Datasets:

tasksource

/

CREPE

like 2

Follow

tasksource 14

[ "The simplest picture of light given by classical physics is of a wave or disturbance in the electromagnetic field. In a vacuum, Maxwell's equations predict that these disturbances will travel at a specific speed, denoted by the symbol . This well-known physical constant is commonly referred to as the speed of light. The postulate of the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial reference frames lies at the heart of special relativity and has given rise to a popular notion that the \"speed of light is always the same\". However, in many situations light is more than a disturbance in the electromagnetic field.\n", "In 1998, Danish physicist Lene Vestergaard Hau led a combined team from Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science which succeeded in slowing a beam of light to about 17 meters per second, and researchers at UC Berkeley slowed the speed of light traveling through a semiconductor to 9.7 kilometers per second in 2004. Hau and her colleagues later succeeded in stopping light completely, and developed methods by which it can be stopped and later restarted. This was in an effort to develop computers that will use only a fraction of the energy of today's machines.\n", "\"Slow Light\" (2011) is Perkowitz’s fifth book of science nonfiction for popular audiences. \"Slow Light\" is a popular treatment of recent breakthroughs in the science of light. Even though the quantum mysteries of light are still not fully understood, it can be slowed to a stop and speeded up beyond its Einsteinian speed limit, 186,000 miles/sec; used for quantum telecommunications; teleported; manipulated to create invisibility; and perhaps used to generate hydrogen fusion power.\n", "\"If one considers the vast size of the diameter KL, which according to me is some 24 thousand diameters of the Earth, one will acknowledge the extreme velocity of Light. For, supposing that KL is no more than 22 thousand of these diameters, it appears that being traversed in 22 minutes this makes the speed a thousand diameters in one minute, that is 16-2/3 diameters in one second or in one beat of the pulse, which makes more than 11 hundred times a hundred thousand toises;\"\n", "BULLET::::- On Discworld, where Terry Pratchett's novel series takes place, light travels only a few hundred miles per hour due to Discworld's \"embarrassingly strong\" magic field.\n", "Also, slow light can be used in optical quantum memory.\n\nSection::::In fiction.\n\nThe description of \"luminite\" in Maurice Renard's novel, \"Le maître de la lumière\" (\"The Master of Light\", 1933), might be one of the earliest mentions of slow light.\n\nSubsequent fictional works that address slow light are noted below.\n\nBULLET::::- The slow light experiments are mentioned in Dave Eggers's novel \"You Shall Know Our Velocity\" (2002), in which the speed of light is described as a \"Sunday crawl\".\n", "Section::::Relation to other constants and their variation.\n\nSection::::Relation to other constants and their variation.:Gravitational constant \"G\".\n\nIn 1937, Paul Dirac and others began investigating the consequences of natural constants changing with time. For example, Dirac proposed a change of only 5 parts in 10 per year of Newton's constant \"G\" to explain the relative weakness of the gravitational force compared to other fundamental forces. This has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.\n", "\"note that the photon speed is ... formula_9.\" (formula_10 denoting the gravitational potential −\"GM\"/\"r\")\n\nBased on this observation, variable speed of light models, including Dicke's, have been developed which agree with all known tests of general relativity, but some are distinct for higher-order tests.\n\nOther models claim to shed light on the equivalence principle or make a link to Dirac's Large Numbers Hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Modern VSL theories as an alternative to cosmic inflation.\n\nThe varying speed of light cosmology has been proposed independently by Jean-Pierre Petit in 1988, John Moffat in 1992, \n", "The phase velocity is important in determining how a light wave travels through a material or from one material to another. It is often represented in terms of a \"refractive index\". The refractive index of a material is defined as the ratio of \"c\" to the phase velocity \"v\" in the material: larger indices of refraction indicate lower speeds. The refractive index of a material may depend on the light's frequency, intensity, polarization, or direction of propagation; in many cases, though, it can be treated as a material-dependent constant. The refractive index of air is approximately 1.0003. Denser media, such as water, glass, and diamond, have refractive indexes of around 1.3, 1.5 and 2.4, respectively, for visible light. In exotic materials like Bose–Einstein condensates near absolute zero, the effective speed of light may be only a few metres per second. However, this represents absorption and re-radiation delay between atoms, as do all slower-than-\"c\" speeds in material substances. As an extreme example of light \"slowing\" in matter, two independent teams of physicists claimed to bring light to a \"complete standstill\" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass., and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being \"stopped\" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrarily later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had \"stopped,\" it had ceased to be light. This type of behaviour is generally microscopically true of all transparent media which \"slow\" the speed of light.\n", "Virtual photons in some calculations in quantum field theory may also travel at a different speed for short distances; however, this doesn't imply that anything can travel faster than light. While it has been claimed (see VSL criticism below) that no meaning can be ascribed to a dimensional quantity such as the speed of light varying in time (as opposed to a dimensionless number such as the fine structure constant), in some controversial theories in cosmology, the speed of light also varies by changing the postulates of special relativity.\n\nSection::::Various other VSL occurrences.:Varying photon speed.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nUntil the early modern period, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks, Muslim scholars, and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light. Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity concluded that the speed of light is constant regardless of one's frame of reference. Since then, scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements.\n\nSection::::History.:Early history.\n", "In the 13th century, Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle. In the 1270s, Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.\n", "The expression \"speed of darkness\" had appeared in a 1999 book mixing physics and fiction, named The Science of Discworld, written by Terry Pratchett, Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen. In a 2011 interview on BBC Radio 1, frontman Dave King explained that the title track and album title was taken from a quote of Dino Misetić, the artist who designed the album cover, which appeared in the book Sarajevo Marlboro. Dino, who grew up in the Balkans during the Balkan Wars, is quoted in the book, saying: \"They taught us what the speed of light is, but nobody can teach you what the speed of darkness is.\"\n", "Slow light refers to a very low group velocity of light. If the dispersion relation of the refractive index is such that the index changes rapidly over a small range of frequencies, then the group velocity might be very low, thousands or millions of times less than , even though the index of refraction is still a typical value (between 1.5 and 3.5 for glasses and semiconductors).\n\nSection::::Ways to achieve slow light.\n", "It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as \"c\" have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, it has been suggested in various theories that the speed of light may have changed over time. No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found, but they remain the subject of ongoing research.\n", "BULLET::::- 1933: Munsell, Sloan, and Godlove launch a study on the Munsell neutral value scale, considering several proposals relating the relative luminance to the Munsell value, and suggest:\n\nBULLET::::- 1943: Newhall, Nickerson, and Judd prepare a report for the Optical Society of America. They suggest a quintic parabola (relating the reflectance in terms of the value):\n\nBULLET::::- 1943: Using Table II of the O.S.A. report, Moon and Spencer express the value in terms of the relative luminance:\n", "Given that in a universe with an increasing horizon more and more masses contribute to the above refractive index, Dicke considered a cosmology where \"c\" decreased in time, providing an alternative explanation to the cosmological redshift (p. 374). Dicke's theory is compatible with the SI definition of c since the time and length units second and meter can vary in concert, keeping the value of c fixed (p. 366).\n\nSection::::Historical proposals.:Subsequent proposals.\n\nSpatial variation of the speed of light is implicitly present in general relativity, occurring in the coordinate space description.:\n", "In this calculation \"L\" = \"c\"/\"c\" where \"c\" is light speed in flat space.\n", "Notable attempts to incorporate a variable speed of light into physics have been made by Einstein in 1911, by Robert Dicke in 1957, and by several researchers starting from the late 1980s.\n\nThe speed of light in vacuum instead is considered a constant, and defined by the SI as 299792458 m/s. Variability of the speed of light is therefore equivalent with a variability of the SI meter and/or the SI second.\n", "BULLET::::- 1849 — Hippolyte Fizeau and Jean-Bernard Foucault measure the speed of light to be about 298,000 km/s\n\nSection::::19th century.:1851–1900.\n\nBULLET::::- 1852 — George Gabriel Stokes defines the Stokes parameters of polarization\n\nBULLET::::- 1852 — Edward Frankland develops the theory of chemical valence\n\nBULLET::::- 1854 — Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, physicist and one of the founders of spectroscopy, publishes Kirchhoff's Laws on the conservation of electric charge and energy, which are used to determine currents in each branch of a circuit.\n", "VSL should not be confused with faster than light theories; nor should it be confused with the fact that the speed of light in a medium is slower than the speed of light in vacuum depending on the medium's refractive index.\n\nSection::::Historical proposals.\n\nSection::::Historical proposals.:Einstein's early proposal (1911).\n", "In 2009 the two MAGIC (Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov) telescopes detected that among gamma-ray photons arriving from the blazar Markarian 501, some photons at different energy levels arrived at different times, suggesting that some of the photons had moved more slowly and thus contradicting the theory of general relativity's notion of the speed of light being constant, a discrepancy which could be explained by the irregularity of quantum foam. More recent experiments were, however, unable to confirm the supposed variation on the speed of light due to graininess of space.\n", "Section::::Effects of special relativity.\n", "BULLET::::- 1865 — James Clerk Maxwell publishes his landmark paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, in which Maxwell's equations demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces are two complementary aspects of electromagnetism. He shows that the associated complementary electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetism travel through space, in the form of waves, at a constant velocity of 3.0 × 10 m/s. He also proposes that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and that waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments. Using available data, he obtains a velocity of 310,740,000 m/s and states \"This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat, and other radiations if any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws.\"\n", "However, Richard Feynman showed that the gravitational constant most likely could not have changed this much in the past 4 billion years based on geological and solar system observations (although this may depend on assumptions about the constant not changing other constants). (See also strong equivalence principle.)\n\nSection::::Relation to other constants and their variation.:Fine structure constant \"α\".\n\nOne group, studying distant quasars, has claimed to detect a variation of the fine structure constant at the level in one part in 10. Other authors dispute these results. Other groups studying quasars claim no detectable variation at much higher sensitivities.\n" ]

[ "Light travels at a constant speed always." ]

[ "Light only travels at a constant speed in a vacuum. In any other medium it is slowed down. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Light travels at a constant speed always." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Light only travels at a constant speed in a vacuum. In any other medium it is slowed down. " ]

