, the new pressure loss will be 5 × (1.20)² = 7.2 in.\n\nBULLET::::- • For rapid estimates of probable exhaust volumes available for a given motor size, the equation for brake horsepower, as illustrated, can be useful.\n\nFan installation\n\nTypical fan discharge conditions\n" ]

[ "There should not be dust on fan and air vent covers because air is blown to displace dust." ]

[ "Water and dust in the air create a kind of cement which layers itself on the fan or air vent." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "There should not be dust on fan and air vent covers because air is blown to displace dust.", "There should not be dust on fan and air vent covers because air is blown to displace dust." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Water and dust in the air create a kind of cement which layers itself on the fan or air vent.", "Water and dust in the air create a kind of cement which layers itself on the fan or air vent." ]

[ "In Hall County, Georgia, videoconferencing systems are used for initial court appearances. The systems link jails with court rooms, reducing the expenses and security risks of transporting prisoners to the courtroom.\n", "Section::::Fields of technology.:Digital courts.\n\nThe University of Montreal has recently experimented with ways to improve the administration of justice by creating a digital court room in which mock trials are held using modern technology to speed the proceedings. The \"courtroom\" has facilities for filing documents electronically. Witnesses can testify by video link or holographically from a remote location. Documents can be served on parties through social media. According to those involved with the project, barriers to its application in real courtroom settings are not technological but rather emotional, with judges and lawyers being resistant to change.\n", "Several electronic services are available in various court systems worldwide. For example, there are several electronic courtrooms that have integrated information and communications technologies such as video-conferencing, holographic evidence presentation technology or other communications technologies in addition to various systems or applications meant to aid in the conduction of the proceedings as well as the presentation of evidence. Additionally, throughout the entire process there is what is known as an electronic case management system available to the parties, their lawyers and judges, that allow them to keep track of what is taking place in the case through the Internet and permit them to file court documents and proceedings electronically or access information relative to the case. Furthermore, many jurisdictions allow for the discovery of documents to be done electronically through the use of electronic discovery systems. Once a case has been finalized and has become public information, these court records as well as judgements can be made available electronically to members of the public.\n", "Since 2014, Ukraine has allowed videotaping of court sessions without obtaining the specific permission of the judge, within the limitations established by law. In 2015 the Open Court Project launched with the aim of videotaping court proceedings in civil, commercial, administrative cases. . The Open Court Project has videotaped over 7000 court cases in courts at different levels. The videos are stored, indexed and published in the public domain.\n\nIn 2017 NGO Open Ukraine has launched the VR Court Project aimed at videotaping court sessions with 3D 360 degree portable video cameras to create VR video records of court sessions.\n", "There is no court reporter in Scotland; normal summary cases are simply minuted by the clerk indicating the disposal. If the case is a solemn (more serious) case involving a jury or if the case has a sexual element then proceedings will be tape recorded which is done under the supervision of the clerk.\n", "There was no doubt that the Court was displeased with the intensive pretrial and trial coverage, but its biggest concern was the presence of cameras at the two-day-long pretrial hearing. It included at least 12 still and television photographers, three microphones on the judge's bench, and several aimed at the jury's box and attorney's table. When it was time for the trial to be held, it was moved about 500 miles away and the judge had imposed rather severe restrictions on press coverage. However, the justices did mark the notion that cameras would return to courtrooms eventually: \n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Electronic evidence has also entered the courtroom as critical forensic evidence. Audio and video evidence must be authenticated by both parties in any litigation by a forensic expert who is also an expert witness who assists the court in understanding details about that electronic evidence.\n\nVoice-mail recordings and closed-circuit television systems produce electronic evidence often used in litigation, more so today than in the past. Video recordings of bank robberies and audio recordings of life threats are presented in court rooms by electronic expert witnesses.\n\nSection::::Role of expert witnesses.:Rules of Evidence and Code of Procedure.\n", "Since 2014, Ukraine has allowed videotaping of court sessions without obtaining the specific permission of the judge, within the limitations established by law. In 2015 the Open Court Project launched with the aim of videotaping court proceedings in civil, commercial, administrative cases. The Open Court Project has videotaped over 7000 court cases in courts at different levels. The videos are stored, indexed and published in the public domain. In 2017 NGO Open Ukraine has launched the VR Court Project aimed at videotaping court sessions with 3D 360 degree portable video cameras to create VR video records of court sessions.\n\nSection::::Courts.\n", "Section::::Cyberjustice initiatives.:Australia.\n\nAustralia offers e-filing services, online courtroom and online case management services, and is the first jurisdiction to have used a fully electronic courtroom for the hearing of a high-profile criminal case.\n\nSection::::Cyberjustice initiatives.:The United States of America.\n\nThe United States of America has several electronic courtrooms. For example, the McGlothlin Courtroom, located at the William and Mary College of Law, is one of the few to possess technology making it possible to publish court transcripts online in real time, and was the first to use holographic evidence display and immersive technology.\n\nSection::::Cyberjustice initiatives.:Canada.\n", "Steno contests are held annually at the NCRA Annual Convention and Exhibition in two categories: Speed and Realtime.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Speed Contest\n\nMark Tod Kislingbury of Houston, Texas, won the 2010 speed contest with an accuracy of 99.228% topping a field of 36 competitors. Deanna Boenau of Sarasota, Florida, won the 2010 realtime contest with an accuracy of 98.667% topping a field of 40 competitors.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Speed Contest\n", "While a few news organizations in other parts of the country have live blogged for years, this was the first high-profile case in Connecticut in which Twitter played an important role in keeping those interested in the court proceedings updated with information from the courtroom with the use of Twitter.\n", "Section::::In courtrooms.\n\nComputer-generated imagery has been used in courtrooms, primarily since the early 2000s. However, some experts have argued that it is prejudicial. They are used to help judges or the jury to better visualize the sequence of events, evidence or hypothesis. However, a 1997 study showed that people are poor intuitive physicists and easily influenced by computer generated images. Thus it is important that jurors and other legal decision-makers be made aware that such exhibits are merely a representation of one potential sequence of events.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "As electronic court systems continue to increase their online presence, many now require case filings to be accomplished electronically. Many legal software vendors' products include the ability to take advantage of such electronic filing by pulling data from the case management product and pushing it into court filing systems.\n\nSection::::e-Discovery systems.\n", "Section::::Modern hardware.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n", "Voice writers have long been available to make the record through the use of a stenomask with a voice silencer and analog tapes. Voice writers not only repeat every word stated by the attorneys, witnesses, judges and other parties to a proceeding but also verbally identify the speaker. They even punctuate the text, describe activities as they take place, and, in some cases, mark exhibits.\n\nNow, however, new technologies are available to them. Digital recording offers a clearer, better-defined soundtrack, making transcription easier and even more accurate.\n", "In recent years, with the development of higher performance and lower cost digital videoconferencing equipment and the availability of high bandwidth digital communications with QoS support, the inmate video visitation concept has expanded to support remote visitation capabilities. The use of digital videoconferencing equipment has allowed facilities to use technology already in use by businesses to better manage, support, and expand video visitation to auxiliary applications such as telemedicine, video arraignment, video plea and distance learning.\n\nSection::::Funding.\n", "Some disadvantages of televised trials, from the point of view of the media, are that the proceedings are static visually, consume large amounts of TV crew time, and are sometimes difficult for the viewers to understand.\n\nSection::::Ukraine.\n", "In recent years, developments in litigation technology has allowed the use of paper documents to be replaced by electronic documents and exhibits in the deposition. In such cases, the examining attorney marks and distributes the official exhibits electronically using a laptop or tablet device. The deponent, court reporter, and all parties receive digital official exhibits or courtesy copies. Combined with live transcript feed technology and legal videography, digital exhibit technology has made participation in remote depositions more functional and popular.\n", "Section::::Cameras in the Courtroom.\n\nWhile working for Post-Newsweek station WPLG-TV, Tello and lawyer Talbot \"Sandy\" D'Alemberte ( former American Bar President and Florida State University President ) were successful in the precedent-setting movement to place cameras in the courtrooms in the State of Florida. These efforts in Florida spread to many states across the country allowing camera coverage in their courts over subsequent years.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "One difference between voice writing court reporters and stenographic court reporters is the method of making the record. The goal of a stenographer is to stenograph verbatim what attorneys, witnesses, and others are saying in a proceeding. The goal of a voice writer is to dictate verbatim what attorneys, witnesses, and others are saying in a proceeding. Though the methods of taking down the record are different, the role and duty requirements of the court reporter are the same. These skills of court reporters are primarily measured through certification exams.\n", "Real-time transcription\n\nReal-time transcription is the general term for transcription by court reporters using real-time text technologies to deliver computer text screens within a few seconds of the words being spoken. Specialist software allows participants in court hearings or depositions to make notes in the text and highlight portions for future reference.\n\nTypically, real-time writers can produce text using machines at the rate of at least 200 words per minute. Stenographers can typically type up to 300 words per minute for short periods of time, but most cannot sustain such a speed.\n", "Also in the area just in front of the judge's bench is a stenographer who records proceedings on a stenograph, by typing keys as the witnesses speak, using special shorthand. Alternatively, if there is no stenographer, a tapelogger or shorthand writer will be there to operate the tapes and ensure that a log of the proceedings is kept.\n", "In January 2005, ECFS was extended to enable the Judges and their Court Staff to effectively manage the docket (case load) for each of the nine (9) Criminal District Courts. Since the implementation of ECFS, Tarrant County has been able to control the Jail population, despite a significant increase in the number of cases being filed. In August 2005, ECFS was extended to enable members of the Tarrant County Criminal Defense Lawyers Association to browse and view defendant, offense, and evidence via ECFS. Through this process, defense attorneys are no longer required to visit the Criminal District Attorney's Office to view and copy file.\n", "dead body.\" U.S. Senator Arlen Specter has proposed televising U.S. Supreme Court proceedings. The Sunshine in the Courtroom Act, introduced by Charles Grassley, would \"authorize the presiding judge of a U.S. appellate court or U.S. district court to permit the photographing, electronic recording, broadcasting, or televising to the public of court proceedings over which that judge presides.\" The Senate Judiciary Committee has recommended that it be considered by the Senate as a whole.\n" ]

[ "All US courts are still using court stenographers.", "Video recordings are not being used to record what happens in a courtroom." ]

[ "More and more courts are not using stenographers, there are 17 states that do no use them at all.", "Video recordings are being used increasingly, but stenographers are mostly employed to produce closed captioning for TV." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All US courts are still using court stenographers.", "Video recordings are not being used to record what happens in a courtroom." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "More and more courts are not using stenographers, there are 17 states that do no use them at all.", "Video recordings are being used increasingly, but stenographers are mostly employed to produce closed captioning for TV." ]

[ "Genetic studies indicate some form of hybridization between archaic humans and modern humans had taken place after modern humans emerged from Africa. An estimated 1–4% of the DNA in Europeans and Asians (e.g. French, Chinese and Papua probands) is non-modern, and shared with ancient Neanderthal DNA rather than with sub-Saharan Africans (e.g. Yoruba and San probands).\n\nModern-human findings in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, Portugal allegedly featuring Neanderthal admixtures have been published. However, the interpretation of the Portuguese specimen is disputed.\n", "Hybridization between Neanderthals and Cro Magnon had been suggested on skeletal and craniological grounds since the early 20th century, and found increasing support in the later 20th century, until Neanderthal admixture was found to be present in modern populations genetics in the 2010s.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n\nBoth Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans were initially thought to have evolved from \"Homo erectus\" between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago.\n\n\"H. erectus\" had emerged around 1.8 million years ago, and had long been present, in various subspecies throughout Eurasia.\n", "Europe was home to the Neanderthals for at least 100,000 years. Then, about 30,000 years ago, the Neanderthals vanished. Fossil records show that modern humans arrived in Europe 40,000 years ago. Within 10,000 years, Neanderthals were bred out. Through molecular sequencing, scientists have found that there is one to four percent Neanderthal DNA in all non-African humans. This indicates that humans and Neanderthals reproduced, and then the resulting hybrids reproduced. The pattern continued until Neanderthals were literally bred out. Kolbert states there is every reason to believe that Neanderthals would still exist if it weren't for \"homo sapiens\".\n", "Several of the \"Homo\" lineages appear to have surviving progeny through introgression into other lines. An archaic lineage separating from the other human lineages 1.5 million years ago, perhaps \"H. erectus\", may have interbred into the Denisovans about 55,000 years ago, although \"H. erectus\" is generally regarded as being extinct by then. However, the thigh bone, dated at 14,000 years, found in a Maludong cave (Red Deer Cave people) strongly resembles very ancient species like early \"Homo erectus\" or the even more archaic lineage, \"Homo habilis\", which lived around 1.5 million year ago. There is evidence for introgression of \"H. Heidelbergensis\" into \"H. sapiens\". The genomes of non-sub-Saharan African humans show what appear to be numerous independent introgression events involving Neanderthal and in some cases also Denisovans around 45,000 years ago. Likewise the genetic structure of sub-Saharan Africans seems to be indicative of introgression from a distinct, as yet unidentified archaic human lineage such as \"H. heidelbergensis\".\n", "\"Homo sapiens neanderthalensis\" was proposed by King (1864) as an alternative to \"Homo neanderthalensis\". There have been \"taxonomic wars\" over whether Neanderthals were a separate species since their discovery in the 1860s. Pääbo (2014) frames this as a debate that is unresolvable in principle, \"since there is no definition of species perfectly describing the case.\" Louis Lartet (1869) proposed \"Homo sapiens fossilis\" based on the Cro-Magnon fossils.\n", "Earlier evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA suggested that no significant gene flow occurred between \"H. neanderthalensis\" and \"H. sapiens\", and that the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago. However, a sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 indicated that Neanderthals did indeed interbreed with anatomically modern humans \"circa\" 45,000 to 80,000 years ago (at the approximate time that modern humans migrated out from Africa, but before they dispersed into Europe, Asia and elsewhere). The genetic sequencing of a 40,000 year old human skeleton from Romania showed that 11% of its genome was Neanderthal, and it was estimated that the individual had a Neanderthal ancestor 4–6 generations previously, in addition to a contribution from earlier interbreeding in the Middle East. Though this interbred Romanian population seems not to have been ancestral to modern humans, the finding indicates that interbreeding happened repeatedly.\n", "BULLET::::3. Around 35,000 years ago, Cro-Magnon abandons India and heads west through the Middle East into Europe, overrunning Neanderthal. By 25,000 years ago, the predominant type in Europe is Cro-Magnon.\n\nBULLET::::4. In the Middle East a hybrid population, a cross between the Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal types, emerges. Pure Neanderthal has largely ceased to exist either here or in Europe.\n\nBULLET::::5. By 15,000 years ago, pure Cro-Magnon man has also ceased to exist, driven out of north and west Europe, into southern Europe, by renewed glaciation, absorbed by the hybrid type (that is, modern \"Homo sapiens\").\n", "Jordan, in his work \"Neanderthal\", points out that without some interbreeding, certain features on some \"modern\" skulls of Eastern European Cro-Magnon heritage are hard to explain. In another study, researchers have recently found in Peştera Muierilor, Romania, remains of European humans from ~37,000–42,000 years agowho possessed mostly diagnostic \"modern\" anatomical features, but \"also\" had distinct Neanderthal features not present in ancestral modern humans in Africa, including a large bulge at the back of the skull, a more prominent projection around the elbow joint, and a narrow socket at the shoulder joint.\n", "Section::::Interbreeding with archaic and modern humans.\n\nAn alternative proposal regarding the fate of Neanderthals is that rather than being replaced by modern humans and going extinct, Neanderthals were absorbed into the Cro-Magnon population by interbreeding. This would be counter to strict versions of theory of recent African origin of modern humans, since it would imply that at least part of the genome of Europeans would descend from Neanderthals. Evidence of interbreeding has been detected in genomes of ancient and modern humans, though this could have resulted from occasional interbreeding and introgression, rather than population absorption.\n", "Throughout past human evolution, hybridization occurred in many different instances, such as cross-breeding between Neanderthals and ancient versions of what are now modern humans. Some scientists have believed that particular genes of the Neanderthal may have been key to ancient humans' adapting to the harsh climates they faced when they left Africa. However, mixing between species in the wild both now and through natural history have generally resulted in sterile offspring, thus being a kind of dead end in reproductive terms.\n", "Jared Diamond, supporter of competitive replacement, points out in his book \"The Third Chimpanzee\" that the genocidal replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans is comparable to patterns of behavior that occur whenever people with advanced technology clash with less advanced people.\n\nSection::::Possible cause of extinction.:Competitive replacement.:Division of labor.\n", "One million years after its dispersal, \"H. erectus\" was diverging into new species. \"H. erectus\" is a chronospecies and was never extinct, so that its \"late survival\" is a matter of taxonomic convention. Late forms of \"H. erectus\" are thought to have survived until after about 0.5 million ago to 143,000 years ago at the latest, with derived forms classified as \"H. antecessor\" in Europe around 800,000 years ago and \"H. heidelbergensis\" in Africa around 600,000 years ago. \"H. heidelbergensis\" in its turn spread across East Africa (\"H. rhodesiensis\") and to Eurasia, where it gave rise to Neanderthals and Denisovans.\n", "As modern humans spread out from Africa, they encountered other hominins such as \"Homo neanderthalensis\" and the so-called Denisovans, who may have evolved from populations of \"Homo erectus\" that had left Africa around . The nature of interaction between early humans and these sister species has been a long-standing source of controversy, the question being whether humans replaced these earlier species or whether they were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case these earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans.\n", "Section::::Possible cause of extinction.:Competitive replacement.\n\nSection::::Possible cause of extinction.:Competitive replacement.:Species specific disadvantages.\n\nSlight competitive advantage on the part of modern humans has accounted for Neanderthals' decline on a timescale of thousands of years.\n", "The Neanderthal genome project published papers in 2010 and 2014 stating that Neanderthals contributed to the DNA of modern humans, including most humans outside sub-Saharan Africa, as well as a few populations in sub-Saharan Africa, through interbreeding, likely between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. Recent studies also show that a few Neanderthals began mating with ancestors of modern humans long before the large \"out of Africa migration\" of the present day non-Africans, as early as 100,000 years ago. In 2016, research indicated that there were three distinct episodes of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals: the first encounter involved the ancestors of non-African modern humans, probably soon after leaving Africa; the second, after the ancestral Melanesian group had branched off (and subsequently had a unique episode of interbreeding with Denisovans); and the third, involving the ancestors of East Asians only.\n", "Classifying the genus \"Homo\" into species and subspecies is subject to incomplete information and remains poorly done. This has led to using common names (\"Neanderthal\" and \"Denisovan\") in even scientific papers to avoid trinomial names or the ambiguity of classifying groups as \"incertae sedis\" (uncertain placement)—for example, \"H. neanderthalensis\" vs. \"H. sapiens neanderthalensis\", or \"H. georgicus\" vs. \"H. erectus georgicus\". Some recently extinct species in the genus \"Homo\" are only recently discovered and do not as yet have consensus binomial names (see Denisova hominin and Red Deer Cave people).\n", "The question depends on the definition of \"Homo sapiens\" as a chronospecies, which has also been in flux throughout the 20th century. Authorities preferring classification of Neanderthals as subspecies have introduced the subspecies name \"Homo sapiens sapiens\" for the anatomically modern Cro-Magnon population which lived in Europe at the same time as Neanderthals, while authorities preferring classification as separate species use \"Homo sapiens\" as equivalent to \"anatomically modern humans\".\n\nDuring the early 20th century, a prevailing view of Neanderthals as \"simian\", influenced by Arthur Keith and Marcellin Boule, tended to exaggerate the anatomical differences between Neanderthals and Cro Magnon.\n", "Section::::Possible cause of extinction.:Interbreeding.\n\nInterbreeding can only account for a certain degree of Neanderthal population decrease. A homogeneous absorption of an entire species is a rather unrealistic idea. This would also be counter to strict versions of the Recent African Origin, since it would imply that at least part of the genome of Europeans would descend from Neanderthals, whose ancestors left Africa at least 350,000 years ago.\n", "Anthropologist Pat Shipman suggested that domestication of the dog could have played a role in Neanderthals' extinction.\n\nSection::::History of research.\n\nNeanderthal fossils were first discovered in 1829 in the Engis caves (the partial skull dubbed Engis 2), in present-day Belgium by Philippe-Charles Schmerling and the Gibraltar 1 skull in 1848 in the Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar. These finds were not, at the time,\n\nrecognized as representing an archaic form of humans.\n\nThe first discovery which was recognized as representing an archaic form of humans was made in August 1856, three years before Charles Darwin's \"On the Origin of Species\" was published.\n", "There is evidence of hybridisation between modern humans and other species of the genus \"Homo\". In 2010, the Neanderthal genome project showed that 1–4% of DNA from all people living today, apart from most Sub-Saharan Africans, is of Neanderthal heritage. Analyzing the genomes of 600 Europeans and East Asians found that combining them covered 20% of the Neanderthal genome that is in the modern human population. Ancient human populations lived and interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and at least one other extinct \"Homo\" species. Thus, Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA has been incorporated into human DNA by introgression.\n", "BULLET::::- 1864: William King is the first to recognise Neanderthal 1 as belonging to a separate species, for which he gives the scientific name \"Homo neanderthalensis\". He then changed his mind on placing it in the genus \"Homo\", arguing that the upper skull was different enough to warrant a separate genus since, to him, it had likely been \"incapable of moral and theistic conceptions.\"\n", "Section::::Possible cause of extinction.:Competitive replacement.:Modern humans' advantage in hunting warm climate animals.\n", "As a result, any criteria by which a fossil of the species \"Homo sapiens\" could be classified into and distinguished from the genus \"Homo\" did not exist in the early 19th century. \n", "By the early 2000s, the majority of scholars supported the Out of Africa hypothesis, according to which anatomically modern humans left Africa about 50,000 years ago and replaced Neanderthals with little or no interbreeding.\n\nYet some scholars still argued for hybridisation with Neanderthals. The most vocal proponent of the hybridisation hypothesis was Erik Trinkaus of Washington University. Trinkaus claimed various fossils as products of hybridised populations, including the skeleton of a child found at Lagar Velho in Portugal and the Peștera Muierii skeletons from Romania.\n\nSection::::Interbreeding with archaic and modern humans.:Genetic evidence.\n", "Pat Shipman, from Pennsylvania State University in the United States, argues that the domestication of the dog gave modern humans an advantage when hunting. The oldest remains of domesticated dogs were found in Belgium (31,700 BP) and in Siberia (33,000 BP). A survey of early sites of modern humans and Neanderthals with faunal remains across Spain, Portugal and France provided an overview of what modern humans and Neanderthals ate. Rabbit became more frequent, while large mammals – mainly eaten by the Neanderthals – became increasingly rare. In 2013, DNA testing on the \"Altai dog\", a paleolithic dog's remains from the Razboinichya Cave (Altai Mountains), has linked this 33,000-year-old dog with the present lineage of \"Canis lupus familiaris\".\n" ]

[ "Neanderthals and modern humans are classified as a different species and have became extinct by breeding with humans." ]

[ "Neanderthals and modern humans are classified as the same species, and there is no for sure determining factor on the disappearance of Neanderthals." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Neanderthals and modern humans are classified as a different species and have became extinct by breeding with humans." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Neanderthals and modern humans are classified as the same species, and there is no for sure determining factor on the disappearance of Neanderthals." ]

[ "Section::::History.:Incident.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"bath towel\" is used for drying the body when it is wet, such as after bathing or showering. It is typically rectangular, with a typical size around , and is made of terry cloth.\n", "On October 8, 2008, the Steelers played the Jacksonville Jaguars at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium. At that point of their season, the Jaguars were 2-2-0, and feeling very hopeful for the season following a defeat at home of their division rival Indianapolis Colts. The game was very close going into the second half, and the Steelers were still stinging from a Mathis interception and runback for a touchdown. Shortly after the start of the third quarter, Jaguars mascot Jaxson de Ville stood alongside some cheerleaders, and produced a Terrible Towel, which he used to rub his armpits and buttocks. Shortly after that, the Steelers ran away with the game and the Jaguars lost 26-21. The Jaguars went on to lose eight of their remaining eleven games in the season.\n", "Wicking is the absorption of a liquid by a material in the manner of a candle wick.\n\nPaper towels absorb liquid through capillary action, allowing a fluid to be transferred from a surface to the towel. The small pores of a sponge act as small capillaries, causing it to absorb a large amount of fluid. Some textile fabrics are said to use capillary action to \"wick\" sweat away from the skin. These are often referred to as wicking fabrics, after the capillary properties of candle and lamp wicks.\n", "On January 27, 2009, at a public sendoff in Phoenix for the Arizona Cardinals before they faced the Steelers in Super Bowl XLIII, Phoenix Mayor Phil Gordon produced a towel and called the Cardinals mascot, Big Red to the stage, where he used the towel to wipe his armpits. Gordon then blew his nose on the towel. The Cardinals then proceeded to lose the Super Bowl to the Steelers, 27-23.\n", "On September 12, 2016, before the Steelers' 2016 season opener against the Washington Redskins on Monday Night Football, Redskins punter Tress Way posted a video on Twitter of a spirit video his mother sent him, which culminated in her burning a Terrible Towel. The Steelers won the game 38-16.\n", "Before the September 29, 2008, Steelers game at Heinz Field, Baltimore Ravens wide receiver Derrick Mason stomped on a Terrible Towel. The Ravens then went on to lose all three of their 2008 season games against the Steelers, including the 2008 AFC Championship Game.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"disposable towel\" (or non-woven towel) is a towel intended for a single user, but not necessarily for a single use, as it can be reused but not washed. It is often made of non-woven fibers, and popular for the hospital, hotel, geriatric and salon or beauty industries because it guarantees cleanliness and hygiene every time.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"beach towel\" is usually a little bit larger than a bath towel. Although it is often used for drying off after being in the water, its chief purpose is to provide a surface on which to lie. They are also worn for privacy while changing clothes in a public area, and for wiping sand from the body or objects. Beach towels often have colorful patterns.\n", "On an October 5, 2014 game between the Steelers and the Jacksonville Jaguars at EverBank Field, in which the Steelers won 17-9, Jaguars mascot Jaxson de Ville was seen holding a Terrible Towel on one hand and a handwritten sign that reads \"Towels Carry Ebola\" on the other hand, mentioning the deadly outbreak that started in West Africa. The next day, the Jaguars issued an apology for the incident, but would go on to lose 13 of their next 17 games.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"flannel\", \"wash cloth\", \"washcloth\", \"wash rag\", \"face-washer \"(Australian)\", \"or \"face cloth\" is a small square about the width of a hand towel used by wetting it, applying soap to it, and then using it to apply the soap to skin. This increases abrasion and can remove dead skin cells from the skin more effectively than using only the hands to apply soap and rub the skin. In some parts of the world, washing mitts are used for this purpose.\n", "Section::::Appearance.\n", "Towel Power is a term used by the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL) to describe the waving of rally towels by their fans. The tradition started in the 1982 Campbell Conference Finals when Vancouver played the Chicago Blackhawks. During game two of the series, head coach Roger Neilson waved a white towel on the end of a hockey stick in a mock surrender after being upset with the officiating. Neilson was ejected and the Canucks lost 4–1. When Vancouver returned home from Chicago for the following game fans supported both Neilson and the Canucks by waving towels first at the airport when the team arrived and then during the next game. The Canucks won the next three games and advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals where they were defeated by the New York Islanders. As part of the tradition, the Canucks hand out towels prior to playoff games for fans to help support the team.\n", "Towel\n\nA towel is a piece of absorbent fabric or paper used for drying or wiping a body or a surface. It draws moisture through direct contact, often using a blotting or a rubbing motion. \n\nIn households, several types of fabric towels are used, including hand towels, bath towels and kitchen towels. In warm climates, people may also use beach towels. \n\nPaper towels are provided in commercial or office bathrooms for users to dry their hands. They are also used in households for a range of wiping, cleaning and drying tasks.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "For [[Desmond Morris]], water on the skin is seen as mimicking the sweat of sexual arousal.\n\nSection::::Fashion and pop.\n\nThe [[Sixties]] success of the [[Merseybeat]] saw wetlook pvc coats coming down from Liverpool to enter the London fashion scene. A few decades later, a pop [[Ladette]] might feel ambivalent to find herself posing in a pvc catsuit.\n\nSection::::Classical prototypes.\n\nBULLET::::- [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] poetry has a girl telling her lover: “It is pleasant to go to the pool...That I may let you see my beauty in my tunic of finest royal linen When it is wet”.\n", "In response to how he would like to be remembered, Cope responded, \"When I kick the bucket, there'll be a little story that'll say, 'Creator of Towel Dead'\". On February 27, 2008, Cope died of respiratory failure in Pittsburgh. The following day, an article from the Associated Press concerning Cope's death was entitled \"Former Steelers broadcaster, Terrible Towel creator Cope dies\". Upon Cope's death, over 350 fans gathered downtown Pittsburgh in snowy weather for a tribute to the inventor. The ceremony concluded with one minute of silent Towel waving. Days later, \"Saturday Night Live\" cast member Seth Meyers waved a Terrible Towel on \"Saturday Night Live\", in tribute to Cope.\n", "According to Middle Ages archaeological studies, \"... closely held personal items included the ever present knife and a towel.\" However, the invention of the towel is commonly associated with the city of Bursa, Turkey, in the 17th century. These Turkish towels began as a flat, woven piece of cotton or linen called a \"pestamel\", often hand-embroidered. Long enough to wrap around the body, pestamel were originally fairly narrow, but are now wider and commonly measure . Pestamel were used in Turkish baths as they stayed light when wet and were very absorbent. \n", "Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.\n", "Section::::Widespread recognition.:Honoring Cope.\n\nIn 2005, Cope retired after 35 years as the Steelers radio announcer—the longest tenure of any broadcaster with a single team in NFL history. Cope was honored by the Steelers with the release of a limited special edition Towel, featuring his name and catch phrases. Cope was made an honorary co-captain for the Steelers for a Monday night game against the Baltimore Ravens. Cope led the fans in a towel wave at half time; the Towel that Cope used is now in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.\n", "Towelie's catchphrase, \"don't forget to bring a towel\", originated on a boat trip the writers took, during which people were constantly telling each other \"don't forget to bring a towel\" with the phrase having eventually morphed into \"Towelie says to bring a towel.\" Parker and Stone have explained that they were becoming increasingly aware as to how heavily merchandised and exploited their creations were becoming, and created Towelie to poke fun at this. They designed Towelie as a shallow, two-dimensional (both literally and figuratively) character who has no real purpose except to \"spout catch phrases and merchandise the hell out of\". This is the reason for the fake commercial during the show, and why Cartman calls him the \"worst character ever\" at the end of the episode.\n", "The importance of the towel was introduced in \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" original radio series in 1978. The follow-up book explained the importance of towels in \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" universe in Chapter 3, using much of the same wording as the original radio series:\n\nThe original article that began Towel Day was posted by a user \"Clyde\" (probably D. Clyde Williamson) at \"System Toolbox\", a short-lived open source forum.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Pallas was on a \"watchlist\" of objects possibly meeting a provisional definition of \"planet\" in an early draft of the IAU's 2006 definition of planet.\n\nSection::::Satellites.\n", "On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on \"Kepler\" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away.\n", "BULLET::::- They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun such as Nemesis.\n\nBULLET::::- They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun's history. According to Kenyon and Bromley, there is a 15% probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1% probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened. is estimated to be 2–3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clearing the neighbourhood\n\nBULLET::::- Planets beyond Neptune\n", "The stars below are more similar to the Sun and having the following qualities:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature within 50 K from that of the Sun (5728 to 5828 K)\n\nBULLET::::- Metallicity of 89–112% (± 0.05 dex) of that of the Sun, meaning the star's proplyd would have had almost exactly the same amount of dust for planetary formation\n\nBULLET::::- No stellar companion, because the Sun itself is a solitary star\n\nBULLET::::- An age within 1 billion years from that of the Sun (3.6 to 5.6 Ga)\n", "The following table shows a sample of solar-type stars within 50 light years that nearly satisfy the criteria for solar analogs (B−V color between 0.48 and 0.80), based on current measurements: (The Sun is listed for comparison.)\n\nSection::::By similarity to the Sun.:Solar analog.\n\nThese stars are photometrically similar to the Sun, having the following qualities:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature within 500 K from that of the Sun (5278 to 6278 K)\n\nBULLET::::- Metallicity of 50–200% (± 0.3 dex) of that of the Sun, meaning the star's protoplanetary disk would have had similar amounts of dust from which planets could form\n", "By the end of the 19th century the word \"planet\", though it had yet to be defined, had become a working term applied only to a small set of objects in the Solar System. After 1992, however, astronomers began to discover many additional objects beyond the orbit of Neptune, as well as hundreds of objects orbiting other stars. These discoveries not only increased the number of potential planets, but also expanded their variety and peculiarity. Some were nearly large enough to be stars, while others were smaller than Earth's moon. These discoveries challenged long-perceived notions of what a \"planet\" could be.\n", "In 2013, astronomers reported, based on \"Kepler\" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth- and super-Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists. However, this does not give estimates for the number of extrasolar terrestrial planets, because there are planets as small as Earth that have been shown to be gas planets (see KOI-314c).\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- Themis, a moon of Saturn which astronomer William Pickering claimed to have discovered in 1905, but which was never seen again.\n\nSection::::Star.\n", "Most of the planets discovered outside the Solar System are giant planets, because they are more easily detectable. But since 2005, hundreds of potentially terrestrial extrasolar planets have been found, with several being confirmed as terrestrial. Most of these are super-Earths, i.e. planets with masses between Earth's and Neptune's; super-Earths may be gas planets or terrestrial, depending on their mass and other parameters.\n\nDuring the early 1990s, the first extrasolar planets were discovered orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12, with masses of 0.02, 4.3, and 3.9 times that of Earth's, by pulsar timing.\n", "Hypothetical astronomical object\n\nA hypothetical astronomical object is an astronomical object (such as a star, planet or moon) that is believed or speculated to exist or to have existed but whose existence has not been scientifically proven. Such objects have been hypothesized throughout recorded history. For example, in the 5th century BCE, the philosopher Philolaus \"defined a hypothetical astronomical object which he called the Central Fire\", around which he proposed other celestial bodies (including the Sun) moved.\n\nSection::::Types of hypothetical astronomical objects.\n", "Timeline of Solar System astronomy\n\nTimeline of Solar System astronomy\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd millennium BC – earliest possible date for the composition of the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, and the oldest planetary table currently known.\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd millennium BC – Babylonian astronomers identify the inner planets Mercury and Venus and the outer planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, which would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times.\n", "No secondary characteristics have been observed around extrasolar planets. The sub-brown dwarf Cha 110913-773444, which has been described as a rogue planet, is believed to be orbited by a tiny protoplanetary disc and the sub-brown dwarf OTS 44 was shown to be surrounded by a substantial protoplanetary disk of at least 10 Earth masses.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- International Astronomical Union website\n\nBULLET::::- Photojournal NASA\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Planet Quest – Exoplanet Exploration\n\nBULLET::::- Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets with each other, the Sun, and other stars\n", "Five planets can be recognized as planets from Earth with the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Under typical dark sky conditions Uranus (magnitude +5.8) can be seen as well with averted vision, as can the asteroid Vesta at its brighter oppositions. The Sun and the Moon—the remaining noticeable naked-eye objects of the solar system—are sometimes added to make seven \"planets.\" During daylight only the Moon and Sun are obvious naked eye objects, but in many cases Venus can be spotted in daylight and in rarer cases Jupiter. Close to sunset and sunrise bright stars like Sirius or even Canopus can be spotted with the naked eye as long as one knows the exact position in which to look.\n", "BULLET::::- Other moons of Earth, such as Petit's moon, Lilith, Waltemath's moons and Bargby's moons.\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury's moon, hypothesised to account for an unusual pattern of radiation detected by \"Mariner 10\" in the vicinity of Mercury. Subsequent data from the mission revealed the actual source to be the star 31 Crateris.\n\nBULLET::::- Neith, a purported moon of Venus, falsely detected by a number of telescopic observers in the 17th and 18th centuries. Now known not to exist, the object has been explained as a series of misidentified stars and internal reflections inside the optics of particular telescope designs.\n", "List of hypothetical Solar System objects\n\nA hypothetical Solar System object is a planet, natural satellite, moonmoon or similar body in the Solar System whose existence is not known, but has been inferred from observational scientific evidence. Over the years a number of hypothetical planets have been proposed, and many have been disproved. However, even today there is scientific speculation about the possibility of planets yet unknown that may exist beyond the range of our current knowledge.\n\nSection::::Planets.\n\nBULLET::::- Counter-Earth, a planet situated on the other side of the Sun from that of the Earth.\n", "The notion of satellite systems pre-dates history. The Moon was known by the earliest humans. The earliest models of astronomy were based around celestial bodies (or a \"celestial sphere\") orbiting the Earth. This idea was known as geocentrism (where the Earth is the centre of the universe). However the geocentric model did not generally accommodate the possibility of celestial objects orbiting other observed planets, such as Venus or Mars.\n", "It was considered as a potential planet in 2006, but it has since been determined that its shape departs significantly from an ellipsoid.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Discovery.\n\nOn the night of 5 April 1779, Charles Messier recorded Pallas on a star chart he used to track the path of a comet (now known as C/1779 A1 (Bode)) that he observed in the spring of 1779, but apparently assumed it was nothing more than a star.\n", "Hot Neptune\n\nA hot Neptune or Hoptune is a type of giant planet with a mass similar to that of Uranus or Neptune orbiting close to its star, normally within less than 1 AU. The first hot Neptune to be discovered with certainty was Gliese 436 b in 2007, an exoplanet about 33 light years away. Recent observations have revealed a larger potential population of hot Neptunes in the Milky Way than was previously thought. Hot Neptunes may have formed either in situ or ex situ.\n\nSection::::General characteristics.\n", "Based on observations of the Solar System's large collection of natural satellites, they are believed common components of planetary systems; however, exomoons have so far eluded confirmation. The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6, in the constellation Centaurus, is a strong candidate for a natural satellite. Indications suggest that the confirmed extrasolar planet WASP-12b also has at least one satellite.\n\nSection::::System architectures.:Orbital configurations.\n\nUnlike the Solar System, which has orbits that are nearly circular, many of the known planetary systems display much higher orbital eccentricity. An example of such a system is 16 Cygni.\n\nSection::::System architectures.:Orbital configurations.:Mutual inclination.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Planets in antiquity.\n", "PMS stars can be differentiated empirically from main-sequence stars by using stellar spectra to measure their surface gravity. A PMS object has a larger radius than a main-sequence star with the same stellar mass and thus has a lower surface gravity. Although they are optically visible, PMS objects are rare relative to those on the main sequence, because their contraction lasts for only 1 percent of the time required for hydrogen fusion. During the early portion of the PMS stage, most stars have circumstellar disks, which are the sites of planet formation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Protoplanetary disk\n\nBULLET::::- Protostar\n", "The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star occurred on 6 October 1995, when Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the detection of an exoplanet around 51 Pegasi. From then until the Kepler mission most known extrasolar planets were gas giants comparable in mass to Jupiter or larger as they were more easily detected. The catalog of Kepler candidate planets consists mostly of planets the size of Neptune and smaller, down to smaller than Mercury.\n", " there are 5,253 known Solar System comets and they are thought to be common components of planetary systems. The first exocomets were detected in 1987 around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star. There are now a total of 11 stars around which the presence of exocomets have been observed or suspected. All discovered exocometary systems (Beta Pictoris, HR 10, 51 Ophiuchi, HR 2174, 49 Ceti, 5 Vulpeculae, 2 Andromedae, HD 21620, HD 42111, HD 110411, and more recently HD 172555) are around very young A-type stars.\n\nSection::::System architectures.:Components.:Other components.\n", "The proposed definition was criticised as ambiguous: Astronomer Phil Plait and NCSE writer Nick Matzke both wrote about why they thought the definition was not, in general, a good one. It defined a planet as orbiting a star, which would have meant that any planet ejected from its star system or formed outside of one (a rogue planet) could not have been called a planet, even if it fit all other criteria. However, a similar situation already applies to the term 'moon'—such bodies ceasing to be moons on being ejected from planetary orbit—and this usage has widespread acceptance. Another criticism was that the definition did not differentiate between planets and brown dwarf stars. Any attempt to clarify this differentiation was to be left until a later date.\n", "The long road from planethood to reconsideration undergone by Ceres is mirrored in the story of Pluto, which was named a planet soon after its discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930. Uranus and Neptune had been declared planets based on their circular orbits, large masses and proximity to the ecliptic plane. None of these applied to Pluto, a tiny and icy world in a region of gas giants with an orbit that carried it high above the ecliptic and even inside that of Neptune. In 1978, astronomers discovered Pluto's largest moon, Charon, which allowed them to determine its mass. Pluto was found to be much tinier than anyone had expected: only one-sixth the mass of Earth's Moon. However, as far as anyone could yet tell, it was unique. Then, beginning in 1992, astronomers began to detect large numbers of icy bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune that were similar to Pluto in composition, size, and orbital characteristics. They concluded that they had discovered the long-hypothesised Kuiper belt (sometimes called the Edgeworth–Kuiper belt), a band of icy debris that is the source for \"short-period\" comets—those with orbital periods of up to 200 years.\n" ]

[ "Every light seen in the night sky is a sun with orbiting planets." ]

[ "Some light seen are planets in the Earth's solar system, asteroids or comets, or galaxies." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Every light seen in the night sky is a sun with orbiting planets.", "Every light seen in the night sky is a sun with orbiting planets." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Some light seen are planets in the Earth's solar system, asteroids or comets, or galaxies.", "Some light seen are planets in the Earth's solar system, asteroids or comets, or galaxies." ]

[ "A significant amount of literature suggests a moderate level of play has numerous positive outcomes in the lives of senior citizens. In order to support and promote play within the older population, studies suggest institutions should set up more diverse equipment, improve conditions within recreational areas, and create more video games or online forums that appeal to the needs of seniors.\n\nSection::::Animals.\n", "One theory – \"play as preparation\" – was inspired by the observation that play often mimics adult themes of survival. Predators such as lions and bears play by chasing, pouncing, pawing, wrestling, and biting, as they learn to stalk and kill prey. Prey animals such as deer and zebras play by running and leaping as they acquire speed and agility. Hoofed mammals also practice kicking their hind legs to learn to ward off attacks. Indeed, time spent in physical play accelerates motor skill acquisition in wild Assamese macaques. While mimicking adult behavior, attacking actions such as kicking and biting are not completely fulfilled, so playmates do not generally injure each other. In social animals, playing might also help to establish dominance rankings among the young to avoid conflicts as adults.\n", "John Byers, a zoologist at the University of Idaho, discovered that the amount of time spent at play for many mammals (e.g. rats and cats) peaks around puberty, and then drops off. This corresponds to the development of the cerebellum, suggesting that play is not so much about practicing \"exact\" behaviors, as much as building general connections in the brain. Sergio Pellis and colleagues at the University of Lethbridge in Alberta, Canada, discovered that play may shape the brain in other ways, too. Young mammals have an overabundance of brain cells in their cerebrum (the outer areas of the brain – part of what distinguishes mammals). There is evidence that play helps the brain clean up this excess of cells, resulting in a more efficient cerebrum at maturity.\n", "Evolutionary psychologists have begun to explore the phylogenetic relationship between higher intelligence in humans and its relationship to play, i.e., the relationship of play to the progress of whole evolutionary groups as opposed to the psychological implications of play to a specific individual.\n\nSection::::Development and learning.:Physical, mental and social.\n", "Evolutionary psychologists believe that there must be an important benefit of play, as there are so many reasons to avoid it. Animals are often injured during play, become distracted from predators, and expend valuable energy. In rare cases, play has even been observed between different species that are natural enemies such as a polar bear and a dog. Yet play seems to be a normal activity with animals who occupy the higher strata of their own hierarchy of needs. Animals on the lower strata, e.g. stressed and starving animals, generally do not play. However, in wild Assamese macaques physically active play is performed also during periods of low food availability and even if it is at the expense of growth, which strongly highlights the developmental and evolutionary importance of play.\n", "With attention to these hypotheses, research shows play and activity tend to decline with age which may result in negative outcomes such as social isolation, depression, and mobility issues. American studies found that only 24% of seniors took part in regular physical activity and only 42% use the internet for entertainment purposes. In comparison to other age groups, the elderly are more likely to experience a variety of barriers, such as difficulty with environmental hazards and accessibility related issues, that may hinder their abilities to execute healthy play behaviours. Similarly, although playing may benefit seniors, it also has the potential to negatively impact their health. For example, those who play may be more susceptible to injury. Investigating these barriers may assist in the creation of useful interventions and/or the development of preventative measures, such as establishing safer recreational areas, that promote the maintenance of play behaviours throughout elderly life.\n", "Once the individual reaches childrearing age, one must begin to undergo changes within the own behavior in accordance to major life-changes of a developing family. The potential new child requires the parent to modify their behavior to accommodate a new member of the family.\n\nCome senescence and retirement, behavior is more stable as the individual has often established their social circle (whatever it may be) and is more committed to their social structure.\n\nSection::::Neural and Biological Correlates of Social Behavior.\n\nSection::::Neural and Biological Correlates of Social Behavior.:Neural Correlates.\n", "The ability to incorporate play into one's routine is important because these activities allow participants to express creativity, improve verbal and non-verbal intelligence as well as enhance balance. These benefits may be especially crucial to seniors because evidence shows cognitive and physical functioning declines with age. However, other research argues it might not be aging that is associated with the decline in cognitive and physical capabilities. More specifically, some studies indicate it could be the higher levels of inactivity within older adults that may have significant ramifications on their health and well-being.\n", "Play can also influence one's social development and social interactions. Much of the research focuses on the influence play has on child social development. There are different forms of play that have been noted to influence child social development. One study conducted by (Sullivan, 2003) explores the influence of playing styles with mothers versus playing styles with fathers and how it influences child social development. This article explains that \"integral to positive development is the child's social competence or, more precisely, the ability to regulate their own emotions and behaviors in the social contexts of early childhood to support the effective accomplishment of relevant developmental tasks.\n", "BULLET::::4. The tendency to lose sense of time and engrossment resulting in increased involvement\"\n\nThrough their non-judgmental and cross sector/hierarchy communicative approaches, serious play methods allow for solutions and connections to emerge that more rigid traditional methods had missed.\n\nThere exists an array of serious play methods – from \"energizers\" to prototyping methods and from open-ended, emergence-oriented interventions to goal-achievement-oriented interventions (e.g. gamification) – all of which offer different affordances in terms of knowledge creation, sharing, and conversion.\n\nSection::::Characterizing different methods.\n", "Marc Bekoff (a University of Colorado evolutionary biologist) proposes a \"flexibility\" hypothesis that attempts to incorporate these newer neurological findings. It argues that play helps animals learn to switch and improvise all behaviors more effectively, to be prepared for the unexpected. There may, however, be other ways to acquire even these benefits of play: the concept of equifinality. The idea is that the social benefits of play for many animals, for example, could instead be garnered by grooming. Patrick Bateson maintains that equifinality is exactly what play teaches. In accordance with the flexibility hypothesis, play may teach animals to avoid \"false endpoints\". In other words, they will harness the childlike tendency to keep playing with something that works \"well enough\", eventually allowing them to come up with something that might work better, if only in some situations. This also allows mammals to build up various skills that could come in handy in entirely novel situations. A study on two species of monkeys \"Semnopithecus entellus\" and \"Macaca mulatta\" that came into association with each other during food provisioning by pilgrims at the Ambagarh Forest Reserve, near Jaipur, India, shows the interspecific interaction that developed between the juveniles of the two species when opportunity presented itself.\n", "Huizinga begins by making it clear that animals played before humans. One of the most significant (human and cultural) aspects of play is that it is fun.\n\nHuizinga identifies 5 characteristics that play must have:\n\nBULLET::::1. Play is free, is in fact freedom.\n\nBULLET::::2. Play is not \"ordinary\" or \"real\" life.\n\nBULLET::::3. Play is distinct from \"ordinary\" life both as to locality and duration.\n\nBULLET::::4. Play creates order, is order. Play demands order absolute and supreme.\n\nBULLET::::5. Play is connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained from it.\n\nSection::::Contents.:II. The play concept as expressed in language.\n", "Using play as a way to develop adaptive human potential is not new. In \"Product Design and Intentional Emergence facilitated by Serious Play\", Mabogunje et al.\n\nsummarize that \"play has: \n\nBULLET::::1. The cognitive benefit of drawing on the imagination to develop new insight.\n\nBULLET::::2. The social benefit of developing new frames for interaction.\n\nBULLET::::3. The emotional benefits of providing positive affective associations as well as a safe context in which to take risks, to try on new roles, and to explore new potential forms of practice.\n", "Older adults represent one of the fastest growing populations around the world. In fact, the United Nations predicted an increase of those aged 60 and above from 629 million in 2002 to approximately two billion in 2050 but increased life expectancy does not necessarily translate to a better quality of life. For this reason, research has begun to investigate methods to maintain and/or improve quality of life among older adults.\n", "From a young age, dogs engage in play with one another. Dog play is made up primarily of mock fights. It is believed that this behavior, which is most common in puppies, is training for important behaviors later in life. Play between puppies is not necessarily a 50:50 symmetry of dominant and submissive roles between the individuals; dogs who engage in greater rates of dominant behaviours (e.g. chasing, forcing partners down) at later ages also initiate play at higher rates. This could imply that winning during play becomes more important as puppies mature.\n", "Male juvenile \"Mungos mungo\" may reduce helping behaviors until sexual maturity is reached. Similarly, if there is a lack of food due to environmental conditions, such as reduced rainfall, the degree of helper input may be reduced greatly within juveniles. Adults may maintain their full activity because they are sexually mature.\n", "Section::::Origins.\n\nIn his classical essay, \"Upon the Aesthetic Education of Man\", Friedrich Schiller discusses play as a force of civilization, which helps humans rise above their instincts and become members of enlightened communities. He states that \"humans are only fully human when they play\". While the text is limited by the author's beliefs in concepts such as freedom and beauty, it nevertheless sets the stage for Johan Huizinga's classical study, \"Homo Ludens\".\n", "There has been extensive research when it comes to the benefits of play amongst children, youth, and adolescence. Most commonly overlooked are the benefits of play for adults, more specifically, adults who spend a lot of time in the workplace. Many adults in North America are in the workforce and spend half of their waking hours in a workplace environment with little to no time for play. Play in this context refers to leisure-type activities with colleagues during lunch breaks or short breaks throughout the working day. Leisure activities could include, but are not limited to, different forms of physical sport activities, card games, board games, video games and interaction-based type video games, foosball, ping-pong, yoga, and boot-camp sessions.\n", "Parent interactions when it comes to playtime also differs drastically within communities. Parents in the Mayan culture do interact with their children in a playful mindset while parents in the United States tend to set aside time to play and teach their children through games and activities. In the Mayan community, children are supported in their playing but also encouraged to play while watching their parents do household work in order to become familiar with how to follow in their footsteps.\n", "Play is not wasted time, but rather time spent building new knowledge from previous experience. However, long term developmental qualities of play are difficult to research. There are various ways in which researchers may choose to look at the differences between work and play. Researchers may choose definitions of play or work based on:\n\nBULLET::::1. Primary Activities: Even if a culture considers a child's action is play, a researcher may choose to define the child's action as work because it does add “ immediate worth to the family unit.”\n", "Modern research in the field of affective neuroscience (the neural mechanisms of emotion) has uncovered important links between role play and neurogenesis in the brain. For example, researcher Roger Caillois used the word \"ilinx\" to describe the momentary disruption of perception that comes from forms of physical play that disorient the senses, especially balance.\n\nStudies have found that play and coping to daily stressors to be positively correlated in children. By playing, children regulate their emotions and this is important for adaptive functioning because without regulation, emotions could be overwhelming and stressful.\n", "Section::::Adults.\n\nAlthough adults who engage in excessive amounts of play may find themselves described as \"childish\" or \"young at heart\" by less playful adults, play is actually an important activity, regardless of age. Creativity and happiness can result from adult play, where the objective can be more than fun alone, as in adult expression of the arts, or curiosity-driven science. Some adult \"hobbies\" are examples of such creative play. In creative professions, such as design, playfulness can remove more serious attitudes (such as shame or embarrassment) that impede brainstorming or artistic experimentation in design.\n", "Stated previously, with the repeated presence of pups to non-parental rats, caregiving mechanisms can inhibit other mechanism, like the avoidance mechanism; similar inhibitions occur in male marmosets. When male marmosets hold their infants, they did not have an increased testosterone response to novel females when they otherwise would. In other words, holding the infant inhibited the mating mechanisms. This could mean that caregiving supersedes mating in some situations. For example, it may be adaptive to continue to invest in your current offspring rather than potentially create another.\n\nSection::::Testosterone.:Human males.\n", "In a study of the way that dogs interact, play signals were sent almost exclusively to forward-facing partners. In contrast, attention-getting behaviors were used most often when the other dog was facing away, and before signaling an interest to play. Furthermore, the type of attention-getting behaviour matched the inattentiveness of the playmate. Stronger attention-getting behaviours were used when a playmate was looking away or distracted, less forceful ones when the partner was facing forward or laterally,\n\nSection::::In pigs.\n", "According to Ms. Parten, as children become older, improving their communication skills, and as opportunities for peer interaction become more common, the nonsocial (solitary and parallel) types of play become less common, and the social (associative and cooperative) types of play become more common.\n" ]

[ "Mammals play only for fun. " ]

[ "When young mammals play they are actually learning. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Mammals play only for fun. ", "Mammals play only for fun. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "When young mammals play they are actually learning. ", "When young mammals play they are actually learning. " ]

[ "Section::::Predators and parasites.\n\nCommon predators of the song sparrow include cats, hawks, and owls, however snakes, dogs, and the American kestrel are treated ambiguously, suggesting that they are less of a threat. The song sparrow recognizes enemies by both instinctual and learned patterns (including cultural learning), and adjusts its future behavior based on both its own experiences in encounters, and from watching other birds interact with the enemies. Comparisons of experiments on hand-raised birds to observation of birds in the wild suggest that the fear of owls and hawks is instinctual, but fear of cats is learned.\n", "Robert C. Bolles (1970), a researcher at University of Washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with the natural world. He theorized the species-specific defense reaction (SSDR). There are three forms of SSDRs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze. Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become \"wild\" again. Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. This safety signal can be a source of feedback or even stimulus change. Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in SSDRs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment. Dr. Bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species. Rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened. The wing flapping in pigeons and the scattered running of rats are considered species-specific defense reactions or behaviors. Bolles believed that SSDRs are conditioned through Pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; SSDRs arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events. Michael S. Fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information.\n", "He went on for a long time, but never found fear! One day he came to a crowded city. He was told the king had died and had no heir, so a pigeon would be released. Whoever it perched on would be king. It perched on the boy. He had a vision of himself trying to make his poor subjects rich, his bad ones good, and never succeeding and never be able to do as he wished. He was terrified, but they released more pigeons and they all flew to him.\n", "BULLET::::- Behaviour of the threat: In horned lizards, FID decreased as the distance between a turning predator and prey increased, but was greater when the predator turned toward than away from the fleeing animal. The FID and alert response of American robins to approaching humans was investigated; the greatest FID was when the approaching person was not on paths and was looking at the birds, while the lowest FID occurred when the person was on a path and not looking at the robins. The authors suggested this indicated that they use gaze direction to assess risk.\n", "At the restaurant, meanwhile, Bob, Linda and Teddy are dealing with a pigeon that managed to get into the store and Bob is freaking out. It is later revealed that he has a fear of birds when he was young. Linda and Teddy point out that his traumatic memory is nothing more than a scene from the movie The Birds. Bob quickly gets over his fear and tries to get the bird out of the store himself. Sadly, the bird got himself covered in olive oil, leaving him unable to fly. The local animal rescue tells them to bathe the pigeon. For some reason, Bob thinks this means he has to get into the tub with the oily animal, making him less afraid of the piegon.\n", "Since the expansion of the human population and urbanization, there have been numerous extinctions of birds. Extinctions threaten nearly 12% of bird species, but this does not account for an additional 12% of species located in small geographical ranges where human actions rapidly destroy habitats.\n\nDue to pressures from humans and the environment, birds have unique features that permit adaptations to changing conditions.\n", "Racing pigeon owners in Great Britain have said for many years that Eurasian sparrowhawks and peregrine falcons \"\"cause serious and escalating losses\"\" of pigeons and some have called for these birds of prey to be killed or removed from areas surrounding homing pigeon lofts.\n", "Human-raised \"R. norvegicus\" are more prone to specific health risks and diseases than their wild counterparts, but they are also far less likely to succumb to certain illnesses that are prevalent in the wild. The major considerations for susceptibility include exposure, living conditions, and diet.\n", "The film is a humorous and surreally-violent answer to the question \"Why do dogs bark at such innocent creatures as pigeons and squirrels?\" and gives the audience a window into the paranoid mind of a loyal guard dog as it imagines farcically depicted dangers, from harmless flora and fauna on a walk through a neighborhood park. Each potential threat, from flower, butterfly, and grasshopper, to bird, squirrel, and rope-jumping girl, is treated to its own improbable and often bloody vignette.\n", "Manning is an essential part of falconry training that refers to the acclimation of a falconry bird to living and working with humans and things typically associated with humans, such as other pets, houses, or automobiles. The better manned a falconry bird is, the more calm and less likely it will be to engage in a fight or flight response around people.\n\nSection::::Wild-caught birds.\n", "The advent of these animals has also drawn a predator, as Peregrine falcons have also been known to nest in urban areas, nesting on tall buildings and preying on pigeons. The peregrine falcon is becoming more nocturnal in urban environments, using urban lighting to spot its prey. This has provided them with new opportunities to hunt night-flying birds and bats. Red foxes are also in many urban and suburban areas in the U.K. as scavengers. They scavenge, and eat insects and small vertebrates such as pigeons and rodents. People also leave food for them to eat in their gardens. One red fox was even found living at the top of the then-partially completed Shard in 2011, having climbed the stairwell to reach its temporary home some 72 stories above ground.\n", "Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators, the dodo was entirely fearless of humans. This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey for sailors. The human population on Mauritius (an area of ) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century, but they introduced other animals, including dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and crab-eating macaques, which plundered dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources. At the same time, humans destroyed the dodo's forest habitat. The impact of these introduced animals, especially the pigs and macaques, on the dodo population is currently considered more severe than that of hunting. Rats would not have caused such a problem for the dodo, as they would have been used to dealing with local land crabs.\n", "Peregrine falcons, which are also originally cliff dwellers, have also adapted to the skyscrapers of large cities and often feed exclusively on rock pigeons. Some cities actively encourage this through falcon breeding programs. Projects include Unibase Falcon Project and the Victorian Peregrine Project.\n\nLarger birds of prey occasionally take advantage of this population as well. In New York City, the abundance of pigeons (and other small animals) has created such a conducive environment for predators that the red-tailed hawk has begun to return in very small numbers, including the notable Pale Male.\n\nSection::::Population control.:Poison.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Falconry.\n", "Owing to its size, gregariousness and its defensive abilities, the common raven has few natural predators. Predators of its eggs include owls, martens, and sometimes eagles. Ravens are quite vigorous at defending their young and are usually successful at driving off perceived threats. They attack potential predators by flying at them and lunging with their large bills. Humans are occasionally attacked if they get close to a raven nest, though serious injuries are unlikely. There are a few records of predation by large birds of prey. Their attackers in America have reportedly included great horned owls, northern goshawks, bald eagles, golden eagles and red-tailed hawks, it is possible that the two hawks only have attacked young ravens, as had a peregrine falcon who in one instance swooped at a newly fledged raven but was successfully chased off by the parent ravens. In Eurasia, their reported predators include, in addition to golden eagles, Eurasian eagle-owls, white-tailed eagles, Steller's sea-eagles, eastern imperial eagles and gyrfalcons. Because they are potentially hazardous prey for raptorial birds, raptors must usually take them by surprise and most attacks are on fledgling ravens. More rarely still, large mammalian predators such as lynxes, coyotes and cougars have also attacked ravens. This principally occurs at a nest site and when other prey for the carnivores are scarce. Ravens are highly wary around novel carrion sites and, in North America, have been recorded waiting for the presence of American crows and blue jays before approaching to eat.\n", "Many species of bird are also naturally afraid of predators such as birds of prey. \"Hawk kites\" are designed to fly from poles in the wind and hover above the field to be protected. They are shaped to match the silhouette of a bird of prey.\n\nSection::::Visual scarers.:Helikites.\n", "During the establishment of formal pigeon post services, the registration of all birds was introduced. At the same time, in order to hinder the efficiency of the systems of foreign countries, difficulties were placed in the way of the importation of their birds for training, and in a few cases falcons were specially trained to interrupt the service war-time, the Germans having set the example by employing hawks against the Paris pigeons in 1870–71. No satisfactory method of protecting the weaker birds seems to have been developed, though the Chinese formerly provided their pigeons with whistles and bells to scare away birds of prey. \n", "Tanimbar corellas learn by watching and copying. Just by opening the cage door, a Tanimbar corella's attention can be drawn to the latch on its cage and it can learn by trial and error how to open the latch with its beak and escape the cage in seconds. Tanimbar corellas can destroy furniture with their beaks and can chew through wires and cause potentially dangerous electrical incidents.\n", "BULLET::::- The return of the goshawk as a breeding bird to Britain since 1945 is due in large part to falconers' escapes: the earlier British population was wiped out by gamekeepers and egg collectors in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n\nBULLET::::- A pair of European eagle owls bred in the wild in Yorkshire for several years, feeding largely or entirely on rabbits. The pair are most likely captive escapees. It is not yet known if this will lead to a population becoming established.\n", "In the period until 1907, 44 specimens were taken, one of which is on display in the Zoological Museum of the University of Zurich, Switzerland. The last population lived in the mountainous central uplands, but between 1958 and 1977, no sightings were made.\n", "The time until the first flight is taken should take about 3 days after the hack box is open, which should be a distance around a few dozen feet. Afterwards, the young start to fly further away for a longer span. Hacking has an indefinite time period because it depends on the weather conditions and the personality of the bird. At this flying stage, the raptors learn how to self-hunt but are still fed and watched over. Males are more likely to hunt independently before females do.\n\nSection::::Procedure.:After hacking.\n", "A wild bird in juvenile plumage is called a passager, meaning it is under a year old. When a wild bird is used in falconry, passage birds are preferred. Since many of these birds would otherwise die (estimates run from 30-70 percent) within their first year, the taking of juvenile hawks by falconers has no noticeable effect on raptor populations. Baited traps used for hawks are unlike typical hunting traps in that they are specifically designed to avoid harming the hawk.\n", "BULLET::::- Domesticated: These species or varieties are bred and raised under human control for many generations and are substantially altered as a group in appearance or behaviour. Examples include the canary, pigeons, the budgerigar, the peach-faced lovebird, dogs, cats, sheep, cattle, chickens, llamas, guinea pigs and laboratory mice.\n", "Behavioral differences in wild ancestors were caused by differences in brain structures compared to its domesticated counterparts. An example of this can be seen when comparing wild and domestic rabbits. Wild rabbits have a larger ratio of brain-to-body size, while domestic rabbits have a smaller amygdala and larger medial prefrontal cortex and also reduced white matter. This causes domestic rabbits to have a decreased fight and flight response and thus domesticated rabbits show less indication of fear towards humans. Subsequently, a decrease in awareness of its surrounding may be observed in domesticated animals because of the reduced needs of sensing natural predators.\n", "BULLET::::- FieldGuide – eNature.com\n\nBULLET::::- \"Robins of a Different Feather\" – albinism in robins\n\nBULLET::::- Animal Facts – natural history, maps, and photos at the Washington Nature Mapping Program\n\nBULLET::::- Vocalizations – Journey North\n\nBULLET::::- Sound file – vivanatura.org\n\nBULLET::::- Plans for nesting shelves – Journey North\n\nBULLET::::- Nesting journal – Photo blog following the process from nest building to leaving the nest – Webster's Wobbins\n\nBULLET::::- Florida bird sounds including the American robin – Florida Museum of Natural History\n\nBULLET::::- American robin subspecies \"Turdus migratorius nigrideus\" (Aldrich and Nutt)\n\nBULLET::::- American robin growth progress with date stamp\n" ]