[ "\"It was really immediate; that's why we loved putting out singles early on. We recorded some songs for Sympathy for the Record Industry, and two weeks later, we had some finished copies of them. The turnaround time was amazing. And by the time people were able to get them, it was still under a month. They're hearing something that is completely fresh–this is something we're doing \"at the moment\". We did that for, like, a three-year period.\"\n", "According to Aniello, songs such as \"Cold Spot,\" \"Hey, Blue Eyes,\" \"American Beauty\" and \"Mary, Mary\" were among the 20 songs recorded that did not make the final cut. Those songs, with the exception of \"Cold Spot,\" were released on the \"American Beauty\" EP in April 2014.\n\nSection::::Release and promotion.\n\nOn December 28, 2013, Amazon.com made the album available for purchase as individual MP3 files through their mobile application. Amazon quickly removed the files, but it was too late and the album leaked by mid-day.\n", "50 stated that because the album leaked and the good response it got, he will release the album a week earlier, on November 16. The album was released exclusively on the iTunes Store on November 9 at 12:00am, while the physical copy was released in stores on November 16. Since the album was released digitally a week ahead of the physical copy, Interscope records requested that \"Billboard\" and Nielsen SoundScan uphold a rule instituted in 2008 where a label may ask Nielsen SoundScan to hold the digital sales count of an album for up to one week, and for \"Billboard\" to delay charting that album, when a leak results in a digital album beating its physical counterpart to brick and mortar stores.\n", "The album leaked two weeks before its release, despite being under a very high level of security. Hoppus commented to \"NME\" that he was surprised it took so long to leak and was relieved rather than annoyed that it had, reading warm comments about the album online.\n", "Several artists have found that some of their studio work have been leaked onto the Internet before their album has been completed. System of a Down's 2002 follow-up to \"Toxicity\", untitled at the time, was leaked onto the Internet as MP3 files. When the album was released under the title \"Steal This Album!\" the songs were significantly different from the work-in-progress, with different titles, lyrics and even melodies. There were some reports that the changes were a direct result of negative feedback about the leaked material.\n", "Over the following years the band would discuss the possibility of both rerecording or releasing the leaked recordings on a number of occasions.\n\nSection::::Recording and production.\n", "On September 2, 2008, a record store in France began selling copies of \"Death Magnetic\" nearly two weeks before its scheduled worldwide release date, which resulted in the album being made available on peer-to-peer clients. This prompted the band's UK distributor Vertigo Records to officially release the album on September 10, 2008. Rumors of Metallica or Warner Bros. taking legal action against the French retailer were unconfirmed, though drummer Lars Ulrich responded to the leak by saying, \"...We're ten days from release. I mean, from here, we're golden. If this thing leaks all over the world today or tomorrow, happy days. Happy days. Trust me\", and, \"By 2008 standards, that's a victory. If you'd told me six months ago that our record wouldn't leak until 10 days out, I would have signed up for that.\"\n", "When I asked a friend who worked for Fat where they think the leak came from, they pinpointed it to one specific person from a specific magazine (again, not AP) who had been begging them to hear the record. Upon hearing this person's name, I realized that same person had been emailing and IMing me incessantly for the past few weeks about trying to write for AP...Once I found out the label was holding him responsible for the leak, I promptly wrote him and let him know that AP doesn't use writers who leak records, so I would not need his services.\n", "Patrick, now all on his own, attempted to restart the sessions for the album, but experienced further roadblocks:\n", "In November 2005 Sony was distributing albums with Extended Copy Protection, a feature that automatically installed rootkit software on any Microsoft Windows machine upon insertion of the disc. In addition to preventing the CDs contents from being copied, it also exposed the computer to malicious attacks that exploited insecure features of the rootkit software. Just the initial US edition of the album (US Catalog-Nr. EK93515) shipped the rootkit and was recalled by Sony on November 18 of 2005 after the details of the \"copy protection\" had been unveiled in the press. Editions from other parts of the world and later US editions of the album had not shipped the malicious software from the beginning. Since the copy protection is mentioned on the CD jewel case and the back of the CD itself, everybody can check if their US edition is affected or not.\n", "The album leaked onto the internet around 1 month prior to its actual release. On 18 August 2008 - the intended release of single \"Steve McQueen\", record label's B-Unique/Polydor failed to properly distribute the single, resulting in many online stores such as 7digital and iTunes not supplying the single. The issue was resolved by Wednesday of the same week. Similarly a week later with the album's release, online retailers and physical retailers were not stocking the record until Thursday of that week due to distribution mistakes made by the band's labels.\n", "The album sold 160,000 copies in its first week, debuting at number 5 in the United States. Due to the album leaking on October 28, nearly four weeks ahead of the original release date of November 23, the album was released exclusively to iTunes on November 9, and was physically released in stores on November 16, a week later. Due to this unique circumstance, 50 Cent's label Interscope requested that Billboard and Nielson Soundscan delay charting the album for a week, so the first week digital sales were added to the total number of albums sold between November 16 and 22. The album sold 46,000 copies during its iTunes exclusive week, meaning that 114,000 copies were sold between November 16 and 22.\n", "Recording commenced on the album at San Francisco's Razor's Edge Studios. The finished album, titled \"IOU Babe\" was completed in late 1993 and delivered to the label. However, the album was met with resistance from the label. Sirius recalled, \"We finished the album right around the end of 1993. In fact, the timing was such that we went to a NIN show in Oakland and handed in the final product in person to his management. This time, we weren't invited into the dressing room and Reznor never came out to speak to us. I think it was maybe a few weeks after that Tony Ciula from Nothing Records told us that Interscope was making Nothing drop all their artists except NIN and Marilyn Manson but that we could have the album gratis.\"\n", "The album leaked April 30, 2008, almost three weeks before the release date. \"Departure\" was released one week early on the Canadian iTunes Store. The CD was released using CDVU+ technology. Some countries, including the UK and Brazil, were excluded from the recycled packaging and CDVU+ Software on the release.\n", "As Universal/Interscope seem either incapable or unwilling (or both) to distribute and promote my album properly, and as they've refused to give it back to me, then I've been forced to consider alternative ways of reaching my audience. After much deliberation I have therefore decided to offer free downloads of \"NakedSelf\" on a song by song/week by week basis from my official site. www.thethe.com. By doing so I hope more people (including the bulk of my audience) will finally get the chance to hear this album and hopefully support me by purchasing this CD and future releases. For me to just walk away from \"NakedSelf\" now would be like leaving a baby on a doorstep and I just can't do it. I believe in this album too much.\n", "In addition, customers are entitled to lossless FLAC versions of the album at no extra cost. By mid-December 2008, 12 percent of customers chose to download the FLAC option.\n\nThis album is catalogued as the second release from Byrne's vanity label Todo Mundo after \"\"; copies of the CD were marked CD-TODO-002. The CD was released in Japan with a bonus track—\"Poor Boy\" (Eno & Leo Abrahams Remix)—and obi strip in November 2008 through Beat Records with catalogue number BRC-218. On February 17, 2009, the album was released on 180-gram vinyl LP as LP-TODO-002.\n\nSection::::Release.:Singles.\n", "The only solace was that through some unfortunate error someone at the record pressing plant made several thousand copies of our original version of the album, thinking it was the new one. Without even listening to them, the record company sent them out as promotional copies to radio stations and journalists before realizing their mistake. Now, they are available to anyone who wants to hear them on the Internet. Though someone at the label actually accused me of plotting it, I wish I was that resourceful. God, however irrelevant he may be to me, works in mysterious ways.\n", "Section::::Fake leak.\n\n\"Stepfather\" was released during the peer-to-peer file sharing explosion, and subsequently, many unauthorized demos and bootlegs of forthcoming albums were finding their way into the hands of fans before the artists could release finalized albums. As a precautionary measure, Thes One and Double K recorded a \"fake album\" (also titled \"Stepfather\"), and intentionally leaked the fake album (with the help of the People Under the Stairs online message board) onto the internet on February 21, 2006.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.:2013 leak.\n\nMany publications opted to review the leaked material as an \"album\" with \"Gigwise\" commenting \"there are moments that sound distinctly unfinished. There are periods of silence at the end of most tracks, there're only a few smooth segues between the skits and the tracks, and there are periods where the mixing of the vocal track sounds downright bad. The whole album doesn't feel as precisely balanced as you would expect from Jai Paul.\"\n", "Thursday recorded their debut album \"Waiting\" in 1999, and Taking Back Sunday recorded \"Tell All Your Friends\" in 2001, which on its 2005 reissue featured a bonus song called \"\"The Ballad of Sal Villanueva\"\". Thursday has continually gone back to Villanueva, including his recording of the breakout album \"Full Collapse\" in 2001.\n\nThroughout its existence, 24 Gold and 10 Platinum records have been mixed or recorded at the 512 Paterson Plank facility; and some of the Gold and Platinum records are displayed in the reception area upon entering the studio.\n\nSection::::Equipment and Features.\n", "The full album was accidentally made available on the UK iTunes Store at midnight on April 23, 2007 for a total of six hours, two weeks before the album's official release date. This led to the album being leaked online the following day.\n\nSection::::Release and album title.:Release formats.\n", "In the wake of Trust Obey's departure from Nothing Records, Brian McNelis of Lakeshore Entertainment would put Bergin in touch with Jared Louche of the industrial rock band Chemlab. Bergin met with Louche in Chicago, while he was recording Chemlab's \"East Side Militia\" album. Louche at the time was serving as general manager for Fifth Colvmn Records and requested Bergin send him some material for release consideration.\n", "Despite being an unofficial release, the collection of leaked material was ranked as an album in year-end lists, at number 32 in the music blog Pretty Much Amazing's \"40 Best Albums of 2013\", number 28 in \"The Guardian\"s \"Best Albums of 2013\", and number 20 in \"Pitchfork\"'s \"Top 50 Albums of 2013\". More recently, the leak was ranked at number 99 in \"The 100 Best Albums of the Decade So Far\", a list published by \"Pitchfork\" in August 2014.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.:Official release.\n", "The record was nominated for Best Comedy Album at the 52nd Grammy Awards.\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nInformation taken from the liner notes of \"Alpocalypse\".\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nInformation taken from iTunes metadata.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Weird Al\" Yankovic – vocals, accordion, keyboards, backing vocals, hand claps\n\nBULLET::::- Jim \"Kimo\" West – guitar, mandolin, banjo, keyboards, vocals, hand claps\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Jay – bass guitar, banjo, vocals, hand claps\n\nBULLET::::- Jon \"Bermuda\" Schwartz – drums, percussion, hand claps, drum programming, vocals\n\nBULLET::::- Rubén Valtierra – keyboards on \"Ringtone\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ray Manzarek – keyboards on \"Craigslist\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Warwick – Engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Papa – Engineer\n", "In 2007, the band would self-release \"Archive Things 1982-88 / Purged\", a collection of early recordings. This was followed by their next studio album, \"Autoimmune\", in 2008. The album would see a U.S. release via Metropolis Records, with a UK release via Planet Mu. Each version of the album had a slightly different tracklist from one another, as well as different artwork.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Another aspect of the Woodlark cuscus' metatherian identity can be seen the composition of the mother's milk. As the young grow, the carbohydrate, lipid, and protein compositions in the mother's milk fluctuates in accordance to the stage the young \"Phalanger lullulae\" is in as it grows. The tiny young will feed on milk that is very dilute and composted of simple sugars while the older ones feed on more concentrated milk.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "The pups are born blind and without fur or ears. The ears are fully developed by the fourth day, fur begins to appear at about six days and the eyes open around 13 days after birth; the pups are weaned at around 21 days. Females reach sexual maturity at about six weeks of age and males at about eight weeks, but both can copulate as early as five weeks. If the infants live in high temperatured area from birth, they will become less-haired.\n\nSection::::Life cycle and reproduction.:Polygamy.\n", "Newborn Plains Harvest Mice weigh about 1 g. It is born naked and blind. Its hair grows in 6 days, it opens its eyes at 8 days, and weaning is in 14 days. Reaching adult size takes 5 weeks. When it is juvenile, the fur is plain, sparse and curled like cotton. As a juvenile, the hair becomes more shiny, but less dense than the adult.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "Section::::Physical Appearance.:Fur.\n", "BULLET::::- Dog or adult dog \"Canis lupus familiaris\" (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig), Puppy or juvenile dog (\"qimugkauyar(aq)\" \"qimugkauyaraat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimukcuar(ar)\" in Cup'ig). For thousands of years, dogs have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life (\"yuuyaraq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuuyaraq\" in Cup'ik), for transportation and companionship. Adult dog skins not used in clothing production. Only juvenile dog (puppy) skins are usable. Puppy skin parkas, with the fur inside, were made for babies and small children. Puppies one and two months old were killed for the purpose.\n", "The newborns are precocial (born relatively mature) and come with open eyes and are hairy (with the exception of the hairless hippos). Juvenile deer and pigs have striped or spotted coats; the pattern disappears as they grow older. The juveniles of some species spend their first weeks with their mother in a safe location, where others may be running and following the herd within a few hours or days.\n", "Weaning takes place when the kits reach approximately 6-8 weeks old. The changes that take place during weaning can be stressful for both dam and kits therefore is done at a time that is most beneficial for the mother and litter. Ranchers should ensure the kits are able to consume solid feed and drink water independently before they are ready for weaning.\n\nSection::::Farmed mink production cycle.:Growth and furring (July - October).\n", "In addition, there is evidence to suggest that young rabbits that occupy the periphery of the \"litter huddle\" obtain less milk from the mother and, as a result, have a lower weight. It has been suggested that this factor may contribute to behavioural differences in litter mates during adolescence.\n\nSection::::As pets.:Care.\n", "The young begin to develop fur at two to four days, their ears open at three to five days, and their eyes open at 12 to 14. The young begin to eat solid food as soon as they are able to see, but are not fully weaned for about three or four weeks, leaving the nest shortly thereafter. They reach the full adult size at eight to nine weeks, by which time they are already sexually mature. They have been reported to live up to 15 months.\n\nSection::::Hybridization.\n", "Section::::Composition.:Guard hair.\n", "Both adult males and females exhibit red and black fur that is dense and woolly. However, females are bigger and have a uniformly dark, saddle-like coloration, while males have spotty colorations. The pelages of the young transform through a series of colors during maturation. The undersides of black-spotted cuscuses have areas of yellow and white. Females possess four mammae and modified pouches for neonates that open anteriorly.\n", "Section::::Mammals without fur.\n\nHair is one of the defining characteristics of mammals; however, several species or breeds have considerably reduced amounts of fur. These are often called \"naked\" or \"hairless\".\n\nSection::::Mammals without fur.:Natural selection.\n", "The fur of mammals has many uses: protection, sensory purposes, waterproofing, and camouflage, with the primary usage being thermoregulation. The types of hair include definitive, which may be shed after reaching a certain length; vibrissae, which are sensory hairs and are most commonly whiskers; pelage, which consists of guard hairs, under-fur, and awn hair; spines, which are a type of stiff guard hair used for defense in, for example, porcupines; bristles, which are long hairs usually used in visual signals, such as the mane of a lion; velli, often called \"down fur,\" which insulates newborn mammals; and wool, which is long, soft, and often curly. Hair length is negligible in thermoregulation, as some tropical mammals, such as sloths, have the same fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of . Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach in the summer, but the skin stays at . Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.\n", "Baby mice, called \"pinkies\" or pups, are born blind, naked, and deaf. Their eyes are closed and their ears are stuck to the sides of their heads. Mothers may eat any dead or sickly offspring. Pups begin to grow hair at two to four days. Ears open at three to five days, and the pups will start vocalizing. Eyes open at 14 days, and the babies will start exploring the world around them. At three weeks old they look like miniature versions of adult mice. At four weeks the males in the litter should be separated out lest they impregnate their mother and sisters, while the females can be left in with the mother.\n", "When the offspring are born, they are hairless and have a body mass of approximately . Incisors and claws are already formed, but the digits, eyes, and pinnae are closed and cannot be used. The rate at which the young develop differs depending on the distribution range. However, the differences are usually no longer than a day. In Tuva, the pinnae open on the first day of birth and are completely open after three days of development. However, in Mongolia, the same process occurs between two and four days of development. Fur first grows on the crown, back, and abdomen. The young usually have a full coat of fur after seven days of development. Offspring born in captivity have a shorter development time than those born in the wild. Specifically, the growth and development of the head and body, tail, hind feet, and pinnae can be up to a day sooner than those found in the wild. After 28 days of development in captivity, the young are already around half the mass of their parents.\n", "Most dogs have a double coat, each hair follicle containing 1-2 primary hairs and several secondary hairs. The primary hairs are longer, thicker and stiffer, and called guard hairs or outer coat. Each follicle also holds a variety of silky- to wiry-textured secondary hairs (undercoat) all of which are wavy, and smaller and softer than the primary hair. The ratio of primary to secondary hairs varies at least six-fold, and varies between dogs according to coat type, and on the same dog in accordance with seasonal and other hormonal influences. Puppies are born with a single coat, with more hair follicles per unit area, but each hair follicle contains only a single hair of fine, silky texture. Development of the adult coat begins around 3 months of age, and is completed around 12 months.\n", "The young are born hairless and blind, and initially weigh about . They begin to develop fur at 10 days, open their eyes at three weeks, and are weaned by five weeks of age. Although they initially move around in their mother's burrow, after weaning, they quickly leave to establish burrows of their own, and reach the full adult size after about three months.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "The young are born hairless and blind, weighing an average of . They begin to grow fur within five days of birth, and their eyes open at 9 days, although they are capable of sensing light before this. The young are weaned at around two weeks of age, and have a full set of adult teeth by three weeks. Females reach sexual maturity after as little as three weeks, while males become sexually mature after six weeks. The lifespan is correspondingly short, with individuals living for less than a year, even in the absence of predators.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "Gestation lasts 20 to 23 days. Neonates are pink and hairless, with closed eyes and ears. Fur begins to appear by three days, and young are completely furred except for the belly by seven days. Eyes and ears open by eight days. Weaning occurs from 12 to 14 days. Young born in spring and early summer attain adult weight in 12 weeks, but undergo a fall weight loss. Young born in late summer continue growing through the fall and maintain their weight through the winter. Maximum size is reached between two and 10 months.\n", "Hair length is not a factor in thermoregulation: for example, some tropical mammals such as sloths have the same length of fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of . Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach in the summer, but the skin stays at . Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.\n", "Newborn males and females can be distinguished on close examination as the anogenital distance in males is about double that of the female. From the age of about 10 days, females have five pairs of mammary glands and nipples; males have no nipples. When sexually mature, the most striking and obvious difference is the presence of testicles on the males. These are large compared to the rest of the body and can be retracted into the body.\n", "This is a curly haired breed, and the genetic factors responsible seem to increase their influence with each adult molt. Junior animals may exhibit a cottony soft or in some cases even a harsher texture, straighter, and occasionally with prominent guard hair, which all but disappears in the first adult molt around one year of age. \"Faults\" – in adults, guard hair prominent, protruding from coat to the extent that it interferes with the soft lustrous feel. Fur coarse and unyielding to touch. Complete absence of waves or curls, especially around head and neck.\n\nCOLORSbr\n\nSOLID CLASSbr\n\nBULLET::::- Self Group:\n", "Muskrats, like most rodents, are prolific breeders. Females can have two or three litters a year of six to eight young each. The babies are born small and hairless, and weigh only about . In southern environments, young muskrats mature in six months, while in colder northern environments, it takes about a year. Muskrat populations appear to go through a regular pattern of rise and dramatic decline spread over a six- to 10-year period. Some other rodents, including famously the muskrat's close relatives the lemmings, go through the same type of population changes.\n\nSection::::In human history.\n", "The term \"pelage\"first known use in English c. 1828 (French, from Middle French, from \"poil\" for \"hair\", from Old French \"peilss\", from Latin \"pilus\")is sometimes used to refer to an animal's complete coat. The term fur is also used to refer to animal pelts which have been processed into leather with their hair still attached. The words \"fur\" or \"furry\" are also used, more casually, to refer to hair-like growths or formations, particularly when the subject being referred to exhibits a dense coat of fine, soft \"hairs\". If layered, rather than grown as a single coat, it may consist of short down hairs, long guard hairs, and in some cases, medium awn hairs. Mammals with reduced amounts of fur are often called \"naked\", as with the naked mole-rat, or \"hairless\", as with hairless dogs.\n", "Fever coat is an effect known in domestic cats, where a pregnant female cat has a fever or is stressed, causing her unborn kittens' fur to develop a silver-type color (silver-grey, cream, or reddish) rather than what the kitten's genetics would normally cause. After birth, over some weeks the silver fur is replaced naturally by fur colored according to the kitten's genetics.\n\nSection::::Fur length and texture.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "A needlestick injury is the penetration of the skin by a hypodermic needle or other sharp object, which has been in contact with blood, tissue or other body fluids before the exposure. Even though the acute physiological effects of a needlestick injury are generally negligible, these injuries can lead to transmission of blood-borne diseases, placing those exposed at increased risk of contracting infectious diseases, such as hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Among healthcare workers and laboratory personnel worldwide, more than 25 blood-borne virus infections have been reported to have been caused by needlestick injuries. In addition to needlestick injuries, transmission of these viruses can also occur as a result of contamination of the mucous membranes, such as those of the eyes, with blood or body fluids, but needlestick injuries make up more than 80% of all percutaneous exposure incidents in the United States. Various other occupations are also at increased risk of needlestick injury, including law enforcement, laborers, tattoo artists, food preparers, and agricultural workers.\n", "In cases where an injury was sustained with a clean needle (i.e. exposure to body fluids hadn't occurred), the likelihood of infection is generally minimal. Nonetheless, workers are often obligated to report the incident as per the facility's protocol regarding occupational safety.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nAfter a needlestick injury, certain procedures can minimize the risk of infection. Lab tests of the recipient should be obtained for baseline studies, including HIV, acute hepatitis panel (HAV IgM, HBsAg, HB core IgM, HCV) and for immunized individuals, HB surface antibody. Unless already known, the infectious status of the source needs to be determined. Unless the source is known to be negative for HBV, HCV, and HIV, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) should be initiated, ideally within one hour of the injury.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Hepatitis B.\n", "Nevertheless, the US government has explicitly prohibited federal funding for needle exchange programs since 1988, as part of the zero tolerance drug policy in that country. Needle exchange programs have therefore been sparsely implemented in the United States.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Scalpel#Scalpel injuries\n\nBULLET::::- Sharps waste\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-01-60R GAO\n\nBULLET::::- Preventing Needlestick Injuries in Health Care Settings, an alert from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)\n\nBULLET::::- What Every Worker Should Know: How to Protect Yourself From Needlestick Injuries, from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health\n\nBULLET::::- NIOSH Bloodborne Infectious Diseases Topic Page\n", "PDPH typically occurs hours to days after puncture and presents with symptoms such as headache (which is mostly bi-frontal or occipital) and nausea that typically worsen when the patient assumes an upright posture.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThe rate of PDPH is higher with younger patients, complicated or repeated puncture, and use of large diameter needles, in females, in pregnancy, and with darker skin. Modern, atraumatic needles such as the Sprotte or Whitacre spinal needle leave a smaller perforation and reduce the risk for PDPH.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Needlestick injuries are a common event in the healthcare environment. When drawing blood, administering an intramuscular or intravenous drug, or performing any procedure involving sharps, accidents can occur and facilitate the transmission of blood-borne diseases. Injuries also commonly occur during needle recapping or via improper disposal of devices into an overfilled or poorly located sharps container. Lack of access to appropriate personal protective equipment, or alternatively, employee failure to use provided equipment, increases the risk of occupational needlestick injuries. Needlestick injuries may also occur when needles are exchanged between personnel, loaded into a needle driver, or when sutures are tied off while still connected to the needle. Needlestick injuries are more common during night shifts and for less experienced people; fatigue, high workload, shift work, high pressure, or high perception of risk can all increase the chances of a needlestick injury. During surgery, a surgical needle or other sharp instrument may inadvertently penetrate the glove and skin of operating room personnel; scalpel injuries tend to be larger than a needlestick. Generally, needlestick injuries cause only minor visible trauma or bleeding; however, even in the absence of bleeding the risk of viral infection remains.\n", "There is no or limited correlation between the protections provided in the low force/needle protection and the high force/pencil like EN388 test.\n\nNeedle-resistant materials as described above are generally pierced by a force between 2-10N by a 25 gauge needle perpendicular to the fabric. The forces in the EN 388 test results are rated according to a score from 0-4 (0-20N, 1-20N, 2-60N 3-100N 4-150N+). A newer test, ASTM F2878-10, is specifically designed to simulate common hypodermic needles in 21-, 25-, 28- gauge.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fracture toughness\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM International\n\nBULLET::::- Aramid\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Puncture Resistance\n\nSection::::References.:Standards.\n", "BULLET::::- The few studies that specifically evaluated the effects of NEPs produced \"modest\" evidence of no impact on improper needle discards and injection frequency and \"weak\" evidence on lack of impact on numbers of drug users, high-risk user networks and crime trends.\n\nBULLET::::- Many NSPs do not operate on a strict one-for-one basis, increasing supply of both contaminated and sterile needles.\n", "New infections start in the spring or early summer and conditions that cause prolonged needle wetness promote heavier outbreaks. The first symptoms produced are small yellow spots on the needle ends that develop in late summer or fall. Normally, by the next spring, the needles have started to turn reddish-brown in color produced in mottled or banded patterns. If the infection is severe then needles will turn solid brownish-red and the entire tree will have a \"scorched\" look to it.\n\nThe pathogen, along with \"Rhabdocline weirii\" causes Rhabdocline needlecast; \"R. weirii\" \n", "While needlestick injuries have the potential to transmit bacteria, protozoa, viruses and prions, the risk of contracting hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV is the highest. The World Health Organization estimated that in 2000, 66,000 hepatitis B, 16,000 hepatitis C, and 1,000 HIV infections were caused by needlestick injuries. In places with higher rates of blood-borne diseases in the general population, healthcare workers are more susceptible to contracting these diseases from a needlestick injury.\n", "BULLET::::- Lidocaine/tetracaine patch. A self-heating patch containing a eutectic mixture of lidocaine and tetracaine is available in several countries, and has been specifically approved by government agencies for use in needle procedures. The patch is sold under the trade name \"Synera\" in the United States and \"Rapydan\" in European Union. Each patch is packaged in an air-tight pouch. It begins to heat up slightly when the patch is removed from the packaging and exposed to the air. The patch requires 20 to 30 minutes to achieve full anesthetic effect. The Synera patch was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration on 23 June 2005.\n", "Needle exchange programs are an effective way of decreasing the risk associated with needlestick injuries. These programs remove contaminated syringes from the street, reducing the risk of inadvertent transmission of blood-borne infections to the surrounding community and to law enforcement. A study in Hartford, Connecticut found that needlestick injury rates among Hartford police officers decreased after the introduction of a needle exchange program: six injuries in 1,007 drug-related arrests for the 6-month period before vs. two in 1,032 arrests for the 6-month period after.\n", "BULLET::::- Scarring of the peripheral veins — This arises from the use of blunt injecting equipment. This is particularly common with users who have been injecting while in jail and re-use disposable syringes sometimes hundreds of times. IV drug use for an extended period may result in collapsed veins. Though rotating sites and allowing time to heal before reuse may decrease the likelihood of this occurring, collapse of peripheral veins may still occur with prolonged IV drug use. IV drug users are among the most difficult patient populations to obtain blood-specimens from because of peripheral venous scarring. The darkening of the veins due to scarring and toxin buildup produce tracks along the length of the veins and are known as track marks.\n", "BULLET::::- A negative Allen test (see below), which indicates that only one artery supplies the hand. A positive Allen test indicates the blood supply to the hand is normal.\n\nBULLET::::- Coagulation defects (relative)\n\nSection::::Contraindications.:Allen test.\n", "The discussion of the evolutionary basis of needle phobia in Hamilton's review article concerns the vasovagal type of needle phobia, which is a sub-type of blood-injection-injury type phobia. This type of needle phobia is uniquely characterized by a two-phase vasovagal response. First, there is a brief acceleration of heart rate and blood pressure. This is followed by a rapid plunge in both heart rate and blood pressure, sometimes leading to unconsciousness. The loss of consciousness is sometimes accompanied by convulsions and numerous rapid changes in the levels of many different hormones.\n", "Epidural needles are designed with a curved tip to help prevent puncture of the dural membrane. But following accidental dural puncture, headache occurs in up to 85% of patients causing significant perioperative morbidity. However, in case of inadvertent dural perforation, the incidence of headache can be lowered by identifying the epidural space with the needle bevel oriented parallel to the longitudinal dural fibers which limits the size of the subsequent dural tear.\n\nSection::::Epidural needle.:Types.\n\nTypes of epidural needles include:\n\nBULLET::::- The Crawford Needle\n\nBULLET::::- The Tuohy Needle\n\nBULLET::::- The Hustead Needle\n\nBULLET::::- The Weiss Needle\n\nBULLET::::- The Sprotte Spezial Needle\n", "Long-term effects: once the scabs on the bullous have fallen off, scarring is minimal. Possible long-term effects are kidney disease.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nExposure is most commonly seen in hospital wards and nurseries, and can be passed from person to person in other settings, such as close contact sports. Therefore, the patient is advised to try to limit human contact as much as possible to minimize the risk of spreading the infection.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Infectious period.\n\nAfter 48 hours the disease is considered no longer contagious assuming the proper antibiotic treatments have been administered.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nIn 2007, the World Health Organization estimated annual global needlestick injuries at 2 million per year, and another investigation estimated 3.5 million injuries yearly. The European Biosafety Network estimated 1 million needlestick injuries annually in Europe. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) estimates 5.6 million workers in the healthcare industry are at risk of occupational exposure to blood-borne diseases via percutaneous injury. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates more than 600,000 needlestick injuries occur among healthcare workers in the US annually.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 February – March, Manikganj and Rajbari districts, Bangladesh: Nine cases with eight fatalities.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 January, Bhanga subdistrict, Faridpur, Bangladesh: Eight cases with seven fatalities. During March, one physician of Faridpur Medical College Hospital caring for confirmed Nipah cases died\n", "BULLET::::2. Friction is damaging to the superficial blood vessels directly under the skin. It occurs when two surfaces rub against each other. The skin over the elbows can be injured due to friction. The back can also be injured when patients are pulled or slid over bed sheets while being moved up in bed or transferred onto a stretcher.\n", "The medical literature suggests a number of treatments that have been proven effective for specific cases of needle phobia, but provides very little guidance to predict which treatment may be effective for any specific case. The following are some of the treatments that have been shown to be effective in some specific cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Ethyl Chloride Spray (and other freezing agents). Easily administered, but provides only superficial pain control.\n", "CVI in the leg may cause the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Venous stasis\n\nBULLET::::- Ulcers.\n\nBULLET::::- Stasis dermatitis, also known as varicose eczema\n\nBULLET::::- Contact dermatitis. Patients with venous insufficiency have a disrupted epidermal barrier, making them more susceptible than the general population to contact sensitization and subsequent dermatitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Atrophie blanche. This is an end point of a variety of conditions, appears as atrophic plaques of ivory white skin with telangiectasias. It represents late sequelae of lipodermatosclerosis where the skin has lost its nutrient blood flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Lipodermatosclerosis. This is an indurated plaque in the medial malleolus.\n", "According to Dr. James G. Hamilton, author of the pioneering paper on needle phobia, it is likely that the form of needle phobia that is genetic has some basis in evolution, given that thousands of years ago humans who meticulously avoided stab wounds and other incidences of pierced flesh would have a greater chance of survival.\n", "BULLET::::- Needle Mountains, Colorado, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Needle Rocks, Tasmania, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Needles (Black Hills), a region of granite pillars in South Dakota, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Needles, California, a city in San Bernardino, California, United States\n\nBULLET::::- The Needles, three stacks of chalk off the Isle of Wight, England\n\nBULLET::::- The Needles district, the southeast section of Canyonlands National Park in San Juan County, Utah, United States\n\nBULLET::::- The Needles, a rocky area within Canyonlands National Park in San Juan County, Utah, United States\n", "A simple prick or accidentally touching a used infected needle can put someone at risk of acquiring Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, or HIV. Hepatitis B is the easiest to contract, followed by Hepatitis C, followed by HIV from discarded needles. Almost 50% of people who participate in IVDU have Hepatitis C. Not only are blood borne diseases passed via needle sharing, but so are bacterial infections that can ultimately cause sepsis. Additionally, improper disposal of hospital needles can expose drug resistant organisms to the outside environment.\n\nSection::::Risk factors for needle sharing.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "US Government regulations (21 CFR Part 178) allow food processing equipment and food contact surfaces to be sanitized with solutions containing bleach, provided that the solution is allowed to drain adequately before contact with food, and that the solutions do not exceed 200 parts per million (ppm) available chlorine (for example, one tablespoon of typical household bleach containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite, per gallon of water).\n", "Bleach exposure time and concentration are correlated with destruction of methamphetamine. Methamphetamine in soils has shown to be a persistent pollutant. Methamphetamine is largely degraded within 30 days in a study of bioreactors under exposure to light in wastewater.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Synthesis.\n", "Decontamination varies with the particular chemical agent used. Some \"nonpersistent\" agents, including most pulmonary agents (chlorine, phosgene, and so on), blood gases, and nonpersistent nerve gases (e.g., GB), will dissipate from open areas, although powerful exhaust fans may be needed to clear out buildings where they have accumulated.\n", "Secondary treatment by biochemical oxidation of dissolved and colloidal organic compounds is widely used in sewage treatment and is applicable to some agricultural and industrial wastewaters. Biological oxidation will preferentially remove organic compounds useful as a food supply for the treatment ecosystem. Concentration of some less digestible compounds may be reduced by co-metabolism. Removal efficiency is limited by the minimum food concentration required to sustain the treatment ecosystem.\n\nSection::::Processes.:Oxidation.:Chemical oxidation.\n", "BULLET::::- Environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. Sulfuric acid and H ions that have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming \"Yellow Boy\" pollution. For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a biosafety failure. Unlike other methods, once started, bioheap leaching cannot be quickly stopped, because leaching would still continue with rainwater and natural bacteria.\n", "Section::::Soil Contamination and Remediation.\n", "In addition, the chloride concentration in the surface water also depends on the size or flow rate of the water body and the resulting dilution achieved. In chloride concentration studies carried out in Wisconsin during a winter deicing period, runoff from roadside drainages were analyzed. All studies indicated that the chloride concentration increased as a result of deicing activities but the levels were still below the MCL of 250 mg/L set by the EPA. Nevertheless, the long-term effect of this exposure is not known.\n", "Chlorine-based bleaches are found in many household \"bleach\" products, as well as in specialized products for hospitals, public health, water chlorination, and industrial processes. \n\nThe grade of chlorine-based bleaches is often expressed as percent active chlorine. One gram of a 100% active chlorine bleach has the same bleaching power as one gram of elemental chlorine. \n\nThe most common chlorine-based bleaches are:\n", "According to a United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report of 1976, the quantity of tetrachloroethylene produced in the United States in 1973 totaled 320,000 metric tons (706 million lb). By 1993, the volume produced in the United States had dropped to 123,000 metric tons (271 million lb).\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Once the bioremedy is in effect, the EPA approximates the groundwater will receive several rounds of chemical injections throughout the course of years to ensure the water is treated properly. Monitoring wells will also be constructed to take samples of the groundwater and prove that it is no longer contaminated. Currently, the site is awaiting funding from the EPA so it can begin bioremediation.\n", "Chlordane is very persistent in the environment because it does not break down easily. Tests of the air in the residence of U.S. government housing, 32 years after chlordane treatment, showed levels of chlordane and heptachlor 10-15 times the Minimal Risk Levels (20 nanograms/cubic meter of air) published by the Centers for Disease Control. It has an environmental half-life of 10 to 20 years.\n\nSection::::Origin, pathways of exposure, and processes of excretion.\n", "Section::::Phosphorus leaching.\n", "Local damage to the environment will result when pesticides are discharged to the ground or rivers due to accident or dumping. Obviously, there is always the possibility that any chemical will not be used correctly, either through ignorance or malice, and the proponents of the environmental approach would argue that there is no need to use large quantities of chemicals anyway when there is a risk, however small.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness of Treatments.\n", "Chlorobenzene can persist in soil for several months, in air for about 3.5 days, and in water for less than one day. Humans may be exposed to this agent via breathing contaminated air (primarily via occupational exposure), consuming contaminated food or water, or by coming into contact with contaminated soil (typically near hazardous waste sites). However, because it has only been found at 97 out of 1,177 NPL hazardous waste sites, it is not considered a widespread environmental contaminant. The bacterium \"Rhodococcus phenolicus\" degrades chlorobenzene as sole carbon sources.\n", "As a preventive measure sewage may be pretreated to increase pH or oxidize or precipitate the sulfides in order to inhibit the activity of sulfide utilizing bacteria.\n\nSection::::Physical damage.\n", "Section::::Bioleaching.\n", "However, within ageing municipal solid waste landfills, this may not be a problem as the pH returns close to neutral after the initial stage of acidogenic leachate decomposition. Many sewer undertakers limit maximum ammoniacal nitrogen concentration in their sewers to 250 mg/l to protect sewer maintenance workers, as the WHO's maximum occupational safety limit would be exceeded at above pH 9 to 10, which is often the highest pH allowed in sewer discharges.\n", "Toxic materials including many organic materials, metals (such as zinc, silver, cadmium, thallium, etc.) acids, alkalis, non-metallic elements (such as arsenic or selenium) are generally resistant to biological processes unless very dilute. Metals can often be precipitated out by changing the pH or by treatment with other chemicals. Many, however, are resistant to treatment or mitigation and may require concentration followed by landfilling or recycling. Dissolved organics can be \"incinerated\" within the wastewater by the advanced oxidation process.\n\nSection::::Treatment of industrial wastewater.:Removal of toxic materials.:Smart capsules.\n", "Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution. Treating the mixture with sodium cyanide in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to charcoal.\n\nSection::::With fungi.\n", "From the late 1950s through 1977, Westinghouse Electric used PCBs in the manufacture of capacitors in its Bloomington, Indiana, plant. Reject capacitors were hauled and dumped in area salvage yards and landfills, including Bennett's Dump, Neal's Landfill and Lemon Lane Landfill. Workers also dumped PCB oil down factory drains, which contaminated the city sewage treatment plant. The City of Bloomington gave away the sludge to area farmers and gardeners, creating anywhere from 200 to 2,000 sites, which remain unaddressed.\n", "By 1971, 12% of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, which were often applied at rates that were 13 times as high as the legal USDA limit. In South Vietnam alone, an estimated 10 million hectares of agricultural land were ultimately destroyed. In some areas, TCDD concentrations in soil and water were hundreds of times greater than the levels considered safe by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.\n", "The disinfecting stage is optional, and is used where a sterile effluent is required, such as cases where the effluent is distributed above ground. The disinfectant typically used is tablets of calcium hypochlorite, which are specially made for waste treatment systems. The tablets are intended to break down quickly in sunlight. Stabilized forms of chlorine persist after the effluent is dispersed, and can kill plants in the leach field.\n", "In 1973, several thousand pounds of FireMaster BP-6 were accidentally mixed with livestock feed that was distributed to farms in Michigan, United States. Some 1.5 million chickens, 30,000 cattle, 5,900 pigs, and 1,470 sheep then consumed this feed, became contaminated with PBBs and the carcasses were disposed of in landfill sites throughout the state. In 1976, the Michigan Department of Community Health established a PBB registry to gather and analyze data on exposed residents. It now resides at the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University, and is maintained by epidemiologist Michele Marcus. \n", " The Fenton process utilizes iron catalysts with HO to create powerful, oxidizing hydroxides for the degradation of organic pollutants such as sewage and sludge as well as dyes. To enhance the catalytic abilities, a combination of Fe cations, ultraviolet light, and hydrogen peroxide can be used and has shown greater removals of dye solutions.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Biomass.\n", "BULLET::::- In the early 2000s, residents of the city of New Plymouth, New Zealand, reported many illnesses of people living around and working at the Dow Chemical plant. This plant ceased production of 2,4,5-T in 1987.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Cannabidiol\n\nCannabidiol (CBD) is a phytocannabinoid discovered in 1940. It is one of some 113 identified cannabinoids in cannabis plants and accounts for up to 40% of the plant's extract. In 2018, clinical research on cannabidiol included preliminary studies of anxiety, cognition, movement disorders, and pain.\n", "Nabiximols (brand name Sativex) is a patented medicine containing CBD and THC in equal proportions. The drug was approved by Health Canada in 2005 for prescription to treat central neuropathic pain in multiple sclerosis, and in 2007 for cancer related pain. In New Zealand, Sativex is \"approved for use as an add-on treatment for symptom improvement in people with moderate to severe spasticity due to multiple sclerosis who have not responded adequately to other anti-spasticity medication.\"\n", "In the United States, the cannabidiol drug Epidiolex was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2018 for treatment of two epilepsy disorders. The side effects of long-term use of the drug include somnolence, decreased appetite, diarrhea, fatigue, malaise, weakness, and sleeping problems. As of mid-2019 in the United States, CBD is a Schedule I controlled substance that is illegal for use in human foods, dietary supplements, other consumer products, or pet foods.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Epilepsy.\n", "Col Cheney is the host of the CBD Source Podcast (Launched 4/20/2019) based in the Hudson Valley. It is currently a weekly show that blends humor, education, and artistic metaphors through segments, news, bits, and interviews with industry professionals and \"actual CBD users\" to inform and spread advocacy about Cannabidiol (CBD) and it's benefits, as well as the other over 100 cannabinoids in Industrial Hemp, and Cannabis.\n\nSection::::Sketch365.com.\n", "Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive cannabinoid that is extracted from the cannabis plant. It has been approved by the FDA as the drug Epidiolex.\n\nSection::::Cannabinoid drugs.:Cannabidiol.:Epidiolex.\n\nEpidiolex is a liquid oral formulation of cannabidiol approved for the treatment of Dravet syndrome and Lennox–Gastaut syndrome. It received FDA approval in June 2018, and was assigned a Schedule V classification by the DEA in September 2018. Epidiolex is manufactured by Greenwich Biosciences, a U.S. subsidiary of the British firm GW Pharmaceuticals. Epidiolex became available for prescription use in November 2018.\n\nSection::::Cannabinoid drugs.:Cannabidiol.:Non-prescription use.\n", "Some manufacturers ship CBD products nationally, an illegal action which the FDA did not enforce in 2018, with CBD remaining the subject of an FDA investigational new drug evaluation, and is not considered legal as a dietary supplement or food ingredient . Federal illegality has made it difficult historically to conduct research on CBD. CBD is openly sold in head shops and health food stores in some states where such sales have not been explicitly legalized.\n", "Following a change in legislation in 2017, CBD was changed from a schedule 9 drug to a schedule 4 drug, meaning that it is legally available in Australia.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Legal status.:Canada.\n\nIn October 2018, cannabidiol became legal for recreational and medical use.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Legal status.:European Union.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Reactions to CBD-only laws.\n\nThe federal Schedule 1 drug classification blocks broad scientific research on cannabis. However, in late 2015, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) eased some regulatory requirements imposed by the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) for those who are conducting FDA-approved clinical trials on cannabidiol (CBD). These modifications will streamline the research process regarding CBD’s possible medicinal value and help foster ongoing scientific studies.\n", "In January 2019, the UK Food Standards Agency indicated it would regard CBD products, including CBD oil, as a \"novel food\" in the UK, having no history of use before May 1997, and indicating such products must have authorization and proven safety before being marketed.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Legal status.:United States.\n", "In 2013 a CNN program that featured Charlotte's Web cannabis brought increased attention to the use of CBD in the treatment of seizure disorders. Since then, 16 states have passed laws to allow the use of CBD products with a doctor's recommendation (instead of a prescription) for treatment of certain medical conditions. This is in addition to the 30 states that have passed comprehensive medical cannabis laws, which allow for the use of cannabis products with no restrictions on THC content. Of these 30 states, eight have legalized the use and sale of cannabis products without requirement for a doctor's recommendation.\n", "Cannabis is being investigated for its possible use in inflammatory bowel disease but there is only weak evidence for its benefits as a treatment.\n\nA 2007 review said cannabidiol had shown potential to relieve convulsion, inflammation, cough, congestion and nausea, and to inhibit cancer cell growth. Preliminary studies have also shown potential over psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depression, and psychosis. Because cannabidiol relieves the aforementioned symptoms, cannabis strains with a high amount of CBD may benefit people with multiple sclerosis or frequent anxiety attacks.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Cannabidiol (CBD) was approved in United States for treatment of Dravet syndrome in 2018. A 2017 study showed that the frequency of seizures per month decreased from 12 to 6 with the use of cannabidiol, compared with a decrease from 15 to 14 with placebo.