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[ "Frying pan\n\nA frying pan, frypan, or skillet is a flat-bottomed pan used for frying, searing, and browning foods. It is typically in diameter with relatively low sides that flare outwards, a long handle, and no lid. Larger pans may have a small grab handle opposite the main handle. A pan of similar dimensions, but with less flared vertical sides and often with a lid, is called a sauté pan. While a sauté pan can be used like a frying pan, it is designed for lower-heat cooking methods, namely sautéing.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Traditionally, frying pans were made of cast iron. Although cast iron is still popular today, especially for outdoor cooking, most frying pans are now made from metals such as aluminium or stainless steel. The materials and construction method used in modern frying pans vary greatly and some typical materials include:\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium or anodized aluminium\n\nBULLET::::- Cast iron\n\nBULLET::::- Copper\n\nBULLET::::- Stainless steel\n\nBULLET::::- Clad stainless steel with an aluminium or copper core\n", "Section::::Frying pan relatives.\n\nA versatile pan that combines the best of both the sauté pan and the frying pan has higher, sloping sides that are often slightly curved. This pan is called a \"sauteuse\" (literally a sauté pan in the female gender), an \"evasée\" (denoting a pan with sloping sides), or a \"fait-tout\" (literally \"does everything\"). Most professional kitchens have several of these utensils in varying sizes.\n\nA \"rappie pan\" is a pan used to make rappie pie, an Acadian potato dish. The pan is made from aluminum or stainless steel.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "Earlier, it was made out of stone. In a flat stone, semi-spherical molds are carved and thus the pan was being fabricated. \n\nThen came cast iron pans. Now a days we get pans made out of thick aluminum sheet with non-stick coating. \n\nThis pan can be used both on gas stoves as well as on electric heaters and induction heaters.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Drop frying uses 70% to 80% less oil. Hence it is healthier\n", "Section::::Equipment.\n\nGenerally, a shallower cooking vessel is used for pan frying than deep frying. (But using a deep pan with a small amount of oil, butter or bacon grease does reduce spatter.) A denser cooking vessel is better than a less dense pan because that mass will improve temperature regulation. An electric skillet can be used analogously to an electric deep fryer, and many of these devices have a thermostat to keep the liquid (in this case, oil) at the desired temperature.\n\nSection::::Breading.\n", "Section::::Specifics.\n", "Pan frying takes place at lower heat than sautéing. This is because the food to be pan fried – such as chicken breasts, steak, pork chops, or fish fillets – is \"not\" cut into small pieces before cooking. It requires a lower heat so that the exterior of the food does not overcook by the time the interior reaches the proper temperature, and to keep foods in a moister state. However, the oil should always be hot enough to ensure that the moisture in the food can escape in the form of steam; the force of the steam escaping keeps the oil from soaking into the food. The same amount of oil is used as for sautéing – just enough to glaze the pan.\n", "Pan frying or pan-frying is a form of frying food characterized by the use of minimal cooking oil or fat (compared to shallow frying or deep frying), typically using just enough to lubricate the pan. In the case of a greasy food such as bacon, no oil or fats may need to be added. As a form of frying, the technique relies on oil or fat as the heat transfer medium, and on correct temperature and time to not overcook or burn the food. Pan frying can serve to retain the moisture in foods such as meat and seafood. The food is typically flipped at least once to ensure that both sides are cooked properly.\n", "Pan frying, sautéing and stir-frying involve cooking foods in a thin layer of fat on a hot surface, such as a frying pan, griddle, wok, or sauteuse. Stir frying involves frying quickly at very high temperatures, requiring that the food be stirred continuously to prevent it from adhering to the cooking surface and burning.\n", "By and large, the Paniyarm Pan or Takoyaki pan was used to make above two popular dishes. Due to the special design of the pan, it is observed that with few drops of oil, it is possible to make these snacks. So, already, drop frying method is being used since many centuries. The same technique if used for frying other snack items, then, we can extend the utilization of this special pan. \n\nSection::::Pan.\n\nIn India, the paniyarm pan is in use since hundreds of years. \n", "Frying pan (disambiguation)\n\nA frying pan is a pan used for cooking, also known as a skillet. Frying pan may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Places.\n\nBULLET::::- Frying Pan, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in Tyrell County, North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Frying Pan Farm Park, a park in Fairfax County, Virginia\n\nBULLET::::- Frying Pan Shoals, off the coast of Cape Fear, North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Fryingpan Glacier, on Mount Rainier in the state of Washington\n\nBULLET::::- Fryingpan River, in Colorado\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Frying pan (guitar), an early guitar\n\nBULLET::::- Frying pans, Bronze Age Cycladic archaeological artifacts found in the Aegean Islands, including:\n", "Frying pans typically resemble skillets (hence the name 'frying pan') in that they have a diameter of 20 to 28 centimeters, a raised lip and a handle. However, all the decoration tends to be on the outside rim and on the base. The decoration is stamped or incised. The handles vary a great deal (more so on the mainland).\n", "BULLET::::- Sauté pans, used for sautéing, have a large surface area and relatively low sides to permit rapid evaporation and allow the cook to toss the food. The word \"sauté\" comes from the French verb \"sauter\", meaning \"to jump\". Saute pans often have straight vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.\n", "Copper frying pans were used in ancient Mesopotamia. Frying pans were also known in ancient Greece where they were called \"tagēnon\" (Greek: τάγηνον) and Rome, where they were called \"patella\" or \"sartago\". The word \"pan\" derives from the Old English \"panna\". Before the introduction of the kitchen stove in the mid-19th century, a commonly-used cast-iron cooking pan called a 'spider' had a handle and three legs used to stand up in the coals and ashes of the fire. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast-iron skillet.\n", "BULLET::::- Frying pans, frypans or skillets provide a large flat heating surface and shallow, sloped sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with shallow, rolling slopes are sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally sized by diameter (20–30 cm).\n\nBULLET::::- Spiders are skillets with three thin legs to keep them above an open fire. Ordinary flat-bottomed skillets are also sometimes called spiders, though the term has fallen out of general use.\n", "Sautéing\n\nSautéing or sauteing (, ; in reference to tossing while cooking) is a method of cooking that uses a relatively small amount of oil or fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat. Various sauté methods exist, and sauté pans are a specific type of pan designed for sautéing.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Except for a broken edge of the rim about 10 cm long, the frying pan is fully intact. It is made of a dark red, strong and coarse-grained clay. The slip on the outside is well-applied, but slightly spotty. On the inside, it is darker.\n\nThe quality of the work has been considered to be \"accomplished with great care and skill.\n\nSection::::Meaning.\n", "Two types of \"frying pans\" are distinguished. One the so-called \"Kampos type\" is Early Cycladic, characteristically with its straight side decorated with incised lines framing spirals; its rectangular handle with a crossbar; the main circular field commonly decorated with incised running spirals around a central star (ref. Dartmouth). The other is the \"Syros type\" with a concave undecorated side, and a two-pronged handle; decoration of main circular field with stamped concentric circles or spirals, often accompanied by incised depictions of longboats or what is sometimes interpreted as female genitalia.\n\nCommon patterns and designs on these \"frying pans\" include:\n", "Ingredients for sautéing are usually cut into pieces or thinly sliced to facilitate fast cooking. The primary mode of heat transfer during sautéing is conduction between the pan and the food being cooked. Food that is sautéed is browned while preserving its texture, moisture, and flavor. If meat, chicken, or fish is sautéed, the sauté is often finished by deglazing the pan's residue to make a sauce.\n", "BULLET::::- Simmering – Most curries and \"bhaaji\"s are simmered for the meat or vegetables to cook\n\nBULLET::::- Deep frying – This is used for making fritters such as onion bhaji, or sweet fried dumplings (\"karanji\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pan frying – This is characterized by the use of minimal cooking oil or fat (compared to shallow frying or deep frying); typically using just enough oil to lubricate the pan. This method is used for cooking delicate items such as fish.\n", "Frying\n\nFrying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat. Similar to sautéing, pan-fried foods are generally turned over once or twice during cooking, using tongs or a spatula, while sautéed foods are cooked by \"tossing in the pan\". A large variety of foods may be fried.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nFrying is believed to have first appeared in the Ancient Egyptian kitchen, during the Old Kingdom, around 2500 BCE.\n\nSection::::Details.\n", "Chip pan\n\nA chip pan is a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying. Chip pans are named for their traditional use in frying chips (called \"French fries\" in the United States).\n\nToday, they are made from either aluminium or stainless steel, although in the past were commonly made from cast iron. A basket is placed inside the pan, to lower the chips into the hot cooking oil, and to raise them once cooked.\n\nChip pans are commonly used in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, although are slowly being outmoded by deep fryers.\n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n", "BULLET::::- large stars with circles or bands inside\n\nBULLET::::- triangular patterns in rows (very common, called \"kerbschnitt\")\n\nBULLET::::- concentric circles\n\nBULLET::::- wheel-like patterns\n\nBULLET::::- many small spirals grouped together\n\nBULLET::::- ships (with paddles and fish banners)\n\nSection::::Proposed functions of \"Frying Pans\".\n\nProposed functions of \"frying pans\" vary widely, but some of the more common theories include scrying mirrors, drums, religious objects, or salt pans. No \"frying pan\" found yet shows any physical wear from being used as a cooking utensil (ex: an actual frying pan). \n", "BULLET::::- \"Acar\": pickles made from vinegar preserved cucumber, shallots, carrot, and small chilli pepper\n\nBULLET::::- \"Telur\": egg; could be cooked in many ways and placed on the nasi goreng, usually fried or omelette\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sambal\": chilli sauce\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Typically, it is served hot and brushed with some water but in some other cultures such as those in the Indian Subcontinent, they brush ghee or butter. It can be used to scoop other foods or served stuffed with a filling. \n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.:The Raymond Saulnier patent (1914).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:The Franz Schneider patent (1913–1914).\n\nWhether directly inspired by Euler's original patent or not, the first inventor to patent a method of firing forward through a \"tractor\" propeller was the Swiss engineer Franz Schneider, formerly with Nieuport, but by then working for the LVG Company in Germany.\n", "Section::::History.:Fokker's Synchronizer and other German gears.:The Fokker \"Stangensteuerung\" gear.\n", "Generally, mechanical systems were inferior to hydraulic or electric ones, but none were ever entirely foolproof, and synchronization gears at best always remained liable to occasional failure. The \"Luftwaffe\" ace Adolf Galland in his memoir of the war period \"The First and the Last\" describes a serious faulty synchronization incident in 1941.\n\nSection::::Definitions / Basic problems.:Increasing firepower.\n", "In fact, the builders of the new Albatros twin-gunned stationary-engine fighters of late 1916 had to introduce their own synchronization gear, known as the \"Hedtke gear\" or \"Hedtkesteuerung\", and it was evident that Fokker were going to have to come up with something radically new.\n\nSection::::History.:Fokker's Synchronizer and other German gears.:The Fokker \"Zentralsteuerung\" gear.\n", "Exclusive possession of a working gun synchronizer enabled a period of German air superiority on the Western Front known as the Fokker Scourge. The German high command was protective of the synchronizer system, instructing pilots not to venture over enemy territory in case they were forced down and the secret revealed, but the basic principles involved were already common knowledge, and by the middle of 1916 several Allied synchronizers were already available in quantity.\n", "Section::::The synchronization gear dilemma.\n", "Section::::Definitions / Basic problems.:At the gun.\n", "At first, the meticulous Constantinesco was dissatisfied with the odd slightly deviant hit on his test disc. It was found that carefully inspecting the ammunition cured this fault (common, of course, to all such gears); with good quality rounds, the performance of the gear pleased even its creator. The first working C.C. gear was air-tested in a B.E.2c in August 1916.\n", "Section::::History.:British gears.:The Vickers-Challenger gear.\n", "Section::::History.:British gears.:The Constantinesco synchronization gear.\n\nMajor Colley, the Chief Experimental Officer and Artillery Adviser at the War Office Munitions Invention Department, became interested in George Constantinesco's theory of Wave Transmission, and worked with him to determine how his invention could be put to practical use, finally hitting on the notion of developing a synchronization gear based on it. Major Colley used his contacts in the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Artillery (his own corps) to obtain the loan of a Vickers machine gun and 1,000 rounds of ammunition. \n", "Section::::History.:The decline and end of synchronization.\n\nThe usefulness of synchronization gears naturally disappeared altogether when jet engines eliminated the propeller, at least in fighter aircraft; but gun synchronization, even in single reciprocating engine aircraft, had already been in decline for twenty years prior to this.\n", "But in reality, under the same name are called, over time, three different things:\n\nA) Firstly, the original synchronized reading desk, 1921, namely, an isolated device for reading texts or music, for a single user (although this may be an orchestra conductor who, since reading it, controls the complete template of instrumentalists) adjusted by an engine in synchronization with the projected images of the films.\n", "From the beginnings of practical flight, possible military uses for aircraft were considered, although not all writers came to positive conclusions on the subject. By 1913, military exercises in Britain, Germany, and France had confirmed the likely usefulness of aircraft for reconnaissance and surveillance, and this was seen by a few forward looking officers as implying the need to deter or destroy the enemy's reconnaissance machines. Thus aerial combat was by no means entirely unanticipated, and the machine gun was from the first seen as the most likely weapon to be used. \n", "Constantinesco drew on his work with rock drills to develop a synchronization gear using his wave transmission system. In May 1916, he prepared the first drawing and an experimental model of what became known as the Constantinesco Fire Control Gear or the \"C.C. (Constantinesco-Colley) Gear\". The first provisional patent application for the Gear was submitted on 14 July 1916 (No. 512).\n", "An official order, signed on 24 July 1917 standardised the superior Fokker \"Zentralsteuerung\" system for all German aircraft, presumably including Albatroses.\n\nSection::::History.:Fokker's Synchronizer and other German gears.:Other German synchronizers.:Electrical gears.\n", "But this system also had the potential to work in another way: firing directly from its paper-band orders to the various notes of a pianola, or shooting up effects and devices of noises or records previously prepared for this purpose. It is this potentiality of automatic adjustment (once the control-band is properly recorded) that makes it a mechanical precedent to the current audiovisual mixes tables,and, perhaps, of the MIDI systems ( the digital control of musical instruments).\n", "Section::::History.:Russian gears.\n\nNo Russian synchronization gears went into production before the 1917 Revolution – although experiments by Victor Dibovski in 1915 contributed to the later British Scarff-Dibovski gear (described above), and another naval officer, G.I. Lavrov, also designed a gear that was fitted to the unsuccessful Sikorsky S-16. French and British designs licence-built in Russia used the Alkan-Hamy or Birkigt gears.\n\nFighters of the Soviet era used synchronized guns right up to the time of the Korean War, when the Lavochkin La-11 and the Yakovlev Yak-9 became the last synchronizer-equipped aircraft to see combat action.\n\nSection::::History.:Italian gears.\n", "Once the paper-band was prepared, the various mismatches common to the time from multiple causes (lack of electrical current, mechanical problems, etc.) could be solved, on the fly, in two ways. Or the speed of the control band was set at the desk ( or the \"distributor\") or by a mechanism that the orchestra conductor was placed in the hand, slightly vary the speed of the images.\n", "The first French synchronizer was developed by \"Sergeant-Mecanicien\" Robert Alkan and \"l'Ingenieur du Maritime\" Hamy. It was based closely on the definitive Fokker \"Stangensteuerung\" gear: the main difference being that the push rod was installed within the Vickers gun, using a redundant steam tube in the cooling jacket. This mitigated a major drawback of other push rod gears in that the rod, being supported for its whole length, was much less liable to distortion or breakage. Vickers guns modified to take this gear can be distinguished by the housing for the push rod's spring, projecting from the front of the gun like a second barrel. This gear was first installed and air-tested in a Nieuport 12, on 2 May 1916, and other pre-production gears were fitted to contemporary Morane-Saulnier and Nieuport fighters. The Alkan-Hamy gear was standardised as the \"Systeme de Synchronisation pour Vickers Type I (moteurs rotatifs)\", becoming available in numbers in time for the arrival of the Nieuport 17 at the front in mid 1916, as the standard gear for forward-firing guns of rotary-engine French aircraft. \n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nSynchro systems were first used in the control system of the Panama Canal in the early 1900s to transmit lock gate and valve stem positions, and water levels, to the control desks.\n", "This gear was available in numbers by mid 1917, in time for installation on the Fokker Dr.I triplane and all later German fighters. In fact it became the standard synchronizer for the Luftstreitkräfte for the remainder of the war, although experiments to find an even more reliable gear continued.\n\nSection::::History.:Fokker's Synchronizer and other German gears.:Other German synchronizers.\n\nSection::::History.:Fokker's Synchronizer and other German gears.:Other German synchronizers.:The 1915 Schneider gear.\n", "Fire-control system designs developed during World War II used synchros extensively, to transmit angular information from guns and sights to an analog fire control computer, and to transmit the desired gun position back to the gun location. Early systems just moved indicator dials, but with the advent of the amplidyne, as well as motor-driven high-powered hydraulic servos, the fire control system could directly control the positions of heavy guns.\n", "The Nieuport 28 used a different gear – now known only through American documentation, where it is described as the \"Nieuport Synchronizing gear\" or the \"Gnome gear\". A spinning drive shaft, driven by the rotating crankcase of the Nieuport's 160 CV Gnome 9N Monosoupape rotary engine, drove two separately adjustable trigger motors – each imparting firing impulses to its gun by means of its own short rod. Photographic evidence suggests that an earlier version of this gear, controlling a single gun, might have been fitted to the Nieuport 23 and the Hanriot HD.1.\n\nSection::::History.:French gears.:The Birkigt gear.\n", "Another \"field made\" synchronizer was the ARSIAD: produced by the Aeroplane Repair Section of the No.1 Aircraft Depot in 1916. Little specific seems to be known about it; although it may have been fitted to some early R.E.8s for which no Vickers-Challenger gears could be found.\n\nAirco and Armstrong Whitworth both designed their own gears specifically for their own aircraft. Standardisation on the hydraulic C.C. gear (described below) occurred before either had been produced in numbers. Only Sopwiths' gear (next section) was to go into production.\n\nSection::::History.:British gears.:The Sopwith-Kauper gear.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- In the study by Teschner et al., dosages and drug concentration showed no correlation with substantial variation from person to person.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Teschner study, low drug concentrations were associated with decrease in viral load. This makes it difficult to determine whether or not reduction of viral load or addition of leflunomide was the cause for viral clearance.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Other treatment options.\n\nBULLET::::- Quinolone antibiotics: Ciprofloxacin (Cipro) was shown to significantly lower viral loads but no data on survival and graft loss exist.\n", "In July 2004, researchers led by H. Deng of the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Harbin, China and Robert Webster of the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, reported results of experiments in which mice had been exposed to 21 isolates of confirmed H5N1 strains obtained from ducks in China between 1999 and 2002. They found \"a clear temporal pattern of progressively increasing pathogenicity\". Results reported by Webster in July 2005 reveal further progression toward pathogenicity in mice and longer virus shedding by ducks.\n", "Later flu pandemics were not so devastating. They included the 1957 Asian Flu (type A, H2N2 strain) and the 1968 Hong Kong Flu (type A, H3N2 strain), but even these smaller outbreaks killed millions of people. In later pandemics antibiotics were available to control secondary infections and this may have helped reduce mortality compared to the Spanish flu of 1918.\n", "For healthy adults, a 2018 Cochrane review showed that vaccines reduced the incidence of lab-confirmed influenza from 2.3% to 0.9%, which constitutes a reduction of risk of approximately 60%. However, for influenza-like illness which is defined as the same symptoms of cough, fever, headache, runny nose, and bodily aches and pains, vaccine reduced the risk from 21.5% to 18.1%. This constitutes a much more modest reduction of risk of approximately 16%. The difference is most probably explained by the fact that over 200 viruses cause the same or similar symptoms as the flu virus.\n", "The CDC stated most studies on modern influenza vaccines have seen no link with GBS, Although one review gives an incidence of about one case per million vaccinations, a large study in China, reported in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\", covering close to 100 million doses of H1N1 flu vaccine, found only 11 cases of GBS, which is lower than the normal rate of the disease in China: \"The risk-benefit ratio, which is what vaccines and everything in medicine is about, is overwhelmingly in favor of vaccination.\"\n\nSection::::History.:1988 U.S. outbreak.\n", "BULLET::::- UVM Webster is Director, World Health Organization Collaborating Center on the Ecology of Influenza Viruses in Lower Animals and Birds Professor of Excellence, University of Hong-Kong\n\nBULLET::::- CBC Interview\n\nSection::::Selected publications by Robert Webster.\n\nBULLET::::- CDC article \"Influenza: An Emerging Disease\" published in Emerging Infectious Diseases - vol. 4 no. 3 - July September 1998\n\nBULLET::::- Journal of Virology, July 2000, p. 6309-6315, Vol. 74, No. 14 article \"Characterization of the Influenza A Virus Gene Pool in Avian Species in Southern China: Was H6N1 a Derivative or a Precursor of H5N1?\"\n", "North American Avian (34.4%)– BIRD ORIGIN FLU\n\nHuman influenza strain (17.5%)\n\nEuroasian swine (17.5%)- PIG ORIGIN FLU.\n\nQUADRUPLE GENETIC RE-ASSORTMENT - coinfection with influenza viruses from diverse animal species.\n\nDue to coinfection, the viruses are able to interact, mutate, and form a new strain to which host has variable immunity.\n\nNew events of reassortment were not reported until 1968, when the avian strain H1N1 infected humans again; this time the virus met the strain H2N2, and the reassortment originated the strain H3N2. This strain has remained as a stable flu strain until now.\n", "BULLET::::- Dr. Robert G. Webster @ St. Jude Children's Research Hospital\n\nBULLET::::- VIDEO: Bird Flu: A Virus of Our Own Hatching Michael Greger, MD, speaks at the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health.\n\nBULLET::::- The ISI CV on Dr Webster\n\nBULLET::::- Transcript: Avian Influenza: Current Status and Potential Impact\n\nBULLET::::- News article: Experts fear bird flu in Africa\n\nBULLET::::- St. Jude Robert G. Webster, PhD - Member, St. Jude Faculty - Rose Marie Thomas Chair\n\nBULLET::::- COMMITTEE ON MICROBIAL THREATS TO HEALTH IN THE 21ST CENTURY\n\nBULLET::::- American Scientist short bio\n", "Swine influenza has been recognized as a major problem since the outbreak in 1976. Evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the problem when the virus strains match enough to have significant cross-protection. Customised (autogenous) vaccines made from the specific viruses isolated, are made and used in the more difficult cases. The vaccine manufacturer Novartis claims that the H3N2 strain (first identified in 1998) has brought major losses to pig farmers. Abortion storms are a common sign and sows stop eating for a few days and run a high fever. The mortality rate can be as high as 15percent.\n", "Section::::Future impact and prediction strategies.:Antiviral Resistance.\n\nMore recently, there has been a huge increase in the amount of resistance to certain drugs, including the antiviral compound adamantane. In fact, its resistance has recently climbed from 2 percent to nearly 90 percent. These records of built up resistance infer that drugs, such as adamantine, will not be useful against the influenza virus in the future.\n", "People who contracted flu before 1957 appeared to have some immunity to H1N1 flu. Daniel Jernigan, head of flu epidemiology for the U.S. CDC, has stated: \"Tests on blood serum from older people showed that they had antibodies that attacked the new virus ... That does not mean that everyone over 52 is immune, since Americans and Mexicans older than that have died of the new flu\".\n", "A vaccine is assessed by its \"efficacy\" – the extent to which it reduces risk of disease under controlled conditions – and its \"effectiveness\" – the observed reduction in risk after the vaccine is put into use. In the case of influenza, effectiveness is expected to be lower than the efficacy because it is measured using the rates of influenza-like illness, which is not always caused by influenza. Influenza vaccines generally show high efficacy, as measured by the antibody production in animal models or vaccinated people. However, studies on the effectiveness of flu vaccines in the real world are difficult; vaccines may be imperfectly matched, virus prevalence varies widely between years, and influenza is often confused with other influenza-like illnesses. However, in most years (16 of the 19 years before 2007), the flu vaccine strains have been a good match for the circulating strains, and even a mismatched vaccine can often provide cross-protection. The virus rapidly changes due to antigenic drift, a slight mutation in the virus that causes a new strain to arise.\n", "Technically, any clinical diagnosis of influenza is a diagnosis of ILI, not of influenza. This distinction usually is of no great concern because, regardless of cause, most cases of ILI are mild and self-limiting. Furthermore, except perhaps during the peak of a major outbreak of influenza, most cases of ILI are not due to influenza. ILI is very common: in the United States each adult can average 1–3 episodes per year and each child can average 3–6 episodes per year.\n", "The flu can worsen chronic health problems. People with emphysema, chronic bronchitis or asthma may experience shortness of breath while they have the flu, and influenza may cause worsening of coronary heart disease or congestive heart failure. Smoking is another risk factor associated with more serious disease and increased mortality from influenza.\n", "As influenza is caused by a variety of species and strains of viruses, in any given year some strains can die out while others create epidemics, while yet another strain can cause a pandemic. Typically, in a year's normal two flu seasons (one per hemisphere), there are between three and five million cases of severe illness and around 500,000 deaths worldwide, which by some definitions is a yearly influenza epidemic. Although the incidence of influenza can vary widely between years, approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations are directly associated with influenza every year in the United States. One method of calculating influenza mortality produced an estimate of 41,400 average deaths per year in the United States between 1979 and 2001. Different methods in 2010 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported a range from a low of about 3,300 deaths to a high of 49,000 per year.\n", "The mid-1970s were important for the evolution of flu strains. First, the re-emergence of the human H1N1 strain became a seasonal strain. Then, a small outbreak of swine H1N1 occurred in humans, and finally, the human H2N2 strain apparently became extinct. Around 1979, the avian H1N1 strain infected pigs and gave rise to Euroasiatic swine flu and H1N1 Euroasiatic swine virus, which is still being transmitted in swine populations.\n", "A second class of drugs, which include amantadine and rimantadine, target the M2 protein, but have become ineffective against most strains of H5N1, due to their use in poultry in China in the 1990s, which created resistant strains. However, recent data suggest that some strains of H5N1 are susceptible to the older drugs, which are inexpensive and widely available.\n\nResearch indicates that therapy to block one cytokine to lessen a cytokine storm in a patient may not be clinically beneficial.\n\nSection::::Avian flu in humans.:Mortality rate.\n", "Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 has increased from 1% in 1994 to 12% in 2003 to 91% in 2005.\n\n\"Contemporary human H3N2 influenza viruses are now endemic in pigs in southern China and can reassort with avian H5N1 viruses in this intermediate host.\"\n\nSection::::Annual flu.:FI6 antibody.\n\nFI6, an antibody that targets the hemagglutinin protein, was discovered in 2011. FI6 is the only known antibody effective against all 16 subtypes of the influenza A virus.\n\nSection::::Structure and genetics.\n", "On the other hand, a few strains resistant to neuraminidase inhibitors have emerged and circulated in the absence of much use of the drugs involved, and the frequency with which drug resistant strains appears shows little correlation with the level of use of these drugs. However, laboratory studies have shown that it is possible for the use of sub-optimal doses of these drugs as a prophylactic measure might contribute to the development of drug resistance.\n", "The first significant step towards preventing influenza was the development in 1944 of a killed-virus vaccine for influenza by Thomas Francis, Jr. This built on work by Australian Frank Macfarlane Burnet, who showed that the virus lost virulence when it was cultured in fertilized hen's eggs. Application of this observation by Francis allowed his group of researchers at the University of Michigan to develop the first influenza vaccine, with support from the U.S. Army. The Army was deeply involved in this research due to its experience of influenza in World War I, when thousands of troops were killed by the virus in a matter of months. In comparison to vaccines, the development of anti-influenza drugs has been slower, with amantadine being licensed in 1966 and, almost thirty years later, the next class of drugs (the neuraminidase inhibitors) being developed.\n", "The specific combination of fever and cough has been found to be the best predictor; diagnostic accuracy increases with a body temperature above 38°C (100.4°F). Two decision analysis studies suggest that \"during local outbreaks\" of influenza, the prevalence will be over 70%. Even in the absence of a local outbreak, diagnosis may be justified in the elderly during the influenza season as long as the prevalence is over 15%.\n", "A summary of reports to the World Organisation for Animal Health in 2005 and 2010 suggest that surveillance and under-reporting in developed and developing countries is still a challenge. Often, donor support can focus on HPAI control alone, while similar diseases such as Newcastle disease, acute fowl cholera, infectious laryngotracheitis, and infectious bursal disease still affect poultry populations. When HPAI tests come back negative, a lack of funded testing for differential diagnoses can leave farmers wondering what killed their birds.\n", "Section::::Microbiology or virology.:Strain engineering.\n\nScientists have modified flu virus strains pandemic in humans in order to study their behavior. Funding for this research has been controversial as a result of safety concerns, and has been halted at times. However, this research continues today.\n", "Section::::Drug resistance.\n\nInfluenza viruses can show resistance to anti-viral drugs. Like the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance, this can result from over-use of these drugs. For example, a study published in the June 2009 Issue of Nature Biotechnology emphasized the urgent need for augmentation of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) stockpiles with additional antiviral drugs including zanamivir (Relenza) based on an evaluation of the performance of these drugs in the scenario that the 2009 H1N1 'Swine Flu' neuraminidase (NA) were to acquire the tamiflu-resistance (His274Tyr) mutation which is currently widespread in seasonal H1N1 strains.\n", "Researchers from the National Institutes of Health used data from the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project and concluded that during the ten-year period examined, most of the time the hemagglutinin gene in H3N2 showed no significant excess of mutations in the antigenic regions while an increasing variety of strains accumulated. This resulted in one of the variants eventually achieving higher fitness, becoming dominant, and in a brief interval of rapid evolution, rapidly sweeping through the population and eliminating most other variants.\n" ]

[ "Flu is weaker than it used to be.", "Strains of the flu are weaker than they used to be." ]

[ "Flu virus changes in both directions. It can get stronger or weaker or change in different ways. ", "Different strains can cause a change in severity but this overall hasn't changed in a very long time." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Flu is weaker than it used to be.", "Strains of the flu are weaker than they used to be." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Flu virus changes in both directions. It can get stronger or weaker or change in different ways. ", "Different strains can cause a change in severity but this overall hasn't changed in a very long time." ]

[ "The first step in organising any blood drive is to contact the nearest blood bank or blood donation centre. A blood drive representative is assigned to help the person organising the drive. The representative assesses whether the organising company meets the requirements for the drive to proceed. The representative and organiser then plan the actual drive together, establishing mutual goals based on the size of the group and how many people are expected to donate.\n\nSection::::How a bloodmobile worked in the 1950s.\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "A common example is switching from a manual transmission vehicle to an automatic transmission vehicle. The adaptive response series in a standard vehicle when it reaches 10 miles per hour is to step on the clutch, shift gears, and step on the accelerator. This previously adaptive response is incompatible with the proper response in an automatic transmission, confirming how prior experience can limit the ability to function efficiently in new settings.\n", "Since allogeneic PBSCT involves transformation of blood between different individuals, this naturally carries more complications than autologous PBSCT.\n", "If a coagulation factor is part of the contact activation or tissue factor pathway, a deficiency of that factor will affect only one of the tests: Thus hemophilia A, a deficiency of factor VIII, which is part of the contact activation pathway, results in an abnormally prolonged aPTT test but a normal PT test. The exceptions are prothrombin, fibrinogen, and some variants of FX that can be detected only by either aPTT or PT. If an abnormal PT or aPTT is present, additional testing will occur to determine which (if any) factor is present as aberrant concentrations.\n", "BULLET::::- Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum contains IgM anti-A and anti-B antibodies. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (i.e., A, B, O or AB). If a patient needs an urgent blood transfusion, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O negative blood can be issued. Because it is compatible with anyone, O negative blood is often overused and consequently is always in short supply. According to the American Association of Blood Banks and the British Chief Medical Officer's National Blood Transfusion Committee, the use of group O RhD negative red cells should be restricted to persons with O negative blood, women who might be pregnant, and emergency cases in which blood-group testing is genuinely impracticable.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Better outcomes are achieved with the reduction or avoidance of exposure to allogeneic blood. Numerous clinical studies have shown that allogeneic blood transfusions are associated with increased mortality and an increased level of serious complications, while potentially exposing the patient to viral, bacterial, or parasitic agents. Also, current medical literature shows that in most circumstances a restrictive threshold is as safe as a more liberal red cell transfusion threshold and in certain circumstances, for example gastrointestinal bleeding due to liver disease, a more liberal red cell transfusion strategy may be harmful.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "ABO blood group incompatibilities between the mother and child does not usually cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) because antibodies to the ABO blood groups are usually of the IgM type, which do not cross the placenta. However, in an O-type mother, IgG ABO antibodies are produced and the baby can potentially develop ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.:Clinical applications.\n", "AAHA interferes with factor Xa inhibition by Apo-H increasing factor Xa generation. However, like Apo-H the Lupus anticoagulant inhibits factor Xa generation.\n\nAAHA also inhibited the autoactivation of factor XII while at high AAHA concentrations, factor XIIa activation increases at levels comparable to Apo-H that cause inhibition of factor XIIa activation. A synchronized inhibition of factor XII autoactivation by Apo-H and AHAA has been suggested.\n\nSection::::Genetics.\n", "Blood donation vehicles are allowed the use of blue lights and sirens (known commonly \"blues and twos\") for the use of emergency blood transports. In some cases this will also require the use of a police escort for the transporting vehicle in order to safely and quickly navigate major road junctions. Escort is normally provided by several motorbike units.\n", "More recently, novel approaches are being explored to complement or replace FIFO. One is to balance the desire to reduce average product age (at transfusion) with the need to maintain sufficient availability of non-outdated product, leading to a strategic blend of FIFO with last in, first out (LIFO).\n\nSection::::Storage and management.:Long-term storage.\n", "Section::::Other blood conservation techniques.\n\nA multimodal method might be beneficial to conserving crucial organ perfusion and decreasing requirements of blood transfusions. Moreover, approaches which are objective to restrict intraoperative fluid balance positiveness may also contribute to reduced blood transfusions because positive intravenous fluid balance plays a critical role in limiting hemodilution during open-heart operations.\n\nSection::::Other blood conservation techniques.:Plasma concentration filters.\n", "The Commit for Life Group Program is a program for organizations that: 1) Host one blood drive per quarter; 2) schedule the donors; and 3) spread the work. Organizations that hold at least four blood drives per year are honored at The Blood Center’s annual “A Celebration of Life” luncheon and awards presentation. In 2010, approximately 850 businesses, churches, schools and other organizations were honored at this appreciation event.\n", "Because this testing can take time, doctors will sometimes order a unit of blood transfused before it can be completed if the recipient is in critical condition. Typically two to four units of O negative blood are used in these situations, since they are unlikely to cause a reaction. A potentially fatal reaction is possible if the recipient has pre-existing antibodies, and uncrossmatched blood is only used in dire circumstances. Since O negative blood is not common, other blood types may be used if the situation is desperate.\n\nSection::::Collection, processing, and use.\n", "Universal donor blood, which is both type O and Rh negative, can be given if the recipient's blood group is not known, as may happen in an emergency. Some institutions will only release O+ for male and O- blood for female patients. This serves two purposes. First, it preserves the lower stock of O- blood and secondly, this eliminates the risk of O- negative mothers forming anti-D (Rh) antibodies from exposure to O+ blood. Anti-D (Rh) can cross the placenta during pregnancy and attack an unborn child's RBCs if they are D (Rh) positive causing haemolytic disease of the newborn.\n", "Often large employers will sponsor mobile blood drives and allow employees a few hours off of work to donate blood. In addition, many high schools hold annual blood drives which allow students aged 16 and over to donate blood with a signed permission form. Typically students are offered snacks, T-shirts, or time out of class as an incentive, as well as positive peer pressure.\n\nSection::::How to organise a blood drive.\n", "There is a lower incidence with cord blood compared with traditional HSCT, despite less stringent HLA match requirements.\n\nSection::::Collection and storage.\n", "Student-led blood drives account for approximately 20 percent of The Blood Center’s total mobile blood drives. The Blood Center offers educational and financial benefits to high schools that participate in The Power of Life, a Commit for Life program designed for high schools that: 1) Partner with Gulf Coast Regional Blood Center; 2) host a training and education program; and 3) spread the word.\n\nSection::::Gulf Coast Marrow Donor Program.\n", "Blood is drawn from a peripheral vein in a majority of patients, but a central line to the jugular, subclavian, and femoral veins may be used. Adverse reactions during apheresis were experienced in 20 percent of women and 8 percent of men, these adverse events primarily consisted of numbness/tingling, multiple line attempts, and nausea.\n\nSection::::Risks to donor.:Clinical observations.\n", "BULLET::::1. Recombinant FVIIa concentrate (rFVIIa) is a recombinant treatment that is highly effective and has no risk of fluid overload or viral disease. It may be the optimal therapy.\n\nBULLET::::2. Plasma derived Factor VII concentrate (pdFVII) : This treatment is suitable for surgery but can lead to thrombosis. It is virus attenuated.\n\nBULLET::::3. Prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) containing factor VII: this treatment is suitable for surgery, but has a risk of thrombosis. It is virus attenuated.\n", "Transfusion therapy lowers the risk for a new silent stroke in children who have both abnormal cerebral artery blood flow velocity, as detected by transcranial Doppler, and previous silent infarct, even when the initial MRI showed no abnormality. A finding of elevated TCD ultrasonographic velocity warrants MRI of the brain, as those with both abnormalities who are not provided transfusion therapy are at higher risk for developing a new silent infarct or stroke than are those whose initial MRI showed no abnormality.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Stroke\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- Cerebral hypoxia\n\nBULLET::::- DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension)\n", "Whole blood has similar risks to a transfusion of red blood cells and must be cross-matched to avoid hemolytic transfusion reactions. Most of the reasons for use are the same as those for RBCs, and whole blood is not frequently used in high income countries where packed red blood cells are readily available. However, use of whole blood is much more common in low and middle income countries. Over 40% of blood collected in low-income countries is administered as whole blood, and approximately a third of all blood collected in middle-income countries is administered as whole blood.\n", "Section::::\"Commit for Life\" Program.\n\nIn 2003, The Blood Center launched Commit for Life, which is a partnership between the community and Gulf Coast Regional Blood Center that is focused on saving lives and permanently increasing the blood supply. The Commit for Life program works to achieve this goal by partnering with individual donors who are willing to: 1) Donate once per quarter; 2) allow The Blood Center to contact them; and 3) spread the word.\n", "Furthermore, the number of patients requiring red blood transfusions could be anticipated by observing a variety of variables before cardiac surgery. The red cell mass, as a critical factor, it matches the assumption that the blood transfusion is commonly demanded by patients who have a low red cell mass during CPB. At the same time, these patients are more likely to have low hematocrit values. Patients expect to reduce the blood product used during surgery because the red blood transfusion generally has a negative physiologic impact and highly related cost. Especially when CPB is applied in surgical operations, there will be a large number of blood transfusions required due to blood loss and hemodilution.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooling: After eggs are removed from heat, some cooking continues to occur, particularly of the yolk, due to residual heat, a phenomenon called carry over cooking, also seen in roast meat. For this reason some allow eggs to cool in air or plunge them into cold water as the final stage of preparation. If time is limited, adding a few cubes of ice will quickly reduce the temperature for easy handling.\n", "Eggs contain multiple proteins that gel at different temperatures within the yolk and the white, and the temperature determines the gelling time. Egg yolk becomes a gel, or solidifies, between . Egg white gels at different temperatures: . The white contains exterior albumen which sets at the highest temperature. In practice, in many cooking processes the white gels first because it is exposed to higher temperatures for longer.\n", "EGG's are the likely predecessors of new protostars. Inside an EGG the gas and dust are denser than in the surrounding dust cloud. Gravity pulls the cloud even more tightly together as the EGG continues to draw in material from its surroundings. As the cloud density builds up the globule becomes hotter under the weight of the outer layers, a protostar is formed inside the EGG.\n", "BULLET::::- Sous vide: Rather than cooking in boiling water, boiled eggs can be made by cooking/coddling in their shell \"sous vide\" in hot water at steady temperatures anywhere from . It turns out that the outer egg white cooks at and the yolk and the rest of the white sets from .\n", "Egg taphonomy is the study of the decomposition and fossilization of eggs. The processes of egg taphonomy begin when the egg either hatches or dies. Eggshell fragments are robust and can often travel great distances before burial. More complete egg specimens gradually begin to fill with sediment, which hardens as minerals precipitate out of water percolating through pores or cracks in the shell. Throughout the fossilization process the calcium carbonate composing the eggshell generally remains unchanged, allowing scientists to study its original structure. However, egg fossils buried under sediments at great depth can be subjected to heat, pressure and chemical processes that can alter the structure of its shell through a process called diagenesis.\n", "BULLET::::- Placing in water:There are various ways to place the eggs in the boiling water and remove: one may place the eggs in the pan prior to heating, lower them in on a spoon, or use a specialized cradle to lower them in. A cradle is also advocated as reducing cracking, since the eggs do not then roll around loose. To remove, one may allow the water to cool, pour off the boiling water, or remove the cradle.\n", "More complete eggs in the process of fossilization are gradually buried until the weight of the sediment overtop them causes them to crack. These cracks allow even more sediments to fill the eggs. Sometimes, though, fossilization can begin fast enough to prevent the eggs from being cracked. This process involves acids like those formed from plant decomposition in the soil or the formation of carbonic acid from atmospheric carbon dioxide and rain water. The acids dissolve minerals like calcite out of limestone. During conditions of high watertable these dissolved minerals can enter the egg through its pores or cracks and precipitate out of solution. If enough minerals make it inside the egg can become sturdy enough to withstand the weight of the overlying sediments.\n", "Section::::Technical implications.:Sintering.\n", "Peeling a cooked egg is easiest when the egg was put into boiling water as opposed to slowly heating the egg from a start in cold water.\n\nSection::::Culinary properties.:Flavor variations.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Modern.\n\nEven though the traditional method is still widely practiced, modern understanding of the chemistry behind the formation of century eggs has led to many simplifications in the recipe. For instance, soaking raw eggs in a solution of table salt, calcium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate for 10 days, followed by several weeks of aging while wrapped in plastic, is said to achieve the same effect as the traditional method. This is because the reaction needed to produce century eggs is accomplished by introducing hydroxide and sodium ions into the egg, regardless of the method used.\n", "Just as a teaspoonful of water dropped into a bowl of vegetable oil forms a little bubble of water in the oil, each drop of the alginated liquid tends to form into a small sphere in the calcium solution. Then, during a reaction time of a few seconds to a few minutes, the calcium solution causes the outer layer of each alginated liquid sphere to form a thin, flexible skin. The resulting \"popping boba\" or artificial \"caviar\" balls are rinsed then in water and saved for later use in food or beverages.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Reverse spherification.\n", "Hard-boiled eggs are boiled long enough for the yolk to solidify. They can be eaten warm or cold. Hard-boiled eggs are the basis for many dishes, such as egg salad, Cobb salad and Scotch eggs, and may be further prepared as deviled eggs.\n", "When beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted: soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse. Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk.\n\nSection::::Foam.:Stabilizing foam for culinary purposes.\n\nSection::::Foam.:Stabilizing foam for culinary purposes.:Copper bowl.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and characteristics.:Membrane.\n\nThe eggshell membrane is a clear film lining the eggshell, visible when one peels a boiled egg. Primarily, it composed of fibrous proteins such as collagen type I. These membranes may be used commercially as a dietary supplement. \n\nSection::::Anatomy and characteristics.:White.\n", "Using a whisk on certain liquids, notably cream or egg whites, can also create foams through mechanical action. This is the method employed in the making of sponge cakes, where an egg protein matrix produced by vigorous whipping provides almost all the structure of the finished product.\n", "Section::::Culinary properties.:Cooking substitutes.\n", "A century egg or hundred-year-old egg is preserved by coating an egg in a mixture of clay, wood ash, salt, lime, and rice straw for several weeks to several months, depending on the method of processing. After the process is completed, the yolk becomes a dark green, cream-like substance with a strong odor of sulfur and ammonia, while the white becomes a dark brown, transparent jelly with a comparatively mild, distinct flavor. The transforming agent in a century egg is its alkaline material, which gradually raises the pH of the egg from approximately 9 to 12 or more. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats of the yolk into simpler, flavorful ones, which in some way may be thought of as an \"inorganic\" version of fermentation.\n", "Chef Heston Blumenthal, after \"relentless trials\", published a recipe for \"the perfect boiled egg\" suggesting cooking the egg in water that starts cold and covers the egg by no more than a millimeter, removing the pan from the heat as soon as the water starts to bubble. After six minutes, the egg will be ready.\n", "There are two methods of coddling eggs. The first is to cook the egg in its shell, by immersing it in near-boiling water. This can be done either in a pan where the water is kept below boiling point, or by pouring boiling water over the egg and letting it stand for 2 to 5 minutes, based on starting temperature of the eggs, number of eggs cooked at once and amount of boiling water used.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nIn alchemy, the oil was traditionally extracted from the yolk by a fairly simple process, by which fifty eggs yielded approximately five ounces of oil. Modern methods of production include liquid–liquid extraction using common solvents such as hexane, petroleum ether, chloroform and ethanol. Unlike traditional egg oil produced by heat, solvent extracted product also contains immunoglobulins which are destroyed at higher temperatures. There are only a few commercial producers globally.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- Vinegar: Some add vinegar to the water (as is sometimes done with poached eggs) to prevent the white from billowing in case of cracking. For this purpose, table salt can also be used.\n", "A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, which are typically largely egg albumins in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming an interconnected solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid. The skin that forms on curdled milk is another common example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by chemically \"cooking\" raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade, without heat.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooking temperatures: In addition to cooking at a rolling boil (at ), one may instead add the egg before a boil is reached, remove water from heat after a boil is reached, or attempt to maintain a temperature below boiling, the latter all variants of coddling.\n", "There are several theories as to the proper technique of hard-boiling an egg. One method is to bring water to a boil and cook for ten minutes. Another method is to bring the water to a boil, but then remove the pan from the heat and allow eggs to cook in the gradually cooling water. Over-cooking eggs will typically result in a thin green iron(II) sulfide coating on the yolk. This reaction occurs more rapidly in older eggs as the whites are more alkaline. Immersing the egg in cold water after boiling is a common method of halting the cooking process to prevent this effect. It also causes a slight shrinking of the contents of the egg.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Percussion caps, as used in muzzleloader firearms, and primers used in rifle and shotgun shells create a stream of sparks when rapidly struck.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Electrical.\n", "BULLET::::- Linseed oil and Danish oil in a confined space (such as a pile of oil-soaked rags left out in an uncovered container, especially if rags afterward used with anti-moisture solvent to clean up the oil) can oxidize leading to a buildup of heat and thus ignition.\n\nBULLET::::- Coal can ignite spontaneously when exposed to oxygen, which causes it to react and heat up when there is insufficient ventilation for cooling.\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrite oxidation is often the cause of coal spontaneous ignition in old mine tailings.\n", "Oxidizing and reducing flames\n\nIn various burners, the oxidizing flame is the flame produced with an excessive amount of oxygen. When the amount of oxygen increases, the flame shortens, its color darkens, and it hisses and roars. With some exceptions (e.g., platinum soldering in jewelry), the oxidizing flame is usually undesirable for welding and soldering, since, as its name suggests, it oxidizes the metal's surface. The same principle is important in firing pottery—see Reducing atmosphere.\n", "This explains why there is no sound when the flame is heating the gauze: all air flowing through the tube is heated by the flame, so when it reaches the gauze, it is already hot and no pressure increase takes place.\n", "The simplest example of a thermoacoustic combustion instability is perhaps that happening in a horizontal Rijke tube (see also thermoacoustics): Consider the flow through a horizontal tube open at both ends, in which a flat flame sits at a distance of one-quarter the tube length from the leftmost end. In a similar way to an organ pipe, acoustic waves travel up and down the tube producing a particular pattern of standing waves. Such a pattern also forms in actual combustors, but takes a more complex form. The acoustic waves perturb the flame. In turn, the flame affects the acoustics. This feedback between the acoustic waves in the combustor and the heat-release fluctuations from the flame is a hallmark of thermoacoustic combustion instabilities. It is typically represented with a block diagram (see figure). Under some conditions, the perturbations will grow and then saturate, producing a particular noise. In fact, it is said that the flame of a Rijke tube sings.\n", "BULLET::::- The neutral plane is moving down towards the floor. In this situation, a flashover is plausible.\n\nBULLET::::- All directly exposed combustible materials are showing signs of pyrolysis.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rollover\" or tongues of fire appear (known as \"Angel Fingers\" to firefighters) as gases reach their auto-ignition temperatures.\n\nBULLET::::- There is a rapid build-up (or \"spike\") in temperature due to the compound effect of rapidly burning (i.e., deflagrating) gases and the thermal cycle they produce. This is generally the best indication of a flashover.\n", "A common form of minor firebox \"explosion\" is known as \"drumming\" and can occur with any type of fuel. Instead of the normal \"roar\" of the fire, a rhythmic series of \"thumps\" and flashes of fire below the grate and through the firedoor indicate that the combustion of the fuel is proceeding through a rapid series of detonations, caused by an inappropriate air/fuel mixture with regard to the level of draft available. This usually causes no damage in locomotive type boilers, but can cause cracks in masonry boiler settings if allowed to continue.\n\nSection::::Firebox explosions.:Grooving.\n", "Some fire-starting systems use a ferrocerium rod and a hard scraper to create hot sparks by manually scratching the ferro rod with a knife or sharp object to ignite man-made or natural tinder. Fire starters based upon ferrocerium are popular with bushcraft hobbyists and survivalists. Similar sparking devices have a built-in striking blade which provides an easy method for sparking with one hand. Another common type has the ferrorod attached to a magnesium bar that can be scraped with a knife to make a powdered tinder that will burn for a few seconds.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Percussion.:Lighters.\n", "When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or silo, a significant increase in pressure is created, often more than sufficient to demolish the structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as nonflammable (such as aluminum), or slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and can be ignited by even a small spark.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "The tinders that ignite at a very low temperature work best. Easily-combustible materials such as char cloth or amadou work well as tinder, and can also hold an ember. By contrast, cotton fibers ignite at and will flash brightly but do not hold an ember. The bright flash of light is sometimes sufficient for demonstration purposes, but will not start a persistent fire.\n", "Sensitive flame\n\nA sensitive flame is a gas flame which under suitable adjustment of pressure resonates readily with sounds or air vibrations in the vicinity. Noticed by both the American scientist John LeConte and the English physicist William Fletcher Barrett, they recorded the effect that a shrill note had upon a gas flame issuing from a tapering jet. The phenomenon caught the attention of the Irish physicist John Tyndall who gave a lecture on the process to the Royal Institution in January 1867.\n", "Premixed turbulent flames\n\nIn a premixed turbulent flame, fuel and oxidizer are being mixed by turbulence during a sufficiently long time before combustion is initiated. The deposition of energy from the spark generates a flame kernel that grows at first by laminar, then by turbulent flame propagation. And in which the oxidizer has been mixed with the fuel before it reaches the flame front. This creates a thin flame front as all of the reactants are readily available.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Reduction of pollutant emissions from high pressure flames using an electric field Erlangen [ESYTEC-Verl.] 2006.\n", "The chimneys and exhausts of other fuel-burning engines such as steam engines or internal combustion engines might also have spark arrestors fitted if there would be a fire risk from their operation. For example, a trail bike might be fitted with a centrifugal arrestor, which will trap glowing hot pieces of soot.\n\nSection::::Symbolism.\n", "This sudden, localized heat release generates a shock wave which travels through the combustion chamber, with its sudden pressure rise causing an audible knocking sound. Worse, the shock wave disrupts the thermal boundary layer on the piston surface, causing overheating and eventual melting. The output power decreases and, unless the throttle (or load) is cut off quickly, the engine can be damaged as described in a few minutes. The sensitivity of a fuel to a cool-flame ignition strongly depends on the temperature, pressure and composition. \n", "BULLET::::- Exo-hiss and ELF hiss are two varieties of hiss observed outside of the plasmasphere, both having a spectrum similar to that of plasmaspheric hiss.\n\nBULLET::::- Midlatitude hiss is generally observed outside of the plasmasphere and tends to have frequencies between 2 and 10 kHz.\n\nBULLET::::- Auroral hiss is observed in the auroral zones of the Earth and can extend up to several hundred kHz.\n\nSection::::Generation mechanisms.\n\nThere are several proposed generation mechanisms for plasmaspheric hiss in particular, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Generation from discrete chorus emissions\n\nBULLET::::- Generation via electromagnetic impulses from terrestrial lightning, specifically via lightning-generated whistlers\n", "Lastly, heat-release fluctuations due to static instabilities are related to the mechanisms explained in the next section.\n\nSection::::Static instability or flame blow-off.\n", "One experimental study has suggested that the effect is caused by the ionization process occurring mostly at the base of the flame, making it more difficult for the electrode further from the base of the flame to attract positive ions from the burner, yet leaving the electron current largely unchanged with distance because of the greater mobility of the electron charge carriers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Flame detection\n\nBULLET::::- Flame supervision device\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- A video of a flame being used as a rectifier in a simple AM radio\n\nBULLET::::- Using a flame as a triode amplifier\n", "BULLET::::- HummerTiny tube fireworks that are ejected into the air spinning with such force that they shred their outer coating, in doing so they whizz and hum.\n", "Section::::Combustion efficiency.\n\nEfficient combustion relies on the complete combustion of the fuel. Production of soot represents a waste of fuel (the soot could have been burned further) and may also be a problem for its build-up around jets and burners. Heating burners are thus usually designed to produce a \"non-\"luminous flame.\n\nSection::::Oil lamps.\n", "BULLET::::- The best-known application is the electric cigarette lighter: pressing the button causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high-voltage electric current that flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. The portable sparkers used to ignite gas stoves work the same way, and many types of gas burners now have built-in piezo-based ignition systems.\n", "Piobert's law\n\nPiobert's law applies to the reaction of solid propellant grains to generate hot gas. It is stated: \"Burning takes place by parallel layers where the surface of the grain regresses, layer by layer, normal to the surface at every point.\"\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Flame polishing is essential to creation of the glass pipettes used for the patch clamp technique of voltage clamping.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "There are many sources of ignition, and a naked flame need not be the only one: over one half of the dust explosions in Germany in 2005 were from non-flame sources. Common sources of ignition include:\n\nBULLET::::- electrostatic discharge (e.g. an improperly installed conveyor belt, which can act like a Van de Graaff generator)\n\nBULLET::::- friction\n\nBULLET::::- electrical arcing from machinery or other equipment\n\nBULLET::::- hot surfaces (e.g. overheated bearings)\n\nBULLET::::- fire\n\nBULLET::::- self-ignition\n", "Under certain conditions, mainly in terms of geometrical conditions (such as partial confinement and many obstacles in the flame path that cause turbulent flame eddy currents), a subsonic flame may accelerate to supersonic speed, transitioning from deflagration to detonation. The exact mechanism is not fully understood,\n\nand while existing theories are able to explain and model both deflagrations and detonations, there is no theory at present which can predict the transition phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nA deflagration to detonation transition has been a feature of several major industrial accidents:\n\nBULLET::::- 1970 Propane vapour cloud explosion in Port Hudson\n\nBULLET::::- Flixborough disaster\n", "In the transient flow step the polymer's surface begins to melt. The melt layer thickness quickly grows, causing the frictional forces to decrease. This decrease in friction decreases the heat input to the system, and a lateral flow of molten material begins to occur.\n\nSection::::Vibration welding process.:Steady state flow.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Composed-light violet shows two colors when decomposed. Violet light from the rainbow, which can be referred as spectral violet, is composed only by a short wavelength instead. This monochromatic violet light occupies its own place at the end of the visible spectrum, and is one of the seven spectral colors described by Isaac Newton in 1672.\n\nViolet light is at the higher end of the visible spectrum, with a wavelength ~380-450 nanometers (in experiments, people have so far seen to 410 nm). Light with a shorter wavelength than violet but longer than X-rays and gamma rays is called ultraviolet.\n", "Displayed at right is the color sky magenta. The color \"sky magenta\" is a representation of the color of the sky near the sun during the brief period during twilight when the pink of sunset transitions into the blue of early evening. This color was one of the colors in the set of \"Venus Paradise\" colored pencils, a popular brand of colored pencils in the 1950s. \n\nThis color is also called \"medium lavender pink\".\n\nA photograph of the sky displaying the color \"sky magenta\" in its natural context by photographer Dave Horne is displayed here: \n", "Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. Humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish-blue or whitish-violet. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm. Near-UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this gives birds \"true\" UV vision.\n", "Section::::Accuracy.\n", "Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human \"visible spectrum\". Bees and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find nectar in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet \"colors\" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light; their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.\n", "Humans and primates are unique as they possess trichromatic color vision, and are able to discern between violet [short wave (SW)], green [medium wave (MW)], and yellow-green [long wave (LW)]. Mammals other than primates generally have less effective two-receptor color perception systems, allowing only dichromatic color vision; marine mammals have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats. Honey- and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision, which is insensitive to red but sensitive in ultraviolet to a color called \"bee purple\".\n", "Section::::Curated programs.:\"Maybe the Sky is Really Green, and We’re Just Colourblind: On Zapping, Close Encounters and the Commercial Break\".\n", "Section::::Description.:Fluorescence.\n\nIn 2019 it was observed, by chance, that a flying squirrel fluoresced pink. Subsequent research by Paula Spaeth Anich, a biologist at Northland College in Northern Wisconsin, found that this is true for all three species of North American flying squirrels. At this time it is unknown what purpose this serves. Non-flying squirrels do not fluoresce under UV light.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "Violet light\n\nThough the violet color is normally composed of blue and red light, violet color can also be monochromatic, composed only by violet light. Combinations of red and blue lights and monochromatic light of wavelength smaller than blue produce a similar effect for the human eye due to a second resonancy of the red-sensitive cone cells.\n", "Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some cataract surgery patients. Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas. These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.\n", "From the point of view of optics, violet is a real color: it occupies its own place at the end of the visible spectrum, and was one of the seven spectral colors of the spectrum first described by Isaac Newton in 1672.\n", "Displayed at right is the color vivid violet, a color approximately equivalent to the violet seen at the extreme edge of human visual perception. When plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram, it can be seen that this is a hue corresponding to that of a visual stimulus of approximately 380 nm on the spectrum. Thus another name for this color is extreme violet. \n\nSection::::Variations of the color violet.:Computer web color violets.\n\nSection::::Variations of the color violet.:Computer web color violets.:Web color \"violet\".\n", "Light from the sky is a result of the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight, which results in a blue color perceived by the human eye. On a sunny day, Rayleigh scattering gives the sky a blue gradient, where it is darkest around the zenith and bright near the horizon. Light rays incoming from overhead encounters of the air mass that those coming along a horizontal path encounter. Hence, fewer particles scatter the zenithal sunbeam, and thus the light remains a darker blue. The blueness is at the horizon because the blue light coming from great distances is also preferentially scattered. This results in a red shift of the distant light sources that is compensated by the blue hue of the scattered light in the line of sight. In other words, the red light scatters also; if it does so at a point a great distance from the observer it has a much higher chance of reaching the observer than blue light. At distances nearing infinity, the scattered light is therefore white. Distant clouds or snowy mountaintops will seem yellow for that reason; that effect is not obvious on clear days, but very pronounced when clouds are covering the line of sight reducing the blue hue from scattered sunlight.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"New Age Prophetess\", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the \"seventh ray\" of \"Ceremonial Order\" is represented by the color violet. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be \"on the Violet Ray\".\n\nBULLET::::- In the Ascended Master Teachings, the color violet is used to represent the Ascended Master St. Germain.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Invocation of the Violet Flame\" is a system of meditation practice used in the \"I AM\" Activity and by the Church Universal and Triumphant (both Ascended Master Teaching religions).\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The color at right, electric violet, is the closest approximation to middle \"spectrum violet\" that can be made on a computer screen, given the limitations of the sRGB color gamut. It is an approximation of the color violet at about 400 nanometers as plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram, in the middle of the violet range of from 420 nanometers to 380 nanometers, assuming indigo as a separate spectrum color from 450 to 420 nanometers. Other names for this color are middle violet or simply violet.\n\nSection::::Variations of the color violet.:Variations of spectral violet.:Vivid violet.\n", "Visible wavelengths pass largely unattenuated through the Earth's atmosphere via the \"optical window\" region of the electromagnetic spectrum. An example of this phenomenon is when clean air scatters blue light more than red light, and so the midday sky appears blue. The optical window is also referred to as the \"visible window\" because it overlaps the human visible response spectrum. The near infrared (NIR) window lies just out of the human vision, as well as the medium wavelength infrared (MWIR) window, and the long wavelength or far infrared (LWIR or FIR) window, although other animals may experience them.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Many species can see light within frequencies outside the human \"visible spectrum\". Bees and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them find nectar in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to their appearance in ultraviolet light rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. Bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. The popular belief that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light is incorrect, because goldfish cannot see infrared light. Similarly, dogs are often thought to be color blind but they have been shown to be sensitive to colors, though not as many as humans. Some snakes can \"see\" radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm to a degree of accuracy such that a blind rattlesnake can target vulnerable body parts of the prey at which it strikes, and other snakes with the organ may detect warm bodies from a meter away. It may also be used in thermoregulation and predator detection. (See Infrared sensing in snakes)\n", "Violet colors composed by mixing blue and red light are within the purple colors (the word \"purple\" is used in the common sense for any color between blue and red). In color theory, a purple is a color along the line of purples on the CIE chromaticity diagram and excludes violet. Violet light from the rainbow, which can be referred as spectral violet, has only short wavelengths.\n", "Violet is the color at the end of the visible spectrum of light between blue and the invisible ultraviolet. Violet color has a dominant wavelength of approximately 380-450 nanometers. Light with a shorter wavelength than violet but longer than X-rays and gamma rays is called ultraviolet. In the color wheel historically used by painters, it is located between blue and purple. On the screens of computer monitors and television sets, a color which looks similar to violet is made, with the RGB color model, by mixing red and blue light, with the blue twice as bright as the red. This is not true violet, for it does not match the color of a single wavelength shorter than that of blue light.\n", "The nighttime views were obtained with the new satellite's \"day-night band\" of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), which detects light in a range of wavelengths from green to near-infrared, and uses filtering techniques to observe dim signals such as city lights, gas flares, auroras, wildfires, and reflected moonlight. Auroras, fires, and other stray light have been removed in the case of the \"Black Marble\" images to emphasize the city lights. The images have been used to study the spatial distribution of economic activity, to select sites for astronomical observatories, and to monitor human activities around protected areas.\n", "The still commonly presented incorrect explanation claims that the Earth’s post-sunset and pre-sunrise atmosphere solely receives and disperses the sun’s shorter blue wavelengths and scatters the longer, reddish wavelengths to explain why the hue of this hour is so blue. In fact, the blue hour occurs when the Sun is far enough below the horizon so that the sunlight's blue wavelengths dominate due to the Chappuis absorption caused by ozone. Even some websites dedicated to information about ozone still propagate the incorrect claim that ozone does not contribute to the blue color of the sky, though this effect is much weaker during the rest of the day, between morning and evening twilight.\n", "Section::::Discovery.\n\n\"Ultraviolet\" means \"beyond violet\" (from Latin \"ultra\", \"beyond\"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency (and thus a shorter wavelength) than violet light.\n", "The so-called web color \"violet\" is in actuality not really a tint of violet, a spectral color, but is a non-spectral color. The web color violet is actually a rather pale tint of magenta because it has equal amounts of red and blue (the definition of magenta for computer display), and some of the green primary mixed in, unlike most other variants of violet that are closer to blue. This same color appears as \"violet\" in the X11 color names.\n\nSection::::Variations of the color violet.:Computer web color violets.:Pigment violet (web color dark violet).\n", "The tertiary color on the HSV color wheel (also known as the ) precisely halfway between blue and magenta is called color wheel violet. This tone of violet—an approximation of the color violet at about 417 nanometers as plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram—is shown at right. This tone of violet is actually somewhat toward indigo assuming indigo is accepted as a separate spectrum color, usually quoted as having a range of from about 420 to 450 nanometers. Another name for this color is near violet.\n\nSection::::Variations of the color violet.:Variations of spectral violet.:Electric violet.\n" ]

[ "It's possible birds and other animals see the color violet instead of the color blue when they look at the sky." ]

[ "How an animal with cones that can detect UV waves is unlikely to see the color of the sky as what we would call \"violet\"." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It's possible birds and other animals see the color violet instead of the color blue when they look at the sky." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "How an animal with cones that can detect UV waves is unlikely to see the color of the sky as what we would call \"violet\"." ]

[ "Here is a somewhat more elaborate example where the behavior of belief and plausibility begins to emerge. We're looking through a variety of detector systems at a single faraway signal light, which can only be coloured in one of three colours (red, yellow, or green):\n", "In addition to following this evolutionary pattern absolutely, each of the languages studied also selected virtually identical focal hues for each color category present. For example, the term for \"red\" in each of the languages corresponded to roughly the same shade in the Munsell color system. Consequently, they posited that the cognition, or perception, of each color category is also universal.\n\nSection::::Universalist view.:Additional universalist arguments.\n", "In the case of innate CP, our categorically biased sensory detectors pick out their prepared color and speech-sound categories far more readily and reliably than if our perception had been continuous.\n", "The first color naming task was located in Ruesch and Wells Mental Examiner’s Handbook (1972). It consisted of 50 squares of 5 primary colors repeated in random order 10 times. The test was originally administered as a timed continuous test at the bedside of individuals recovering from head injury.\n\nRapid automatized naming was first identified in 1974 as predicting reading abilities in young English readers between 5–11 years of age by Martha Denckla and Rita Rudel of Columbia University.\n", "Color constancy works only if the incident illumination contains a range of wavelengths. The different cone cells of the eye register different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths of the light reflected by every object in the scene. From this information, the visual system attempts to determine the approximate composition of the illuminating light. This illumination is then \"discounted\" in order to obtain the object's \"true color\" or reflectance: the wavelengths of light the object reflects. This reflectance then largely determines the perceived color.\n\nSection::::Physiological basis.:Neural mechanism.\n", "Other examples of perceptual learning in the natural world include the ability to distinguish between relative pitches in music, identify tumors in x-rays, sort day-old chicks by gender, taste the subtle differences between beers or wines, identify faces as belonging to different races, detect the features that distinguish familiar faces, discriminate between two bird species (\"great blue crown heron\" and \"chipping sparrow\"), and attend selectively to the hue, saturation and brightness values that comprise a color definition.\n\nSection::::Brief history.\n", "Section::::Opponent process.\n\nThe color opponent process is a color theory that states that the human visual system interprets information about color by processing signals from cone and rod cells in an antagonistic manner. The three types of cone cells have some overlap in the wavelengths of light to which they respond, so it is more efficient for the visual system to record differences between the responses of cones, rather than each type of cone's individual response. The opponent color theory suggests that there are three opponent channels:\n\nBULLET::::- Red versus green.\n\nBULLET::::- Blue versus yellow\n", "Section::::Universalist view.:Research before Berlin and Kay (1969).:Brown & Lenneberg.\n\nBrown and Lenneberg published \"A Study in Language and Cognition\" in 1954, where they discussed the effect of codability on recognition. In their experiment they used a series of Munsell chips to test color recall and recognition in English speakers. Their findings suggested that the availability of a basic color term in a given language affected the retention of that color in recall testing. Brown and Lenneberg linked their study to Lenneberg and Roberts' 1953 findings on color recall in Zuni speakers.\n\nSection::::Relativist view.\n", "When tested in a simple stimulus matching-to-sample task (described above) many animals readily learn specific item combinations, such as \"touch red if the sample is red, touch green if the sample is green.\" But this does not demonstrate that they distinguish between \"same\" and \"different\" as general concepts. Better evidence is provided if, after training, an animal successfully makes a choice that matches a novel sample that it has never seen before. Monkeys and chimpanzees do learn to do this, as do pigeons if they are given a great deal of practice with many different stimuli. However, because the sample is presented first, successful matching might mean that the animal is simply choosing the most recently seen \"familiar\" item rather than the conceptually \"same\" item. A number of studies have attempted to distinguish these possibilities, with mixed results.\n", "1) The theory of innate knowledge is excessive. Even innatists accept that most of our knowledge is learned through experience, but if that can be extended to account for all knowledge, we learn colour through seeing it, so therefore, there is no need for a theory about an innate understanding of colour.\n", "If Mary really does know everything physical there is to know about the experience of color, then this effectively grants her almost omniscient powers of knowledge. Using this, she will be able to deduce her own reaction, and figure out exactly what the experience of seeing red will feel like.\n", "This may seem implausible, since there is nothing red in a brain to act as a sense datum. However, it is perfectly consistent—in the sense that the data \"are red\" when experienced directly, even though the physical processes of perception may not appear red if they were experienced in a contrived and inappropriately indirect way, such as by examining the brain of the experiencer with scientific instruments.\n", "Scholarship on color vision has proceeded in three principal domains within the last twenty years. There have been revisions to the Berlin & Kay hypothesis; in response, there have been continued challenges to that hypothesis; and lastly, the field of vision science has expanded to explore hue categorization at a perceptual level, independent of language-based distinctions, possibly offering compromise in the two polar theories.\n\nSection::::Recent scholarship.:Revisions of the Berlin & Kay hypothesis.\n", "On some theories, the tomato itself is not red except in the eyes of a red-seeing being. Thus when one says that a neural state is or is not 'red' without referring the judgement of redness to the owner of the neurons concerned, there is an assumption that things can have innate appearances without reference to perceivers—which is implicitly denied by the sense data theory. Thus the criticism that sense data cannot really be red is made from a position of presupposition inconsistent with a theory of sense data—so it is bound to seem to make the theory seem wrong. More recent opposition to the existence of sense data appears to be simply regression to naïve realism.\n", "Dennett finds that many people find it difficult to see this, so he uses the case of RoboMary to further illustrate what it would be like for Mary to possess such a vast knowledge of the physical workings of the human brain and color vision. RoboMary is an intelligent robot who, instead of the ordinary color camera-eyes, has a software lock such that she is only able to perceive black and white and shades in-between.\n", "\"In the mid-nineteenth century, various scholars, notably William Gladstone (1858) and Lazarus Geiger (1880), noted that the speakers of ancient written languages did not name colors as precisely and consistently – as they saw it – as the speakers of modern European languages. They proposed a universal evolutionary sequence in which color vocabulary evolves in tandem with an assumed biological evolution of the color sense\".\n", "In response, Levin argues that a novel color experience does in fact yield new factual knowledge, such as \"information about the color's similarities and compatibilities with other colors, and its effect on other of our mental states.\" Tye counters that Mary could have (and would have, given the stipulations of the thought experiment) learned all such facts prior to leaving the room, without needing to experience the color firsthand. For example, Mary could know the fact \"red is more like orange than green\" without ever experiencing the colors in question.\n", "In a 1992 study, Robert Gisiner and Ronald J. Schusterman conducted experiments in which they attempted to teach Rocky, a female California sea lion, syntax. Rocky was taught signed words, then she was asked to perform various tasks dependent on word order after viewing a signed instruction. It was found that Rocky was able to determine relations between signs and words, and form a basic form of syntax. A 1993 study by Ronald J Schusterman and David Kastak found that the California sea lion was capable of understanding abstract concepts such as symmetry, sameness and transitivity. This provides a strong backing to the theory that equivalence relations can form without language.\n", "Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment.\n", "For example, consider what happens when a person is shown a color swatch and identifies it, saying \"it's red\". The easy problem only requires understanding the machinery in the brain that makes it possible for a person to know that the color swatch is red. The hard problem is that people also know something else—they also know \"what red looks like\". (Consider that a person born blind can know that something is red without knowing what red looks like.) Everyone knows subjective experience exists, because they do it every day (e.g., all sighted people know what red looks like). The hard problem is explaining how the brain creates it, why it exists, and how it is different from knowledge and other aspects of the brain.\n", "In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a psychophysical approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them \"S\", \"M\", and \"L\". To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities (\"I\", \"I\", \"I\") for the \"S\", \"M\", and \"L\" lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their (\"I\", \"I\", \"I\") matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of \"S\", \"M\", \"L\" would have to be added with some intensity to the \"physical test color\", and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.\n", "David Lewis has an argument that introduces a new hypothesis about types of knowledge and their transmission in qualia cases. Lewis agrees that Mary cannot learn what red looks like through her monochrome physicalist studies. But he proposes that this doesn't matter. Learning transmits information, but experiencing qualia doesn't transmit information; instead it communicates abilities. When Mary sees red, she doesn't get any new information. She gains new abilities—now she can remember what red looks like, imagine what other red things might look like and recognize further instances of redness. Lewis states that Jackson's thought experiment uses the \"Phenomenal Information Hypothesis\"—that is, the new knowledge that Mary gains upon seeing red is phenomenal information. Lewis then proposes a different \"Ability Hypothesis\" that differentiates between two types of knowledge: knowledge that (information) and knowledge how (abilities). Normally the two are entangled; ordinary learning is also an experience of the subject concerned, and people both learn information (for instance, that Freud was a psychologist) and gain ability (to recognize images of Freud). However, in the thought experiment, Mary can only use ordinary learning to gain know-that knowledge. She is prevented from using experience to gain the know-how knowledge that would allow her to remember, imagine and recognize the color red.\n", "A number of neuropsychological studies suggest that the association of colour, shape and movement as \"features of an object\" is not simply a matter of linking or \"binding\". Purves and Lotto give extensive evidence for top-down feedback signals that ensure that sensory data are handled as features of (sometimes wrongly) postulated objects early in processing. In many illusions data appear as if pre-consciously adjusted in accordance with object expectations. Pylyshyn has also emphasized the way the brain seems to pre-conceive objects to which features are to be allocated and which are attributed continuing existence even if features like color change.\n", "They designed experiments involving the codification of colors. In their first experiment, they investigated whether it was easier for speakers of English to remember color shades for which they had a specific name than to remember colors that were not as easily definable by words. This allowed them to compare the linguistic categorization directly to a non-linguistic task. In a later experiment, speakers of two languages that categorize colors differently (English and Zuni) were asked to recognize colors. In this way, it could be determined whether the differing color categories of the two speakers would determine their ability to recognize nuances within color categories. Brown and Lenneberg found that Zuñi speakers who classify green and blue together as a single color did have trouble recognizing and remembering nuances within the green/blue category. Brown and Lenneberg's study began a tradition of investigation of linguistic relativity through color terminology.\n", "Discovering different abilities of animals or humans who are unable to communicate. Discrimination Learning can be used to see what differences an animal will respond to. For example, since we are unable to have general two-way communication with dogs, we could show a dog two different stimuli that are the same in every way other than one, such as color. We could then use discrimination learning to see which colors a dog can discriminate between. \n\nSection::::Famous Studies.\n\nSome famous studies using discrimination learning include:\n" ]

[ "All brains interpret colors the same. ", "One person's red is the same as another person's red." ]

[ "Colors are identified by electromagnetic wavelength, but there is no way to know how each brain interprets colors. ", "There is no way to know if the way one person's brain interprets red is the same way another person's brain interprets red." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All brains interpret colors the same. ", "One person's red is the same as another person's red." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Colors are identified by electromagnetic wavelength, but there is no way to know how each brain interprets colors. ", "There is no way to know if the way one person's brain interprets red is the same way another person's brain interprets red." ]