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nDravet syndrome is a severe form of epilepsy. It is a rare genetic disorder that affects an estimated 1 in every 20,000–40,000 births.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Preliminary research indicates that cannabidiol may reduce adverse effects of THC, particularly those causing intoxication and sedation, but only at high doses. Safety studies of cannabidiol showed it is well-tolerated, but may cause tiredness, diarrhea, or changes in appetite as common adverse effects. Epidiolex documentation lists sleepiness, insomnia and poor quality sleep, decreased appetite, diarrhea, and fatigue.\n\nSection::::Potential interactions.\n", "Similar to energy drinks and protein bars which may contain vitamin or herbal additives, food and beverage items can be infused with CBD as an alternative means of ingesting the substance. In the United States, numerous products are marketed as containing CBD, but in reality contain little or none. Some companies marketing CBD-infused food products with claims that are similar to the effects of prescription drugs have received warning letters from the Food and Drug Administration for making unsubstantiated health claims. In February 2019, the New York City Department of Health announced plans to fine restaurants that sell food or drinks containing CBD, beginning in October 2019.\n", "Cannabidiol can be taken into the body in multiple ways, including by inhalation of cannabis smoke or vapor, as an aerosol spray into the cheek, and by mouth. It may be supplied as CBD oil containing only CBD as the active ingredient (no included tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] or terpenes), a full-plant CBD-dominant hemp extract oil, capsules, dried cannabis, or as a prescription liquid solution. CBD does not have the same psychoactivity as THC, and may change the effects of THC on the body if both are present. As of 2018, the mechanism of action for its biological effects has not been determined.\n", "CBD does not appear to have any psychotropic (\"high\") effects such as those caused by ∆9-THC in marijuana, but may have anti-anxiety and anti-psychotic effects. As the legal landscape and understanding about the differences in medical cannabinoids unfolds, experts are working to distinguish \"medical marijuana\" (with varying degrees of psychotropic effects and deficits in executive function) – from \"medical CBD therapies” which would commonly present as having a reduced or non-psychoactive side-effect profile.\n", "BULLET::::- A Beckley Foundation/Johns Hopkins University collaboration investigating the potential use of psychedelic drugs to treat addiction. A pilot study is underway using psilocybin to treat nicotine addiction.\n\nBULLET::::- A Beckley Foundation/King's College London collaboration with Dr Paul Morrison at the Institute of Psychiatry is investigating the differing effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), two of the main cannabinoids found in cannabis that determine its subjective and cognitive effects. Cannabidiol is showing promise in inhibiting the psychosis-like effects of THC, and indicating great therapeutic potential.\n", "In addition to its use for treatment of seizure disorders, cannabidiol is used by some individuals under the belief that it possesses a number of other medical properties – but these claims have yet to be thoroughly studied and proven. The FDA has thus not approved CBD for any other medical use; however, the 2018 farm bill legalized CBD extracted from hemp (less than 0.3% THC) at the federal level. The legality of CBD products also varies by state, and in some jurisdictions prohibition is not strictly enforced.\n\nSection::::Effects of legalizing medical cannabis.\n", "There has been little high-quality research into the use of cannabidiol for epilepsy. The limited available evidence primarily focuses on refractory epilepsy in children. While the results of using medical-grade cannabidiol in combination with conventional medication shows some promise, they did not lead to seizures being eliminated, and were associated with some minor adverse effects.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Other uses.\n\nPreliminary research on other possible therapeutic uses for cannabidiol include several neurological disorders, but the findings have not been confirmed by sufficient high-quality clinical research to establish such uses in clinical practice.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n", "Cannabidiol (CBD) is non-psychotropic. Recent evidence shows that the compound counteracts cognitive impairment associated with the use of cannabis. Cannabidiol has little affinity for CB and CB receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists. It was found to be an antagonist at the putative new cannabinoid receptor, GPR55, a GPCR expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen. Cannabidiol has also been shown to act as a 5-HT receptor agonist. CBD can interfere with the uptake of adenosine, which plays an important role in biochemical processes, such as energy transfer. It may play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal.\n", "Laboratory evidence indicated that cannabidiol may reduce THC clearance, increasing plasma concentrations which may raise THC availability to receptors and enhance its effect in a dose-dependent manner. In vitro, cannabidiol inhibited receptors affecting the activity of voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels, which may affect neural activity. A small clinical trial reported that CBD partially inhibited the CYP2C-catalyzed hydroxylation of THC to 11-OH-THC. Little is known about potential drug interactions, but CBD-mediates a decrease in clobazam metabolism.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n\nThe oral bioavailability of CBD is 13 to 19%, while its bioavailability via inhalation is 11 to 45% (mean 31%). The elimination half-life of CBD is 18–32 hours. Cannabidiol is metabolized in the liver as well as in the intestines by CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 enzymes, and UGT1A7, UGT1A9, and UGT2B7 isoforms. CBD may have a wide margin in dosing.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmaceutical preparations.\n", "Cannabidiol, in an oral-mucosal spray formulation combined with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, is a product available (by prescription only until 2017) for relief of severe spasticity due to multiple sclerosis (where other anti-spasmodics have not been effective).\n", "\"Cannabis\" produces CBD-carboxylic acid through the same metabolic pathway as THC, until the next to last step, where CBDA synthase performs catalysis instead of THCA synthase.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nCBD was first studied in 1940 from Minnesota wild hemp and Egyptian \"Cannabis indica\" resin. The chemical formula of CBD was proposed from a method for isolating it from wild hemp. Its structure and stereochemistry were determined in 1963.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Names.\n\n\"Cannabidiol\" is the generic name of the drug and its .\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Food and beverage.\n", "A 2017 study in children with drug-resistant Dravet syndrome, using a comparatively high dose of 20 mg/kg, found cannabidiol reduced convulsive seizures (but not non-convulsive seizures), and resulted in more side effects compared with placebo.\n\nThree phase 3 clinical trials completed in 2017 demonstrated the efficacy of cannabidiol in reducing convulsive seizure activity at doses of 10–20 mg/kg per day in children with treatment-resistant Dravet Syndrome and treatment-resistant Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Statements.\n\nDue to the anecdotal nature of the health claims being made medical bodies have published statements of concern.\n\nA position statement by the American Epilepsy Society states:\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "For regulatory reasons, generally only licensed carriers are allowed access to support structures, and to municipal rights of way.\n", "The doctrine was set forth by the United States Supreme Court in \"Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference v. Noerr Motor Freight, Inc.\" and \"United Mine Workers v. Pennington\". The Court later expanded on the doctrine in \"California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited\".\n", "BULLET::::4. The vehicle then turns right into the road and continues straight ahead.\n\nSection::::History and usage.\n\nIn many jurisdictions, lightweight vehicles, such as bicycles and mopeds, may make hook turns at any intersection regardless of signage. For instance, under the Australian Road Rules cyclists may legally perform a hook turn at any intersection unless otherwise signed.\n", "Several other roots have similar normative and geometric descendants, such as Latin \"norma\", whence \"norm\", \"normal\", and \"normative\" itself, and also geometric concepts such as \"normal vectors\"; and likewise Greek \"ortho\" and Latin \"ordo\", meaning either \"right\" or \"correct\" (as in \"orthodox\", meaning \"correct opinion\") or \"straight\" or \"perpendicular\" (as in \"orthogonal\", meaning \"perpendicular angle\"), and thence \"order\", \"ordinary\", etc.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As an example, consequentialists might observe that the state builds bridges. They would ask whether those bridges would have been built in the absence of the state and whether those bridges are valued by those who use them. If the bridges would not have otherwise been built and they are valuable to those who use them, then the existence of the state is justified.\n", "BULLET::::- Manac sees the day as a private company, the Dutil family remain important owners of the company.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Manac celebrates 40 years of experience.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Manac opens up its second factory in the United States with a location in Kennett, Missouri.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Following the 2009 economic crisis Manac acquires the intellectual properties of Trailmobile Canada and a small number of its equipments.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: The intellectual property of Liddell Canada becomes Manac property.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Manac is the only trailer manufacturer to pass all three tests by the IIHS when testing underride on rear guards.\n", "Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle's offside.\n\nSection::::Road vehicle configurations.:Headlamps and other lighting equipment.\n", "On the street, they are a feature of some of the world's most celebrated paved roads, such as \"The Dragon\" (US 129) through Deals Gap and \"The Diamondback\" (NC 226A) in North Carolina, Route 78 in Ohio, Route 125 in Pennsylvania, Route 33 in California, and Betws-y-Coed Triangle at Snowdonia National Park in Wales.\n\nTo mountain bikers and motorcyclists on trails and dirt tracks, off-camber corners are also challenging, and can be either an engineered course feature, or a natural feature of single-track trails.\n", "Typically, the edges of any oversize load must be marked to make them visible to drivers. During daytime the required marking is usually red flags, and during night white or yellow lights may be used. The hauling vehicle must have at least one flashing amber light in the front and back. Signs (yellow with black border in the United States, red and white diagonal stripes in the EU, and red and white vertical stripes in Canada), saying \"Oversize load\" must be put in the front and back of the vehicle.\n", "As well this phrase describes priority of traffic flow. The New Oxford Dictionary defines it as \"the legal right of a pedestrian, vehicle, or ship to proceed with precedence over others in a particular situation or place\", and in hiking etiquette, where when two groups of hikers meet on a steep trail, a custom has developed in some areas whereby the group moving uphill has the right of way.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:New Zealand.\n\nThere is extensive public access in New Zealand, including waterways and the coast, but it is \"often fragmented and difficult to locate\".\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:Republic of Ireland.\n", "Section::::Right to roam.\n\nThe freedom to roam, or everyman's right is the general public's right to access certain public or privately owned land for recreation and exercise. Access is permitted across any open land, in addition to existing paths and tracks.\n", "Section::::Water.\n\nSection::::Water.:Foreshore.\n\nPublic rights of way frequently exist on the foreshore of beaches. In legal discussions the foreshore is often referred to as the \"wet-sand area\".\n\nFor privately owned beaches in the United States, some states such as Massachusetts use the low water mark as the dividing line between the property of the State and that of the beach owner. Other states such as California use the high-water mark.\n", "On being engaged, Armtrac erected a number of prominent notices warning those that parked in the area without authority or permission that it was private property and their vehicles were liable to being wheel clamped and might, also, be removed. The notices made clear that a release fee must be paid before a clamp was removed and that additional fees had to be paid if the vehicle was towed away. The prominence of the notices and the simplicity of the message they sought to convey was never at issue during the ensuing case.\n", "Nonetheless, during 1940 and 1941 defendants met, discussed who should and who should not join their group, agreed from time to time to lower or increase prices, and varied their joint terms and conditions of sale.\n\nSection::::District court ruling.\n", "In his separate opinion, Lord Templeman pointed out that an implied licence might be negatived by express language, under principles of freedom of contract, but that was not so when non-derogation instead is involved: \"The right cannot be withheld by the manufacturer of the car by contract with the first purchaser and cannot be withheld from any subsequent owner.\" That is, the nature of property makes the right inherent and not a matter of freedom of contract.\n", "On New Jersey State Highways and Pennsylvania State Highways, a white sign is placed before a jughandle or at the beginning of a stretch of jughandles saying \"All turns from right lane\". Each jughandle is marked with a white sign below the standard green sign, saying \"All turns\", or \"U and left turns\" in the case of a reverse jughandle.\n\nOn locally maintained roads, and in other states, jughandle signage can appear to be haphazard and confusing to out of state drivers.\n\nGenerally on Pennsylvania Route 61, jughandles are common, and are signed as \"All Turns (up/right arrow)\".\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "The Pittsburgh left has no basis in law. Failing to yield to oncoming traffic while navigating a turn is a traffic violation, and is prohibited in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. \n\nAt certain intersections, left-turning traffic may be given precedence over straight-moving traffic in a regulated (and thus legal) manner, via the use of protected turn signaling.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "BULLET::::- Ways of necessity (\"via necessitatis\") may include the right to use a footpath, the right to drive cattle or vehicles across land and so on.\n\nSection::::Servitudes and restrictive conditions.:Servitudes.:Personal servitudes.\n", "Section::::Characteristics of easements.\n\nWhilst an easement is essentially a right over another's land, any right claimed as an easement must satisfy the common law definition, outlined in the case of \"Re Ellenborough Park\". Here, Danckwerts J laid out essential characteristics of an easement:\n\nBULLET::::1. There must be a dominant and a servient tenement;\n\nBULLET::::2. The easement must accommodate the dominant tenement, that is, be connected with its enjoyment and for its benefit;\n\nBULLET::::3. The dominant and servient owners must be different persons;\n\nBULLET::::4. The right claimed must be capable of forming the subject-matter of a grant.\n", "Chief Justice Knox and Justice Gavan Duffy agreed in \"Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn\" that a simple test of logical contradiction was \"not sufficient or even appropriate in every case\", and enunciated this test: where one statute confers a right, and the other takes away the right, even if the right may be waived or abandoned, there is an inconsistency, whereupon the State law would then be invalid to the extent of the inconsistency.\n\nSection::::Approach to interpretation.:Covering the field.\n", "Bram's friend lets him use his van to go to a party later that night. Neither Bram nor the van return the next day. Bram comes back five days later after using the van to go on a camping trip. Bram goes to court for theft. He argues that he thought that he had the right to use the van for the camping trip because he was allowed to use the van to go the party.\n", "In the UK, the foreshore is generally deemed to be owned by the Crown although there are notable exceptions, especially what are termed \"several fisheries\" which can be historic deeds to title, dating back to King John's time or earlier, and the Udal Law, which applies generally in Orkney and Shetland. While in the rest of Britain ownership of land extends only to the High water mark, and The Crown is deemed to own what lies below it, in Orkney and Shetland it extends to the lowest Spring ebb.\n", "As western lands become developed into residential subdivisions, motorized recreationists and sportsmen are continuing to claim access rights on privately constructed, owned, and maintained roads that cross private land and gated communities. Because some disputed roads were never recorded by counties, shared-access groups claim that private landowners hold property with an unrecorded public right-of-way. Property rights advocates say that failure to record a right-of-way means that there was no intention to create a public right. \n", "Section::::Equipment.:Ford Explorer ban (model years 2010 and older).\n\nU-Haul previously did not rent trailers intended to be attached to a Ford Explorer. According to U-Haul:\n", "There must be some positive movement of the vehicle. Simply rolling it forwards or backwards a few metres is not sufficient (if someone parks their car so close to yours that they make it impossible to drive your vehicle, it is permissible to move their vehicle a few feet to extricate yours) but, equally, it is not necessary that the engine be started. Releasing the brake and allowing the vehicle to run down a hill would be sufficient, as would driving the vehicle for a short distance. The taking may also be a material unauthorised use. For example, if a person hires a car to drive from London to Birmingham, but actually drives it to Liverpool, that will be a taking. The conveyance need not have anyone in it at the time of the taking; merely being a conveyance is sufficient.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Production.\n\nThe process by which cecotropes are produced is called \"hindgut fermentation\". Food passes through the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, where nutrients are initially absorbed ineffectively, and then into the colon. Through reverse peristalsis, the food is forced back into the cecum where it is broken down into simple sugars (i.e. monosaccharides) by bacterial fermentation. The cecotrope then passes through the colon, the anus, and is eliminated by the animal and then reingested. The process occurs 4 to 8 hours after eating. This type of reingestion to obtain more nutrients is similar to the chewing of cud in cattle.\n", "Section::::Use of ingested cellular material.\n", "Section::::Functions in Mucorales.\n", "Docusate does not stay in the gastrointestinal tract, but is absorbed into the bloodstream and excreted via the gallbladder after undergoing extensive metabolism.\n\nThe effect of docusate may not necessarily be all due to its surfactant properties. Perfusion studies suggest that docusate inhibits fluid absorption or stimulates secretion in the portion of the small intestine known as the jejunum.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n", "The sweet taste of the fruit comes mainly from mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides that make up about 1% of the flesh of the fresh fruit. Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). Other similar agents in the fruit are siamenoside and neomogroside.\n", "Chymosin is produced by ruminant animals in the lining of the abomasum. Chymosin is produced by gastric chief cells in young ruminants and some other newborn animals to curdle the milk they ingest, allowing a longer residence in the bowels and better absorption. Some other non-ruminant species, including pigs, cats, and seals, produce it.\n", "The active ingredient, dextromethorphan (metabolized to dextrorphan), is surrounded by an edible plastic called polistirex. When the Delsym arrives in the stomach, an initial amount of dextromethorphan is immediately released into the bloodstream while the rest is surrounded by a plastic that is slowly dissolved by stomach acid. After the polistirex is dissolved sufficiently, more dextromethorphan is released.\n\nSection::::Recreational use.\n", "In addition, fructose transfer activity increases with dietary fructose intake. The presence of fructose in the lumen causes increased mRNA transcription of GLUT5, leading to increased transport proteins. High-fructose diets (2.4 g/kg body wt) increase transport proteins within three days of intake.\n\nSection::::Fructose digestion and absorption in humans.:Malabsorption.\n", "The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Calcium.\n\nThe distinctive taste of chalk has been identified as the calcium component of that substance. In 2008, geneticists discovered a CaSR calcium receptor on the tongues of mice. The CaSR receptor is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and brain. Along with the \"sweet\" T1R3 receptor, the CaSR receptor can detect calcium as a taste. Whether closely related genes in mice and humans means the phenomenon exists in humans as well is unknown.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Fat taste.\n", "Food enters the mouth where the first stage in the digestive process takes place, with the action of the tongue and the secretion of saliva. The tongue is a fleshy and muscular sensory organ, and the very first sensory information is received via the taste buds in the papillae on its surface. If the taste is agreeable, the tongue will go into action, manipulating the food in the mouth which stimulates the secretion of saliva from the salivary glands. The liquid quality of the saliva will help in the softening of the food and its enzyme content will start to break down the food whilst it is still in the mouth. The first part of the food to be broken down is the starch of carbohydrates (by the enzyme amylase in the saliva).\n", "Like cows and sheep, golden takins are ruminants and pass food into the first stomach, the rumen, when they first swallow it. Microbes in the rumen help digest very small particles of food. Larger particles pass into a second chamber that regurgitates these particles, called cud, back into the mouth to be chewed into pieces small enough to be digested properly. Golden takins typically eat in the early morning and again in the late afternoon. They spend the day under the cover of dense vegetation, venturing into the open only on cloudy or foggy days.\n", "A similar feature has been adopted by PDAs running the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system, and is named \"Persistent Storage\".\n\nSection::::Background.:Architecture and specifications.\n", "The uppermost area of the rumen, the headspace, is filled with gases (such as methane, carbon dioxide, and, to a much lower degree, hydrogen) released from fermentation and anaerobic respiration of food. These gases are regularly expelled from the reticulorumen through the mouth, in a process called eructation.\n\nSection::::Reticulorumenal microbes.\n", "The enteric nervous system exhibits taste receptors similar to the ones in the tongue. The taste receptor TAS1R3 and the taste G protein gustducin are two of the most common. These receptors sense \"sweetness\" on the tongue and sense glucose in the enteric nervous system. These receptors help regulate the secretion of insulin and other hormones that are responsible for controlling blood sugar levels.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Section::::Trisporic acid.:Functions of trisporic acid in Mucorales.\n", "Section::::Nonstop mediated mRNA decay.:Non-Ski7 pathway.\n\nA second type of NSD has been observed in yeast. In this mechanism, the absence of Ski7 results in the loss of poly-A tail binding PABP proteins by the action of the translation ribosome. The removal of these PABP proteins then results in the loss of the protective 5'm7G cap. The loss of the cap results in rapid degradation of the transcript by an endogenous 5'-3' exonuclease such as XrnI.\n\nSection::::No-Go decay.\n", "Section::::Structural polysaccharides.:Chitin.\n\nChitin is one of many naturally occurring polymers. It forms a structural component of many animals, such as exoskeletons. Over time it is bio-degradable in the natural environment. Its breakdown may be catalyzed by enzymes called chitinases, secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, and produced by some plants. Some of these microorganisms have receptors to simple sugars from the decomposition of chitin. If chitin is detected, they then produce enzymes to digest it by cleaving the glycosidic bonds in order to convert it to simple sugars and ammonia.\n", "Section::::Digestion.\n\nDigestion in the reticulorumen is a complex process. Digestion occurs through fermentation by microbes in the reticulorumen rather than the animal \"per se\". The reticulorumen is one of the few organs present in animals in which digestion of cellulose and other recalcitrant carbohydrates can proceed to any appreciable degree.\n", "Polyhistidine-tag columns retain several well known proteins as impurities. One of them is FKBP-type peptidyl prolyl isomerase, which appears around 25kDa (SlyD). Impurities are generally eliminated using a secondary chromatographic technique, or by expressing the recombinant protein in a SlyD-deficient \"E. coli\" strain. Alternatively, comparing with nickel-based, cobalt-based resins have less affinity with SlyD from \"E. coli\", but in several cases, it is moderately helpful.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Separating one from two polyhistidine tags.\n", "It is homologous to the basal body in bacterial flagella. It is like a molecular syringe through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of \"Salmonella\", \"Shigella\", \"Yersinia\", \"Vibrio\") can inject proteins into eukaryotic cells. The low Ca concentration in the cytosol opens the gate that regulates T3SS. One such mechanism to detect low calcium concentration has been illustrated by the lcrV (Low Calcium Response) antigen utilized by \"Yersinia pestis\", which is used to detect low calcium concentrations and elicits T3SS attachment. The Hrp system in plant pathogens inject harpins and pathogen effector proteins through similar mechanisms into plants. This secretion system was first discovered in \"Yersinia pestis\" and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.\n", "Section::::Function.:C-terminus.\n", "Section::::Description.:Voice.\n", "Glomalin eluded detection until 1996 because, “It requires an unusual effort to dislodge glomalin for study: a bath in citrate combined with heating at 250 F (121 C) for at least an hour... No other soil glue found to date required anything as drastic as this.” - Sara Wright. However, in 2010 using advanced analytical methods the citrate-heating extraction procedure was proven to co-extract humic substances, so it is still not clear if this \"glue effect\" comes from glomalin or the other substances that are co-extracted using that method .\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Only Bailey's pocket mouse, however, is known to be able to digest the wax found inside the jojoba nut. In large quantities, jojoba seed meal is toxic to many mammals, later this effect was found to be due to simmondsin, which inhibits hunger. The indigestible wax acts as a laxative in humans.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Native American uses.\n" ]