[ "Section::::Canal rays.\n\nIn the mid-nineteenth century, Julius Plücker investigated the light emitted in discharge tubes and the influence of magnetic fields on the glow. Later, in 1869, Johann Wilhelm Hittorf studied discharge tubes with energy rays extending from a negative electrode, the cathode. These rays produced a fluorescence when they hit a tube's glass walls, and when interrupted by a solid object they cast a shadow.\n", "In retrospect, it seems likely that the electrical discharges reported by Winkler in 1744 were started by CFE from his wire electrode. However, meaningful investigations had to wait until after J.J. Thomson's identification of the electron in 1897, and until after it was understood – from thermal emission and photo-emission work – that electrons could be emitted from inside metals (rather than from surface-adsorbed gas molecules), and that – in the absence of applied fields – electrons escaping from metals had to overcome a work function barrier.\n", "Canal rays, also called anode rays, were observed by Eugen Goldstein, in 1886. Goldstein used a gas discharge tube which had a perforated cathode. The rays are produced in the holes (canals) in the cathode and travels in a direction opposite to the \"cathode rays,\" which are streams of electrons. Goldstein called these positive rays \"Kanalstrahlen\" - canal rays. In 1907 a study of how this \"ray\" was deflected in a magnetic field, revealed that the particles making up the ray were not all the same mass.\n\nSection::::Discovery of isotopes.\n", "Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.\n\nSection::::History.:Atomic theory.\n", "The ideas of Oppenheimer, Fowler and Nordheim were also an important stimulus to the development, by Gamow, and Gurney and Condon, later in 1928, of the theory of the radioactive decay of nuclei (by alpha particle tunneling).\n\nSection::::Practical applications: past and present.\n\nSection::::Practical applications: past and present.:Field electron microscopy and related basics.\n\nAs already indicated, the early experimental work on field electron emission (1910–1920) was driven by Lilienfeld's desire to develop miniaturized X-ray tubes for medical applications. However, it was too early for this technology to succeed.\n", "During the 1820s, Robert Hare developed the Deflagrator, a form of voltaic battery having large plates used for producing rapid and powerful combustion. A modified form of this apparatus was employed in 1823 in volatilising and fusing carbon. It was with these batteries that the first use of voltaic electricity for blasting under water was made in 1831.\n", "Section::::Cold-cathode devices.\n\nA cold-cathode vacuum tube does not rely on external heating of an electrode to provide thermionic emission of electrons. Early cold-cathode devices included the Geissler tube and Plucker tube, and early cathode ray tubes. Study of the phenomena in these devices led to the discovery of the electron.\n", "Cathode rays are now usually called electron beams. The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in these early tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, particularly in the invention of the cathode ray tube (CRT) by Ferdinand Braun in 1897, which was used in television sets and oscilloscopes. Today, electron beams are employed in sophisticated devices such as electron microscopes, electron beam lithography and particle accelerators.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n", "BULLET::::- Electron capture is a decay mode for isotopes that will occur when there are too many protons in the nucleus of an atom and insufficient energy to emit a positron. However, it continues to be a viable decay mode for radioactive isotopes that can decay by positron emission. K-electron capture was discovered by Luis Alvarez, who demonstrated it in 1937 and reported it in The Physical Review in April 1938.\n\n1938 Fluropolymers\n", "The theory of electron capture was first discussed by Gian-Carlo Wick in a 1934 paper, and then developed by Hideki Yukawa and others. K-electron capture was first observed by Luis Alvarez, in vanadium-48. He reported it in a 1937 paper in \"Physical Review\". Alvarez went on to study electron capture in gallium-67 and other nuclides.\n\nSection::::Reaction details.\n\nExamples:\n", "Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument maker, constructed the first dynamo in 1832 and later built a direct current dynamo using the commutator. This was the first practical mechanical generator of electric current that used concepts demonstrated by Faraday.\n", "In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months. The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.\n", "The electron as a unit of charge in electrochemistry was posited by G. Johnstone Stoney in 1874, who also coined the term \"electron\" in 1894. Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 (he called it \"radiant matter\"). The place of electricity in leading up to the discovery of those beautiful phenomena of the Crookes Tube (due to Sir William Crookes), viz., Cathode rays, and later to the discovery of Roentgen or X-rays, must not be overlooked, since without electricity as the excitant of the tube the discovery of the rays might have been postponed indefinitely. It has been noted herein that Dr. William Gilbert was termed the founder of electrical science. This must, however, be regarded as a comparative statement.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Initial development.\n\nIn 1933, Ernst Brüche reported images of cathodes illuminated by UV light. This work was extended by two of his colleagues, H. Mahl and J. Pohl. Brüche made a sketch of his photoelectron emission microscope in his 1933 paper (Figure 1). This is evidently the first photoelectron emission microscope (PEEM).\n\nSection::::History.:Improved techniques.\n", "It was not until the 1970s that undulators were installed in electron storage rings to produce synchrotron radiation. The first institutions to take these devices were the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow, and the Tomsk Polytechnic University. These installations allowed a fuller characterisation of the behaviour of undulators.\n", "Field electron emission has a long, complicated and messy history. This section covers the early history, up to the derivation of the original Fowler–Nordheim-type equation in 1928.\n", "At this time, atoms were the smallest particles known, and were believed to be indivisible. What carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many historic experiments were done with Crookes tubes to determine what cathode rays were. There were two theories. Crookes and Arthur Schuster believed they were particles of \"radiant matter,\" that is, electrically charged atoms. German scientists Eilhard Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz and Goldstein believed they were \"aether waves\", some new form of electromagnetic radiation, and were separate from what carried the electric current through the tube.\n", "At this time, interest in the electron microscope had increased, with other groups, such as that of Paul Anderson and Kenneth Fitzsimmons of Washington State University and that of Albert Prebus and James Hillier at the University of Toronto, who constructed the first TEMs in North America in 1935 and 1938, respectively, continually advancing TEM design.\n", "Research continued on the electron microscope at Siemens in 1936, where the aim of the research was the development and improvement of TEM imaging properties, particularly with regard to biological specimens. At this time electron microscopes were being fabricated for specific groups, such as the \"EM1\" device used at the UK National Physical Laboratory. In 1939 the first commercial electron microscope, pictured, was installed in the Physics department of IG Farben-Werke. Further work on the electron microscope was hampered by the destruction of a new laboratory constructed at Siemens by an air raid, as well as the death of two of the researchers, Heinz Müller and Friedrick Krause during World War II.\n", "A series of four lectures, given by Thomson on a visit to Princeton University in 1896, were subsequently published as \"Discharge of electricity through gases\" (1897). Thomson also presented a series of six lectures at Yale University in 1904.\n\nSection::::Career and research.:Discovery of the electron.\n", "In order to improve this figure, it was suggested that a second accelerator fire electrons into the chamber as well; if electrons met ions they would neutralize, and as such, they would no longer be subject to the magnetic fields and leave the chamber. The key to making this work would be to send the electrons into the center, where the slower ions that were no longer useful were massing. Free electrons were also to be scavenged by devices in the reactor chamber.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Discovery of effect of electric force.\n\nThe ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur. Along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded experiences with electricity. In his 1600 treatise , the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term , to refer to those substances with property similar to that of amber which attract small objects after being rubbed. Both \"electric\" and \"electricity\" are derived from the Latin ' (also the root of the alloy of the same name), which came from the Greek word for amber, (').\n", "In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the electron using the cathode ray tube. In 1898, Wilhelm Wien demonstrated that canal rays (streams of positive ions) can be deflected by magnetic fields, and that the amount of deflection is proportional to the mass-to-charge ratio. This discovery would lead to the analytical technique known as mass spectrometry in 1912.\n\nSection::::19th century.:Late 19th century.:Marie and Pierre Curie.\n", "Section::::Experiments with Crookes tubes.:Charge.\n\nJean-Baptiste Perrin wanted to determine whether the cathode rays actually carried negative charge, or whether they just accompanied the charge carriers, as the Germans thought. In 1895 he constructed a tube with a 'catcher', a closed aluminum cylinder with a small hole in the end facing the cathode, to collect the cathode rays. The catcher was attached to an electroscope to measure its charge. The electroscope showed a negative charge, proving that cathode rays really carry negative electricity.\n\nSection::::Experiments with Crookes tubes.:Anode rays.\n", "Section::::History.:Discovery of free electrons outside matter.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Until October 2019, both the UK and Ireland will be members of the EU, and therefore both are in the Customs Union and the Single Market. There is freedom of movement for all EU nationals within the Common Travel Area and there are no customs or fixed immigration controls at the border. Since 2005, the border has been essentially invisible. Following Brexit, the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland will become a land border between the EU and a non-EU state which may entail checks on goods at the border or at Irish ports, depending on the co-operation and alignment of regulations between the two sides. It is therefore possible that the border will return to being a \"hard\" one, with fewer, controlled, crossing posts and a customs infrastructure. Both the EU and the UK have agreed this should be avoided. A February 2019 report by Irish Senator Mark Daly and two UNESCO chairmen indicated that reinstating a hard border would result in the return of violence.\n", "Following Brexit, the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland will become an external EU border. In theory a \"hard\" border could return, with both fewer and supervised crossing posts, to support the necessary customs infrastructure. Both EU and UK negotiating teams have made clear that this outcome would not be acceptable in any final exit agreement.\n", "A referendum on the reunification of Ireland was suggested by NI Sinn Féin leader Martin McGuinness immediately after the UK EU referendum results were announced, a stance reiterated by the new party leader Mary Lou McDonald in 2018.\n\nA week after the Brexit referendum the then First Minister of Northern Ireland, the DUP's Arlene Foster and Deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness issued a joint letter in which they said that the border must not become a catalyst for illegal activity or create an incentive for those who wish to undermine the peace process.\n\nSection::::Positions on the Irish border.:Wider EU reaction.\n", "US Senator George Mitchell, who chaired the negotiations for the Belfast Agreement, has commented that he believes the creation of a border control system between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland might jeopardise the agreement. Research published on 18 February 2019 by Irish Senator Mark Daly and two UNESCO chairmen indicated that reinstating a hard border would result in the return of violence.\n\nSection::::Brexit referendum in Northern Ireland.\n", "In the proposed withdrawal agreement, the special arrangement for Northern Ireland would end when a solution can be found that delivers a border as imperceptible as it became from the Good Friday Agreement until Brexit. , such a solution remains to be identified. Partial solutions have been proposed but have not been judged adequate. \n", "The impact of Brexit on the Irish border derives from the fact that, after Brexit, the Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border on the island of Ireland would be the only significant external EU land border between the United Kingdom and the European Union, in particular the impact it may have on the economy and people of the island were customs or immigration checks to be put in place at the border. The UK voted to leave the European Union in a referendum on 23 June 2016 and all parties have stated that they want to avoid a hard border in Ireland, due particularly to the historically sensitive nature of the border. The impact that failure to agree terms for withdrawal (\"no deal\") may have on the economy and people of the island, were customs or immigration checks to be put in place at the border, would be severe.\n", "In March 2019, the UK government announced that it would not perform customs checks at the Irish border after a no-deal Brexit and acknowledged that that might present a smuggling risk. On 17 March the President of Ireland signed into law the Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Consequential Provisions) Act 2019.\n\nSection::::Impacts.:Border with France.\n", "Since about 2005, the border has been perceived as being invisible with little or no physical infrastructure, due to processes put in place by the Good Friday Agreement (or 'Belfast Agreement') signed in 1998. This agreement has the status of both an international treaty between the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (the British-Irish Agreement), as well as an agreement of the parties within Northern Ireland (Multi-Party Agreement). \n", "During the negotiations on Britain's planned 2019 withdrawal from the European Union, the EU produced a position paper on its concerns regarding support of the Good Friday Agreement by the UK during Brexit. The position paper addresses topics including the avoidance of a hard border, the North-South cooperation between Ireland and Northern Ireland, the birthright of all of the people of Northern Ireland (as set out in the Agreement), and the Common Travel Area. Anyone born in Northern Ireland, and thus entitled to an Irish passport by the Good Friday Agreement, will also be able to retain EU citizenship after Brexit. Under the European Union negotiating directives for Brexit, the UK was asked to satisfy the other EU members that these topics had been addressed in order to progress to the second stage of Brexit negotiations. In order to protect North-South co-operation and avoid controls on the Irish border, the UK agreed to protect the Agreement in all its parts and \"in the absence of agreed solutions, the United Kingdom will maintain full alignment with those rules of the Internal Market and the Customs Union which, now or in the future, support North-South cooperation, the all-island economy and the protection of the 1998 Agreement.\"\n", "While the trade impact of Brexit on the UK is likely to be significantly negative, its impact on the EU is also expected to be negative, but small. The UK and the EU would become each other's biggest trading partner but some member states, notably Belgium, Cyprus, Ireland, Germany and the Netherlands, are more exposed to a Brexit-induced economic shock. The economy of the Republic of Ireland is particularly sensitive due to its common land border with the United Kingdom and its close agribusines integration with Northern Ireland The reintroduction of a customs border would be economically and politically damaging to both sides, particularly because of the risk to the Northern Ireland peace process that a physical border presents. Despite protestations of good will on both sides, it is not obvious how border controls can be avoided unless the UK has a Customs Union with the EU. Arising from the agreements made at the Phase 1 negotiations (after the DUP intervention), any arrangements to be made to facilitate cross-border trade in Ireland will apply equally to cross-Channel trade but the details remain unclear.\n", "Section::::Effect on the withdrawal negotiations.:Backstop proposal.\n\nThe Irish backstop is a protocol in the (unratified) Brexit withdrawal agreement, that would keep the United Kingdom (in general) in the European Union Customs Union and Northern Ireland (in particular) in some aspects of the European Single Market, until a solution is found to prevent a hard border. This is so as not to compromise the Good Friday Agreement. This would come into force only if there were no other solutions by the end of the (negotiated) transition period.\n", "In April 2019, former WTO director-general and European trade commissioner Pascal Lamy said that \"staying in a customs union after Brexit won't resolve the Irish border issue... Leaving the single market reintroduces a border – the thickness of which depends on the degree of regulatory divergence.\"\n\nSection::::Effect on the withdrawal negotiations.\n\nSection::::Effect on the withdrawal negotiations.:Importance of the Irish border.\n\nThe Irish and UK governments, as well as EU representatives, have stated that they do not wish for a hard border in Ireland, taking into account the historical and social \"sensitivities\" that permeate the island.\n", "2011 marked the first public agreement between the British and Irish governments concerning the maintenance of the CTA. Officially entitled the \"Joint Statement Regarding Co-Operation on Measures to Secure the External Common Travel Area Border\" it was signed in Dublin on 20 December 2011 by the UK's immigration minister, Damian Green and Ireland's Minister for Justice, Alan Shatter. The two ministers also signed an unpublished memorandum of understanding at the same time.\n", "BULLET::::- The invisible border: Technology could make a hard border disappear, but at a cost: Background surveillance would need to be high The Economist (print edition), 14 February 2019\n\nBULLET::::- Explanatory Memorandum for the \"Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Consequential Provisions) Bill 2019\" introduced by the Irish government in the legislature (Oireachtas)/a\n\nBULLET::::- \"(Eric Pickett is a German lawyer specialising in EU customs and WTO law, and Michael Lux was head of unit in the European Commission’s customs division for 25 years. The report was commissioned by Northern Ireland's Department for the Economy).\n", "On the Irish border question, there is a Northern Ireland Protocol at the end of the agreement which sets a backstop which will come into force, in the case that there is no new agreement between the EU and UK before the end of the transition period. In that case, the UK will shadow the EU's Common external tariff and Northern Ireland will keep in aspects of the Single Market. Neither party can unilaterally withdraw from this customs union. The goal of this backstop agreement is to avoid a \"hard\" Irish border, where customs checks are necessary.\n", "BULLET::::- Hard border: Because of Brexit, a physical border could be erected between Northern Ireland, a constituent part of the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, an EU member state. This raises concerns about the future of the Good Friday Agreement (or \"Belfast Agreement\"), a peace deal signed in 1998 which helped to end the Northern Ireland conflict (\"The Troubles\").\n", "BULLET::::- Nothing in the Agreement should undermine the objectives and commitments set out in the Good Friday Agreement. Negotiations should avoid the creation of a hard border on the island of Ireland. Irish citizens residing in Northern Ireland will continue to enjoy rights as EU citizens. Goods in transit routed through the UK should not be affected. (III.14)\n\nBULLET::::- Recognition of UK Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus. (III.15)\n\nBULLET::::- Protection of EU interests in the UK. (III.16)\n\nBULLET::::- Governance, enforcement and dispute arrangements of this agreement. (III.17)\n", "Section::::Background.:Closer links.\n\nA number of bilateral and multilateral free trade agreements made goods checks less intrusive, the completion of the European Single Market in 1992 meant that checks on goods were phased out. However, during the Troubles in Northern Ireland, there were British military checkpoints on main border crossings and UK security forces made some, although not all, of the remaining crossings impassable. In 2005, in phase with implementation of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, the last of the border checkpoints was removed.\n\nSection::::Background.:Good Friday Agreement.\n", "Also on 14 November, the text of the withdrawal agreement was published. The proposed agreement includes a financial settlement expected to be at least £39bn, and sets forth a transition period lasting until 31 December 2020, but which could be extended for at most two years. During the transition period, UK would be required to comply with EU law, while not being a member of any of its institutions. On the Irish border question, the proposed agreement contains a \"backstop\", that would come into force if no long-term trade deal is reached before the end of the transition period. The rights to residence and social security rights would be retained by EU citizens in UK and UK citizens in EU. The withdrawal agreement would be governed by a joint UK-EU arbitration panel. A social media campaign was launched by Number 10 Downing Street to convince the public of the deal.\n", "The United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland are members of the Common Travel Area, which allows free movement between these countries. If the UK negotiates a settlement with the EU that does not involve freedom of movement, while the Republic of Ireland remains an EU member, an open border between the Republic and Northern Ireland is likely to become untenable. Martin McGuinness, deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, said this would \"seriously undermine\" the Good Friday Agreement that brought an end to the Troubles. David Cameron pledged to do whatever possible to maintain the open border. Since becoming prime minister Theresa May has reassured both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland that there will not be a \"hard (customs or immigration) border\" on the island of Ireland.\n", "When presenting the plan, May addressed the Irish border question, stating that there would be \"[n]o hard border between Northern Ireland and Ireland, and no border in the UK\". A \"facilitated customs agreement\" would remove the need for customs checks by treating the UK and EU \"as if a combined customs territory\". The UK would apply EU's tariffs and trade policy on goods intended for the bloc but would control its own tariffs and trade for the domestic market. This differs from a \"Canada-plus\" deal favoured by the Conservative backbench European Research Group, which would not apply EU tariffs on goods bound for the EU and therefore may threaten such tariffs if countries use lower tariffs in the UK to facilitate tariff-free access with EU countries, undermining EU tariffs; however, it is seen as likely that such a scenario would require a hard border on the island of Ireland as technological solutions to the Irish border questions are not yet available.\n", "There were constructive discussions on the Irish border, but no substantive progress.\n\nThe UK accepted the EU's definition of 'citizens lawfully resident before the cut off date', although that date was not agreed. There was agreement on the definitions of permanent and temporary residence. The UK offered a more generous \"right of return\" (after absence for longer than two consecutive years) than the minimum rights under current EU law. Rights of future family members remains a point of disagreement. The joint paper comparing the two parties' positions was again updated.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:October 2017.\n", "In late October 2018, the National Audit Office warned that it was already too late to prepare the necessary Irish border security checks in the event of a no-deal Brexit in March 2019 — a weakness that organised crime would be quick to exploit.\n\nIn March 2019, the UK government announced that it would not perform customs checks at the Irish border after a no-deal Brexit. The plan was quickly dubbed a \"smuggler's charter\", and criticised for likely breaching WTO rules. Local businesses expressed severe concerns.\n\nSection::::Policy areas.:Health issues.\n", "Two bills that allow for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement, that were introduced in the House of Commons in November 2017, completed all stages there in July 2018 and passed from the Commons to the House of Lords: the Taxation (Cross-border Trade) Bill on 16 July, and the Trade Bill on 17 July. The government stated that the Haulage Permits and Trailer Registration Act 2018, which became law on 19 July 2018, would apply to a permit scheme for international road haulage and was made in connection with the government's aim in the negotiations to develop the existing international access for commercial road haulage. On September 4, 2018, the Taxation (Cross-Border Trade) Bill passed its second reading, committee stages and third reading in the House of Lords, and later became law after receiving Royal Assent on September 13.\n", "On 14 October, a spokeswoman for Britain's Brexit ministry announced progress \"in a number of key areas\", but acknowledged that the British government will still not support a backstop at the Irish border. Barnier, who held surprise talks with Raab, stated \"some issues are still open.\" The EU Ambassadors from all the other 27 EU nations were summoned to Brussels as well. It has also been agreed that talks will not resume until the start of the EU summit on 17 October. Also during this day, EU and British diplomats completed negotiating a draft post-Brexit trade deal between Britain and the EU. However, May and Raab rejected this proposed trade deal due to terms which were written regarding the Irish border backstop.\n" ]

[ "There are legal repercussions for Britain if they break the Good Friday Agreement." ]

[ "There are no judges, court rooms or police forces reinforcing the Good Friday Agreement, actions to be taken are up to the country taking the action." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "There are legal repercussions for Britain if they break the Good Friday Agreement.", "There are legal repercussions for Britain if they break the Good Friday Agreement." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "There are no judges, court rooms or police forces reinforcing the Good Friday Agreement, actions to be taken are up to the country taking the action.", "There are no judges, court rooms or police forces reinforcing the Good Friday Agreement, actions to be taken are up to the country taking the action." ]

[ "BULLET::::- July 3: Shelters for migrants in Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, are reported full, and many Central American and Cuban refugees are forced to sleep in the streets.\n\nBULLET::::- July 4:\n\nBULLET::::- Thousands of federal police protest against their inclusion in the National Guard.\n\nBULLET::::- UNESCO declares that the World Habitat for the \"vaquita marina\" is in danger.\n\nBULLET::::- July 5:\n", "BULLET::::- June 6: BMW opens a U.S.$1 billion (MXN $20 billion) auto plant in San Luis Potosi. It will employ 2,000 workers and have a capacity to produce 175,000 cars in the Mexican, Latin American, and U.S. markets.\n\nBULLET::::- June 7: Mexico's Interior Secretary, Olga Sánchez Cordero, announces that Mexico will send 6,000 members of the National Guard to the border with Guatemala in response to U.S. President Donald Trump's threat to impose tariffs on all Mexican goods unless immigration is lessened. Later the same day, Trump announced that an agreement had been reached, and the tariffs will be suspended.\n", "Section::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:North American.:Central American.\n\nThe largest recent immigrant flows to Mexico are from Central America, with a total of 66,868 immigrants from Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama and Nicaragua living in Mexico in 2010.\n", "The framework of U.S. immigration law has largely remained the same since 1965. The U.S. economy needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrant workers to remain competitive and to have enough workers who continue to pay into Social Security and Medicare as the U.S. population grows older. Nonetheless, there are currently very few channels for immigration to the U.S. for work-related reasons under current law. Furthermore, Amnesty International has taken concern regarding the excessive brutality inflicted upon illegal immigrants, which includes beatings, sexual assault, denial of medical attention, and denial of food, water and warmth for long periods.\n", "In 2014, Mexico began to more heavily crackdown on these transient migrants. According to Mexican officials, the \"Plan Frontera Sur\" (Southern Border Plan) is designed to retake control of the historically porous southern border and protect migrants from transnational crime groups. However the measures have been widely attributed to pressure from the United States, who does not want a repeat of 2014, when a surge of tens of thousands of women and children clogged up American immigration courts and resulted in a severe lack of space in detention centers at the US-Mexico border.\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:North American.:Cuban.\n", "The Secretary shall enter into agreements of collaboration and consultation with the departments and agencies of the Federal Government, the states and municipalities, with civil society organizations or individuals, with the aim of participating in the installation and operation of the migrant protection groups. “\n\nSection::::Human Rights Abuse Allegations.\n", "In June 2018, the Trump administration established a new policy of separating parents from their children at the Mexican border. People asking for asylum at official ports of entry were \"being turned away and told there’s no room for them now.\" The U.S. and Mexico mutually placed tariffs on each other's exports.\n", "Immigrants arrive in Mexico for many reasons, most of the documented immigrants have arrived for economic and/or work-related reasons. Many, such as executives, professionals, scientists, artists, or athletes working for either Mexican or foreign companies, arrive with secure jobs. Retirement is the main motivation for immigrants who tend to be more permanent. Aside from dual national descendants of Mexicans, naturalized Mexicans, or the undocumented, 262,672 foreign residents live on its soil. The majority of its foreign residents are from the U.S. followed by Spain and Guatemala.\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:North American.\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:North American.:American.\n", "Both nations work together in combating drug trafficking and gang violence, including MS-13 (also known as the \"Mara Salvatrucha\") of which are the main cause of havoc in El Salvador and their operations create insecurity in the country. In 2018, several hundreds to a few thousands Salvadorans formed part of the Central American migrant caravans and traversed all of Mexico to the northern city of Tijuana to request asylum in the United States. In January 2019, over 700 Salvadorans requested and obtained asylum in Mexico where many are choosing to remain rather than face the uncertainty of trying to request asylum in the US and also not wishing to be denied and deported back to El Salvador.\n", "Since the placement of restrictions on illegal immigration through policies pursued by the Trump administration, the movement of people from Central America to the United States has shifted to Mexico. The role of Mexico as a transit country between the Northern Triangle and the United States has transformed since the 2016 Presidential election with more people applying for asylum in Mexico than in the U.S. According to a Reuters report, \"Mexican asylum data and testimony from migrants in Tenosique suggest that although fewer Central Americans are trying to enter the United States, plenty are still fleeing their poor, violent home countries, with many deciding to stay longer in Mexico, which has traditionally been a transit country.\"\n", "Section::::A return to a more closed border.:Displaced workers in northern Mexico.\n", "The \"Programa Temporal de Regularización Migratoria\" (PTRM) published on 12 January 2015 in the Diario Oficial de la Federación, is directed at those foreigners who have made their permanent residence in Mexico but due to 'diverse circumstances' did not regularize their stay in the country and find themselves turning to 'third parties' to perform various procedures, including finding employment.\n", "BULLET::::- Since 2010, U.S. legislation has placed stricter controls on illegal immigration: several American states have criminalized illegal immigration. Deportations under the Obama administration (2009-2017) reached record numbers.\n\nBULLET::::- During the last few years, violence associated with drug cartels and organized crime has been on the rise in Northern Mexico, making the routes for passing the border more dangerous.\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. President Donald Trump accuses Mexican soldiers of pulling guns on members of the United States National Guard in a remote part of Texas on April 13. Trump also renewed his threat to close the border and send more soldiers if Mexico does not block a new caravan of Central American immigrants.\n\nBULLET::::- Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announces that construction on the New Mexico City airport will begin on Monday, April 29, and that it will be named Felipe Ángeles (1868-1919).\n", "Currently, the Argentine community is one of the largest in Mexico, with about 13,000 documented residents living in Mexico. However, extra-official estimates range the number from 40,000 to 150,000\n\nIn Quintana Roo, the number of Argentines doubled between 2011 and 2015, and now make a total of 10,000, making up the largest number of foreigners in the state\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:South American.:Colombian.\n\nIt is estimated that a total of 73,000 Colombians reside in Mexico.\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:European.\n", "Many immigration restrictionists in the United States have accused the Mexican government of hypocrisy in its immigration policy, noting that while the Government of Mexico and Mexican Americans are demanding looser immigration laws in the United States and oppose the 2010 Arizona Immigration Bill, at the same time Mexico is imposing even tighter restrictions on immigration into Mexico from Central America and other places than the Arizona law. However, Mexico started enforcing those laws which they previously ignored at the direct request of the United States, which saw a surge of Central American immigration during the Bush years; the newly elected president of Mexico has stated his desire to be more open, and would not deport Central Americans on their way to the United States or those who wish to remain in Mexico. \n", "First, in 1989, Program Paisano was established to protect migrants from getting abused by the U.S. government when entering the country. Then, In 1990, Programa para las Comunidades Mexicanas, PCME was introduced; a program that granted Mexican migrants a form of identification known as the \"matricula consula\"r. For migrants that remained undocumented, Grupos Beta de Protección a Migrantes, also established in 1989, became a type of transnational police protecting migrants at the border. Programs such as these, before the IME, maintained Mexicans connected with their hometowns and states, and the government issues that they faced, along with providing some sort of protection within their selected country. This type of interaction between migrants and the Mexican policy encouraged migrants to become activist and make arrangements for there to be some form of leadership. The programs also focused on the social balance that is owed towards Mexican migrants by the United States.\n", "Recent migrants can be categorized into three broad categories: retired expatriates (which tend to congregate in American colonies like Ajijic or San Miguel de Allende), professionals working in Mexico (tending to reside in large cities like Monterrey or Mexico City) and the American children of Mexican nationals (which can be found throughout the country). Most commonly, these American-born minors follow their parents once they are deported to Mexico. Nonetheless, it is also common for adult children to return to their parents home country of their own will.\n", "Traditionally, Mexico built a reputation as one of the classic asylum countries, with a varying attitude toward refugees from Spain and other European countries before and during World War II, from Latin America's Southern Cone in the 1970s, and from Central America since the beginning of the 1980s. However, in recent years refugees who solicit asylum are usually treated as if they were just immigrants, with exhaustive administrative processes. The southern border of Mexico has experienced a significant increase in legal and illegal flows over the past decade, in particular for migrants seeking to transit Mexico to reach the U.S. José Luis Soberanes, president of the National Human Rights Commission, condemned the repressing policy implemented by the Mexican government against illegal immigrants who cross the country's southern border. President Calderón modified the \"General Law on Population\" to derogate some penalties against immigrants such as jail, instead undocumented immigrants have to pay fines as high as US$500.\n", "Undocumented immigration has been a problem for Mexico, especially since the 1970s. Although the number of deportations is declining with 61,034 registered cases in 2011, the Mexican government documented over 200,000 unauthorized border crossings in 2004 and 2005. In 2011, 93% of undocumented immigrants in Mexico came from three countries -Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador- however, there is an increasing number of immigrants from Asia and Africa.\n\nSection::::Immigration policy.:History of immigration policy.\n\nOverview of Mexican immigration policy in regards to ethnicity or nationality:\n\nBULLET::::- 1823 - Permanent settlement and naturalization is restricted to Catholics (see also General Colonization Law)\n", "Cuban immigration to Mexico has been on the rise in recent years. A large number of them use Mexico as a route to the U.S., and Mexico has been deporting a large number of Cubans who attempt to. About 63,000 Cubans live in Mexico\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:South American.\n\nSection::::Immigrant groups in Mexico.:South American.:Argentines.\n\nArgentine immigration to Mexico started in small waves during the 1970s, when they started escaping dictatorship and war in Argentina.\n", "There are thousands of temporary workers who go to Canada from Mexico each year, and many immigrate permanently as well. Recent changes to the immigration Act would allow many to apply for permanent residency after a two-year period which was not the case before.\n", "Narrowing the discussion to only Mexican nationals, a 2015 study performed by demographers of the University of Texas at San Antonio and the University of New Hampshire found that immigration from Mexico; both legal and illegal, peaked in 2003 and that from the period between 2003 and 2007 to the period of 2008 to 2012, immigration from Mexico decreased 57%. The dean of the College of Public Policy of the University of Texas at San Antonio, Rogelio Saenz, states that lower birth rates and the growing economy in Mexico slowed emigration, creating more jobs for Mexicans. Saenz also states that Mexican immigrants are no longer coming to find jobs but to flee from violence, noting that the majority of those escaping crime \"are far more likely to be naturalized U.S. citizens\".\n", "According to Article 81 of the Law and Article 70 of the regulations to the law, immigration officials are the only ones that can conduct immigration procedures although the Federal Police may assist but only under the request and guidance of the Institute of Migration. Verification procedures cannot be conducted in migrant shelters run by civil society organizations or by individuals that engage in providing humanitarian assistance to immigrants.\n\nSection::::Mexican Texas.\n", "Most recent immigrants came during the Spanish Civil War. Some of the migrants returned to Spain after the civil war, but some of them remained in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 18,873 Spaniards living in Mexico.\n\nDue to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities. For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.\n" ]

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[ "Some game publishers may decide to try and permanently ban players who are persistent in cheating and ruining the game community. Such bans are typically placed based on hardware ID or IP address. Consequently, cheaters may develop ways of getting around these bans, by either playing through proxy or VPN servers, or spoofing or changing their hardware configuration.\n", "Cheating in online games is common on public game servers. Some online games, such as \"Battlefield 1942\", include specific features to counter cheating exploits, by incorporating tools such as PunkBuster, nProtect GameGuard, or Valve Anti-Cheat. However, much like anti-virus companies, some anti-cheat tools are constantly and consistently bypassed until further updates force cheat creators to find new methods to bypass the protection.\n", "To Catch a Cheater\n\nSection::::Development and production.\n", "Section::::Implementation of cheats.:Game code modification.\n\nMany cheats are implemented by modifying game software, despite EULAs which forbid modification. While game software distributed in binary-only versions makes it harder to modify code, reverse engineering is possible. Also game data files can be edited separately from the main program and thereby circumvent protections implemented in software.\n\nSection::::Implementation of cheats.:System software modification.\n", "There are many facets of cheating in online games which make the creation of a system to stop cheating very difficult; however, game developers and third party software developers have created or are developing technologies that attempt to prevent cheating. Such countermeasures are commonly used in video games, with notable anti-cheat software being GameGuard, PunkBuster, Valve Anti-Cheat (specifically used on games on the Steam platform), and EasyAntiCheat.\n\nExploits of bugs are usually resolved/removed via a patch to the game; however, not all companies force the patches/updates on users, leaving the actual resolution to individual users.\n", "Encryption solutions will encrypt the code instructions and typically use a multi–layered defense mechanism against any reversing or tampering attempts that target the decryption code directly. Most protection systems in this category encrypt the code and then decrypt it at the application’s startup or during runtime. This is the moment at which an attacker will breakpoint, reverse, and inject custom code. Runtime decryption may also add significant processing overhead and lower the game's framerate. Alternatively, some solutions focus on obfuscating the code by inserting jump statements and seemingly random instruction paths. The final and strongest alternative is virtualization. In this approach the encrypted code runs on a virtual CPU that can be markedly different from generic x86 and x64 CPUs as the command set can be unique for each protected file.\n", "Other codes make purely cosmetic changes—for example, to what the player character is wearing—but do not enhance the progress of the game. Most of the \"Grand Theft Auto\" games have a code to change the player character into an NPC. Other peculiar cheats may invoke \"big-head mode\" (\"GoldenEye 007\"), replace weapons with other objects, or change the colors of characters.\n", "Many modern games have removed cheat codes entirely, except when used to unlock certain secret bonuses. The usage of real-time achievement tracking made it unfair for any one player to cheat. In online multiplayer games, cheating is frowned upon and disallowed, often leading to a ban. However, certain games may unlock single-player cheats if the player fulfills a certain condition. Yet other games, such as those using the Source engine, allow developer consoles to be used to activate a wide variety of cheats in single-player or by server administrators.\n", "Additionally to storing data in non-standard formats, some games also utilize runtime protection through software protectors. The key target is to keep attackers from directly inspecting or modifying compiled software. Protectors utilize either of three methods to protect software.\n", "Section::::Development.:Cheating.\n\nCheating in computer games may involve cheat codes and hidden spots implemented by the game developers, modification of game code by third parties, or players exploiting a software glitch. Modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware or a software trainer. Cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for example weapons, health, or ammunition; or perhaps the ability to walk through walls. Other cheats might give access to otherwise unplayable levels or provide unusual or amusing features, like altered game colors or other graphical appearances.\n\nSection::::Development.:Glitches.\n", "Somewhat more unusual than memory editing, code injection consists of the modification of the game's executable code while it is running, for example with the use of POKE commands. In the case of \"Jet Set Willy\" on the ZX Spectrum computer, a popular cheat involved replacing a Z80 instruction codice_2 in the program (which was responsible for decrementing the number of lives by one) with a codice_3, effectively granting the player infinite lives. On Microsoft Windows, a common type of video game hacking is through the use of DLLs, which users must then use a third party program to inject the DLL into their game of choice.\n", "For instance, with codice_1 in \"Knight Lore\" for the ZX Spectrum, immunity is achieved. Magazines such as \"Crash\" regularly featured lists of such POKE instructions for games. In order to find them a hacker had to interpret the machine code and locate the critical point where the number of lives is decreased, impacts detected, etc. Sometimes the term POKE was used with this specific meaning.\n", "Cheating exists in many multiplayer video games. While there have always been cheat codes and other ways to make single-player games easier, developers often attempt to prevent it in multiplayer games. With the release of the first popular internet multiplayer games, cheating took on new dimensions. Previously it was rather easy to see if the other players cheated, as most games were played on local networks or consoles. The Internet changed that by increasing the popularity of multiplayer games, giving the players relative anonymity, and giving people an avenue to communicate cheats.\n", "Rather than modifying the game code (which the game itself or a 3rd-party protection system may detect), some cheats modify underlying system components. An example of this is graphics driver modifications that ignore depth checking and draw all objects on the screen—a primitive wallhack. System or driver modification is harder to detect, as there are a large number of system drivers that differ from user to user.\n\nSection::::Implementation of cheats.:Packet interception, tampering & manipulation.\n", "Unlike other cheating methods, cheat codes are implemented by the game developers themselves, often as a tool to playtest certain aspects of the game without difficulty. One of the earliest known examples of this type of cheat is the Konami Code, created in 1986 by Konami developer Kazuhisa Hashimoto as he worked on porting the 1985 arcade game \"Gradius\" for use on the Nintendo Entertainment System. Hashimoto is quoted as saying \"The arcade version of Gradius is really difficult, right? I never played it that much, and there was no way I could finish the game, so I inserted the so-called Konami code.\"\n", "Later, cheating grew more popular with magazines, websites, and even a television show, \"Cheat!\", dedicated to listing cheats and walkthroughs for consoles and computer systems. POKE cheats were replaced by trainers and cheat codes. Generally, the majority of cheat codes on modern day systems are implemented not by gamers, but by game developers. Some say that as many people do not have the time to complete a video game on their own, cheats are needed to make a game more accessible and appealing to a casual gamer. In many cases, developers created cheats to facilitate testing, then left them in the game as they expanded the number of ways people could play it. With the rise in popularity of gaming, cheating using external software and hardware raised a number of copyright legal issues related to modifying game code.\n", "Cheat codes are usually activated by typing secret passwords or pressing controller buttons in a certain sequence. Less common activation methods include entering certain high score names, holding keys or buttons while dying, picking up items in a particular order and otherwise performing unintuitive actions. Some games may also offer a debug console that can be used to edit game parameters. Effects might include unlocking a character or improving a character's performance: for example providing a car with greater acceleration, entering god mode or noclip mode, unlimited money or ammunition, or just visual gags with no practical purpose, such as \"Tutu Qwark\" in \"\".\n", "The most basic type of cheat code is one created by the game designers and hidden within the video game itself, that will cause any type of uncommon effect that is not part of the usual game mechanics.\n", "Cheating in video games has existed for almost their entire history. The first cheat codes were put in place for play testing purposes. Playtesters had to rigorously test the mechanics of a game and introduced cheat codes to make this process easier. An early cheat code can be found in \"Manic Miner\", where typing \"6031769\" (based on Matthew Smith's driving license) enables the cheat mode. Within months of \"\"s 1981 release, at least two commercial trainers appeared. 1983 advertisements for \"The Great Escape Utility\" for \"Castle Wolfenstein\" (1981) promised that the $15 product \"remodels every feature of the game. Stop startup delays, crashes and chest waiting. Get any item, in any quantity. Start in any room, at any rank. Handicap your aim. Even add items\".\n", "Cheating reportedly exists in most multiplayer online games, but it is difficult to measure. The Internet and darknets can provide players with the methodology necessary to cheat in online games, sometimes in return for a price.\n\nSection::::Bots and software assistance.\n\nSection::::Bots and software assistance.:Aimbots and triggerbots.\n", "In single player games, there are a number of plug-ins available to developers to use to stop cheaters. An obfuscator will scramble code so it is unreadable by decompilers, rename events/properties/methods and even add fake code. An obscurer will encrypt variables in memory and mask out strings. Anti-cheat toolkits have an array of tools such as: detecting speed hacks, encrypting player prefs, detecting time cheats, detecting wall hacks and more. These can be used in most multi-player games as well.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Todd Rogers (video game player)\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Mitchell (video game player)\n\nBULLET::::- Cheating AI\n\nBULLET::::- Xyzzy (computing)\n", "Many emulators have built-in functionality that allows players to modify data as the game is running, sometimes even emulating cheating hardware such as Game Genie. Some emulators take this method a step further and allow the player to export and import data edits. Edit templates of many games for a console are collected and redistributed as cheat packs.\n", "According to Steam's lead engineer John Cook, to stop the anti-cheat software itself from being exploited, \"The software is constantly updated and sent down in small portions for the servers as needed, so hackers only get to see small portions of it running at any particular time. So while they may be able to work around pieces of it, they can never hack everything.\"\n", "Cheating in video games\n\nCheating in video games involves a video game player using non-standard methods to create an advantage or disadvantage beyond normal gameplay, in order to make the game easier or harder. Cheats may be activated from within the game itself (a cheat code implemented by the original game developers), or created by third-party software (a game trainer) or hardware (a cheat cartridge). They can also be realized by exploiting software bugs; this may or may not be considered cheating based on whether the bug is considered common knowledge.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Sport, games and gambling.:Video games.\n\nIn video games, cheating can take the form of secret access codes in single-player games (such as the Konami code) which unlock a bonus for the player when entered, hacks and exploits which give players an unfair advantage in online multiplayer games and single-player modes, or unfair collusion between players in online games (such as a player who spectates a match, removing limitations such as \"fog of war\", and reports on enemy positions to game partners).\n" ]

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[ "The devices use an internal GPS chip to gather location information. When the SEND is triggered, this information is sent via commercial satellite to a commercial monitoring agency whose role is to pass the information to an appropriate responding agency. The responding agency contacted depends, in part, on the location. Examples of responding agencies would be military Search and Rescue, Coast Guard, local police, voluntary Search and Rescue.\n", "With some systems, an alert arrives in the offices of the alert system operator (which may be a public rescue service or a private security company) and the data of the affected person (address, medical condition, family contacts) are displayed. With others, there is no system operator, and the user simply programs the numbers of family members, neighbors, or local emergency responders.\n\nIf present, a responder can speak with the user through the microphone/speaker in order to clarify the type and severity of the emergency and discuss further measures.\n", "BULLET::::- An EBS Test from WPGC in Washington D.C., c. 1981 Windows Media Player is required to hear this file.\n\nBULLET::::- A tornado warning from WNAS Cable-TV in New Albany, IN for Clark County, IN, c. 1990\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina EBS Training Video, c. 1990\n\nBULLET::::- A history of CONELRAD to EBS to EAS from Filcro Media 1951 - 2008, c 2008 The convergent role of each government agency\n\nBULLET::::- WFIL's pre recorded attack warning message\n\nBULLET::::- WCCO-AM Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN pre recorded attack warning messages from 1961 and aircheck of 1971 EBS mistake\n", "BULLET::::- 26 November 2017 - 49% of NZ population either received the nationwide test alert or was near someone who did receive the Cell Broadcast message\n\nBULLET::::- 25 November 2018 - 70% of NZ population either received the nationwide test alert or was near someone who did receive the Cell Broadcast message\n\nSection::::National Public Warning System implementations.\n\nMany countries have implemented location-based alert systems based on Cell Broadcast. The alert messages to the population, already broadcast by various media, are relayed over the mobile network using cell broadcast.\n\nBULLET::::- Japan - J-Alert\n\nBULLET::::- Canada - Alert Ready\n", "Hurricane Harvey hit the coast of Texas, causing devastation upon landfall and massive flooding in Houston after meandering through Eastern Texas over the course of four days. While organizations like the Salvation Army and American Red Cross contributed to the disaster relief process, H.E.B., a regional grocery chain, was also able to assist by using its emergency notification system to identify employees who were in need of assistance, and those available to help. H.E.B. was able to accomplish this by using its emergency notification system, AlertMedia, which it has used since 2017. H.E.B. deployed mobile kitchens and giant water coolers to the affected community in the days following the hurricane.\n", "The organisation in the United Kingdom for the provision of communications disaster response is RAYNET. The UK organisation for the provision of disaster response by off-road vehicles is 4x4 Response.\n", "The Government coordinates the identification of emergency and response. Having developed an appropriate message and area of interest, they then provide a suitable message and area of land within which to send to each mobile phone network operator who then in turn identify all subscribers within that area using the mobile network and then send the message as an SMS using the originating number above. No subscriber information is shared between the operators, and no subscriber information is shared with the Government. See the official EA website FAQ for more detailed information.\n", "Standardized alerts can be received from many sources and configure their applications to process and respond to the alerts as desired. Alerts from the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of the Interior's United States Geological Survey, and the United States Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and state and local government agencies can all be received in the same format by the same application. That application can, for example, sound different alarms, based on the information received.\n", "The bulk of emergency warnings in the United States are sent through the Emergency Alert System, implemented in 1997. The EAS can be activated by national, state, regional, or local authorities, including police, fire, weather, and other governmental authorities. EAS is often activated when an unpredicted emergency such as a tornado, earthquake, or release of toxic gas happens. The vast majority of EAS alerts are generated by the National Weather Service.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alert Ready (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Common Alerting Protocol\n\nBULLET::::- CONELRAD\n\nBULLET::::- Digital Emergency Alert System (DEAS)\n\nBULLET::::- Earthquake Early Warning (Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency Broadcast System (EBS)\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency population warning\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency Public Warning System\n\nBULLET::::- Flash Flood Guidance Systems\n\nBULLET::::- HANDEL (UK's former National Attack Warning System)\n\nBULLET::::- ICANN's TEAC (Transfer Emergency Action Contact) channel in cases of URL hijacking\n\nBULLET::::- J-Alert\n\nBULLET::::- Local Access Alert\n\nBULLET::::- National Severe Weather Warning Service\n\nBULLET::::- National Warning System\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Weather Radio\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear football\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear MASINT\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service\n\nBULLET::::- Specific Area Message Encoding\n", "Teams in neighborhoods not affected by disaster may be deployed or activated by the sponsoring agency. The sponsoring agency may communicate with neighborhood CERT leaders through an organic communication team. In some areas the communications may be by amateur radio, FRS, GMRS or MURS radio, dedicated telephone or fire-alarm networks. In other areas, relays of bicycle-equipped runners can effectively carry messages between the teams and the local emergency operations center.\n", "Once an EAN is received by an EAS participant from a PEP station (or any other participant) the message then \"daisy chains'\" through the network of participants. \"Daisy chains\" form when one station receives a message from multiple other stations and the station then forwards that message to multiple other stations. This process creates many redundant paths through which the message may flow increasing the likelihood that the message will be received by all participants and adding to the survivability of the system.\n\nEach EAS participant is required to monitor at least two other participants.\n\nSection::::Technical concept.:EAS header.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004: After the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, 25 teams were deployed.\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: After the Pakistan earthquake, 31 teams were deployed.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: After the Haiti earthquake, 21 teams were deployed.\n\nSection::::ERU deployment procedure.\n\nAfter a disaster, the local Red Cross Society immediately responds by assessing the situation. If the local Society decides they can't handle it themselves they send a request to the Red Cross Headquarters in Geneva.\n", "Emergency notification system\n\nAn emergency notification system is a method of facilitating the one-way dissemination or broadcast of messages to one or many groups of people, alerting them to a pending or existing emergency.. The Emergency Notification System (ENS) was created by Dialogic Communication Corporation (DCC) in the early 1980's. DCC is now owned by Motorola Solutions who purchased them as part of their 2018 acquisition of Airbus DS Communications. The acquisition included the ENS patent portfolio. \n\nSection::::Notification vs. communication.\n", "The presentation of alerts is dictated by the NPAS Common Look and Feel Guidance. Messages are formatted using the Canadian Profile of the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP-CP), and are provided in at least one of Canada's official languages (either English, French, or both, as determined by local policies and laws). Alerts can contain text and audio components, and contain information designating the region that an alert applies to.\n", "Emergency communication systems often provide or integrate those same notification services but will also include two-way communication—typically to facilitate communications between emergency communications staff, affected people, and first responders. Another distinguishing attribute of the term \"communication\" may be that it implies the ability to provide detailed and meaningful information about an evolving emergency and actions that might be taken; whereas \"notification\" denotes a relatively more simplistic one-time conveyance of the existence and general nature of an emergency (such as Emergency Rescue Location).\n\nSection::::Emergency communication vs. notification.:Alternate and related terms.\n", "Instructions may also be announced by police or fire department vehicles.\n\nSection::::Methods by country.:Japan.\n\nThe J-Alert system launched in 2007 aims to allow government officials to address the population directly via loudspeakers. It aims to cover earthquake, tsunami, volcano, and military emergencies.\n", "In the case of the United States armed forces, the notification is done by a specialist known as a casualty notification officer (CNO), normally within four hours of learning of the casualty (but only from 6:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. local time) or, for the Navy, by a casualty assistance calls officer (CACO).\n\nDenny Hayes, who spent fifteen years as a chaplain for the FBI’s critical response team, says:\n\nBULLET::::- Always deliver bad news in person.\n\nBULLET::::- Always bring a partner (“95 percent of them defer to me to do the actual speaking of the words—nobody wants to experience sad”).\n", "Section::::Case studies, failures and successes.:2011 Joplin, Missouri tornado.\n", "Section::::Emergency communication vs. notification.\n\nAn emergency notification system refers to a collection of methods that facilitate the one-way dissemination or broadcast of messages to one or many groups of people with the details of an occurring or pending emergency situation. Mass automated dialing services such as Cell Broadcast, Reverse 911, as well as common siren systems that are used to alert for tornadoes, tsunamis, air-raid, and other such incidents, are examples of emergency notification systems.\n", "BULLET::::3. State messages\n\nBULLET::::4. National Information Center messages\n\nA standby script is used in the case of there being no new and available information.\n\nThe end-of-message codes are transmitted after presidential messages are read. The operator logs the time and date the Emergency Action Notification was received, and monitors their EAS source, awaiting an Emergency Action Termination message.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "BULLET::::- Region V, Chicago, IL Serving IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI\n\nBULLET::::- Region VI, Denton, TX Serving AR, LA, NM, OK, TX\n\nBULLET::::- Region VII, Kansas City, MO Serving IA, KS, MO, NE\n\nBULLET::::- Region VIII, Denver, CO Serving CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY\n\nBULLET::::- Region IX, Oakland, CA Serving AZ, CA, HI, NV, GU, AS, CNMI, RMI, FM\n\nBULLET::::- Region IX, PAO Serving AS, CNMI, GU, HI\n\nBULLET::::- Region X, Bothell, WA Serving AK, ID, OR, WA\n\nSection::::Pre-disaster mitigation programs.\n", "BULLET::::- United States - Wireless Emergency Alerts\n\nBULLET::::- European Union - EU-Alert\n\nBULLET::::- Netherlands - NL-Alert\n\nBULLET::::- Lithuania - LT-Alert\n\nBULLET::::- Romania - RO-Alert\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea - Korean Public Alert Service\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan - Public Warning System\n\nBULLET::::- Sri Lanka - Disaster and Emergency Warning Network (DREWN)\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines - Emergency Cell Broadcast System (ECBS)\n\nBULLET::::- Chile - LAT-Alert\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- (Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management (MCDEM))\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency Mobile Alert Video Commercial\n\nBULLET::::- List of Cell Broadcast capable cell phones with instructions to enable EMA\n", "The system is location-specific, meaning a message is sent by designating an area where mobile phones within it shall receive the emergency alert. In contrast, the SMS-based emergency alert broadcast system is sent to devices through their mobile phone numbers which meant that the NDDRMC had to send emergency alert messages through telecommunications service providers. The process of the SMS-based system could take hours.\n", "Using the hostage-taking example, some of the more modern emergency communication systems such as AlertMedia or EverBridge state the ability to deliver a single message that provides full details to first responders, while filtering that same message to provide more limited instructions to different groups. For example, a specific message could be sent to people in a certain area, in a specific building, or even in a specific department. By using a single message that segregates information between types of users, fewer messages have to be created and sent, which can also save time.\n\nSection::::Attributes.:Multiple communication paths/redundancy.\n" ]

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[ "Hard drinking water may have moderate health benefits, but can pose critical problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment that handles water. In domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by a lack of foam formation when soap is agitated in water, and by the formation of limescale in kettles and water heaters. Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly used to reduce hard water's adverse effects.\n\nSection::::Sources of hardness.\n", "Section::::Sources of hardness.:Permanent hardness.\n\nPermanent hardness (mineral content) are generally difficult to remove by boiling. If this occurs, it is usually caused by the presence of calcium sulfate/calcium chloride and/or magnesium sulfate/magnesium chloride in the water, which do not precipitate out as the temperature increases. Ions causing permanent hardness of water can be removed using a water softener, or ion exchange column.\n\nPermanent Hardness = Permanent Calcium Hardness + Permanent Magnesium Hardness.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Regional information.:In Ireland.\n\nThe EPA has published a standards handbook for the interpretation of water quality in Ireland in which definitions of water hardness are given.\n\nIn this section, reference to original EU documentation is given, which sets out no limit for hardness.\n\nIn turn, the handbook also gives no \"Recommended or Mandatory Limit Values\" for Hardness.\n", "Section::::Measurement.:Hard/soft classification.\n\nBecause it is the precise mixture of minerals dissolved in the water, together with the water's pH and temperature, that determine the behavior of the hardness, a single-number scale does not adequately describe hardness. However, the United States Geological Survey uses the following classification into hard and soft water,\n\nSeawater is considered to be very hard due to various dissolved salts. Typically seawater's hardness is in the range of 6630 ppm. In contrast, freshwater has hardness in the range of 15 - 375 ppm.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.\n", "The handbooks does indicate that above the midpoint of the ranges defined as \"Moderately Hard\", effects are seen increasingly: \"The chief disadvantages of hard waters are that they neutralise the lathering power of soap... and, more important, that they can cause blockage of pipes and severely reduced boiler efficiency because of scale formation. These effects will increase as the hardness rises to and beyond 200 mg/l CaCO3.\"\n\nSection::::Regional information.:In the United States.\n", "Hardness of water is determined by the concentration of multivalent cations. Common cations for hardness include: Ca and Mg. Ions enter a water supply by leaching from minerals within an aquifer. Common calcium-containing minerals are calcite and gypsum. A common magnesium mineral is dolomite (contains calcium). Rainwater and distilled water are soft, as they contain fewer ions.\n\nAreas with complex geology can produce varying degrees of hardness of water over short distances.\n\nSection::::Health impacts.\n", "The term may also be used to describe water that has been produced by a water softening process although such water is more correctly termed \"softened water\". In these cases the water may also contain elevated levels of sodium and bicarbonate ions.\n\nBecause soft water has few calcium ions, there is no inhibition of the lathering action of soaps and no soap scum is formed in normal washing. Similarly, soft water produces no calcium deposits in water heating systems. Water that isn't soft is referred to as hard water.\n", "In the UK, water is regarded as soft if the hardness is less than 50 mg/l of calcium carbonate. Water containing more than 50 mg/l of calcium carbonate is termed hard water. In the United States soft water is classified as having less than 60 mg/l of calcium carbonate.\n", "Generally water is mostly hard in urban areas of England where soft water sources are unavailable. A number of cities built water supply sources in the 18th century as the industrial revolution and urban population burgeoned. Manchester was a notable such city in North West England and its wealthy corporation built a number of reservoirs at Thirlmere and Haweswater in the Lake District to the north. There is no exposure to limestone or chalk in their headwaters and consequently the water in Manchester is rated as 'very soft'. Similarly, tap water in Birmingham is also soft as it is sourced from the Elan Valley Reservoirs in Wales.\n", "In the USA, due to ancient sea beds with high limestone (calcium carbonate) concentrations, as much as 85% of water is hard, and many need water softening treatment. Waters in Eastern and Southern Florida, North-western Texas, and the entirety of South Dakota are considered extremely hard; the metropolitan cities with hardest water include Indianapolis, Las Vegas, Minneapolis, Phoenix, San Antonio and Tampa. The only states with soft water are Mississippi and Maine.\n\nSection::::Sources of hardness.\n", "Information from the British Drinking Water Inspectorate shows that drinking water in England is generally considered to be 'very hard', with most areas of England, particularly east of a line between the Severn and Tees estuaries, exhibiting above 200 ppm for the calcium carbonate equivalent. Water in London, for example, is mostly obtained from the River Thames and River Lea both of which derive significant proportion of their dry weather flow from springs in limestone and chalk aquifers. Wales, Devon, Cornwall and parts of North-West England are softer water areas, and range from 0 to 200 ppm. In the brewing industry in England and Wales, water is often deliberately hardened with gypsum in the process of Burtonisation.\n", "Washing soda (sodium carbonate - NaCO) is easily obtained and has long been used as a water softener for domestic laundry, in conjunction with the usual soap or detergent.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Health considerations.\n\nThe World Health Organization says that \"there does not appear to be any convincing evidence that water hardness causes adverse health effects in humans\". In fact, the United States National Research Council has found that hard water actually serves as a dietary supplement for calcium and magnesium.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Softening.\n\nIt is often desirable to soften hard water. Most detergents contain ingredients that counteract the effects of hard water on the surfactants. For this reason, water softening is often unnecessary. Where softening is practised, it is often recommended to soften only the water sent to domestic hot water systems so as to prevent or delay inefficiencies and damage due to scale formation in water heaters. A common method for water softening involves the use of ion exchange resins, which replace ions like Ca by twice the number of monocations such as sodium or potassium ions.\n", "Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing and may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange system. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product, as well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on concentration of calcium carbonate the water contains. Water is classified as soft if it contains less than 100 mg/l (UK) or less than 60 mg/l (US).\n", "In practice, water with an LSI between -0.5 and +0.5 will not display enhanced mineral dissolving or scale forming properties. Water with an LSI below -0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased dissolving abilities while water with an LSI above +0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased scale forming properties.\n", "BULLET::::- For LSI 0, water is super saturated and tends to precipitate a scale layer of CaCO.\n\nBULLET::::- For LSI = 0, water is saturated (in equilibrium) with CaCO. A scale layer of CaCO is neither precipitated nor dissolved.\n\nBULLET::::- For LSI 0, water is under saturated and tends to dissolve solid CaCO.\n", "A collection of data from the United States found that about half the water stations tested had hardness over 120 mg per litre of calcium carbonate equivalent, placing them in the categories \"hard\" or \"very hard\". The other half were classified as soft or moderately hard. More than 85% of American homes have hard water. The softest waters occur in parts of the New England, South Atlantic-Gulf, Pacific Northwest, and Hawaii regions. Moderately hard waters are common in many of the rivers of the Tennessee, Great Lakes, and Alaska regions. Hard and very hard waters are found in some of the streams in most of the regions throughout the country. The hardest waters (greater than 1,000 ppm) are in streams in Texas, New Mexico, Kansas, Arizona, Utah, parts of Colorado, southern Nevada, and southern California.\n", "The LSI is temperature sensitive. The LSI becomes more positive as the water temperature increases. This has particular implications in situations where well water is used. The temperature of the water when it first exits the well is often significantly lower than the temperature inside the building served by the well or at the laboratory where the LSI measurement is made. This increase in temperature can cause scaling, especially in cases such as hot water heaters. Conversely, systems that reduce water temperature will have less scaling.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.:Ryznar Stability Index (RSI).\n", "Hard water\n\nHard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with \"soft water\"). Hard water is formed when water percolates through deposits of limestone, chalk or gypsum which are largely made up of calcium and magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates and sulfates.\n", "Specific chemical compounds are often taken out of tap water during the treatment process to adjust the pH or remove contaminants, and chlorine may be added to kill biological toxins. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of various metal ions, often rendering the water \"soft\" or \"hard\".\n", "The Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI) uses slightly different parameters to quantify the relationship between the saturation state of the water and the amount of limescale deposited.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.:Other indices.\n\nOther indices include the Larson-Skold Index, the Stiff-Davis Index, and the Oddo-Tomson Index.\n\nSection::::Regional information.\n\nThe hardness of local water supplies depends on the source of water. Water in streams flowing over volcanic (igneous) rocks will be soft, while water from boreholes drilled into porous rock is normally very hard.\n\nSection::::Regional information.:In Australia.\n", "Water hardness is often not expressed as a molar concentration, but rather in various units, such as degrees of general hardness (dGH), German degrees (°dH), parts per million (ppm, mg/L, or American degrees), grains per gallon (gpg), English degrees (°e, e, or °Clark), or French degrees (°fH, °F or °HF; lowercase \"f\" is used to prevent confusion with degrees Fahrenheit). The table below shows conversion factors between the various units.\n", "Other studies have shown weak correlations between cardiovascular health and water hardness.\n\nSome studies correlate domestic hard water usage with increased eczema in children.\n\nThe Softened-Water Eczema Trial (SWET), a multicenter randomized controlled trial of ion-exchange softeners for treating childhood eczema, was undertaken in 2008. However, no meaningful difference in symptom relief was found between children with access to a home water softener and those without.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "BULLET::::- mineral structures of various qualities (smoothness, uniformity, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- mixed structures combining inorganic and organic molecules on mineral structures\n\nBULLET::::- wrapper complex molecules and even microorganisms maintaining or optimizing their beneficial characteristics.\n", "Section::::Non-chemical devices.\n" ]

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[ "According to DSM-5, the following criteria must be present to make a diagnosis of binge eating disorder. Studies have confirmed the high predictive value of these criteria for diagnosing BED.\n\nA. Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge eating is characterized by both of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. Eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than what most people would eat in a similar period of time under similar circumstances.\n", "A correlation between dietary restraint and the occurrence of binge eating has been shown in some research. While binge eaters are often believed to be lacking in self-control, the root of such behavior might instead be linked to rigid dieting practices. The relationship between strict dieting and binge eating is characterized by a vicious circle. Binge eating is more likely to occur after dieting, and vice versa. Several forms of dieting include delay in eating (e.g., not eating during the day), restriction of overall calorie intake (e.g., setting calorie limit to 1,000 calories per day), and avoidance of certain types of food (e.g., \"forbidden\" food, such as sugar, carbohydrates, etc.) Strict and extreme dieting differs from ordinary dieting. Some evidence suggests the effectiveness of moderate calorie restriction in decreasing binge eating episodes among overweight individuals with binge eating disorder, at least in the short-term.\n", "BULLET::::- Subjective loss of control over how much or what is eaten\n\nBULLET::::- Binges may be planned in advance, involving the purchase of special binge foods, and the allocation of specific time for binging, sometimes at night\n\nBULLET::::- Eating alone or secretly due to embarrassment over the amount of food consumed\n\nBULLET::::- There may be a dazed mental state during the binge\n\nBULLET::::- Not being able to remember what was eaten after the binge\n\nBULLET::::- Feelings of guilt, shame or disgust following a food binge\n", "BED is a recently described condition, which was required to distinguish binge eating similar to that seen in bulimia nervosa but without characteristic purging. Individuals who are diagnosed with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder exhibit similar patterns of compulsive overeating, neurobiological features of dysfunctional cognitive control and food addiction, and biological and environmental risk factors. Indeed, some consider BED a milder version of bulimia, and that the conditions are on the same spectrum.\n", "Other models of binge eating have used various combinations of stress limited access to optional foods, and/or restriction/refeeding cycles, along with scheduled eating. These specific models have been able to address the consumptive side of BN, and have proven to be useful for testing drug effects on intake behavior. Due to the pharmacological response differences between rodents and humans, new drug development has been concentrating on drug testing specifically in human subjects.\n\nSection::::Animal Models Used in Eating Disorders.:Binge Eating Disorder.\n", "D. The binge eating occurs, on average, at least once a week for 3 months.\n\nE. The binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior as in bulimia nervosa and does not occur exclusively during the course of bulimia nervosa or anorexia nervosa.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nCounselling and certain medication, such as lisdexamfetamine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs), may help. Some recommend a multidisciplinary approach in the treatment of the disorder.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Counselling.\n", "Binge eating is the core symptom of BED; however, not everyone who binge eats has BED. An individual may occasionally binge eat without experiencing many of the negative physical, psychological, or social effects of BED. This example may be considered an eating problem (or not), rather than a disorder. Precisely defining binge eating can be problematic, however binge eating episodes in BED are generally described as having the following potential features:\n\nBULLET::::- Eating much faster than normal, perhaps in a short space of time\n\nBULLET::::- Eating until feeling uncomfortably full\n\nBULLET::::- Eating a large amount when not hungry\n", "DS patients also have a higher occurrence of smelly flatus and diarrhea, although both can usually be mitigated through diet, including avoiding simple carbohydrates.\n\nThe restrictive portion of the DS is not reversible, since part of the stomach is removed. However, the stomach in all DS patients does expand over time, and while it will never reach the same size as the natural stomach in most patients, some stretching does occur.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n\nAll surgical procedures involve a degree of risk however this must be balanced against the significant risks associated with severe obesity.\n", "BULLET::::3. Meet all criteria for bulimia nervosa except they engage in binge eating or purging behaviors less than twice per week or for fewer than three months.\n\nBULLET::::4. Use inappropriate compensatory behavior (such as purging, excessive exercise, or fasting) after eating small amounts of food while retaining a normal body weight.\n\nBULLET::::5. Repeatedly chew and spit out large amounts of food without swallowing.\n\nBULLET::::6. Meet criteria for \"binge eating disorder\": recurrent binge eating and no regular inappropriate compensatory behaviors.\n", "Social isolation can be inherently stressful, depressing and anxiety-provoking. In an attempt to ameliorate these distressful feelings an individual may engage in emotional eating in which food serves as a source of comfort. The loneliness of social isolation and the inherent stressors thus associated have been implicated as triggering factors in binge eating as well.\n\nWaller, Kennerley and Ohanian (2007) argued that both bingeing–vomiting and restriction are emotion suppression strategies, but they are just utilized at different times. For example, restriction is used to pre-empt any emotion activation, while bingeing–vomiting is used after an emotion has been activated.\n", "BULLET::::- Binge-eating disorder (of low frequency and/or limited duration): In this sub-threshold version of BED, individuals must meet all criteria for BED, with the exception of the frequency criterion: binge eating occurs, on average, less than once a week and/or for fewer than 3 months.\n\nBULLET::::- Purging Disorder: In purging disorder, purging behavior aimed to influence weight or shape is present, but in the absence of binge eating.\n", "BULLET::::- Binge eating disorder graduated from DSM-IV's \"Appendix B -- Criteria Sets and Axes Provided for Further Study\" into a proper diagnosis.\n\nBULLET::::- Requirements for bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder were changed from \"at least twice weekly for 6 months to at least once weekly over the last 3 months\".\n\nBULLET::::- The criteria for anorexia nervosa were changed; there is no longer a requirement of amenorrhea.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Feeding disorder of infancy or early childhood\", a rarely used diagnosis in DSM-IV, was renamed to avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder, and criteria were expanded.\n\nSection::::Changes.:Section II: diagnostic criteria and codes.:Elimination disorders.\n", "Binge eating\n\nBinge eating is a pattern of disordered eating which consists of episodes of uncontrollable eating. It is a common symptom of eating disorders such as binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. During such binges, a person rapidly consumes an excessive quantity of food. A diagnosis of binge eating is associated with feelings of loss of control.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nTypically the eating is done rapidly and a person will feel emotionally numb and unable to stop eating.\n", "In 1994, \"DSM-IV\" was published and expanded EDNOS to include six clinical presentations. These presentations included individuals who:\n\nBULLET::::- met criteria for AN, but continued to menstruate,\n\nBULLET::::- met criteria for AN, but still had weight in the normal range despite significant weight loss,\n\nBULLET::::- met criteria for BN but did not meet frequency criterion for binge eating or purging,\n\nBULLET::::- engaged in inappropriate compensatory behavior after eating small amounts of food, or\n\nBULLET::::- repeatedly chewed or spit out food, or who binged on food but did not subsequently purge.\n", "BULLET::::2. A sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a feeling that one cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating).\n\nB. The binge-eating episodes are associated with three (or more) of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. Eating much more rapidly than normal.\n\nBULLET::::2. Eating until feeling uncomfortably full.\n\nBULLET::::3. Eating large amounts of food when not feeling physically hungry.\n\nBULLET::::4. Eating alone because of feeling embarrassed by how much one is eating.\n\nBULLET::::5. Feeling disgusted with oneself, depressed, or very guilty afterward.\n\nC. Marked distress regarding binge eating is present.\n", "Binge\n\nBinge may refer to:\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n\nBinge, a behavior engaged in excessively over a short period of time, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Binge drinking\n\nBULLET::::- Binge eating\n\nBULLET::::- Binge-watching\n\nBULLET::::- Cocaine binges\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Binge\" (EP), a 2018 EP by Machine Gun Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- Binge (TV channel), an Australian cable television channel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Binge\", a song from the Papa Roach album \"Infest\"\n\nBULLET::::- Binge Records, an indie rock record label\n\nBULLET::::- \"Over Indulgence\", a 1989 British film starring Denholm Elliott\n\nSection::::Mining.\n\nBULLET::::- A binge, or pinge, a sink-hole caused by mining activity\n\nSection::::People.\n", "The traditional biliopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch (BPD-DS) led to persistent malnutrition in a subset of patients. However, the loop duodenal switch reduces this risk because it bypasses a smaller portion of the small intestine, but there is no long term information for the loop duodenal switch to fully and accurately compare. Malnutrition is an uncommon and preventable risk after duodenal switch.\n\nSection::::Qualifications.\n\nThe National Institutes of Health state that for patients who meet the following guidelines, weight loss surgery may be an appropriate measure for permanent weight loss:\n\nBULLET::::- BMI of 40 or over\n", "Most people who have eating binges try to hide this behavior from others, and often feel ashamed about being overweight or depressed about their overeating. Although people who do not have any eating disorder may occasionally experience episodes of overeating, frequent binge eating is often a symptom of an eating disorder.\n", "There are different kinds of 'sub-categories' identified for ARFID:\n\nBULLET::::- Sensory-based avoidance, where the individual refuses food intake based on smell, texture, color, brand, presentation\n\nBULLET::::- A lack of interest in consuming the food, or tolerating it nearby\n\nBULLET::::- Food being associated with fear-evoking stimuli that have developed through a learned history\n\nBULLET::::- Anorexia and bulimia often occur in individuals suffering from ARFID.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Autism.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Toxins\" may either be present naturally in food or released by bacteria or from contamination of food products.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psychological reactions\" involve manifestation of clinical symptoms caused not by the food but by emotions associated with the food. The symptoms do not occur when the food is given in an unrecognizable form. Although an individual may have an adverse reaction to a food, this is not considered a food intolerance.\n\nElimination diets are useful to assist in the diagnosis of food allergy and pharmacological food intolerance. Metabolic, toxic and psychological reactions should be diagnosed by other means.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "On other occasions drugs combine with bile juices and enter the intestines. In the intestines the drug will join with the unabsorbed fraction of the administered dose and be eliminated with the faeces or it may undergo a new process of absorption to eventually be eliminated by the kidney.\n", "Binge eating is one of the most prevalent eating disorders among adults, though there tends to be less media coverage and research about the disorder in comparison to anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Other, less common definitions rely on blood alcohol concentration (BAC). For example, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines the term \"binge drinking\" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person’s blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. Whatever the numerical definition used, heavy drinking or rapid consumption over a short period of time with the intention of becoming intoxicated is often implied when the term is used colloquially, since four or five drinks consumed over the course of a whole day and as an accompaniment to meals will not have the same effects as the same amount consumed over a couple of hours on an empty stomach.\n", "Absorption : Bioavailability of tamsulosin and terazosin is around 90% during oral administration in fasting state. Food can have effect on absorption for tamsulosin if it has been ingested shortly before, Tmax for fasting state is 2,9–5,6 hours compared to 5,2–7 hours in fed state. Food has no effect on absorption of terazosin but can delay plasma level concentration for 1 hour, peak plasma level are around 1–2 hours. Alfuzosin bioavailability under fed state is around 49%. Tmax is 8 hours in fed state. Tamsulosin Cmax range was 13.9–18,6 ng/mL fastest and in fed state 7,2–15,6 ng/mL, Cmax for alfuzion is 13,6 mg/mL.\n", "Two major factors found to contribute to binge eating in bulimia nervosa (BN) patients are: stress and negative emotions. One model of BN produces stress-induced hyperphagia, where rats go through periods of restricted food and then are allowed free access to food; this mimics the intermittent self-imposed fasting and yielding to food of BN patients. Sham-feeding rat models have been used to present the defect in the satiety mechanisms in BN due to vomiting or purging after food intake. It is known that multiple mechanisms regulate meal patterning, although in order to study them, precise consumption patterns of BN patients must be known; these intake patterns are still currently being studied.\n" ]

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[ "The angular resolution of the naked eye is about 1′; however, some people have sharper vision than that. There is anecdotal evidence that people had seen the Galilean moons of Jupiter before telescopes were invented. Uranus and Vesta had most probably been seen but could not be recognized as planets because they appear so faint even at maximum brightness; Uranus' magnitude varies from +5.3 to +5.9, and Vesta's from +5.2 to +8.5 (so that it is only visible near its opposition dates). Uranus, when discovered in 1781, was the first planet discovered using technology (a telescope) rather than being spotted by the naked eye.\n", "In the mid-nineteenth century, one of the scientific challenges of the moment was to determine with the greatest accuracy possible the distance between the Earth and the Sun, the so-called Astronomical Unit, which indicates the size of our Solar System. At that time, the only way to know it was through the astronomical phenomenon of Venus transit: the passage of Venus ahead of the Sun, which required two simultaneous observations being made at a time from different land latitudes and measure the total duration of the event. With this data and applying the laws of Kepler, which describe the behavior of planetary orbits, the distance with the rest of the planets of the Solar System could be obtained.\n", "Section::::19th century.\n\nSection::::19th century.:Solar spectroscopy.\n\nAfter the detection of infra-red radiation by William Herschel in 1800 and of Ultraviolet radiation by Johann Wilhelm Ritter, solar spectrometry began in 1817 when William Hyde Wollaston noticed that dark lines appeared in the solar spectrum when viewed through a glass prism. Joseph von Fraunhofer later independently discovered the lines and they were named Fraunhofer lines after him. Other physicists discerned that properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined from them. Notable scientists to advance spectroscopy were David Brewster, Gustav Kirchhoff, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Anders Jonas Ångström.\n\nSection::::19th century.:Solar cycle.\n", "Before the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) was sent to Gemini South, it was necessary to calibrate its coronagraph. For this matter, a nearly achromatic and collimated source that could cover 0.95-2.4 µm was needed. Photon etc.’s efficient tunable laser source was chosen to test the coronagraph. The tunable source was able to provide an output across the whole GPI wavelength domain.\n", "Section::::20th century.:Coronagraph.\n\nUntil the 1930s, little progress was made on understanding the Sun's corona, as it could only be viewed during infrequent total solar eclipses. Bernard Lyot's 1931 invention of the Coronagraph – a telescope with an attachment to block out the direct light of the solar disk – allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight.\n\nSection::::20th century.:Spectroheliograph.\n", "One of the most extreme cases postulated is of the discovery of Ganymede. This again involved Galileo, who is usually stated to have discovered it in 1610. It has been postulated by Xi Zezong that Ganymede was discovered by the Chinese astronomer Gan De in 365 B.C., when he catalogued it as a small red star next to Jupiter during naked eye observation. It may be noted that by apparent magnitude, Ganymede is supposedly (barely) visible with the naked eye, but it is usually lost in the glare of its parent planet. It has been postulated that a tree limb could obscure Jupiter enough for observation. This would be a precovery of nearly two thousand years, very probably the longest recorded.\n", "Both Corot and Kepler have measured the reflected light from planets. However, these planets were already known since they transit their host star. The first planets discovered by this method are Kepler-70b and Kepler-70c, found by Kepler.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Relativistic beaming.\n\nA separate novel method to detect exoplanets from light variations uses relativistic beaming of the observed flux from the star due to its motion. It is also known as Doppler beaming or Doppler boosting. The method was first proposed by Abraham Loeb and Scott Gaudi in 2003\n", "The \"Kepler\" mission was NASA's first mission capable of finding Earth-size and smaller planets. The \"Kepler\" mission monitored the brightness of stars to find planets that pass in front of them during the planets' orbits. During such passes or 'transits,' the planets will slightly decrease the star's brightness.\n", "In the mid-18th century, the dynamics of the Solar System were reasonably well understood, but astronomers only had an approximate idea of its scale. If the distance between two planets could be measured, all the other distances would be known from Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The best candidate for an accurate measurement was the distance between the Earth and Venus, which could be calculated from observations of transits of Venus, when Venus passes directly between the Earth and the Sun, appearing as a small black dot moving across the face of the Sun.\n", "Efforts were made starting in the 1830s and continuing through the 19th century to detect infrared radiation from other astronomical sources. Radiation from the Moon was first detected in 1856 by Charles Piazzi Smyth, the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, during an expedition to Tenerife to test his ideas about mountain top astronomy. Ernest Fox Nichols used a modified Crookes radiometer in an attempt to detect infrared radiation from Arcturus and Vega, but Nichols deemed the results inconclusive. Even so, the ratio of flux he reported for the two stars is consistent with the modern value, so George Rieke gives Nichols credit for the first detection of a star other than our own in the infrared.\n", "On 1 September 1859, Richard C. Carrington and separately R. Hodgson first observed a solar flare. Carrington and Gustav Spörer discovered that the Sun rotates at different rates at different latitudes, and that the outer layer must be fluid.\n\nIn 1907–08, George Ellery Hale uncovered the Sun's magnetic cycle and the magnetic nature of sunspots. Hale and his colleagues later deduced Hale's polarity laws that described its magnetic field.\n\nBernard Lyot's 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight.\n", "By 1846, discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus led many to suspect a large planet must be tugging at it from farther out. Urbain Le Verrier's calculations eventually led to the discovery of Neptune. The excess perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit led Le Verrier to postulate the intra-Mercurian planet Vulcan in 1859, but that would turn out to be an irrelevant thesis.\n", "Traditionally, devices like a blink comparator were used in astronomy to detect objects in the Solar System, because these objects would move between two exposures—this involved time-consuming steps like exposing and developing photographic plates or films, and people then using a blink comparator to manually detect prospective objects. During the 1980s, the use of CCD-based cameras in telescopes made it possible to directly produce electronic images that could then be readily digitized and transferred to digital images. Because the CCD captured more light than film (about 90% versus 10% of incoming light) and the blinking could now be done at an adjustable computer screen, the surveys allowed for higher throughput. A flood of new discoveries was the result: over a thousand trans-Neptunian objects were detected between 1992 and 2006.\n", "Another early observation was of solar prominences, described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod.\n\nSection::::17th and 18th centuries.\n", "Astronomical devices used for polarimetry, called polarimeters, are capable of detecting polarized light and rejecting unpolarized beams. Groups such as ZIMPOL/CHEOPS and PlanetPol are currently using polarimeters to search for extrasolar planets. The first successful detection of an extrasolar planet using this method came in 2008, when HD 189733 b, a planet discovered three years earlier, was detected using polarimetry. However, no new planets have yet been discovered using this method.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Astrometry.\n", "The observatory had a large mural quadrant affixed to a north-south wall, used to measure the altitude of stars as they passed the meridian. This, along with many other instruments of the observatory, was depicted and described in detail in Brahe's 1598 book \"Astronomiae instauratae mechanica\".\n", "Section::::Telescopic observations.\n\nThe first exploration of the Solar System was conducted by telescope, when astronomers first began to map those objects too faint to be seen with the naked eye.\n", "BULLET::::- Olbers' paradox (the \"dark-night-sky paradox\") was described by Thomas Digges in the 16th century, by Johannes Kepler in the 17th century (1610), by Edmond Halley and by Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux in the 18th century, by Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers in the 19th century (1823), and definitively by Lord Kelvin in the 20th century (1901); some aspects of Kelvin's argument had been anticipated in the poet and short-story writer Edgar Allan Poe's essay, \"\" (1848), which also presaged by three-quarters of a century the Big Bang theory of the universe.\n", "Thus, the aforementioned pattern, now known as the Titius–Bode law, predicted the semi-major axes of all eight planets of the time (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus).\n\nFifteen months later, Heinrich Olbers discovered a second object in the same region, Pallas. Unlike the other known planets, Ceres and Pallas remained points of light even under the highest telescope magnifications instead of resolving into discs. Apart from their rapid movement, they appeared indistinguishable from stars.\n", "This was an attempt by Indian Scientists to pin down the exact diameter of the sun-which today still remains unknown, by precisely measuring the sun's shadow cast on the earth. Three Indian Air Force planes were deployed with cameramen and scientists to examine the umbra. Separately, a pair of IAF MiG-25 fighters were fitted with equipment to photograph the outer solar corona and also the dust rings around it, in the darkest, clearest possible sky.\n", "In 1802, William Hyde Wollaston built a spectrometer, improving on Newton's model, that included a lens to focus the Sun’s spectrum on a screen. Upon use, Wollaston realized that the colors were not spread uniformly, but instead had missing patches of colors, which appeared as dark bands in the sun's spectrum. At the time, Wollaston believed these lines to be natural boundaries between the colors, but this hypothesis was later ruled out in 1815 by Fraunhofer's work.\n", "Stars may also be occulted by planets. Occultations of bright stars are rare. In 1959, Venus occulted Regulus, and the next occultation of a bright star (also Regulus by Venus) will be in 2044. Uranus's rings were first discovered when that planet occulted a star in 1977. On 3 July 1989, Saturn passed in front of the 5th magnitude star 28 Sagittarii. Pluto occulted stars in 1988, 2002, and 2006, allowing its tenuous atmosphere to be studied via atmospheric limb sounding.\n\nSection::::Occultation by planets.:Mutual planetary occultations.\n", "Neptune is too dim to be visible to the naked eye: its apparent magnitude is never brighter than 7.7. Therefore, the first observations of Neptune were only possible after the invention of the telescope. There is evidence that Neptune was seen and recorded by Galileo Galilei in 1613, Jérôme Lalande in 1795 and John Herschel in 1830, but none is known to have recognized it as a planet at the time. These pre-discovery observations were important in accurately determining the orbit of Neptune. Neptune would appear prominently even in early telescopes so other pre-discovery observation records are likely.\n", "There was a good deal of interest in the 2004 transit as scientists attempted to measure the pattern of light dimming as Venus blocked out some of the Sun's light, in order to refine techniques that they hope to use in searching for extrasolar planets. Current methods of looking for planets orbiting other stars only work for a few cases: planets that are very large (Jupiter-like, not Earth-like), whose gravity is strong enough to wobble the star sufficiently for us to detect changes in proper motion or Doppler shift changes in radial velocity; Jupiter or Neptune sized planets very close to their parent star whose transit causes changes in the luminosity of the star; or planets which pass in front of background stars with the planet-parent star separation comparable to the Einstein ring and cause gravitational microlensing. Measuring light intensity during the course of a transit, as the planet blocks out some of the light, is potentially much more sensitive, and might be used to find smaller planets. However, extremely precise measurement is needed: for example, the transit of Venus causes the amount of light received from the Sun to drop by a fraction of 0.001 (that is, to 99.9% of its nominal value), and the dimming produced by small extrasolar planets will be similarly tiny.\n", "The first unambiguous detection of Venus was made by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on 10 March 1961. JPL established contact with the planet Venus using a planetary radar system from 10 March to 10 May 1961. Using both velocity and range data, a new value of was determined for the astronomical unit. Once the correct value was known, other groups found echos in their archived data that agreed with these results.\n\nThe following is a list of planetary bodies that have been observed by this means:\n\nSection::::Asteroids and comets.\n" ]

[ "Humans know where the edge of observable universe is." ]

[ "Humans don't actually know where the edge of observable universe actually is, humans have only seen the farthest they can see, but it is unknown if anything lies beyond what we are capable of seeing." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Humans know where the edge of observable universe is." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Humans don't actually know where the edge of observable universe actually is, humans have only seen the farthest they can see, but it is unknown if anything lies beyond what we are capable of seeing." ]

[ "The female sexual response is more varied than that of men, and women are capable of attaining additional or multiple orgasms through further sexual stimulation. However, there are many women who experience clitoral hypersensitivity after orgasm, which can effectively create a refractory period. These women may be capable of further orgasms, but the pain involved in getting there makes the prospect undesirable.\n\nAccording to Havelock Ellis, most multi-orgasmic men (and their partners) report that multiple orgasms lead to a highly energetic post-orgasmic state.\n\nSection::::Other studies.\n", "In human sexuality, the refractory period is usually the recovery phase after orgasm during which it is physiologically impossible for a man to have additional orgasms. This phase begins immediately after ejaculation and lasts until the excitement phase of the human sexual response cycle begins anew with low level response. Although it is generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and can thus experience an additional orgasm (or multiple orgasms) soon after the first one, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a moment after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.\n", "An orgasm includes involuntary actions, including muscular spasms in multiple areas of the body, a general euphoric sensation and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations. The period after orgasm, known as a refractory period, is often a relaxing experience, attributed to the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin. Although it is generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and can thus experience an additional orgasm (or multiple orgasms) soon after the first one, some sources state that women are capable of experiencing a refractory period because they may experience a moment after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.\n", "Masters and Johnson argued that all women are potentially multiply orgasmic, but that multiply orgasmic men are rare, and stated that \"the female is capable of rapid return to orgasm immediately following an orgasmic experience, if restimulated before tensions have dropped below plateau phase response levels\". Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first one, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement. After the initial orgasm, subsequent orgasms for women may be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates.\n", "Women are able to achieve multiple orgasms due to the fact that they generally do not require a refractory period like men do after the first orgasm; though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first orgasm, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because, due to clitoral hypersensitivity or sexual satisfaction, women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.\n", "BULLET::::- During the resolution phase, muscles relax, blood pressure drops, and the body returns to its resting state. Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms soon after the first, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement. This period may last from minutes to days and is typically longer for men than women.\n", "Sexual intercourse, when involving a male participant, often ends when the male has ejaculated, and thus the partner might not have time to reach orgasm. In addition, premature ejaculation (PE) is common, and women often require a substantially longer duration of stimulation with a sexual partner than men do before reaching an orgasm. Scholars, such as Weiten et al., state that \"many couples are locked into the idea that orgasms should be achieved only through intercourse [penile-vaginal sex],\" that \"the word \"foreplay\" suggests that any other form of sexual stimulation is merely preparation for the 'main event'\" and that \"because women reach orgasm through intercourse less consistently than men,\" they are likelier than men to fake an orgasm to satisfy their sexual partners.\n", "Section::::Media.\n\nA number of books assert that men are capable of eliminating the refractory period and having multiple orgasms similar to female multiple orgasms by learning to separate ejaculation from orgasm, and describe techniques they claim will help men stop ejaculation and thus eliminate the refractory period. In addition, many men who began masturbation or other sexual activity prior to puberty report the ability of having been able to achieve multiple, non-ejaculatory orgasms without refractory periods during that time in their lives.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Post-coital tristesse\n\nBULLET::::- Coolidge effect\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Glossary of clinical sexology (it - en)\n", "Section::::Resolution phase.:Resolution in males.\n\nMasters and Johnson described the two-stage detumescence of the penis: In the first stage, the penis decreases from its erect state to about 50 percent larger than its flaccid state. This occurs during the refractory period. In the second stage (and after the refractory period is finished), the penis decreases in size and returns to being flaccid. It is generally impossible for men to achieve orgasm during the refractory period. Masters and Johnson argue that this period must end before men can become aroused again.\n\nSection::::Resolution phase.:Resolution in females.\n", "Section::::Factors and theories.\n\nWhile the refractory period varies widely among individuals, ranging from minutes to days, most men cannot achieve or maintain an erection during this time, and many perceive a psychological feeling of satisfaction and are temporarily uninterested in further sexual activity; the penis may be hypersensitive and further sexual stimulation may feel painful during this time frame.\n", "Masters and Johnson argued that, in the first stage, \"accessory organs contract and the male can feel the ejaculation coming; two to three seconds later the ejaculation occurs, which the man cannot constrain, delay, or in any way control\" and that, in the second stage, \"the male feels pleasurable contractions during ejaculation, reporting greater pleasure tied to a greater volume of ejaculate\". They reported that, unlike females, \"for the man the resolution phase includes a superimposed refractory period\" and added that \"many males below the age of 30, but relatively few thereafter, have the ability to ejaculate frequently and are subject to only very short refractory periods during the resolution phase\". Masters and Johnson equated male orgasm and ejaculation and maintained the necessity for a refractory period between orgasms.\n", "According to Masters and Johnson, women have the ability to orgasm again very quickly, as long as they have effective stimulation. As a result, they are able to have multiple orgasms in a relatively short period of time. Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first, some sources state that men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful. After the initial orgasm, subsequent orgasms for women may also be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates.\n", "During sexual intercourse, most women experience involuntary vaginal contractions. The contraction causes the pelvic muscles to tighten around the penis, which increases the level of her partner's arousal and sexual frenzy and results in the man increasing the pace and force of thrusts as he approaches orgasm, which in turn further increases the woman's vaginal contraction. After a man has achieved orgasm, he will normally collapse onto the woman and will normally not be capable of further thrusting. Some men try to control their orgasm until their female partner also orgasms, but this is not always achieved. At times, a woman can achieve orgasm after the man has ceased thrusting by contracting her vaginal muscles and with pelvic movements, or the couple may change to another position that enables the woman to continue thrusting until she has reached orgasm, such as a woman on top position.\n", "An increased infusion of the hormone oxytocin during ejaculation is believed to be chiefly responsible for the refractory period, and the amount by which oxytocin is increased may affect the length of each refractory period. A scientific study to successfully document natural, fully ejaculatory, multiple orgasms in an adult man was conducted at Rutgers University in 1995. During the study, six fully ejaculatory orgasms were experienced in 36 minutes, with no apparent refractory period.\n\nSection::::Achieving orgasm.:Females.\n\nSection::::Achieving orgasm.:Females.:Orgasmic factors and variabilities.\n", "Orgasms in females can vary widely from woman to woman. The overall sensation is similar to that of the male orgasm. They are commonly associated with an increase in vaginal lubrication, a tightening of the vaginal walls and overall pleasure.\n\nSection::::Resolution phase.\n\nThe resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. The refractory period, which is part of the resolution phase, is the time frame in which usually a man is unable to orgasm again, though women can also experience a refractory period.\n", "Women with damage or tears to their perineum resume sex later than women with an intact perineum, and women who needed perineal sutures report poorer sexual relations. Perineal damage is also associated with painful sex. Women who have an anal tear are less likely to have resumed sex after six months and one year, but they have normal sexual function 18 months later.\n", "If orgasm is desired, anorgasmia may be attributed to an inability to relax. It may be associated with performance pressure and an unwillingness to pursue pleasure, as separate from the other person's satisfaction; often, women worry so much about the pleasure of their partner that they become anxious, which manifests as impatience with the delay of orgasm for them. This delay can lead to frustration of not reaching orgasmic sexual satisfaction. Psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich, in his 1927 book \"Die Funktion des Orgasmus\" (published in English in 1980 as \"Genitality in the Theory and Therapy of Neurosis\") was the first to make orgasm central to the concept of mental health, and defined neurosis in terms of blocks to having orgastic potency. Although orgasm dysfunction can have psychological components, physiological factors often play a role. For instance, delayed orgasm or the inability to achieve orgasm is a common side effect of many medications.\n", "After orgasm and ejaculation, men usually experience a refractory period characterised by loss of erection, a subsidence in any sex flush, less interest in sex, and a feeling of relaxation that can be attributed to the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin. The intensity and duration of the refractory period can be very short in a highly aroused young man in what he sees as a highly arousing situation, perhaps without even a noticeable loss of erection. It can be as long as a few hours or days in mid-life and older men.\n\nSection::::Physiological response.:Female physiological response.\n", "Regular difficulty reaching orgasm after ample sexual stimulation, known as anorgasmia, is significantly more common in women than in men (see below). In addition to sexual dysfunction being a cause for women's inability to reach orgasm, or the amount of time for sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm being variable and longer in women than in men, other factors include a lack of communication between sexual partners about what is needed for the woman to reach orgasm, feelings of sexual inadequacy in either partner, a focus on only penetration (vaginal or otherwise), and men generalizing women's trigger for orgasm based on their own sexual experiences with other women.\n", "The traditional view of male orgasm is that there are two stages: emission following orgasm, almost instantly followed by a refractory period. The refractory period is the recovery phase after orgasm during which it is physiologically impossible for a man to have additional orgasms. In 1966, Masters and Johnson published pivotal research about the phases of sexual stimulation. Their work included women and men, and, unlike Alfred Kinsey in 1948 and 1953, tried to determine the physiological stages before and after orgasm.\n", "Masters and Johnson's findings also revealed that men undergo a refractory period following orgasm during which they are not able to ejaculate again, whereas there is no refractory period in women: this makes women capable of multiple orgasm. They also were the first to describe the phenomenon of the rhythmic contractions of orgasm in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals and then gradually slowing in both speed and intensity.\n\nSection::::Sexual response in the aging person.\n", "In 2000, Rosemary Basson presented an alternative model to the human sexual response cycle that is \"specific to women’s sexual response\". She argues that gender differences in sex drive, sexual motivation, sexual concordance, and capacity for orgasm underlie the need for an alternative model of sexual response. While the human sexual response cycle begins with desire, followed by arousal, orgasm, and finally resolution, Basson’s alternative model is circular and begins with women feeling a need for intimacy, which leads her to seek out and be receptive to sexual stimuli; women then feel sexual arousal, in addition to sexual desire. The cycle results in an enhanced feeling of intimacy. Basson emphasizes the idea that a lack of spontaneous desire should not be taken as an indication of female sexual dysfunction; many women experience sexual arousal and responsive desire simultaneously when they are engaged in sexual activity.\n", "Section::::Theoretical biological and evolutionary functions of female orgasm.:Selective pressure and mating.\n\nWallen K and Lloyd EA stated, \"In men, orgasms are under strong selective pressure as orgasms are coupled with ejaculation and thus contribute to male reproductive success. By contrast, women's orgasms in intercourse are highly variable and are under little selective pressure as they are not a reproductive necessity.\"\n", "A person who is troubled by experiencing situational anorgasmia should be encouraged to explore alone and with their partner those factors that may affect whether or not they are orgasmic, such as fatigue, emotional concerns, feeling pressured to have sex when they are not interested, or a partner's sexual dysfunction. In the relatively common case of female situational anorgasmia during penile-vaginal intercourse, some sex therapists recommend that couples incorporate manual or vibrator stimulation during intercourse, or using the female-above position as it may allow for greater stimulation of the clitoris by the penis or pubic symphysis or both, and it allows the woman better control of movement.\n", "In order to encourage mating in non-conceptive periods and to encourage males to maintain their proximity, males must possess imperfect knowledge of the female's fertility status. This is achieved through concealed ovulation in most animals that exhibit extended female sexuality. A review of studies revealed that, in humans, females only exhibit subtle changes during estrus, making it difficult for males to assess fertility with precision. In the !Kung tribe, for instance, females lack any overt signals of fertility and are continuously receptive to sexual intercourse, encouraging males to remain and provide resources.\n\nSection::::Explanations.\n\nSection::::Explanations.:Male assistance hypothesis.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Sneezing cannot occur during sleep due to REM atonia – a bodily state where motor neurons are not stimulated and reflex signals are not relayed to the brain. Sufficient external stimulants, however, may cause a person to wake from sleep to sneeze, but any sneezing occurring afterwards would take place with a partially awake status at minimum.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Cough may also be caused by conditions affecting the lung tissue such as bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, interstitial lung diseases and sarcoidosis. Coughing can also be triggered by benign or malignant lung tumors or mediastinal masses. Through irritation of the nerve, diseases of the external auditory canal (wax, for example) can also cause cough. Cardiovascular diseases associated with cough are heart failure, pulmonary infarction and aortic aneurysm. Nocturnal cough is associated with heart failure, as the heart does not compensate for the increased volume shift to the pulmonary circulation, in turn causing pulmonary edema and resultant cough. Other causes of nocturnal cough include asthma, post-nasal drip and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Another cause of cough occurring preferentially in supine position is recurrent aspiration.\n", "While there are many causes of chronic cough, it is generally not essential for an extensive evaluation of multiple causes of cough to be made since the clinical pattern is usually sufficiently apparent that the diagnosis can be made by the clinical presentation, i.e., a repetitive harsh barking cough that is absent once asleep. Those familiar with this disorder readily recognize it without much in the way of testing.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSuccessful treatments have involved a few reports utilizing hypnosis, but suggestion therapy has been most extensively used. \n", "The coughing episodes are also episodic, progressively severe and eventually nocturnal. They are initiated by a “ticking sensation” deep in the throat or more typically behind the suprasternal notch. This sensation then causes the patient to cough. The cough is therefore a ‘normal’ response to this ticking sensation rather than an uncontrolled muscular contraction of the diaphragm or intercostal muscles. The coughing episodes can be severe with incontinence, vomiting, visual phosphenes (“seeing stars”), and post-tussive headache. These episodes typically progress from mild to severe over the years and eventually will awaken the patient from sleep. In between episodes, the patient is normal and respiratory examination does not reveal reactive airways disease (asthma) or allergies. The coughing episodes can be triggered by loud or prolonged talking, exercise or the choking episodes described above.\n", "A cough can be classified by its duration, character, quality, and timing. The duration can be either acute (of sudden onset) if it is present less than three weeks, subacute if it is present between three or eight weeks, and chronic when lasting longer than eight weeks. A cough can be non-productive (dry) or productive (when sputum is coughed up). It may occur only at night (then called \"nocturnal cough\"), during both night and day, or just during the day.\n", "BULLET::::- In the United Kingdom, PAP machines are available on National Health Service prescription after a diagnosis of sleep apnea or privately from the internet provided a prescription is supplied.\n", "It is recognized with increasing frequency that patients who have both obstructive sleep apnea and asthma often improve tremendously when the sleep apnea is diagnosed and treated. CPAP is not effective in patients with nocturnal asthma only.\n\nSection::::Asthma and gastro-esophageal reflux disease.\n\nIf gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is present, the patient may have repetitive episodes of acid aspiration. GERD may be common in difficult-to-control asthma, but according to one study, treating it does not seem to affect the asthma.\n", "During a reverse sneeze, the dog will make rapid and long inhalations, stand still, and extend its head and neck. A loud snorting sound is produced.\n\nReverse sneezing also commonly occurs while the dog is asleep or immediately following a long nap. Other dogs may experience it following play, exercise, or meals. It can also happen by breathing in dust, although episodes are typically random. Though smaller dogs seem slightly more susceptible to reverse sneezing, any dog can develop it, regardless of size. \n\nDifferential diagnoses include tracheal collapse.\n", "Anaerobes can be isolated from most types of upper respiratory tract and head and neck infection, and are especially common in chronic ones. These include tonsillar, peritonsillar and retropharyngeal abscesses, chronic otitis media, sinusitis and mastoiditis, eye ocular) infections, all deep neck space infections, parotitis, sialadenitis, thyroiditis, odontogenic infections, and postsurgical and nonsurgical head and neck wounds and abscesses., The predominant organisms are of oropharyngeal flora origin and include AGNB, \"Fusobacterium\" and Peptostreptococcus spp.\n", "P magnus were highly recovered in bone and chest infections. P asaccharolyticus and P anaerobius and the highest recovery rate in obstetrical/gynecological and respiratory tract infections and wounds. When anaerobic and facultative cocci were recovered most of the infection were polymicrobial. Most patients from whom microaerophilic streptococci were recovered in pure culture had abscesses (e.g., dental, intracranial, pulmonary), bacteremia, meningitis, or conjunctivitis. P. Magnus is the most commonly isolated anaerobic cocci and is often recovered in pure culture. Other common Peptostreptococci in the different infectious sites are P anaerobius which occurs in oral infections; P micros in respiratory tract infection.s, P magnus, P micros, P asaccharolyticus, Peptostreptococcus vaginalis, and P anaerobius in skin and soft tissue infections; P magnus and P micros in deep organ abscesses; P magnus, P micros, and P anaerobius in gastrointestinal tract–associated infections; P magnus, P micros, P asaccharolyticus, P vaginalis, P tetradius, and P anaerobius in female genitourinary infections; and P magnus, P asaccharolyticus, P vaginalis, and P anaerobius in bone and joint infections and leg and foot ulcers.\n", "In adults the most common source of aspiration pneumonia is aspiration of oropharyngeal secretions or gastric contents. In children the most common cause is aspiration of infected amniotic fluid, or vaginal secretions. Severe periodontal or gingival diseases are important risk factors for establishment of an anaerobic pleuropulmonary infection. Progression of the infection from pneumonitis into necrotizing pneumonia and pulmonary abscess can occur, with or without the development of empyema., The infection is often polymicrobial in nature and isolates of community-acquired infection (in 60–80% of cases) are aerobic and anaerobic belonging to the individual's oropharyngeal flora. The anaerobic bacteria commonly recovered are \"Prevotella, Porphyromonas, Fusobacterium\" and \"Peptostreptococcus\" spp., and the aerobic bacteria are beta-hemolytic and microaerophilic streptococci. Anaerobic bacteria can also be isolated in about 35% of individuals who suffer from nosocomial-acquired aspiration pneumonia and pneumonia associated with tracheostomy with and without mechanical ventilation, where they are often isolated along with Enterobacteriaceae, \"Pseudomonas\" spp. and \"Staphylococcus aureus\". It is important that specimens are obtained in a method that avoids their contamination by the oral micro flora.\n", "Pertussis is caused by the bacterium \"Bordetella pertussis\". It is an airborne disease which spreads easily through the coughs and sneezes of an infected person. People are infectious from the start of symptoms until about three weeks into the coughing fits. Those treated with antibiotics are no longer infectious after five days. Diagnosis is by collecting a sample from the back of the nose and throat. This sample can then be tested by either culture or by polymerase chain reaction.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nHabit cough is characterized by a harsh barking cough, and becomes persistent for weeks to months. The cough's hallmarks are severe frequency, often a cough every 2–3 seconds, and the lack of other symptoms such as fever. The child can have trouble falling asleep but once asleep will not cough. Absence once asleep is considered a essential.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "As the muscle tone of the body ordinarily relaxes during sleep, and the airway at the throat is composed of walls of soft tissue, which can collapse, it is not surprising that breathing can be obstructed during sleep. Although a minor degree of OSA is considered to be within the bounds of normal sleep, and many individuals experience episodes of OSA at some point in life, a small percentage of people have chronic, severe OSA.\n", "Later that night (some contemporary accounts refer to the time as the morning of the following day), a similar incident was also reported by a young mother living close by. She was awakened by the sound of her daughter coughing but found herself unable to leave her bed.\n", "Marine One has not been the subject of any accident or attack through 2009. However, in 2006, President George W. Bush boarded Marine One with his departing press secretary, and the ignition on Marine One's engines failed. The president was forced to exit the helicopter and depart the White House in an automobile.\n\nSection::::History.:Development of replacement helicopter.\n\nThe September 11 attacks on the U.S. led to widespread agreement that the Marine One helicopter fleet needed significant upgrades to its communication, transportation, and security systems. But these could not be made due to the weight already added to the aircraft.\n", "The reflex is impaired in the person whose abdominals and respiratory muscles are weak. This problem can be caused by disease condition that lead to muscle weakness or paralysis, by prolonged inactivity, or as outcome of surgery involving these muscles. Bed rest interferes with the expansion of the chest and limits the amount of air that can be taken into the lungs in preparation for coughing, making the cough weak and ineffective. This reflex may also be impaired by damage to the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve which relays the afferent branch of the reflex arc. This nerve is most commonly damaged by swallowing a foreign object, such as a chicken bone, resulting in it being lodged in the piriform recess (in the laryngopharynx) or by surgical removal of said object.\n", "Some roots cannot be reconstructed with an ablauting , an example being 'to grow, to become'. Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of unattested forms like , and thus follow the phonotactical rules.\n\nSome roots like 'to sneeze' or 'to duck' do not appear to follow these rules. This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions. , for example, might not have existed in PIE at all, if the Indo-European words usually traced back to it are onomatopoeias.\n", "Mutant strains of \"S. aureus\" modified to lack staphyloxanthin are less likely to survive incubation with an oxidizing chemical, such as hydrogen peroxide, than pigmented strains. Mutant colonies are quickly killed when exposed to human neutrophils, while many of the pigmented colonies survive. In mice, the pigmented strains cause lingering abscesses when inoculated into wounds, whereas wounds infected with the unpigmented strains quickly heal.\n", "Viruses are common causes of the common cold. Less often, bacteria may also cause pharyngitis. Both of these organisms enter the body via the nose or mouth as aerosolized particles when someone sneezes or coughs. Because many germs are contagious, one can even acquire them from touching utensils, toys, personal care products or door knobs. The most common viruses that causes throat irritation include the common cold virus, influenza, infectious mononucleosis, measles and croup. Most bacteria and viruses usually induce throat irritation during the winter or autumn.\n\nSection::::Epiglottitis.\n", "The inflammation of the airway is a common attribute of HPIV infection. It is believed to occur due to the large scale up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines. Common cytokines, expected to be up-regulated, include IFN–α, various other interleukins (IL–2, IL-6) and TNF–α. Various chemokines and inflammatory proteins are also believed to be associated with the common symptoms of HPIV infection.\n\nRecent evidence seems to suggest that virus-specific antibodies (IgE) may be responsible for mediating large-scale releases of histamine in the trachea, which are believed to cause croup. More detail on the pathways and interactions can be found here.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Immunology.\n", "H5N1 is easily transmissible between birds, facilitating a potential global spread of H5N1. While H5N1 undergoes mutation and reassortment, creating variations which can infect species not previously known to carry the virus, not all of these variant forms can infect humans. H5N1 as an avian virus preferentially binds to a type of galactose receptors that populate the avian respiratory tract from the nose to the lungs and are virtually absent in humans, occurring only in and around the alveoli, structures deep in the lungs where oxygen is passed to the blood. Therefore, the virus is not easily expelled by coughing and sneezing, the usual route of transmission.\n", "After the bacteria are inhaled, they initially adhere to the ciliated epithelium in the nasopharynx. Surface proteins of \"B. pertussis\", including filamentous hemaglutinin and pertactin, mediate attachment to the epithelium. The bacteria then multiply. In infants, who experience more severe disease, the bacteria spread down to the lungs.\n", "Other viral infections such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), metapneumovirus (hMPV), rhinovirus, parainfluenza (PIV), and human coronavirus in the neonatal period are associated with recurrent wheezing in later childhood. RSV infections can be prolonged. Premature infants born at less than 32 weeks gestation have more days of cough and wheeze at 1 year of age than those uninfected with RSV.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Fungi.\n", "Specifically, streptococci can cause varying levels of infections from mild to life-threatening. Starting in the 1980s, group A streptococci have increased in prevalence and have been the cause of rheumatic fever and other invasive infections. The mucous membranes found in the nose and throat are primary sites for infection and transmission of group A streptococci. The mucus membranes are in direct contact with the reed during playing; therefore, if infection does occur it is likely it will derive from the group A streptococci. \n" ]

[ "We can sneeze during our sleep.", "Humans sneeze while sleeping." ]

[ "We do not sneeze during our sleep.", "Humans do not sneeze while sleeping. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "We can sneeze during our sleep.", "Humans sneeze while sleeping." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "We do not sneeze during our sleep.", "Humans do not sneeze while sleeping. " ]

[ "BULLET::::- The second government responsibility is oversight of health-insurance funds, to ensure that they are correctly managing the sums they receive, and to ensure oversight of the public hospital network.\n", "Health care in France\n\nThe French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the \"close to best overall health care\" in the world. In 2011, France spent 11.6% of GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita, a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe but less than in the US. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government funded agencies.\n", "They survey epidemics, fulfil a legal role (consultation of traumas that can bring compensation, certificates for the practice of a sport, death certificates, certificates for hospitalization without consent in case of mental incapacity), and a role in emergency care (they can be called by the \"SAMU\", the emergency medical service). They often go to a patient's home if the patient cannot come to the consulting room (especially in case of children or old people) and they must also perform night and week-end duty.\n\nSection::::Health care system.:Health insurance.\n", "Health in France\n\nAverage life expectancy in France at birth was 81 years in 2008.\n\nA new measure of expected human capital calculated for 195 countries from 1990 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by the Lancet in September 2018. France had the ninth highest level of expected human capital with 25 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years.\n\nSection::::Healthcare issues in France.\n", "Section::::Europe.:France.\n\nIn its 2000 assessment of world health systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the \"best overall health care\" in the world. In 2005, France spent 11.2% of GDP on health care, or US$3,926 per capita. Of that, approximately 80% was government expenditure.\n", "An important element of the French insurance system is solidarity: the more ill a person becomes, the less they pay. This means that for people with serious or chronic illnesses (with vital risks, such as cancers, AIDS, or severe mental illness, where the person becomes very dependent of his medical assistance and protection) the insurance system reimburses them 100% of expenses and waives their co-payment charges.\n", "Section::::History.:Since 1945.\n\nThe current system has undergone several changes since its foundation in 1945, though the basis of the system remains state planned and operated.\n", "Section::::Health care system.\n\nThe entire population must pay compulsory health insurance. The insurers are non-profit agencies that annually participate in negotiations with the state regarding the overall funding of health care in France. There are three main funds, the largest of which covers 84% of the population and the other two a further 12%. A premium is deducted from all employees' pay automatically. The 2001 Social Security Funding Act, set the rates for health insurance covering the statutory health care plan at 5.25% on earned income, capital and winnings from gambling and at 3.95% on benefits (pensions and allowances).\n", "In 1998, 75% of health payments in France were paid through the public healthcare system. Since 27 July 1999, France has a universal medical coverage for permanent residents in France (stable residence for more than three months). Using five performance indicators to measure health systems in 191 member states, it finds that France provides the best overall health care followed among major countries by Italy, Spain, Oman, Austria and Japan (The World Health Report).\n\nSection::::Lifestyle.\n\nSection::::Lifestyle.:Food and alcohol.\n", "The system is managed by the Caisse Nationale de l'Assurance Maladie. \n\nSection::::Health care system.:Fees and reimbursements.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Finally, to counter the rise in health care costs, the government has installed two plans (in 2004 and 2006), which require most people to declare a referring doctor in order to be fully reimbursed for specialist visits, and which installed a mandatory co-payment of €1 (about US$1.35) for a doctor visit (limited to 50 € annually), 0.50 € (about US$0.77) for each prescribed medicine (also limited to 50 € annually) and a fee of €16–18 ($20–25) per day for hospital stays (considered to be the \"hotel\" part of the hospital stay; that is, an amount people would pay anyway for food, etc.) and for expensive procedures. Such declaration is not required for children below 16 years old (because they already benefit from another protection program), for foreigners without residence in France (who will get benefits depending on existing international agreements between their own national health care program and the French Social Security), or those benefiting from a health care system of French overseas territories, and for those people that benefit from the minimum medical assistance.\n", "Until recently, social security coverage was restricted to those who contributed to social security (generally, workers, unemployed or retirees), excluding some few poor segments of the population; the government of Lionel Jospin put into place the \"universal health coverage\" allowing the entire French population to benefit from Health care. In some systems, patients can also take private health insurance but choose to receive care at public hospitals, if allowed by the private insurer. For serious illness, regardless of the insurance regime, the national health system will assume the cost of long-term remedial treatment.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.\n", "All working people are required to pay a portion of their income into a health insurance fund, which mutualizes the risk of illness and which reimburses medical expenses at varying rates. Children and spouses of insured individuals are eligible for benefits, as well. Each fund is free to manage its own budget and reimburse medical expenses at the rate it saw fit.\n\nThe government has two responsibilities in this system:\n", "In France, the 100 or so SAMUs (one for each Département) are all operated by public hospitals. Public hospitals (unlike private hospitals, and France has both) receive government funding. France operates on a system of universal health care. Patients have freedom to choose physicians, hospitals etc., and there are prices set for each type of service.\n\nWhen operating in the public system, patients are asked to co-pay a portion of the cost for each type of care that they receive. To illustrate, a patient requiring hospitalization is liable for 20 percent of costs for the first month, and nothing thereafter.\n", "Prices range from €10/month (full basic coverage i.e. 100% of all expenses and medicines) to €100/month (luxury coverage including high level chamber while in hospital, professors for children if they have to remain at home, housemaid at home if needed...).\n", "Section::::Emergency medicine.\n\nAmbulatory care includes care by general practitioners who are largely self-employed and mostly work alone, although about a third of all GPs work in a group practice. GPs do not exercise gatekeeper functions in the French medical system and people can see any registered medical practitioner of choice including specialists. Thus ambulatory care can take place in many settings.\n\nSection::::Spending.\n", "Expenses related to the healthcare system in France represented 10.5% of the country's GDP and 15.4% of its public expenditures. In 2004, 78.4% of these expenses were paid for by the state. By 2015 the cost had risen to 11.5% of GDP - the third highest in Europe.\n", "France has a system of health care largely financed by government through a system of national health insurance. Nonetheless, not all medical care is paid for by the state, with only 70% of initial GP care covered and anywhere between 35% and 100% of prescription medication covered. It is consistently ranked as one of the best in the world.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.\n", "An important element of the French insurance system is solidarity: the more ill a person becomes, the less the person pays. This means that for people with serious or chronic illnesses, the insurance system reimburses them 100% of expenses, and waives their co-pay charges.\n\nFinally, for fees that the mandatory system does not cover, there is a large range of private complementary insurance plans available. The market for these programs is very competitive, and often subsidised by the employer, which means that premiums are usually modest. 85% of French people benefit from complementary private health insurance.\n\nSection::::Comparisons.:Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- are amenable to the European state or Community, Swiss Confederation, Principality Member States of Andorra left to the agreement on European Economic Area, others that France, holders of a diploma of end of second cycle of the medical studies or of an equivalent title from one of these states.\n\nSection::::Organization.:Third cycle of the medical studies.:Classifying national tests.\n\nTests are organized for the candidates quoted above.\n", "From 2000 a universal health coverage has been in place, providing two fundamental rights for access to care: a right to health insurance for anyone in stable and regular residence in the territory and a right for the most disadvantaged, submitted to resources, to a free coverage, with exemption from fee.\n", "As a measure against system abuse, the SAMU physician may refuse to sign the patient's \"treatment certificate\", resulting in the patient being liable for the full cost of services provided, although in practice, this is rarely done. Most French citizens also carry private health insurance in order to cover all co-payment charges.\n", "After paying the doctor's or dentist's fee, a proportion is reimbursed. This is around 75 to 80%, but can be as much as 100% (if you have a long duration medical problem such as a cancer). The balance is effectively a co-payment paid by the patient but it can also be recovered if the patient pays a regular premium to a voluntary health insurance scheme (more than 99% of the population as every worker is entitled, per law, to access to a company subsidized plan). Most of them are managed by non-for-profit groups.\n", "The global system (social security system) will cover 70% of the global cost unless you have an ALD (long duration medical problem) such as cancer or diabetes where all expenses are covered (100%). In the Alsace-Moselle region, due to its special history as having belonged to France and Germany at one time or another, the social security system covers 90% of the global cost. People can subscribe to a \"mutuelle\" (non profit insurance) or a private for-profit insurance for additional cover. All workers have access to a specific plan where their company has to pay at least 50% of the cost.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.:Gas lamp lighting.\n\nThe first widespread system of street lighting used piped coal gas as fuel. Stephen Hales was the first person who procured a flammable fluid from the actual distillation of coal in 1726 and John Clayton, in 1735, called gas the \"spirit\" of coal and discovered its flammability by accident.\n", "In modern science, it is generally accepted that most ignes fatui are caused by the oxidation of phosphine (PH), diphosphane (PH), and methane (CH). These compounds, produced by organic decay, can cause photon emissions. Since phosphine and diphosphane mixtures spontaneously ignite on contact with the oxygen in air, only small quantities of it would be needed to ignite the much more abundant methane to create ephemeral fires. Furthermore, phosphine produces phosphorus pentoxide as a by-product, which forms phosphoric acid upon contact with water vapor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Will-o'-the-wisp (Ghost lights)\n\nBULLET::::- Marfa lights\n\nBULLET::::- Brown Mountain Lights\n\nBULLET::::- Hessdalen light\n", "Around 385 Egeria, a noble woman from Spain, traveled to Palestine. In the account of her journey, she speaks of a ceremony by the Holy Sepulchre of Christ, where a light comes forth (\"ejicitur\") from the small chapel enclosing the tomb, by which the entire church is filled with an infinite light (\"lumen infinitum\").\n\nDespite these previous instances, the Holy Fire is believed to have been first recorded by the Christian pilgrim, Bernard the Wise (Bernardus Monachus), in 876.\n", "There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.\n", "The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire in Canada is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.\n", "If it (the fire) happens by any accident to be put out ... it is not to be lighted again from another fire, but new fire is to be gained by drawing a pure and unpolluted flame from the sunbeams. They kindle it generally with concave vessels of brass, formed by hollowing out an isosceles rectangular triangle, whose lines from the circumference meet in one single point. This being placed against the sun, causes its rays to converge in the centre, which, by reflection, acquiring the force and activity of fire, rarefy the air, and immediately kindle such light and dry matter as they think fit to apply. (tr. Langhorne 1821 1: 195) \n", "Celtic mythology had Belenus, whose name, \"shining one\", associated him with fire.\n\nIn Slavic mythology, Svarog, meaning \"bright and clear\", was the spirit of fire. The best known and dramatic among numerous Slavic Pagan fire rituals is the jumping over the bonfire on the Ivan Kupala Day.\n\nSection::::Semitic religions.\n\nFire is an element of theophany in the Hebrew Bible's burning bush, pillar of fire, and the flame of the Menorah. The highest form of sacrifice was the Korban Olah, performed twice-daily, which is an animal sacrifice completely consumed by fire.\n", "Lecture 2: Brightness of the Flame - Air necessary for Combustion - Production of Water\n\nLecture 3: Products: Water from the Combustion - Nature of Water - A Compound - Hydrogen\n\nLecture 4: Hydrogen in the Candle - Burns into Water - The Other Part of Water - Oxygen\n\nLecture 5: Oxygen present in the Air - Nature of the Atmosphere - Its Properties - Other Products from the Candle - Carbonic Acid - Its Properties\n\nLecture 6: Carbon or Charcoal - Coal Gas Respiration and its Analogy to the Burning of a Candle - Conclusion\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Glossary of firelighting\n\nThis is an alphabetized glossary of terms pertaining to lighting fires, along with their definitions. Firelighting (also called firestarting, fire making, or fire craft) is the process of starting a fire artificially. Fire was an essential tool in early human cultural development. The ignition of any fire, whether natural or artificial, requires completing the fire triangle, usually by initiating the combustion of a suitably flammable material.\n", "Kalopoulos also points out that chemical reactions of this nature were well known in ancient times, quoting Strabo, who states: \"In Babylon there are two kinds of naphtha springs, a white and a black. The white naphtha is the one that ignites with fire.\" (Strabon Geographica 16.1.15.1-24) He further states that phosphorus was used by Chaldean magicians in the early fifth century BC, and by the ancient Greeks, in a way similar to its supposed use today by the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem.\n", "Fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion (fire) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from combustion of either fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or from renewable fuels such as firewood, is harvested for diverse uses such as cooking, production of electricity or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy (incinerate) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.\n", "A related hypothesis involves the natural chemiluminescence of phosphine. In 2008, the Italian chemists Luigi Garlaschelli and Paolo Boschetti attempted to recreate Mills' experiments. They successfully created a faint cool light by mixing phosphine with air and nitrogen. Though the glow was still greenish in color, Garlaschelli and Boschetti noted that under low-light conditions, the human eye cannot easily distinguish between colors. Furthermore, by adjusting the concentrations of the gases and the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.), it was possible to eliminate the smoke and smell, or at least render it to undetectable levels. Garlaschelli and Boschetti also agreed with Mills that cold flames may also be a plausible explanation for other instances of ignis fatuus.\n", "Fire rituals in Mesopotamia and Eurasia were thought to originate with Ancient Zoroastrian rituals around the use of fire in temples and on altars. Ancient Zoroastrians believe fire to have been “the most holy spirit” from which all life was born, and was used as a central icon in many rituals. \n\nIn the Old Testament, fire was often associated with divine intervention; with the burning bush guiding the decision of Moses, and the pillar of fire guiding the Israelites in the wilderness. Even the burning of Sodom and Gomorrah was accomplished through divine retribution.\n", "Section::::Methods of deployment.:Hand-held projectors.\n", "The saint is said to have been burned alive on a gridiron, and this tradition is almost certainly the origin of the Mediterranean folk legend that the shooting stars are the sparks of that fire and that during the night of August 9–10 its cooled embers appear in the ground under plants, and which are known as the \"coal of Saint Lawrence\".\n", "In 1804, Dr Henry delivered a course of lectures on chemistry, at Manchester, in which he showed the mode of producing gas from coal, and the facility and advantage of its use. Dr Henry analyzed the composition and investigated the properties of carburetted hydrogen gas (i.e. methane). His experiments were numerous and accurate and made upon a variety of substances; having obtained the gas from wood, peat, different kinds of coal, oil, wax, etc, he quantified the intensity of the light from each source.\n", "Gas lighting\n\nGas lighting is production of artificial light from combustion of a gaseous fuel, such as hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, propane, butane, acetylene, ethylene, or natural gas.\n\nThe light is produced either directly by the flame, generally by using special mixes of illuminating gas to increase brightness, or indirectly with other components such as the gas mantle or the limelight, with the gas primarily functioning as a fuel source.\n", "The fire was renewed every year on the Kalends of March. Plutarch's (c. 1st century CE) \"Parallel Lives\" records the Vestal Virgins use of burning mirrors to relight the fire:\n", "Section::::Modern witchcraft.\n\nFire is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan traditions influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic, and Aleister Crowley's mysticism, which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn.\n\nSection::::Freemasonry.\n\nIn freemasonry, fire is present, for example, during the ceremony of winter solstice, a symbol also of renaissance and energy. Freemasonry takes the ancient symbolic meaning of fire and recognizes its double nature: creation, light, on the one hand, and destruction and purification, on the other.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire (combustion)\n\nBULLET::::- Fire worship\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrokinesis\n\nBULLET::::- Pyromancy\n\nBULLET::::- Pyromania\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 Shand Mason Curricle Ladders\n", "Fire worship\n\nWorship or deification of fire (also pyrodulia, pyrolatry or pyrolatria) is known from various religions. Fire has been an important part of human culture since the Lower Paleolithic. The earliest known traces of controlled fire were found at the Daughters of Jacob Bridge, Israel, and dated to 790,000 years ago. Religious or animist notions connected to fire are assumed to reach back to such early pre-\"Homo sapiens\" times.\n\nSection::::Indo-European religions.\n", "In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the divine presence. Christ is the true Light, \"and at his transfiguration the fashion Christian of his countenance was altered, and his raiment was white and glistering\"; \"when the Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles, there appeared unto them cloven tongues of fire, and it sat upon each of them\"; \"at the conversion of St Paul there shined round him a great light from heaven\"; \"while the glorified Christ is represented as standing in the midst of seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire\". Christians are children of Light at perpetual war with the powers of darkness.\n", "Camphine\n\nCamphine, the burning fluid lamp fuel, not to be confused with camphene, the chemical.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years and formation (2001–2005).\n", "Fire has been used by humans in rituals, in agriculture for clearing land, for cooking, generating heat and light, for signaling, propulsion purposes, smelting, forging, incineration of waste, cremation, and as a weapon or mode of destruction.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Chemistry.\n" ]

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[ "Sugar crashes are not to be confused with the after-effects of consuming large amounts of \"protein\", which produces fatigue akin to a sugar crash, but are instead the result of the body prioritising the digestion of ingested food.\n", "Australia's Human Nutrition conducted a study on the effect of meal content in lean women's diets on the thermic effect of food and found that the inclusion of an ingredient containing increased soluble fibre and amylose did not reduce spontaneous food intake but rather was associated with higher subsequent energy intakes despite its reduced glycaemic and insulinemic effects.\n\nSection::::Measuring TEF.\n\nThe thermic effect of food should be measured for greater than or equal to five hours.\n\nThe \"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition\" published that TEF lasts beyond six hours for the majority of people.\n", "The alleged mechanism for the feeling of a crash is correlated with an abnormally rapid rise in blood glucose after eating. This normally leads to insulin secretion (known as an \"insulin spike\"), which in turn initiates rapid glucose uptake by tissues, either storing it as glycogen or utilizing it for energy production. The consequent fall in blood glucose is indicated as the reason for the \"sugar crash\". Another cause might be hysteresis effect of insulin action, i.e., the effect of insulin is still prominent even if both plasma glucose and insulin levels were already low, causing a plasma glucose level eventually much lower than the baseline level.\n", "As it is a short-term ailment, a sugar crash does not usually require medical intervention in most people. The most important factors to consider when addressing this issue are the composition and timing of foods.\n\nAcute low blood sugar symptoms are best treated by consuming small amounts of sweet foods, so as to regain balance in the body's carbohydrate metabolism. Suggestions include sugary foods that are quickly digested, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Dried fruit\n\nBULLET::::- Soft drinks\n\nBULLET::::- Juice\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar as sweets, tablets or cubes.\n", "Studies have shown that learning and memory improve after consuming carbohydrates. There are two kinds of carbohydrates people consume: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are often found in processed foods and release sugar into the bloodstream quickly after consumption. Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and therefore cause sugar to be released into the bloodstream more slowly. Good sources of complex carbohydrates are whole-grain breads, pasta, brown rice, oatmeal, and potatoes. It is recommended that people consume more complex carbohydrates because consuming complex carbohydrates will cause the level of sugar in the bloodstream to be more stable, which will cause less stress hormones to be released. Consuming simple carbohydrates may cause the levels of sugar in the bloodstream to rise and fall, which can cause mood swings.\n", "Some foods contain caffeine (coffee, tea, colas, energy drinks etc.). Blood sugar levels of healthy people are generally not significantly changed by caffeine, but in diabetics caffeine intake may elevate these levels via its ability to stimulate the adrenergic nervous system.\n\nSection::::Reference ranges.\n\nSection::::Reference ranges.:Fasting blood sugar.\n", "The thermic effect of food is the energy required for digestion, absorption, and disposal of ingested nutrients. Its magnitude depends on the composition of the food consumed:\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrates: 5 to 15% of the energy consumed\n\nBULLET::::- Protein: 20 to 35%\n\nBULLET::::- Fats: at most 5 to 15%\n", "Although many factors influence insulin secretion, the most important control is the amount of glucose moving from the blood into the beta cells of the pancreas. In healthy people, even small rises in blood glucose result in increased insulin secretion. As long as the pancreatic beta cells are able to sense the glucose level and produce insulin, the amount of insulin secreted is usually the amount required to maintain a fasting blood glucose between 70 and 100 mg/dL (3.9–5.6 mmol/L) and a non-fasting glucose level below 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L).\n", "There are also several other causes for an increase in blood sugar levels. Among them are the 'stress' hormones such as epinephrine (also known as adrenaline), several of the steroids, infections, trauma, and of course, the ingestion of food.\n", "Sporadic, high-carbohydrate snacks and meals are deemed the specific causes of sugar crashes. The “crash” one feels is due to the rapid increase and subsequent decline of blood sugar in the body system as one begins and ceases consumption of high-sugar foods. More insulin than is actually needed is produced in response to the large, rapid ingestion of sugary foods.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nTo relieve reactive hypoglycemia, the NIH recommends taking the following steps:\n\nBULLET::::- Avoiding or limiting sugar intake;\n\nBULLET::::- Exercising regularly, as exercise increases sugar uptake which decreases excessive insulin release;\n", "Fast food fat-rich meals combined with drinks containing sugar typically possess several characteristics, all of which have independently been linked to IR: they are sugar rich, palatable, and cheap, increasing risk of overeating and leptin resistance; simultaneously, they are high in dietary fat and fructose, and low in omega-3 and fiber; and they usually have high glycemic indices. Overconsumption of such cheap fat- and sugar-rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic and all its constituents.\n\nVitamin D deficiency also is associated with insulin resistance.\n", "When foods with a high glycemic index are consumed, the carbohydrates in the food are more easily digested than low glycemic index foods. Hence, more glucose is available for absorption. It should not be misunderstood that glucose is absorbed more rapidly because, once formed, glucose is absorbed at the same rate. It is only available in higher amounts due to the ease of digestion of high glycemic index foods. In individuals with normal carbohydrate metabolism, insulin levels rise concordantly to drive glucose into the body's tissues and maintain blood glucose levels in the normal range. Insulin stimulates the uptake of valine, leucine, and isoleucine into skeletal muscle, but not uptake of tryptophan. This lowers the ratio of these branched-chain amino acids in the bloodstream relative to tryptophan (an aromatic amino acid), making tryptophan preferentially available to the large neutral amino acid transporter at the blood–brain barrier. Uptake of tryptophan by the brain thus increases. In the brain, tryptophan is converted to serotonin, which is then converted to melatonin. Increased brain serotonin and melatonin levels result in sleepiness.\n", "BULLET::::- Sugar does not cause hyperactivity in children. Double-blind trials have shown no difference in behavior between children given sugar-full or sugar-free diets, even in studies specifically looking at children with Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or those considered sensitive to sugar.\n", "Physiological regulation of blood glucose, as in the non-diabetic, would be best. Increased blood glucose levels after a meal is a stimulus for prompt release of insulin from the pancreas. The increased insulin level causes glucose absorption and storage in cells, reduces glycogen to glucose conversion, reducing blood glucose levels, and so reducing insulin release. The result is that the blood glucose level rises somewhat after eating, and within an hour or so, returns to the normal 'fasting' level. Even the best diabetic treatment with synthetic human insulin or even insulin analogs, however administered, falls far short of normal glucose control in the non-diabetic.\n", "Glucose supplies almost all the energy for the brain, so its availability influences psychological processes. When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e.g., self-control, effortful decision-making) are impaired. In the brain, which is dependent on glucose as the major source of energy, the glucose concentration is usually 4 to 6 mM (5 mM equals 90 mg / dL), but decreases to 2 to 3 mM when fasting. Confusion occurs below 1 mM and coma at lower levels.\n", "Sugary and high-fat food have both been shown to increase the expression of ΔFosB, an addiction biomarker, in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; however, there is very little research on the synaptic plasticity from compulsive food consumption, a phenomenon which is known to be caused by ΔFosB overexpression.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\n\"Food addiction\" refers to compulsive overeaters who engage in frequent episodes of uncontrolled eating (binge eating). \n", "Hyperosmolar syndrome\n\nHyperosmolar syndrome or diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome is a medical emergency caused by a very high blood glucose level.\n\nThe prefix \"hyper\" means high, and \"osmolarity\" is a measure of the concentration of active particles in a solution, so the name of the syndrome simply refers to the high concentration of glucose in the blood.\n\nSection::::Signs & symptoms.\n\nHyperosmolar syndrome may take a long duration - days and weeks - to develop. However, certain signs and symptoms may indicate that such a condition is developing. Some of the signs include the following:\n", "BULLET::::1. Exenatide augments pancreas response (i.e. increases insulin secretion) in response to eating meals; the result is the release of a higher, more appropriate amount of insulin that helps lower the rise in blood sugar from eating. Once blood sugar levels decrease closer to normal values, the pancreas response to produce insulin is reduced; other drugs (like injectable insulin) are effective at lowering blood sugar, but can \"overshoot\" their target and cause blood sugar to become \"too\" low, resulting in the dangerous condition of hypoglycemia.\n", "There are many case reports on the relationship between hypokalemia and sugar sweetened beverages such as cola-based drinks. Based on reports published, patients' potassium levels decreased because of an increase in cola consumption; and as the consumption was reduced potassium levels rose back to normal levels. Oral supplements and other methods did not help raise potassium levels. And so it was concluded that extreme cola consumption can lead to hypokalemia. Symptoms caused by an increased consumption of cola that lead to hypokalemia include muscle weakness, leg cramps, and fatigue.\n", "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals. There is a biomedical and neurological science behind the usage of mini-pigs and lab rodents. In these animal species, there are similarities with humans in terms of cognition, development of food preferences and eating disorders, digestive anatomy and functions, as well as brain development. Research has demonstrated that, under certain conditions, rats can develop addiction-like behaviors with respect to sugar. The food addiction model asserts that excessive consumption of palatable foods may be understood within the same neurobiological framework as drug addiction. The test subjects have similar brain anomalies as those described in humans. Drug addiction has an impact on the brain's reward center and substance abuse. In drug addiction, there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical facts and evidences on the effects of sugar consumption on the central nervous system.\n", "Hypermetabolism is the physiological state of increased rate of metabolic activity and is characterized by an abnormal increase in the body’s basal metabolic rate. Hypermetabolism is accompanied by a variety of internal and external symptoms, most notably extreme weight loss, and can also be a symptom in itself. This state of increased metabolic activity can signal underlying issues, especially hyperthyroidism. Patients with Fatal familial insomnia, an extremely rare and strictly hereditary disorder, also presents with hypermetabolism; however, this universally fatal disorder is exceedingly rare, with only a few known cases worldwide. The drastic impact of the hypermetabolic state on patient nutritional requirements is often understated or overlooked as well.\n", "Additionally, folic acid has also been found to improve the memory of older people. There is some evidence that deficiency in folic acid may increase the risk of dementia, especially Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia, but there is debate about whether it lowers risk of cognitive impairment in the older population. Folic acid supplementation is shown to lower blood homocysteine levels, while folic acid deficiency can lead to a condition of high levels of homocysteine (Hcy) in the bloodstream called hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy). HHcy is related to several vascular diseases such as coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, and stroke.\n", "Many different illnesses can cause an increase in metabolic activity as the body combats illness and disease in order to heal itself.\n\nHypermetabolism is a common symptom of various pathologies. Some of the most prevalent diseases characterized by hypermetabolism are listed below.\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperthyroidism: Manifestation: An overactive thyroid often causes a state of increased metabolic activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Friedreich's ataxia: Manifestation: Local cerebral metabolic activity is increased extensively as the disease progresses.\n\nBULLET::::- Fatal familial insomnia: Manifestation: Hypermetabolism in the thalamus occurs and disrupts sleep spindle formation that occurs there.\n", "The glucose in the blood is called blood sugar. Blood sugar levels are regulated by glucose-binding nerve cells in the hypothalamus. In addition, glucose in the brain binds to glucose receptors of the reward system in the nucleus accumbens. The binding of glucose to the sweet receptor on the tongue induces a release of various hormones of energy metabolism, either through glucose or through other sugars, leading to an increased cellular uptake and lower blood sugar levels. Artificial sweeteners do not lower blood sugar levels.\n", "A 2018 systematic review concluded that the potential for sugar addiction was greater when in combination with dietary fats.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Hyperactivity.\n\nSome studies report evidence of causality between high consumption of refined sugar and hyperactivity. One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of energy drinks showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and alcohol abuse, and with hyperactivity and insomnia.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Tooth decay.\n" ]

[ "Sugar makes us hyperactive." ]

[ "There are not any studies that show that sugar leads to being hyperactive. It is more psychological." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Sugar makes us hyperactive." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "There are not any studies that show that sugar leads to being hyperactive. It is more psychological." ]

[ "There are two peptides in the hypothalamus that produce hunger, melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin. MCH plays a bigger role in producing hunger. In mice, MCH stimulates feeding and a mutation causing the overproduction of MCH led to overeating and obesity. Orexin plays a greater role in controlling the relationship between eating and sleeping. Other peptides in the hypothalamus that induce eating are neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AGRP).\n", "Metabolism involves two biochemical processes that occur in living organisms. The first is anabolism, which refers to the build up of molecules. The second is catabolism, the breakdown of molecules. These two processes work to regulate the amount of energy the body uses to maintain itself. During non-REM sleep, metabolic rate and brain temperature are lowered to deal with damages that may have occurred during time of wakefulness.\n\nSection::::Normal metabolism.\n\nAfter eating, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin signals muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose from food. As a result, blood glucose levels return to normal.\n", "BULLET::::3. Glucostatic hypothesis: The activity of the satiety center in the ventromedial nuclei is probably governed by the glucose utilization in the neurons. It has been postulated that when their glucose utilization is low and consequently when the arteriovenous blood glucose difference across them is low, the activity across the neurons decrease. Under these conditions, the activity of the feeding center is unchecked and the individual feels hungry. Food intake is rapidly increased by intraventricular administration of 2-deoxyglucose therefore decreasing glucose utilization in cells.\n", "On a standard symptom-rating scale, subjects rated markedly stronger feelings of hunger after total SD than after seven hours of sleep (3.9 ± 0.7 versus 1.7 ± 0.3; P = 0.020) or 4.5 hours sleep (2.2 ± 0.5; P = 0.041). Plasma ghrelin levels were 22 ± 10% higher after total SD than after seven hours of sleep (0.85 ± 0.06 versus 0.72 ± 0.04 ng mL(−1); P = 0.048) with intermediate levels of the hormone after 4.5 hours sleep (0.77 ± 0.04 ng mL(−1)).\n", "The melanocortin system is one of the mammalian body's tools to regulate food intake in a push-pull fashion. The only neurons known to release melanocortins are located in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalmus. Accordingly, there is a subpopulation called POMC neurons and one called AgRP neurons. When POMC neurons release α-MSH, appetite is decreased. On the other hand, when AgRP neurons release AgRP, appetite is stimulated. \n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Mons Lactarius: King Teia secretly marches to join forces with his brother Aligern in Campania, to relieve the siege of Cumae. Meanwhile at \"Mons Lactarius\" (modern Monti Lattari), Narses lays an ambush. The combined Gothic force is crushed in a hopeless last stand for two days (south of Naples), and Teia is killed in the fightings. Aligern escapes, but surrenders a few months later.\n", "BULLET::::- Feeding: a 2012 paper suggested that oxytocin neurons in the para-ventricular hypothalamus in the brain may play a key role in suppressing appetite under normal conditions and that other hypothalamic neurons may trigger eating via inhibition of these oxytocin neurons. This population of oxytocin neurons is absent in Prader-Willi syndrome, a genetic disorder that leads to uncontrollable feeding and obesity, and may play a key role in its pathophysiology.\n\nSection::::Biological function.:Psychological.\n", "With a typical high-carbohydrate diet, the human body relies on free blood glucose as its primary energy source. The level of blood sugar is tightly regulated; as blood glucose is consumed, the pancreas releases glucagon, a hormone that stimulates the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose. The glycogen stores are ordinarily replenished after every meal, but if the store is depleted before it can be replenished, the body enters hypoglycemia, and begins the starvation response.\n", "Section::::Inadequate implementation.\n\nTo solve the problem, some programmer might come up with a solution shown below. In the solution two library routines are used, codice_1 and codice_2. When sleep is called, the caller is blocked until another process wakes it up by using the wakeup routine. The global variable codice_3 holds the number of items in the buffer.\n\nThe problem with this solution is that it contains a race condition that can lead to a deadlock. Consider the following scenario:\n", "In rats, prolonged, complete sleep deprivation increased both food intake and energy expenditure with a net effect of weight loss and ultimately death. This study hypothesizes that the moderate chronic sleep debt associated with habitual short sleep is associated with increased appetite and energy expenditure with the equation tipped towards food intake rather than expenditure in societies where high-calorie food is freely available.\n", "Lack of sufficient sleep has been suggested as a cause for weight gain or the difficulty in maintaining a healthy weight. Two hormones responsible for regulating hunger and metabolism are leptin, which inhibits appetite and increases energy expenditure, and ghrelin, which increases appetite and reduces energy expenditure. Studies have shown that chronic sleep deprivation is associated with reduced levels of leptin and elevated levels of ghrelin, which together result in increased appetite, especially for high fat and high carbohydrate foods. As a result, sleep deprivation over time may contribute to increased caloric intake and decreased self-control over food cravings, leading to weight gain.\n", "Section::::Premeal hunger.\n\nPrior to consuming a meal, the body's energy reserves are in reasonable homeostatic balance. However, when a meal is consumed, there is a homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels into the bloodstream. When the usual mealtime approaches, the body takes steps to soften the impact of the homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels by releasing insulin into the blood, and lowering the blood glucose levels. It is this lowering of blood glucose levels that causes premeal hunger, and not necessarily an energy deficit.\n\nSection::::Similar conditions.\n", "There are two hormones, leptin and ghrelin, that are important in appetite control. Leptin, released by adipose tissue, is a hormone that inhibits appetite and increases energy expenditure. Ghrelin, released from the stomach, is a hormone that increases appetite and reduces energy expenditure. Sleep deprivation can cause a 19% decrease in the level of leptin. Subjects were deprived of sleep for 2 nights (4 hours per night) and got compensation of sleep for the next 2 nights (10 hours per night). Leptin levels decreased by 18% and ghrelin levels increased by 28%. There was an increase in hunger level by 23 which is probably due to the reduction leptin level. Subjects also preferred high carbohydrate foods (sweets, salty food and starchy food). Craving for salty food increased by 45%. Sleep deprivation can cause people to intake food for emotional/psychological need rather than caloric need of the body.\n", "In 1964, the hungry i would also be the location for the recording of the final album for Capitol (\"Back in Town\") by the John Stewart Trio.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nThe album was awarded an RIAA gold album on October 24, 1960.\n", "Feelings of hunger as well as plasma ghrelin levels are already elevated after one night of SD, whereas morning serum leptin concentrations remain unaffected. Thus, the results provide further evidence for a disturbing influence of sleep loss on endocrine regulation of energy homeostasis, which in the long run may result in weight gain and obesity.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Scientific study of laboratory animals.\n\nIn science, sleep deprivation (of rodents, e.g.) is used in order to study the function(s) of sleep and the biological mechanisms underlying the effects of sleep deprivation.\n\nSome sleep deprivation techniques are:\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "Environmental signals and ghrelin are not the only signals that initiate hunger, there are other metabolic signals as well. As time passes between meals, the body starts to take nutrients from long-term reservoirs. When the glucose levels of cells drop (glucoprivation), the body starts to produce the feeling of hunger. The body also stimulates eating by detecting a drop in cellular lipid levels (lipoprivation). Both the brain and the liver monitor the levels of metabolic fuels. The brain checks for glucoprivation on its side of the blood–brain barrier (since glucose is its fuel), while the liver monitors the rest of the body for both lipoprivation and glucoprivation.\n", "The term is not to be confused with the generic term for \"ghost\" or damnation, \"\" (i.e. the residual spirit of a deceased ancestor). The understanding is that all people become such a regular ghost when they die, and would then slowly weaken and eventually die a second time. \n\nHungry ghosts, by contrast, are a much more exceptional case, and would only occur in very unfortunate circumstances, such as if a whole family were killed or when a family no longer venerated their ancestors.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Jonathan first appears in the biblical narrative as the victor of Geba, a Philistine stronghold (1 Samuel 13), while in the following chapter he carries out a lone and secret attack on another Philistine garrison, demonstrating his \"prowess and courage as a warrior.\" However, he eats honey without knowing that his father had said, \"Cursed be any man who eats food before evening comes\" (1 Samuel 14:24). Saul decides to put Jonathan to death because of this, but relents when the soldiers protest (). \n", "Section::::Treatment.\n", "There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body’s senses. The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sight of a plate, or hearing someone talk about food. The signals from the stomach are initiated by the release of the peptide hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite by signaling to the brain that a person is hungry.\n", "Because most sarlacci inhabit isolated environments and rely on prey to stumble into their pit, they rarely feed; the digestive system dissolves prey into nutrients over a period of several thousand years. If no living prey is available, a sarlacc relies on its root system to absorb nutrients. One sarlacc located on an airless moon feeds on cometary material rich in oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen.\n", "Section::::Sleep deprivation and Type 2 diabetes.\n\nInsulin-Resistant Metabolism\n\nBaseline levels of insulin do not signal muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose. When glucose levels are elevated, the pancreas responds by releasing insulin. Blood sugar will then rapidly drop. This can progress to type 2 diabetes.\n", "On the other hand, it is during sleep that beta-amyloid residues are degraded to prevent plaque formation. It is the glymphatic system that is responsible for this and this phenomenon is called glymphatic clearance. Thus, during wakefulness, the AB burden is greater because the metabolic activity and oxidative stress are higher and there is no degradation of the protein by the glymphatic clearance whereas during sleep, the burden will be smaller as there will be less metabolic activity and oxidative stress in addition to the glymphatic clearance that occurs at this time.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Sources.\n\nThe females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n", "All mammalian species produce milk, but the composition of milk for each species varies widely and other kinds of milk are often very different from human breast milk. As a rule, the milk of mammals that nurse frequently (including human babies) is less rich, or more watery, than the milk of mammals whose young nurse less often. Human milk is noticeably thinner and sweeter than cow's milk.\n", "In more intensive dairy farming, cows can easily be bred and fed to produce far more milk than one calf can drink. In the \"multi-suckler\" system, several calves are fostered onto one cow in addition to her own, and these calves' mothers can then be used wholly for milk production. More commonly, calves of dairy cows are fed formula milk from soon after birth, usually from a bottle or bucket.\n", "The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a \"dry\" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation. Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as steers for beef production or used for veal.\n", "A single calf is born after a gestation period of 15 months. Calves move freely by the end of their first day. Nursing and maternal care continue for one to two years. In a study to find whether young could exist on milk substitutes, two male, month-old camels were separated from their mothers and were fed on milk substitutes prepared commercially for lambs, and they grew to normal weights for male calves after 30 days. Lactational yield can vary with species, breed, individual, region, diet, management conditions and lactating stage. The largest quantity of milk is produced during the early period of lactation. The lactation period can vary between nine and eighteen months.\n", "Female calves born on a dairy farm will typically be raised as replacement stock to take the place of older cows that are no longer sufficiently productive. The life of a dairy cow is a cycle of pregnancy and lactation starting at puberty. Obviously the timing of these events is very important to the production capacity of the dairy. A cow will not produce milk until she has given birth to a calf. Consequently, timing of the first breeding as well as all the subsequent breeding is important for maintaining milk production levels.\n", "The hormonal endocrine control system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. When the milk supply is more firmly established, autocrine (or local) control system begins.\n\nDuring this stage, the more that milk is removed from the breasts, the more the breast will produce milk. Research also suggests that draining the breasts more fully also increases the rate of milk production. Thus the milk supply is strongly influenced by how often the baby feeds and how well it is able to transfer milk from the breast. Low supply can often be traced to:\n", "At birth, prolactin levels remain high, while the delivery of the placenta results in a sudden drop in progesterone, estrogen, and HPL levels. This abrupt withdrawal of progesterone in the presence of high prolactin levels stimulates the copious milk production of \"Secretory Activation\".\n", "Cows kept on poor forage (as is typical in subsistence farming) produce a limited amount of milk. A calf left with such a mother all the time can easily drink all the milk, leaving none for human consumption. For dairy production under such circumstances, the calf's access to the cow must be limited, for example by penning the calf and bringing the mother to it once a day after partly milking her. The small amount of milk available for the calf under such systems may mean that it takes a longer time to rear, and in subsistence farming it is therefore common for cows to calve only in alternate years.\n", "Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n", "Male dairy calves are commonly used for veal production as they do not lactate and are therefore surplus to the requirements of the dairy industry.\n\nNewborn veal calves are generally given only a limited amount of time with their mothers, varying from a few hours to a few days.\n\nSection::::Production.:Housing.\n\nThree different primary types of housing used for veal calves: hutches, pens, or various types of group housing.\n\nSection::::Production.:Feeding.\n", "Frequent suckling in the first days of life is correlated with higher milk production. Infants should be fed when they show signs of hunger. It is common for breastfed babies to feed during the night for the first six months. Usually feedings last 10–15 minutes in the early days.\n\nIf the infant is unable to breastfeed, it is recommended that pumping or hand expression of milk begin within two hours of delivery, and be done at least eight times every 24 hours.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Dairy farming is a class of agriculture, where female cattle, goats, or other mammals are raised for their milk, which may be either processed on-site or transported to a dairy for processing and eventual retail sale There are many breeds of cattle that can be milked some of the best producing ones include Holstein, Norwegian Red, Kostroma, Brown Swiss, and more.\n", "Daily milk yield generally varies from and from 1.3% to 7.8% of the body weight. Milk yield varies geographically and depends upon the animals' diet and living conditions. At the peak of lactation, a healthy female would typically provide milk per day. Leese estimated a lactating female would yield besides the amount ingested by the calf. The Pakistani dromedary, which is considered a better milker and bigger, can yield when well-fed. Dromedaries in Somalia may be milked between two and four times a day, while those in Afar, Ethiopia, may be milked up to seven times a day.\n", "Dairy cows can only produce milk after having calved, and dairy cows need to produce one calf each year in order to remain in production. Female calves will become a replacement dairy cow. Male dairy calves are generally reared for beef or veal; relatively few are kept for breeding purposes.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Freshening (coming into milk production) occurs at kidding. Milk production varies with the breed, age, quality, and diet of the doe; dairy goats generally produce between of milk per 305-day lactation. On average, a good quality dairy doe will give at least of milk per day while she is in milk. A first-time milker may produce less, or as much as , or more of milk in exceptional cases. After the lactation, the doe will \"dry off\", typically after she has been bred. Occasionally, goats that have not been bred and are continuously milked will continue lactation beyond the typical 305 days. Meat, fiber, and pet breeds are not usually milked and simply produce enough for the kids until weaning.\n", "Unlike humans, ruminant mothers do not transfer immunity to their infants during pregnancy, which makes milk the first introduction to maternal immunity calves receive. Bovine milk contains both immunoglobulins A and G, but in contrast to human milk where IgA is the most abundant, IgG is more abundant. Secretory Component, IgM, both anti-inflammatory and inflammatory cytokines, and other proteins with antimicrobial functions are also present in bovine milk.\n\nSection::::Non-human milk immune profiles.:Crop milk.\n", "Farmers who are contracted to supply liquid milk for human consumption (as opposed to milk for processing into butter, cheese, and so on—see milk) often have to manage their herd so that the contracted number of cows are in milk the year round, or the required minimum milk output is maintained. This is done by mating cows outside their natural mating time so that the period when each cow in the herd is giving maximum production is in rotation throughout the year.\n", "In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows.\n\nSection::::Branches.:Meat.\n", "During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. It is the (passive) process of a child or animal ceasing to be dependent on the mother for nourishment. In some species there is complete or partial involution of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. The glands in the breast do secrete fluid also in nonlactating women. In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures collapse by programmed cell death (apoptosis) and autophagy for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones. At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary endothelial cells speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various proteinase is under the control of somatostatin and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors. This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.\n", "The \"single suckler\" system of rearing calves is similar to that occurring naturally in wild cattle, where each calf is suckled by its own mother until it is weaned at about nine months old. This system is commonly used for rearing beef cattle throughout the world.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Cattle.\n", "Dairy calves are separated from their dam soon after they are born in most dairy operations. In some there is no contact between calf and cow for health related reasons, such as preventing Johne's disease. The main purpose of separating dairy cows from their calves to allow collection and selling of milk. The calves are then fed colostrum from the dam for the first few days, and then milk replacer. Dairy calves do not have ab libitum milk like beef calves. By limiting the amount of milk the calves receive it caused the calves to consume more feed which leads to faster development of the rumen. Dairy calves are usually weaned off milk early, usually at 4–8 weeks of age.\n", "In most species, milk comes out of the mother's nipples; however, the monotremes, egg-laying mammals, lack nipples and release milk through ducts in the abdomen. In only one species of mammal, the Dayak fruit bat from Southeast Asia, is milk production a normal male function.\n\n\"Galactopoiesis\" is the maintenance of milk production. This stage requires prolactin. Oxytocin is critical for the \"milk let-down reflex\" in response to suckling. Galactorrhea is milk production unrelated to nursing. It can occur in males and females of many mammal species as result of hormonal imbalances such as hyperprolactinaemia.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n", "Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life. Cattle are considered to be \"hider\" type animals, but in the artificial environment of small calving pens, close proximity between cow and calf is maintained by the mother at the first three calvings but this changes to being mediated by the calf after these. Primiparous dams show a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behavior.\n" ]