[ "Sweetcorn stays intact during digestion." ]

[ "It doesn't stay intact, the shell stays intact and the inside is digested. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Sweetcorn stays intact during digestion." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It doesn't stay intact, the shell stays intact and the inside is digested. " ]

[ "That practice can be fine for \"cruising\" straight and level and in smooth air, but in case of the need to rapidly add power (sudden climb, headwind, etc), the additional \"insurance policy\" of excess octane in avgas helps prevent dangerously lean fuel-air mixtures from rapidly melting and physically \"burning\" the aluminum pistons in an air-cooled aircraft engine. With only fuel, lubricating oil and airflow to cool the engine and a \"lean of peak\" mixture with no \"excess\" fuel for cooling, the engine is only a few seconds of dangerously lean mixtures, autoignition and detonation away from catastrophic failure.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.\n", "The other rarely-discussed reality with high-octane fuels associated with \"high performance\" is that as octane increases, the specific gravity and energy content of the fuel per unit of weight are reduced. The net result is that to make a given amount of power, more high-octane fuel must be burned in the engine. Lighter and \"thinner\" fuel also has a lower specific heat, so the practice of running an engine \"rich\" to use excess fuel to aid in cooling requires richer and richer mixtures as octane increases.\n", "As with the L67, premium fuel (91 octane or higher) is required, but the PCM can compensate for lower octane fuel at the cost of acceleration. The use of below 87 octane fuel can cause detonation that eventually leads to engine damage and failure.\n\nApplications:\n\nBULLET::::- 2004–2005 Pontiac Grand Prix GTP\n\nBULLET::::- 2006–2007 Pontiac Grand Prix GT\n\nSection::::Discontinuation.\n", "BULLET::::- Egypt: Egyptian fuel stations had 90 RON until July 2014 when the government found no remaining use for it, leaving only 92 RON and 95 RON. 80 RON is found in a very limited amount of fuel stations as they are used only for extremely old cars that cannot cope with high octane fuel. 95 RON was used limitedly due to its high price (more than twice the price of 92 RON). But after the increasing the prices again in 2018ref\n", "Cars with direct injection technology (GDI) have been especially prone to carbon buildup, and car makers recommend fuels with higher detergent levels to combat the problem. At first GDI was mainly available in high-end autos, but it is now being used in mid-range cars and economy cars, such as the Hyundai Sonata, Ford Focus and Hyundai Accent.\n", "BULLET::::- Engine, for LPG Conversion: Customers desiring LPG (Propane) instead of conventional gasoline will want to order this Special Order option which prepares the 4.9L (300-CID) I-6 engine for propane operation. This engine is specifically engineered to burn gaseous fuel and includes numerous special components for that purpose. Installation of an LPG fuel/carburetion system is the buyer's responsibility and must be accomplished within 90 days or 500 miles (whichever comes first) or the warranty is voided.\n", "Using high octane gasoline fuel in a vehicle that does not need it is generally considered an unnecessary expense, although Toyota \"has\" measured slight differences in efficiency due to octane number even when knock is not an issue. All vehicles in the United States built since 1996 are equipped with OBD-II on-board diagnostics and most models will have knock sensors that will automatically adjust the timing if and when pinging is detected, so low octane fuel can be used in an engine designed for high octane, with some reduction in efficiency and performance. If the engine is designed for high octane then higher octane fuel will result in higher efficiency and performance under certain load and mixture conditions. The energy released during combustion of hydrocarbon fuel increases as the molecule chain length decreases, so gasoline fuels with higher ratios of the shorter chain alkanes such as heptane, hexane, pentane, etc. can be used under certain load conditions and combustion chamber geometries to increase engine output which can lead to lower fuel consumption, although these fuels will be more susceptible to predetonation ping in high compression ratio engines. Gasoline direct injection compression ignition engines make more efficient use of the higher combustion energy short chain hydrocarbons as the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber during high compression which auto-ignites the fuel, minimizing the amount of time that the fuel is available in the combustion chamber for predetonation.\n", "The selection of octane ratings available at the pump can vary greatly from region to region.\n", "Official SAE certified engine output is and on 87 octane gas. This is a substantial upgrade in power from the Duratec 30 and bested all comparable 87 octane rated V6 engines at the time of its launch. For 2011, the 3.5 L received Ti-VCT, helping to boost output to and . The 3.5 L's highest output to date is . This version was used in the redesigned 2011 Ford Explorer.\n\nThe engine is assembled at Lima Engine in Lima, Ohio, with expansion planned in Cleveland Engine Plant #1.\n\nThe 3.5 L was on the Ward's 10 Best Engines list for 2007.\n", "A digital fuel gauge is a standard feature and stability control is available, except in Australia, where it is standard. There are three trim levels available for the new 2 range, the first is known as the Neo which is the base model. It comes standard with air-conditioning and 15-inch steel wheels, though side air bags, 16-inch alloy wheels and a sports body kit come as standard on the range topping Genki.\n\nSection::::Third generation (DE; 2007–2014).:Production.\n", "Section::::Measurement methods.:Aviation gasoline octane ratings.\n", "The different vehicles display different handling values in the front end but these are just for show, the underlying stats are the same for all the vehicles. Due to the dimensions of models the vehicles appear different sizes but in fact the collision volumes are all identical meaning that you are just as likely to hit something with the Outrider as you are with the Jugga.\n", "BULLET::::- China: 92 and 95 (RON) (previously 93 and 97) are commonly offered. In limited areas higher rating such as 98 RON is available. In some rural areas it can be difficult to find fuel with over 92 RON.\n\nBULLET::::- Chile: 93, 95 and 97 RON are standard at almost all gas stations thorough Chile. The three types are unleaded.\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia: \"Ecopetrol\", Colombia's monopoly of refining and distribution of gasoline establishes a minimum AKI of 81 octanes for \"Corriente\" gasoline and minimum AKI of 87 octanes for \"Extra\" gasoline. (91.5 RON corriente, and 91 RON for extra)\n", "Higher-octane, lower-energy-dense \"thinner\" fuels often contain alcohol compounds incompatible with the stock fuel system components, which also makes them hygroscopic. They also evaporate away much more easily than heavier, lower-octane fuel which leads to more accumulated contaminants in the fuel system. Its typically the and the compounds in the fuel that have the most detrimental effects on the engine fuel system components, as such acids corrode many metals used in gasoline fuel systems. \n", "The \"valve seats\" with \"valve rings\" manufactured at that time and the installed valves require that the engine be lead predominantly or at least occasionally with tetraethyl lead which is no longer available at service stations normal and premium gasoline is driven. A declaration by the manufacturer authorized statement that prolonged operation without lead added in the fuel will definitely damage the engine concerned sooner or later is not known. However, from a list posted by Honda on the Internet, it can be seen that the CY50 can also be run on regular unleaded gasoline.\n", "The 2.5 L produces and has an EPA rating of City and Highway (with the 6-speed automatic).\n\nIn the United States, the Mazda6 is available in three models: Sport, Touring, and Grand Touring, and is offered only as a four-door sedan. While all three models offer their own distinct features, all of the models offer these features as standard equipment:\n\nBULLET::::- 2.5L, 184 horsepower SkyActiv SkyActiv-G inline-four engine\n\nBULLET::::- Bluetooth hands-free telephone system with A2DP stereo streaming capabilities, on all models except the Sport with the 6-speed manual\n\nBULLET::::- 17-inch aluminum-alloy wheels\n", "Section::::Principles.\n\nSection::::Principles.:The problem: pre-ignition and knocking.\n\nIn a normal spark-ignition engine, the air-fuel mixture is heated as a result of being compressed and is then triggered by the spark plug to burn rapidly. During this combustion process, if the unburnt portion of the fuel in the combustion chamber is heated (or compressed) too much, pockets of unburnt fuel may self-ignite (detonate) before the main flame front reaches them. Shockwaves produced by detonation can cause much higher pressures than engine components are designed for, and can cause a \"knocking\" or \"pinging\" sound. Knocking can cause major engine damage if severe.\n", "The 2019 CX-5 adds the CX-9 engine as an option. The Skyactiv-G 2.5-liter turbocharged four-cylinder produces 250 horsepower at 5,000 rpm on 93-octane fuel and 227 hp on 87-octane. Mazda claims the new engine delivers 22 mpg city, 27 highway, and 24 mpg combined in AWD trim regardless of octane.\n\nSection::::Second generation (KF; 2017–present).:Regions.\n\nSection::::Second generation (KF; 2017–present).:Regions.:Singapore.\n\nMazda Singapore officially launched the second-generation CX-5 on July 21, 2017, offered in either 2.0L 2WD or 2.5L 2WD models. Variants include the 2.0L Standard Plus, 2.0L Premium, 2.5L Luxury and 2.5L Super Luxury. It received a facelift in February 2019.\n", "Section::::New unleaded fuel grades.\n\nSection::::New unleaded fuel grades.:93UL (Ethanol-free 93AKI automotive gasoline).\n\nThe firm Airworthy AutoGas tested an ethanol-free 93 anti-knock index (AKI) premium auto gas on a Lycoming O-360-A4M in 2013. The fuel is certified under Lycoming Service Instruction 1070 and ASTM D4814.\n\nSection::::New unleaded fuel grades.:UL94 (formerly 94UL).\n\nUnleaded 94 Motor octane fuel (\"UL94\") is essentially 100LL without the lead.\n", "Section::::EcoBoost.\n\nIt is a twin-turbocharged, gasoline direct injected (GTDI) version of the 3.5 L. This engine is used in the 2013-2019 Ford Explorer Sport, 2010-2019 Ford Taurus SHO, 2014-2019 Ford Flex Limited EcoBoost, and 2010-2016 Lincoln MKS, and is optional for both the 2014-2019 Ford Police Interceptor sedan and Ford Police Interceptor Utility, both of which are based on the Taurus and Explorer.\n\nSection::::3.7 L.\n", "Aviation gasolines used in piston aircraft engines common in general aviation have a slightly different method of measuring the octane of the fuel. Similar to an AKI, it has two different ratings, although it is referred to only by the lower of the two. One is referred to as the \"aviation lean\" rating and is the same as the MON of the fuel up to 100. The second is the \"aviation rich\" rating and corresponds to the octane rating of a test engine under forced induction operation common in high-performance and military piston aircraft. This utilizes a supercharger, and uses a significantly richer fuel/air ratio for improved detonation resistance. \n", "BULLET::::- sequential multi-port fuel injection system\n\nBULLET::::- long life, glass fibre reinforced camshaft drive belt with automatic tensioner\n\nBULLET::::- state-of-the-art Twin Independent Variable Camshaft Timing (on Ti-VCT variant)\n\nSection::::SCCA Spec Racer.\n\nThe third generation of the SCCA Spec Racer, commonly known as the Gen3 was introduced in 2015, and uses the 1.6 L Sigma engine. The engine is sold by SCCA Enterprises as a sealed unit.\n\nSection::::Zetec-E comparison.\n", "While bearing a striking resemblance to the second generation CX-9, the CX-8 is 17 cm shorter in length and 13 cm narrower in width to conform to Japanese roads. Within a few weeks after its introduction in Japan, Mazda dealers received over 12,000 orders from consumers.\n\nThe CX-8 was initially offered only with a 2.2 L \"SKYACTIV-D\" diesel engine, but a choice of two I4 petrol engines was added in 2018: a 2.5 L \"SKYACTIV-G\" (PY-VPS) from the CX-5 and a turbocharged version of the same engine from the CX-9.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "The Gen1 Ridgeline was built with a fuel tank and is designed to run on unleaded gasoline with an 86 anti-knock index (AKI) (2006 model year) or 87 AKI (all other model years) and higher. However, when towing over , 91 AKI or higher gasoline is recommended. A powertrain control module and a block-mounted acoustic knock sensor work together to either retard or advance ignition timing to maximize the performance available in various gasolines.\n\nSection::::Design.:Equipment.\n", "BULLET::::- Denmark: 95 RON is a common choice, with 92 and 95 being widely available. However several fuel stations are phasing out 92 RON. By law, it is decided that all gasoline companies from July 2010 should use a mix containing 5% bioethanol in the gasoline.\n\nBULLET::::- Ecuador: \"Extra\" with 87 and \"Super\" with 92 (RON) are available in all fuel stations. \"Extra\" is the most commonly used. All fuels are unleaded.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Levels of CO rise in the blood when the metabolic use of O, and the production of CO is increased during, for example, exercise. The CO in the blood is transported largely as bicarbonate (HCO) ions, by conversion first to carbonic acid (HCO), by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, and then by disassociation of this acid to H and HCO. Build-up of CO therefore causes an equivalent build-up of the disassociated hydrogen ions, which, by definition, decreases the pH of the blood. The pH sensors on the brain stem immediately sense to this fall in pH, causing the respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of breathing. The consequence is that the partial pressure of CO (PCO2) does not change from rest going into exercise. During very short-term bouts of intense exercise the release of lactic acid into the blood by the exercising muscles causes a fall in the blood plasma pH, independently of the rise in the PCO2, and this will stimulate pulmonary ventilation sufficiently to keep the blood pH constant at the expense of a lowered PCO2.\n", "In response, many bacterial pathogens have evolved mechanisms for nitric oxide resistance. Because nitric oxide might have proinflammatory actions in conditions like asthma, there has been increasing interest in the use of exhaled nitric oxide as a breath test in diseases with airway inflammation. Reduced levels of exhaled NO have been associated with exposure to air pollution in cyclists and smokers, but, in general, increased levels of exhaled NO are associated with exposure to air pollution.\n", "It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar partial pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body’s extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats\n", "Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.\n", "Adaptation to increased concentrations of occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance the effects of blood acidification (acidosis). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis, adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse such condition.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nUntil the 1980s, nitric oxide, a product of fossil fuel combustion, was thought only to play a role the detrimental effects of air pollution on the respiratory tract. In 1987, experiments with coronary arteries showed that nitric oxide was the long sought endothelium-derived relaxing factor. After scientists realised that NO played a biological role, its role as a cell signalling molecule and neurotransmitter became clear from abundant studies.\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Human physiology.\n\nSection::::Biological role.:Human physiology.:Content.\n\nThe body produces approximately of carbon dioxide per day per person, containing of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the arteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume. In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents is shown in the adjacent table:\n\nSection::::Biological role.:Human physiology.:Transport in the blood.\n", "It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar formula_3 has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”. In fact the total concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood is about 26 mM (or 58 ml per 100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml per 100 ml blood). This large concentration of carbon dioxide plays a pivotal role in the determination and maintenance of the pH of the extracellular fluids. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body’s extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats\n", "Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin. The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron-containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O molecule each the blood is said to be “saturated” with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase the oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO) in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO into HCO (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and through alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme inside the red blood cells. The reaction can go in both directions depending on the prevailing partial pressure of CO. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO, and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with the alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml/100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml/100 ml blood).\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Human physiology.:Regulation of respiration.\n\nCarbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If its concentration is high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.\n\nBicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.\n", "Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of CO in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.\n\nAlthough the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels.\n", "BULLET::::- CO inhibits blood platelet aggregation and adhesion.\n\nBULLET::::- CO may play a role as potential therapeutic agent.\n\nIn mammals, carbon monoxide is naturally produced by the action of heme oxygenase 1 and 2 on the heme from hemoglobin breakdown. This process produces a certain amount of carboxyhemoglobin in normal persons, even if they do not breathe any carbon monoxide.\n", "The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and the removal of its waste product of carbon dioxide. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate.\n", "In response, many bacterial pathogens have evolved mechanisms for nitric oxide resistance. Because nitric oxide might serve as an \"inflammometer\" (meter of inflammation) in conditions like asthma, interest has increased in the use of exhaled nitric oxide as a breath test in diseases with airway inflammation. Reduced levels of exhaled NO have been associated with exposure to air pollution in cyclists and smokers, but, in general, increased levels of exhaled NO are associated with exposure to air pollution.\n\nSection::::Molecular effects of NO on biological systems.\n", "Practical applications of the respiratory quotient can be found in severe cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, in which patients spend a significant amount of energy on respiratory effort. By increasing the proportion of fats in the diet, the respiratory quotient is driven down, causing a relative decrease in the amount of CO produced. This reduces the respiratory burden to eliminate CO, thereby reducing the amount of energy spent on respirations.\n", "A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) to function under these conditions.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Carbon dioxide transport.\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Toxicity.:Ventilation.\n", "In a normal resting state the work of breathing constitutes about 5% of the total body oxygen consumption. It can increase considerably due to illness or constraints on gas flow imposed by breathing apparatus, ambient pressure, or breathing gas composition.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of breathing.\n\nThe normal relaxed state of the lung and chest is partially empty. Further exhalation requires muscular work.\n", "Endogenous nitrous oxide can possibly play a role in modulating endogenous opioid and NMDA systems.\n\nSection::::Carbon monoxide.\n\nCarbon monoxide is produced naturally by the human body as a signaling molecule. Thus, carbon monoxide may have a physiological role in the body, such as a neurotransmitter or a blood vessel relaxant. Because of carbon monoxide's role in the body, abnormalities in its metabolism have been linked to a variety of diseases, including neurodegenerations, hypertension, heart failure, and inflammation.\n\nSummary of function:\n\nBULLET::::- CO functions as an endogenous signaling molecule.\n\nBULLET::::- CO modulates functions of the cardiovascular system.\n", "Currently in the United States, nitric oxide is a gas available in concentrations of only 100 ppm and 800 ppm. Overdosage with inhaled nitric oxide will be seen by elevations in methemoglobin and pulmonary toxicities associated with inspired ·NO. Elevated NO may cause acute lung injury.\n\nSection::::Medical use.:Contraindications.\n", "The primary purpose of breathing is to bring atmospheric air (in small doses) into the alveoli where gas exchange with the gases in the blood takes place. The equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the alveolar blood and the alveolar air occurs by diffusion. At the end of each exhalation, the adult human lungs still contain 2,500–3,000 mL of air, their functional residual capacity or FRC. With each breath (inhalation) only as little as about 350 mL of warm, moistened atmospherically is added, and well mixed, with the FRC. Consequently, the gas composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle. Since the pulmonary capillary blood equilibrates with this virtually unchanging mixture of air in the lungs (which has a substantially different composition from that of the ambient air), the partial pressures of the arterial blood gases also do not change with each breath. The tissues are therefore not exposed to swings in oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions in the blood during the breathing cycle, and the peripheral and central chemoreceptors do not need to \"choose\" the point in the breathing cycle at which the blood gases need to be measured, and responded to. Thus the homeostatic control of the breathing rate simply depends on the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This then also maintains the constancy of the pH of the blood.\n", "In mammals, HVR invokes several physiological mechanisms. It is a direct result of the decrease in partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood, and leads to increased ventilation. The body has different ways of coping with acute hypoxia. Mammals that rely on pulmonary ventilation will increase their ventilation to account for the lack of oxygen reaching the tissues. Mammals will also experience decreases in aerobic metabolism and oxygen demand, along with increases in ATP production.\n", "Some animal species are better equipped than humans to detect hypoxia, and these species are more uncomfortable in low-oxygen environments that result from inert gas exposure; however, the experience is still less aversive than CO exposure.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "The resulting arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are homeostatically controlled. A rise in the arterial partial pressure of CO and, to a lesser extent, a fall in the arterial partial pressure of O, will reflexly cause deeper and faster breathing till the blood gas tensions in the lungs, and therefore the arterial blood, return to normal. The converse happens when the carbon dioxide tension falls, or, again to a lesser extent, the oxygen tension rises: the rate and depth of breathing are reduced till blood gas normality is restored.\n", "In individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease who receive supplemental oxygen, carbon dioxide accumulation may occur through two main mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Ventilation/perfusion matching: under-ventilated lung usually has a low oxygen content which leads to localised vasoconstriction limiting blood flow to that lung tissue. Supplemental oxygen abolishes this constriction, leading to poor ventilation/perfusion matching. This redistribution of blood to areas of the lung with poor ventilation reduces the amount of carbon dioxide eliminated from the system.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Environmental effects of laundry wastewater\n\nWastewater comes out of the laundry process with additional energy (heat), lint, soil, dyes, finishing agents, and other chemicals from detergents. Some laundry wastewater goes directly into the environment, due to the flaws of water infrastructure. The majority goes to sewage treatment plants before flowing into the environment. Some chemicals remain in the water after treatment, which may contaminate the water system. They can be toxic to wildlife, or can lead to eutrophication.\n\nSection::::General influences of laundry wastewater.\n", "A study was done in 2016 to look at how long third-hand smoke stayed in three different fabrics over a timespan of 72 hours and post washing. The three different fiber types included wool, cotton, and polyester. Levels of THS were measured using a self-designed surface acoustic wave gas sensor (SAW) which measures a frequency change when a compound is laid down on the surface of the sensor. The results of this study found that third-hand smoke does tend to stay in wool the most right after smoking and polyester the least. Wool had the slowest desorption while polyester had the fastest. Also, the study concluded that even though doing laundry and washing these fibers with detergent was an effective way to get rid of some of the smoke, there was still about an average of 300 Hz of THS residue left on all the fibers.\n", "Sheer fabrics are seldom made with a twill weave. Because a twill surface already has interesting texture and design, printed twills (where a design is printed on the cloth) are much less common than printed plain weaves. When twills are printed, this is typically done on lightweight fabrics. \n\nSoiling and stains are less noticeable on the uneven surface of twills than on a smooth surface, such as plain weaves, and as a result twills are often used for sturdy work clothing and for durable upholstery. Denim, for example, is a twill.\n", "BULLET::::- paper towels showed no significant spread of micro-organisms.\n\nIn 2005, in a study conducted by TÜV Produkt und Umwelt, different hand drying methods were evaluated. The following changes in the bacterial count after drying the hands were observed:\n", "Laundry may be dried indoors rather than outdoors for a variety of reasons including:\n\nBULLET::::- inclement weather\n\nBULLET::::- physical disability\n\nBULLET::::- lack of space for a line\n\nBULLET::::- reduce the damage to fabrics from sun's UV rays\n\nBULLET::::- legal restrictions\n\nBULLET::::- to raise the humidity level indoors, and lower the air temperature indoors\n\nBULLET::::- convenience\n\nBULLET::::- to preserve privacy\n", "Several factors can contribute to or accelerate rapid lint build-up. These include long or restrictive ducts, bird or rodent nests in the termination, crushed or kinked flex transition hose, terminations with screen-like features, and condensation within the duct due to un-insulated ducts traveling through cold spaces, such as a crawl space or attic.\n", "BULLET::::- Laundry items need to be hung indoors during rainy weather, or may get wet if the weather changes.\n\nBULLET::::- Neighbours may find it aesthetically unpleasant.\n\nBULLET::::- Exposing dirty laundry can lessen privacy, showing information about inhabitants' living habits.\n\nBULLET::::- There may be a risk of theft or vandalism of clothes depending on where the clothes are hanged.\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental contaminants such as soil, dust, smoke, automotive or industrial pollutants, pollen and bird and animal droppings can come in contact with clothing.\n\nBULLET::::- Clothespins can leave imprints (including rust from the spring) on the clothes.\n\nSection::::Drying laundry indoors.\n", "Very often fabric near the selvage is unused and discarded, as it may have a different weave pattern, or may lack pile or prints that are present on the rest of the fabric, requiring that the selvage fabric be cut off or hidden in a hem. Since industrial loomed fabric often has selvages that are thicker than the rest of the fabric, the selvage reacts differently. It may shrink or \"pucker\" during laundering and cause the rest of the object made with it to pucker also.\n", "Section::::Applications of drying.:Non-food products.