[ "Domesticated mammals produce milk regardless if they've given birth.", "Cows and other domesticated mammals produce milk without giving birth." ]

[ "Domesticated mammals only produce milk after giving birth however they can keep producing milk as long as they are milked.", "Cows and other domesticated mammals only produce milk after giving birth." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Domesticated mammals produce milk regardless if they've given birth.", "Cows and other domesticated mammals produce milk without giving birth." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Domesticated mammals only produce milk after giving birth however they can keep producing milk as long as they are milked.", "Cows and other domesticated mammals only produce milk after giving birth." ]

[ "Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's Force Touch system.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sound.\n", "Other examples: Apple’s iPhone X and Samsung’s Galaxy series both mitigate or delay the onset of burn-in by shifting the pixels every minute or so and same for the battery, wifi, location, and service bars. Also, the home screen uses the perspective effect that moves the app icons to create a 3D effect.\n\nGoogle requests that when these techniques are enabled, watch face developers do not use large blocks of pixels so that different pixels are burned in with each shift, reducing the overall wear of the pixels.\n", "Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's \"3D Touch\" system.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sound.\n", "In many cases, the use of a screensaver is impractical. Most plasma-type display manufacturers include methods for reducing the rate of burn-in by moving the image slightly, which does not eliminate screen burn, but can soften the edges of any ghost image that does develop. Similar techniques exist for modern OLED displays. For example, manufacturers of Android Wear watches with OLED displays can request that Android Wear enable \"burn protection techniques\" that periodically shift the contents of the screen by a few pixels.\n", "This technology was first introduced by Nokia in 2009 on the N86, and more widely adopted with its next generation AMOLED Symbian phones in 2010 (the Nokia N8, C7, C6-01 and E7). It became a standard feature on most Nokia Lumia Windows Phones in 2013, paired with the Nokia Glance Screen app. The feature has since become more widely available on Android handsets including Huawei (Mate 10 Pro, P20 Pro), Motorola (Moto X, Z, G), LG (G5, G6, G7, V30, V35, V40), Samsung (Galaxy A7(2017, 2018), S7, S8, S9, S10, Note 7/FE/8/9) and the Google Pixel 2, Pixel 3, Pixel 3a.\n", "The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as iPhones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).\n", "For now, it appears that the sensor-on-lens approach has advantages over on-cell solutions. The on-cell approach means that LCD makers would have to make two separate models of each panel: one with touch and one without. This could add cost to an industry that is already running on thin margins. The on-cell touch method is also limited to the size of the LCD panel, whereas sensor-on-lens modules can be larger than the underlying LCD panel, providing room for dedicated touch points that are found on many smartphone designs. Due to how sensor-on-lens modules are manufactured, the sensors are very fragile in comparison to on-cell modules. Damage to the cover glass will also impair the functionality of the touchscreen.\n", "BULLET::::- Unlike TN LCDs, IPS panels do not lighten or show tailing when touched. This is important for touch-screen devices, such as smartphones and tablets.\n\nBULLET::::- IPS panels offer clear images and stable response time.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Disadvantages.\n\nBULLET::::- IPS panels require up to 15% more power than TN panels.\n\nBULLET::::- IPS panels are more expensive to produce than TN panels.\n\nBULLET::::- IPS panels have longer response times than TN panels.\n\nSection::::IPS Alternative Technologies.\n\nSection::::IPS Alternative Technologies.:Plane to Line Switching (PLS).\n", "Screenshot support was added to \"Android\" in version 4.0 (Ice Cream Sandwich). In older versions, some devices supported screenshot functionality with one of the following combinations:\n\nBULLET::::- Press and hold the\n\nBULLET::::- Press and hold\n\nBULLET::::- Press and hold and double tap the .\n\nScreenshots can be taken by pressing , and are saved in the \"Screenshot\" folder in the gallery after a short sound and visual effect.\n\nOn certain devices that use modified Android; the button combination and the storage location can vary.\n", "Later, LG Display and other South Korean, Japanese, and Taiwanese LCD manufacturers adapted IPS technology.\n\nIPS technology is widely used in panels for TVs, tablet computers, and smartphones. In particular, all Apple Inc. products marketed with the label \"Retina Display\" (such as iPhone 4 onwards, iPad 3 onwards, iPad Mini 2 onwards, MacBook Pro with Retina display) feature IPS LCDs with LED backlighting.\n\ndiv style=\"float:left;\"\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Implementation.\n", "BULLET::::- Power consumption: While an OLED will consume around 40% of the power of an LCD displaying an image that is primarily black, for the majority of images it will consume 60–80% of the power of an LCD. However, an OLED can use more than three times as much power to display an image with a white background, such as a document or web site. This can lead to reduced battery life in mobile devices, when white backgrounds are used.\n", "Due to the top layer of a PCT being glass, it is sturdier than less-expensive resistive touch technology. \n\nUnlike traditional capacitive touch technology, it is possible for a PCT system to sense a passive stylus or gloved finger. However, moisture on the surface of the panel, high humidity, or collected dust can interfere with performance.\n\nThese environmental factors, however, are not a problem with 'fine wire' based touchscreens due to the fact that wire based touchscreens have a much lower 'parasitic' capacitance, and there is greater distance between neighbouring conductors.\n", "Comparison of high-definition smartphone displays\n\nThe following is a comparison of high-definition smartphone displays, containing information about their specific screen technology, resolution, size and pixel density. It is divided into three categories, containing smartphones with 720p, 1080p and 1440p displays. \n", "Section::::Successor.\n\nIts successor is \"in-cell\" touch panels, where one of the conductive layers actually shares the same layer as the thin film transistors (TFTs) used to switch the display's sub-pixels on and off. (These transistors are fabricated directly on the semiconductor backplane of the display). The first products using \"in-cell\" touch technology have already (As of November 2012) appeared on the market, such as the Apple iPhone 5, XOLO 8X-1000, vivo X3S.\n", "Some capacitive display manufacturers continue to develop thinner and more accurate touchscreens. Those for mobile devices are now being produced with 'in-cell' technology, such as in Samsung's Super AMOLED screens, that eliminates a layer by building the capacitors inside the display itself. This type of touchscreen reduces the visible distance between the user's finger and what the user is touching on the screen, reducing the thickness and weight of the display, which is desirable in smartphones. \n", "Depending on the type of screen, it is sometimes possible to remedy screen burn-in through the use of remedial software and remedial devices. In the case of OLED screens on Android phones, burn-in reduction apps can display an inverted image of the navigation and status bars (which are constantly displayed and therefore the most likely elements to be burned in) to burn in opposite pattern, resulting in a screen whose sub-pixels have more even luminosity and therefore less visible burn-in artifacts.\n\nSection::::Historical notes.\n", "Along with OLEDs, microLEDs are primarily aimed at small, low-energy devices such as smartwatches and smartphones. OLED and microLED both offer greatly reduced energy requirements compared to conventional LCD systems. Unlike OLED, microLED is based on conventional gallium nitride (GaN) LED technology, which offers far higher total brightness than OLED produces, as much as 30 times, as well as higher efficiency in terms of lux/W.\n\n, microLED displays have not been mass-produced, though Sony sells microLED video walls, Samsung demonstrated a prototype at CES, and Apple has begun in-house development of microLED screens of its own..\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "\"to our eyes, there has never been a more detailed, clear, or viewable screen on any mobile device. Not only are the colors and blacks deep and rich, but you simply cannot see pixels on the screen…webpages that would be line after line of pixelated content when zoomed out on a 3GS are completely readable on the iPhone 4, though the text is beyond microscopic.\"\n\nFormer Microsoft employee Bill Hill, an expert on font rendering, offered similar comments:\n", "The second approach is called \"on-cell\" capacitive touchscreen, with the cell referring to the LCD. In this process, a conductive layer of ITO is deposited directly onto the top layer of glass in the LCD panel in an electrode pattern. A thin insulating layer is applied before a second ITO layer is deposited in a pattern creating electrodes running at right angles to the first layer. Finally, a polarizing layer is applied on top, and the display is completed by adding the cover glass.\n", "The amount of time spent on screens appears to have a correlation with happiness levels. A nationally representative study of American 12th graders funded by the \"National Institute on Drug Abuse\" titled \"Monitoring the Future Survey\" found that “teens who spent more time than average on screen activities are more likely to be unhappy, and those who spend more time than average on non screen activities are more likely to be happy.” One of the most important findings of this study is how the amount of time spent on non screen activities versus on screen activities affects the happiness levels of teenagers.\n", "Touchscreens can suffer from the problem of fingerprints on the display. This can be mitigated by the use of materials with optical coatings designed to reduce the visible effects of fingerprint oils. Most modern smartphones have oleophobic coatings, which lessen the amount of oil residue. Another option is to install a matte-finish anti-glare screen protector, which creates a slightly roughened surface that does not easily retain smudges.\n\nSection::::Ergonomics and usage.:Glove touch.\n", "Screen protectors first entered the mobile-device market after the rise of personal digital assistants (PDAs). Since PDAs were often operated via a stylus, the tip of the stylus could scratch the sensitive LCD screen surface. Therefore, screen protectors provided sacrificial protection from this damage. Since then, the ubiquity of mobile-devices have seen the screen protector become more widely used.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "In the case of LCDs, the mechanics of burn-in are different than plasma and OLED, which develop burn-in from luminance degradation of the light-emitting pixels. For LCDs, burn-in develops in some cases because pixels permanently lose their ability to return to their relaxed state after a continued static use profile. In most typical usage profiles, this image persistence in LCD is only transient.\n", "For the iPad, the basic size is 180x180 pixels. Android tablets [via Chrome] prefer a 192x192 PNG icon.\n\nThe icon file referenced by codice_22 is modified to add rounded corners. On the iOS versions prior to iOS 7, a drop shadow, and reflective shine would be added, and codice_23 icon may be provided to instruct devices not to apply reflective shine on the image.\n\nBULLET::::- With rounded corners, added by iOS\n\nNo HTML is required by browsers or mobile devices to retrieve these icons, either. The website's root is the default location for the file codice_24 (in order of priority).\n", "An OLED display works without a backlight because it emits visible light. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions (such as a dark room), an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, regardless of whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or an LED backlight.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

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[ "DNA can be quantified by cutting the DNA with a restriction enzyme, running it on an agarose gel, staining with ethidium bromide or a different stain and comparing the intensity of the DNA with a DNA marker of known concentration.\n\nUsing the Southern blot technique, this quantified DNA can be isolated and examined further using PCR and RFLP analysis. These procedures allow differentiation of the repeated sequences within the genome. It is these techniques which forensic scientists use for comparison, identification, and analysis.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Boom method\n\nBULLET::::- DNA fingerprinting\n\nBULLET::::- DNA sequencing\n\nBULLET::::- DNA structure\n\nBULLET::::- Ethanol precipitation\n", "Section::::Advanced methods and \"de novo\" sequencing.:Shotgun sequencing.\n\nShotgun sequencing is a sequencing method designed for analysis of DNA sequences longer than 1000 base pairs, up to and including entire chromosomes. This method requires the target DNA to be broken into random fragments. After sequencing individual fragments, the sequences can be reassembled on the basis of their overlapping regions.\n\nSection::::Advanced methods and \"de novo\" sequencing.:Bridge PCR.\n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:Polony sequencing.\n", "BULLET::::1. Random fragmentation of genomic DNA\n\nBULLET::::2. Immobilization of single DNA fragments on a solid support like a bead or a planar solid surface\n\nBULLET::::3. Amplification of DNA fragments on the solid surface using PCR and making polymerase colonies\n\nBULLET::::4. Sequencing and subsequent in situ interrogation after each cycle using fluorescence scanning or chemiluminescence.\n", "Initially, the DNA of interest (nuclear or mitochondrial DNA) is extracted from tissues or cell culture. This can be done by standard extraction methods such as Proteinase K digestion followed by ethanol precipitation or by other commercially available methods.\n\nIf the DNA is predicted to be heterogeneous, e.g. from a pool of differentially modified cells or from heterozygous mutation carriers, there is no need to add control DNA.\n\nSection::::Surveyor nuclease assay workflow.:Polymerase chain reaction.\n", "Section::::Workflow.:Sequencing.\n\nFAIRE-extracted DNA fragments can be analyzed in a high-throughput way using next-generation sequencing techniques. In general, libraries are made by ligating specific adapters to the DNA fragments that allow them to cluster on a platform and be amplified resulting in the DNA sequences being read/determined, and this in parallel for millions of the DNA fragments.\n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:Sequencing by hybridization.\n\n\"Sequencing by hybridization\" is a non-enzymatic method that uses a DNA microarray. A single pool of DNA whose sequence is to be determined is fluorescently labeled and hybridized to an array containing known sequences. Strong hybridization signals from a given spot on the array identifies its sequence in the DNA being sequenced.\n", "Genomic sequence compression algorithms, also known as DNA sequence compressors, explore the fact that DNA sequences have characteristic properties, such as inverted repeats. The most successful compressors are XM and GeCo. For eukaryotes XM is slightly better in compression ratio, though for sequences larger than 100 MB its computational requirements are impractical.\n\nSection::::Medicine.\n\nMany countries collect newborn blood samples to screen for diseases mainly with a genetic basis. Mainly these are destroyed soon after testing. In some countries the dried blood (and the DNA) is retained for later testing. \n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:454 pyrosequencing.\n", "Section::::Surveyor nuclease assay workflow.:Digestion.\n\nThe annealed DNA is treated with Surveyor nuclease to cleave the heteroduplexes. All types of mismatches are identifiable by Surveyor nuclease, although the mismatch cutting preferences fall into four groups from most to least preferred: CT, AC, and CC are preferred equally over TT, followed by AA and GG, and finally followed by the least preferred, AG and GT. Sequence context also influences the Surveyor nuclease digestion rate.\n\nSection::::Surveyor nuclease assay workflow.:Analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- Pyrosequencing of bisulfite treated DNA. This is sequencing of an amplicon made by a normal forward primer but a biotinylated reverse primer to PCR the gene of choice. The Pyrosequencer then analyses the sample by denaturing the DNA and adding one nucleotide at a time to the mix according to a sequence given by the user. If there is a mis-match, it is recorded and the percentage of DNA for which the mis-match is present is noted. This gives the user a percentage methylation per CpG island.\n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:Microfluidic Systems.\n\nThere are two main microfluidic systems that are used to sequence DNA; droplet based microfluidics and digital microfluidics. Microfluidic devices solve many of the current limitations of current sequencing arrays.\n", "DNA sequencing methods currently under development include reading the sequence as a DNA strand transits through nanopores (a method that is now commercial but subsequent generations such as solid-state nanopores are still in development), and microscopy-based techniques, such as atomic force microscopy or transmission electron microscopy that are used to identify the positions of individual nucleotides within long DNA fragments (5,000 bp) by nucleotide labeling with heavier elements (e.g., halogens) for visual detection and recording.\n", "There are many new sequencing methods used in this sequencing step. Some technologies that analyze the sequences can use cluster amplification of adapter-ligated ChIP DNA fragments on a solid flow cell substrate to create clusters of approximately 1000 clonal copies each. The resulting high density array of template clusters on the flow cell surface is sequenced by a Genome analyzing program. Each template cluster undergoes sequencing-by-synthesis in parallel using novel fluorescently labelled reversible terminator nucleotides. Templates are sequenced base-by-base during each read. Then, the data collection and analysis software aligns sample sequences to a known genomic sequence to identify the ChIP-DNA fragments.\n", "In recent years, methods have been developed that allow the comparison of profiles directly to each other. These are known as profile-profile comparison methods.\n\nSection::::Sequence assembly.\n\nSequence assembly refers to the reconstruction of a DNA sequence by aligning and merging small DNA fragments. It is an integral part of modern DNA sequencing. Since presently-available DNA sequencing technologies are ill-suited for reading long sequences, large pieces of DNA (such as genomes) are often sequenced by (1) cutting the DNA into small pieces, (2) reading the small fragments, and (3) reconstituting the original DNA by merging the information on various fragments.\n", "Section::::Theory and sequencing strategies.\n\nSection::::Theory and sequencing strategies.:Sequencing as a covering problem.\n\nAll mainstream methods of DNA sequencing rely on reading small fragments of DNA and subsequently reconstructing these data to infer the original DNA target, either via assembly or alignment to a reference. The abstraction common to these methods is that of a mathematical covering problem. For example, one can imagine a line segment representing the target and a subsequent process where smaller segments are \"dropped\" onto random locations of the target. The target is considered \"sequenced\" when adequate coverage accumulates (e.g., when no gaps remain).\n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:DNA nanoball sequencing.\n", "The fragments of DNA molecules are first hybridized in place on disposable glass flow cells. Fluorescent nucleotides are then added one-by-one, with a terminating nucleotide used to pause the process until an image has been captured. From the image, one nucleotide from each DNA sequence can be determined. The fluorescent molecule is then cut away, and the process is repeated until the fragments have been completely sequenced.\n\nThis sequencing method and equipment were used to sequence the genome of the M13 bacteriophage.\n\nSection::::Preparing the DNA.\n\nSection::::Preparing the DNA.:Fragmenting the DNA.\n", "The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces were then ligated into a type of vector known as \"bacterial artificial chromosomes\", or BACs, which are derived from bacterial chromosomes which have been genetically engineered. The vectors containing the genes can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery. Each of these pieces was then sequenced separately as a small \"shotgun\" project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the \"hierarchical shotgun\" approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing.\n", "Briefly, the target genomic DNA is isolated and partially digested with restriction enzymes into large fragments. Following size-fractionation, the fragments are cloned into plasmids to construct artificial chromosomes such as bacterial artificial chromosomes (BAC) which are then sequenced and compared to the reference genome. The differences, including orientation and length variations between constructed chromosomes and the reference genome, will suggest copy number and structural aberration.\n\nSection::::Artificial chromosome construction.\n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:SOLiD sequencing.\n", "Following the separation in the gel matrix, the DNA fragments are moved onto nylon membranes and hybridized with a labelled 16S or 23S rRNA probe. This way only the fragments coding for such rRNA are visualised and can be analyzed. The pattern is then digitized and used to identify the origin of the DNA by a comparison with reference organisms in a computer database.\n\nConceptually, ribotyping is similar to probing restriction fragments of chromosomal DNA with cloned probes (randomly cloned probes or probes derived from a specific coding sequence such as that of a virulence factor).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Genotyping\n", "Section::::Shuffling methods.:Using restriction enzymes.\n\nBULLET::::1. Restriction enzymes that cut in similar places are used to digest members of the gene family\n\nBULLET::::2. DNA fragments are joined together with DNA ligase\n\nBULLET::::3. Large numbers of hybrids that can be tested for unique properties are produced\n\nSection::::Shuffling methods.:Using DNAse 1.\n\nBULLET::::1. Different members of the gene family are fragmented using DNase 1 followed by PCR\n\nBULLET::::2. During PCR different members of the family are cross-primed, i.e. homological DNA fragments will anneal to each other\n", "Section::::High-throughput methods.:Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencing.\n", "The Illumina dye sequencing method is based on reversible dye-terminators and was developed in 1996 at the Geneva Biomedical Research Institute, by Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli. In this method, DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified with polymerase so that local clonal colonies, initially coined \"DNA colonies\", are formed. To determine the sequence, four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA chains are extended one nucleotide at a time and image acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies to be captured by sequential images taken from a single camera. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and theoretically unlimited sequencing capacity; with an optimal configuration, the ultimate throughput of the instrument depends only on the A/D conversion rate of the camera. The camera takes images of the fluorescently labeled nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle.\n" ]

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[ "Rules vary according to the applicable laws and regulations in the jurisdiction where the ticket is sold, and the winner's residence (e.g. if a New Jerseyan wins on a ticket bought near their workplace in Manhattan). Mega Millions winnings are exempt from state income tax in California; while Florida, New Hampshire, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington state, and Wyoming do not have an income tax. On the other hand, some residents of New York City and Yonkers, New York pay \"three\" levels of income tax, as these cities levy income taxes.\n\nSection::::Drawings.\n", "Powerball winnings in California are subject to Federal income tax only. There is no state income tax in Florida, South Dakota, Texas, Washington and Wyoming, and only on interest and dividends in Tennessee and New Hampshire. Winnings from tickets purchased outside of one's home state may be subject to the income tax laws of \"both\" states (with possible credit based on the two jurisdictions.)\n\nSection::::Playing the game.:Secondary prizes.\n", "In some countries, lottery winnings are not subject to personal income tax, so there are no tax consequences to consider in choosing a payment option. In France, Canada, Australia, Germany, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Finland, and the United Kingdom all prizes are immediately paid out as one lump sum, tax-free to the winner. In Liechtenstein, all winnings are tax-free and the winner may opt to receive a lump sum or an annuity with regard to the jackpot prizes.\n", "The Virginia Lottery gives top-prize winners of certain games a choice of cash or annuity. When a Virginia top-prize winner of Mega Millions, Powerball or Cash4Life is claimed, the Lottery purchases sufficient U.S. Government bonds to cover the prize. (A cash option winner of Mega Millions or Powerball receives the \"lump sum\" in two installments as both games are offered by multiple lotteries.) The actual cash value depends on the market value of the bonds on the date they are sold. Federal laws require the Lottery to withhold Federal Income Tax on all prizes (whether lump sum or annuity) over $5,000.\n", "BULLET::::- MM. \"The Big Game\" became \"The Big Game Mega Millions\" and then \"Mega Millions\" in 2002.\n\nSection::::Europe.\n\nUnlike in the United States, where lottery wins are taxed, European jackpots are generally tax-free (the lotteries themselves are taxed in other ways) and jackpots are paid in a lump sum. For example, in the United Kingdom's National Lottery, wagers are split between the game operator Camelot Group and the government, with Camelot distributing its share among prizes, operating costs, profit, Camelot's 'good causes' programme, with the remainder going to the government as value-added tax (VAT) due.\n", "Winnings (in the U.S.) are not necessarily paid out in a lump sum, contrary to the expectation of many lottery participants. In certain countries, mainly the U.S., the winner gets to choose between an annuity payment and a one-time payment. The one-time payment (\"cash\" or \"lump sum\") is a \"smaller\" amount than the advertised (annuity) jackpot, even before applying any withholdings to which the prize is subject. While withholdings vary by jurisdiction and how winnings are invested, it is suggested that a winner who chooses lump sum expects to pocket of the advertised jackpot at the end of the tax year. Therefore, a winner of a $100,000,000 jackpot who chooses cash can expect $33,333,333.33 net after filing income tax document(s) for the year in which the jackpot was won.\n", "Bank A Million is a drawing game offering a top prize of $1,000,000 after the tax withholding. Drawings are held on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Players choose 6 of 40 numbers. The minimum bet is $2; however, similar to Cash 5, players have the option of splitting the wager into two $1 plays or four 50-cent plays. The Lottery draws six numbers plus a Bonus Ball. The top prize (matching the first six numbers) on a $2 wager is $1,000,000; however the top prize is \"taxes paid\" (the actual prize, $1,408,451, is \"before withholding\", which is to be reported for tax purposes; the \"after withholding\" amount is $1,000,000.) Top prizes on $1 and 50-cent wagers are proportionally smaller.\n", "All prizes for Fantasy 5, Daily Derby, Daily 3, Daily 4, and non-jackpot SuperLotto Plus, Mega Millions, and Powerball prizes, are paid out in one payment, less 25% or 33% (depending upon the winner's tax documentation) Federal withholding if the prize is over $5,000. Merchandise prizes over $5,000 are subject to 33% Federal withholding. Scratchers tickets are generally one-payment prizes; however, some games have annuity options for payments each year, or per week. California does not tax California Lottery winnings, however it taxes lottery winnings from other jurisdictions. For SuperLotto Plus and Mega Millions jackpots, the player may choose a single cash payout for a floating percentage of the jackpot, or an annuity. The SuperLotto Plus, Mega Millions, and Powerball payment schedule are on a graduated basis over 30 annual payments. Until 2005, when California joined Mega Millions, the payment choice on SuperLotto Plus had to be made when the ticket was bought. Since then, there is a 60-day window after winning, in which the choice of cash or annuity is to be made.\n", "The Lottery retains less than 10 percent of its revenue to fund operations, including its headquarters, five regional sales offices where players claim winning tickets, technology for generating tickets and conducting drawings, ticket printing, advertising, promotions, and staffing.\n\nThe US and Louisiana governments consider winnings from all forms of gaming to be income for tax purposes. By law, the LLC must report winnings from each ticket with a prize value over $600 to the Internal Revenue Service, and the Louisiana Department of Revenue and Taxation.\n", "All Pick 2, Pick 3, Pick 4, Pick 5, and Fantasy 5 winners receive their winnings as a one-time, lump-sum payment. Any winnings of less than $600 may be redeemed at an authorized Florida Lottery retailer; higher winnings must be redeemed at a Lottery district office or at Lottery headquarters in Tallahassee. All non-Powerball prizes greater than $250,000, or Powerball prizes more than $1 million, must be redeemed at Florida Lottery headquarters. Lucky Money jackpot winners may choose between an annuity of 20 payments that equals the advertised jackpot, or a lump-sum payment, which is about 2/3 of the advertised jackpot, less federal income tax withholding. Florida Lotto jackpot winners may choose between an annuity of 30 payments, or a lump-sum payment, which is about 1/2 of the advertised jackpot less federal income taxes. For both Lucky Money and Florida Lotto, the cash option, if desired, must be exercised within 60 days of the applicable drawing. Florida does not collect income tax; however, like all U.S. lottery prizes, they are taxable by the federal government.\n", "When filing a standard claim form, the claimant, the retailer, and the Pennsylvania Lottery each receive a copy (the form is triplicate). The Lottery then reports all winnings to the IRS. For federal income tax purposes, any lottery winnings over $2,500 in a fiscal year are taxable. However, when the winning amount is greater than $5,000, the Pennsylvania Department of Revenue withholds the proper amount of federal income tax before a check is mailed to the claimant. Pennsylvania Lottery winnings by Pennsylvania residents are exempt from state tax; however, winnings may be subject to local taxes for residents of some municipalities (e.g. Philadelphia).\n", "On January 13, 2016, the world's largest lottery jackpot, an annuity of approximately $1.586 billion, was split among three Powerball tickets in Chino Hills, California, Melbourne Beach, Florida and Munford, Tennessee, each worth $528.8 million. Since there is no income tax in Florida or Tennessee (and California does not tax lottery winnings), the cash option after Federal withholdings is $187.2 million each.\n", "Section::::United States.\n\nAll lottery winnings are subject to Federal taxation (automatically reported to the Internal Revenue Service if the win is at least $600); many smaller jurisdictions also levy taxes. The IRS requires a minimum withholding of 25% of the prize (minus the wager) of any gambling win in excess of $5,000. However, the net for a major prize often is misleading; winners often owe the IRS upon filing a return because the Federal withholding was below the winner's tax obligations. Nonresident U.S. lottery winners have 30% of winnings of at least $600 withheld.\n", "Jackpot winners have the option of receiving their prize in cash (in two installments; one from the winning jurisdiction, then the combined funds from the other members) or as a graduated annuity paid in 30 yearly installments. Each annuity payment is 5% higher than in the previous year to adjust for inflation.\n", "While the largest lottery prizes in the early history of U.S. state lotteries were \"annuity-only\", these lotteries gradually introduced a \"cash option\" for these games.\n\nAll prizes listed below are reported as the pre-withholdings amount, as this is taxable income the player must report on their returns to be subject to taxation. Jackpots and jackpot shares listed below are annuity amounts (and the cash value.)\n", "The principal lottery in the United Kingdom is the National Lottery, a state-franchised lottery sanctioned by the Gambling Commission (formerly the National Lottery Commission), and established in 1994. It is operated by the Camelot Group, which was first granted the franchise in 1994. Camelot's current franchise agreement runs through 2019. 28% of National Lottery revenue, along with all unclaimed prizes, are distributed as grants to charitable causes. 12% of the revenue from the National Lottery is expected to go to the government, 5% goes to lottery retailers, 5% is retained by Camelot Group for operating costs, and 50% remains for the total prize fund of which 5% is diverted to a Super Draw fund, leaving 45% for normal prizes.\n", "All drawings are conducted at the Lottery headquarters in downtown Baton Rouge using automated drawing machines, and they are videotaped. Drawings happen every evening (excluding some holidays). The LLC uses three methods to choose random numbers for each of the Lottery's games. Before each drawing, the drawing method and machine are selected randomly. There are a total of 7 in-house games that could be played. Winners that are U.S. citizens are subject to Louisiana income tax withholding and can also have federal tax withheld if winnings are $5,000 or more.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Lottery annuities are often for a period from 20 to 30 years. Some U.S. lottery games, especially those offering a \"lifetime\" prize, do not offer a lump-sum option.\n\nIn some online lotteries, the annual payments are only $25,000, with a balloon payment in the final year. This type of installment payment is often made through investment in government-backed securities. Online lotteries pay the winners through their insurance backup. However, many winners choose lump sum, since they believe they can get a better rate of return on their investment elsewhere.\n", "Under Virginia law, all unclaimed prizes go to the Virginia Literary Fund, which is also used for educational purposes. As of 2017, more than $275 million in unclaimed prizes have been transferred to the Literary Fund.\n\nThe largest win in the Virginia Lottery's history to date occurred on February 20, 2004, when retired truck driver J. R. Triplett of Winchester won a Mega Millions jackpot worth $239 million. Nine Mega Millions jackpots and one Powerball jackpot have been won in Virginia so far.\n\nSection::::Governance.\n", "Prizes were determined by a modified parimutuel system; except under special circumstances, only the jackpot was shared among multiple winners.\n\nA jackpot won on or before May 11, 2013 entitled a winner of the choice of cash or receiving 25 equal yearly payments. These winners had 25 percent withheld towards Federal taxes (and additional withholding in most cases.)\n\nThe minimum jackpot was $1,000,000; rollovers were at least $50,000 per drawing. A jackpot winner receives cash (although not necessarily in one payment); however, the \"pre-withholding\" amount must be declared for income tax purposes.\n", "Section::::Operations.:Distribution of monetary funds.\n\nMore than half of Lottery sales are reserved for prize expenses. Prizes not claimed are returned to winners in the form of increased payouts on scratch-off tickets. Players have won more than $2.8 billion in Lottery prizes since the Lottery's inception.\n", "Powerball is a drawing game in which players try to match five numbers from 1 through 69, plus a Powerball number from 1 through 26. A ticket that matches all six numbers wins the jackpot. Jackpot amounts begin at $40 million and grow with each drawing in which the jackpot is not won. Top-prize Powerball winners can choose cash in lieu of annuity payments. The jackpot is pari-mutuel, meaning that if multiple tickets match all six numbers, each of them receives an equal share of the total jackpot.\n", "To win, contestants match their combinations of numbers with the drawn combination. The combination may be in any order, except in some \"mega ball\" lotteries, where the \"mega\" number for the combination must match the ball designated as the \"mega ball\" in the winning combination. If there are multiple winners, they split the winnings, also known as the \"Jackpot\". Winnings are currently subject to federal income taxes as ordinary income. Winnings can be awarded as a yearly annuity or as a lump sum, depending on lottery rules.\n", "Section::::Other Florida Lottery Information.\n\nThough the Florida Lottery's expenses and payouts vary from year to year, approximately 50 to 60 percent of its net revenue makes up the games' prize pools, 30 to 40 percent is transferred to the Educational Enhancement Trust Fund, 6 percent is paid to retailers in the form of commissions, 2 percent is paid to the Lottery's on-line and Scratch-Off ticket vendors, and the remaining 2 percent covers operational costs, including advertising.\n", "Lottery payouts\n\nLottery payouts are the way lottery winnings are distributed. Typically, lotteries pay out around 50-70% of stakes (turnover) back to players. The remainder is then kept for administration costs and charitable donations or tax revenues. In gambling terminology lottery payouts are the equivalent of RTP or returns to players. The lottery operator's gross margin is the opposite of RTP. \n" ]

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[ "However, if a person is sufficiently enraged, determined, or intoxicated, they can simply shrug off the psychological effects of being shot. During the colonial era, when native tribesmen came into contact with firearms for the first time, there was no psychological conditioning that being shot could be fatal, and most colonial powers eventually sought to create more effective manstoppers.\n", "BULLET::::- Avoiding confrontation first and foremost by talking to attacker / defusing situation in the simplest way possible\n\nBULLET::::- If it is clear that the situation escalates, executing a pre-emptive attack\n\nBULLET::::- Assuming the majority of street fights last a minute or less\n\nBULLET::::- Attacks need therefore be short and intense, making use of pressure points like eyes, groin, throat, fingers etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Getting out of the situation as soon as the threat is neutralised - students are taught to be aware of their surroundings and likeliest exits\n", "BULLET::::- Immediacy – treat them without delay and not wait till the wounded were all dealt with\n\nBULLET::::- Expectancy – ensure that everyone had the expectation of their return to the front after a rest and replenishment\n", "The following PIE principles were in place for the \"not yet diagnosed nervous\" (NYDN) cases:\n\nBULLET::::- Proximity – treat the casualties close to the front and within sound of the fighting.\n\nBULLET::::- Immediacy – treat them without delay and not wait until the wounded were all dealt with.\n\nBULLET::::- Expectancy – ensure that everyone had the expectation of their return to the front after a rest and replenishment.\n", "Therefore, such effects are not as reliable as physiological effects at stopping people. Animals will not faint or surrender if injured, though they may become frightened by the loud noise and pain of being shot, so psychological mechanisms are generally less effective against non-humans.\n\nSection::::Penetration.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nInitial assessment for a gunshot wound is approached in the same way as other acute trauma using the advanced trauma life support (ATLS) protocol. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- A) Airway - Assess and protect airway and potentially the cervical spine\n\nBULLET::::- B) Breathing - Maintain adequate ventilation and oxygenation\n\nBULLET::::- C) Circulation - Assess for and control bleeding to maintain organ perfusion including focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST)\n\nBULLET::::- D) Disability - Perform basic neurological exam including Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)\n", "BULLET::::- Providing knowledge of the stress environment\n\nSoldiers with a knowledge of both the emotional and physical signs and symptoms of CSR are much less likely to have a critical event that reduces them below fighting capability. Instrumental information, such as breathing exercises that can reduce stress and suggestions not to look at the faces of enemy dead, is also effective at reducing the chance of a breakdown.\n\nBULLET::::- Skills acquisition\n", "BULLET::::- 87% of individuals made suicidal communications prior to and/or during the incident\n\nBULLET::::- 36% were under the influence of alcohol.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- The Aramoana massacre, a spree shooting that occurred on 13 November 1990 in New Zealand. Police shot the suspect dead as he came out of a house firing from the hip and screaming \"Kill me!\"\n\nBULLET::::- In December 2008, 15-year-old Tyler Cassidy was shot and killed by three Victoria Police officers after he threatened them with two large knives and ordered them to shoot him.\n", "BULLET::::3. Any pressure of the chest that impairs breathing should be avoided.\n\nBULLET::::4. It should be possible to turn the victim onto the side and return to the back easily and safely, having particular regard to the possibility of cervical spine injury.\n\nBULLET::::5. Good observation of and access to the airway should be possible.\n\nBULLET::::6. The position itself should not give rise to any injury to the casualty.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::1. Fight: As the name implies, this is the standard that defines the soldier’s role as actively trying to defeat the enemy by use of their training.\n\nBULLET::::2. Flight: This option involves the combatant fleeing the engagement.\n\nBULLET::::3. Posture: This action involves the soldier falsely showing active participation in combat. In actuality they are not being effective in deterring the enemy from success. This is a major point of concern for commanders as it is difficult to tell the difference between a soldier posturing or fighting.\n", "BULLET::::- Preparations for potentially encountering these situations\n\nSection::::Classification.:Restorative.\n\nThese behaviors are aimed to reduce fear or anxiety in a currently threatening situation. \n\nExamples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Escaping the situation\n\nBULLET::::- Using safety signals such as looking at cell phones to reduce social anxiety\n\nBULLET::::- Subtle avoidance behaviors such as breathing techniques\n\nBULLET::::- Compulsive behaviors such as repeatedly washing hands\n\nBULLET::::- Seeking reassurance from loved ones or professionals to ensure that the fears are unwarranted\n\nBULLET::::- Distracting attention from the threat or focusing attention on reducing the threat\n\nBULLET::::- Neutralizing the threat by praying or counting\n\nBULLET::::- Suppressing anxiety-provoking thoughts\n", "BULLET::::- Age-inappropriate mental status also includes posturing\n\nTo be triaged yellow, the child must:\n\nBULLET::::- Have a respiratory rate between 15 and 45; and\n\nBULLET::::- Have a palpable peripheral pulse; and\n\nBULLET::::- Have an age-appropriate mental status (A, V, or P on the AVPU scale)\n\nSection::::Literature review.\n\nAs of 2016, there have been no studies of JumpSTART's validity or reliability in actual mass-casualty settings, though JumpSTART's discriminant validity has been established. Within the medical literature, the existing studies of JumpSTART generally examine its use in training or simulated MCI settings.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Acting out\": Direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse in action, without conscious awareness of the emotion that drives the expressive behavior\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hypochondriasis\": An excessive preoccupation or worry about having a serious illness\n\nBULLET::::- \"Passive-aggressive behavior\": Indirect expression of hostility\n", "BULLET::::- 37% of men, 42% of women were single\n\nBULLET::::- 29% of men, 50% of women had children\n\nBULLET::::- 54% of men were unemployed\n\nBULLET::::- 29% of men did not have housing\n\nBULLET::::- 62% of men, 100% of women had confirmed or probable mental health history\n\nBULLET::::- 80% of men were armed – of these 60% possessed a firearm, (86% loaded), 26% possessed knives\n\nBULLET::::- 100% of women were armed – 50% had a firearm, (33% loaded), 50% had a knife\n\nBULLET::::- 19% feigned or simulated weapon possession\n", "BULLET::::- Cultural issues, e.g. male dominant attitudes towards women in different cultures.\n\nBULLET::::- Separation and home issues.\n\nBULLET::::- Risk of disease including HIV.\n\nBULLET::::- Threat of exposure to toxic agents.\n\nBULLET::::- Mission problems.\n\nBULLET::::- Return to service.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:SNS activation.\n", "BULLET::::- Best for times when shooter needs to shoot quickly, but it is a bit too far (or he is breathing a bit too hard) to risk a shot from the standing position.\n\nBULLET::::- A lot steadier than standing position.\n\nBULLET::::- For most people it is not nearly as steady as sitting but it is a lot faster to get in and out of.\n", "BULLET::::- Red – Readiness to face danger. Fight mode (although not necessarily shooting yet). The individual is aware of a specific immediate threat, which will likely result in the use of deadly force. Individual will shoot if his predetermined \"mental trigger\" is tripped.\n", "Effectiveness of the PIE approach has not been confirmed by studies of CSR, and there is some evidence that it is not effective in preventing PTSD.\n\nUS services now use the more recently developed BICEPS principles:\n\nBULLET::::- Brevity\n\nBULLET::::- Immediacy\n\nBULLET::::- Centrality or contact\n\nBULLET::::- Expectancy\n\nBULLET::::- Proximity\n\nBULLET::::- Simplicity\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Between the wars.\n\nThe British government produced a \"Report of the War Office Committee of Inquiry into \"Shell-Shock\"\", which was published in 1922. Recommendations from this included:\n\nBULLET::::- In forward areas\n\nBULLET::::- In neurological centers\n\nBULLET::::- In base hospitals\n\nBULLET::::- Forms of treatment\n\nBULLET::::- Return to the fighting line\n", "BULLET::::- If the victim has signs of severe airway obstruction, and is conscious, give up to 5 back blows (sharp blows between the shoulder blades with the victim leaning well forwards). Check to see if the obstruction has cleared after each blow. If 5 back blows fail to relieve the obstruction, give up to 5 abdominal thrusts, again checking if each attempt has relieved the obstruction.\n\nBULLET::::- If the obstruction is still present, and the victim still conscious, continue alternating 5 back blows and 5 abdominal thrusts.\n", "Shooting while moving dramatically decreases accuracy, and holding the trigger down to continuously shoot produces severe recoil. The severity of damage induced by weaponry is dependent upon the specific locations of hits, with hits to the head being most lethal and shots which make contact elsewhere causing lesser loss of health. Damage is also affected by the distance, and if the target wears protection.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Acceptance\": A person's assent to the reality of a situation, recognizing a process or condition (often a difficult or uncomfortable situation) without attempting to change it, protest, or exit. Religions and psychological treatments often suggest the path of acceptance when a situation is both disliked and unchangeable, or when change may be possible only at great cost or risk.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Courage\": The mental ability and willingness to confront conflicts, fear, pain, danger, uncertainty, despair, obstacles, vicissitudes or intimidation. Physical courage often extends lives, while moral courage preserves the ideals of justice and fairness.\n", "BULLET::::- December 1859: An autopsy showed that a native servant in India, who suddenly fell dead for no apparent reason, was mortally wounded from a bullet fired from a distance too far for the shot to be heard. The falling bullet had sufficient energy to pass through the victim's shoulder, a rib, a lung, his heart and his diaphragm.\n\nSection::::Notable incidents.:United States.\n\nBULLET::::- July 1, 2017: A 13-year-old boy, Noah Inman, was struck in his head and killed while playing basketball in the street.\n", "BULLET::::- Follow-up Assessment and Safety Planning: Depending on the threat, explicit or implied, past history or current threats of violence, according to Joseph A. Davis, Ph.D., author and editor of \"Stalking Crimes and Victim Protection\" (Taylor-Francis/Routledge Press, 2001, 538 pages), the person determining the viability of a threat needs to critically evaluate the ongoing nature of the threat by continuously looking at the R-S-I-F indicators. That is, the RECENCY-SEVERITY-INTENSITY-FREQUENCY aspects of the threat by the threatener [6]\n\nSection::::Areas of need.\n", "BULLET::::- displacing responsibility for the killing onto an authority figure, i.e., the commanding officer and the military hierarchy (See the Milgram experiment)\n\nBy the time of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War, says Grossman, 90% of U.S. soldiers would fire their weapons at other people.\n\nHe also says the act of killing is psychologically traumatic for the killer, even more so than constant danger or witnessing the death of others.\n\nGrossman further argues that violence in television, movies and video games contributes to real-life violence by a similar process of training and desensitization.\n", "BULLET::::- George Thompson (1941–2011), author of \"Verbal Judo\", advanced the field of verbal self-defense by breaking down how to apply the techniques for de-escalation and defusing used by professionally trained police officers. He was one of the leading experts in verbal self-defense tactics and trained law-enforcement agencies around the world.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.\n\nUntil the early modern period, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks, Muslim scholars, and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light. Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity concluded that the speed of light is constant regardless of one's frame of reference. Since then, scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements.\n\nSection::::History.:Early history.\n", "BULLET::::- July 17 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Hungarians, led by Arthur Görgey, and the Russians, led by Ivan Paskevich, battle indecisively at Vác. The Russians are unsuccessful in destroying the Hungarian army, which retreats towards the east.\n\nBULLET::::- July 23 – The French scientist Hippolyte Fizeau measures the speed of light, with an instrument placed on the Earth.\n", "Section::::History.:First measurement attempts.\n", "BULLET::::- 1704 — Isaac Newton publishes \"Opticks\", a corpuscular theory of light and colour\n\nBULLET::::- 1705 — Francis Hauksbee improves von Guericke's electrostatic generator by using a glass globe and generates the first sparks by approaching his finger to the rubbed globe.\n\nBULLET::::- 1728 — James Bradley discovers the aberration of starlight and uses it to determine that the speed of light is about 283,000 km/s\n", "In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre (1749–1822) reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second.\n", "Being very difficult to measure, only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century, mostly by use of the filar micrometer. Astrographs using astronomical photographic plates sped the process in the early 20th century. Automated plate-measuring machines and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of star catalogues. In the 1980s, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond.\n", "There are different ways to determine the value of \"c\". One way is to measure the actual speed at which light waves propagate, which can be done in various astronomical and earth-based setups. However, it is also possible to determine \"c\" from other physical laws where it appears, for example, by determining the values of the electromagnetic constants \"ε\" and \"μ\" and using their relation to \"c\". Historically, the most accurate results have been obtained by separately determining the frequency and wavelength of a light beam, with their product equalling \"c\".\n", "In 1972, using the laser interferometer method and the new definitions, a group at the US National Bureau of Standards in Boulder, Colorado determined the speed of light in vacuum to be \"c\" = . This was 100 times less uncertain than the previously accepted value. The remaining uncertainty was mainly related to the definition of the metre. As similar experiments found comparable results for \"c\", the 15th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1975 recommended using the value for the speed of light.\n\nSection::::History.:Defining the speed of light as an explicit constant.\n", "Previously, the inverse of  expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a best fit value for the light time per unit distance could be obtained. For example, in 2009, the best estimate, as approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), was:\n", "The Essen–Gordon-Smith result, , was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques. By 1950, repeated measurements by Essen established a result of .\n", "In the second half of the 20th century much progress was made in increasing the accuracy of measurements of the speed of light, first by cavity resonance techniques and later by laser interferometer techniques. These were aided by new, more precise, definitions of the metre and second. In 1950, Louis Essen determined the speed as , using cavity resonance. This value was adopted by the 12th General Assembly of the Radio-Scientific Union in 1957. In 1960, the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of a particular spectral line of krypton-86, and, in 1967, the second was redefined in terms of the hyperfine transition frequency of the ground state of caesium-133.\n", "BULLET::::- The prediction of the deflection of light was first confirmed by Arthur Eddington in 1919, and has more recently been strongly confirmed through the use of a quasar which passes behind the Sun as seen from the Earth. See also gravitational lensing.\n\nBULLET::::- The time delay of light passing close to a massive object was first identified by Irwin Shapiro in 1964 in interplanetary spacecraft signals.\n", "Nowadays, using oscilloscopes with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror. This method is less precise (with errors of the order of 1%) than other modern techniques, but it is sometimes used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Electromagnetic constants.\n", "LHS 1723\n\nSection::::History of observations.\n\nThe discovery name of this star is LP 656-38, which indicates that its discovery was published between 1963 and 1981 in University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. \"LP\" means \"Luyten, Palomar\".\n\nLHS 1723 is known at least from 1979, when catalogues of high proper motion objects LHS and NLTT were published by Willem Jacob Luyten, and this object was included to these catalogues.\n\nSection::::History of observations.:Distance measurement.\n", "BULLET::::- Direct measurements of possible difference in the one-way speed of light between the east-west and west-east directions on the rotating Earth, by flying atomic clocks between Christchurch, New Zealand, and Thule, Greenland\n", "In the 1920s, a series of Michelson–Morley type experiments were conducted, confirming relativity to even higher precision than the original experiment. Another type of interferometer experiment was the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment in 1932, by which the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the apparatus was confirmed. Also time dilation was directly measured in the Ives–Stilwell experiment in 1938 and by measuring the decay rates of moving particles in 1940. All of those experiments have been repeated several times with increased precision. In addition, that the speed of light is unreachable for massive bodies was measured in many tests of relativistic energy and momentum. Therefore, knowledge of those relativistic effects is required in the construction of particle accelerators.\n", "Another method is to use the aberration of light, discovered and explained by James Bradley in the 18th century. This effect results from the vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source (such as a star) and the velocity of its observer (see diagram on the right). A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position. Since the direction of the Earth's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun, this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around. From the angular difference in the position of stars (maximally 20.5 arcseconds) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth's velocity around the Sun, which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth. In 1729, Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.\n", "In the mid-nineteenth century, one of the scientific challenges of the moment was to determine with the greatest accuracy possible the distance between the Earth and the Sun, the so-called Astronomical Unit, which indicates the size of our Solar System. At that time, the only way to know it was through the astronomical phenomenon of Venus transit: the passage of Venus ahead of the Sun, which required two simultaneous observations being made at a time from different land latitudes and measure the total duration of the event. With this data and applying the laws of Kepler, which describe the behavior of planetary orbits, the distance with the rest of the planets of the Solar System could be obtained.\n", "In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault independently established that light travels more slowly in water than in air, thus validating a prediction of Fresnel's wave theory of light and invalidating the corresponding prediction of Newton's corpuscular theory. The speed of light was measured in still water. What would be the speed of light in flowing water?\n", "Léon Foucault carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298,000,000 m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mount Wilson to Mount San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299,796,000 m/s.\n", "In his 1704 book \"Opticks\", Isaac Newton reported Rømer's calculations of the finite speed of light and gave a value of \"seven or eight minutes\" for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth (the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds). Newton queried whether Rømer's eclipse shadows were coloured; hearing that they were not, he concluded the different colours travelled at the same speed. In 1729, James Bradley discovered stellar aberration. From this effect he determined that light must travel 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.\n", "Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313,000,000 m/s.\n", "A better method for observing Venus transits was devised by James Gregory and published in his \"Optica Promata\" (1663). It was strongly advocated by Edmond Halley and was applied to the transits of Venus observed in 1761 and 1769, and then again in 1874 and 1882. Transits of Venus occur in pairs, but less than one pair every century, and observing the transits in 1761 and 1769 was an unprecedented international scientific operation including observations by James Cook and Charles Green from Tahiti. Despite the Seven Years' War, dozens of astronomers were dispatched to observing points around the world at great expense and personal danger: several of them died in the endeavour. The various results were collated by Jérôme Lalande to give a figure for the solar parallax of 8.6″.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Luminiferous aether\".\n", "In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second. The modern value is 8 minutes and 19 seconds, and a speed of 299,792.458 km/s.\n" ]

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[ "Prior to the invention of the modern nail clipper, people would use small knives to trim or pare their nails. Descriptions of nail trimming in literature date as far back as the 8th century BC. The Book of Deuteronomy exhorts in 21:12 that a man, should he wish to take a captive as a wife, \"shall bring her home to [his] house, and she shall shave her head and trim her nails\". A reference is made in Horace's \"Epistles\", written circa 20 BC, to \"A close-shaven man, it's said, in an empty barber's booth, penknife in hand, quietly cleaning his nails.\"\n", "Cutting plants as part of gardening dates to antiquity in both Europe and East Asian topiary, with specialized scissors used for Chinese penjing and its offshoots – Japanese bonsai and Vietnamese Hòn Non-Bộ – for over a thousand years.\n\nIn modern Europe, scissors only used for gardening work have existed since 1819, when the French aristocrat Antoine-François Bertrand de Molleville was listed in \"Bon Jardinier\", as the inventor of secateurs. During the late 1890s, secateurs were sold all over Europe and the US. Today secateurs are widely used by gardeners, vintners and fruit farmers.\n", "During the 18th century, weighted pincushions became popular among seamstresses. In England, seam clamps attached to a table and designed for holding hems for sewing became common, and were often in the shape of a bird (the tail would be pinched to open and close the \"beak\" to hold the fabric); attached to the back of the bird was a velvet pin cushion.\n", "Rolf Boldrewood's \"Robbery Under Arms\"(1881) is an exception:\n", "The slitting mill, introduced to England in 1590, simplified the production of nail rods, but the real first efforts to mechanise the nail-making process itself occurred between 1790 and 1820, initially in the United States and England, when various machines were invented to automate and speed up the process of making nails from bars of wrought iron. Also in Sweden in the early 1700s Christopher Polhem produced a nail cutting machine as part of his automated factory. These nails were known as \"cut nails\" or \"square nails\" because of their roughly rectangular cross section. Cut nails were one of the important factors in the increase in balloon framing beginning in the 1830s and thus the decline of timber framing with wooden joints. Though still used for historical renovations, and for heavy-duty applications, such as attaching boards to masonry walls, \"cut nails\" are much less common today than \"wire nails\".\n", "Section::::History.:Carpenters in Europe.\n\nBy the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe. The founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and cut nails. These technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing.\n", "The nail can be smoothed and shaped accurately by taking light, even strokes in one direction across the top of the nail. Twenty to thirty easy strokes can typically shorten excessively long fingernails, while five to ten strokes are sufficient for shaping the nails.\n\nGuitar players have also been known to use emery boards to smooth out calluses which may snag the strings of their guitars.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Emery board.:Emery pitches.\n", "Although a variety of styli were developed in ancient times and were still being used in the 18th century, quills were generally used as the main drawing tool. Styli were also used in the form of ivory or ebony pencils.\n\nProtractors have been used to measure and draw angles and arcs of a circle accurately since about the 13th century, although mathematics and science demanded more detailed drawing instruments. The adjustable corner ruler was developed in the 17th century, but a feasible screw-tightened version not until the 1920s.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Before boring machines were invented, carpenters used hand-powered augers to bore holes. Most common were T-handled augers. The shape of the drill bits changed over time, with the spoon bit and shell bit being common before the invention of the spiral or twist bit in 1771 which removes the cuttings as it turns. The exact origin of this invention is not known, but the earliest patent is in the United States in 1830 by J. Beckwith and was as tall as a man and operated by a large wheel from the side.\n", "Although the modern nail file only appeared at the end of the 19th century, evidence of nail file-like tools exist even further back in history. Marie Antoinette was known for her obsession with the \"lime à ongles\", which was a nail file-like tool made of pumice stone. When her perfectly shaped nails were seen, it became the latest female trend in the French Court of Versailles. The pumice stone was carved into a pencil like shape, which was used to trim and shape the edges of the nail. This tool would not be disposed after use, but would be hand washed by the maids and placed by the bathtub to be used again.\n", "The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) was known for extremely long nails. Sometimes these nails were protected by gold and jewel-encrusted nail guards. Servants performed personal chores for the royals so their nails did not break or become damaged. Empress Dowager Cixi of China, who ruled from 1835 to 1908, was known for her outrageous nails. There are many photos showing the empress with 6-inch-long gold guards protecting her long nails. All of the aforementioned did not use nail art as it is widely known today, only stained, dyed, or dusted the finger and toenails. First actual record of nail art was from the short-lived Inca Empire (1438-1533), which at that time was one of the largest empires in South America. Incas would decorate their nails by painting eagles on them. In 1770 the first fancy gold and silver manicure sets were created. French King Louis XVI who ruled from 1774 until his deposition in 1792, always had his nails taken care of using these sets.\n", "People have been pedicuring their nails for more than 4,000 years. In southern Babylonia, noblemen used solid gold tools to give themselves manicures and pedicures. The use of fingernail polish can be traced back even further. Originating in China in 3000 BC, nail color indicated one’s social status, according to a Ming Dynasty manuscript; royal fingernails were painted black and red. Ancient Egyptians have been manicuring all the way back to 2300 BC.\n", "In the 18th century, a custom developed that travelling smiths and apprentices would hammer a nail into the tree trunk; in particular, from 1715 on, travelling journeyman locksmiths. The reason for doing so before then is unknown; however, it is unlikely to have been a craft guild custom in the beginning, because the Stock im Eisen is significantly older. \"Nail trees\" are well known in Southeastern Europe and are found in many cities in Hungary, Romania (in Transylvania) and other countries of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire; the Vienna Stock im Eisen is the oldest preserved nail tree. The custom persisted until the late 19th century, and inspired the \"men of iron\" statues that were used for propaganda and fund-raising in Germany and Austria in World War I, particularly the tree set up in Freiburg.\n", "Germanicus Mirault\n\nGermanicus Mirault was a French surgeon who pioneered cleft lip surgery.\n\nSection::::Early life.\n\nGermanicus Mirault was born in Angers on either 29 February or 1 March 1796 (1796 was a leap year). His father and grandfather were also surgeons, with his father specialising in ophthalmology.\n\nSection::::Education.\n\nMirault first began studying medicine under his father in 1814. Moving to Paris to continue his studies, he presented his thesis in 1823 on keratitis.\n\nSection::::Medical career.\n", "The first United States patent for an improvement in a finger-nail clipper was filed in 1875 by Valentine Fogerty and in the United Kingdom, Hungarian inventor David Gestetner. Other subsequent patents for an improvement in finger-nail clippers are those in 1876 by William C. Edge, and in 1878 by John H. Hollman. Filings for finger-nail clippers include, in 1881, those of Eugene Heim and Celestin Matz, in 1885 by George H. Coates (for a finger-nail \"cutter\"), and in 1905 by Chapel S. Carter with a later patent in 1922. Around 1913, Carter was secretary of the H. C. Cook Company of Ansonia, Connecticut, which was incorporated in 1903 as the H. C. Cook Machine Company by Henry C. Cook, Lewis I. Cook, and Chapel S. Carter. Around 1928, Carter was president of the company when, he claimed, about 1896, the \"Gem\"-brand finger nail clipper made its first appearance.\n", "Philip originally started his professional life working as a lawyer. Over several years he started to work more and more with wood, much as his father had, and eventually left the law field to work as a full-time wood turner. His career was helped by a number of influential people, one of which was a collector by the name of Bud Jacobson.\n", "Elephants show an ability to manufacture and use tools with their trunk and feet. Both wild and captive Asian elephants (\"Elephas maximus\") use branches to swat flies or scratch themselves. Eight of 13 captive Asian elephants, maintained under a naturalistic environment, modified branches and switched with the altered branch, indicating this species is capable of the more rare behaviour of tool manufacture. There were different styles of modification of the branches, the most common of which was holding the main stem with the front foot and pulling off a side branch or distal end with the trunk. Elephants have been observed digging holes to drink water, then ripping bark from a tree, chewing it into the shape of a ball thereby manufacturing a \"plug\" to fill in the hole, and covering it with sand to avoid evaporation. They would later go back to the spot to drink.\n", "Section::::Tools.\n", "Marc Isambard Brunel had independently conceived designs for mortising and boring machines, which he showed to Bentham, who recognized the superiority of Brunel's designs. Henry Maudslay, the mechanic who built the machines, became a prominent machine tool builder. The Portsmouth Block Mills marked the arrival of mass production techniques in British manufacturing.\n\nSection::::Career.:Return to Russia.\n", "At Country Workshops She met Peter Follansbee, and after years of corresponding, would go on to co write a book with him called, Make a joint stool from a tree, an introduction to 17th-century joinery.\n\nJennie spent her later years mentoring many in greenwoodworking techniques and joinery. Jennie passed away July 12, 2018. \n\nSection::::Two-slat post-and-rung shaving chair.\n", "'When they climbed the roof Pietro discovered that half the sheets were loose. Henry gave him the nails and directed him to nail down the flapping sheet. But Pietro was hunting round for causes. He discovered that the rafters were rotting and demonstrated it by giving one a hard hit with the hammer. It split from end to end and a couple of sheets immediately blew off the roof.\n", "A depiction of early manicures and pedicures was found on a carving from a pharaoh’s tomb, and the Egyptians were known for paying special attention to their feet and legs. The Egyptians also colored their nails, using red to show the highest social class. It is said that Cleopatra’s nails were painted a deep red, whereas Queen Nefertiti went with a flashier ruby shade. In ancient Egypt and Rome, military commanders also painted their nails to match their lips before they went off to battle.\n\nSection::::Pedicures in the United States.\n", "Literature shows that cleft hand is described centuries ago. The first reference to what might be considered a cleft hand was by Ambroise Paré in 1575. Hartsink (1770) wrote the first report of true cleft hand. In 1896, the first operation of the cleft hand was performed by Doctor Charles N. Dowed of New York City. However, the first certain description of what we know as a cleft hand as we know it today was described at the end 19th century.\n\nSection::::History.:Symbrachydactyly.\n", "In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at Chester Zoo stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.\n" ]

[ "People needed to trim their nails before clippers were invented." ]

[ "People wouldn't have needed them because their nails would wear down from the work they did. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "People needed to trim their nails before clippers were invented." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "People wouldn't have needed them because their nails would wear down from the work they did. " ]

[ "Research done by National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) in 2008 found that the influenza virus has a \"butter-like coating\". The coating melts when it enters the respiratory tract. In the winter, the coating becomes a hardened shell; therefore, it can survive in the cold weather similar to a spore. In the summer, the coating melts before the virus reaches the respiratory tract.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n\nIn the United States, the flu season is considered October through May. It usually peaks in February. In Australia, the flu season is considered May to October. It usually peaks in August.\n", "These conditions can impair coughing, swallowing, clearing the airways, and in the worst cases, breathing. Therefore, they worsen the flu symptoms.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Seasonal variations.\n\nInfluenza reaches peak prevalence in winter, and because the Northern and Southern Hemispheres have winter at different times of the year, there are actually two different flu seasons each year. This is why the World Health Organization (assisted by the National Influenza Centers) makes recommendations for two different vaccine formulations every year; one for the Northern, and one for the Southern Hemisphere.\n", "A long-standing puzzle has been why outbreaks of the flu occur seasonally rather than uniformly throughout the year. One possible explanation is that, because people are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person. Increased travel due to the Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season may also play a role. Another factor is that cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucus particles. Dry particles are lighter and can thus remain airborne for a longer period. The virus also survives longer on surfaces at colder temperatures and aerosol transmission of the virus is highest in cold environments (less than 5°C) with low relative humidity. The lower air humidity in winter seems to be the main cause of seasonal influenza transmission in temperate regions.\n", "Three virus families, Influenzavirus A, B, and C are the main infective agents that cause influenza. During periods of cooler temperature, influenza cases increase roughly tenfold or more. Despite higher incidence of manifestations of the flu during the season, the viruses are actually transmitted throughout populations all year round.\n\nEach annual flu season is normally associated with a major influenzavirus subtype. The associated subtype changes each year, due to development of immunological resistance to a previous year's strain (through exposure and vaccinations), and mutational changes in previously dormant viruses strains.\n", "BULLET::::- Viruses are preserved in colder temperatures due to slower decomposition, so they linger longer on exposed surfaces (doorknobs, countertops, \"etc.\").\n\nBULLET::::- In nations where children do not go to school in the summer, there is a more pronounced beginning to flu season, coinciding with the start of public school. It is thought that the day care environment is perfect for the spread of illness.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin D production from Ultraviolet-B in the skin changes with the seasons and affects the immune system.\n", "The exact mechanism behind the seasonal nature of influenza outbreaks is unknown. Some proposed explanations are:\n\nBULLET::::- People are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person.\n\nBULLET::::- A seasonal decline in the amount of ultraviolet radiation may reduce the likelihood of the virus being damaged or killed by direct radiation damage or indirect effects (i. e. ozone concentration) increasing the probability of infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucous membranes, preventing the body from effectively defending against respiratory virus infections.\n", "However, seasonal changes in infection rates also occur in tropical regions, and in some countries these peaks of infection are seen mainly during the rainy season. Seasonal changes in contact rates from school terms, which are a major factor in other childhood diseases such as measles and pertussis, may also play a role in the flu. A combination of these small seasonal effects may be amplified by dynamical resonance with the endogenous disease cycles. H5N1 exhibits seasonality in both humans and birds.\n", "Flu seasons also exist in the tropics and subtropics, but are usually less sharply defined. In Hong Kong, which has a humid subtropical climate, the flu season runs from December to March, in the winter and early spring.\n\nSection::::Flu vaccinations.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Ratings.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Reviews.\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "For example, whooping-cough occurs in spring, whereas measles produces two epidemics, one in winter and one in March. Influenza, the common cold, and other infections of the upper respiratory tract, such as sore throat, occur predominantly in the winter.\n\nThere is another variation, both as regards the number of people affected and the number who die in successive epidemics: the severity of successive epidemics rises and falls over periods of five or ten years.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Common source outbreak.\n", "Flu vaccinations have been used to diminish the effects of the flu season; pneumonia vaccinations additionally diminishes the effects and complications of flu season. Since the Northern and Southern Hemisphere have winter at different times of the year, there are actually two flu seasons each year. Therefore, the World Health Organization (assisted by the National Influenza Centers) makes two vaccine formulations every year; one for the Northern, and one for the Southern Hemisphere.\n", "Influenza, or flu, is a viral infection that affects mainly the throat, nose, bronchi and occasionally lungs. It is considered one of the most common human infectious diseases. Seasonal influenza epidemics are a major public health concern, causing tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths worldwide each year. Early detection of disease activity, when followed by a rapid response, can reduce the impact of both seasonal and pandemic influenza.\n", "One factor that may indicate increased severity this season is that the predominant circulating type of influenza virus is Influenza A (H3N2) viruses, which account for about 76 percent of the viruses reported. Typically, H3N2 seasons have been more severe, with higher numbers of hospitalizations and deaths.\n\nSection::::Flu spread, by season.:2014–2015 flu season.\n\nThe vaccines produced for the Northern Hemisphere 2014–2015 season used:\n\nBULLET::::- A/California/7/2009 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- A/Texas/50/2012 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- B/Massachusetts/2/2012-like virus,\n\nQuadrivalent vaccines include a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus.\n", "An alternative hypothesis to explain seasonality in influenza infections is an effect of vitamin D levels on immunity to the virus. This idea was first proposed by Robert Edgar Hope-Simpson in 1965. He proposed that the cause of influenza epidemics during winter may be connected to seasonal fluctuations of vitamin D, which is produced in the skin under the influence of solar (or artificial) UV radiation. This could explain why influenza occurs mostly in winter and during the tropical rainy season, when people stay indoors, away from the sun, and their vitamin D levels fall.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Epidemic and pandemic spread.\n", "Flu season\n\nFlu season is an annually recurring time period characterized by the prevalence of outbreaks of influenza (flu). The season occurs during the cold half of the year in each hemisphere. Influenza activity can sometimes be predicted and even tracked geographically. While the beginning of major flu activity in each season varies by location, in any specific location these minor epidemics usually take about 3 weeks to peak, and another 3 weeks to significantly diminish.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Rhinoviruses are spread worldwide and are the primary cause of the common cold. Symptoms include sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and cough; sometimes accompanied by muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headache, muscle weakness, or loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. Children may have six to twelve colds a year. In the United States, the incidence of colds is higher in the autumn and winter, with most infections occurring between September to April. The seasonality may be due to the start of the school year and to people spending more time indoors (thus in proximity with each other), thereby increasing the chance of transmission of the virus. Lower ambient, especially outdoor, temperatures may also be factor given that rhinoviruses preferentially replicate at 32 °C (89 °F) as opposed to 37 °C (98 °F) – see following section. Variant pollens, grasses, hays and agricultural practices may be factors in the seasonality as well as the use of chemical controls of lawn, paddock and sportsfields in schools and communities. The changes in temperature, humidity and wind patterns seem to be factors. It is also postulated that poor housing, overcrowding and unsanitary conditions related to poverty are relevant factors in the transmission of 'common cold'.\n", "It is recommended that asthmatics and COPD patients be vaccinated against flu before the flu season. People with asthma can develop life-threatening complications from influenza and the common cold viruses. Some of these complications include pneumonias, acute bronchitis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.\n", "The American Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agrees that the \"spread of novel H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza.\" The CDC also says that a person may become infected if he or she touches something with flu viruses on it \"and then touches his or her eyes, nose, or mouth.\"\n\nSection::::Preventive Measures of Influenza.\n", "It is believed that the route of HCoV-NL63 spread is through direct person-to-person transmission in highly populated areas. The virus can survive for up to a week in outside of the body in aqueous solutions at room temperature and three hours on dry surfaces. Most people will be infected with a coronavirus in their lifetime, but some populations are more susceptible to HCoV-NL63. These population include children under the age of 5, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The virus seems to have seasonal incidence, occurring most frequently in the winter months in temperate climates. In more extreme and tropical climates the virus has no preference toward a particular season. Many studies have reported the co-occurrence of HCoV-NL63 with other human coronavirus, \"Influenza A virus\", \"Human orthopneumovirus\" (RSV), parainfluenza virus, and \"Human metapneumovirus\" (hMPV).\n", "Research in guinea pigs has shown that the aerosol transmission of the virus is enhanced when the air is cold and dry. The dependence on aridity appears to be due to degradation of the virus particles in moist air, while the dependence on cold appears to be due to infected hosts shedding the virus for a longer period of time. The researchers did not find that the cold impaired the immune response of the guinea pigs to the virus.\n", "Individuals who acquire the human immune deficiency virus (HIV) are very prone to a variety of infections. HIV has a tremendous capacity to destroy the body's immune system and this makes one prone to not only viral infections but also bacterial, fungal, and protozoa disorders. People with HIV are at an increased risk of serious flu-related complications. Many reports have shown that individuals with HIV can develop serious pneumonias which need hospitalization and aggressive antibiotic therapy. Moreover, people with HIV have a longer flu season and are at a high risk of death. Vaccination with the flu shot has been shown to boost the immune system and protect against the seasonal flu in some patients with HIV; individuals who have HIV should only get vaccinated with the inactivated influenza vaccine. Any HIV patient who has been exposed to other people with influenza should see a physician to determine if there is a need for anti viral medications.\n", "The traditional theory is that a cold can be \"caught\" by prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions, which is how the disease got its name. Some of the viruses that cause the common colds are seasonal, occurring more frequently during cold or wet weather. The reason for the seasonality has not been conclusively determined. Possible explanations may include cold temperature-induced changes in the respiratory system, decreased immune response, and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates, perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer.\n", "The timing of incidents indicates a seasonal pattern of outbreaks. Initially this was thought to possibly related to the breeding cycle of the little red flying foxes. These species typically give birth between April and May. Subsequently however, the Spectacled flying fox and the Black flying fox have been identified as the species more likely to be involved in infection spillovers.\n\nTiming of outbreaks also appears more likely during the cooler months when it is possible the temperature and humidity are more favourable to the longer term survival of the virus in the environment.\n" ]

[ "Flu does not attack in spring and summer." ]

[ "Flu is around all year, the attacks are just worse in fall and winter." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Flu does not attack in spring and summer." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Flu is around all year, the attacks are just worse in fall and winter." ]