\n\nAmong non-food products, some of those that require considerable drying are wood (as part of timber processing), paper, flax, and washing powder. The first two, owing to their organic origins, may develop mold if insufficiently dried. Another benefit of drying is a reduction in volume and weight.\n\nSection::::Applications of drying.:Sludges and fecal materials from sanitation processes.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThe chief cause for decay in textiles is almost always the environment in which they are stored. Light, temperature, and humidity can all contribute to a textile’s health or deterioration, depending on their intensity. Additionally, pests, chemicals, and pollutants may also cause damage to an antique fabric. Airborne chemicals, such as smog or cigarette smoke are also harmful to the textiles, and should be avoided if at all possible: high-efficiency air filters should be installed throughout the building to reduce the presence of airborne chemicals that may stain, discolor, or weaken fabrics.\n\nSection::::Environment.:Light.\n", "BULLET::::- BS 5867 is for flame retardant fabrics. It relates to curtains, blinds and drapes for windows when tested by the methods specified in BS 5438:1976. Where appropriate, a cleansing or wetting procedure specified in BS 5651 may also be required.\n", "All textiles react negatively to air pollution, light, extremes of temperature, and humidity. Rapid changes in the environment can cause undue stress for these natural fibers, causing them to expand and contract as they take on moisture if kept in humid conditions, to dry out in high heat. Chemical bonds are broken by the machinations of UV light and chemicals in polluted air. As with other, more traditional, library materials, temperature and humidity should be kept within a steady range if at all possible: 70 (+/- 5 degrees) degrees Fahrenheit and 50% (+/- 5%) relative humidity is suggested by most sources. Pre-conditioned silica gel used for the purpose of humidity control should never come into direct contact with textiles.\n", "Textiles should be stored in darkness, and exhibited in dim light with UV filtration. To avoid acid-migration, textiles should not come into contact with wood or cardboard. Acid-free tissue or muslin are often used to shield textiles from harmful lignins.\n", "While nylon fabric is washable, with the use of any household soap or detergent, reference instructions from the manufacturer concerning whether to wash or dry clean the product. Dyes, finishes, and trims added to the fabric may not be machine washable. Delicate articles should always be hand washed. Due to discoloration of the fabric, white nylon items should be washed separately from colors. \n\nSection::::Caring for nylon.:Bleaching.\n\nBleaching can damage nylon articles and therefore should only be used sparingly on stains that cannot be removed by a regular wash. \n\nSection::::Caring for nylon.:Drying.\n", "Section::::Cleaning.:Dry cleaning.\n\nDry cleaning is generally only used for oil stains, as it is a very stressful process of the textile. Commercial dry cleaners should never be used, as the chemicals used in the process are too strong for old fabrics to withstand without damage. If dry cleaning is absolutely necessary, consult a professional conservator.\n\nSection::::Cleaning.:Steaming and ironing.\n", "To remove the detergent one should use cold water and after turning the garment inside out it should be left to dry under the shade. After drying the inside (polyester fabric), then it must be turned in the right direction to dry outside (plastic layer).\n\nPVC clothing should never be ironed. This type of clothing is made of heat sensitive plastics and which may melt under the iron, and high temperatures should be avoided from any source, such as flames, dryers, and cigarettes. The fumes from burning or smoking PVC plastic are dangerous.\n", "Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials like these inevitably age.\n\nHowever, most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Laundry, ironing, storage.\n", "Dryers expose flammable materials to heat. Underwriters Laboratories recommends cleaning the lint filter after every cycle for safety and energy efficiency, provision of adequate ventilation, and cleaning of the duct at regular intervals. UL also recommends that dryers not be used for glass fiber, rubber, foam or plastic items, or any item that has had a flammable substance spilled on it.\n", "Section::::Factors that determine the drying duration.\n\nVarious factors determine the duration of drying and can help to decide rather to use a drier or a clothes line\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental temperature - increase of temperature decreases the drying duration\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental humidity - decrease of humidity will decrease the drying duration\n\nBULLET::::- Wind velocity - Sometimes people put a fan near the clothes when drying them indoors\n\nBULLET::::- Direct sun - usually only the external line will be exposed to direct sun, so usually people put the thickest clothes on the most external line.\n\nBULLET::::- Cloth thickness\n", "Evatt J dissented, holding that Dr Grant's dermatitis was caused by sulphur compounds and that the manufacturer had failed to fully or completely carry out its washing process. Evatt J dismissed the contention that there was no \"special relationship\" between the manufacturer and consumer, noting that the manufacturer provided a \"guarantee\" to the purchaser that the garments would not shrink if washed in accordance with its directions.\n", "Another common problem is color bleeding. For example, washing a red shirt with white underwear can result in pink underwear. Often only similar colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened by cold water and repeated washings. Sometimes this blending of colors is seen as a selling point, as with madras cloth.\n\nLaundry symbols are included on many clothes to help consumers avoid these problems.\n\nSynthetic fibers in laundry can also contribute to microplastic pollution.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe word \"laundry\" comes from Middle English lavendrye, laundry, from Old French \"lavanderie\", from lavandier.\n\nSection::::In culture.\n", "Section::::Laundry processes.\n\nLaundry processes include washing (usually with water containing detergents or other chemicals), agitation, rinsing, drying, pressing (ironing), and folding. The washing will often be done at a temperature above room temperature to increase the activities of any chemicals used and the solubility of stains, and high temperatures kill micro-organisms that may be present on the fabric. Many professional laundry services are present in the market which offers at different price range.\n\nSection::::Laundry processes.:Chemicals.\n", "\"Flavobacterium\" sp. [85] and \"Pseudomonas\" sp. (NK87) degrade oligomers of Nylon 6, but not polymers. Certain white rot fungal strains can also degrade Nylon 6 through oxidation. Compared to aliphatic polyesters, Nylon 6 has poor biodegradability. Strong interchain interactions from hydrogen bonds between molecular nylon chains is said to be the cause by some sources.\n\nSection::::Production in Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- Decomposition of Hydroperoxides is when metal and metal ions are found on the plastic material as this can also lead to the deterioration of the object\n\nSection::::Effects of deterioration table.\n\nAdditional effects of deterioration\n\nFor plastics composed of Cellulose Acetate the most common sign of deterioration condition is when it this type is exposed to water, it will give off a smell of vinegar (Vinegar syndrome), its surface will have a white powder residue and it will begin to shrink.\n\nCellulose Acetate butyrate and Cellulose butyrate will produce butyric acid which has a \"vomit odor\".\n", "Section::::Additional sources.\n\nBULLET::::- The National Archives (United Kingdom): Cotton Cloth Factories Act 1889 Retrieved 6 June 2014\n\nBULLET::::- NBCI: Factory and Workshop Act 1901 Retrieved 6 June 2014\n\nBULLET::::- The National Archives (United Kingdom): Cotton Cloth Factories Act 1911 Retrieved 6 June 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Google Books: \"Wharton's Concise Dictionary\" by Ar Lakshmanan and John Jane Smith Wharton Cotton Cloth Factories Act 1929 Retrieved 6 June 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Google Books: \"Departmental Committee on Humidity and Ventilation in Cotton Weaving Sheds\" by Sir Hamilton Freer-Smith (H.M. Stationery Office, 1909) Retrieved 6 June 2014\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "History of music\n\nMusic is found in every known culture, past and present, varying widely between times and places. Since all people of the world, including the most isolated tribal groups, have a form of music, it may be concluded that music is likely to have been present in the ancestral population prior to the dispersal of humans around the world. Consequently, the first music may have been invented in Africa and then evolved to become a fundamental constituent of human life.\n", "It is likely that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. (See Darwin’s \"Origin of Species\" on music and speech.) The oldest known Neanderthal hyoid bone with the modern human form has been dated to be 60,000 years old, predating the oldest known Paleolithic bone flute by some 20,000 years, but the true chronology may date back much further.\n", "Section::::Origins.\n", "The origins of music during the Paleolithic are unknown. The earliest forms of music probably did not use musical instruments other than the human voice or natural objects such as rocks. This early music would not have left an archaeological footprint. Music may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced by daily chores, for example, cracking open nuts with stones. Maintaining a rhythm while working may have helped people to become more efficient at daily activities. An alternative theory originally proposed by Charles Darwin explains that music may have begun as a hominin mating strategy. Bird and other animal species produce music such as calls to attract mates. This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, but nonetheless provides a possible alternative.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Another possible origin of music is motherese, the vocal-gestural communication between mothers and infants. This form of communication involves melodic, rhythmic and movement patterns as well as the communication of intention and meaning, and in this sense is similar to music.\n", "Section::::Mechanical technologies.:Indus Valley.\n\nThe Indus Valley civilization has sculptures that show old musical instruments, like the seven-holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.\n\nSection::::Mechanical technologies.:References in the Bible.\n", "Prehistoric music, once more commonly called primitive music, is the name given to all music produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in most of Europe (1500 BC) and later music in subsequent European-influenced areas, but still exists in isolated areas.\n", "Prehistoric music thus technically includes all of the world's music that has existed before the advent of any currently extant historical sources concerning that music, for example, traditional Native American music of preliterate tribes and Australian Aboriginal music. However, it is more common to refer to the \"prehistoric\" music of non-European continents – especially that which still survives – as folk, indigenous or traditional music. The origin of music is unknown as it occurred prior to recorded history. Some suggest that the origin of music likely stems from naturally occurring sounds and rhythms. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality. Even today, some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to shamanistic beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment (game) or practical (luring animals in hunt) functions.\n", "India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (\"marga\") are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites. \n\nSection::::Australia.\n", "Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, \"do animals have music?\" François-Bernard Mâche's \"Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion\" (1983), a study of \"ornitho-musicology\" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's \"Langage, musique, poésie\" (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that \"in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human.\"\n", "Section::::History.:Asian cultures.\n\nThe Indus Valley civilization has sculptures that show old musical instruments, like the seven-holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.\n\nSection::::History.:References in the Bible.\n", "It has been suggested that the \"Divje Babe Flute\", a cave bear femur dated to be approximately 43,500 years old, is the world's oldest musical instrument and was produced by Neanderthals. Claims that the femur is indeed a musical instrument are, however, contested by alternative theories including the suggestion that the femur may have been gnawed by carnivores to produce holes. \n\nSection::::Eras of music.:Ancient music.\n", "Biomusic can take many other forms. These can include the simple amplification of animal sounds, or the creation of music through the fluctuation of electric current in plants. More unusual still is the use of animal notation: music scores created by animals, often in the form of paw prints. Biomusic can also take the form of animals trained to perform specific behaviors as part of a musical performance (birds trained to sing for instance).\n", "Boorstin places the origins of Western music in the liturgy of the Catholic Church. The early practice of congregational singing of psalms (adopted from Judaism) ceased with the introduction of the choir. This institution gave rise to the Gregorian chant and one of the most important creations in music, polyphony, still the hallmark of Western music. Over time, the emphasis within Music turned to the instruments rather than the human voice. Again, a change in attitude allowed the new event. Up to this time Church leaders had looked askance upon \"wordless\" music but the Reformation induced a change of assumptions. From Bach, the acceleration of instrument creation led to yet another peculian Western invention, the orchestra. Boorstin demonstrates repeatedly how one creation led to another and another. The concerto and symphony were created and opera caused a sensation. Music moved out of the palace into the concert hall for the masses. \n", "According to Evan Andrews, reporting on the History Channel, ancient flutes, carved from ivory and bone, were found by archaeologists, that were determined to be from as far back as 43,000 years ago. He also states that “The earliest fragment of musical notation is found on a 4,000-year-old Sumerian clay tablet, which includes instructions and tuning for a hymn honoring the ruler Lipit-Ishtar. But for the title of oldest extant song, most historians point to “Hurrian Hymn No. 6” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpxN2VXPMLc an ode to the goddess Nikkal that was composed in cuneiform by the ancient Hurrian's sometime around the 14th century B.C.”. These historic artifacts suggest that perhaps music did play a part in mankind's advancement's. The find, of the oldest known melody, Hurrian Hymn No. 6, proves that humans were composing music as far back as 3,400 years ago and leads me to believe that there was, more than likely, some form of music much farther in the past than we know. Scientific research shows that humans have been evolving over a period of millions of years. http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/introduction-human-evolution\n", "Indian classical music (\"marga\") can be found from the scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. Samaveda, one of the four vedas, describes music at length.\n\nRavanahatha (ravanhatta, rawanhattha, ravanastron or ravana hasta veena) is a bowed fiddle popular in Western India. It is believed to have originated among the Hela civilization of Sri Lanka in the time of King Ravana. This string instrument has been recognised as one of the oldest string instruments in world history.\n", "Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic archaeology sites. Flutes are often discovered, carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced; these are thought to have been blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi. The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (\"marga\") are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition. The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC. The \"Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal\", found on clay tablets that date back to approximately 1400 BC, is the oldest surviving notated work of music.\n", "The prehistoric age is considered to have ended with the development of writing, and with it, by definition, prehistoric music. \"Ancient music\" is the name given to the music that followed. The \"oldest known song\" was written in cuneiform, dating to 3400 years ago from Ugarit in Syria. It was a part of the Hurrian songs, more specifically Hurian hymn no. 6. It was deciphered by Anne Draffkorn Kilmer, and was demonstrated to be composed in harmonies of thirds, like ancient \"gymel\", and also was written using a Pythagorean tuning of the diatonic scale. The oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world, is the Seikilos epitaph.\n", "In the 1970s, a number of scholars, including musicologist Charles Seeger and semiotician Jean-Jacques Nattiez, proposed using methodology commonly employed in linguistics as a new way for ethnomusicologists to study music. This new approach, widely influenced by the works of linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, and anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, among others, focused on finding underlying symbolic structures in cultures and their music.\n", "Section::::Research.:Origins of music.\n", "Section::::Australia.:Traditional instruments.\n\nSection::::Australia.:Traditional instruments.:Didgeridoo.\n", "The use of the term 'music' is problematic within prehistory. It may be that, as in the traditional music of much of sub-Saharan Africa, the concept of 'music', as we understand it, was somewhat different. Many languages traditionally have terms for music that include dance, religion or cult. The context in which prehistoric music took place has also become a subject of much study, as the sound made by music in prehistory would have been somewhat different depending on the acoustics present. Some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to shamanistic beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment (game) or practical functions (for example, luring animals in hunt).\n", "BULLET::::- 450 BCE - Mime was invented by Sophron of Syracuse.\n\nBULLET::::- 1597 - Opera was invented by Jacopo Peri with \"Dafne\". Peri was an Italian composer and singer.\n\nBULLET::::- 1780 - Bolero dance was invented by Sebastiano Carezo, a Spanish dancer.\n\nBULLET::::- 1833 - Minstrel shows were invented by Thomas Dartmouth \"Daddy\" Rice.\n\nBULLET::::- 1880 - Tango dance was invented by the Argentinians, combining African, Indian and Spanish rhythms.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Lansky's \"Six Fantasies on a Poem by Thomas Campion\" is an important composition that uses computer synthesis of sounds and human speech.\n\nBULLET::::- The Federal Cylinder Project is created to rescue ethnographic records, most of them made under the Bureau of Ethnology and repatriate the recordings to their peoples of origin. It will be the \"largest repatriation project undertaken by any world archive\".\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The standardwing was filmed for the first time in 1986 for the BBC nature documentary \"Birds for all Seasons\", when a cameraman Michael W Richards stationed in the canopy captured footage of a male bird displaying. Ten years later, David Attenborough observed a mass display of dozens of males for the BBC \"Natural World\" film \"Attenborough in Paradise,\" leading him to speculate that the reason for their extravagant behaviour is to establish the hierarchy for breeding rights, rather than to directly impress the females.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BirdLife Species Factsheet\n\nBULLET::::- Oriental Bird Images\n\nBULLET::::- The Internet Bird Collection\n", "BULLET::::7. Picture-patterns on counter-shaded birds, continued. Grass-patterns, heather-patterns\n\nBULLET::::8. Picture-patterns on counter-shaded birds, continued. Scansorial (climbing) birds\n\nBULLET::::9. Picture-patterns on counter-shaded birds, continued. Shore-birds\n\nBULLET::::10. Picture-patterns on counter-shaded birds, continued. Reed-patterns, etc., of Bitterns\n\nBULLET::::11. Background-picturing on counter-shaded birds, continued. Marsh-birds. Wood Duck\n\nBULLET::::12. Background-picturing on counter-shaded birds, continued. Birds of the ocean\n\nBULLET::::13. Birds, etc. The inherent 'obliterative' power of markings. 'Ruptive' and 'Secant' patterns\n\nBULLET::::14. Birds, etc. Special functions of markings\n\nBULLET::::15. Birds. Masking of bill and feet for offensive purposes\n\nBULLET::::16. Birds, etc. The manifold obliterative power of iridescence\n", "Like other species of ibis, the American white ibis flies with neck and legs outstretched, often in long loose lines or V formations—a 1986 field study in North Carolina noted over 80% of adult ibis doing so, while juveniles rapidly took up the practice over the course of the summer. The resulting improvement in aerodynamics may lower energy expenditure. These lines fly in an undulating pattern as they alternately flap and glide. Soaring in a circular pattern is also seen. Heights of may be reached as birds glide over flights of or more. More commonly, birds fly between above the ground, gliding or flapping at a rate of around 3.3 wingbeats a second.\n", "The American goldfinch flies in a distinctive undulating pattern, creating a wave-shaped path. This normally consists of a series of wing beats to lift the bird, then folding in the wings and gliding in an arc before repeating the pattern. Birds often vocalize during the flapping phase of the pattern and then go silent during the coasting phase. The call made during flight is \"per-twee-twee-twee\", or \"ti-di-di-di\", punctuated by the silent periods.\n", "Studies of waldrapp ibis show that birds spatially coordinate the phase of wing flapping and show wingtip path coherence when flying in V positions, thus enabling them to maximally utilise the available energy of upwash over the entire flap cycle. In contrast, birds flying in a stream immediately behind another do not have wingtip coherence in their flight pattern and their flapping is out of phase, as compared to birds flying in V patterns, so as to avoid the detrimental effects of the downwash due to the leading bird's flight.\n\nSection::::Adaptations for flight.\n", "Section::::Remiges.:Tectrices.\n\nThe calami of the flight feathers are protected by a layer of non-flight feathers called \"covert\" feathers or \"tectrices\" (singular \"tectrix\"), at least one layer of them both above and beneath the flight feathers of the wings as well as above and below the rectrices of the tail. These feathers may vary widely in size — in fact, the upper tail tectrices of the male peafowl, rather than its rectrices, are what constitute its elaborate and colorful \"train\".\n\nSection::::Remiges.:Emargination.\n", "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Section::::Formation flight.\n\nOne theory on migrating bird flight states that many larger bird species fly in a V formation so that all but the leader bird can take advantage of the upwash part of the wingtip vortex of the bird ahead.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n", "List of terms used in bird topography\n\nThe following is a list of terms used in bird topography:\n\nSection::::Plumage features.\n\nBULLET::::- Back\n\nBULLET::::- Belly\n\nBULLET::::- Breast\n\nBULLET::::- Cheek\n\nBULLET::::- Chin\n\nBULLET::::- Crest\n\nBULLET::::- Crown\n\nBULLET::::- Crown patch\n\nBULLET::::- Ear-coverts\n\nBULLET::::- Eye-ring\n\nBULLET::::- Eyestripe (or eye line)\n\nBULLET::::- Feather, see category:\n\nBULLET::::- Flanks\n\nBULLET::::- Forecrown\n\nBULLET::::- Gorget\n\nBULLET::::- Hood (or half-hood)\n\nBULLET::::- Lateral throat stripe\n\nBULLET::::- Lores\n\nBULLET::::- Malar\n\nBULLET::::- Mantle\n\nBULLET::::- Mask\n\nBULLET::::- Moustachial stripe\n\nBULLET::::- Nape\n\nBULLET::::- Nuchal collar\n\nBULLET::::- Operculum (on pigeons).\n\nBULLET::::- Pennaceous feathers\n\nBULLET::::- Postocular stripe\n\nBULLET::::- Remiges\n\nBULLET::::- Rump\n\nBULLET::::- Spectacles\n\nBULLET::::- Submoustachial stripe\n", "The Beau Geste hypothesis which was coined by Krebs in 1977 to explain why various avian species have such large song repertories. The hypothesis discusses that avian species utilize such large song repertories for potentially a number of reasons such as for territorial defence and to test the competition within a new habitat.\n", "The sickle-winged chat is usually seen singly or in pairs. It forages on the ground or at the base of trees for insects.\n\nIn comparison with the familiar chat, it spends more time on the ground and runs more swiftly. It flicks its wings, but less frequently than the familiar chat.\n\nSection::::Conservation status.\n", "In the Denmark, there is a biannual phenomenon known as \"sort sol\" (Danish for \"black sun\"). This is when flocks of European starlings gather in vast numbers, creating complex shapes against the sky during the spring. It is during this time spent in Denmark that the European starlings spend time gathering food and resting as part of their migration journey. By being in groups this large the European starlings are able to decrease their risk of predation by hawks.\n", "Section::::Pattern formation.\n", "Muir’s corellas are gregarious and may be seen in flocks of ten to a thousand birds. They have traditional roosting sites, usually in dense timber, which they leave in the morning for their feeding areas and return to at night.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n", "Flight feathers are also used by some species in visual displays. Male standard-winged and pennant-winged nightjars have modified P2 primaries (using the descendant numbering scheme explained above) which are displayed during their courtship rituals. In the standard-winged nightjar, this modified primary consists of an extremely long shaft with a small \"pennant\" (actually a large web of barbules) at the tip. In the pennant-winged nightjar, the P2 primary is an extremely long (but otherwise normal) feather, while P3, P4 and P5 are successively shorter; the overall effect is a broadly forked wingtip with a very long plume beyond the lower half of the fork.\n", "There has been some controversy about the reality of Lévy flight foraging. Early studies were limited to a small range of movement, and thus the type of motion could not be unequivocally determined; and in 2007 flaws were found in a study of wandering albatrosses which was the first empirical example of such a strategy.\n\nThere are however many new studies backing the Lévy flight foraging hypothesis.\n", "The familiar chat is typically seen sitting on a rock, or hopping on bare patches of soil. It has a habit of flicking its wings once or twice every time it moves. It is seen in small family groups of up to five birds, and is invariably tame and approachable. It eats insects, fruit, animal fat and household or farmyard scraps.\n\nThe Afrikaans name for this species \"spekvreter\" means \"fat-eater\", and comes from the fact that it developed the habit of feeding on the lard used to grease wagon axles by the voortrekkers.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Flight.:Bounding flight.\n\nSmall birds often fly long distances using a technique in which short bursts of flapping are alternated with intervals in which the wings are folded against the body. This is a flight pattern known as \"bounding\" or \"flap-bounding\" flight. When the bird's wings are folded, its trajectory is primarily ballistic, with a small amount of body lift. The flight pattern is believed to decrease the energy required by reducing the aerodynamic drag during the ballistic part of the trajectory, and to increase the efficiency of muscle use.\n\nSection::::Hovering.\n", "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n\nThe greater adjutant is usually seen singly or in small groups as it stalks about in shallow lakes or drying lake beds and garbage dumps. It is often found in the company of kites and vultures and will sometimes sit hunched still for long durations. They may also hold their wings outstretched, presumably to control their temperature. They soar on thermals using their large outstretched wings.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Breeding.\n", "Section::::Types of pattern.:Spots, stripes.\n", "Later research has managed to create convincing models of patterns as diverse as zebra stripes, giraffe blotches, jaguar spots (medium-dark patches surrounded by dark broken rings) and ladybird shell patterns (different geometrical layouts of spots and stripes, see illustrations). Richard Prum's activation-inhibition models, developed from Turing's work, use six variables to account for the observed range of nine basic within-feather pigmentation patterns, from the simplest, a central pigment patch, via concentric patches, bars, chevrons, eye spot, pair of central spots, rows of paired spots and an array of dots. More elaborate models simulate complex feather patterns in the guineafowl \"Numida meleagris\" in which the individual feathers feature transitions from bars at the base to an array of dots at the far (distal) end. These require an oscillation created by two inhibiting signals, with interactions in both space and time.\n", "In biology, natural selection can cause the development of patterns in living things for several reasons, including camouflage, sexual selection, and different kinds of signalling, including mimicry and cleaning symbiosis. In plants, the shapes, colours, and patterns of insect-pollinated flowers like the lily have evolved to attract insects such as bees. Radial patterns of colours and stripes, some visible only in ultraviolet light serve as nectar guides that can be seen at a distance.\n\nSection::::Types of pattern.\n\nSection::::Types of pattern.:Symmetry.\n", "Males of many species, ranging from the widely introduced ring-necked pheasant to Africa's many whydahs, have one or more elongated pairs of rectrices, which play an often-critical role in their courtship rituals. The outermost pair of rectrices in male lyrebirds are extremely long and strongly curved at the ends. These plumes are raised up over the bird's head (along with a fine spray of modified uppertail coverts) during his extraordinary display. Rectrix modification reaches its pinnacle among the birds of paradise, which display an assortment of often bizarrely modified feathers, ranging from the extremely long plumes of the ribbon-tailed astrapia (nearly three times the length of the bird itself) to the dramatically coiled twin plumes of the magnificent bird-of-paradise.\n", "BULLET::::- On page 21, the illustration of a gull's head, with a pointer highlighting an ear-spot, shows a bird with a full hood; ear-spots are a feature which appears on hooded gulls only when the hood (a feature of breeding plumage) is lost, in winter.\n\nBULLET::::- On page 27, the caption to figure 14 (an illustration of the spread wingtip of a Caspian gull) describes a \"broad white tip\" on p9 whereas the figure shows a broad white \"mirror\".\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Flight.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Nerves and muscles may be trapped by broken bones; in these cases the bones need to be put back into their proper places quickly. For example, fractures of the orbital floor or medial orbital wall of the eye can entrap the medial rectus or inferior rectus muscles. In facial wounds, tear ducts and nerves of the face may be damaged. Fractures of the frontal bone can interfere with the drainage of the frontal sinus and can cause sinusitis.\n", "The relative strength of these two forces depends on which way the eye is looking. When the eye is \"adducted\" (looking toward the nose), the force of depression increases. When the eye is \"abducted\" (looking away from the nose), the force of intorsion increases, while the force of depression decreases. When the eye is in the primary position (looking straight ahead), contraction of the superior oblique produces depression and intorsion in roughly equal amounts.\n", "Incising wounds of the face may involve the parotid duct. This is more likely if the wound crosses a line drawn between the tragus of the ear to the upper lip. The approximate location of the course of the duct is the middle third of this line.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Lacrimation.\n\nRhinorrhea is also associated with shedding tears, whether from emotional events or from eye irritation. When excess tears are produced, the liquid drains through the inner corner of the eyelids, through the nasolacrimal duct, and into the nasal cavities. As more tears are shed, more liquid flows into the nasal cavities, both stimulating mucus production and hydrating any dry mucus already present in the nasal cavity. The buildup of fluid is usually resolved via mucus expulsion through the nostrils.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Head trauma.\n", "Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nose shape.\n\nThe shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Some nose shapes were classified for surgeries by Eden Warwick in \"Nasology\" 1848:\n", "While the medical consequences of the gases themselves are typically limited to minor skin inflammation, delayed complications are also possible: people with pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthma, who are particularly at risk, are likely to need medical attention and may sometimes require hospitalization or even ventilation support. Skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, eye injuries involving scarring of the cornea can lead to a permanent loss in visual acuity. Frequent or high levels of exposure carry increased risks of respiratory illness.\n", "The relative strength of these two forces depends on which way the eye is looking. When the eye is \"adducted\" (looking toward the nose), the force of depression increases. When the eye is \"abducted\" (looking away from the nose), the force of intorsion increases, while the force of depression decreases. When the eye is in the primary position (looking straight ahead), contraction of the superior oblique produces depression and intorsion in roughly equal amounts.\n", "Lacrimal apparatus\n\nThe lacrimal apparatus is the physiological system containing the orbital structures for tear production and drainage. It consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- The lacrimal gland, which secretes the tears, and its excretory ducts, which convey the fluid to the surface of the human eye;it is a serous gland located in lacrimal fossae.it is a j shaped gland\n\nBULLET::::- The lacrimal canaliculi, the lacrimal sac, and the nasolacrimal duct, by which the fluid is conveyed into the cavity of the nose, emptying anterioinferiorly to the inferior nasal conchae from the nasolacrimal duct;\n", "In extremely rare but documented cases, nose-blowing has resulted in unusual conditions, such as in the case of a woman who fractured her left eye socket after blowing her nose.\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n", "Section::::Blast-related ocular trauma.:Mechanism of injury.:Skull flexure.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Eye armor.\n", "BULLET::::- Zone I: the conjunctiva and corneal surface; the most common injuries seen in this zone are foreign debris retention by the conjunctiva or corneal epithelium/stroma, as well as corneal abrasions. The Seidel test may be used to evaluate the status of the anterior chamber, thereby determining the presence of corneal perforation and pathological anterior chamber leakage.\n", "BULLET::::- The eyes, sitting in the orbit and protected by eyelids and eyelashes\n\nBULLET::::- The distinctive human nose shape, nostrils, and nasal septum\n\nBULLET::::- The cheeks, covering the maxilla and mandibula (or jaw), the extremity of which is the chin\n\nBULLET::::- The mouth, with the upper lip divided by the philtrum, sometimes revealing the teeth\n\nFacial appearance is vital for human recognition and communication. Facial muscles in humans allow expression of emotions.\n", "The neural pathway of the menace reflex comprises the optic (II) and facial (VII) nerves. It is mediated by tectobulbar fibres in the rostral colliculi of the midbrain passing from the optic tract to accessory nuclei, and thence to the spinal cord and lower motor neurones that innervate the head, neck, and body muscles affected by the reflex. The facial nerve is mediated through a corticotectopontocerebellar pathway.\n", "The vitreous membrane is more firmly attached to the retina anteriorly, at a structure called the vitreous base. The membrane does not normally detach from the vitreous base, although it can be detached with extreme trauma. However, the vitreous base may have an irregular posterior edge. When the edge is irregular, the forces of the vitreous membrane peeling off the retina can become concentrated at small posterior extensions of the vitreous base. Similarly, in some people with retinal lesions such as lattice retinal degeneration or chorio-retinal scars, the vitreous membrane may be abnormally adherent to the retina. If enough traction occurs the retina may tear at these points. If there are only small point tears, these can allow glial cells to enter the vitreous humor and proliferate to create a thin epiretinal membrane that distorts vision. In more severe cases, vitreous fluid may seep under the tear, separating the retina from the back of the eye, creating a retinal detachment. Trauma can be any form from a blunt force trauma to the face such as a boxer's punch or even in some cases has been known to be from extremely vigorous coughing or blowing of the nose.\n", "Section::::Immune responses of the Cornea.\n\n\"Innate immune responses\" defend against pathogens and toxin in a non-discriminatory manner. They provide an inherent barrier against corneal infection while also serving as a primary mode of defense that is present from birth. For instance, the orbit and the eyelid can guard against both traumatic events and exterior debris that may contain microorganisms. Other components of the ocular innate immune system include tears, epithelial cells, keratocytes, corneal nerves, the complement system, and interferons.\n", "Animal attacks and work-related injuries such as industrial accidents are other causes. Vehicular trauma is one of the leading causes of facial injuries. Trauma commonly occurs when the face strikes a part of the vehicle's interior, such as the steering wheel. In addition, airbags can cause corneal abrasions and lacerations (cuts) to the face when they deploy.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Oral tissue: Frenula of the mouth include the \"frenulum linguae\" under the tongue, the \"frenulum labii superioris\" inside the upper lip, the \"frenulum labii inferioris\" inside the lower lip, and the buccal frena which connect the cheeks to the gum. These can easily be torn by violent blows to the face or mouth, thus a torn frenulum is sometimes a warning sign of physical abuse.\n", "There is no specific antidote to common tear gases. Getting clear of gas and into fresh air is the first line of action. Removing contaminated clothing and avoiding shared use of contaminated towels could help reduce skin reactions. Immediate removal of contact lenses has also been recommended, as they can retain particles.\n", "Since both the short and long ciliary nerves carry the afferent limb of the corneal blink reflex, one can test the integrity of the nasociliary nerve (and, ultimately, the trigeminal nerve) by examining this reflex in the patient. Normally both eyes should blink when either cornea (not the conjunctiva, which is supplied by the adjacent cutaneous nerves) is irritated. If neither eye blinks, then either the ipsilateral nasociliary nerve is damaged, or the facial nerve (CN VII, which carries the efferent limb of this reflex) is bilaterally damaged. If only the contralateral eye blinks, then the ipsilateral facial nerve is damaged. If only the ipsilateral eye blinks, then the contralateral facial nerve is damaged.\n", "Contusion usually occurs on the lung directly under the site of impact, but, as with traumatic brain injury, a contrecoup contusion may occur at the site opposite the impact as well. A blow to the front of the chest may cause contusion on the back of the lungs because a shock wave travels through the chest and hits the curved back of the chest wall; this reflects the energy onto the back of the lungs, concentrating it. (A similar mechanism may occur at the front of the lungs when the back is struck.)\n", "Section::::Story behind the hit.\n", "The lacrimal system is made up of a secretory system, which produces tears, and an excretory system, which drains the tears. The lacrimal gland is primarily responsible for producing emotional or reflexive tears. As tears are produced, some fluid evaporates between blinks, and some is drained through the lacrimal punctum. The tears that are drained through the punctum will eventually be drained through the nose. Any excess fluid that did not go into the punctum will fall over the eyelid, which produces tears that are cried.\n\nSection::::Disorders related to crying.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nA branch of the ophthalmic nerve [CN V1] in the superior orbital fissure, passing through the orbit, giving rise to the communicating branch to the ciliary ganglion, the long ciliary nerves, the posterior and anterior ethmoidal nerves, and terminating as the infratrochlear and nasal branches, which supply the mucous membrane of the nose, the skin of the tip of the nose, and the conjunctiva.\n\nSection::::Function.:Branches.\n\nThe nasociliary nerve gives off the following branches:\n\nBULLET::::- ethmoidal nerves\n\nBULLET::::- anterior ethmoidal nerve\n\nBULLET::::- posterior ethmoidal nerve\n\nBULLET::::- infratrochlear nerve\n\nBULLET::::- long ciliary nerve\n", "Tentative studies have suggested that the putamen may play a role in the so-called \"hate circuit\" of the brain. A recent study was done in London by the department of cell and developmental biology at University College London. An fMRI was done on patients while they viewed a picture of people they hated and people who were \"neutral\". During the experiment, a \"hate score\" was recorded for each picture. The activity in sub-cortical areas of the brain implied that the \"hate circuit\" involves the putamen and the insula. It has been theorized that the \"putamen plays a role in the perception of contempt and disgust, and may be part of the motor system that's mobilized to take action.\" It was also found that the amount of activity in the hate circuit correlates with the amount of hate a person declares, which could have legal implications concerning malicious crimes.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Human infants are also almost always born with assistance from other humans because of the way that the pelvis is shaped. Since the pelvis and opening of birth canal face backwards, humans have difficulty giving birth themselves because they cannot guide the baby out of the canal. Non-human primates seek seclusion when giving birth because they do not need any help due to the pelvis and opening being more forward. Human infants depend on their parents much more and for much longer than other primates. Humans spend a lot of their time caring for their children as they develop whereas other species stand on their own from when they are born. The faster an infant develops, the higher the reproductive output of a female can be. So in humans, the cost of slow development of their infants is that humans reproduce relatively slowly. This phenomenon is also known as cooperative breeding.\n", "Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting 24 hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the death of the mother, the child or both. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis. The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.\n", "Obstructed labor is unique to humans compared to other primates. The evolution of humans to become obligate bipedal and increase in brain size create the problems associated with obstructed labor. In order for bipedal locomotion to be possible, many changes had to occur to the skeletal structure of humans, especially in the pelvis. Both the shape and orientation of the pelvis changed. Other primates have straighter and wider pelvises compared to humans. A narrow pelvis is better for bipedal locomotion but makes childbirth more difficult. The pelvis is sexually dimorphic, with females having a wider pelvis to be better suited for childbirth. However, the female pelvis still must accommodate for bipedal locomotion which is what creates the challenges for obstructed labor. The brain size of humans has also increased as the species has evolved, resulting in a larger head of the fetus that must exit the womb. This requires human infants to be born less developed when compared to other species. The bones of the skull are not yet fused when a human infant is born in order to prevent the head from becoming too large to exit the womb. However, the head of the fetus is still large and poses the possibility for obstructed labor.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Dogs.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Cattle.\n", "Early human ancestors, hominids, originally gave birth in a similar way that non-human primates do because early obligate quadrupedal individuals would have retained similar skeletal structure to great apes. Most non-human primates today have neonatal heads that are close in size to the mother's birth canal, as evidenced by observing female primates who do not need assistance in birthing, often seeking seclusion away from others of their species. In modern humans, parturition (childbirth) differs greatly from the rest of the primates because of both pelvic shape of the mother and neonatal shape of the infant. Further adaptations evolved to cope with bipedalism and larger craniums were also important such as neonatal rotation of the infant, shorter gestation length, assistance with birth, and a malleable neonatal head.\n", "Obstetrical dilemma\n\nThe obstetrical dilemma is a hypothesis to explain why humans often require assistance from other humans during childbirth to avoid complications, whereas most non-human primates give birth alone with relatively little difficulty. The obstetrical dilemma posits that this is due to the biological trade-off imposed by two opposing evolutionary pressures in the development of the human pelvis. As human ancestor species (hominids) developed bipedal locomotion (the ability to walk upright), decreasing the size of the bony birth canal, they also developed ever larger skulls, which required a wider obstetrical pelvic area to accommodate this trend in hominid infants.\n", "Gestation length in humans is believed to be shorter than most other primates of comparable size. The gestation length for humans is 266 days, or eight days short of nine months, which is counted from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. During gestation, mothers must support the metabolic cost of tissue growth, both of the fetus and the mother, as well as the ever-increasing metabolic rate of the growing fetus. Comparative data from across mammals and primates suggest that there is a metabolic constraint on how large and energetically expensive a fetus can grow before it must leave the mother's body. It is thought that this shorter gestation period is an adaptation to ensure the survival of mother and child because it leads to altriciality. Neonatal brain and body size have increased in the hominin lineage, and human maternal investment is greater than expected for a primate of our body mass. The obstetrical dilemma hypothesis suggests that in order to successfully undergo childbirth, the infant must be born earlier and earlier, thereby making the child increasingly developmentally premature. The concept of the infant being born underdeveloped is called altriciality. Humans are born with an underdeveloped brain; only 25% of their brains fully developed at birth as opposed to non-human primates where the infant is born with 45–50% brain development. Scientists have believed that the shorter gestation period can be attributed to the narrower pelvis, as the baby must be born before its head reaches a volume that cannot be accommodated by the obstetric canal.\n", "Section::::Other animals.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Marsupials.\n", "Birth\n\nBirth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring. In mammals, the process is initiated by hormones which cause the muscular walls of the uterus to contract, expelling the fetus at a developmental stage when it is ready to feed and breathe. In some species the offspring is precocial and can move around almost immediately after birth but in others it is altricial and completely dependent on parenting. In marsupials, the fetus is born at a very immature stage after a short gestational period and develops further in its mother's womb's pouch.\n", "Birth rarely occurs during the day or on the ground. During labor the female isolates herself from the group (about 100 m). The mother stands bipedally during parturition and assists the delivery with her hands. The infant is usually born 2 minutes after crowning. The infant can vocalize almost immediately after birth; it is important for the mother and infant to recognize each other's voices. Vocalization will be used to alert the mother of imminent danger, and can assist in finding each other if separated. After birth the mother licks the infant and orients it toward her breasts. She will resume foraging behavior within 20 minutes after parturition. The mother also eats part of the placenta, because it contains needed protein. The alpha female of the group asserts her power by taking part of the placenta for herself to eat.\n", "Accordingly, copulatory calls serve more than a single adaptive function. There is no mutual exclusivity when it comes to addressing the two problems described, namely that of infanticide and receiving high quality sperm. However, by taking the female's cycle stage into account, sperm competition can be ruled out as the primary underlying cause of copulatory calling. More precisely, females produce coital vocalizations also when they mate during non-fertile periods, which is therefore primarily aimed at attracting as many males as possible and to create parental confusion rather than obtaining high quality sperm. Females have no interest in advertising their periods of fertility, given that males would pick up on these patterns, reducing paternal confusion and causing an increase in aggressive behavior towards her offspring from other males. Such hidden fertility has been coined concealed ovulation, and is part of extended female sexuality.\n", "Large mammals, such as primates, cattle, horses, some antelopes, giraffes, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, elephants, seals, whales, dolphins, and porpoises, generally are pregnant with one offspring at a time, although they may have twin or multiple births on occasion. In these large animals, the birth process is similar to that of a human, though in most the offspring is precocial. This means that it is born in a more advanced state than a human baby and is able to stand, walk and run (or swim in the case of an aquatic mammal) shortly after birth. In the case of whales, dolphins and porpoises, the single calf is normally born tail first which minimises the risk of drowning. The mother encourages the newborn calf to rise to the surface of the water to breathe.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe term, obstetrical dilemma, was coined in 1960, by Sherwood Lerned Washburn (SL Washburn), a prominent early American physical anthropologist, in order to describe the evolutionary development of the human pelvis and its relation to childbirth and pregnancy in hominids and non-human primates. In the intervening decades, the term has been used broadly among anthropologists, biologists, and other scientists to describe aspects of this hypothesis and related topics.\n\nSection::::Evolution of human birth.\n\nSection::::Evolution of human birth.:Human pelvis.\n", "Large mammals which give birth to twins is much more rare, but it does occur occasionally even for mammals as large as elephants. In April 2018, approximately 8-month old elephant twins were sighted joining their mother's herd in the Tarangire National Park of Tanzania, estimated to have been born in August 2017.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Human childbirth.\n", "It is not only mammals that give birth. Some reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates carry their developing young inside them. Some of these are ovoviviparous, with the eggs being hatched inside the mother's body, and others are viviparous, with the embryo developing inside her body, as in mammals.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "As a consequence of bipedalism, human females have narrower birth canals. The construction of the human pelvis differs from other primates, as do the toes. A trade-off for these advantages of the modern human pelvis is that childbirth is more difficult and dangerous than in most mammals, especially given the larger head size of human babies compared to other primates. Human babies must turn around as they pass through the birth canal while other primates do not do, which makes humans the only species where females usually require help from their conspecifics (other members of their own species) to reduce the risks of birthing. As a partial evolutionary solution, human fetuses are born less developed and more vulnerable. Chimpanzee babies are cognitively more developed than human babies until the age of six months, when the rapid development of human brains surpasses chimpanzees. Another difference between women and chimpanzee females is that women go through the menopause and become unfertile decades before the end of their lives. All species of non-human apes are capable of giving birth until death. Menopause probably developed as it provides an evolutionary advantage of more caring time to relatives' young.\n", "An early reference to monstrous birth is found in the apocalyptic biblical text 2 Esdras, where it is linked to menstruation: \"women in their uncleanness will bear monsters.\" Monstrous births are often placed in a religious context and interpreted as signs and symbols, as is evidenced in the 1493 \"Nuremberg Chronicle\". According to David Hume's \"The Natural History of Religion\", they are among the first signs that arouse the barbarian's interest. Monstrous human births raise the question of the difference between humans and animals, and anthropologists have described different interpretations of and behaviors toward such births. Among the East African Nuer people, monstrous births are acted on in a way that restores the division between the categories of human and animal: \"the Nuer treat monstrous births as baby hippopotamuses, accidentally born to humans, and, with this labelling, the appropriate action is clear. They gently lay them in the river where they belong.\"\n", "Section::::Evolution of human birth.:Adaptations to ensure live birth.:Gestation length and altriciality.\n", "Karta's caring skills as a mother were adequate. She had already been trained in mothering skills using a toy orangutan. It took a number of years and four infant losses to realise that it was breastfeeding that was the problem. Her small nipples caused an inability to nurse the infant and the infant failed to thrive. Extra monitoring and teaching of infant care were put into place on the discovery of an unplanned pregnancy in 2016.\n", "Section::::Spiritual.\n\nSection::::Spiritual.:Relation to nature.\n\nSignificantly delayed cord cutting as well as nonseverance is found in birth anthropology along with the universality of reverence for the cord & placenta (as found in the Tree of Life beliefs of tribal cultures around the world—reported by scholar & professor Joseph Campbell).\n", "Humans usually produce a single offspring at a time. The mother's body is prepared for birth by hormones produced by the pituitary gland, the ovary and the placenta. The total gestation period from fertilization to birth is normally about 38 weeks (birth usually occurring 40 weeks after the last menstrual period). The normal process of childbirth takes several hours and has three stages. The first stage starts with a series of involuntary contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus and gradual dilation of the cervix. The active phase of the first stage starts when the cervix is dilated more than about 4 cm in diameter and is when the contractions become stronger and regular. The head (or the buttocks in a breech birth) of the baby is pushed against the cervix, which gradually dilates until is fully dilated at 10 cm diameter. At some time, the amniotic sac bursts and the amniotic fluid escapes (also known as rupture of membranes or breaking the water). In stage two, starting when the cervix is fully dilated, strong contractions of the uterus and active pushing by the mother expels the baby out through the vagina, which during this stage of labour is called a birth canal as this passage contains a baby, and the baby is born with umbilical cord attached. In stage three, which begins after the birth of the baby, further contractions expel the placenta, amniotic sac, and the remaining portion of the umbilical cord usually within a few minutes.\n", "Section::::Psychological aspects.\n", "Reasons and motivations for choosing to give birth unassisted range greatly from mother to mother; those most frequently cited in unassisted childbirth literature and advocacy sites include the belief that birth is a normal function of the female body and therefore not a medical emergency. Other beliefs are that most interventions commonly used by the medical profession during birth cause more harm than good in a normal birth, that the mother will be more apt to follow the natural flow of her individual birth in an undisturbed birth setting, thus enabling her to find the optimum positions or techniques to birth her child safely, and the view that birth is an intimate, sexual, and potentially orgasmic experience, and the belief that privacy is essential for enabling this erotic dimension.\n" ]