[ "Today, wooden spoons in western cultures are generally medium to large spoons used for mixing ingredients for cooking or baking. They may be flat or have a small dip in the middle.\n\nBefore electric mixers became common, wooden spoons were often used to cream together butter and sugar in recipes such as shortbread or Victoria sponge cake.\n", "Section::::Ancient Greece.\n\nIn his \"Pneumatics\", (chapter 31) Philo of Byzantium, a Greek engineer and writer on mechanics, describes an escapement mechanism, the earliest known, as part of a washstand. A counterweighted spoon, supplied by a water tank, tips over in a basin when full releasing a pumice in the process. Once the spoon has emptied, it is pulled up again by the counterweight, closing the door on the pumice by the tightening string. Remarkably, Philon's comment that \"its construction is similar to that of clocks\" indicates that such escapement mechanisms were already integrated in ancient water clocks.\n\nSection::::Eighteenth century.\n", "Wooden spoon\n\nA wooden spoon is a utensil commonly used in food preparation.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe word \"spoon\" derives from an ancient word meaning a chip of wood or horn carved from a larger piece. Wooden spoons were easy to carve and thus inexpensive, making them common throughout history.\n", "A spoon is similarly useful in processing jelly, sugar and syrup. A test sample of jelly taken from a boiling mass may be allowed to slip from a spoon in a sheet, in a step called \"sheeting\". At the \"crack\" stage, syrup from boiling sugar may be dripped from a spoon, causing it to break with a snap when chilled. When boiled to 240 °F. and poured from a spoon, sugar forms a filament, or \"thread\". Hot syrup is said to \"pearl\" when it forms such a long thread without breaking when dropped from a spoon.\n", "In his \"Pneumatics\" (chapter 31) Philo describes an escapement mechanism, the earliest known, as part of a washstand. A counterweighted spoon, supplied by a water tank, tips over in a basin when full releasing a pumice in the process. Once the spoon has emptied, it is pulled up again by the counterweight, closing the door on the pumice by the tightening string. Remarkably, Philo's comment that \"its construction is similar to that of clocks\" indicates that such escapements mechanism were already integrated in ancient water clocks.\n\nSection::::Life and works.:Mathematics.\n", "The Iron Age Celts (C. 250BC) of Britain used them. This is evidenced by an example of a small ladle discovered during archaeological excavations at the Glastonbury Lake Village. Roman period spoons have been recovered from excavations in the City of London. The Anglo Saxons were great workers of wood, as were the Vikings, and both these groups of settlers to the British Isles produced wooden spoons for domestic uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Practicality.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Practicality.:Cooking.\n", "The earliest liquid-driven escapement was described by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC) in his technical treatise \"Pneumatics\" (chapter 31) as part of a washstand. A counterweighted spoon, supplied by a water tank, tips over in a basin when full, releasing a spherical piece of pumice in the process. Once the spoon has emptied, it is pulled up again by the counterweight, closing the door on the pumice by the tightening string. Remarkably, Philo's comment that \"its construction is similar to that of clocks\" indicates that such escapement mechanisms were already integrated in ancient water clocks.\n", "They are still used for stirring many different kinds of food and beverages, especially soups and casseroles during preparation, although they tend to absorb strong smells such as onion and garlic. Wooden spoons are generally preferred for cooking because of their versatility. Some cooks prefer to use wooden spoons when preparing risotto because they do not transfer heat as much as metal spoons. Unlike metal spoons, they can also be safely used without scratching non-stick pans. This is useful when making dishes such as scrambled eggs.\n", "The spoons themselves, actually made of wood, grew larger, and in latter years measured up to five feet long. By tradition, they were dangled in a teasing way from the upstairs balcony in the Senate House, in front of the recipient as he came before the Vice-Chancellor to receive his degree, at least until 1875 when the practice was specifically banned by the University.\n", "In Botswana the wooden spoon is used as a token to share duties, responsibilities and knowledge, the holder contributes to the work a hand, in whatever small way, like a group contributing to a dish by adding ingredients, mixed by with the spoon.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Symbolism.:Sporting culture.\n\nIn some regions, particularly British-influenced ones of the Commonwealth and the United States, the \"wooden spoon\" is a booby prize for the team or individual finishing a competition in last position.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Symbolism.:Corporal punishment.\n", "Wooden spoons can be treated to protect from cold liquid absorption with coconut or mineral oil. Edible drying oils such as hempseed oil, walnut oil, and flax oil are used to create a more durable finish. For best results, drying oils should be given adequate time to polymerize after application before the spoon is used. Other vegetable oils should be avoided because they will undergo rancidification and leech into food during use. If the wood grain rises up after boiling or washing, a light sanding and application of coconut oil will prevent the spoon from becoming fuzzy and harboring bacteria.\n", "Carder has a display of some of his spoons in the Fuller Craft Museum in Brockton, Massachusetts and his spoons have also sold in the Conran shop in Tokyo. In 2016 Carder and Robin Wood joined Stevie Parle during London Craft Week to explore wood-fired cooking and how dining from wooden utensils can affect the experience of eating. Carder has been described by the press as \"legendary\" and it has been said that \"No one in Britain knows more about crafting a spoon from green wood than Barn the Spoon\".\n", "Section::::Uses.:Symbolism.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Symbolism.:Folk art.\n\nWooden spoons have been made in virtually every nation on earth and (compared to silver or pewter or gold spoons) represent the ordinary artisan and reflect the life of ordinary folk: this is their \"folk art\".\n", "Spoons are also widely used in cooking and serving. In baking, batter is usually thin enough to pour or drop from a spoon; a mixture of such consistency is sometimes called \"drop batter”. Rolled dough dropped from a spoon to a cookie sheet can be made into rock cakes and other cookies, while johnnycake may be prepared by dropping spoonfuls of cornmeal onto a hot greased griddle.\n", "BULLET::::3. Castanets style, two in each hand one spoon held concave-side against the palm held down by the thumb, one between ring and middle fingers with finger tips in the concave side balancing the handle. They can be hit to each other at the convex sides by gripping with the middle and ring fingers.\n", "In Canada, the spoons accompany fiddle playing in Québecois and Acadian music. Also, Newfoundland and the Atlantic Provinces popularly play the spoons at family gatherings. Playing the spoons is rarely seen in Western Canada.\n\nSection::::Greek folk music.\n\nThe spoons in Greece, as a percussion instrument are known as \"koutalakia\" (), which means also, spoon. The dancers hold the wooden koutalakia, to accompany with a variety of knocks their dance rhythms. The most of them, are very beautifully sculpted or painted.\n\nSection::::Russian folk music.\n", "BULLET::::- Mote spoon — perforated, used to sieve loose tea from a cup; handle finial has a spike to unclog the teapot spout\n\nBULLET::::- Mustard spoon — for serving mustard; usually small, with a deep bowl elongated to form a scoop and set at right angles to the handle\n", "Spoons are used primarily for eating liquid or semi-liquid foods, such as soup, stew or ice cream, and very small or powdery solid items which cannot be easily lifted with a fork, such as rice, sugar, cereals and green peas. In Southeast Asia, spoons are the primary utensil used for eating; forks are used to push foods such as rice onto the spoon as well as their western usage for piercing the food.\n", "For storage, spoons and knives were sometimes placed in paired \"knife boxes\", which were often ornate wooden containers with sloping top, used especially during the 18th century. On the table, an ornamental utensil called a \"nef\", shaped like a ship, might hold a napkin, knife and spoon.\n\nSection::::Language and culture.\n\nSpoons can also be used as a musical instrument.\n", "As percussion, spoons accompany fiddle playing and other folk sets. An example is seen in \"Midsomer Murders\" Series 6, episode 2, where Detective Sergeant Gavin Troy plays the spoons at a house party joining a fiddle player who is entertaining the guests. He uses the first technique. The guests also contribute percussion by hand clapping in time with the music.\n\nThe song \"This Old Man\" refers to a related concept, except with sheep bones (hence paddywhack) instead of spoons.\n\nSection::::Canadian folk music.\n", "The last wooden spoon was awarded to Cuthbert Lempriere Holthouse, an oarsman of the Lady Margaret Boat Club of St John's College, Cambridge, in 1909 at the graduation ceremony in the University's Senate House. The handle is shaped like an oar and inscribed with an epigram in Greek which may be translated as follows:\n\nIn Honours Mathematical,\n\nThis is the very last of all\n\nThe Wooden Spoons which you see here;\n\nO you who see it, shed a tear.\n\nAlternatively:\n\nThis wooden object is the last souvenir of the competitive examinations in mathematics. Look upon it, and weep.\n", "BULLET::::- Olive spoon — used to remove olives from their liquid, while allowing the liquid to drain easily from the spoon; typically made from stainless steel; has slots or a hole cut from the bottom of a bowl-shaped head to release the liquid from the spoon; also used to lift cherries, cocktail onions, pickled garlic and similar condiments from the liquids used to store the foods\n", "The spoon was gradually undermined as the most common eating utensil starting in the Han, roughly the 1st century A.D., when wheat began to be more widely grown. Milling technology became sophisticated enough to produce flour for noodles and dumplings. Since these were more easily lifted with chopsticks, the spoon lost its prominence by about the Song dynasty, or 10th century. Early-ripening rice, which was introduced from Vietnam at this time, was even easier to eat with chopsticks, since it cooked into clumps.\n", "Used for stirring, a spoon is passed through a substance with a continued circular movement for the purpose of mixing, blending, dissolving, cooling, or preventing sticking of the ingredients. Mixed drinks may be \"muddled\" by working a spoon to crush and mix ingredients such as mint and sugar on the bottom of a glass or mixer. Spoons are employed for mixing certain kinds of powder into water to make a sweet or nutritious drink.\n\nA spoon may also be employed to toss ingredients by mixing them lightly until they are well coated with a dressing.\n", "In ancient China the spoon was more common than chopsticks, which were used in cooking. The spoon was more useful for eating because the most common food grain in North China was millet, which was made into a congee, or gruel. The spoon was better fitted for eating its soupy texture in an elegant way.\n" ]

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[ "A wooden spoon always keeps a pot of boiling water from spilling over." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The ability of a wooden spoon preventing a pot of boiling water from spilling over is dependant upon the size of the spoon, the size of the pot, and the vigor of the boil." ]

[ "People after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are at a higher risk for oral squamous cell carcinoma. Post-HSCT oral cancer may have more aggressive behavior with poorer prognosis, when compared to oral cancer in people not treated with HSCT. This effect is supposed to be owing to the continuous lifelong immune suppression and chronic oral graft-versus-host disease.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Premalignant lesions.\n", "Cauterizing can be done with a cautery unit or an argon laser. Both burn the tongue in half which closes off blood vessels, preventing much bleeding. If an established tongue piercing is not used as the back end of the split with this method, the tongue has a higher tendency to heal and the procedure must be done again to achieve the depth desired.\n", "The oral mucosa tends to heal faster and with less scar formation compared to the skin. The underlying mechanism remains unknown but research suggest that extracellular vesicles might be involved. \n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nOral mucosa can be divided into three main categories based on function and histology:\n\nBULLET::::- Masticatory mucosa, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, found on the dorsum of the tongue, hard palate and attached gingiva.\n\nBULLET::::- Lining mucosa, nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, found almost everywhere else in the oral cavity, including the:\n", "Monoclonal antibody therapy (with agents such as cetuximab) have been shown to be effective in the treatment of squamous cell head and neck cancers, and are likely to have an increasing role in the future management of this condition when used in conjunction with other established treatment modalities, although it is not a replacement for chemotherapy in head and neck cancers. Likewise, molecularly targeted therapies and immunotherapies maybe be effective for the treatment of oral and oropharyngeal cancers. Adding epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody (EGFR mAb) to standard treatment may increase survival, keeping the cancer limited to that area of the body and may decrease reappearance of the cancer.\n", "Oral cancer (squamous cell carcinoma) is usually treated with surgery alone, or in combination with adjunctive therapy, including radiation, with or without chemotherapy. With small lesions (T1), surgery or radiation have similar control rates, so the decision about which to use is based on functional outcome, and complication rates.\n\nSection::::Management.:Surgery.\n", "The mechanism by which heparan sulfate was downregulated in these lesions remained unknown for some time. One theory states that high glucose in circulation could lead to a decrease in GAG chain attachment to perlecan, but not necessarily a change in the synthetic pathway of the GAG chains or that of the core protein. After treatment of human aortic endothelial cells with high glucose medium, secreted perlecan contained less sulfate incorporation accompanied by less overall GAG chain incorporation. Although no signaling pathway is identified leading to this decrease in GAG chain incorporation, it is suggested that the 30% loss in overall glycosylation of the protein could mean loss of one of the three HS chains on perlecan in this model of diabetes-associated hyperglycemia. It is also noted that similar decreases in extracellular HS without a change in staining for the core protein chains occur in diabetic kidneys and in kidney cells in culture treated with high glucose.\n", "Lesions removed by electrosurgery require an average of 30 to 33 days to heal, whereas lesions removed by surgical curettage require around 21 to 23 healing days. During healing interval, the existing denture can be lined with a temporary tissue conditioner that acts as a palatal dressing and provides greater comfort. Surgical removal of the lesion and the making of new dentures are effective in eradication of the lesion.\n", "The evolution of laryngeal papillomatosis is highly unpredictable and is characterized by modulation of its severity and variable rate of progression across individuals. While instances of total recovery are observed, the condition is often persistent and lesions can reappear even after treatment. Factors that might affect the clinical course of the condition include: the HPV genotype, the age at onset, the elapsed time between the diagnosis and first treatment in addition to previous medical procedures. Other factors, albeit controversial, such as smoking or the presence of gastroesophageal reflux disease might also play a role in the progression of the disease.\n", "The presence of acid reflux disease (gastroesophageal reflux disease [GERD]) or larynx reflux disease can also be a major factor. Stomach acids that flow up through the esophagus can damage its lining and raise susceptibility to throat cancer.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.\n\nPatients after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are at a higher risk for oral squamous cell carcinoma. Post-HSCT oral cancer may have more aggressive behavior with poorer prognosis, when compared to oral cancer in non-HSCT patients. This effect is supposed to be owing to the continuous lifelong immune suppression and chronic oral graft-versus-host disease.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Other possible causes.\n", "HPV+OPC patients are less likely to develop other cancers, compared to other head and neck cancer patients. A possible explanation for the favourable impact of HPV+ is \"the lower probability of occurrence of 11q13 gene amplification, which is considered to be a factor underlying faster and more frequent recurrence of the disease\" Presence of TP53 mutations, a marker for HPV- OPC, is associated with worse prognosis. High grade of p16 staining is thought to be better than HPV PCR analysis in predicting radiotherapy response.\n", "De Cordi et al. studied thirty patients with lesions of the mouth and oropharynx (caused by various diseases). 83% of patients reported a reduction in pain, 13% remained the same and 3% showed initial improvement but then got worse. 83% showed a distinct improvement in functionality in the ability to take food, 7% remained the same, and 7% got worse, while 3% reported considerable improvement followed by slight worsening. 57% of patients reported an improvement in the grade of oral mucositis, 40% remained the same while 3% got worse.\n", "In a preliminary clinical trial of semapimod in patients with moderate to severe Crohn's disease, positive clinical changes were observed, including endoscopic improvement, positive responses in some patients not responding to infliximab, healing of fistulae, and indications for tapering of steroids; no significant adverse effects were observed.\n\nIn a small clinical trial against post-ERCP pancreatitis, significant suppression was not observed, although investigators observed a significant reduction of the incidence of hyperamylasemia and the levels of post-ERCP amylase.\n", "When using the scalpel method, the tongue is cut down the middle with a scalpel and each half is stitched or sutured along the cut edge. This helps prevent the sides from healing back to each other and also achieves a more rounded and natural look. In some cases the scalpel is heated to provide a cauterizing effect, limiting bleeding.\n", "The tonsillar epithelia (palatine and lingual) share similar nonkeratinization characteristics with the cervix, where HPV infection plays the major role in cases of cervical cancer. Also E6 and E7 may make HPV+OPC more immunogenic than HPV-OPC, since anti-E6 and E7 antibodies may be detected in these patients. This in turn could restrict the malignant behaviour of HPV+OPC and the presence of antibodies has been associated with a better prognosis, while treatment may enhance the immunogenicity of the tumour, and hence improve response, although to what extent is not clear. Outcomes are also associated with improved adaptive immunity.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Oral mucosa heals faster than skin, suggesting that saliva may have properties that aid wound healing. Saliva contains cell-derived tissue factor, and many compounds that are antibacterial or promote healing. Salivary tissue factor, associated with microvesicles shed from cells in the mouth, promotes wound healing through the extrinsic blood coagulation cascade. The enzymes lysozyme and peroxidase, defensins, cystatins and an antibody, IgA, are all antibacterial. Thrombospondin and some other components are antiviral. A protease inhibitor, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, is present in saliva and is both antibacterial and antiviral, and a promoter of wound healing. Nitrates that are naturally found in saliva break down into nitric oxide on contact with skin, which will inhibit bacterial growth. Saliva contains growth factors such as epidermal growth factor, VEGF, TGF-β1, leptin, IGF-I, lysophosphatidic acid, hyaluronan and NGF, which all promote healing, although levels of EGF and NGF in humans are much lower than those in rats. In humans, histatins may play a larger role. As well as being growth factors, IGF-I and TGF-α induce antimicrobial peptides. Saliva also contains an analgesic, opiorphin. Licking will also tend to debride the wound and remove gross contamination from the affected area.\n", "Where the condition involves the tongue, there is an erythematous enlargement with furrows, crenation and loss of the normal dorsal tongue coating.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nPlasma cell gingivits and plasma cell cheilitis are thought to be hypersensitivity reactions to some antigen. Possible sources of antigens include ingredients in toothpastes, chewing gum, mints, pepper, or foods. Specifically, cinnamonaldehyde and cinnamon flavoring are often to blame. However, the exact cause in most is unknown.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- () Excision or destruction of lesion or tissue of tongue\n\nBULLET::::- () Partial glossectomy\n\nBULLET::::- () Complete glossectomy\n\nBULLET::::- () Radical glossectomy\n\nBULLET::::- () Repair of tongue and glossoplasty\n\nBULLET::::- () Other operations on tongue\n\nBULLET::::- () Lingual frenotomy\n\nBULLET::::- () Lingual frenectomy\n\nBULLET::::- () Lysis of adhesions of tongue\n\nBULLET::::- () Other glossotomy\n\nBULLET::::- () Other\n\nBULLET::::- () Operations on salivary glands and ducts\n\nBULLET::::- () Other operations on mouth and face\n\nBULLET::::- () Drainage of face and floor of mouth\n\nBULLET::::- () Incision of palate\n\nBULLET::::- () Diagnostic procedures on oral cavity\n", "HPV oral infection precedes the development of HPV+OPC. Slight injuries in the mucous membrane serve as an entry gate for HPV, which thus works into the basal layer of the epithelium. People testing positive for HPV type 16 virus (HPV16) oral infection have a 14 times increased risk of developing HPV+OPC. Immunosuppression seems to be an increased risk factor for HPV+OPC. Individuals with TGF-β1 genetic variations, specially T869C, are more likely to have HPV16+OPC. TGF-β1 plays an important role in controlling the immune system. In 1993 it was noted that patients with human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated anogenital cancers had a 4-fold increased risk of tonsillar squamous-cell carcinoma. Although evidence suggests that HPV16 is the main cause of OPC in humans not exposed to smoking and alcohol, the degree to which tobacco and/or alcohol use may contribute to increase the risk of HPV+OPC has not always been clear but it appears that both smoking and HPV infection are independent and additive risk factors for developing OPC. The connection between HPV-infection and oropharyngeal cancer is stronger in regions of lymphoepithelial tissue (base of tongue and palatine tonsils) than in regions of stratified squamous epithelium (soft palate and uvula). Human herpesvirus-8 infection can potentiate the effects of HPV-16.\n", "There are a number of active biologic mediators that have been implicated in promoting apical resorption. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are endogenous zinc-dependent catabolic enzymes, are primarily responsible for the degradation of much of the tissue matrices built on such architecturally important substances as collagen and proteoglycan core proteins. Their biologic activities have been extensively researched and reviewed, and their importance in the pathogenesis of apical periodontitis is obvious. Furthermore, concentrations of IgG antibodies have been found to be nearly five times higher in lesions of apical periodontitis than in uninflamed oral mucosa.\n", "Early stage disease is associated with a relatively favourable outcome, for which single modality therapy is recommended, the choice depending on tumour location and accessibility. For instance unilateral tonsil or tongue base tumours will generally be treated with transoral resection and selective ipsilateral neck dissection. On the other hand, a large midline tongue lesion would require bilateral neck dissection, but in the absence of what are considered adverse pathology (positive margins, extracapsular extension) will likely be treated by surgery alone or radiation including ipsilateral or bilateral neck radiation fields, with surgery for those instances where the likelihood of adjuvant therapy is low.\n", "Section::::Management.:Surgery.:Management of the neck.\n\nSpread of cancer from the oral cavity to the lymph nodes of the neck has a significant effect on survival. Between 60-70% of people with early stage oral cancer will have no lymph node involvement of the neck clinically, but 20-30% of those people (or up to 20% of all those affected) will have clinically undetectable spread of cancer to the lymph nodes of the neck (called occult disease).\n", "HSP90AB1 and its co-chaperones are frequently overexpressed in cancer cells. They are able to stabilize mutant proteins thereby allowing survival and increased proliferation of cancer cells. This renders HSPs potential targets for cancer treatment. In salivary gland tumors, expression of HSP90AA1 and HSP90AB1 correlates with malignancy, proliferation and metastasis. The same is basically true for lung cancers where a correlation with survival was found.\n", "In most centres, removal of squamous cell carcinoma from the oral cavity and neck is achieved primarily through surgery. This also allows a detailed examination of the tissue for histopathologic characteristics, such as depth, and spread to lymph nodes that might require radiation or chemotherapy. For small lesions (T1-2), access to the oral cavity is through the mouth. When the lesion is larger, involves the bone of the maxilla or mandible, or access is limited due to mouth opening, the upper or lower lip is split, and the cheek pulled back to give greater access to the mouth. When the tumor involves the jaw bone, or when surgery or radiation will cause severe limited mouth opening, part of the bone is also removed with the tumor.\n", "BULLET::::- Burning mouth syndrome - this chronic pain disorder commonly involves the tongue. In reflection of this, some of the synonyms for the condition include tongue-specific terms such as \"glossodynia\" or \"burning tongue syndrome\". Burning mouth syndrome is characterized by chronic burning sensation on the tongue and other oral mucous membranes in the absences of any identifiable signs or causes.\n\nSection::::Acquired.:Iatrogenic.\n\nBULLET::::- Paratrichosis tongue - Real hair implanted on tongue.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Only one study has been conducted on the diet by Paul Chugay. A retrospective chart review was performed on patients who underwent the tongue patch procedure from 2009 to 2013. Complications were also identified from the patient charts and analysed. The study was published in the American Journal of Cosmetic Surgery and concluded that \"a tongue patch can achieve significant weight loss over a 30-day period with relatively minimal procedural risk.\"\n\nSection::::In mass media.\n" ]

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[ "As intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance capabilities are rapidly developing, mobility becomes even more important. In 2016, Chief of Staff of the United States Army Gen. Mark A. Milley stated that \"On the future battlefield, if you stay in one place longer than two or three hours, you will be dead... With enemy drones and sensors constantly on the hunt for targets, there won't even be time for four hours' unbroken sleep\".\n", "One of the most crucial aspects to consider when developing armed autonomous machines is the distinction between combatants and civilians. If done incorrectly, robot deployment can be detrimental. This is particularly true in the modern era, when combatants often intentionally disguise themselves as civilians to avoid detection. Even if a robot maintained 99% accuracy, the number of civilian lives lost can still be catastrophic. Due to this, it is unlikely that any fully autonomous machines will be sent into battle armed, at least until a satisfactory solution can be developed.\n\nSome examples of autonomous UGV technology are:\n", "Section::::History.:Modern.\n\nIn the modern time, combat vehicle is protected by strong armour and armed with weapons, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities.\n\nSection::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:Automation.\n\nThe automation of human tasks endeavors to reduce the required crew size with improvements in robotics. Enhancements to automation can help achieve operational effectiveness with a smaller, more economical, combat vehicle force.\n", "Mechanical demining makes use of vehicles with devices such as tillers, flails, rollers, and excavation. Used for military operations as far back as World War I, they were initially \"cumbersome, unreliable and under-powered\", but have been improved with additional armor, safer cabin designs, reliable power trains, Global Positioning System logging systems and remote control. They are now primarily used in humanitarian demining for technical surveys, to prepare the ground (removing vegetation and tripwires), and to detonate explosives.\n", "Autonomous robotics would save and preserve soldiers' lives by removing serving soldiers, who might otherwise be killed, from the battlefield. Lt. Gen. Richard Lynch of the United States Army Installation Management Command and assistant Army chief of staff for installation stated at a conference:\n\nMajor Kenneth Rose of the US Army's Training and Doctrine Command outlined some of the advantages of robotic technology in warfare:\n", "Section::::Robots in society.:Military robots.\n\nSome experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions. There are also concerns about technology which might allow some armed robots to be controlled mainly by other robots. The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that, as military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions. One researcher states that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they could make decisions more effectively. However, other experts question this.\n", "For example, the real-time Morale status of each soldier is tracked, although it is their current unit (squad, team, platoon, etc.) as a whole which will break or rally. Each soldier will scan, aim, fire, throw grenades, reload, cower as individuals while operating as part of their unit. If their platoon is ordered to move every soldier will attempt to do so but will still react to events around them, such as suppressive fire, artillery explosions, mines, etc. \n", "Increasing attention is also paid to how to make the robots more autonomous, with a view of eventually allowing them to operate on their own for extended periods of time, possibly behind enemy lines. For such functions, systems like the Energetically Autonomous Tactical Robot are being tried, which is intended to gain its own energy by foraging for plant matter. The majority of military robots are tele-operated and not equipped with weapons; they are used for reconnaissance, surveillance, sniper detection, neutralizing explosive devices, etc. Current robots that are equipped with weapons are tele-operated so they are not capable of taking lives autonomously. Advantages regarding the lack of emotion and passion in robotic combat is also taken into consideration as a beneficial factor in significantly reducing instances of unethical behavior in wartime. Autonomous machines are created not to be \"truly 'ethical' robots\", yet ones that comply with the laws of war (LOW) and rules of engagement (ROE). Hence the fatigue, stress, emotion, adrenaline, etc. that affect a human soldier's rash decisions are removed; there will be no effect on the battlefield caused by the decisions made by the individual.\n", "Military robot\n\nMilitary robots are autonomous robots or remote-controlled mobile robots designed for military applications, from transport to search & rescue and attack.\n\nSome such systems are currently in use, and many are under development.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nBroadly defined, military robots date back to World War II and the Cold War in the form of the German Goliath tracked mines and the Soviet teletanks. The MQB-1 Predator drone was when \"CIA officers began to see the first practical returns on their decade-old fantasy of using aerial robots to collect intelligence\".\n", "Section::::Optimize Human Performance.\n\nEndstate:\n\nArmy leaders are trusted professionals of character who demonstrate comprehensive improvement of knowledge, skills, and attributes in education, training, and experience to optimize and sustain an individual's ability to succeed at any assigned mission as part of a trusted team.\n\nSection::::Establish Cognitive Dominance.\n", "Section::::Application Areas.:Military and police.\n\nIn military and police, human and robotic interactions also play a vital role. In military and police, humans act as commanders, and robots are responsible for information acquisition, bomb demolition and other tactical tasks. The involvement of robots greatly enhances the ability to acquire information and the ability to counter-reconnaissance while performing tasks, thereby minimizing the risk of soldiers. In this process, the interaction between humans and robots has a great impact on the battlefield situation.\n\nOther application areas include:\n\nBULLET::::- Space exploration\n\nBULLET::::- Field robotics\n\nBULLET::::- Home and companion robotics\n\nBULLET::::- Hospitality\n", "A 2004 study by the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining concluded that the data on the performance of mechanical demining systems was poor, and perhaps as a result, they were not being used as the primary clearance system (with the exception of excavators). However, by 2014, confidence in these systems had increased to the point where some deminers were using them as primary clearance systems.\n", "Swarming does not require good military intelligence alone, but intelligent soldiers who can manage multiple information streams and keep situational awareness. It is not advisable to have a soldier so engrossed in displays that an enemy can sneak up and hit him over the head with a rock. One of the challenges of designing modern networked systems is not to overwhelm the users with information. Those users will also need extensive training, with their sensing and synchronization information, to use them properly under combat stress.\n", "Soldiers do not fight as individuals; they fight as part of cohesive teams that operate on the basis of mutual trust. The most effective way to foster trust is through tough, rigorous training that not only fully replicates the physical stresses of combat, but the social and cultural aspects as well. The Realistic Training line of effort encompasses all the activities related to the creation of cohesive teams of Army professionals who have the basic foundation of trust upon which to build a culture that practices mission command, adapting to ambiguous situations through the decentralized execution of commander's intent. In order to ensure we retain tough, realistic training readiness we must accept that the training paradigm and the basics of soldiering have evolved. We must adopt a new training paradigm that emphasizes a mastery of the basics and incorporates complexity and the human dimension into training.\n", "Section::::Robots.\n\nSection::::Robots.:Marine.\n\nBULLET::::- Marine robots go into combat situations to offer assistance to soldiers, and/or give suppressive fire. Rocket launchers, Barrett m107, and miniguns may be mounted to robots for to serve a variety of purposes. Individual robots have been honored for their work on the battlefield, the TI-9419-BOYLE, in particular, having taken down 137 Iraqi soldiers in 2002. This robot was commissioned by Major General (MGySgt) Liam Boyle of the United States Marines.\n\nSection::::Robots.:Bio-inspired.\n", "Artillery has seen promising research with an experimental weapons system named \"Dragon Fire II\" which automates loading and ballistics calculations required for accurate predicted fire, providing a 12-second response time to fire support requests. However, military weapons are prevented from being fully autonomous; they require human input at certain intervention points to ensure that targets are not within restricted fire areas as defined by Geneva Conventions for the laws of war.\n", "Technicals fill the niche of traditional light cavalry. Their major asset is speed and mobility, as well as their ability to strike from unexpected directions with automatic fire and light troop deployment. Further, the reliability of vehicles such as the Toyota Hilux is useful for forces that lack the repair-related infrastructure of a conventional army. In direct engagements they are no match for heavier vehicles, such as tanks or other AFVs, however.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "Section::::The evolution of modern swarming.\n", "BULLET::::- Squad Mission Support System (SMSS), uses the Land Tamer vehicle as a robotic military support vehicle. The SMSS decreases the amount of time a soldier has to spend controlling robotic systems by providing vehicles with a greater perception of their surroundings on the battlefield. Combining perception with mobility will allow vehicles to follow a soldier across terrain, allowing payload to be available whenever it is required. It is designed to provide manned and unmanned transport and logistical support to Light and Early Entry Forces.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Military combat.\n", "Maneouvering consumes much of an infantry unit's time. Infantry, like all combat arms units, are often manoeuvred to meet battlefield needs, and often must do so under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally, infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but mechanised or armoured infantry often uses trucks and armoured vehicles for transport. These units can quickly disembark and transition to light infantry, without vehicles, to access terrain which armoured vehicles can't effectively access.\n\nSection::::Operations.:Reconnaissance/intelligence gathering.\n", "In a 2007 article on HTS in the \"New York Times\", David Rohde, an American journalist who has twice won the Pulitzer Prize, reported that one of the first HTTs to be deployed in Afghanistan had received \"lavish\" praise from officers for \"helping them see the situation from an Afghan perspective and allowing them to cut back on combat operations\". He wrote that HTS had also been praised by Afghan and Western civilian officials in the area, although they had been \"cautious about predicting long term success\". Rohde also cited Colonel David Woods (Commander of the 4th Squadron of the 73rd Cavalry Regiment) as having remarked: \"Call it what you want, it works ... It works in helping you define the problems, not just the symptoms.\"\n", "Adjusting to this reality demands a different approach. To continue to dominate on the battlefield of the future, the Army must invest in its people as the most agile and adaptive resource. Preserving a technological edge will remain important but technology alone is insufficient to retain overmatch in the face of highly adaptive adversaries. The Army must seek to maintain and exploit a decisive cognitive edge over potential adversaries. Realizing that technology remains an essential enabler with tremendous potential in the long-term, today few technological solutions exist. To overcome this shortfall, only the optimized Soldier provides the promise of meeting the cognitive demands of a modern and complex battlefield. With a shrinking force structure and growing demands on the individual Soldier, it is essential for the Army to design institutions and programs that develop the very best talent and abilities in every member of the Total Army team. This holistic body of effort is defined as human performance optimization.\n", "Technicals were used by Iraqi military forces in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The Iraqi Republican Guard and Fedayeen emulated tactics of the Somali National Alliance with limited success, but were outmatched by Coalition armor and aviation. In the aftermath of the invasion technicals saw use by Iraqi insurgents for transporting personnel and quick raids against the Iraqi police forces. The insurgent use of technicals increased after the Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004.\n", "From 7-10 October 2013, the SMSS took part in testing, along with other systems, at Fort Benning, Georgia as part of the U.S. Army's Squad Multipurpose Equipment Transport (S-MET) program. The program objective is to find an unmanned robotic platform to transport soldier equipment and charge batteries for their electronic gear. Requirements for the vehicle are to carry of gear, equal to the amount a nine-man infantry squad would need on a 72-hour mission. Cubic volume is seen as more of a problem for load-carrying unmanned vehicles, as their center of gravity changes when more gear has to be stacked. It has to travel for eight-hour marches and speed up in bursts of up to for 200 meters. The proposed S-MET vehicle needs to traverse forward and backward on slopes of up to 30 percent and descending on slopes of 60 percent. Moving on rough terrain was a challenge for the four SMSS vehicles deployed to Afghanistan in 2012; they could not discern between soldiers and obstacles like trees, so they mostly traveled on roads instead of complex terrain. The SMSS was not selected to continue S-MET trials.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Plot.:Crispin Hershey’s Lonely Planet, 2015.\n", "Section::::In Western societies.\n\nIn more urban societies, some of these natural phenomena were no longer at hand, and most were of much less consequence to the inhabitants. Artificial means of dividing and measuring time were needed. Plautus complained of the social effect of the invention of such divisions in his lines complaining of the sundial:\n", "“They that be born of a Friday’s chime\n\nBe masters of musick and finders of rhyme,\n\nAnd every beast will do what they say,\n\nAnd every herb that do grow in the clay,\n\nThey do see what they see and hear what they hear,\n\nBut they never do tell in a hundred year”.\n", "The isochronous clock changed lives. Appointments are rarely \"within the hour,\" but at quarter hours (and being five minutes late is often considered being tardy). People often eat, drink, sleep, and even go to the bathroom in adherence to some time-dependent schedule.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 12-hour clock\n\nBULLET::::- Punctuality\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of historic inventions\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of time measurement technology\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Discoverers\" – Daniel J. Boorstin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Theory Out of Bounds\" – Isabelle Stengers/Ilya Prigogine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Order out of Chaos\" – Ilya Prigogine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Multifractals and 1/f noise\" – Benoît Mandelbrot\n", "Polychronic cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes, polychronic cultures are more focused on tradition and relationships rather than on tasks—a clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that \"Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, community life, and the calendar of religious festivities\" (Cohen, 1997, p. 34).\n", "One researcher has proposed that dogs perceive the passing of time through the dissipation of smells.\n\nSection::::Awareness.\n", "Section::::Recent studies.\n", "The perception of another persons' emotions can also change our sense of time. The theory of embodied mind (or cognition), caused by mirror neurons, helps explain how the perception of other people's emotions has the ability to change one's own sense of time. Embodied cognition hinges on an internal process that mimics or simulates another's emotional state. For example, if person #1 spends time with person #2 who speaks and walks incredibly slowly, person #1's internal clock may slow down.\n\nSection::::Types of temporal illusions.:Effects of emotional states.:Depression.\n", "Section::::In Western societies.:The invention of the clock.\n", "Many of the usual units displayed on clocks, such as hours and calendar dates, may have little meaning after 10,000 years. However, every human culture counts days, months (in some form), and years, all of which are based on lunar and solar cycles. There are also longer natural cycles, such as the 25,765-year precession of Earth's axis. On the other hand, the clock is a product of our time, and it seems appropriate to pay homage to our current arbitrary systems of time measurement. In the end, it seemed best to display both the natural cycles and some of the current cultural cycles.\n", "The English word \"clock\" comes from an Old French word for \"bell,\" for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare's Sonnet XII begins, \"When I do count the clock that tells the time.\" Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials or the sound of their bells, clock time held no sway. Clock towers did define the time of day, at least for those who could hear and see them. As the saying goes, \"a person with a clock always knows what time it is; a person with two clocks is never sure.\"\n", "I KNOW too much; I have stuffed too many of the facts of History and Science into my intellectuals. My eyes have grown dim over books; believing in geological periods, cave dwellers, Chinese Dynasties, and the fixed stars has prematurely aged me.\n", "In one study, Daniel Kahneman and Barbara Fredrickson showed subjects pleasant or aversive film clips. When reviewing the clips mentally at a later time, subjects did not appear to take the length of the stimuli into account, instead judging them as if they were only a series of affective \"snapshots\".\n", "The United States considers itself a monochronic society. This perception came about during the Industrial Revolution, when \"factory life required the labor force to be on hand and in place at an appointed hour\" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 238). Many Americans like to think that to them, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. \"We buy time, save time, spend time and make time. Our time can be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow: appointments that we must go to at a certain time, classes that start and end at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.\"\n", "Section::::In Western societies.:Improvements of the clock.\n", "Section::::Case studies.:\"Maison\" study.\n", "Section::::In Western societies.:Improvements of the clock.:Religious consequences.\n", "Plautus's protagonist here complains about the social discipline and expectations that arose when these measurements of time were introduced. The invention of artificial units of time measurement made the introduction of time management possible, and time management was not universally appreciated by those whose time was managed.\n\nSection::::In Western societies.:Western religious influences.\n", "In 1964 John Greenway published a humorous portrait of American culture, \"The Inevitable Americans\", in which he wrote: \"You have a watch, because Americans are obsessed with time. If you were a Hopi Indian, you would have none, the Hopi have no concept of time\". And even the 1971 ethnography of the Hopi by Euler and Dobyns claimed that \"The English concept of time is nearly incomprehensible to the Hopi\". The myth quickly became a staple element of New Age conceptualizations of the Hopi.\n\nSection::::Max Black and Helmut Gipper.\n", "Any clocks brought into Death's Domain get depressed and stop working. The only working clock is the special grandfather clock in the hall with a scythe for a pendulum. The 'minute' hand takes thousands of years to go around. The 'hour' hand will only go around once. The Inscription on the clock reads; \"Too Late\".\n", "The Magi and Angels, however, explain to him it is not so: no one had gone so far into the past, no one intentionally interfered with evolution. Rather, the Otherhood's excessive tinkering with the timelines has generated countless unintended changes. These accumulated exponentially across time and thus created this future world. And while the lower hominids and draconids are unaware of the ongoing changes, the Magi have inferred their existence during \"hundreds of years of pondering\" which they know to have been \"imaginary centuries\". They are tormented by this knowledge, to the point that they long to die, to never have been and to put an end to this imaginary existence. They are also foresee the inevitable future rise of the lizard 'draconids' race, leading to a total collapse of civilisation and the reversion of the world to one of unchanging forest and water.\n", "I heard that when you die, each person gets a second to review their whole life, but I got an extra second and that second totally belongs to you.\n\nDon't be sad for me, please let me die.\n", "Short list of types of temporal illusions:\n\nBULLET::::- Telescoping effect: People tend to recall recent events as occurring further back in time than they actually did (backward telescoping) and distant events as occurring more recently than they actually did (forward telescoping).\n\nBULLET::::- Vierordt's law: Shorter intervals tend to be overestimated while longer intervals tend to be underestimated\n\nBULLET::::- Time intervals associated with more changes may be perceived as longer than intervals with fewer changes\n\nBULLET::::- Perceived temporal length of a given task may shorten with greater motivation\n", "Section::::The natural world.\n", "Children's expanding cognitive abilities allow them to understand time more clearly. Two- and three-year-olds' understanding of time is mainly limited to \"now and not now.\" Five- and six-year-olds can grasp the ideas of past, present, and future. Seven- to ten-year-olds can use clocks and calendars.\n\nSection::::Time perception.:Alterations.\n\nIn addition to psychoactive drugs, judgments of time can be altered by temporal illusions (like the kappa effect), age,\n\nand hypnosis.\n\nThe sense of time is impaired in some people with neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease and attention deficit disorder.\n" ]

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[ "A quantum computer with a given number of qubits is fundamentally different from a classical computer composed of the same number of classical bits. For example, representing the state of an \"n\"-qubit system on a classical computer requires the storage of 2 complex coefficients, while to characterize the state of a classical \"n\"-bit system it is sufficient to provide the values of the \"n\" bits, that is, only \"n\" numbers. Although this fact may seem to indicate that qubits can hold exponentially more information than their classical counterparts, care must be taken not to overlook the fact that the qubits are only in a probabilistic superposition of all of their states. This means that when the final state of the qubits is measured, they will only be found in one of the possible configurations they were in before the measurement. It is generally incorrect to think of a system of qubits as being in one particular state before the measurement. The qubits are in a superposition of states before any measurement is made, which directly affects the possible outcomes of the computation.\n", "Computational operations are performed by pulsing the qubit with microwave frequency radiation which has an energy comparable to that of the gap between the energy of the two basis states. Properly selected pulse duration can put the qubit into a quantum superposition of the two basis states while subsequent pulses can manipulate the probability weighting that the qubit will be measured in either of the two basis states, thus performing a computational operation.\n\nSection::::Fabrication.\n", "2. If Alice wants to send the classical two-bit string 10 to Bob, then she applies the quantum \"phase-flip\" gate formula_13 to her qubit, so the resultant entangled state becomes\n\n3. If Alice wants to send the classical two-bit string 01 to Bob, then she applies the quantum \"NOT\" (or \"bit-flip\") gate, formula_15, to her qubit, so that the resultant entangled quantum state becomes\n\n4. If, instead, Alice wants to send the classical two-bit string 11 to Bob, then she applies the quantum gate formula_17 to her qubit, so that the resultant entangled state becomes\n", "The initial state of the system is formula_16. After applying multiple bit Hadamard gate operation on each of the registers separately, the state of the \"first register\" is\n\nand the state of the \"second register\" is\n\nan equal superposition state in the computational basis.\n\nSection::::The algorithm.:Grover operator.\n\nBecause the size of the space is formula_19 and the number of solutions is formula_20, we can define the normalized states:\n\nNote that\n\nwhich is the state of the \"second register\" after the Hadamard transform.\n", "A primary feature of Q# is the ability to create and use qubits for algorithms. As a consequence, some of the most prominent features of Q# are the ability to entangle and introduce superpositioning to qubits via Controlled NOT gates and Hadamard gates, respectively, as well as Toffoli Gates, Pauli X, Y, Z Gate, and many more which are used for a variety of operations; see the list at the article on quantum logic gates. \n", "Another goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Instead of using classical bits, quantum computers use qubits, which can be in superpositions of states. Quantum programmers are able to manipulate the superposition of qubits in order to solve problems that classical computing cannot do effectively, such as searching unsorted databases or integer factorization. IBM claims that the advent of quantum computing may progress the fields of medicine, logistics, financial services, artificial intelligence and cloud security.\n", "On August 20, 2015, D-Wave released general availability of their D-Wave 2X computer, with 1000 qubits in a Chimera graph architecture (although, due to magnetic offsets and manufacturing variability inherent in the superconductor circuit fabrication, fewer than 1152 qubits are functional and available for use; the exact number of qubits yielded will vary with each specific processor manufactured). This was accompanied by a report comparing speeds with high-end single threaded CPUs. Unlike previous reports, this one explicitly stated that question of quantum speedup was not something they were trying to address, and focused on constant-factor performance gains over classical hardware. For general-purpose problems, a speedup of 15x was reported, but it is worth noting that these classical algorithms benefit efficiently from parallelization—so that the computer would be performing on par with, perhaps, 30 high-end single-threaded cores.\n", "If the photon takes the short path, it is said to be in the state formula_1; if it takes the long path, it is said to be in the state formula_2. If the photon has a non-zero probability to take either path, then it is in a coherent superposition of the two states:\n\nThese coherent superpositions of the two possible states are called qubits and are the basic ingredient of Quantum information science.\n", "BULLET::::- For bounded-quantum-storage (i.e., formula_24), security can be achieved using a protocol in which Alice sends formula_25 BB84 encoded qubits. That is, security can be achieved when Alice sends more than twice the number of qubits than Bob can store. One can also look at this from Bob's perspective and say that security can be achieved when Bob can store strictly less than half of the qubits that Alice sent, i.e., formula_26.\n", "encoding circuit is \"online\" if it acts on\n\na few blocks of qubits at a time. The sender transmits a set of qubits as soon\n\nas the first unitary finishes processing them. The receiver measures all the\n\ngenerators in formula_24 and corrects for errors as he receives the online\n\nencoded qubits. He finally decodes the encoded qubits with a decoding circuit.\n\nThe qubits decoded from this convolutional procedure should be error free and\n\nready for quantum computation at the receiving end.\n\nA \"finite-depth\" circuit maps a Pauli sequence with finite weight to\n", "basic generator set formula_26. Let us define the formula_25-qubit delay\n\noperator formula_33 acting on any Pauli sequence formula_38 as follows:\n\nWe can write formula_40 repeated applications of formula_33 as a power of formula_33:\n\nLet formula_44 be the set of shifts of elements\n\nof formula_26 by formula_40. Then the full stabilizer formula_24 for the\n\nconvolutional stabilizer code is\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nThe operation of a convolutional stabilizer\n\ncode is as follows. The protocol begins with the sender encoding a stream of qubits with an\n\nonline encoding circuit such as that given in (Grassl and Roetteler 2006). The\n", "\"probabilistic\" but classical computations. Consider an \"r\"-qubit circuit \"U\" with\n\nregister space \"H\". \"U\" is thus a unitary map\n\nIn order to associate this circuit to a classical mapping on bitstrings, we specify\n\nBULLET::::- An \"input register\" \"X\" = {0,1} of \"m\" (classical) bits.\n\nBULLET::::- An \"output register\" \"Y\" = {0,1} of \"n\" (classical) bits.\n\nThe contents \"x\" = \"x\", ..., \"x\" of\n\nthe classical input register are used to initialize the qubit\n\nregister in some way. Ideally, this would be done with the computational basis\n\nstate \n\nwhere there are \"r\"-\"m\" underbraced zeroed inputs. Nevertheless,\n", "In classical computer technologies, a \"processed\" bit is implemented by one of two levels of low DC voltage, and whilst switching from one of these two levels to the other, a so-called forbidden zone must be passed as fast as possible, as electrical voltage cannot change from one level to another \"instantaneously\".\n", "The first commercially produced D-Wave processor was a programmable, superconducting integrated circuit with up to 128 pair-wise coupled superconducting flux qubits. The 128-qubit processor was superseded by a 512-qubit processor in 2013. The processor is designed to implement a special-purpose quantum annealing as opposed to being operated as a universal gate-model quantum computer.\n", "Quantum computers are the ultimate quantum network, combining 'quantum bits' or 'qubit' which are devices that can store and process quantum data (as opposed to binary data) with links that can transfer quantum information between qubits. In doing this, quantum computers are predicted to calculate certain algorithms significantly faster than even the largest classical computer available today.\n", "Measurement in the {formula_1,formula_2} basis is done by measuring the time of arrival of the photon. Measurement in other bases can be achieved by letting the photon go through a second MZ before measurement, though, similar to the state preparation, the possible measurement setups are restricted to only a small subset of possible qubit measurements.\n\nSection::::Decoherence.\n", "Even very simple-looking states may exhibit highly non-classical behavior. Consider a superposition of two coherent states\n\nwhere are constants subject to the normalizing constraint\n\nNote that this is quite different from a qubit because formula_20 and formula_21 are not orthogonal. As it is straightforward to calculate formula_22, we can use the Mehta formula above to compute ,\n", "cx q[0], q[1]; // conditional pauli X-transform (ie. \"CNOT\") of qubits 0 and 1. this generates the normal 2-qubit bell state\n\ncx q[1], q[2]; // this expands entanglement to the 3rd qubit\n\nmeasure q[0] - c[0]; // this measurement collapses the state\n\nmeasure q[1] - c[1]; // qubit 1 and 2 read the same value as qubit 0\n\nmeasure q[2] - c[2];\n\nEvery instruction in the QASM language is the application of a quantum gate, initialization of the chips registers to zero or measurement of these registers.\n\nSection::::Quantum Composer.:Beginner's Guide.\n", "Section::::Computer systems.:D-Wave Two.\n\nIn early 2012, D-Wave Systems revealed a 512-qubit quantum computer, code-named \"Vesuvius\", which was launched as a production processor in 2013.\n\nIn May 2013, Catherine McGeoch, a consultant for D-Wave, published the first comparison of the technology against regular top-end desktop computers running an optimization algorithm. Using a configuration with 439 qubits, the system performed 3,600 times as fast as CPLEX, the best algorithm on the conventional machine, solving problems with 100 or more variables in half a second compared with half an hour. The results are presented at the Computing Frontiers 2013 conference.\n", "In essence, the Holevo bound proves that given \"n\" qubits, although they can \"carry\" a larger amount of (classical) information (thanks to quantum superposition), the amount of classical information that can be \"retrieved\", i.e. \"accessed\", can be only up to \"n\" classical (non-quantum encoded) bits. This is surprising, for two reasons: (1) quantum computing is so often more powerful than classical computing, that results which show it to be only as good or inferior to conventional techniques are unusual, and (2) because it takes formula_18 complex numbers to encode the qubits that represent a mere \"n\" bits.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "As a result, time-consuming tasks may render some quantum algorithms inoperable, as maintaining the state of qubits for a long enough duration will eventually corrupt the superpositions.\n\nThese issues are more difficult for optical approaches as the timescales are orders of magnitude shorter and an often-cited approach to overcoming them is optical pulse shaping. Error rates are typically proportional to the ratio of operating time to decoherence time, hence any operation must be completed much more quickly than the decoherence time.\n", "The D-Wave 2X processor is based on a 2048-qubit chip with half of the qubits disabled; these were activated in the D-Wave 2000Q.\n\nSection::::Computer systems.:Pegasus.\n\nIn February 2019 D-Wave announced their next-generation Pegasus quantum processor chip, announcing that it would be \"the world’s most connected commercial quantum system,\" with 15 connections per qubit instead of 6; that the next-generation system would use the Pegasus chip; that it would have more than 5000 qubits and reduced noise; and that it would be available in mid-2020.\n", "BULLET::::2. The ability to initialise the state of the qubits to a simple fiducial state. One simple way to initialize a qubit is to wait long enough for the qubit to relax to its energy ground state. In addition, controlling the qubit potential by the tuning knobs allows faster initialization mechanisms.\n", ", which can be realized by a three-level quantum system. Note, however, that not all three-level quantum systems are qutrits.\n\nA string of \"n\" qutrits represents 3 different states simultaneously, i.e., a superposition state vector in 3-dimensional complex Hilbert space.\n\nQutrits have several peculiar features when used for storing quantum information. For example, they are more robust to decoherence under certain environmental interactions. In reality, manipulating qutrits directly might be tricky, and one way to do that is by using an entanglement with a qubit.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Radix economy\n\nBULLET::::- Mutually unbiased bases\n\nBULLET::::- Quantum computing\n\nBULLET::::- Ternary computing\n", "BULLET::::- For bounded-quantum-storage using higher-dimensional memory cells (i.e., each cell is not a qubit, but a qudit), security can be achieved in a protocol in which Alice sends formula_1 higher-dimensional qudits encoded one of the possible mutually unbiased bases. In the limit of large dimensions, security can be achieved whenever formula_28. That is, security can always be achieved as long as Bob cannot store any constant fraction of the transmitted signals. This is optimal for the protocols considered since for formula_29 a dishonest Bob can store all qudits sent by Alice. It is not known whether the same is possible using merely BB84 encoded qubits.\n" ]

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[ "In 2004, Las Vegas Hilton released which included two films. One of the films, \"Borg Invasion 4-D\" (Ty Granoroli), was in 3D. In August of the same year, rap group Insane Clown Posse released their ninth studio album \"Hell's Pit\". One of two versions of the album contained a DVD featuring a 3D short film for the track \"Bowling Balls\", shot in high-definition video.\n", "Director Christopher Nolan has criticised the notion that traditional film does not allow depth perception, saying \"I think it's a misnomer to call it 3D versus 2D. The whole point of cinematic imagery is it's three dimensional... You know 95% of our depth cues come from occlusion, resolution, color and so forth, so the idea of calling a 2D movie a '2D movie' is a little misleading.\" Nolan also criticised that shooting on the required digital video does not offer a high enough quality image and that 3D cameras cannot be equipped with prime (non-zoom) lenses.\n", "In late 2005, Steven Spielberg told the press he was involved in patenting a 3D cinema system that does not need glasses, and which is based on plasma screens. A computer splits each film-frame, and then projects the two split images onto the screen at differing angles, to be picked up by tiny angled ridges on the screen.\n\nAnimated films \"Open Season\", and \"The Ant Bully\", were released in analog 3D in 2006. \"Monster House\" and \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" were released on XpanD 3D, RealD and Dolby 3D systems in 2006.\n", "For other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For example, for the 3D re-release of the 1993 film \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", Walt Disney Pictures scanned each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. In 2011, Disney became the first studio to convert 2D hand-drawn animation to 3D with the 1994 film The Lion King, and the 1991 film Beauty and the Beast. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D. There are several approaches used for 2D to 3D conversion, most notably depth-based methods.\n\nSection::::Live-action.\n", "Hidden 3D\n\nHidden 3D is an Italian-Canadian horror film directed by Antoine Thomas and produced by Caramel Films. It was filmed in Italy and Canada over the Summer and Fall of 2010. Hidden 3D was filmed in both 2D and 3D Technologies.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "In June 2005, the Mann's Chinese 6 theatre in Hollywood became the first commercial film theatre to be equipped with the Digital 3D format. Both \"Singin' in the Rain\" and \"The Polar Express\" were tested in the Digital 3D format over the course of several months. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Producing 3D films.:2D to 3D conversion.\n\nIn the case of 2D CGI animated films that were generated from 3D models, it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version.\n\nFor all other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For example, for the 3D re-release of the 1993 film \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", Walt Disney Pictures scanned each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D. There are several approaches used for 2D to 3D conversion, most notably depth-based methods.\n", "In 2004 The Polar Express was the first stereoscopic 3D computer animated feature film. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format. The first 3D feature by DreamWorks Animation \"Monsters vs Aliens\" followed in 2009 and used a new digital rendering process called InTru3D which is a process developed by Intel to create more realistic 3D images despite the fact that they are animated. InTru3D is not a way that films are exhibited in theaters in 3D, the films created in this process are seen in either RealD 3D or IMAX 3D.\n\nSection::::Video games.\n", "Stereoscopic motion pictures can be produced through a variety of different methods. Over the years the popularity of systems being widely employed in film theaters has waxed and waned. Though anaglyph was sometimes used prior to 1948, during the early \"Golden Era\" of 3D cinematography of the 1950s the polarization system was used for every single feature-length film in the United States, and all but one short film. In the 21st century, polarization 3D systems have continued to dominate the scene, though during the 1960s and 1970s some classic films which were converted to anaglyph for theaters not equipped for polarization, and were even shown in 3D on television. In the years following the mid-1980s, some films were made with short segments in anaglyph 3D. The following are some of the technical details and methodologies employed in some of the more notable 3D film systems that have been developed.\n", "One of the first studios to use digital 3D was Walt Disney Pictures. In promoting their first CGI animated film \"Chicken Little\", they trademarked the phrase Disney Digital 3-D and teamed up with RealD in order to present the film in 3D in the United States. A total of over 62 theaters in the US were retrofitted to use the RealD Cinema system. The 2008 animated feature \"Bolt\" was the first movie which was animated and rendered for digital 3D whereas Chicken Little had been converted after it was finished.\n", "In 2008, \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\" became the first live-action feature film to be shot with the earliest Fusion Camera System released in Digital 3D and was later followed by several others. \"Avatar\" (2009) was shot in a 3D process that is based on how the human eye looks at an image. It was an improvement to the existing 3D camera system. Many 3D camera rigs still in use simply pair two cameras side by side, while newer rigs are paired with a beam splitter or both camera lenses built into one unit. While Digital Cinema cameras are not a requirement for 3D they are the predominant medium for most of what is photographed. Film options include IMAX 3D and Cine 160.\n", "Studios are also using 3D to generate additional income from films that are already commercially successful. Such re-releases usually involve a conversion from 2D. For example, Disney has reissued both \"The Lion King\" and \"Beauty and the Beast\", with plans to add some of its other well-known titles. \"Titanic\" has also been modified for 3D, and there are also plans to similarly present all six \"Star Wars\" films.\n", "BULLET::::- Two ape films: \"Phantom of the Rue Morgue\", featuring Karl Malden and Patricia Medina, produced by Warner Bros. and based on Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\", and \"Gorilla at Large\", a Panoramic Production starring Cameron Mitchell, distributed flat and 3D through Fox.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gog\", the last episode in Ivan Tors' \"Office of Scientific Investigation (OSI)\" trilogy dealing with realistic science fiction (following \"The Magnetic Monster\" and \"Riders to the Stars\"). Most theaters showed it flat.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Diamond\" (released in the United States as \"The Diamond Wizard\"), a 1954 British crime film starring Dennis O'Keefe. The only stereoscopic feature shot in Britain, released flat in both the UK and US.\n", "Only \"Comin' At Ya!\", \"Parasite\", and \"Friday the 13th Part III\" have been officially released on VHS and/or DVD in 3D in the United States (although \"Amityville 3D\" has seen a 3D DVD release in the United Kingdom). Most of the 1980s 3D films and some of the classic 1950s films such as \"House of Wax\" were released on the now defunct Video Disc (VHD) format in Japan as part of a system that used shutter glasses. Most of these have been unofficially transferred to DVD and are available on the grey market through sites such as eBay.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Producing 3D films.:Animation.\n\nIn the 1930s and 1940s Fleischer Studio made several cartoons with extensive stereoscopic 3D backgrounds, including several \"Popeye\", \"Betty Boop\", and \"Superman\" cartoons.\n", "In 2004 \"The Polar Express\" was the first stereoscopic 3D computer-animated feature film. The 3D version was solely release in Imax theaters. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format, being Disney's first CGI-animated film in 3D. The film was converted from 2D into 3D in post production. nWave Pictures' Fly Me To The Moon 3D (2008) was actually the first animated film created for 3D and released exclusively in 3D in digital theaters around the world. No other animation films have released solely in 3D since. The first 3D feature by DreamWorks Animation, \"Monsters vs Aliens\", followed in 2009 and used a new digital rendering process called InTru3D, which was developed by Intel to create more realistic animated 3D images. InTru3D is not used to exhibit 3D films in theaters; they are shown in either RealD 3D or IMAX 3D.\n", "A three-dimensional stereoscopic film (also known as three-dimensional film, 3D film or S3D film) is a motion picture that enhances the illusion of depth perception, hence adding a third dimension. The most common approach to the production of 3D films is derived from stereoscopic photography. In this approach, a regular motion picture camera system is used to record the images as seen from two perspectives (or computer-generated imagery generates the two perspectives in post-production), and special projection hardware or eyewear is used to limit the visibility of each image to the viewer's left or right eye only. 3D films are not limited to theatrical releases; television broadcasts and direct-to-video films have also incorporated similar methods, especially since the advent of 3D television and Blu-ray 3D.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Taza, Son of Cochise\", a sequel to 1950s \"Broken Arrow\", which starred Rock Hudson in the title role, Barbara Rush as the love interest, and Rex Reason (billed as Bart Roberts) as his renegade brother. Originally released flat through Universal-International. It was directed by the great stylist Douglas Sirk, and his striking visual sense made the film a huge success when it was \"re-premiered\" in 3D in 2006 at the Second 3D Expo in Hollywood.\n", "3D film is a system of presenting film images so that they appear to the viewer to be three-dimensional. Visitors usually borrow or keep special glasses to wear while watching the movie. Depending on the system used, these are typically polarized glasses. Three-dimensional movies use two images channeled, respectively, to the right and left eyes to simulate depth by using 3-D glasses with red and blue lenses (anaglyph), polarized (linear and circular), and other techniques. 3-D glasses deliver the proper image to the proper eye and make the image appear to \"pop-out\" at the viewer and even follow the viewer when he/she moves so viewers relatively see the same image.\n", "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n", "Major 3D films in 2009 included \"Coraline\", \"Monsters vs. Aliens\", \"Up\", \"\", \"The Final Destination\", \"Disney's A Christmas Carol\", and \"Avatar\". \"Avatar\" has gone on to be one of the most expensive films of all time, with a budget at $237 million; it is also the second highest-grossing film of all time. The main technologies used to exhibit these films, and many others released around the time and up to the present, are Real D 3D, Dolby 3D, XpanD 3D, MasterImage 3D, and IMAX 3D.\n", "Film critic Mark Kermode, a noted detractor of 3D, has surmised that there is an emerging policy of distributors to limit the availability of 2D versions, thus \"railroading\" the 3D format into cinemas whether the paying filmgoer likes it or not. This was especially prevalent during the release of \"Prometheus\" in 2012, where only 30% of prints for theatrical exhibition (at least in the UK) were in 2D. His suspicions were later reinforced by a substantial number of complaints about \"Dredd\" from those who wished to see it in 2D but were denied the opportunity. In July 2017, IMAX announced that they will begin to focus on screening more Hollywood tentpole movies in 2D (even if there's a 3D version) and have fewer 3D screenings of movies in North America, citing that moviegoers in North America prefer 2D films over 3D films.\n", "March and April 2010 saw three major 3D releases clustered together, with \"Alice in Wonderland\" hitting US theaters on March 5, 2010, \"How to Train Your Dragon\" on March 26, 2010, and \"Clash of the Titans\" on April 2, 2010. On May 13 of the same year, China's first IMAX 3D film started shooting. The pre-production of the first 3D film shot in France, \"Derrière les murs\", began in May 2010 and was released in mid-2011.\n", "On October 1, 2010 \"Scar3D\" was the first-ever stereoscopic 3D Video-on-demand film released through major cable broadcasters for 3D televisions in the United States. Released in the United States on May 21, 2010, \"Shrek Forever After\" by DreamWorks Animation (Paramount Pictures) used the Real D 3D system, also released in IMAX 3D.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:Mainstream resurgence (2003–present).:World 3-D Expositions.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Evidence for macroscale rewiring mostly comes from research on grey and white matter density, which could indicate new connections or changes in axon density. Direct evidence for this level of rewiring comes from primate studies, using viral tracing to map the formation of connections. Primates that were taught to use novel tools developed new connections between the interparietal cortex and higher visual areas of the brain. Further viral tracing studies have provided evidence that macroscale rewiring occurs in adult animals during associative learning. However, it is not likely that long-distance neural connections undergo extensive rewiring in adults. Small changes in an already established nerve tract are likely what is observed in macroscale rewiring.\n", "BULLET::::- The department Synapses - Circuits - Plasticity, led by Professor Tobias Bonhoeffer pursues the question “what happens, when the brain learns?”. Unlike a static object, the structure of the brain constantly changes according to current requirements. For example, in order to learn something, the contact between single nerve cells needs to be strengthened. This is accomplished in part through the creation of new contact sites and their information-transmission sites, the synapses. The basic principles and mechanisms of this plasticity are explored in this department.\n", "The pruning that is associated with learning is known as small-scale axon terminal arbor pruning. Axons extend short axon terminal arbors toward neurons within a target area. Certain terminal arbors are pruned by competition. The selection of the pruned terminal arbors follow the \"use it or lose it\" principle seen in synaptic plasticity. This means synapses that are frequently used have strong connections while the rarely used synapses are eliminated. Examples seen in vertebrate include pruning of axon terminals in the neuromuscular junction in the peripheral nervous system and the pruning of climbing fiber inputs to the cerebellum in the central nervous system.\n", "In most connectionist models, networks change over time. A closely related and very common aspect of connectionist models is \"activation\". At any time, a unit in the network has an activation, which is a numerical value intended to represent some aspect of the unit. For example, if the units in the model are neurons, the activation could represent the probability that the neuron would generate an action potential spike. Activation typically spreads to all the other units connected to it. Spreading activation is always a feature of neural network models, and it is very common in connectionist models used by cognitive psychologists.\n", "In the hippocampus, newly formed neurons contribute only a small portion to the entire neuron population. These new neurons have different electrophysiology compared to the rest of the existing neurons. This may be evidence that generating new neurons in the SGZ is part of learning and memorizing activity of mammals. Several studies have been performed to explain the relationship between neruogenesis and learning. In the case of learning, that related to the hippocampal function, a significantly increased number of neurons are generated in the SGZ and survival of the new neurons is increased if they are required for retention of memory.\n", "Neuronal recycling is the idea that novel cultural cognitive processes invade cortical areas initially devoted to different, but similar functions. This cortical architecture presents biases prior to learning, but through neuronal recycling, novel functions may be acquired, so long as they find a suitable cortical area in the brain to accommodate it. This area is referred to a cognitive function's 'neuronal niche', which is analogous to biology's concept of an ecological niche. The novel cultural function must locate a cortical area whose prior function is similar and plastic enough to accommodate it.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Axon shedding.\n", "Axon branches retract in a distal to proximal manner. The axonal contents that are retracted are thought to be recycled to other parts of the axon. The biological mechanism with which axonal pruning occurs still remains unclear for the mammalian central nervous system. However, pruning has been associated with guidance molecules in mice. Guidance molecules serve to control axon pathfinding through repulsion, and also initiate pruning of exuberant synaptic connections. Semaphorin ligands and the receptors neuropilins and plexins are used to induce retraction of the axons to initiate hippocampo-septal and infrapyramidal bundle (IPB) pruning. Stereotyped pruning of the hippocampal projections have been found to be significantly impaired in mice that have a Plexin-A3 defect. Specifically, axons that are connected to a transient target will retract once the Plexin-A3 receptors are activated by class 3 semaphorin ligands. In IPB, the expression of mRNA for Sema3F is present in the hippocampus prenatally, lost postnatally and returns in the stratum oriens. Coincidentally, onset IPB pruning occurs around the same time. In the case of the hippocampal-septal projections, expression of mRNA for Sema3A was followed by the initiation of pruning after 3 days. This suggests that pruning is triggered once the ligand reaches threshold protein levels within a few days after detectable mRNA expression. Pruning of axons along the visual corticospinal tract (CST) is defective in neuropilin-2 mutants and plexin-A3 and plexin-A4 double mutant mice. Sema3F is also expressed in the dorsal spinal cord during the pruning process. There is no motor CST pruning defect observed in these mutants.\n", "Despite the fact it has several connotations with regulation of cognitive childhood development, pruning is thought to be a process of removing neurons which may have become damaged or degraded in order to further improve the \"networking\" capacity of a particular area of the brain. Furthermore, it has been stipulated that the mechanism not only works in regard to development and reparation, but also as a means of continually maintaining more efficient brain function by removing neurons by their synaptic efficiency.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Pruning in the maturing brain.\n", "Section::::Variations.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Regulatory pruning.\n\nAt birth, the neurons in the visual and motor cortices have connections to the superior colliculus, spinal cord, and pons. The neurons in each cortex are selectively pruned, leaving connections that are made with the functionally appropriate processing centers. Therefore, the neurons in the visual cortex prune the synapses with neurons in the spinal cord, and the motor cortex severs connections with the superior colliculus. This variation of pruning is known as large-scaled stereotyped axon pruning. Neurons send long axon branches to appropriate and inappropriate target areas, and the inappropriate connections are eventually pruned away.\n", "BULLET::::1. Although surgical removal of a portion of the cortex can produce significant behavioral deficits, those deficits can be recovered through additional training and time, by way of the development of new neuronal connections. Lashley argued that the brain is sufficiently plastic, such that when one region of the brain is surgically removed (or damaged through injury) another region takes over the damaged region's function. This is the principle Lashley referred to as equipotentiality. Extensive regions of the cerebral cortex have the potentiality for mediating specific learning and memory functions.\n", "Section::::Neurogenesis in the central nervous system.\n\nSantiago Ramon y Cajal, a neuroscience pioneer, concluded that the generation of neurons occurs only in the prenatal phase of human development, not after birth. This theory had long been the fundamental principle of neuroscience. However, in the mid-20th century, evidence of adult mammalian neurogenesis was found in rodent hippocampus and other region of the brain.\n", "Section::::Arithmetic.\n", "Early LTP is best studied in the context of classical conditioning. As the signal of an unconditioned stimulus enters the pontine nuclei in the brainstem, the signal travels through the mossy fibres to the interpositus nucleus and the parallel fibres in the cerebellum. The parallel fibres synapse on so called Purkinje cells, which simultaneously receive input of the unconditioned stimulus via the inferior olives and climbing fibres.\n", "Further investigation by Gould revealed that a decade later Michael Kaplan, at the University of New Mexico, had used an electron microscope to image neurons giving birth. Kaplan had, he believed, discovered new neurons everywhere in the mammalian brain, including the cortex.\n\nHowever, other scientists continued to support Rakic's doctrine which denied the possibility of neurogenesis in mammals. Kaplan is reported as remembering Rakic telling him that “Those [cells] may look like neurons in New Mexico, but they don’t in New Haven.” Like Altman before him, Kaplan abandoned his work in neurogenesis.\n\nSection::::Confronting Rakic's data.\n", "Synaptic pruning is classified separately from the regressive events seen during older ages. While developmental pruning is experience dependent, the deteriorating connections that are synonymous with old age are not. The stereotyped pruning can be related to the chiseling and molding of stone into a statue. Once the statue is complete, the weather will begin to erode the statue and this represents the experience-independent deletion of connections.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "However, structure-function relationships in the brain are unlikely to reduce to simple one-to-one mappings. In fact, the connectome can evidently support a great number of variable dynamic states, depending on current sensory inputs, global brain state, learning and development. Some changes in functional state may involve rapid changes of structural connectivity at the synaptic level, as has been elucidated by two-photon imaging experiments showing the rapid appearance and disappearance of dendritic spines (Bonhoeffer and Yuste, 2002).\n", "Rewiring at the mesoscale involves studying the presence or absence of entire connections between neurons. Evidence for this level of rewiring comes from observations that local circuits form new connections as a result of experience-dependent plasticity in the visual cortex. Additionally, the number of local connections between pyramidal neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex increases following altered whisker sensory experience in rodents.\n\nSection::::Plasticity of the connectome.:Macroscale rewiring.\n", "Having given up her initial thesis topic, she returned to a question that Jerome Kagan had posed very excitedly in Adele's first year in graduate school: \"If infants all over the world show the same cognitive changes at roughly the same time, those changes cannot be due entirely to learning or experience, because their experiences are too diverse; there must be a maturational component; what might that maturational component be?\" To answer that question, Adele had to turn to neuroscience. She turned to neuroscience not because of an intrinsic interest in it per se; rather her motivation was to answer a particular question that required a neuroscientific approach.\n", "Neurons begin to form early, but most of them become structural rather than active nerve cells. The brain generally forms from the inside-out, especially in the case of the neocortex. The difficulties arising from this are readily apparent, as each successive layer of cells must travel through the previous layer to reach its destination. Therefore, nervous tissue develops ladders made of radial glial cells that neurons climb, through the previous layers, to reach their proper destination. Some destinations, such as the cerebral cortex, even have \"placeholder\" neurons that travel up the ladder to form a structure; when the final neurons germinate, they find a correct placeholder and then the placeholder cell dies.\n", "He discovered that synapses are created in the first few months of a child's development, and then \"pruned\", by examining the brains of about 50 people, mostly infants and young children who had died unexpectedly, but also a few adults, one of them age 90. Using an electron microscope to count image samples of material, and then manually counting the synapses, he showed that synaptic density was low at birth, about 2,500 connections per neuron. It increased rapidly to levels 50 to 60 percent above adult levels, and then gradually declined, falling to typical adult values.\n", "The Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal was among the first to suggest a mechanism of learning that did not require the formation of new neurons. In his 1894 Croonian Lecture, he proposed that memories might instead be formed by strengthening the connections between existing neurons to improve the effectiveness of their communication. Hebbian theory, introduced by Donald Hebb in 1949, echoed Ramón y Cajal's ideas, further proposing that cells may grow new connections or undergo metabolic changes that enhance their ability to communicate:\n", "Gould spent the next eight years quantifying endless numbers of radioactive rat hippocampi in pursuit of neurogenesis. Gould became a member of the Princeton faculty in 1997. The very next year, in a series of papers, Gould began documenting neurogenesis in primates, directly confronting Rakic’s data. She demonstrated that adult marmosets created new neurons in their brains, especially in the olfactory cortex and the hippocampus. By 1999, Rakic admitted that neurogenesis was real. To that end he published a paper in the \"Proceedings of the\" \"National Academy of Sciences\" that reported seeing new neurons in the hippocampus of macaques.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Interpretation of units\": Units can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Definition of activation\": Activation can be defined in a variety of ways. For example, in a Boltzmann machine, the activation is interpreted as the probability of generating an action potential spike, and is determined via a logistic function on the sum of the inputs to a unit.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Learning algorithm\": Different networks modify their connections differently. In general, any mathematically defined change in connection weights over time is referred to as the \"learning algorithm\".\n", "At the beginning of the connectome project, it was thought that the connections between neurons were unchangeable once established and that only individual synapses could be altered. However, recent evidence suggests that connectivity is also subject to change, termed neuroplasticity. There are two ways that the brain can rewire: formation and removal of synapses in an established connection or formation or removal of entire connections between neurons. Both mechanisms of rewiring are useful for learning completely novel tasks that may require entirely new connections between regions of the brain. However, the ability of the brain to gain or lose entire connections poses an issue for mapping a universal species connectome.\n" ]

[ "It would be possible to run out of space in the brain due to newly created nueron connections." ]

[ "Old connections are continuously being lost to create new ones." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It would be possible to run out of space in the brain due to newly created nueron connections." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Old connections are continuously being lost to create new ones." ]

[ "Section::::Affiliates.:Major market absences and station oddities.\n\nIon Television does not have any over-the-air stations in several major markets, most notably Baltimore, Maryland (Verizon FiOS subscribers in Baltimore County receive the network's Washington, D.C. affiliate WPXW-TV as a default affiliate) and San Diego, California.\n", "Public-access television organizations remain in service in their municipalities. In a changing technology industry, many PEG organizations began investing in training and technology to distribute media in new ways using the Internet. In the twenty-first century, the consumer media market became flooded with blogs, vlogs, RSS syndication and aggregation, mobile-device and cell phone media, and countless new methods for distributing information and ideas. As cable television adopts new technologies, many public-access television centers adapted these new technologies in order to continue serving their missions and goals within their own constituency.\n\nSection::::Outside the U.S..\n", "BULLET::::- SOI TV – A small Spanish-language network, which operated from March 2012 to January 2013. Launched with a $20 million investment, it was founded by a Venezuelan banker and former political prisoner under that country's president Hugo Chavez, who was granted asylum in the U.S.; the network used interactive broadcast technologies allowing real-time response by viewers regarding its television content via Twitter and Facebook. SOI's programming was carried by cable network La Familia beginning in December 2012; while NBCUniversal owned Telemundo stations formerly carried the network on their digital subchannels until January 2013.\n", "Ion's current method of running predominately syndicated programming is very similar to the international model of broadcasting used in Europe, Canada, Latin America, Asia and Australia, which mixes imported and syndicated shows with original programming – a model used only in United States broadcast television by digital multicast services (particularly those that specialize in acquired programs such as MeTV), smaller English language entertainment-based networks (such as America One) and networks broadcasting in languages other than English (such as Univision and Telemundo). The major commercial broadcast networks in the U.S. – ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox and The CW – carry first-run programs produced for the network, while leaving the responsibility of acquiring shows from the syndication market to their owned-and-operated stations and affiliates to fill time not allotted to network and, where applicable, locally produced programs (MyNetworkTV, which is somewhat similar to Ion Television in its format, mixes elements of both models as acquired programs are supplied both during prime time by the service and by its stations at all other times). A limited number of non-Ion-owned stations that are merely affiliated with the network (such as Louisville outlet WBNA) do carry additional local or syndicated programming that, in some instances, pre-empts certain programs within the Ion master schedule.\n", "In April 2009, it was announced that Ion Media Networks was once again facing balance sheet problems. The company disclosed that it was in discussions with lenders on \"a comprehensive recapitalization\" of its balance sheet, translating to an effort to restructure its considerable debt, which, according to \"The Wall Street Journal\", stood at $2.7 billion as of April 2009.\n", "BULLET::::- FamilyNet – A general interest cable network owned by the Rural Media Group; launched in 1988, it went through several owners and mainly featured a religious format; owners included Jerry Falwell and the Southern Baptist Convention before its acquisition by the Rural Media Group, the parent of the rural-focused RFD-TV in 2013. After its sale it programmed a slate of classic television programming from Sony Pictures Television until July 1, 2017, when Rural Media converted it to a Western-focused sports network, The Cowboy Channel; all remaining over-the-air carriage agreements were nullified.\n", "In addition, in several other markets, Ion's predecessor was sold to another television station group to affiliate with a different English or Spanish language network, and through either a lack of channel space or interest in the network, Ion would not reappear in most of those markets until reaching deals to air on digital subchannels of other stations. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- Albuquerque, New Mexico: KAPX (now UniMás owned-and-operated station KTFQ, Ion now on KWBQ 19.4)\n\nBULLET::::- Baraboo, Wisconsin: W43BR (now a Family Channel affiliate, Ion now in Madison on WISC 3.3)\n", "The launches of these networks drastically reduced the number of independent stations in the United States; some mid-sized markets would not regain a general entertainment independent until the early 2000s, through sign-ons of unaffiliated stations and disaffiliations by existing stations from other commercial and noncommercial networks. In 2001, Univision Communications purchased several English language independents in larger markets (which mostly operated as Home Shopping Network affiliates until the late 1990s) from USA Broadcasting to form the nuclei of the upstart Spanish language network Telefutura (now UniMás), which launched in January 2002. Several stations affiliated with The WB and UPN became independent again when the respective parent companies of those networks (Time Warner and CBS Corporation) decided to shut them down to form The CW, which launched in September 2006 with a schedule dominated by shows held over from and an affiliate body primarily made up of stations previously aligned with its two predecessors. Some of the newly independent stations subsequently found a new network home through MyNetworkTV, itself created out of the prospect that the UPN affiliates of corporate sister Fox Television Stations would become independents due to The CW choosing to affiliate with CBS Television Stations and Tribune Broadcasting stations in overlapping markets.\n", "Cable and digital broadcast networks have provided outlets for programming that either has outlived its syndication viability, lacks the number of episodes necessary for syndication, or for various reasons was not a candidate for syndication in the first place. Popular dramas, for instance, have permanent homes on several basic cable channels, often running in marathons (multiple episodes airing back-to-back for several hours), and there are also cable channels devoted to game shows (Game Show Network and Buzzr), soap operas (the now-defunct SoapNet), Saturday morning cartoons (Boomerang) and even sports broadcasts (ESPN Classic). Digital broadcast networks specializing in classic television programming that have become popular since the early 2010s have also served as short-term or long-term homes for many older series that have not been syndicated in decades or have ever been aired in reruns. Most reality shows perform poorly in reruns and are rarely seen as a result, other than reruns of series still in production, on the same network on which they air (almost always cable outlets), where they air as filler programming.\n", "BULLET::::- Urban America Television (UATV) – A successor to the American Independent Network, which operated from December 3, 2001 to May 1, 2006. UATV was a small network with approximately 60 affiliates at its peak, carrying a mix of original programming, and older films and series.\n\nBULLET::::- Variety Television Network – A digital multicast network owned by Newport Television, whose stations served as its affiliates, which operated from 2007 to January 2009.\n", "In earlier times, independent stations thrived on syndicated programming, including some venerable and quite profitable stations such as KMSP-TV in the Minneapolis-St. Paul market. With the loosening of FCC regulations and the creation of new additional broadcast networks (such as Fox, The CW, MyNetworkTV and Ion Television), most of these independents have joined one or another of these or smaller (religious or low-budget) networks.\n", "The Phoenix DMA is the largest TV market that did not have a Live Well Network affiliate, since Scripps-owned KNXV-TV (an ABC affiliate) switched to Antenna TV in January 2014, citing viewer demand for the classic TV network as the reason for dropping Live Well.\n", "During the early 2010s, ACME set forth on cost-cutting efforts involving its assets and an admitted \"exit strategy\" from the television business, including the following:\n\nBULLET::::- A licensing and consulting agreement with Fisher Communications for \"The Daily Buzz\", announced in April 2010, that would see Fisher handle production of \"Buzz\".\n", "BULLET::::- PBS YOU (\"YOU\" being an acronym for \"Your Own University\") – A public television network featuring a mix of instructional, news/commentary and documentary programs, which operated from the late 1990s to 2006. Many of its affiliates joined Create, a similar service from American Public Television that focuses more on craft and travel programming, after YOU ceased operations.\n", "Several produced-for-web shows gained mainstream popularity and media coverage in 2012, 2013, and 2014, including \"House of Cards\", \"Orange Is the New Black\", and the revival of \"Arrested Development\" on Netflix.\n\nAmazon Studios produced a number of shows for Amazon Video, including \"Alpha House\", \"Betas\", and various situation comedy and children's shows. Amazon's \"Transparent\", went on to win a Golden Globe for Best Series.\n\nThere were brief revivals of the long running soap operas \"All My Children\" and \"One Life to Live\" on Hulu and iTunes before the shows were cancelled again a short time later.\n", "Two major factors that have limited the network's national broadcast coverage are that unlike the major commercial broadcast networks (ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox and The CW), Ion did not actively seek over-the-air distribution on the digital subchannels of other network-affiliated stations in the five years following the digital television transition (with limited exceptions in Las Vegas, Nevada, Tucson, Arizona and Fresno, California through agreements with Telemundo owned-and-operated stations in those markets), until it reached a multi-station agreement with Media General in November 2015; prior to that deal, it long had very few stations that contractually carry the network's programming (with limited exceptions in markets such as Louisville, Kentucky and Anchorage, Alaska). As a result, Ion Media Networks owns the vast majority of the stations within Ion Television's affiliate body, as well as those of co-owned multicast services Qubo Channel and Ion Life.\n", "Many religious broadcast networks and stations exist, also surviving on viewer contributions and time leased to the programming producers; the two most prominent are the Trinity Broadcasting Network, which was founded in 1973 by Paul and Jan Crouch as a part-time ministry that leased programming time on KBSA (now UniMás owned-and-operated station KFTR-DT) in the Los Angeles exurb of Ontario, California, before moving to KLXA-TV (now KTBN-TV) in Fontana, which it began purchasing time on in the following year after KBSA was sold; it gradually became the most widely distributed Christian television network in the world with 20 networks (including five in the United States that are primarily available through multicasting, The Church Channel, the youth-oriented JUCE TV and Smile of a Child TV, and the Latino-oriented TBN Enlace USA and TBN Salsa) and several affiliates internationally; and the Daystar Television Network, founded in 1993 by Marcus and Joni Lamb, when the former's Word of God Fellowship ministry purchased the license of defunct UHF station KMPX (now an Estrella TV owned-and-operated station) in Dallas, Texas. Most of their stations are owned by the television ministries directly or through subsidiary companies (Community Educational Television and Word of God Fellowship, respectively) used by them to operate stations that TBN and Daystar cannot own outright due to FCC regulations prohibiting individual broadcasting companies from owning television stations reaching more than 39% of all U.S. television markets.\n", "BULLET::::- Antenna TV – Antenna TV is a digital multicast network owned by Tribune Broadcasting; launched on January 1, 2011, the network carries classic series from the 1950s to the 1990s sourced from the programming libraries of Sony Pictures Television, NBCUniversal Television Distribution and 20th Television as well as other distributors; the network also carries a limited amount of feature films. The network maintains approximately 95 affiliates (nearly all of which carry the network on digital subchannels).\n", "As well as these Free-to-air channels, there are other's on Australia's Pay television network Foxtel.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n", "G4 on December 31, 2014 was taken off air and St. Maarten Cable replaced it with GVTV in their Solid Gold package on channel 284.\n\nIn October 2015, the over-the-top worldwide streaming service FilmOn added the entire Gone Viral Network of channels to their paid subscription tier.\n\nCable Color Honduras, the first Central American company to transmit cable television through a fiber optic network in Honduras, in March 2016 started broadcasting the Gone Viral Network.\n\nMay 2017, in Dominican Republic both CABLE ATLANTICO and ORBIT CABLE launched the Gone Viral Nertwork.\n", "The year 2000 saw several important \"programadoras\" leave the air: TeVecine, DFL Televisión, PUNCH, JES and Cenpro Televisión all returned their spaces to the CNTV. As the spaces came in, Audiovisuales, the state \"programadora\", saw a sharp and unexpected increase in its output — from a mere 5.5 hours at the start of 1998 to a whopping 41 hours a week after PUNCH's departure. Many of these programs were repeats, which led to further ratings declines. Companies like JES went from being \"programadoras\" to program producers for the private networks.\n", "Most of the network's initial affiliates were Paxson Communications-owned affiliate stations of the Infomall TV Network (inTV), a network launched by Paxson in 1995 that relied mainly on infomercials and other brokered programming. During the late spring and summer of 1998, a half-hour preview special hosted by former \"Waltons\" star Richard Thomas, featuring interviews with Lowell Paxson about PAX's development and initial programming, aired on inTV stations slated to become charter outlets of the new network.\n", "BULLET::::- Three Angels Broadcasting Network (3ABN) – Seventh-day Adventist\n\nBULLET::::- Total Living Network (TLN)\n\nBULLET::::- Unity Broadcasting Network – five low-power stations\n\nBULLET::::- World Harvest Television (WHT)/LeSEA Broadcasting and fetv – family-oriented secular and religious programming (available over-the-air and on satellite)\n\nBULLET::::- The Word Network – African American Christian network\n\nBULLET::::- The Worship Network\n\nSeveral religious networks allow their broadcast affiliates to carry their programming out-of-pattern through clearance arrangements, notably TBN, 3ABN, Hope Channel and World Harvest Television.\n\nSection::::Defunct networks.\n", "In the summer of 2009 as the network converted to a syndicated programming service, the network lost several affiliates due to two factors. The first was the aftermath of the digital transition of June 12 and the Equity Media Holdings bankruptcy, where several stations which had not completed their digital facilities ended broadcasting and had also been purchased at auction by the religious broadcaster Daystar Television Network. Those stations which were low-power and unaffected by the transition were quickly converted to Daystar or sold by Daystar to a second party, with the remainder to follow once the digital facilities were built. Several also went off the air completely upon not being sold.\n", "Separate national feeds have been made available to pay television providers Dish Network, DirecTV, Time Warner Cable, Comcast and Charter Communications, and Ion Television stations not owned by Ion Media Networks, featuring programming sourced from Ion Life in place of paid programming that airs on the main network. Prior to the launch of Ion Life, the Ion Plus feeds carried reruns of cancelled Pax original programs (such as \"Miracle Pets\" and \"Beat the Clock\"), as well as public domain movies and sitcom episodes (such as \"I Married Joan\" and \"The Beverly Hillbillies\"). The feeds used the Pax name and bug after the network's rebrand as \"i\", until about September 2005.\n" ]

[ "Those companies operate by themselves and need a profit to survive.", "Non major over the air networks such as myTVnetwork and Ion television should not still be running." ]

[ "The companies are owned and operated by bigger companies so there is a low cost to running them. This allows for a respectable profit margin.", "Their cost to run is very low, therefore it does not take much to sustain the ability to run." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Those companies operate by themselves and need a profit to survive.", "Non major over the air networks such as myTVnetwork and Ion television should not still be running." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The companies are owned and operated by bigger companies so there is a low cost to running them. This allows for a respectable profit margin.", "Their cost to run is very low, therefore it does not take much to sustain the ability to run." ]

[ "Studies show that alcohol hangover is associated with a decrease in blood glucose concentration (less than 70 ml/dl), but the relationship between blood glucose concentration and hangover severity is unclear. Also known as insulin shock, hypoglycemia can lead to coma or even death.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Immune system.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Vitamin and electrolyte loss.\n\nThe metabolic processes required for alcohol elimination deplete essential vitamins and electrolytes. Furthermore, alcohol is a diuretic, causing excretion of electrolytes through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium, and zinc may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Dehydration.\n", "When re-annual plant products undergo fermentation, the product is time-reversed alcohol (such as counterwise wine), a rare substance much sought by fortune-tellers and the like, as ingesting it allows some ability to foretell the future, which from the point of view of the plant is the past. Time-reversed alcohol produces inebriation in the normal way, but the hangover is thrust backwards in time to several hours before the actual ingestion of the alcohol. This is known as a hangunder, and is usually very strong since one feels so dreadful one imbibes large amounts of alcohol to get over it.\n", "While the causes of a hangover are still poorly understood, several factors are known to be involved including acetaldehyde accumulation, changes in the immune system and glucose metabolism, dehydration, metabolic acidosis, disturbed prostaglandin synthesis, increased cardiac output, vasodilation, sleep deprivation and malnutrition. Beverage-specific effects of additives or by-products such as congeners in alcoholic beverages also play an important role. The symptoms occur typically after the intoxicating effect of the alcohol begins to wear off, generally the morning after a night of heavy drinking.\n", "An alcohol hangover is associated with a variety of symptoms that may include drowsiness, headache, concentration problems, dry mouth, dizziness, gastrointestinal complaints, fatigue, sweating, nausea, hyper-excitability, anxiety, and a feeling of general discomfort that may last more than 24 hours. Alcohol hangover symptoms develop when blood alcohol concentration falls considerably and peak when it returns to almost zero. Hangover symptoms validated in controlled studies include general malaise, thirst, headache, feeling dizzy or faint, tiredness, loss of appetite, nausea, stomach ache, and feeling as though one's heart is racing. Some symptoms such as changes in sleep pattern and gastrointestinal distress are attributed to direct effects of the alcohol intoxication, or withdrawal symptoms. Drowsiness and impaired cognitive function are the two dominant features of alcohol hangover.\n", "BULLET::::- Tolfenamic acid, an inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis, in a 1983 study reduced headache, nausea, vomiting, irritation but had no effect on tiredness in 30 people.\n\nBULLET::::- Pyritinol: A 1973 study found that large doses (several hundred times the recommended daily intake) of Pyritinol, a synthetic Vitamin B analog, can help to reduce hangover symptoms. Possible side effects of pyritinol include hepatitis (liver damage) due to cholestasis and acute pancreatitis.\n", "One potent congener is methanol. It is naturally formed in small quantities during fermentation and it can be accidentally concentrated by improper distillation techniques. Metabolism of methanol produces some extremely toxic compounds, such as formaldehyde and formic acid, which may play a role in the severity of hangover. Ethanol slows the conversion of methanol into its toxic metabolites so that most of the methanol can be excreted harmlessly in the breath and urine without forming its toxic metabolites. This may explain the temporary postponement of symptoms reported in the common remedy of drinking more alcohol to relieve hangover symptoms. Since methanol metabolism is effectively inhibited by consumption of alcohol, methanol accumulates during drinking and only begins to be metabolized once ethanol has been cleared. This delayed action makes it an attractive candidate explanation for delayed post-intoxication symptoms and correlations between methanol concentrations and the presence of hangover symptoms that have been found in studies.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThe processes which lead to hangovers are still poorly understood. Several pathophysiological changes may give rise to the alcohol hangover including increased levels of acetaldehyde, hormonal alterations of the cytokine pathways and decrease of the availability of glucose. Additional associated phenomena are dehydration, metabolic acidosis, disturbed prostaglandin synthesis, increased cardiac output, vasodilation, sleep deprivation and insufficient eating. Some complex organic molecules found in alcoholic beverages known as congeners may play an important role in producing hangover effects because some, such as methanol, are metabolized to the notably toxic substances formaldehyde and formic acid.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Kudzu (\"Pueraria montana var. lobata\"): The main ingredient in remedies such as kakkonto. A study concluded, \"The chronic usage of \"Pueraria lobata\" at times of high ethanol consumption, such as in hangover remedies, may predispose subjects to an increased risk of acetaldehyde-related neoplasm and pathology. ... Pueraria lobata appears to be an inappropriate herb for use in herbal hangover remedies as it is an inhibitor of ALDH2.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Artichoke: Research shows that artichoke extract does not prevent the signs and symptoms of alcohol-induced hangover.\n", "Alcohol also induces the CYP2E1 enzyme, which metabolizes ethanol and other substances into more reactive toxins. In particular, in binge drinking the enzyme is activated and plays a role in creating a harmful condition known as oxidative stress which can lead to cell death.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acetaldehyde.\n", "The concentration of alcohol in blood is measured via blood alcohol content (BAC). The amount and circumstances of consumption play a large role in determining the extent of intoxication; for example, eating a heavy meal before alcohol consumption causes alcohol to absorb more slowly. The amount of alcohol consumed largely determines the extent of hangovers, although hydration also plays a role. After excessive drinking, stupor and unconsciousness both can occur. Extreme levels of consumption can cause alcohol poisoning and death; in fact, a concentration in the blood stream of 0.40% will kill half of those affected. Alcohol may also cause death indirectly, by asphyxiation from vomiting.\n", "BULLET::::- Oxygen: There have been anecdotal reports from those with easy access to a breathing oxygen supply – medical staff, and military pilots — that oxygen can also reduce the symptoms of hangovers sometimes caused by alcohol consumption. The theory is that the increased oxygen flow resulting from oxygen therapy improves the metabolic rate, and thus increases the speed at which toxins are broken down. However, one source states that (in an aviation context) oxygen has no effect on physical impairment caused by hangover.\n", "In mid-2017, it was reported that one company in the UK allows sick days when hung over.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nPsychological research of alcohol hangover is growing rapidly. The Alcohol Hangover Research Group had its inaugural meeting in June 2010 as part of the Research Society on Alcoholism (RSA) 33rd Annual Scientific Meeting in San Antonio, Texas.\n\nIn 2012, Éduc'alcool, a Quebec-based non-profit organization that aims to educate the public on the responsible use of alcohol, published a report noting hangovers have long-lasting effects that inhibit the drinker's capabilities a full 24 hours after heavy drinking.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Auto-brewery syndrome\n", "Chris Difford said of the song, \"Lyrically this was the finest song on the album for me. All the imagery is so correct and goes beautifully with the music.\" Tillbrook said, \"This is the first track that I'm proud of on [\"Sweets from a Stranger\"].\"\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Additional medication may be indicated for treatment of nausea, tremor, and anxiety.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nA normal liver detoxifies the blood of alcohol over a period of time that depends on the initial level and the patient's overall physical condition. An abnormal liver will take longer but still succeeds, provided the alcohol does not cause liver failure.\n\nPeople having drunk heavily for several days or weeks may have withdrawal symptoms after the acute intoxication has subsided.\n\nA person consuming a dangerous amount of alcohol persistently can develop memory blackouts and idiosyncratic intoxication or pathological drunkenness symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::1. Exhausted: \"I couldn't sleep at all last night, I'm completely \"bollocksed\"!\"\n\nBULLET::::2. Broken: \"My foot pump is \"bollocksed\".\"\n\nBULLET::::3. An extreme state of inebriation or drug-induced stupor: \"Last night I got completely \"bollocksed\"\".\n\nBULLET::::4. Hungover (or equivalent): \"I drank two bottles of gin last night, I'm completely \"bollocksed\".\"\n\nBULLET::::5. Made a mistake: \"I tried to draw that landscape, but I \"bollocksed\" it up.\"\n", "Consuming \"Coprinopsis atramentaria\" within a few hours of alcohol results in a \"disulfiram syndrome\". This interaction has only been known since the early part of the twentieth century. Symptoms include facial reddening, nausea, vomiting, malaise, agitation, palpitations and tingling in limbs, and arise five to ten minutes after consumption of alcohol. If no more alcohol is consumed, they will generally subside over two or three hours. Symptom severity is proportional to the amount of alcohol consumed, becoming evident when blood alcohol concentration reaches 5 mg/dL, and prominent at concentrations of 50–100 mg/dL. Disulfiram has, however, been known to cause myocardial infarction (heart attack). The symptoms can occur if even a small amount of alcohol is consumed up to three days after eating the mushrooms, although they are milder as more time passes. Rarely, a cardiac arrhythmia, such as atrial fibrillation on top of supraventricular tachycardia, may develop.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Person-related factors.\n\nSeveral factors which do not in themselves cause alcohol hangover are known to influence its severity. These factors include personality, genetics, health status, age, sex, associated activities during drinking such as smoking, the use of other drugs, physical activity such as dancing, as well as sleep quality and duration.\n", "BULLET::::- Fructose and glucose: Glucose and fructose significantly inhibit the metabolic changes produced by alcohol intoxication, nevertheless they have no significant effect on hangover severity.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin B: No effects on alcohol metabolism, peak blood alcohol and glucose concentrations have been found and psychomotor function is not significantly improved when using Vitamin B supplements.\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeinated drinks: No significant correlation between caffeine use and hangover severity has been found.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nHangovers occur commonly.\n\nBULLET::::- A study in college students found that 25% had experienced a hangover in the previous week and 29% reported losing school time for hangover recovery.\n", "In current research, the significant relationship between immune factors and hangover severity is the most convincing among all factors so far studied. An imbalance of the immune system, in particular of cytokine metabolism has been identified as playing a role in the pathophysiology of the hangover state. Especially the hangover symptoms nausea, headache, and fatigue have been suggested to be mediated by changes in the immune system. The concentration of several cytokines have been found to be significantly increased in the blood after alcohol consumption. These include interleukin 12 (IL-12), interferon gamma (IFNγ) and interleukin 10 (IL-10). Some pharmacological studies such as on tolfenamic acid and \"Opuntia ficus-indica\" (OFI) have also indicated an involvement of the immune system. These studies suggest that the presence and severity of hangover symptoms can probably be reduced by administration of a cyclooxygenase inhibitor such as aspirin or ibuprofen.\n", "BULLET::::- 1667–1675 John Roan (afterwards Bishop of Killaloe, 1675)\n\nBULLET::::- 1675–1682 Richard Tennison (afterwards Bishop of Killala, 1682)\n\nBULLET::::- 1682–1716 Joseph Williams\n\nBULLET::::- 1716–1724 William Gore (afterwards Dean of Down, 1724)\n\nBULLET::::- 1724–1727 Jonathan Smedley\n\nBULLET::::- 1727/8–1730 Pascal (or Paul) Ducasse\n\nBULLET::::- 1730 Edward Cresset\n\nBULLET::::- 1737/8–1743 John Copping\n\nBULLET::::- 1743–1761 William Langton\n\nBULLET::::- 1761–1763 Edward Young (afterwards Bishop of Dromore, 1763)\n\nBULLET::::- 1763–1781 Richard Woodward (afterwards Bishop of Cloyne, 1781)\n\nBULLET::::- 1781–1799 Cadogan Keatinge\n\nBULLET::::- 1799–1805 John Beresford (afterwards Bishop of Cork and Ross, 1805)\n\nBULLET::::- 1805–1825 Richard Bagwell\n\nBULLET::::- 1826–1861 Robert Maude\n\nBULLET::::- 1862–1873 Ogle Moore\n", "The concentration of alcohol in blood is measured via blood alcohol content (BAC). The amount and circumstances of consumption play a large part in determining the extent of intoxication; for example, eating a heavy meal before alcohol consumption causes alcohol to absorb more slowly. Hydration also plays a role, especially in determining the extent of hangovers. After excessive drinking, unconsciousness can occur and extreme levels of consumption can lead to alcohol poisoning and death (a concentration in the blood stream of 0.40% will kill half of those affected). Alcohol may also cause death indirectly, by asphyxiation from vomit.\n", "Several studies have examined whether certain types of alcohol cause worse hangovers. All four studies concluded that darker liquors, which have higher congeners, produced worse hangovers. One even showed that hangovers were worse \"and\" more frequent with darker liquors. In a 2006 study, an average of 14 standard drinks (330 ml each) of beer was needed to produce a hangover, but only 7 to 8 drinks was required for wine or liquor (note that one standard drink has the same amount of alcohol regardless of type). Another study ranked several drinks by their ability to cause a hangover as follows (from low to high): distilled ethanol diluted with fruit juice, beer, vodka, gin, white wine, whisky, rum, red wine and brandy.\n", "Glenn Tillbrook has said that the track was subconsciously inspired by Frank Sinatra. \"I'd started listening to the albums Frank Sinatra made for Capitol in the '50s, which he recorded primarily with producer Nelson Riddle. The instrumentation on those albums was fantastic and contained a certain mood and direction to them that had nothing to do with the record that had come before. ... I wasn't thinking this consciously when i wrote 'Hangover'. It's just that when I listen to any sort of music some of it trickles out in one way or other.\"\n", "The writing process, according to Shannon Larkin, was collaborative, stating that all four members of the band wrote the song and Sully came up with the lyrics:\n\n\"All four of us were in the room and we wrote that song in like 3 hours. But it took Sully weeks to come up with the lyrics, and he wasn’t even happy with it ‘cause we had to rush it, ‘cause we needed something for this Motley Crue tour. The 3 of us loved it, but Sully was kind of irritated with it ‘cause he knows it could have been better\".\n\nSection::::Sound.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- the composition ratio - stoichiometric mixtures burn the fastest, also slight excess of metallic fuel also increases burn rate, probably due to heat transfer\n\nBULLET::::- particle sizes - smaller particles burn faster, but too small particles may lead to incomplete or interrupted burn due to too narrow heating zone\n\nBULLET::::- mechanical assembly and housing - charge diameter and thermal conductivity of housing influence lateral heat losses\n\nBULLET::::- ambient temperature - ideally this dependence is very low but extremely low or extremely high temperatures may have influence\n\nExamples of some compositions are: \n", "BULLET::::- \"Partial burning regime\", where both fuel and oxidizer cross the reaction zone and enter into the frozen flow on other side,\n\nBULLET::::- \"Premixed flame regime\", where only one of the reactants cross the reaction zone, in which case, reaction zone separates a frozen flow region from a near-equilibrium region,\n\nBULLET::::- \"Near-equilibrium diffusion-controlled regime\", is a thin reaction zone, separating two near-equilibrium region.\n\nSection::::Mathematical description.\n", "BULLET::::- energy/volume of the fuel\n\nThere are two kinds of heat of combustion, called higher and lower heating value, depending on how much the products are allowed to cool and whether compounds like are allowed to condense.\n", "Until the mid-1930s, the study of the theory of heat transfer from a moving source was neglected, and temperature distribution due to moving heat sources could only be calculated approximately. In 1935, Daniel Rosenthal published the first literature applying the exact theory of heat flow from a moving source to arc welding. Rosenthal's theoretical model included several assumptions:\n\nBULLET::::- Material properties are constant,\n\nBULLET::::- The heat source is a point source,\n\nBULLET::::- The surface of the work piece does not lose heat to the atmosphere,\n\nBULLET::::- Heat created by the Joule effect is neglected\n", "These three scenarios are known as \"Wild–type\", \"Heterozygote\" or \"Homozygote\" respectively. Each gives a melt curve that is slightly different. With a high quality HRM assay it is possible to distinguish between all three of these scenarios.\n", "Ignition normally takes place in the dead component of the fine fuels. Three distinct steps must be considered in this ignition process. \n\nThey are:\n\nBULLET::::- A firebrand must come into contact with the dead fuel.\n\nBULLET::::- The fuel particle must be dry.\n\nBULLET::::- The temperature of the fuel particle must be raised to the kindling point which is about 380 degrees Celsius.\n\nLiving material in the fine fuel complex reduces the efficiency of ignition. Therefore, an adjustment to the ignition component is made based on the percentage of live fuel (herbaceous vegetation) in the fine fuel complex. \n", "BULLET::::- \"Side-fed firing or retorte burner\" - This technology functions similarly to the underfeed firing except that the fuel is pressed via an auger onto the burn plate from the side. At the same time the burn plate as well as the air supply can be configured to match partial performances.\n", "The above data is given with the following assumptions:\n\nBULLET::::- The flame is adiabatic\n\nBULLET::::- The surrounding air is at 20°C, 1 bar atm\n\nBULLET::::- Complete combustion (no soot, and more blue-like flame is the key) (Stoichiometric)\n\nBULLET::::- Peak Temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Speed of Combustion (has no effect on temperature, but more energy released per second (as adiabatic) compared to normal flame)\n\nBULLET::::- Spectral bands also affect colour of flame, as of what part and elements of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- Blackbody radiation (colour appearance only because of heat)\n", "A thermobaric bomb's effective yield requires the most appropriate combination of a number of factors; among these are how well the fuel is dispersed, how rapidly it mixes with the surrounding atmosphere, and the initiation of the igniter and its position relative to the container of fuel. In some designs, strong munitions cases allow the blast pressure to be contained long enough for the fuel to be heated up well above its auto-ignition temperature, so that once the container bursts the super-heated fuel will auto-ignite progressively as it comes into contact with atmospheric oxygen.\n", "BULLET::::- Oxysulfide materials exhibit several different emission lines, each having a different temperature dependence. Substituting one rare-earth for another, in this instance changing La to Gd, shifts the temperature dependence.\n\nBULLET::::- The YAG:Cr material (YAlO:Cr) shows less sensitivity but covers a wider temperature range than the more sensitive materials.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Annealing\": In the next step, the reaction temperature is lowered to for 20–40 seconds, allowing annealing of the primers to each of the single-stranded DNA templates. Two different primers are typically included in the reaction mixture: one for each of the two single-stranded complements containing the target region. The primers are single-stranded sequences themselves, but are much shorter than the length of the target region, complementing only very short sequences at the 3' end of each strand.\n", "A common method of relating HHV to LHV is:\n\nwhere \"H\" is the heat of vaporization of water, n is the moles of water vaporized and n is the number of moles of fuel combusted.\n\nBULLET::::- Most applications that burn fuel produce water vapor, which is unused and thus wastes its heat content. In such applications, the lower heating value must be used to give a 'benchmark' for the process.\n", "For reciprocating engines, the point in the cycle at which the fuel-oxidizer mixture is ignited has a direct effect on the efficiency and output of the ICE. The thermodynamics of the idealized Carnot heat engine tells us that an ICE is most efficient if most of the burning takes place at a high temperature, resulting from compression — near top dead center. The speed of the flame front is directly affected by the compression ratio, fuel mixture temperature, and octane rating or cetane number of the fuel. Leaner mixtures and lower mixture pressures burn more slowly requiring more advanced ignition timing. It is important to have combustion spread by a thermal flame front (deflagration), not by a shock wave. Combustion propagation by a shock wave is called detonation and, in engines, is also known as pinging or Engine knocking.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_23 is the thickness (m) of the sample (measured on a path parallel to the heat flow),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_30 is the heat flux through the sample (W·m),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_31 is the temperature gradient (K·m) across the sample,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_26 is the cross-sectional area (m) perpendicular to the path of heat flow through the sample,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_8 is the temperature difference (K) across the sample,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_34 is the rate of heat flow (W) through the sample.\n\nSection::::Analogies.:Problems with electrical resistance analogy.\n", "The burning rate measured from a strand burner is typically 4 to 12% less than actual burning rate observed in rockets. This is because the high temperature conditions in actual rockets are not simulated. The heat transfer characteristics are also different. Nevertheless, the strand burner experiment is easy to perform, can be repeated and a qualitative picture of the burning rate is obtained. The temperature sensitivity of burning rate is usually calculated from strand-burner test data.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Solid rocket\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- George P. Sutton and Oscar Biblarz. \"Rocket Propulsion Elements\". John Wiley and Sons, Inc. .\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In a vertical setup a light source (e.g. , flashlamp) heats the sample from the bottom side and a detector on top detects the time-dependent temperature rise. For measuring the thermal diffusivity, which is strongly temperature-dependent, at different temperatures the sample can be placed in a furnace at constant temperature.\n\nPerfect conditions are\n\nBULLET::::- homogenous material,\n\nBULLET::::- a homogenous energy input on the front side\n\nBULLET::::- a time-dependent short pulse – in form of a Dirac delta function\n\nSeveral improvements on the models have been made. In 1963 Cowan takes radiation and convection on the surface into account.\n", "In addition to typical primer design considerations, the design of primers for high-resolution melting assays involves maximizing the thermodynamic differences between PCR products belonging to different genotypes. Smaller amplicons generally yield greater melting temperature variation than longer amplicons, but the variability cannot be predicted by eye. For this reason, it is critical to accurately predict the melting curve of PCR products when designing primers that will distinguish sequence variants. Specialty software, such as uMelt and DesignSignatures, are available to help design primers that will maximize melting curve variability specifically for high-resolution melting assays.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Beacon Designer\n", "Welding time is defined as how long the parts are rotated while in contact. While welding time does not directly affect the overall heat generation rate, it is an influential factor on how much overall heat is generated throughout the welding process. Usually when utilizing this process there is a threshold time that is necessary to reach a steady state for heat generation. This steady state is defined by when the amount of material melted is equal to the amount of material expelled by the welding pressure. To achieve a quality weld this steady state must be reached for a uniform melt layer.\n", "Maximum fluid temperatures near the tube wall are present when the fluid is heated, and because the heat transfer coefficient is strongly depended of angle (formula_26), the calculation of the maximum local temperature is not straight forward. For this purpose, correlations for the peripherally averaged Nusselt number are, if none, of little use when keeping heat flux conditions constant. On the other hand, correlations for the peripherally averaged Nusselt number for constant wall temperature are very useful.\n\nThe secondary flow:\n\nBULLET::::- Increases heat transfer rates.\n\nBULLET::::- Increases friction loses.\n\nBULLET::::- Decreases entrance length.\n", "Many formulas for match cord exist, providing varying burn rates. The predominant chemical used was potassium nitrate, although sodium nitrate, and lead(II) acetate also appear to have been used. Potassium nitrate, however, had an advantage over sodium nitrate, through being less likely to absorb atmospheric moisture.\n", "The factor that determines whether an ignimbrite has primary welding, secondary welding or no welding is debated:\n\nBULLET::::- Different chemical compositions will lower the viscosity and enable primary weld.\n\nBULLET::::- There is not enough variation in the composition of primary and secondary welded ignimbrites for this to be a major factor.\n\nBULLET::::- Cooling during transport is negligible, so if the eruption temperature is high enough then primary welding will occur. Lateral variations in degree of welding are not a result of cooling during transport.\n", "A few criteria must be brought into consideration when designing a pair of PCR primers. Pairs of primers should have similar melting temperatures since annealing during PCR occurs for strands both simultaneously, and this shared melting temperature must not be either too much higher or lower than the reaction's annealing temperature. A primer with a \"T\" (melting temperature) too much higher than the reaction's annealing temperature may mishybridize and extend at an incorrect location along the DNA sequence. A \"T\" significantly lower than the annealing temperature may fail to anneal and extend at all.\n", "In a one-dimensional, adiabatic case the thermal diffusivity formula_1 is calculated from this temperature rise as follows:\n\nWhere\n\nBULLET::::- formula_1 is the thermal diffusivity in cm²/s\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is the thickness of the sample in cm\n\nBULLET::::- formula_5 is the time to the half maximum in s\n\nSection::::Measurement principle.\n\nThe laser flash method was developed by Parker et al. in 1961.\n", "The liquid thermal diffusion process was based on the discovery by Carl Ludwig in 1856 and later Charles Soret in 1879, that when a temperature gradient is maintained in an originally homogeneous salt solution, after a time, a concentration gradient will also exist in the solution. This is known as the Soret effect. David Enskog in 1911 and Sydney Chapman in 1916 independently developed the Chapman–Enskog theory, which explained that when a mixture of two gases passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier gas tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter gas at the warm end. This was experimentally confirmed by Chapman and F. W. Dootson in 1916.\n", "The different flash point methods depend on the controlled conditions in the laboratory and do not determine an intrinsic property of the material tested. They are however useful to compare different substances and is therefore widely used in road transportation and environmental safety regulations.\n\nClosed cup testers give lower values for the flashpoint than open-cup testers (typically 5–10 K) and are a better approximation to the temperature at which the vapour pressure reaches the \"lower flammable limit\" (LFL).\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::5. Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water\n\nBULLET::::6. Absorption through the skin: Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide can diffuse into the epidermis in small amounts; some animals use their skin as their sole respiration organ (in humans, the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are \"almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen\", although the \"contribution to total respiration is negligible\") Some medications are absorbed through the skin.\n", "The alveolar macrophages have an important immunological role. They remove substances which deposit in the alveoli including loose red blood cells that have been forced out from blood vessels.\n\nThe lung is surrounded by a serous membrane of visceral pleura, which has an underlying layer of loose connective tissue attached to the substance of the lung.\n\nSection::::Structure of the human lungs.:Respiratory tract.\n", "Once inhaled, these fuels induce an inflammatory reaction in lung tissue. They are not metabolized by tissue enzymes, but undergo emulsification and become engulfed by macrophages which, with time, may disintegrate and release oily substances surrounded by fibrous tissue and giant cells.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Fuels.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Phosgene.\n", "There are three major types of alveolar cell. Two types are pneumocytes known as type I and type II cells are found in the alveolar wall, and a large phagocytic cell known as an alveolar macrophage moves about in the lumens of the alveoli and in the connective tissue between them. Type I cells are squamous, thin and flat and form the structure of the alveoli. Type II cells release pulmonary surfactant to lower surface tension. Type II cells can also differentiate to replace damaged type I cells.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:Type I cells.\n", "Proteins make up the remaining 10% of the surfactant. Half of this 10% is plasma proteins but the rest is formed by the apolipoproteins, surfactant proteins SP-A, SP-B, SP-C, and SP-D. The apolipoproteins are produced by the secretory pathway in type II cells. They undergo much post-translational modification, ending up in the lamellar bodies. These are concentric rings of lipid and protein, about 1 µm in diameter.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Other functions of the lungs.:Contributions to whole body functions.\n\nThe lung vessels contain a fibrinolytic system that dissolves clots that may have arrived in the pulmonary circulation by embolism, often from the deep veins in the legs. They also release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood, and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Some prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, while others are synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched.\n", "Section::::In plants.:Process.\n\nAbscission occurs in a series of three events: 1) resorption, 2) protective layer formation, and 3) detachment. Steps 2 and 3 may occur in either order depending on the species.\n\nSection::::In plants.:Process.:Resorption.\n", "Alveolar surfactant has a half life of 5 to 10 hours once secreted. It can be both broken down by macrophages and / or reabsorbed into the lamellar structures of type II pneumocytes. Up to 90% of surfactant DPPC (dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine) is recycled from the alveolar space back into the type II pneumocyte. This process is believed to occur through SP-A stimulating receptor mediated, clathrin dependent endocytosis. The other 10% is taken up by alveolar macrophages and digested.\n\nSection::::Diseases.\n", "NO production has been implicated as relevant to the pathology of asthma. Patients with asthma show an increased expression of iNOS in airway epithelial cells and an increased level of nitric oxide in exhaled air.\n\nSection::::Prostaglandin endoperoxide 2 (PGE2).\n", "Glands are abundant in the upper respiratory tract, but there are fewer lower down and they are absent starting at the bronchioles. The same goes for goblet cells, although there are scattered ones in the first bronchioles.\n", "The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air and to a far lesser degree by blood capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following \"strata\" (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see cell division) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (desquamation). This process is called \"keratinization\". This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.\n", "Surfactant production in humans begins in Type II cells during the alveolar sac stage of lung development. Lamellar bodies appear in the cytoplasm at about 20 weeks gestation. These lamellar bodies are secreted by exocytosis into the surface water layer lining the alveolar airspace, where the surfactant forms a meshwork of tubular myelin. Term infants are estimated to have an alveolar storage pool of approximately 100 mg/kg of surfactant, while preterm infants have an estimated 4–5 mg/kg at birth.\n\nClub cells also produce a component of lung surfactant.\n", "Alveolar macrophages are frequently seen to contain granules of exogenous material such as particulate carbon that they have picked up from respiratory surfaces. Such black granules may be especially common in smoker's lungs or long-term city dwellers.\n\nThe alveolar macrophage is the third cell type in the alveolus, the others are the type I and type II pneumocytes.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Type II cells start to develop at about 26 weeks of gestation, secreting small amounts of surfactant. However, adequate amounts of surfactant are not secreted until about 35 weeks of gestation – this is the main reason for increased rates of infant respiratory distress syndrome, which drastically reduces at ages above 35 weeks gestation.\n\nType II cells are also capable of cellular division, giving rise to more type I and II alveolar cells when the lung tissue is damaged. \n\nMUC1, a human gene associated with type II pneumocytes, has been identified as a marker in lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Function.:Macrophages.\n", "Epidermis is divided into several layers where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. They eventually reach the top layer called \"stratum corneum\" and are sloughed off, or desquamated. This process is called \"keratinization\" and takes place within weeks. The outermost layer of the epidermis consists of 25 to 30 layers of dead cells.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Epidermis.:Sublayers.\n\nEpidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata:\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum corneum\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum lucidum\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum granulosum\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum spinosum\n", "The alveolar macrophages reside on the internal lumenal surfaces of the alveoli, the alveolar ducts, and the bronchioles. They are mobile scavengers that serve to engulf foreign particles in the lungs, such as dust, bacteria, carbon particles, and blood cells from injuries. They are also called \"dust cells\".\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Diseases.\n\nInsufficient surfactant in the alveoli can contribute to atelectasis (collapse of part or all of the lung). Without pulmonary surfactant, atelectasis is a certainty; however, there are other causes of lung collapse such as trauma, pneumothorax, COPD, and pleuritis.\n", "SP molecules contribute to increase the surfactant interface adsorption kinetics, when the concentration is below the saturation level. They also make weak bonds with the surfactant molecules at the interface and hold them longer there when the interface is compressed. Therefore, during ventilation, surface tension is usually lower than at equilibrium. Therefore, the surface tension varies according to the volume of air in the lungs, which protects them from atelectasis at low volumes and tissue damage at high volume levels.\n\nSection::::Production and degradation.\n", "The permeability properties of the stratum corneum are, for the most part, unchanged after its removal from the body. Skin that has been removed carefully from animals may also be used to see the extent of local penetration by putting it in a chamber and applying the chemical on one side and then measuring the amount of chemical that gets into a fluid on the other side. One example of this ex vivo technique is the isolated perfused porcine flap. This method was first described in 1986 as a humane alternative to in vivo animal testing.\n", "The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer (\"stratum corneum\"), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024-0.072 ounces per day.\n", "Type II cells are the most numerous cells in the alveoli, yet do not cover as much surface area as the squamous type I cells. Type II cells in the alveolar wall contain secretory granular organelles known as lamellar bodies that fuse with the cell membranes and secrete pulmonary surfactant. This surfactant is a film of fatty substances, a group of phospholipids that reduce alveolar surface tension. The phospholipids are stored in the lamellar bodies. Without this coating, the alveoli would collapse. The surfactant is continuously released by exocytosis. Reinflation of the alveoli following exhalation is made easier by the surfactant, that reduces surface tension in the thin fluid coating of the alveoli. The fluid coating is produced by the body in order to facilitate the transfer of gases between blood and alveolar air, and the type II cells are typically found at the blood-air barrier. \n", "Section::::By location.:Lungs.:Parenchymal focalities.\n\nA focal lung pneumatosis, is a solitary volume of air in the lung that is larger than alveoli. A focal lung pneumatosis can be classified by its wall thickness:\n\nBULLET::::- A pulmonary \"bleb\" or \"bulla\" has a wall thickness of less than 1 mm Blebs and bullae are also known as a focal regions of emphysema.\n", "The lamina propria may also be rich in vascular networks, lymphatic vessels, elastic fibers, and smooth muscle fascicles from the muscularis mucosae. Afferent and efferent nerve endings can be found in the lamina propria as well. Immune cells as well as lymphoid tissue, including lymphoid nodules and capillaries, may be present. Smooth muscle fibers may be in the lamina propria of some tissues, such as the intestinal villi. It is practically void of fat cells. Lymphatics penetrate the mucosa and lie below the basement membrane of the epithelium, from there they drain the lamina propria. The fast rate of cell death and regeneration of the epithelium leaves behind many apoptotic cell bodies. These have been found to go into the lamina propria, most of which are inside its macrophages.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Epidermis.:Components.\n\nThe epidermis contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkel cells. The epidermis helps the skin to regulate body temperature.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Epidermis.:Layers.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Historical anomalies and aspirant states.\n\nA small number of tiny sovereign political units are founded on historical anomalies or eccentric interpretations of law. These types of states, often labelled as \"microstates,\" are usually located on small (usually disputed) territorial enclaves, generate limited economic activity founded on tourism and philatelic and numismatic sales, and are tolerated or ignored by the nations from which they claim to have seceded.\n", "From 7 November through 17 December 2004, the Reg Vardy Gallery at the University of Sunderland (UK) hosted an exhibition on the subject of micronational group identity and symbolism. The exhibition focused on numismatic, philatelic and vexillological artifacts, as well as other symbols and instruments created and used by a number of micronations from the 1950s through to the present day. A summit of micronations conducted as part of this exhibition was attended by representatives of Sealand, Elgaland-Vargaland, New Utopia, Atlantium, Frestonia and Fusa. The exhibition was reprised at the Andrew Kreps Gallery in New York City from 24 June – 29 July of the following year and organized by R. Blackson and Peter Coffin. Peter Coffin organized a more extensive exhibition about micronations at Paris' Palais de Tokyo in early 2007 called ÉTATS (faites-le vous-même)/States (Do it yourself).\n", "Section::::History.:History during 1960 to 1980.\n\nThe 1960s and 1970s witnessed the foundation of a number of territorial micronations. The first of these, Sealand, was established in 1967 on an abandoned World War II gun platform in the North Sea just off the East Anglian coast of England, and still survives. Others were founded on libertarian principles and involved schemes to construct artificial islands, but only three are known to have had even limited success in realizing that goal.\n", "BULLET::::- Nassau: 1 September 1812\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina: 1813\n\nBULLET::::- Governorate of Estonia: 23 March 1816\n\nBULLET::::- Governorate of Courland: 25 August 1817\n\nBULLET::::- Württemberg: 18 November 1817\n\nBULLET::::- Governorate of Livonia: 26 March 1819\n\nBULLET::::- Hanover: 1831\n\nBULLET::::- Saxony: 17 March 1832\n\nBULLET::::- Hungary: 11 April 1848\n\nBULLET::::- Croatia: First steps in 1780 and 1785. Final step on 8 May 1848\n\nBULLET::::- Austrian Empire: 7 September 1848\n\nBULLET::::- Bulgaria: 1858 (\"de jure\" by Ottoman Empire; \"de facto\" in 1880)\n\nBULLET::::- Russian Empire: 19 February 1861 (\"see Emancipation reform of 1861\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tonga: 1862\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaii: 1835\n\nBULLET::::- Congress Poland: 1864\n", "BULLET::::- Isle of Man (British Crown dependency)\n\nBULLET::::- Jersey (British Crown dependency), one of the Channel Islands\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Athos (autonomous monastic state, Greece)\n\nSection::::Similar entities.:Sovereign Military Order of Malta.\n\nThe Sovereign Military Order of Malta is a Catholic lay order that is a traditional example of a sovereign entity under international law other than a state.\n", "Some territories geographically outside Europe have strong connections with European states. Greenland has socio-political connections with Europe and is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, but closer to the continent of North America and usually grouped with it. Sometimes Israel is considered as part of geopolitical Europe as well.\n\nOther territories are part of European countries but are geographically located in other continents, such as the French overseas departments, the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the coast of Africa, and the Dutch Caribbean territories of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius.\n\nSection::::Sovereign states.\n", "Section::::History.:Australian and New Zealand developments.\n\nMicronational developments that occurred in New Zealand and Australia in the final three decades of the 20th century included:\n\nBULLET::::- The Principality of Hutt River was founded in 1970, when Leonard Casley declared his property independent after a dispute over wheat quotas.\n\nBULLET::::- In Victoria, a long-running dispute over flood damage to farm properties led to the creation of the Independent State of Rainbow Creek in 1979.\n", "Section::::Countries.:United Kingdom.\n", "There has been a small but growing amount of attention paid to the micronation phenomenon in recent years. Most interest in academic circles has been concerned with studying the apparently anomalous legal situations affecting such entities as Sealand and the Hutt River Province, in exploring how some micronations represent grassroots political ideas, and in the creation of role-playing entities for instructional purposes.\n\nIn 2000, Professor Fabrice O'Driscoll, of the Aix-Marseille University, published a book about micronations: \"Ils ne siègent pas à l'ONU\" (\"They are not in the United Nations\"), with more than 300 pages dedicated to the subject.\n", "Micronationalism shed much of its traditionally eccentric anti-establishment mantle and took on a distinctly hobbyist perspective in the mid-1990s, when the emerging popularity of the Internet made it possible to create and promote statelike entities in an entirely electronic medium with relative ease. An early example is the Kingdom of Talossa, a micronation created in 1979 by then-14-year-old Robert Ben Madison, which went online in November 1995, and was reported in \"The New York Times\" and other print media in 2000. As a result, the number of exclusively online, fantasy or simulation-based micronations expanded dramatically. The micronation Ladonia coexists as both a physical territory and as a large and active online community that resembles a third place, distinguishing itself from other micronations, which are either active online communities or claim small physical territories.\n", "However, in the 17th to 19th centuries, especially within the Holy Roman Empire, the reverse was also occurring: many new small sovereign states arose as a result of transfers of land for various reasons.\n\nNotable principalities existed until the early 20th century in various regions of Germany and Italy.\n\nSection::::European.:Nationalism.\n", "In August 2003, a summit of micronations took place in Helsinki at Finlandia Hall, the site of the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). The summit was attended by delegations of the Principality of Sealand, the Kingdoms of Elgaland-Vargaland, NSK-State in Time, Ladonia, the Transnational republic|Transnational Republic, the State of Sabotage and by scholars from various academic institutions.\n", "Section::::Similar entities.\n\nSection::::Similar entities.:Dependencies.\n\nWhile the microstates have sovereignty over their own territory, there are also a number of small autonomous territories, which despite having (in almost all cases) their own independent government, executive branch, legislature, judiciary, police, and other trappings of independence, are nonetheless under the sovereignty of another state or monarch.\n\nBULLET::::- Akrotiri and Dhekelia (British overseas territory, United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- Åland Islands (External territory, Finland)\n\nBULLET::::- Faroe Islands (External territory, Denmark)\n\nBULLET::::- Gibraltar (British overseas territory, United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- Bailiwick of Guernsey, (British Crown dependency) consisting of three separate sub-jurisdictions: Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark\n", "The term \"micronation\" to describe those entities dates at least to the 1970s. The term \"micropatriology\" is sometimes used to describe the study of both micronations and microstates by micronationalists, some of whom refer to sovereign nation-states as \"macronations\".\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe term 'micronation' literally means \"small nation\". It is a neologism originating in the mid-1970s to describe the many thousands of small unrecognised state-like entities that have mostly arisen since that time.\n", "The Montevideo Convention was one attempt to create a legal definition distinguishing between states and non-states. Some micronations meet this definition, while some do not, and others reject the convention. Some micronations like Sealand or Hutt River reject the term micronation and consider themselves as sovereign states; other micronations like Flandrensis or Molossia have no intention to be recognized as real states.\n\nSection::::List of micronations.\n\nThere are many different types of micronations that have been claimed over the years. A list of the notable micronations is located at List of micronations.\n\nSection::::List of micronations.:Micronations.\n", "Microstates are small independent states recognized by larger states, unlike micronations, which are only self-declared and not recognized. According to the qualitative definition suggested by Dumienski (2014), microstates can also be viewed as \"modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints.\" In line with this definition, only Andorra, Liechtenstein, San Marino, and Monaco qualify as \"microstates\" as only these states are sovereignties functioning in close, but voluntary, association with their respective larger neighbours. Luxembourg, which is much larger than all the European microstates combined, nonetheless shares some of these characteristics.\n", "In 2012, a conference of micronations (PoliNation 2012) was held in London. Micronations with representatives in attendance included the Empire of Atlantium, the Republic of Molossia, the Grand Duchy of Flandrensis, Ladonia, Neue Slowenische Kunst and Austenasia. A second conference was organized in 2015 in the Free Republic of Alcatraz in Perugia\n\nThe manga and anime series \"\", in which the main characters are the stereotyped personifications of the nations of the world, features several micronations as characters. micronations represented include Sealand, Seborga, Wy, Kugelmugel, Molossia, Hutt River, Ladonia, and the former micronation of Nikko Nikko.\n", "There are a number of microstates in Europe. While there is no clear consensus on which political units qualify as \"microstates\", most scholars view Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City as examples of such states. At the same time, some academics dispute even qualifying Vatican as a true state arguing that it does not meet the \"traditional criteria of statehood\" and that the \"special status of the Vatican City is probably best regarded as a means of ensuring that the Pope can freely exercise his spiritual functions, and in this respect is loosely analogous to that of the headquarters of international organisations.\" According to the qualitative definition of microstates suggested by Dumienski (2014), microstates can also be viewed as \"modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints.\" And indeed, all of the European microstates are sovereign states that function in a close (and voluntary) association with their respective larger neighbour. Currently, all of the European microstates have some form of relations with the European Union.\n", "BULLET::::- – Principality of Liechtenstein, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Lithuania, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, UN member state\n\nSection::::Internationally recognized sovereign states.:M.\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Macedonia, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Madagascar, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Malawi, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Maldives, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Mali, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Malta, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of the Marshall Islands , UN member state\n", "The wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars caused the European map to be redrawn several times. A number of short-lived client republics were created, and the fall of the Holy Roman Empire gave sovereignty to each of its many surviving \"Kleinstaaterei\". The situation was not stabilized until after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Following World War I and World War II a number of territories gained temporary status as international zones, protectorates or occupied territories. A few of them are mentioned here:\n\nSection::::Popular culture and sports.\n", "BULLET::::- – Republic of Mauritius, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – United Mexican States, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Federated States of Micronesia , UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Moldova, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Principality of Monaco, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- Republic of Montenegro , UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- Montenegro , UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Kingdom of Morocco, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Mozambique, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Union of Myanmar, UN member state\n\nSection::::Internationally recognized sovereign states.:N.\n\nBULLET::::- – Nagorno-Karabakh Republic\n", "In May 2000, an article in \"The New York Times\" titled \"Utopian Rulers, and Spoofs, Stake Out Territory Online\" brought the phenomenon to a wider audience. Similar articles were published by newspapers such as the Italian \"La Repubblica\", \"O Estado de S. Paulo\" in Brazil, and Portugal's \"Visão\" at around the same time.\n", "The earliest known micronations date from the beginning of the 19th century. The advent of the Internet provided the means for people to create many new micronations, whose members are scattered all over the world and interact mostly by electronic means, often calling their nations \"nomadic countries\". The differences between such Internet micronations, other kinds of social networking groups, and role-playing games are often difficult to define.\n", "BULLET::::- – Principality of Liechtenstein, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Lithuania, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, UN member state\n\nSection::::List of sovereign states.:M.\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Macedonia, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Madagascar, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Malawi, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Maldives, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Mali, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of Malta, UN member state\n\nBULLET::::- – Republic of the Marshall Islands , UN member state\n", "Some areas are associated with Eurasian states, being part of them or dependent upon them, but are not physically in it. Examples are the Danish territory of Greenland, French overseas departments, some British Overseas Territories, and the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla.\n\nSection::::Sovereign states.\n\nSection::::Sovereign states.:United Nations Member States.\n\nThe following is a list of internationally recognized sovereign states and are members of the United Nations.\n\nSection::::Sovereign states.:United Nations Observer States.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Subforms.:Opacity-based varieties.\n\nStratus fractus are not divided into varieties, but stratus nebulosus on the other hand, are divided into two. The Stratus opacus variety appears as a nebulous or milky sheet of the nebulosus species, but are opaque enough to block the sun from view. Stratus Translucidus is another variety of the nebulosus species. These clouds are considered more thin than the opacus variety because this cloud is rather translucent, allowing the position of the sun or moon to be observed from earth's surface.\n\nSection::::Subforms.:Pattern-based variety.\n", "Clouds in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth, are classified according to the height at which they are found, and their shape or appearance. There are five \"forms\" based on physical structure and process of formation. \"Cirriform\" clouds are high, thin and wispy, and are seen most extensively along the leading edges of organized weather disturbances. \"Stratiform\" clouds are non-convective and appear as extensive sheet-like layers, ranging from thin to very thick with considerable vertical development. They are mostly the product of large-scale lifting of stable air. Unstable free-convective \"cumuliform\" clouds are formed mostly into localized heaps. \"Stratocumuliform\" clouds of limited convection show a mix of cumuliform and stratiform characteristics which appear in the form of rolls or ripples. Highly convective \"cumulonimbiform\" clouds have complex structures often including cirriform tops and stratocumuliform accessory clouds.\n", "Stratus clouds only have one pattern-based variety. This is the \"stratus undulatus\" variety. Mild undulations can be observed from this cloud, only associated by the nebulosus species. Though rare, this cloud formation is caused by disturbances on the gentle wind shear. Stratus undulatus clouds are more common on stratus stratocumulomutatus clouds where the wind is stronger as height increases.\n\nSection::::Subforms.:Genitus mother clouds.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.:Ragged.\n\nThe species \"fractus\" shows \"variable\" instability because it can be a subdivision of genus-types of different physical forms that have different stability characteristics. This subtype can be in the form of ragged but mostly \"stable\" stratiform sheets (stratus fractus) or small ragged cumuliform heaps with somewhat greater instability (cumulus fractus). When clouds of this species are associated with precipitating cloud systems of considerable vertical and sometimes horizontal extent, they are also classified as \"accessory clouds\" under the name \"pannus\" (see section on supplementary features).\n", "Another variety, \"duplicatus\" (closely spaced layers of the same type, one above the other), is sometimes found with cirrus of both the fibratus and uncinus species, and with altocumulus and stratocumulus of the species stratiformis and lenticularis. The variety \"undulatus\" (having a wavy undulating base) can occur with any clouds of the species stratiformis or lenticularis, and with altostratus. It is only rarely observed with stratus nebulosus. The variety \"lacunosus\" is caused by localized downdrafts that create circular holes in the form of a honeycomb or net. It is occasionally seen with cirrocumulus and altocumulus of the species stratiformis, castellanus, and floccus, and with stratocumulus of the species stratiformis and castellanus.\n", "These patterns are formed from a phenomenon known as a Kármán vortex which is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán. Wind driven clouds can form into parallel rows that follow the wind direction. When the wind and clouds encounter high elevation land features such as a vertically prominent islands, they can form eddies around the high land masses that give the clouds a twisted appearance.\n\nSection::::Distribution: Where tropospheric clouds are most and least prevalent.\n\nSection::::Distribution: Where tropospheric clouds are most and least prevalent.:Convergence along low-pressure zones.\n", "These clouds have low- to mid-level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about and tops that can extend into the high-altitude range. Nimbostratus and some cumulus in this group usually achieve moderate or deep vertical extent, but without towering structure. However, with sufficient airmass instability, upward-growing cumuliform clouds can grow to high-towering proportions. Although genus types with vertical extent are often informally considered a single group, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) distinguishes towering vertical clouds more formally as a separate group or sub-group. It is specified that these very large cumuliform and cumulonimbiform types must be identified by their standard names or abbreviations in all aviation observations (METARS) and forecasts (TAFS) to warn pilots of possible severe weather and turbulence. Multi-level clouds are of even larger structure than low clouds, and are therefore identifiable by their forms and genera, (and even species in the case of cumulus congestus) using satellite photography.\n", "Frontal and cyclonic lift occur in their purest manifestations when stable air, which has been subjected to little or no surface heating, is forced aloft at weather fronts and around centers of low pressure. Warm fronts associated with extratropical cyclones tend to generate mostly cirriform and stratiform clouds over a wide area unless the approaching warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus clouds will usually be embedded in the main precipitating cloud layer. Cold fronts are usually faster moving and generate a narrower line of clouds which are mostly stratocumuliform, cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending on the stability of the warm air mass just ahead of the front.\n", "Cirriform clouds have three non-convective species that can form in mostly \"stable\" airmass conditions. Cirrus fibratus comprise filaments that may be straight, wavy, or occasionally twisted by non-convective wind shear. The species \"uncinus\" is similar but has upturned hooks at the ends. Cirrus \"spissatus\" appear as opaque patches that can show light grey shading.\n", "Clouds of this structure have both cumuliform and stratiform characteristics in the form of rolls, ripples, or elements. They generally form as a result of \"limited convection\" in an otherwise mostly stable airmass topped by an inversion layer. If the inversion layer is absent or higher in the troposphere, increased airmass instability may cause the cloud layers to develop tops in the form of turrets consisting of embedded cumuliform buildups. The stratocumuliform group is divided into cirrocumulus (high-level), altocumulus (mid-level), and stratocumulus (low-level).\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Physical forms.:Cumuliform.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Varieties.:Combinations.\n\nIt is possible for some species to show combined varieties at one time, especially if one variety is opacity-based and the other is pattern-based. An example of this would be a layer of altocumulus stratiformis arranged in seemingly converging rows separated by small breaks. The full technical name of a cloud in this configuration would be \"altocumulus stratiformis radiatus perlucidus\", which would identify respectively its genus, species, and two combined varieties.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.\n", "Multi-level nimbostratus is physically related to other stratiform genus-types by way of being non-convective in nature. However, the other sheet-like clouds usually each occupy only one or two levels at the same time. Stratus clouds are low-level and form from near ground level to at all latitudes. In the middle level are the altostratus clouds that form from to in polar areas, in temperate areas, and in tropical areas. Although altostratus forms mostly in the middle level of the troposphere, strong frontal lift can push it into the lower part of the high-level. The main high-level stratiform cloud is cirrostratus which is composed of ice crystals that often produce halo effects around the sun. Cirrostratus forms at altitudes of in high latitudes, in temperate latitudes, and in low, tropical latitudes. Of the non-stratiform clouds, cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus are the most closely related to nimbostratus because of their vertical extent and ability to produce moderate to heavy precipitation. The remaining cumuliform (cumulus) and stratocumuliform (stratocumulus, altocumulus, and cirrocumulus) clouds have the least in common with nimbostratus.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Cloud-based supplementary features.\n\n\"Incus\" is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.\n", "Some clouds can form at very high to extreme levels above the troposphere, mostly above the polar regions of Earth. Polar stratospheric clouds clouds are seen but rarely in winter at altitudes of 18 to 30 kilometers, while in summer, noctilucent clouds occasionally form at high latitudes at an altitude range of 76 to 85 kilometers. These polar clouds show some of the same forms as seen lower in the troposphere.\n\nHomospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels.\n", "All cloud varieties fall into one of two main groups. One group identifies the opacities of particular low and mid-level cloud structures and comprises the varieties \"translucidus\" (thin translucent), \"perlucidus\" (thick opaque with translucent or very small clear breaks), and \"opacus\" (thick opaque). These varieties are always identifiable for cloud genera and species with variable opacity. All three are associated with the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus. However, only two varieties are seen with altostratus and stratus nebulosus whose uniform structures prevent the formation of a perlucidus variety. Opacity-based varieties are not applied to high clouds because they are always translucent, or in the case of cirrus spissatus, always opaque.\n", "Section::::Examples of HVCs.:Northern Hemisphere.:Complex C.\n", "Cumulus mediocris may have precipitation-based features like virga, and may form Cumulus praecipitato clouds. The pannus supplementary feature is sometimes seen with precipitating Cumulus mediocris, but in this case the C7 reporting code normally used with to identify pannus is usually superseded by C2, since there is significant vertical development. \"Pileus\" (cap cloud), \"velum\" (apron), \"arcus\" (roll or shelf cloud) and \"tuba\" (vertical column) features are also occasionally seen with cumulus mediocris. Cumulus mediocris may form as a result of a partial transformation of altocumulus or stratocumulus. This genus and species type may also be the result of a complete transformation of stratocumulus or stratus.\n", "Cumuliform clouds generally appear in isolated heaps or tufts. They are the product of localized but generally \"free-convective\" lift where no inversion layers are in the troposphere to limit vertical growth. In general, small cumuliform clouds tend to indicate comparatively weak instability. Larger cumuliform types are a sign of greater atmospheric instability and convective activity. Depending on their vertical size, clouds of the cumulus genus type may be low-level or multi-level with moderate to towering vertical extent.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Physical forms.:Cumulonimbiform.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Accessory clouds.\n\nSupplementary cloud formations detached from the main cloud are known as accessory clouds. The heavier precipitating clouds, nimbostratus, towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), and cumulonimbus typically see the formation in precipitation of the \"pannus\" feature, low ragged clouds of the genera and species cumulus fractus or stratus fractus.\n", "Under Luke Howard's first systematized study of clouds, carried out in France in 1802, three general cloud \"forms\" were established based on appearance and characteristics of formation: \"cirriform,\" \"cumiliform\" and \"stratiform.\" These were further divided into upper and lower types depending on altitude. In addition to these three main types, Howard added two names to designate multiple cloud types joined together: \"cumulostratus,\" a blending of cumulus clouds and stratus layers, and \"nimbus,\" a complex blending of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation.\n", "Section::::Cloud identification and classification in the troposphere.:Vertical or multi-level cumulonimbiform, cumuliform, and stratiform (low to mid-level cloud base).:Genus cumulus: Towering vertical.\n\nAbbreviations: Cu con (\"cumulus congestus\") or Tcu (\"towering cumulus\")\n\nSpecies\n\nBULLET::::- Cumulus congestus (V-59)\n\nSection::::Cloud identification and classification in the troposphere.:Vertical or multi-level cumulonimbiform, cumuliform, and stratiform (low to mid-level cloud base).:Genus nimbostratus: Moderate or deep vertical.\n\nAbbreviation: Ns (V-60)\n", "Noctilucent clouds have four major types based on physical structure and appearance. Type I veils are very tenuous and lack well-defined structure, somewhat like cirrostratus or poorly defined cirrus. Type II bands are long streaks that often occur in groups arranged roughly parallel to each other. They are usually more widely spaced than the bands or elements seen with cirrocumulus clouds. Type III billows are arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly resemble cirrus. Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings of cloud with dark centres.\n", "Mid-level stratocumuliform clouds of the genus altocumulus are not always associated with a weather front but can still bring precipitation, usually in the form of virga which does not reach the ground. Layered forms of altocumulus are generally an indicator of limited convective instability, and are therefore mainly stratocumuliform in structure.\n\nSection::::Cloud identification and classification in the troposphere.:Mid-level stratocumuliform and stratiform.:Genus altocumulus.:Mid-level stratocumuliform species.\n\nBULLET::::- Altocumulus stratiformis (always dividable into opacity-based varieties)brSheets or relatively flat patches of altocumulus.\n\nBULLET::::- Altocumulus lenticularis (V-26)Lens-shaped middle cloud. Includes informal variant altocumulus Kelvin–Helmholtz cloud, lenticular spiral indicative of severe turbulence.\n", "Stratocumuliform genus-types (cirrocumulus, altocumulus, and stratocumulus) that appear in mostly stable air have two species each. The \"stratiformis\" species normally occur in extensive sheets or in smaller patches where there is only minimal convective activity. Clouds of the \"lenticularis\" species tend to have lens-like shapes tapered at the ends. They are most commonly seen as orographic mountain-wave clouds, but can occur anywhere in the troposphere where there is strong wind shear combined with sufficient airmass stability to maintain a generally flat cloud structure. These two species can be found in the high, middle, or low level of the troposphere depending on the stratocumuliform genus or genera present at any given time.\n", "The largest free-convective clouds comprise the genus cumulonimbus, which have towering vertical extent. They occur in highly unstable air and often have fuzzy outlines at the upper parts of the clouds that sometimes include anvil tops. These clouds are the product of very strong convection that can penetrate the lower stratosphere.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Levels and genera.\n" ]

[ "Clouds flatten out of the bottom side.", "Clouds flatten out on the bottom." ]

[ "Water vapor rises until it reaches a certain level, then bubbles up from that point.", "Clouds only get created at a certain height, below that they cannot exist so the bottom appears flat. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Clouds flatten out of the bottom side.", "Clouds flatten out on the bottom." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Water vapor rises until it reaches a certain level, then bubbles up from that point.", "Clouds only get created at a certain height, below that they cannot exist so the bottom appears flat. " ]

[ "The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor. When further cooled, the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid water (dew). When air cools to its dew point through contact with a surface that is colder than the air, water will condense on the surface. When the temperature is below the freezing point of water, the dew point is called the frost point, as frost is formed rather than dew. The measurement of the dew point is related to humidity. A higher dew point means there is more moisture in the air.\n", "BULLET::::- Dew point temperature (\"DPT\") is the temperature at which a moist air sample at the same pressure would reach water vapor \"saturation.\" At this point further removal of heat would result in water vapor condensing into liquid water fog or, if below freezing point, solid hoarfrost. The dew point temperature is measured easily and provides useful information, but is normally not considered an independent property of the air sample as it duplicates information available via other humidity properties and the saturation curve.\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nDevices called hygrometers are used to measure dew point over a wide range of temperatures. These devices consist of a polished metal mirror which is cooled as air is passed over it. The temperature at which dew forms is, by definition, the dew point. Manual devices of this sort can be used to calibrate other types of humidity sensors, and automatic sensors may be used in a control loop with a humidifier or dehumidifier to control the dew point of the air in a building or in a smaller space for a manufacturing process.\n\nSection::::Calculating the dew point.\n", "Section::::Humidity.\n\nIf all the other factors influencing humidity remain constant, at ground level the relative humidity rises as the temperature falls. This is because less vapor is needed to saturate the air. In normal conditions, the dew point temperature will not be greater than the air temperature because relative humidity cannot exceed 100%.\n", "Section::::Psychrometric properties.:Dew point temperature.\n\nThe saturation temperature of the moisture present in the sample of air, it can also be defined as the temperature at which the vapour changes into liquid (condensation). Usually the level at which water vapor changes into liquid marks the base of the cloud in the atmosphere hence called condensation level. So the temperature value that allows this process (condensation) to take place is called the 'dew point temperature'. A simplified definition is the temperature at which the water vapour turns into \"dew\" (Chamunoda Zambuko 2012).\n\nSection::::Psychrometric properties.:Humidity.\n\nSection::::Psychrometric properties.:Humidity.:Specific Humidity.\n", "A well-known approximation used to calculate the dew point, \"T\", given just the actual (\"dry bulb\") air temperature, \"T\" (in degrees Celsius) and relative humidity (in percent), RH, is the Magnus formula:\n\nformula_1\n", "Dew point depression\n\nThe dew point depression (T-Td) is the difference between the temperature and dew point temperature at a certain height in the atmosphere.\n", "Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the \"mixing ratio\", is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg). The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.\n", "A high relative humidity implies that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature. A relative humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the current temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the moisture content remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases, but the dew point remains constant.\n\nGeneral aviation pilots use dew point data to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog, and to estimate the height of a cumuliform cloud base.\n", "The \"dew point temperature\" is an absolute measure of the moisture in air. Some facilities are being designed with the design dew points in the lower 50s °F, and some in the upper and lower 40s °F. Some facilities are being designed using desiccant wheels with gas-fired heaters to dry out the wheel enough to get the required dew points. On those systems, after the moisture is removed from the make-up air, a cooling coil is used to lower the temperature to the desired level.\n", "Water vapour will condense into droplets depending on the temperature. The temperature at which droplets form is called the dew point. When surface temperature drops, eventually reaching the dew point, atmospheric water vapor condenses to form small droplets on the surface. This process distinguishes dew from those hydrometeors (meteorological occurrences of water), which form directly in air that has cooled to its dew point (typically around condensation nuclei), such as fog or clouds. The thermodynamic principles of formation, however, are the same. Dew is usually formed at night.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "Hydrocarbon dew point\n\nThe hydrocarbon dew point is the temperature (at a given pressure) at which the hydrocarbon components of any hydrocarbon-rich gas mixture, such as natural gas, will start to condense out of the gaseous phase. It is often also referred to as the HDP or the HCDP. The maximum temperature at which such condensation takes place is called the \"cricondentherm\". The hydrocarbon dew point is a function of the gas composition as well as the pressure.\n", "For a constant temperature, the smaller the difference, the more moisture there is, and the higher the relative humidity. In the lower troposphere, more moisture (small dew point depression) results in lower cloud bases and lifted condensation levels (LCL). LCL height is an important factor modulating severe thunderstorms. One example concerns tornadogenesis, with tornadoes most likely if the dew point depression is 20 °F (11 °C) or less, and the likelihood of large, intense tornadoes increasing as dew point depression decreases. LCL height also factors in downburst and microburst activity. Conversely, instability is increased when there is a mid-level dry layer (large dew point depression) known as a \"dry punch\", which is favorable for convection if the lower layer is buoyant.\n", "BULLET::::- The fourth source of error relates to the errors embedded in the equation of state model used to calculate the dew point. Different models are prone to varying amounts error at different pressure regimes and gas mixes. There is sometimes a significant divergence of calculated dew point based solely on the choice of equation of state used.\n", "When the air temperature is high, the human body uses the evaporation of sweat to cool down, with the cooling effect directly related to how fast the perspiration evaporates. The rate at which perspiration can evaporate depends on how much moisture is in the air and how much moisture the air can hold. If the air is already saturated with moisture, perspiration will not evaporate. The body's thermoregulation will produce perspiration in an effort to keep the body at its normal temperature even when the rate it is producing sweat exceeds the evaporation rate, so one can become coated with sweat on humid days even without generating additional body heat (such as by exercising).\n", "In technical terms, the dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in a sample of air at constant barometric pressure condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates. At temperatures below the dew point, the rate of condensation will be greater than that of evaporation, forming more liquid water. The condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface, or frost if it freezes. In the air, the condensed water is called either fog or a cloud, depending on its altitude when it forms. If the temperature is below the dew point, the vapor is called supersaturated. This can happen if there are not enough particles in the air to act as condensation nuclei.\n", "Use of the word \"dew\" reflects natural phenomena: clouds are far from the ground, fog is closer to the ground, and dew is on the ground. Analogically, cloud computing is a remote service, fog computing is beside the user, and dew computing is at the user end.\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n", "Section::::Significance.\n", "Increasing the barometric pressure increases the dew point. This means that, if the pressure increases, the mass of water vapor in the air must be reduced in order to maintain the same dew point. For example, consider New York ( elevation) and Denver ( elevation). Because Denver is at a higher elevation than New York, it will tend to have a lower barometric pressure. This means that if the dew point and temperature in both cities are the same, the amount of water vapor in the air will be greater in Denver.\n\nSection::::Relationship to human comfort.\n", "where\n\nBULLET::::- \"a\" = 6.1121 mbar, \"b\" = 18.678, \"c\" = 257.14 °C, \"d\" = 234.5 °C.\n\nThere are several different constant sets in use. The ones used in NOAA's presentation are taken from a 1980 paper by David Bolton in the \"Monthly Weather Review\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"a\" = 6.112 mbar, \"b\" = 17.67, \"c\" = 243.5 °C.\n\nThese valuations provide a maximum error of 0.1%, for and .\n\nAlso noteworthy is the Sonntag1990,\n\nBULLET::::- \"a\" = 6.112 mbar, \"b\" = 17.62, \"c\" = 243.12 °C; for (error ±0.35 °C).\n\nAnother common set of values originates from the 1974 \"Psychrometry and Psychrometric Charts\", as presented by Paroscientific,\n", "The processes of dew formation do not restrict its occurrence to the night and the outdoors. They are also working when eyeglasses get steamy in a warm, wet room or in industrial processes. However, the term condensation is preferred in these cases.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "In Canada, the similar humidex (a Canadian innovation introduced in 1965) is used in place of the heat index. While both the humidex and the heat index are calculated using dew point, the humidex uses a dew point of as a base, whereas the heat index uses a dew point base of . Further, the heat index uses heat balance equations which account for many variables other than vapor pressure, which is used exclusively in the humidex calculation. A joint committee formed by the United States and Canada to resolve differences has since been disbanded. \n", "Water vapour will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the dew point temperature, or when the water vapour equilibrium in air has been exceeded. When water vapour condenses onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface. The water molecule brings heat energy with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly. In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation (usually only when facilitated by cloud condensation nuclei). The dew point of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapour in the air begins to condense concluding water vapour is a type of water or rain.\n", "The hydrocarbon dew point is universally used in the natural gas industry as an important quality parameter, stipulated in contractual specifications and enforced throughout the natural gas supply chain, from producers through processing, transmission and distribution companies to final end users.\n\nThe hydrocarbon dew point of a gas is a different concept from the water dew point, the latter being the temperature (at a given pressure) at which water vapor present in a gas mixture will condense out of the gas.\n\nSection::::Relation of the term GPM to the hydrocarbon dew point.\n", "Discomfort also exists when the dew point is low (below around ). The drier air can cause skin to crack and become irritated more easily. It will also dry out the airways. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration recommends indoor air be maintained at with a 20–60% relative humidity, equivalent to a dew point of .\n\nLower dew points, less than , correlate with lower ambient temperatures and the body requires less cooling. A lower dew point can go along with a high temperature only at extremely low relative humidity, allowing for relatively effective cooling.\n" ]

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[ "Red meat\n\nIn gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.\n\nIn nutritional science, on the other hand, \"red meat\" is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh).\n", "White meat\n\nIn culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. The most common kind of white meat is the lighter-colored meat of poultry (light meat), coming from the breast, as contrasted with dark meat from the legs. Poultry white (\"light\") meat is made up of fast-twitch muscle fibres, while red (\"dark\") meat is made up of muscles with fibres that are slow-twitch. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and pork.\n", "Some meat, such as pork, is classified as \"white meat\" under the common or gastronomic definition, but as \"red meat\" under the nutritional definition.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nAccording to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat) from chicken.\n", "Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or \"gamey\" mammals (for example, beef, horse meat, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Most poultry is white, but duck and goose are red. Most cuts of pork are red, others are white. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: \"viandes noires\" — \"dark meats\".) Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.\n", "In nutritional studies however, \"white meat\" includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat. The United States Department of Agriculture classifies meats as red if the myoglobin level is higher than 65%. This categorization is controversial as some types of fish, such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked; similarly, certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as \"white meat\" are actually red when raw, such as duck and goose.\n\nSection::::Poultry.\n", "Meat can be broadly classified as \"red\" or \"white\" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.\n\nGenerally, the meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white.\n", "In meat-based stews, white stews, also known as \"blanquettes\" or \"fricassées\", are made with lamb or veal that is blanched, or lightly seared without browning, and cooked in stock. Brown stews are made with pieces of red meat that are first seared or browned, before a browned mirepoix and sometimes browned flour, stock and wine are added.\n\nSection::::List of stews.\n\nBULLET::::- Baeckeoffe, a potato stew from Alsace\n\nBULLET::::- Beef bourguignon, a French dish of beef stewed in red burgundy wine\n\nBULLET::::- Beef Stroganoff, a stew with beef from Russia\n\nBULLET::::- Bigos, a traditional stew in Polish cuisine\n", "BULLET::::- Well done () – ( and above core temperature) The meat is grey-brown in the center and slightly charred. In parts of England this is known as \"German style\".\n\nBULLET::::- Overcooked () – (much more than core temperature) The meat is blackened throughout and slightly crispy.\n", "Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is red in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as \"the other white meat\", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Cultural and social aspects.\n", "Improved red-and-white meat breed\n\nThe Improved red-and-white , Improved MRI or Improved red pied (Dutch: Verbeterd roodbont vleesras) meat breed is a young and, as the name suggests, a typical beef cattle breed. It is the only beef typical beef cattle breed that originates in the Netherlands. The origin of this variety lies in the double-purpose variety Meuse-Rhine-Issel. The MRI breed breeds animals with luxury muscularity, and this is how the new breed came into existence: Improved red-and-white meat breed.\n\n=Characteristics=\n", "Section::::Pork.\n\nBecause of nutritional concerns, it can be preferable for meat producers to have their products considered white meat. The United States National Pork Board has marketed their product as \"Pork. The Other White Meat\". \n\nIn Israel, where Jewish dietary laws which forbid the consumption of pork are popularly practiced, \"white meat\" is the accepted euphemism for pork.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Section::::Dishes.:Europe.:Spain.\n\nIn Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion.\n\nSection::::Dishes.:Europe.:Sweden.\n", "Visual appearance is one of the primary cues consumers use to assess meat quality at the point of sale, and to select meats. Color is one of the most important characteristics in this context. Different cultural traditions lead consumers to prefer different colors: some countries prefer relatively dark pork overall, some light, and some have no clear preference.\n", "In ', or \"hunter's '\", at least part of the meat comes from game, such as wild boar, venison or hare. It is usually seasoned with juniper berries, which help neutralize off-flavors that may be found in the meat of wild animals.\n\nSection::::Serving.\n", "BULLET::::- Potjevleesch – a traditional French Flemish dish, which can be translated into English as \"potted meat\", it is prepared using three or four different types of meat and held together either with gelatin or natural fats coming from the meats used.\n\nBULLET::::- Poume d'oranges\n\nBULLET::::- Pringá\n\nBULLET::::- Pukala\n\nBULLET::::- Pyttipanna\n\nBULLET::::- Qingtang wanzi\n", "In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (227 grams) of fish each week. In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations. The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans or nuts.\n\nSection::::Human health.\n", "In Valtellina, a similar process is applied to smaller pieces of meat. This produces a more strongly flavoured product, \"slinzega\", which is similar to South African \"biltong\". Traditionally, horse meat was used for \"slinzega\", but now other meats, such as venison and pork, are used, as well.\n\nSection::::Serving.\n", "Fresh sausage may be red or white. Red sausages contain paprika (pimentón in Spanish) and are usually fried; they can also contain other spices such as garlic, pepper or thyme. The most popular type of red sausage is perhaps \"txistorra\", a thin and long paprika sausage originating in Navarre. White sausages do not contain paprika and can be fried, boiled in wine, or, more rarely, in water.\n\nSection::::National varieties.:Europe.:Sweden.\n\n\"See the section Nordic countries above\"\n\nSection::::National varieties.:Europe.:Switzerland.\n\nThe cervelat, a cooked sausage, is often referred to as Switzerland's national sausage. A great number of regional sausage specialties exist as well.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Boudin noir\": A dark-hued blood sausage, containing pork, pig blood, and other ingredients. Variants of the \"boudin noir\" occur in French, Belgian, Cajun and Catalan cuisine. The Catalan version of the \"boudin noir\" is called \"botifarra negra\". In the French Caribbean, it is known as \"boudin Créole\". In Britain a similar sausage is called \"black pudding\", the word \"pudding\" being an anglicized pronunciation of \"boudin\", and probably introduced after the Norman invasion.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Boudin rouge\": In Louisiana cuisine, a sausage similar to \"boudin blanc\", but with pork blood added to it. This originated from the French \"boudin noir\".\n", "BULLET::::- Vegetarian sausage are made without meat, for example, based on soya protein or tofu, with herbs and spices. Some vegetarian sausages are not necessarily vegan, and may contain ingredients such as eggs.\n\nThe distinct flavor of some sausages is due to fermentation by \"Lactobacillus\", \"Pediococcus\", or \"Micrococcus\" (added as starter cultures) or natural flora during curing.\n\nOther countries use different systems of classification. Germany, for instance, which produces more than 1200 types of sausage, distinguishes \"raw\", \"cooked\" and \"precooked\" sausages.\n", "Reconstituted meat\n\nA meat slurry, reconstituted meat, or emulsified meat is a liquefied meat product that contains fewer fats, pigments and less myoglobin than unprocessed dark meats. Meat slurry is more malleable than dark meats and eases the process of meat distribution as pipelines may be used.\n\nMeat slurry is not designed to sell for general consumption; rather, it is used as a meat supplement in food products for humans, such as chicken nuggets, and food for domestic animals. Poultry is the most common meat slurry; however, beef and pork are also used.\n\nSection::::Properties and production.\n", "In Iceland, \"blóðmör\" is one of two types of \"slátur\". It is made from lamb's blood and suet, rye flour and oats, traditionally stuffed into pouches sewn from the lamb's stomach. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried. After cooking, it is often preserved in fermented whey and acquires a distinct sour taste.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Northern Europe.:Sweden.\n", "The United States Department of Agriculture recommends an internal temperature of at least for cuts of beef, veal, and lamb in order to prevent foodborne illness, and warns that color and texture indicators are not reliable. The same meats should be thoroughly cooked to when ground or tenderized by cutting, since these processes distribute bacteria throughout the meat.\n\nThe table below is from an American reference book and pertains to beef and lamb.\n", "Cajun \"boudin\" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce \"boudin rouge\", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the \"boucherie\" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun \"boudin\" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or \"black\" \"boudin\" can still be purchased.\n\nSection::::Americas.:Latin America.\n", "Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein. \n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- \"haksna:\" legs, from Austrian \"Haxen\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"stangla:\" top tube of a bicycle, from German \"Stange\" (rod, pole)\n\nBULLET::::- \"ksicht:\" grimace, from \"Gesicht\" (face)\n\nBULLET::::- \"hic:\" heat, from \"Hitze\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"lochna:\" hole, from \"Loch\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"betla:\" bed, from \"Bett\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"cimra:\" chamber, from \"Zimmer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"flek:\" blotch, place, from \"Fleck\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"flastr:\" adhesive plaster, from \"Pflaster\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"fusakle:\" socks, from \"Fußsocken\" (German \"Fuß\" feet, German \"Socken\" socks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"futro:\" feed, from \"Futter\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"fuč:\" from \"futsch\", colloquial German for \"gone\", \"broken\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"hercna:\" heart, from \"Herz\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"cálovat:\" to pay, from \"zahlen\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"biflovat:\" swatting, from \"büffeln\"\n", "In Swiss French, there are some terms derived from (Swiss) German such as \"poutzer\" instead of \"nettoyer\" (cleaning, in German \"putzen\") or \"speck\" instead of \"lard\" (bacon, in German \"Speck\").\n\nAround the German-French border areas, inherently many words cross the language border, for example, in Lorraine: Instead of \"ça éclabousse\", \"ça spritz\" is used for \"this sputters\" – \"spritzen\" is \"sputtering\" in German. \"Spritz\" as a term for extruded biscuits (\"Spritzgebäck\" in German) is known everywhere in France.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Greek.\n", "Albanian has many loan words brought back from Germany by migrant workers. \"Krikëll\" for \"beer mug,\" for example, is borrowed from the Austrian German term \"Krügel\". The German word \"Schalter\" has been borrowed in both its meanings (\"(office) counter\" and \"(electric) switch\") as Albanian \"shalter\". \n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Arabic.\n\nIn the early 20th century, German film directors participated in the creation of the Egyptian cinema and usually concluded their work with the word \"fertig\" (done). Their local staff kept that word in the form \"ferkish\" and soon used it in other contexts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"şpilhozen\" (playing trousers) \"Spielhose\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şpis\" (spear) \"Spiess\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şpiţ\" (spiky) \"Spitz\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şplint\" \"Splint\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şplit\" (split, flint) \"Splitt\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şpor\" (spur) \"Sporn\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şpraiţ\" (spreader) \"Spreize\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"ștecher” - Stecker - electrical plug\n\nBULLET::::- „șurub” - (Schraub) - screw\n\nBULLET::::- „halbă” - (Halbe, Halbliter) - half a liter of beer, a large beer.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Russian.\n", "For undercover investigative journalism in the style of Günter Wallraff the verb \"wallraffa\" is used, which is even part of the Swedish Academy's dictionary.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Slovene.\n\nSlovene Germanisms are primarily evident in the syntax, lexicon, semantics, and phraseology of the language. There are few Germanisms in Slovene phonology and morphology. Many Slovene lexical Germanisms come from Austrian German.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Spanish.\n", "Section::::Other countries.:Austria.:Marmeladinger (pejorative).\n", "BULLET::::- \"ortieľ:\" Urteil (verdict)\n\nBULLET::::- \"pančucha:\" Bundschuh (stocking)\n\nBULLET::::- \"plech:\" Blech (sheet metal)\n\nBULLET::::- \"regál:\" Regal (shelf)\n\nBULLET::::- \"ruksak:\" Rucksack (backpack)\n\nBULLET::::- \"rúra:\" Rohr (pipe)\n\nBULLET::::- \"rytier:\" Ritter (knight)\n\nBULLET::::- \"šachta:\" Schacht (mine shaft)\n\nBULLET::::- \"šindeľ:\" Schindel (roof shingle)\n\nBULLET::::- \"šnúra:\" Schnur (cord)\n\nBULLET::::- \"taška:\" Tasche (purse)\n\nBULLET::::- \"téma:\" Thema (topic)\n\nBULLET::::- \"vaňa:\" Badewanne (bathtub)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vianoce:\" Weihnachten (Christmas)\n\nBULLET::::- \"vločka\": Flocke (flake)\n\nBULLET::::- \"žumpa:\" Sumpf (cesspit)\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Swedish.\n\nSwedes use the German word \"aber\" (but) in the sense of \"obstacle\" or \"objection\". A nouveau riche is called \"Gulaschbaron\" (colloquialism in German language, literally \"goulash baron\").\n", "Germanisms in foreign languages may have gone through a change of meaning, appearing as false friend to the learned's eye. For instance, in Russian галстук \"galstuk\" is not a scarf (German literally: \"\"Halstuch\"\"), but a tie, even though the modern German equivalent \"Krawatte\" (Croatian neck tie) seems to be of a more recent date; nor would a парикмахер \"parikmacher\" (German literally: \"\"Perückenmacher\"\") be a \"wig-maker\", but actually is a hairdresser. It seems, though, that the hair dresser was indeed called a wig maker, i.e. when wigs were in fashion and that was what they did. Thus both Italians (parrucchiere) and Spaniards (peluquero) still call all hair dressers, for gentlemen and ladies, wig makers. \n", "The Serbian word for tomatoes, \"Парадајз\" \"(paradajs)\", is influenced from the Austrian \"Paradeiser\".\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Slovak.\n\nExamples of germanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- \"brak:\" Brack (rubbish)\n\nBULLET::::- \"cech\": Zeche (guild)\n\nBULLET::::- \"cieľ\": Ziel (goal/target)\n\nBULLET::::- \"cín\": Zinn (tin)\n\nBULLET::::- \"deka:\" Decke (blanket)\n\nBULLET::::- \"drôt\": Draht (wire)\n\nBULLET::::- \"faloš\": Falschheit (falsity)\n\nBULLET::::- \"farba:\" Farbe (color)\n\nBULLET::::- \"fašiangy:\" Fasching (carnival)\n\nBULLET::::- \"fialka:\" Veilchen (viola)\n\nBULLET::::- \"fľaša\": Flasche (bottle)\n\nBULLET::::- \"fúra\": Fuhre (load)\n\nBULLET::::- \"gróf:\" Graf (count)\n\nBULLET::::- \"hák:\" Haken (hook)\n\nBULLET::::- \"helma:\" Helm (helmet)\n\nBULLET::::- \"hoblík:\" Hobel (hand plane)\n\nBULLET::::- \"jarmok:\" Jahrmarkt (funfair)\n\nBULLET::::- \"knedl'a:\" Knödel (dumpling)\n\nBULLET::::- \"minca:\" Münze (coin)\n", "Section::::History.:Austrian Empire.\n\nGerman was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality.\n", "Bosnian has a number of loanwords from German: šlager (hit, from Schlager), šminka (make-up, from Schminke), šnajder (tailor, from Schneider), šunka (ham, from Schinken) etc. In the Bosnian language \"rikverc\" means the reverse gear of a vehicle that is best to be \"rostfraj\", stainless. The German equivalents are \"rückwärts\" and \"rostfrei\" respectively.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Bulgarian.\n", "Likewise, the gh in Germanic English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an f, or not at all), can often be linked to German ch: \"to laugh\" → , \"through\" → , \"high\" → , \"naught\" → , \"light\" → or , \"sight\" → , \"daughter\" → , \"neighbour\" → .\n\nSection::::Literature.\n\nThe German language is used in German literature and can be traced back to the Middle Ages, with the most notable authors of the period being Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach.\n", "Technology and engineering have also provided Germanisms, as in the English \"bremsstrahlung\" (a form of electromagnetic radiation), or the French \"schnorchel\" (literally, \"submarine snorkel,\" a type of air-intake device for submarine engines).\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Afrikaans.\n\nIn Afrikaans, a colloquial term for ethnic Germans is \"aberjetze\", from German \"aber jetzt!\" (\"come on, now!\"), possibly due to the frequent use of that phrase by German farmers or overseers in exhorting their workers.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Albanian.\n", "In the late 19th century, many Czech craftsmen worked in the German-speaking area of the Danube monarchy. The Czech language took many loan words from this category: \"ermloch\" from German \"Ärmelloch\" for arm hole, \"flikovat\" from German \"flicken\" for darning and \"piglovat\" from \"bügeln\" for ironing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"durch:\" through, from \"durch\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"plac:\" place, from \"Platz\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"furt\": continuously from \"fort\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"plech\" and \"plechovka\": iron sheet - (beer) can.\n\nBULLET::::- \"pucflek\": orderly (an officer’s servant) from Putzfleck - one who cleans stains\n\nBULLET::::- \"makat\" - to work from machen.\n\nBULLET::::- \"vuřt\" - sausage from Wurst.\n\nBULLET::::- \"grunt\" - yard, land from Grund.\n\nBULLET::::- \"hergot!!!\" - \"Jesus! or \"Holy cow!\" - cursing...\n\nBULLET::::- \"ajznboňák\" - railway worker, from Eisenbahn\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Danish.\n", "Section::::Terminology.:Etymology.\n\nThe ethnonym \"Germani\" is most likely Gallic in origin. \n\nJacob Grimm derived it from a Celtic term for \"shouting; noisy\", and argued that the name represents a literal translation of the endonym \"Tungri\". Johann Kaspar Zeuss derived the name from the Celtic word for \"neighbour\".\n", "A reminder of the missionary by German Catholic lay brothers are the words \"bruda\" from German \"Bruder\" for brother and \"prista\" from German \"Priester\" for priests. A relic of German colonialists' behaviour are invectives such as \"rinfi\" from German \"Rindvieh\", literally cattle, but used also as invective for a silly person, and \"saise\" from German \"Scheiße\", shit.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Turkish.\n", "Section::::Examples in different languages.:Macedonian.\n\nIn Macedonian, the denotation of \"witz\" is виц, similar as in French.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Norwegian.\n\nThe German word \"Vorspiel\" translates to \"prelude\", also with sexual connotation, and \"Nachspiel\" translates to aftermath. In contrast, in Norwegian the words \"vorspiel\" and \"nachspiel\" stand for the consumption of alcoholic beverages before or after a visit of bars or discothèques (German \"vorglühen\", a quite recent neologism reflecting the use of Glühwein, and \"Absacker\").\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Polish.\n", "Section::::Immigrant languages.\n\nImmigrant languages spoken by sizable communities of first and second-generation (dominant origin of the speakers in brackets):\n\nBULLET::::- Turkish (southern Europe and Western Asia) c. 1.8%\n\nBULLET::::- Kurdish (Western Asia) c. 0.3%\n\nBULLET::::- Tamil (South Asia and Southeast Asia)\n\nBULLET::::- Russian (eastern Europe and Northern Asia)\n\nBULLET::::- Arabic (Western Asia and North Africa)\n\nBULLET::::- Greek (southern Europe)\n\nBULLET::::- Dutch (Western Europe)\n\nBULLET::::- Igbo (Nigeria, West Africa)\n\nBULLET::::- Polish (central Europe)\n\nBULLET::::- Serbo-Croatian (Western Balkans, southern Europe)\n\nBULLET::::- Italian (southern Europe)\n\nSection::::Second languages.\n", "BULLET::::- Highest Alemannic\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bavarian\", including Austrian German dialects\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Bavarian\n\nBULLET::::- Central Bavarian, including Viennese\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Bavarian, including Mócheno in Trentino, Italy\n\nBULLET::::- Cimbrian, nearly extinct\n\nBULLET::::- Hutterite German (in Canada and the United States)\n\nBULLET::::- Yiddish, evolved from Middle High German\n\nBULLET::::- Lombardic, extinct, categorization disputed\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Friedrich Maurer (1942), \"Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde\", Strasbourg: Hünenburg, [designation of High German languages as Irminonic].\n", "The Spanish language of some South American countries incorporates Germanisms introduced by German immigrants, for example, in Chile \"kuchen\" (cake) and \"Frankfurter\" in Uruguay. The latter, however, sometimes is used for a hot dog – not as in German for the sausage only. In Argentine, the usage of the name \"Pancho\" is interesting: it's a popular nickname for \"Francisco\" or \"Franco\", and therefore also used for \"Frank\"furter sausages. The Chileans pronounce \"kuchen\" as in German with the ach-Laut, not \"kutshen\", as a Spanish pronunciation would be.\n", "Section::::Other countries.:France.:Chleuh (pejorative).\n\n\"Chleuh\" derives from the name of the Chleuh, a Berber ethnic group in Morocco. It also denotes the absence of words beginning in Schl- in French.\n\nSection::::Other countries.:Netherlands.\n\nSection::::Other countries.:Netherlands.:Mof (pejorative).\n", "BULLET::::- Central Austro-Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Austro-Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)\n\nBULLET::::- Mócheno\n\nBULLET::::- Cimbrian\n\nBULLET::::- Central German languages\n\nBULLET::::- West Central German\n\nBULLET::::- Ripuarian Franconian\n\nBULLET::::- Moselle Franconian\n\nBULLET::::- Luxemburgish\n\nBULLET::::- Rhine Franconian\n\nBULLET::::- Palatine\n\nBULLET::::- North Hessian\n\nBULLET::::- Central Hessian\n\nBULLET::::- East Hessian\n\nBULLET::::- Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)\n\nBULLET::::- East Central German\n\nBULLET::::- Thuringian\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Saxon German\n\nBULLET::::- Lausitzisch-neumärkisch\n\nBULLET::::- Silesian German\n\nBULLET::::- High Prussian\n\nBULLET::::- Hutterite German aka \"Tirolean\"\n", "Section::::Examples in different languages.:Romanian.\n\nIn Romanian, German loans are especially found in names for craft items: \"bormaşină\" (drill, in German \"Bohrmaschine\"), \"ştecher\" (plug, \"Stecker\"), \"şurub\" (screw, \"Schr[a]ube\"), \"şubler\" (vernier caliper, \"Schublehre\"), \"şnur\" (electric cord, German \"Schnur\" is cord in general), but there are also: \n\nBULLET::::- \"cartof\" (potato) \"Kartoffel\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"chiflă\" (a scone) \"Kipfel\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"bere\" (beer) \"Bier\"\n\nBULLET::::- „glasvand” - Glaswand - glass wall.\n\nBULLET::::- \"hingher\" (dogcatcher or executioner), Sax. \"Hoenger\"/German \"Henker\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şanţ\" (trench) \"Schanze\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şuncă\" (ham) dialect \"Schunke\" for German \"Schinken\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"şmirghel\" (emery) \"Schmirgel\"\n\nBULLET::::- „șliț”: Schlitz - fly (of men's trousers)\n\nBULLET::::- \"şpighel\" Spiegel(esen)\n", "German words which were adopted into the Bulgarian language include \"бормашина\", \"drill\", from German \"Bohrmaschine\", \"ауспух\", \"exhaust pipe\" from \"Auspuff\", \"шибидах\" from \"Schiebedach\" and in the skiing sport the term \"Шус\", which is the same as the English \"schuss\", was adopted from \"Schussfahrt\", a steep and fast ride downhill.\n\nEven the German word \"Anzug\", \"suit\", is used in Bulgarian. However, it means \"tracksuit\" there.\n\nSection::::Examples in different languages.:Chinese.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- 1978: Buffalo Braves moved to San Diego and became the Clippers.\n\nBULLET::::- 1979: New Orleans Jazz moved to Salt Lake City and become the Utah Jazz.\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: San Diego Clippers moved to Los Angeles and became the Los Angeles Clippers.\n\nBULLET::::- 1985: Kansas City Kings moved to Sacramento and became the Sacramento Kings.\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Vancouver Grizzlies moved to Memphis and became the Memphis Grizzlies.\n", "BULLET::::- Memphis Houn'Dawgs\n\nBULLET::::- Metroplex Lightning\n\nBULLET::::- Miami Flame\n\nBULLET::::- Miami Midnites\n\nBULLET::::- Miami Storm\n\nBULLET::::- Miami Tropics\n\nBULLET::::- Michiana Ballaholix\n\nBULLET::::- Mid-South Echoes\n\nBULLET::::- Midwest Flames\n\nBULLET::::- Milwaukee Blast\n\nBULLET::::- Milwaukee RimRattlers\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Blizzards\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Rattlers\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Ripknees\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Slamma Jamma\n\nBULLET::::- Minot City Freeze\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi Blues\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi Miracles\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri Rhythm → Kansas City Soul\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile Bay Hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile Bay Tornados\n\nBULLET::::- Modesto Bearcats\n\nBULLET::::- Modesto Hawks\n\nBULLET::::- Monroe Magicians\n\nBULLET::::- Montreal Matrix\n\nBULLET::::- Motown Jammers\n\nSection::::N.\n\nBULLET::::- Nashville Broncs → Music City Stars\n\nBULLET::::- Nashville Nighthawks\n\nBULLET::::- Nashville Rhythm\n", "BULLET::::- Nashville Soul\n\nBULLET::::- Native America\n\nBULLET::::- Native Pride\n\nBULLET::::- NEA Swag\n\nBULLET::::- Nevada Senators\n\nBULLET::::- New England Anchors → Providence Anchors\n\nBULLET::::- New England Outtatowners\n\nBULLET::::- New Mexico Style\n\nBULLET::::- New Orleans Blues/Louisiana Blues – expansion team that did not begin play in 2006–2007 season\n\nBULLET::::- New Orleans Cougars\n\nBULLET::::- New York Court Kings\n\nBULLET::::- New York Jamm\n\nBULLET::::- New York Lightning\n\nBULLET::::- New York Red Riders\n\nBULLET::::- New York State Jaguars\n\nBULLET::::- Niagara Daredevils\n\nBULLET::::- NorCal Bears\n\nBULLET::::- Norfolk Ballerz\n\nBULLET::::- Norfolk Navigators\n\nBULLET::::- Norfolk Sharks\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina Renegades\n\nBULLET::::- North Dallas Vandals\n\nBULLET::::- North Shore Tides\n", "BULLET::::- Texas Hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- Texas Red Wolves\n\nBULLET::::- Texas Skyriders\n\nBULLET::::- Texas Tycoons\n\nBULLET::::- The City Jazz\n\nBULLET::::- Dragones de Tijuana (Tijuana Dragons)\n\nBULLET::::- Toledo Royal Knights\n\nBULLET::::- Topeka Aviators → Topeka Steel → Kansas City Steel\n\nBULLET::::- Trenton Cagers\n\nBULLET::::- Tri-City Racers\n\nBULLET::::- Tri-City Suns\n\nBULLET::::- Tucson Buckets\n\nBULLET::::- Tulsa Twisters\n\nBULLET::::- Turley 66ers\n\nBULLET::::- Twin City Ballers\n\nSection::::U.\n\nBULLET::::- Universal City Seraphim\n\nBULLET::::- Utah Avalanche\n\nBULLET::::- Utah Snowbears\n\nBULLET::::- Utah Stars\n\nSection::::V.\n\nBULLET::::- Valdosta Warriors\n\nBULLET::::- Valley Legends\n\nBULLET::::- Vancouver Balloholics – became independent team\n\nBULLET::::- Vancouver Explorers\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicle City Chargers\n\nBULLET::::- Veneno de Monterrey\n", "BULLET::::- Boston Smugglers\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Beasts\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Leopards\n\nBULLET::::- Charleston Cougars\n\nBULLET::::- Charlotte Yellow Jackets\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Talons\n\nBULLET::::- Cincinnati Hogs\n\nBULLET::::- Cleveland Kings\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado Six Shooters\n\nBULLET::::- Columbia Colonels\n\nBULLET::::- Columbus Blitz\n\nBULLET::::- Dallas Spectres\n\nBULLET::::- D.C. Law Makers\n\nBULLET::::- Denver Outlaws\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Demons\n\nBULLET::::- Fresno Wildfires\n\nBULLET::::- Green Bay Grizzlies\n\nBULLET::::- Honolulu Breakers\n\nBULLET::::- Houston Wranglers\n\nBULLET::::- Indianapolis Spartans\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville Amberjacks\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City Blues\n\nBULLET::::- Las Vegas Rollers\n\nBULLET::::- Little Rock Maulers\n\nBULLET::::- Los Angeles Raptors\n\nBULLET::::- Miami Thunder\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan Tanks\n\nBULLET::::- Milwaukee Mariners\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Mustangs\n\nBULLET::::- Nashville Guardians\n", "BULLET::::- Birmingham Magicians\n\nBULLET::::- Bluegrass Stallions – joined Premier Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Bluff City Reign\n\nBULLET::::- Boriquen Puerto Rico\n\nBULLET::::- Boston Blizzard\n\nBULLET::::- Boston Defenders\n\nBULLET::::- Boston Liberators\n\nBULLET::::- Bowling Green Bandits\n\nBULLET::::- Brooklyn Blackout\n\nBULLET::::- Brooklyn Heat\n\nBULLET::::- Brooklyn Skyrockets\n\nBULLET::::- Buckeye Show\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo 716ers – joined Premier Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Blue Hawks\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Germans\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Sharks\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Warriors\n\nSection::::C.\n\nBULLET::::- Calgary Crush\n\nBULLET::::- Calgary Drillers\n\nBULLET::::- California Eagles\n\nBULLET::::- California Golden Tigers\n\nBULLET::::- California Sea Kings\n\nBULLET::::- California Terminators\n\nBULLET::::- Canada Revolution\n\nBULLET::::- Cape Cod Frenzy\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Cheetahs\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Cougars\n", "The sport that most commonly has two teams in one metropolitan area is baseball, with multiple teams in Chicago, New York, Los Angeles, and the San Francisco Bay Area. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, Boston, St. Louis and Philadelphia also had two baseball franchises (New York had three during this time), but one team from each city moved in the 1950s. Only Chicago has had the same two baseball teams since the American League was established in 1901. In 2006, Philadelphia was the largest television market without two baseball teams, with Dallas being the next-largest.\n", "BULLET::::- Ontario Red Wolves\n\nBULLET::::- Ontario Warriors\n\nBULLET::::- Orange County Buzz\n\nBULLET::::- Orange County Crush → Orange County Buzz → Carson Buzz → Maywood Buzz\n\nBULLET::::- Orange County Gladiators\n\nBULLET::::- Orlando Kings\n\nBULLET::::- Orlando Waves\n\nBULLET::::- Outtatowners of New York City\n\nBULLET::::- Owensboro Colonels\n\nSection::::P.\n\nBULLET::::- Pacific Rim Rockers\n\nBULLET::::- Palm Beach Imperials\n\nBULLET::::- Palmetto State Rizers\n\nBULLET::::- Panama City Dream\n\nBULLET::::- Pee Dee Pride\n\nBULLET::::- Pensacola Aviators\n\nBULLET::::- Peoria Kings\n\nBULLET::::- Peoria Pride\n\nBULLET::::- Permian Basin Obvious Culture\n\nBULLET::::- Phenix City Bombers\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Colonials\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Fusion\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Sounds\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Spirit\n\nBULLET::::- Phoenix Eclipse\n", "Section::::D.\n\nBULLET::::- Dallas Generals\n\nBULLET::::- Dallas Impact\n\nBULLET::::- Daytona Beach Sharks\n\nBULLET::::- Delta Storm – joined Elite Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Denton Destroyers\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Coast II Coast All-Stars\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Dogs\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Hoops\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Panthers – joined Premier Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Zafir\n\nSection::::E.\n\nBULLET::::- East Bay Pit Bulls\n\nBULLET::::- East Carolina Trojans\n\nBULLET::::- East Kentucky Energy\n\nBULLET::::- East Kentucky Miners\n\nBULLET::::- East Point Jaguars\n\nBULLET::::- Edmonton Cheetahs\n\nBULLET::::- Electric City Lions → Charleston City Lions\n\nBULLET::::- Everett Evolution\n\nBULLET::::- Everett Longshoremen\n\nBULLET::::- Everett Revolution\n\nSection::::F.\n\nBULLET::::- Fairfield Funky Fresh\n\nBULLET::::- Flint Fire\n\nBULLET::::- Flint-Vehicle City Chargers\n", "BULLET::::- Shreveport-Bossier Flight\n\nBULLET::::- Shreveport-Bossier Mavericks – joined Premier Basketball League → Kentucky Mavericks\n\nBULLET::::- Silver Springs Barracudas\n\nBULLET::::- Sioux City Hornets\n\nBULLET::::- Smoky Mountain Jam\n\nBULLET::::- SoCal Legends – joined Continental Basketball Association\n\nBULLET::::- SoCal Surf\n\nBULLET::::- Sonora Mexicanos\n\nBULLET::::- South Carolina Warriors\n\nBULLET::::- South Jersey Knights\n\nBULLET::::- South Houston Assault\n\nBULLET::::- South Texas Showboats → Texas Fuel\n\nBULLET::::- South Texas Stingrays\n\nBULLET::::- South Valley Fever\n\nBULLET::::- Southcoast Fire\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Alabama Bounce\n\nBULLET::::- Southern California Surf\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Kansas Thunder\n\nBULLET::::- Southwest Florida Spartans\n\nBULLET::::- Spokane Sunz\n\nBULLET::::- Springfield Sting → Western Mass Zombies\n\nBULLET::::- St. Louis Flight\n", "BULLET::::- 1957: Rochester Royals moved to Cincinnati.\n\nBULLET::::- 1960: Minneapolis Lakers moved to Los Angeles.\n\nBULLET::::- 1962: Philadelphia Warriors moved to the San Francisco Bay Area and became the San Francisco Warriors, then the Golden State Warriors in 1971.\n\nBULLET::::- 1963: Chicago Zephyrs moved to Baltimore and became the Baltimore Bullets.\n\nBULLET::::- 1963: Syracuse Nationals moved to Philadelphia and became the 76ers.\n\nBULLET::::- 1968: St. Louis Hawks moved to Atlanta and became the Atlanta Hawks.\n\nBULLET::::- 1971: San Diego Rockets moved to Houston and became the Houston Rockets.\n", "Though teams are listed here by metropolitan area, the distribution and support of teams within an area can reveal regional fractures below that level, whether by neighborhood, rival cities within a media market or separate markets entirely. Baseball teams provide illustrations for several of these models. In New York City, the Yankees are popularly dubbed the \"Bronx Bombers\" for their home borough and generally command the loyalties of fans from the Bronx, parts of Brooklyn, Staten Island, Manhattan, Long Island, parts of North Jersey and Westchester County, New York, while the Mets play in Queens and draw support from Queens, Brooklyn and parts of Long Island, revealing a split by neighborhood. The San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics represent rival cities within the Bay Area, a single media market. Though the Washington Nationals and Baltimore Orioles share a metro area, their cities anchor separate media markets and hold distinctly separate cultural identities. In Los Angeles, the Lakers and Clippers share an arena (Staples Center), and media coverage is split amongst different broadcasters in the metro area.\n", "MLB, more than any other major league, focuses its teams in the largest markets. MLB is the only major league that does not have any teams in markets with fewer than 1.75 million people; both it and the NFL have teams in every U.S. market with over 4 million people. The NHL is the major league that least follows the general trend, due to the fact that a disproportionate number of its franchises are in cities with cold winters. The NHL lacks teams in a number of southern metropolitan areas with populations of over 3 million (Houston, Atlanta, San Diego) but has five teams in northern metropolitan areas with fewer than 1.25 million people (Buffalo and four Canadian markets). While only one MLB team, the San Diego Padres, is located in a city that has no other major league team, seven NBA teams are located in cities devoid of any additional \"big four\" franchises: Memphis Grizzlies, Oklahoma City Thunder, Orlando Magic, Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, San Antonio Spurs and Utah Jazz (Salt Lake City). Four of these seven NBA-only cities also lack an MLS team (Memphis, Oklahoma City, Sacramento, San Antonio).\n", "BULLET::::- Cleveland briefly held four-sport status (MLB's Indians, NFL's Browns, NBA's Cavaliers, and NHL's Barons) when the Oakland Seals moved there in 1976 as the Cleveland Barons, only to lose it when the Barons merged with the Minnesota North Stars (currently the Dallas Stars) in 1978. The original Browns moved to Baltimore to become the Ravens in 1996; however, Cleveland regained NFL football in 1999.\n", "BULLET::::- Carolina Coyotes\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Destiny\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Jaguars\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Kings\n\nBULLET::::- Carolina Thunder\n\nBULLET::::- Carson Buzz → Maywood Buzz\n\nBULLET::::- Centinelas de Mexicali\n\nBULLET::::- Central Valley Dawgs\n\nBULLET::::- Central Valley Titans\n\nBULLET::::- Central Florida Marvel – joined NEBA\n\nBULLET::::- Central Valley Titans\n\nBULLET::::- Charleston Charcoal\n\nBULLET::::- Charleston City Lions\n\nBULLET::::- Charlotte Crossovers\n\nBULLET::::- Charlotte Dynasty\n\nBULLET::::- Charlotte Krunk – joined Continental Basketball Association → Atlanta Krunk, joined Premier Basketball League → Augusta Groove\n\nBULLET::::- Chattanooga Steamers\n\nBULLET::::- Chi-Town Bulldogs\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Court Kingz\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Rockets\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Rockstars\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Skyliners → Las Vegas Rattlers\n", "BULLET::::- Rock River Fury – joined Premier Basketball League → Rockford Fury\n\nBULLET::::- Rocky Mountain Stampede\n\nBULLET::::- Rome Legions\n\nBULLET::::- Roswell Grays\n\nSection::::S.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacramento KnightCats\n\nBULLET::::- Salem Sabres\n\nBULLET::::- Salem Storm\n\nBULLET::::- Salina Saints\n\nBULLET::::- Salt Lake City Saints\n\nBULLET::::- Salt Lake Dream\n\nBULLET::::- San Antonio Stallions\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego B-Kings\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Sol\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Surf\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Wildcats\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Wildfire\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco Pilots\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco Rumble\n\nBULLET::::- San Jose SkyRockets – joined Continental Basketball Association → Minot SkyRockets\n\nBULLET::::- Schertz Kings – joined NEBA\n\nBULLET::::- Seattle Zhen Gan\n", "BULLET::::- Los Angeles Angels (1961–present): 1961–1965, 2016–present as Los Angeles Angels; 1965–1996 as California Angels; 1997–2004 as Anaheim Angels; 2005–2015 as Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim\n\nBULLET::::- Oakland Athletics (1968–present)\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Padres (1969–present)\n\nBULLET::::- Seattle Mariners (1977–present)\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado Rockies (1993–present)\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona Diamondbacks (1998–present)\n\nNBA\n\nBULLET::::- Los Angeles Lakers (1960–present)\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco/Golden State Warriors (1962–present): 1962–1971 as San Francisco Warriors; 1971–present as Golden State Warriors\n\nBULLET::::- Seattle SuperSonics (1967–2008): moved to Oklahoma City in 2008, where the team is now known as the Oklahoma City Thunder\n", "BULLET::::- Kentucky Retros\n\nBULLET::::- King County Rampage\n\nBULLET::::- King County Royals\n\nBULLET::::- Kitsap Admirals – became independent team\n\nBULLET::::- Knoxville Colonels\n\nBULLET::::- Knoxville Noise\n\nBULLET::::- Knoxville Warriors\n\nSection::::L.\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Charles Corsairs – expansion team that did not begin play in 2012–2013 season\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Charles Hurricanes – expansion team that did not begin play\n\nBULLET::::- Lake City Kingdom Riders → Gulf Coast Kingdom Riders → Louisiana Kingdom Riders\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Erie Rockers\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Michigan Admirals – joined Premier Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Lakewood Panthers\n\nBULLET::::- Lansing Law\n\nBULLET::::- Lansing Sting\n\nBULLET::::- Laredo Swarm → Am-Mex Swarm → Cen-Tex Swarm\n", "Of these metropolitan areas, the only ones with a team in each sport that plays within the limits of its principal city are Chicago, Denver, Detroit and Philadelphia. In the Twin Cities area, three of the teams play in Minneapolis and one plays in St. Paul, although all four teams are named after the state of Minnesota, not the individual cities. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the core cities of Oakland, San Francisco, and San Jose together have at least one NFL, MLB, NBA, and NHL team, so even though not all teams are within the core cities, all four sports are represented in the core cities. All other areas have at least one sport represented solely by a team (or teams) that plays in a city's suburbs.\n", "BULLET::::- Indiana State Warriors\n\nBULLET::::- Indianapolis Drive\n\nBULLET::::- Indy Naptown All-Stars\n\nBULLET::::- Inglewood Cobras\n\nBULLET::::- Inland Empire 5LINX\n\nBULLET::::- Inland Empire Invaders → Yuma Invaders\n\nSection::::J.\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville Jackals\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville JAM – joined Premier Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville Bluewaves\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville Wave\n\nBULLET::::- Jersey Jaguars\n\nBULLET::::- Juarez Gallos\n\nSection::::K.\n\nBULLET::::- Kalamazoo Pure → Kalamazoo Giant Knights\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas Kagerz\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City Knights\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City Soul\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City Spartans\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City Stars\n\nBULLET::::- Katy Katz\n\nBULLET::::- KC Clubbin\n\nBULLET::::- Kent Chiefs\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky Bisons\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky Enforcers\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky Mavericks\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky Pro Cats\n", "BULLET::::- 2005: New Orleans Hornets moved temporarily to Oklahoma City following Hurricane Katrina and became the New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets.\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets returned to New Orleans full-time. The team was renamed as the Pelicans in .\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City and became the Thunder.\n\nSection::::List of relocations in the United States and Canada.:National Football League.\n", "Among those states that have no metropolitan areas with all four sports, only Ohio has teams in all four major sports: the NFL's Cincinnati Bengals and Cleveland Browns; MLB's Cincinnati Reds and Cleveland Indians; the NBA's Cleveland Cavaliers; and the NHL's Columbus Blue Jackets, the only team outside Cleveland and Cincinnati.\n\nAdditionally, while the metropolitan area of New York City has both of its football teams play in New Jersey, the state of New York still has all four major sports leagues represented with the NFL's Buffalo Bills.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Most populous state without all four sports leagues.\n", "BULLET::::- Phoenix Fury\n\nBULLET::::- Pittsburgh Hardhats\n\nBULLET::::- Pittsburgh Patriots\n\nBULLET::::- Pittsburgh Phantoms\n\nBULLET::::- Pittsburgh Xplosion – joined Continental Basketball Association\n\nBULLET::::- Plano Mighty Kings\n\nBULLET::::- Polk County Flame\n\nBULLET::::- Port City Pirates\n\nBULLET::::- Porter County Punishers → Indiana State Warriors\n\nBULLET::::- Portsmouth Cavaliers – joined American Professional Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Portland Reign\n\nBULLET::::- Pennsylvania Pride\n\nBULLET::::- Pro Elite Flyers\n\nBULLET::::- Providence Sky Chiefs → Providence Anchors – joined Premier Basketball League\n\nBULLET::::- Puro Money\n\nSection::::Q.\n\nBULLET::::- Quad City Riverhawks – joined Premier Basketball League\n", "The New York and the Los Angeles metropolitan areas, the two largest cities in the country, are the only two regions with at least two teams in each major sports league, with the New York metropolitan area being home to three NHL clubs.\n\nSection::::Overview by city.\n\n\"Italicized\" teams play outside the city limits of the metropolitan area's core city or cities; the specific location is given in parentheses. The core city or cities of a metropolitan area are identified in this reference.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Principal city versus metropolitan areas.\n", "BULLET::::- Boston had the Yanks of the NFL at the start of the four-major-sport era in 1946, along with the Red Sox, Celtics, Bruins, and Braves. Four-sport status ended when the Yanks became the New York Bulldogs in 1949, and then resumed with the formation of the New England Patriots in 1960.\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit had a charter franchise of the NBA when it was called the \"Basketball Association of America\" at the start of the four-major-sport era in 1946. It folded after one season; Detroit rejoined the four-sport club when the Fort Wayne Pistons moved to Detroit in 1957.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- It is \"virtual\", meaning that the image appears to be behind the mirror, and cannot be projected onto a screen.\n", "Visual Image screenless display includes any image that the eye can perceive. The most common example of Visual Image screenless display is a hologram. In these cases, light is reflected off some intermediate object (hologram, LCD panel, or cockpit window) before it reaches the retina. In the case of LCD panels the light is refracted from the back of the panel, but is nonetheless a reflected source. Google has proposed a similar system to replace the screens of tablet computers and smartphones.\n\nSection::::Retinal display.\n", "Section::::Devices.:Monitor.:Compromising reflections.\n\nWhat is displayed by the monitor is reflected on the environment. The time-varying diffuse reflections of the light emitted by a CRT monitor can be exploited to recover the original monitor image. This is an eavesdropping technique for spying at a distance on data that is displayed on an arbitrary computer screen, including the currently prevalent LCD monitors.\n", "Section::::Title and artwork.\n", "Operating Environment: The intendiX system interacts with users in different ways, depending on whether it is a P300 or SSVEP BCI. Both approaches require paying attention to different regions of the monitor to produce distinct brain signals that the BCI can recognize. intendiX also includes software to determine when users are not paying attention based on their EEG signals. This way, the system can easily enter a \"sleep\" mode without any instruction from the user, and return to an active state when the user again begins paying attention to the activity on the monitor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Brain–computer interface\n", "Section::::Related fields.:Neurobiology.\n", "Section::::Related fields.:Distinctions.\n", "BULLET::::- The retina performs all these calculations in parallel while the computer operates on each pixel one at a time. The retina performs no repeated summations and shifting as would a computer.\n\nBULLET::::- Finally, the horizontal and amacrine cells play a significant role in this process, but that is not represented here.\n\nHere is an example of an input image and how edge detection would modify it.\n", "Reflection (computer graphics)\n\nReflection in computer graphics is used to emulate reflective objects like mirrors and shiny surfaces.\n\nReflection is accomplished in a ray trace renderer by following a ray from the eye to the mirror and then calculating where it bounces from, and continuing the process until no surface is found, or a non-reflective surface is found. Reflection on a shiny surface like wood or tile can add to the photorealistic effects of a 3D rendering.\n\nBULLET::::- Polished - A polished reflection is an undisturbed reflection, like a mirror or chrome.\n", "Many objects that may be found at a usual workplace can be exploited to retrieve information on a computer's display by an outsider. Particularly good results were obtained from reflections in a user's eyeglasses or a tea pot located on the desk next to the screen. Reflections that stem from the eye of the user also provide good results. However, eyes are harder to spy on at a distance because they are fast-moving objects and require high exposure times. Using more expensive equipment with lower exposure times helps to remedy this problem.\n", "A retinal scan is performed by casting an unperceived beam of low-energy infrared light into a person’s eye as they look through the scanner's eyepiece. This beam of light traces a standardized path on the retina. Because retinal blood vessels absorb light more readily than the surrounding tissue, the amount of reflection varies during the scan. The pattern of variations is digitized and stored in a database.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The reversal of images by a plane mirror is perceived differently depending on the circumstances. In many cases, the image in a mirror appears to be reversed from left to right. If a flat mirror is mounted on the ceiling it can appear to reverse \"up\" and \"down\" if a person stands under it and looks up at it. Similarly a car turning \"left\" will still appear to be turning \"left\" in the rear view mirror for the driver of a car in front of it. The reversal of directions, or lack thereof, depends on how the directions are defined. More specifically a mirror changes the handedness of the coordinate system, one axis of the coordinate system appears to be reversed, and the chirality of the image may change. For example, the image of a right shoe will look like a left shoe.\n", "Specular reflection\n\nSpecular reflection, also known as regular reflection, is the mirror-like reflection of waves, such as light, from a surface. In this process, each incident ray is reflected at the same angle to the surface normal as the incident ray, but on the opposing side of the surface normal in the plane formed by incident and reflected rays. The result is that an image reflected by the surface is reproduced in mirror-like (\"specular\") fashion.\n", "Virtual retinal display systems are a class of screenless displays in which images are projected directly onto the retina. They are distinguished from visual image systems because light is not reflected from some intermediate object onto the retina, it is instead projected directly onto the retina. Retinal Direct systems, once marketed, hold out the promise of extreme privacy when computing work is done in public places because most snooping relies on viewing the same light as the person who is legitimately viewing the screen, and retinal direct systems send light only into the pupils of their intended viewer.\n\nSection::::Synaptic interface.\n", "First, a ray is created at an eyepoint and traced through a pixel and into the scene, where it hits a diffuse surface. From that surface the algorithm recursively generates a reflection ray, which is traced through the scene, where it hits another diffuse surface. Finally, another reflection ray is generated and traced through the scene, where it hits the light source and is absorbed. The color of the pixel now depends on the colors of the first and second diffuse surface and the color of the light emitted from the light source. For example, if the light source emitted white light and the two diffuse surfaces were blue, then the resulting color of the pixel is blue.\n", "Section::::Theory.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Total internal reflection.\n", "A study conducted at the University of Maryland compared the effect of different levels of immersion on spatial memory recall. In the study, 40 participants used both a traditional desktop and a head-mounted display to view two environments, a medieval town, and an ornate palace, where they memorized two sets of 21 faces presented as 3D portraits. After viewing these 21 faces for 5 minutes, followed by a brief rest period, the faces in the virtual environments were replaced with numbers and participants recalled which face was at each location. The study found on average, those who used the head-mounted display recalled the faces 8.8% more accurately, and with a greater confidence. The participants state that leveraging their innate vestibular and proprioceptive senses with the head-mounted display and mapping aspects of the environment relative to their body, elements that are absent with the desktop, was key to their success.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Polished or mirror reflection.\n\nMirrors are usually almost 100% reflective...\n\nSection::::Examples.:Metallic reflection.\n\nNormal (nonmetallic) objects reflect light and colors in the original color of the object being reflected.\n\nMetallic objects reflect lights and colors altered by the color of the metallic object itself.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Blurry reflection.\n\nMany materials are imperfect reflectors, where the reflections are blurred to various\n\ndegrees due to surface roughness that scatters the rays of the reflections.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Glossy reflection.\n\nFully glossy reflection, shows highlights from light sources, but does not show a clear reflection from objects.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Illumination model\n\nBULLET::::- Ray tracing\n\nBULLET::::- Rendering (computer graphics)\n", "Section::::History.:1991-1995: Virtual Boy.\n\nIn 1991, Nintendo partnered with Massachusetts-based Reflection Technology, Inc. who had developed a 3D stereoscopic head-tracking prototype called the Private Eye. Gunpei Yokoi, saw this as a unique technology that competitors would find difficult to emulate. Additionally, the resulting game console was intended to enhance Nintendo's reputation as an innovator and to \"encourage more creativity\" in games. Code-naming the project \"VR32\", Nintendo entered into an exclusive agreement with Reflection Technology to license the technology for its displays.\n", "In contrast, a real image is one that is formed when the outgoing rays from a point converge at a real location. Real images can be projected onto a diffuse reflecting screen, but a screen is not necessary for the image to form.\n", "Section::::History.:Fresnel and the phase shift.\n", "It appears that self-recognition in mirrors is independent of familiarity with reflecting surfaces. In some cases the rouge test has been shown to have differing results, depending on sociocultural orientation. For example, a Cameroonian Nso sample of infants 18 to 20 months of age had an extremely low amount of self-recognition outcomes at 3.2%. The study also found two strong predictors of self-recognition: object stimulation (maternal effort of attracting the attention of the infant to an object either person touched) and mutual eye contact. A strong correlation between self-concept and object permanence have also been demonstrated using the rouge test.\n", "Solid-state physics is another field that is closely related to computer vision. Most computer vision systems rely on image sensors, which detect electromagnetic radiation, which is typically in the form of either visible or infra-red light. The sensors are designed using quantum physics. The process by which light interacts with surfaces is explained using physics. Physics explains the behavior of optics which are a core part of most imaging systems. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Also, various measurement problems in physics can be addressed using computer vision, for example motion in fluids.\n", "Section::::Related phenomena.\n\nSection::::Related phenomena.:Evanescent wave (qualitative explanation).\n", "BULLET::::4. Frustrated total internal reflection — Infrared light bounces within a flexible and transparent surface. When the surface is deformed through a finger press the internal reflection is disrupted and the light escapes the surface where it is then sensed by cameras. Image processing software turns the light spots observed by the cameras into mouse or pointer movements.\n" ]

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[ "There are a number of theories that attempt to explain why humans and other animals yawn. It is likely that there are a number of triggers for the behavior. However, there are comparatively few theories that attempt to explain the primary evolutionary reason for the yawn.\n", "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n", "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "found also with \"-n-\" suffix in Greek χαίνω \"to yawn\", and without the \"-n-\" in English \"gap\" (compare the \"figura etymologica\" in Norse \"ginnunga-gap\"), \"gum\" \"palate\" and \"gasp\" (via Old Norse), Latin \"hiō, hiatus\", and Greek \"chasm, chaos\".\n\nThe Latin term used in medicine is \"oscitatio\" (anglicized as \"oscitation\"), from the verb \"oscito\" \"to open the mouth\". \n\n\"Pandiculation\" is the act of yawning and stretching simultaneously.\n\nSection::::Proposed causes.\n", "Yawning behavior may be altered as a result of medical issues such as diabetes, stroke, or adrenal conditions.\n\nSection::::Social function.\n\nTo look at the issue in terms of a possible evolutionary advantage, yawning might be a herd instinct. For example, theories suggest that the yawn serves to synchronize mood in gregarious animals, similar to the howling of the wolf pack. It signals tiredness to other members of the group in order to synchronize sleeping patterns and periods.\n", "Yawning (\"oscitation\") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This \"contagious\" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n", "Two classes of yawning have been observed among primates. In some cases, the yawn is used as a threat gesture as a way of maintaining order in the primates' social structure. Specific studies were conducted on chimpanzees and stumptail macaques. A group of these animals was shown a video of other members of their own species yawning; both species yawned as well. This helps to partly confirm a yawn's \"contagiousness\".\n", "Another proposal points out that animals subject to predation or other dangers must be ready to physically exert themselves at any given moment. At least one study suggests that yawning, especially psychological \"contagious\" yawning, may have developed as a way of keeping a group of animals alert. If an animal is drowsy or bored, it may not be as alert as it should be - to spring into action. Therefore, the \"contagious\" yawn could be an instinctual reaction to a signal from one member of the group reminding the others to stay alert.\n", "A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found, that, when a subject wearing earplugs yawned, a breeze is heard, caused by the flux of the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen, the pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen, or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.\n", "Yawning is considered a non-respiratory gas movement. A non-respiratory gas movement is another process that moves air in and out of the lungs that don't include breathing. Yawning is a reflex that tends to disrupt the normal breathing rhythm and is believed to be contagious as well. The reason why we yawn is unknown, but some think we yawn as a way to regulate the body’s levels of O and CO. Studies done in a controlled environment with different levels of O and CO have disproved that hypothesis. Although there isn’t a concrete explanation as to why we yawn, others think people exhale as a cooling mechanism for our brains. Studies on animals have supported this idea and it is possible humans could be linked to it as well. What is known is that yawning does ventilate all the alveoli in the lungs.\n", "During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, creating a rumbling noise from within the head. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body, including arms, neck, shoulders and back.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nEnglish \"yawn\" continues a number of Middle English forms, \n\n\"yanen\" from Old English \"ġānian\", and \"yenen, yonen\" from Old English frequentatives \"ġinian, ġionian\", from a Germanic root \"*gīn-\". The Germanic root has Indo-European cognates, from a root \"*g̑hēi-\"\n", "Yawn\n\nA yawn is a reflex consisting of the simultaneous inhalation of air and the stretching of the eardrums, followed by an exhalation of breath.\n", "The Discovery Channel's show \"MythBusters\" also tested this concept. In their small-scale, informal study they concluded that yawning is contagious, although elsewhere the statistical significance of this finding has been disputed.\n", "In animals, yawning can serve as a warning signal. For example, Charles Darwin, in his book \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\", mentioned that baboons yawn to threaten their enemies, possibly by displaying large canine teeth. Similarly, Siamese fighting fish yawn only when they see a conspecific (same species) or their own mirror-image, and their yawn often accompanies aggressive attack. Guinea pigs also yawn in a display of dominance or anger, displaying their impressive incisor teeth. This is often accompanied by teeth chattering, purring and scent marking. Adelie penguins employ yawning as part of their courtship ritual. Penguin couples face off and the males engage in what is described as an \"ecstatic display\", opening their beaks and pointing their faces skyward. This trait has also been seen among emperor penguins. Researchers have been attempting to discover why these two different species share this trait, despite not sharing a habitat. Snakes yawn, both to realign their jaws after a meal and for respiratory reasons, as their trachea can be seen to expand when they do this. Dogs, and occasionally cats, often yawn after seeing people yawn and when they feel uncertain. Dogs demonstrate contagious yawning when exposed to human yawning. Dogs are very adept at reading human communication actions, so it is unclear if this phenomenon is rooted in evolutionary history or a result of domestication. Fish can also yawn, and they increase this behavior due to lack of oxygen.\n", "In August 2014, Yawning Man returned to Europe with Arce, Mario Lalli and Stinson for a tour that ran from August 29 to September 7, after which they undertook the Legends of the Desert Tour with Fatso Jetson from February 2 to 28, 2015.\n", "Helt and Eigsti (2010) showed that dogs, like humans, develop a susceptibility to contagious yawning gradually, and that while dogs above seven months 'catch' yawns from humans, younger dogs are immune to contagion. The study also indicated that nearly half of the dogs responded to the human's yawn by becoming relaxed and sleepy, suggesting that the dogs copied not just the yawn, but also the physical state that yawns typically reflect.\n\nYawning has multiple possible functions, and may occur when the body perceives the benefits.\n\nSection::::Social function.:Relation to empathy.\n", "There is still substantial disagreement in the existing literature about whether or not yawn contagion is related to empathy at all. Empathy is a notoriously difficult trait to measure, and the literature on the subject is confused, with the same species sometimes displaying a connection between contagious yawning and social closeness, and sometimes not. Different experimenters typically use slightly different measures of empathy, making comparisons between studies difficult, and there may be a publication bias, where studies which find a significant correlation between the two tested variables are more likely to be published than studies which do not.\n\nSection::::Animal yawning.\n", "Evidence for the occurrence of contagious yawning linked to empathy is rare outside of primates. It has been studied in Canidae species, such as the domestic dog and wolf. Domestic dogs have shown the ability to yawn contagiously in response to human yawns. Domestic dogs have demonstrated they are skilled at reading human communication behaviors. This ability makes it difficult to ascertain whether yawn contagion among domestic dogs is deeply rooted in their evolutionary history or is a result of domestication. \n", "The dog may yawn when someone bends over him, when you sound angry, when there is yelling and quarreling in the family, when the dog is at the vet's office, when someone is walking directly at the dog, when the dog is excited with happiness and anticipation – for instance by the door when you are about to go for a walk, when you ask the dog to do something he doesn´t feel like doing, when your training sessions are too long and the dog gets tired, when you have said NO for doing something you disapprove of, and in many other situations.\n", "A study by the University of London has suggested that the \"contagiousness\" of yawns by a human will pass to dogs. The study observed that 21 of 29 dogs yawned when a stranger yawned in front of them, but did not yawn when the stranger only opened his mouth. \n", "In a study involving gelada baboons, yawning was contagious between individuals, especially those that were socially close. This suggests that emotional proximity rather than spatial proximity is an indicator of yawn contagion.\n", "A 2007 study found that young children with autism spectrum disorders do not increase their yawning frequency after seeing videos of other people yawning, in contrast to typically developing children. In fact, the autistic children actually yawned less during the videos of yawning than during the control videos. This supports the claim that contagious yawning is related to empathic capacity.\n", "Nervousness has also been suggested as a possible reason. Nervousness often indicates the perception of an impending need for action. Anecdotal evidence suggests that yawning helps increase the state of alertness of a person. Paratroopers have been noted to yawn in the moments before they exit the aircraft.\n", "Section::::Brain involvement.:Involuntary expiration.:Yawning.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In the United States, suicide is around 4.5 times more common in men than in women. U.S. men are 5 times as likely to commit suicide within the 15- to 19-year-old demographic, and 6 times as likely as women to commit suicide within the 20- to 24-year-old demographic. Gelder, Mayou and Geddes reported that women are more likely to commit suicide by taking overdose of drugs than men. Transgender individuals are at particularly high risk. Prolonged stress lasting 3 to 5 years, such clinical depression co-morbid with other conditions, can be a major factor in these cases.\n", "Based on the NVDRS 2016 data, the \"New York Times\" acknowledged that, among men, those over 65—who make up a smaller proportion of the population—are at greatest risk of death by suicide. The NVDRS 2015 data showed that, among men of all races, men over 65 were the most likely to commit suicide (27.67 suicides per 100,000), closely followed by men 40–64 (27.10 suicides per 100,000). Men 20–39 (23.41 per 100,000) and 15–19 (13.81 per 100,000) were less likely to commit suicide.\n\nSection::::Murder–suicide.\n", "Section::::Sociology.:Suicide.\n\nSex differences in suicide have been shown to be significant; there are highly asymmetric rates of attempted and completed suicide between males and females. The gap, also called the gender paradox of suicidal behavior, can vary significantly between different countries. Statistics indicate that males die much more often by means of suicide than do females, however reported suicide attempts are 3 times more common among females than males. This paradox is partially explained by the methodology, with females more often choosing medication-induced overdosage, and males more often turning to weapons such as firearms or knives.\n\nSection::::Sociology.:Financial risk-taking.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nThe role that gender plays as a risk factor for suicide has been studied extensively. While females show higher rates of non-fatal suicidal behavior and suicide ideation (thoughts), and reportedly attempt suicide more frequently than males do, males have a much higher rate of completed suicides.\n", "Section::::Statistics.:Non-Western nations.\n", "Section::::Statistics.:Europe.\n", "Section::::Statistics.\n\nThe incidence of completed suicide is vastly higher among males than females among all age groups in most of the world. As of 2015, almost two-thirds of worldwide suicides (representing about 1.5% of all deaths) are committed by men.\n\nSection::::Statistics.:United States.\n", "Suicide rates are highest in Europe's Baltic states, where around 40 people per 100,000 die by suicide each year. The lowest rates are found mainly in Caribbean/West Indies nations and a few countries in Asia.\n\nAs many as 60,000 people commit suicide in Russia every year; approximately 30,000 people die by suicide each year in the United States; over 30,000 kill themselves in Japan; and about 25,000 commit suicide each year in China. In western countries men commit suicide at four times the rate of women. Women are more likely to attempt suicide than men.\n", "Men often have trouble identifying when they may be suffering from a mental health condition. Mental health is an important part of the overall health and wellbeing of males and encompasses a range of differing disorders, each with its own issues. These disorders can impact males in varying ways, from loss of employment, relationship breakdowns, to suicide to name a few. The suicide rate, across all age groups, is higher for males than for females, the median age of men who suicided was 43.8 years of age. Some age groups of men are three times more likely than women to die by suicide and yet women attempt suicide more than men.\n", "Section::::Demographic factors.:Sex.\n\nChina and São Tomé and Príncipe are the only countries in the world where suicide is more common among women than among men.\n", "Globally , death by suicide occurs about 1.8 times more often in males than females. In the Western world, males die three to four times more often by means of suicide than do females. This difference is even more pronounced in those over the age of 65, with tenfold more males than females dying by suicide. Suicide attempts and self-harm are between two and four times more frequent among females. Researchers have attributed the difference between attempted and completed suicides among the sexes to males using more lethal means to end their lives. However, separating intentional suicide attempts from non-suicidal self-harm is not currently done in the United States when gathering statistics at the national level.\n", "Globally, death by suicide occurred about 1.8 times more often among males than among females in 2008, and 1.7 times in 2015. In the western world, males die by suicide three to four times more often than do females. This greater male frequency is increased in those over the age of 65. Suicide attempts are between two and four times more frequent among females. Researchers have attributed the difference between attempted and completed suicides among the sexes to males using more lethal means to end their lives. The extent of suicidal thoughts is not clear, but research suggests that suicidal thoughts are more common among females than among males, particularly in those under the age of 25.\n", "The reported difference in suicide rates for males and females is partially a result of the methods used by each gender. Although females attempt suicide at a higher rate, they are more likely to use methods that are less immediately lethal. Males frequently complete suicide via high mortality actions such as hanging, carbon-monoxide poisoning, and firearms. This is in contrast to females, who tend to rely on drug overdosing. While overdosing can be deadly, it is less immediate and therefore more likely to be caught before death occurs. In Europe, where the gender discrepancy is the greatest, a study found that the most frequent method of suicide among both genders was hanging; however, the use of hanging was significantly higher in males (54.3%) than in females (35.6%). The same study found that the second most common methods were firearms (9.7%) for men and poisoning by drugs (24.7%) for women.\n", "As of recent World Health Organization (WHO) releases, challenges represented by social stigma, the taboo to openly discuss suicide, and low availability of data are still to date obstacles leading to poor data quality for both suicide and suicide attempts: \"given the sensitivity of suicide – and the illegality of suicidal behaviour in some countries – it is likely that under-reporting and misclassification are greater problems for suicide than for most other causes of death.\".\n\nSection::::Overview.:Factors.\n\nMany researchers have attempted to find explanations for why gender is such a significant indicator for suicide.\n", "It has been noted that the gender gap is less stark in developing nations. One theory put forward for the smaller gap is the increased burden of motherhood due to cultural norms. In regions where the identity of females is constructed around the family, having young children may correlate with lower risks for suicide. At the same time, stigma attached to infertility or having children outside of marriage can contribute to higher rates of suicide among women.\n", "In 2003, a group of sociologists examined the gender and suicide gap by considering how cultural factors impacted suicide rates. The four cultural factors – power-distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity – were measured for 66 countries using data from the World Health Organization. Cultural beliefs regarding individualism were most closely tied to the gender gap; countries that placed a higher value on individualism showed higher rates of male suicide. Power-distance, defined as the social separation of people based on finances or status, was negatively correlated with suicide. However, countries with high levels of power-distance had higher rates of female suicide. The study ultimately found that stabilizing cultural factors had a stronger effect on suicide rates for women than men.\n", "Numerous other factors have been put forward as the cause of the gender paradox. Part of the gap may be explained by heightened levels of stress that result from traditional gender roles. For example, the death of a spouse and divorce are risk factors for suicide in both genders, but the effect is somewhat mitigated for females. In the Western world, females are more likely to maintain social and familial connections that they can turn to for support after losing their spouse. Another factor closely tied to gender roles is employment status. Males' vulnerability may be heightened during times of unemployment because of societal expectations that males should provide for themselves and their families.\n", "Researchers have attributed the difference between attempted and completed suicides among the sexes to males using more lethal means to end their lives.\n", "A common explanation relies on the social constructions of hegemonic masculinity and femininity. According to literature on gender and suicide, male suicide rates are explained in terms of traditional gender roles. Male gender roles tend to emphasize greater levels of strength, independence, risk-taking behavior, economic status, individualism. Reinforcement of this gender role often prevents males from seeking help for suicidal feelings and depression.\n", "Excess male mortality from suicide is lower in non-Western where as of 2015 in China (about one fifth of world population) and seven more countries it is absent, with females more likely to die by suicide than males by a factor of 1.3–1.6\n\nSection::::Race and sexual orientation.\n", "Some suicide reduction strategies do not recognize the separate needs of males and females. Researchers have recommended aggressive long-term treatments and follow up for males that show indications of suicidal thoughts. Studies have also found that because young females are at a higher risk of attempting suicide, policies tailored towards this demographic are most effective at reducing overall rates.\n\nShifting cultural attitudes about gender roles and social norms, and especially ideas about masculinity, may also contribute to closing the gender gap: social status and working roles are assumed to be crucial for men's identity.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In western countries men are about 300% or thrice as likely to die by suicide than females, while a few countries (counting over a hundred million residents overall) exceed the 600% figure. Most considerable difference in male–female suicide ratios is noted in countries of the former Soviet Bloc and in some of Latin America.\n", "Since the 1950s, typically males have died from suicidal attempts three to five times more often than females. Use of mental health resources may be a significant contributor to the gender difference in suicide rates in the US. Studies have shown that females are 13–21% more likely than males to receive a psychiatric affective diagnosis. 72–89% of females who committed suicide had contact with a mental health professional at some point in their life and 41–58% of males who committed suicide had contact with a mental health professional.\n", "Gender differences in suicide\n\nGender differences in suicide rates have been shown to be significant. There are different rates of completed suicides and suicidal behavior between males and females. While women more often have suicidal thoughts, men die by suicide more frequently. This is also known as the gender paradox in suicide.\n", "Section::::Sex.\n\nIn the United States, males are four times more likely to die by suicide than females, although more women than men report suicide attempts and self-harm with suicidal intentions. Male suicide rates are higher than females in all age groups (the ratio varies from 3:1 to 10:1). In other western countries, males are also much more likely to die by suicide than females (usually by a factor of 3–4:1). It was the 8th leading cause of death for males, and 19th leading cause of death for females.\n" ]

[ "Suicide rates for men and women should be the same.", "Suicides are more common in men." ]

[ "Suicide rates for men and women are different because they choose different methods of suicide.", "Women attempt suicide more often than men, it just fails due to the methods they use. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Suicide rates for men and women should be the same.", "Suicides are more common in men." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Suicide rates for men and women are different because they choose different methods of suicide.", "Women attempt suicide more often than men, it just fails due to the methods they use. " ]