[ "Humans are perceived to have a hard time giving birth because they are verbal about it." ]

[ "Childbirth for women has higher death rates by far than animals." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Humans are perceived to have a hard time giving birth because they are verbal about it.", "Humans are perceived to have a hard time giving birth because they are verbal about it." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Childbirth for women has higher death rates by far than animals.", "Childbirth for women has higher death rates by far than animals." ]

[ "Section::::Evidence in Europe.\n\nShip armour is to be distinguished from the practice of hull sheathing for preservational reasons, namely the protection against marine wood-boring worms. Greek merchantmen were fitted with lead sheets for that purpose by the 5th century BCE. A notable Roman example were the excavated Nemi Ships with an underwater hull covered by a thin layer of lead. The practice was resumed by the Spanish and Portuguese in the Age of Exploration, while the British Royal Navy began to copper their war ships in the 1760s.\n", "The boats had earlier been waterproofed by using hides of animals, but these days plastic sheets are used for this purpose as they are cheaper as well as easily available. The waterproofing is further enhanced by a layer of tar, a feature which is common in most contemporary coracles.\n\nSection::::Similar craft.:Indian coracle.:Local names.\n\nBULLET::::- Parisal, sometimes spelt as \"parical\" – Tamil\n\nBULLET::::- Teppa or harigolu – Kannada\n\nBULLET::::- Putti in Telugu\n\nSection::::Similar craft.:Iraqi coracle.\n", "However, because of the problem of electrolytic action in salt water (also known as Galvanic corrosion), in shipbuilding Monel must be carefully insulated from other metals such as steel. The New York Times on August 12, 1915 published an article about a 215-foot yacht, \"the first ship that has ever been built with an entirely Monel hull,\" that \"went to pieces\" in just six weeks and had to be scrapped, \"on account of the disintegration of her bottom by electrical action.\" The yacht's steel skeleton deteriorated due to electrolytic interaction with the Monel.\n", "Due to the numerous foreign primary sources that hint to the existence of true watertight compartments in junks, historians such as Joseph Needham proposed that the limber holes were stopped up as noted above in case of leakage. He addresses the quite separate issue of free-flooding compartments on pg 422 of \"Science and Civilisation in Ancient China\":\n\nSection::::Construction.:Leeboards and centerboards.\n", "The Song Dynasty Chinese author Zhu Yu wrote of Song Chinese invented watertight compartments in his book, \"Pingzhou Table Talks\", written from AD 1111 to 1117 and published in 1119. \n", "Even older than the sheathing methods were the various graving and paying techniques. There were three main substances used: White stuff, which was a mixture of whale oil, rosin and brimstone; Black stuff, a mixture of tar and pitch; and Brown stuff, which was simply brimstone added to Black stuff. It was common practice to coat the hull with the selected substance, then cover that with a thin outer layer of wooden planking.\n", "Ship construction techniques can be categorized as one of hide, log, sewn, lashed-plank, clinker (and reverse-clinker), shell-first, and frame-first. While the frame-first technique dominates the modern ship construction industry, the ancients relied primarily on the other techniques to build their watercraft. In many cases, these techniques were very labor-intensive and/or inefficient in their use of raw materials. Regardless of differences in ship construction techniques, the vessels of the ancient world, particularly those that plied the waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the islands of Southeast Asia were seaworthy craft, capable of allowing people to engage in large-scale maritime trade.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "\"All the hides, too, that came down in the boats were soaked with water, and unfit to put below, so that we were obliged to trice them up to dry, in the intervals of sunshine or wind, upon all parts of the vessel . . . The rail, fore and aft, the windlass, capstan, the sides of the ship, and every vacant place on deck, were covered with wet hides, on the least sign of an interval for drying. Our ship was nothing but a mass of hides, from the cat-harpins to the water's edge, and from the jib-boom-end to the taffrail.\"\n", "Two types of woods were used to construct panokseon: pine for the hull and oak for the pegs and masts. Oak is a strong but heavy wood, so its use on ships was limited to the frame. Pine was also strong, but much lighter. Pine was usually allowed to season incompletely so that it would bend flexibly and not become too stiff. Despite its advantages pine had many knots and had to be cut thickly, thus the panokseon were built using thicker timbers. Instead of iron nails panokseons were held together by means of oak pegs, matching indentations, and interlocking teeth. This meant that as its boards absorbed water and expanded the fasteners did not rust, thus accounting for greater integrity of the hull.\n", "Timber for the ship was made from \"Afzelia africana\" trees felled in Ghana and cut into planks and frames at a Ghanaian lumberyard. Boards were trimmed and sanded. Trimmed boards were steamed individually in a fire-heated steambox to make them flexible. When workers removed a board from the box, they had two minutes to carry it to the ship and clamp it into place in a bent and slightly twisted shape before it would stiffen again. It was then sewn into position using coir rope and caulking made from multiple strands of fine coir rope with a diameter of about . In addition, the planks were coated with shark liver oil to make them water-resistant.\n", "BULLET::::- Bulkhead partition: The 5th century book \"Garden of Strange Things\" by Liu Jingshu mentioned that a ship could allow water to enter the bottom without sinking, while the Song Dynasty author Zhu Yu (fl. 12th century) wrote in his book of 1119 that the hulls of Chinese ships had a bulkhead build; these pieces of literary evidence for bulkhead partitions are confirmed by archaeological evidence of a 24 m (78 ft) long Song Dynasty ship dredged from the waters off the southern coast of China in 1973, the hull of the ship divided into twelve walled compartmental sections built watertight, dated to about 1277. Western writers from Marco Polo (1254–1324), to Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469), to Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) commented on bulkhead partitions, which they viewed as an original aspect of Chinese shipbuilding, as Western shipbuilding did not incorporate this hull arrangement until the early 19th century.\n", "This construction technique relied extensively on structural support provided by peg-mortise-and-tenon joinery through the shell of the boat. This method of ship construction appears to have originated from the seafaring nations of the Mediterranean, although evidence of peg-mortise-and-tenon joinery later appears in Southeast Asia.\n\nSection::::Frame-first.\n", "Section::::Design and build.\n\nBased on ethnographic evidence, it is assumed that this kind of log could be cut by the use of some primitive stone or iron tools, but mostly by the use of controlled fire. After the log was cut, it was moved on wooden rollers to the construction site. There work generally had to start from the bottom of the hull and followed by shaping the hull sides.\n", "Bulkheads made of panels were set into the tops of the floors to divide the hull into compartments. These were not watertight, as centrally placed limber holes run through the floor for the drainage of the bilge. While the presence of bulkheads invites comparisons with Chinese ships, the ones on the Kadakkarapally Boat are different in that Chinese bulkheads are watertight and thus serve a somewhat different function.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Clinker is a technique originally identified with the Scandinavians and Ingveonic people in which wooden planks are fixed to each other with a slight overlap that is beveled for a tight fit. The planks may be mechanically connected to each other with copper rivets, bent over iron nails, screws or in modern boats with adhesives. Often, steam bent wooden ribs are fitted inside the hull.\n", "Section::::History.:Industrial Revolution.\n\nThe industrial revolution made possible the use of new materials and designs that radically altered shipbuilding. Iron was gradually adopted in ship construction, initially in discrete areas in a wooden hull needing greater strength, (e.g. as deck knees, hanging knees, knee riders and the other sharp joints, ones in which a curved, progressive joint could not be achieved). Then, in the form of plates riveted together and made watertight, it was used to form the hull itself.\n", "Bark canoes were made by stretching bark over wooden frames, and were used by Native Americans in North America.\n\nSection::::Early wooden boats.\n\nSection::::Early wooden boats.:Rafts.\n\nRafts were made where wood was available but not large enough to carve into dugouts and they could also be made from reeds. The earliest Egyptian boats were rafts made of papyrus; wooden boats did not replace rafts until the Gerzean/Naqada II Period.\n\nSection::::Early wooden boats.:Dugout boats.\n", "Terrell found that the worn-out ship had been heavily caulked with Insulphate, a slightly elastic compound of asphalt filled with small bits of cork. Insulphate was a popular solution to the problem of coping with the flexing of a ship that was old or that was now being used in waters rougher than those for which she was originally designed. Lane suggested that the mastic might have protective properties. Terrell agreed and immediately made an appointment to see the manufacturers, Durastic Bituminous Products Ltd. By 17 August 1940, he had samples for testing.\n", "Section::::Origin.:Timbering or framing out.\n\nOnce the shell of planking is assembled, transverse battens of oak, ash or elm, called timbers are steam-bent to fit the internal, concave side. Elm species are not durable where the boat is used frequently in fresh water. As the timbers are bent in, they are copper riveted to the shell, through the lands of the planking.\n", "Waterproofed cloth garments were in use from the late 1700s. Various methods of waterproofing were used over the years. Some early sou'westers and rain capes were handmade of sailcloth waterproofed with a thin layer of tar, while other methods involved canvas duck coated with multiple applications of linseed oil and paint. While durable, these methods of waterproofing did not possess the breathable qualities of Le Roy's process.\n", "During a cruise of twenty-six hundred miles not one drop of water leaked through the seams of the Centennial Republic. Her under planking was nicely joined, and the seams calked with cotton wicking, and afterwards filled with white-lead paint and putty. The deck planks, of seven inches width, were not joined, but were tongued and grooved, the tongues and grooves being well covered with a thick coat of white-lead paint.\n", "Some types of wood construction include:\n\nBULLET::::- Carvel, in which a smooth hull is formed by edge joined planks attached to a frame. The planks may be curved in cross section like barrel staves. Carvel planks are generally caulked with oakum or cotton that is driven into the seams between the planks and covered with some waterproof substance. It takes its name from an archaic ship type and is believed to have originated in the Mediterranean. A number of boat building texts are available which describe the carvel planking method in detail.\n", "The process was also applied to ships' timbers and sails. The whaler received some treated wood as she underwent repairs in 1833 and on her return to England from the Pacific in 1837 her master, Captain Elisha Clark, wrote a testimonial for the process.\n\nSection::::History of kyanising.:Decline.\n", "The huge \"Syracusia\", built by the Greek tyrant Hiero II of Syracuse around 240 BCE, featured bronze-clad mast-tops for marines and an iron palisade on its fighting deck against enemy boarding attempts. Its hull was sheathed with lead plates fixed with bronze nails.\n\nRoman naval cataphract warships were protected on their sides by a layer of tarred and lead sheathing. Although this does not provide much protection from ramming, it does provide protection from damage while at sea for lengthy periods of time.\n", "Another characteristic of junks, interior compartments or bulkheads, strengthened the ship and slowed flooding in case of holing. Ships built in this manner were written of in Zhu Yu's book \"Pingzhou Table Talks\", published by 1119 during the Song dynasty. Again, this type of construction for Chinese ship hulls was attested to by the Moroccan Muslim Berber traveler Ibn Battuta (1304–1377 AD), who described it in great detail (refer to Technology of the Song dynasty). Although some historians have questioned whether the compartments were watertight, most believe that watertight compartments did exist in Chinese junks because although most of the time there were small passageways (known as limber holes) between compartments, these could be blocked with stoppers and such stoppers have been identified in wrecks. All wrecks discovered so far have limber holes; these are different from the free flooding holes that are located only in the foremost and aftermost compartments, but are at the base of the transverse bulkheads allowing water in each compartment to drain to the lowest compartment, thus facilitating pumping. It is believed from evidence in wrecks that the limber holes could be stopped either to allow the carriage of liquid cargoes or to isolate a compartment that had sprung a leak.\n" ]

[ "Wooden ships in ancient times were waterproof" ]

[ "Boats then, like now, aren't water tight." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Wooden ships in ancient times were waterproof" ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Boats then, like now, aren't water tight." ]

[ "Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions\n", "There were no differences in performance between the birds fed the high inorganic minerals and the birds fed the low organic chelates. Faecal concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn were 55%, 73%, 46% and 63%, respectively, of control birds fed inorganic minerals.\n", "Most grass-fed cattle are leaner than feedlot beef, lacking marbling, which lowers the fat content and caloric level of the meat. Meat from grass-fed cattle also has higher levels of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and the omega-3 fatty acids ALA, EPA, and DHA. However, the absolute levels of CLA and the omega-3 acids remain extremely low.\n", "The majority of the phosphorus in animal feeds originates from the vegetal feed materials to compose these feeds. However, up to 80% of the phosphorus present in vegetal feed materials is in the form of phytate. Unfortunately, and in contrast to ruminants, poultry and pigs lack the enzyme necessary to break down this phytate-phosphorus. Therefore, phosphorus digestibility of plant phosphorus varies between 6% and 50%, and it is assumed that at least two thirds of the organic phosphorus in the diet is unavailable for pigs and poultry. That’s why normally phosphorus in the form of high quality inorganic feed phosphates has to be supplemented to diets of high producing farm animals.\n", "Increasing numbers of cattle feedlots are utilizing out-wintering pads made of timber residue bedding in their operations. Nutrients are retained in the waste timber and livestock effluent and can be recycled within the farm system after use.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In agriculture today, the nutritional needs of farm animals are well understood and may be satisfied through natural forage and fodder alone, or augmented by direct supplementation of nutrients in concentrated, controlled form. The nutritional quality of feed is influenced not only by the nutrient content, but also by many other factors such as feed presentation, hygiene, digestibility, and effect on intestinal health. \n", "Ruminants have a digestion system whereby micro-organisms in the rumen produce enzymes breaking down and thereby making available phosphorus from plant material. Phosphorus from plant sources is therefore better suited to ruminants’ but is still utilized to a lesser extent than phosphorus provided by inorganic sources. The ruminant needs for phosphorus is dictated by the needs of the microbial population in the rumen, with the phosphorus being necessary for cellulose digestion and protein synthesis. The main source is phosphorus recycled by the saliva, a peculiarity of ruminants’. Phosphorus is mainly absorbed in the small intestine and homeostasis is achieved by excretion of phosphorus with the faeces.\n", "A broiler study reported also compared inorganic and organic mineral supplementation in broiler chickens. Control birds were fed Cu, Fe, Mn Se and Zn in inorganic forms (15 ppm Cu 15 from sulfate; 60 ppm Fe from sulfate etc.),and compared with three treatment groups supplemented with organic forms. Apart from improved feathering, most likely associated with the presence of organic Se, there were no significant performance differences between birds fed inorganic and organic minerals. The authors concluded that the use of organic trace minerals permits a reduction of at least 33% in supplement rates in comparison with inorganic minerals, without compromising performance.\n", "The increased consumption of legumes, or animals that eat them, causes N in the body to decrease. Nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen are ultimately derived from dietary protein, while carbon can be contributed by protein, carbohydrate, or fat in the diet. Compared to other plants, legumes have lower N/N ratios because they can fix molecular nitrogen, rather than having to rely on nitrates and nitrites in the soil. Legumes have δN values close to 0%, while other plants, which have δ15N values that range from 2 to 6%. Nitrogen isotope ratios can be used to index the importance of animal protein in the diet. N increases about 3-4% with each trophic step upward. N values increase with meat consumption, and decrease with legume consumption. The N/N ratio could be used to gauge the contribution of meat and legumes to the diet.\n", "Plant nutrients consist of more than a dozen minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed or released through leaves. All organisms obtain all their nutrients from the surrounding environment.\n\nSection::::Plant nutrition.\n", "Another example is the many organisms that feed on faeces or dung. A cow diet consists mainly of grass, the cellulose of which is transformed into lipids by micro-organisms in the cow's large intestine. These micro-organisms cannot use the lipids because of lack of oxygen in the intestine, so the cow does not take up all lipids produced. When the processed grass leaves the intestine as dung and comes into open air, many organisms, such as the dung beetle, feed on it.\n", "Industrial productions systems differ from grazing systems and integrated livestock-crop farming systems by their inclusions of various substances such as veterinary drugs, growth hormones, feed additives, or nutraceuticals to improve livestock production effectiveness.\n\nSection::::Grass-fed.\n", "A properly designed NFT system is based on using the right channel slope, the right flow rate, and the right channel length. The plant roots are exposed to adequate supplies of water, oxygen and nutrients. In earlier production systems, there was a conflict between the supply of these requirements, since excessive or deficient amounts of one results in an imbalance of one or both of the others. \n", "The dietary needs of these animals is mostly met by eating grass. Grasses grow from the base of the leaf-blade, enabling it to thrive even when heavily grazed or cut.\n", "However, less intense population density is sometimes cited as a reason for decreased antibiotic usage in grass-fed animals. However, bovine respiratory disease, the most common cause for antibiotic therapy has risk factors common in both forms of production (feedlot and pasture finished).\n", "Some animals live on pasture their entire lives and therefore only experience fresh grass, these are typically cow-calf operations in more tropical climates. Backgrounded calves and feedlot animals tend to have different diets that contain more grain than the pasture type. Grain is more expensive than pasture but the animals grow faster with the higher protein levels. Since cattle are herbivores and need roughage in their diet, silage, hay and/or haylage are all viable feed options.\n", "Section::::Types of Nutrients in Plants.:Potassium Sensing.\n\nPotassium (K+), one of the essential macronutrients is found in plant soil. K+ is the most abundant cation and it is very limited in plant soil. Plants absorb K+ from the soil through channels that are found at the plasma membrane of root cells. Potassium is not assimilated into organic matter like other nutrients such as nitrate and ammonium but serves as a major osmoticum.\n\nSection::::Brain and Gut Regulation of Food Intake.\n", "Grass-fed beef hides the controversial and heavy use of human sewage sludge by ranchers in the beef industry. Science has cited being more cautious and reevaluating the practice that was first legalized in 1992. There are new emerging toxic pollutants that could contaminate beef that ultimately end up on USA dinner plates.\n\nSection::::Taste.\n", "Cattle use all of the five widely recognized sensory modalities. These can assist in some complex behavioural patterns, for example, in grazing behaviour. Cattle eat mixed diets, but when given the opportunity, show a partial preference of approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.\n\nSection::::Senses.:Vision.\n\nVision is the dominant sense in cattle and they obtain almost 50% of their information visually.\n", "The role in fertility and reproductive diseases of dairy cattle highlights that organic forms of Zn are retained better than inorganic sources and so may provide greater benefit in disease prevention, notably mastitis and lameness\n\nSection::::Role and source of minerals.:Sources of essential minerals.\n", "Human milk is rich in choline, but formulas derived from other sources, particularly soy, have lower total choline concentrations than human milk. Bovine milk and bovine-derived formulas had similar or higher glycerophosphocholine compared to human milk, and soy-derived formulas had lower glycerophosphocholine content. Phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin concentrations were similar between bovine formulas and human milk, but soy-derived infant formulas had more phosphatidylcholine than human or bovine sources. Soy-derived formulas had less sphingomyelin than human milk, which is a concern, since sphingomyelin is used for producing myelin, which insulates neurons. Free choline concentrations in mature human milk were 30–80% lower than those found in bovine milk or formulas. Mature human milk also has lower free choline than colostrum-transitional human milk. Phosphocholine is particularly abundant in human milk.\n", "Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and minerals. Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.\n", "Animal sourced materials include both animal manures and residues from the slaughter of animals. Manures are derived from milk-producing dairy animals, egg-producing poultry, and animals raised for meat and hide production. When any animal is butchered, only about 40% to 60% of the live animal is converted to market product, with the remaining 40% to 60% classed as by-products. These by-products of animal slaughter, mostly inedible -- blood, bone, feathers, hides, hoofs, horns, -- can be refined into agricultural fertilizers including bloodmeal, bone meal fish meal, and feather meal.\n", "Phytase is produced by bacteria found in the gut of ruminant animals (cattle, sheep) making it possible for them to use the phytic acid found in grains as a source of phosphorus. Non-ruminants (monogastric animals) like human beings, dogs, birds, etc. do not produce phytase. Research in the field of animal nutrition has put forth the idea of supplementing feed with phytase so as to make available to the animal phytate-bound nutrients like calcium, phosphorus, other minerals, carbohydrates, and proteins.\n", "In all the studied cases, carnivory allows plants to grow and reproduce using animals as a source of nitrogen, phosphorus and possibly potassium. However, there is a spectrum of dependency on animal prey. Pygmy sundews are unable to use nitrate from soil because they lack the necessary enzymes (nitrate reductase in particular). Common butterworts (\"Pinguicula vulgaris\") can use inorganic sources of nitrogen better than organic sources, but a mixture of both is preferred. European bladderworts seem to use both sources equally well. Animal prey makes up for differing deficiencies in soil nutrients.\n" ]

[ "If cattle are able to get nutrients from grass, humans should be able to also. " ]

[ "Humans don't possess the digestive enzymes to break down grass into nutrients like cattle do, therefore they can't obtain the same nutrients." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If cattle are able to get nutrients from grass, humans should be able to also. ", "If cattle are able to get nutrients from grass, humans should be able to also. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Humans don't possess the digestive enzymes to break down grass into nutrients like cattle do, therefore they can't obtain the same nutrients.", "Humans don't possess the digestive enzymes to break down grass into nutrients like cattle do, therefore they can't obtain the same nutrients." ]

[ "Section::::Formal systems: completeness, consistency, and effective axiomatization.:Completeness.\n", "Section::::The provability relation.\n", "Section::::First incompleteness theorem.:Truth of the Gödel sentence.\n", "Compared to the theorems stated in Gödel's 1931 paper, many contemporary statements of the incompleteness theorems are more general in two ways. These generalized statements are phrased to apply to a broader class of systems, and they are phrased to incorporate weaker consistency assumptions.\n", "Section::::Discussion and implications.:Appeals to the incompleteness theorems in other fields.\n", "Section::::History.:Criticisms.:Zermelo.\n", "The proof by contradiction has three essential parts. To begin, choose a formal system that meets the proposed criteria:\n", "Section::::Proof sketch for the first theorem.:Computer verified proofs.\n\nThe incompleteness theorems are among a relatively small number of nontrivial theorems that have been transformed into formalized theorems that can be completely verified by proof assistant software. Gödel's original proofs of the incompleteness theorems, like most mathematical proofs, were written in natural language intended for human readers.\n", "Having shown that in principle the system can indirectly make statements about provability, by analyzing properties of those numbers representing statements it is now possible to show how to create a statement that actually does this.\n", "The proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorem just sketched is proof-theoretic (also called syntactic) in that it shows that if certain proofs exist (a proof of or its negation) then they can be manipulated to produce a proof of a contradiction. This makes no appeal to whether is \"true\", only to whether it is provable. Truth is a model-theoretic, or semantic, concept, and is not equivalent to provability except in special cases.\n", "BULLET::::1. Statements in the system can be represented by natural numbers (known as Gödel numbers). The significance of this is that properties of statements—such as their truth and falsehood—will be equivalent to determining whether their Gödel numbers have certain properties, and that properties of the statements can therefore be demonstrated by examining their Gödel numbers. This part culminates in the construction of a formula expressing the idea that \"\"statement S is provable in the system\"\" (which can be applied to any statement \"S\" in the system).\n", "The incompleteness theorem is sometimes thought to have severe consequences for the program of logicism proposed by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell, which aimed to define the natural numbers in terms of logic (Hellman 1981, p. 451–468). Bob Hale and Crispin Wright argue that it is not a problem for logicism because the incompleteness theorems apply equally to first order logic as they do to arithmetic. They argue that only those who believe that the natural numbers are to be defined in terms of first order logic have this problem.\n", "Gödel's second incompleteness theorem (see Gödel's incompleteness theorems), another celebrated result, shows that there are inherent limitations in what can be achieved with formal proofs in mathematics. The name for the incompleteness theorem refers to another meaning of \"complete\" (see model theory – Using the compactness and completeness theorems): A theory \"T \" is complete (or decidable) if for every formula \"f\" in the language of \"T\" either formula_16 or formula_17.\n", "Section::::First incompleteness theorem.:Relationship with the liar paradox.\n", "Section::::Hypotheses of the theory.\n\nGödel's theorem applies to any formal theory that satisfies certain properties. Each formal theory has a signature that specifies the nonlogical symbols in the language of the theory. For simplicity, we will assume that the language of the theory is composed from the following collection of 15 (and only 15) symbols:\n\nBULLET::::- A constant symbol for zero.\n\nBULLET::::- A unary function symbol for the successor operation and two binary function symbols + and × for addition and multiplication.\n\nBULLET::::- Three symbols for logical conjunction, , disjunction, , and negation, ¬.\n", "To prove the first incompleteness theorem, Gödel demonstrated that the notion of provability within a system could be expressed purely in terms of arithmetical functions that operate on Gödel numbers of sentences of the system. Therefore, the system, which can prove certain facts about numbers, can also indirectly prove facts about its own statements, provided that it is effectively generated. Questions about the provability of statements within the system are represented as questions about the arithmetical properties of numbers themselves, which would be decidable by the system if it were complete.\n", "Section::::Examples of undecidable statements.:Undecidable statements provable in larger systems.\n\nThese are natural mathematical equivalents of the Gödel \"true but undecidable\" sentence. They can be proved in a larger system which is generally accepted as a valid form of reasoning, but are undecidable in a more limited system such as Peano Arithmetic.\n", "First Incompleteness Theorem: \"Any consistent formal system \"F\" within which a certain amount of elementary arithmetic can be carried out is incomplete; i.e., there are statements of the language of \"F\" which can neither be proved nor disproved in \"F\".\" (Raatikainen 2015)\n", "A set of axioms is (\"syntactically\", or \"negation\"-) complete if, for any statement in the axioms' language, that statement or its negation is provable from the axioms (Smith 2007, p.  24). This is the notion relevant for Gödel's first Incompleteness theorem. It is not to be confused with \"semantic\" completeness, which means that the set of axioms proves all the semantic tautologies of the given language. In his completeness theorem, Gödel proved that first order logic is \"semantically\" complete. But it is not syntactically complete, since there are sentences expressible in the language of first order logic that can be neither proved nor disproved from the axioms of logic alone.\n", "It is not possible to replace \"not provable\" with \"false\" in a Gödel sentence because the predicate \"Q is the Gödel number of a false formula\" cannot be represented as a formula of arithmetic. This result, known as Tarski's undefinability theorem, was discovered independently both by Gödel, when he was working on the proof of the incompleteness theorem, and by the theorem's namesake, Alfred Tarski.\n\nSection::::First incompleteness theorem.:Extensions of Gödel's original result.\n", "This is the language of Peano arithmetic. A well-formed formula is a sequence of these symbols that is formed so as to have a well-defined reading as a mathematical formula. Thus is well formed while is not well formed. A theory is a set of well-formed formulas with no free variables.\n", "Section::::Boolos's short proof.\n\nGeorge Boolos (1989) vastly simplified the proof of the First Theorem, if one agrees that the theorem is equivalent to:\n\n\"There is no algorithm whose output contains all true sentences of arithmetic and no false ones.\"\n", "\"Arithmetic\" refers to Peano or Robinson arithmetic, but the proof invokes no specifics of either, tacitly assuming that these systems allow '<' and '×' to have their usual meanings. Boolos proves the theorem in about two pages. His proof employs the language of first-order logic, but invokes no facts about the connectives or quantifiers. The domain of discourse is the natural numbers. The Gödel sentence builds on Berry's paradox.\n", "The main difficulty in proving the second incompleteness theorem is to show that various facts about provability used in the proof of the first incompleteness theorem can be formalized within the system using a formal predicate for provability. Once this is done, the second incompleteness theorem follows by formalizing the entire proof of the first incompleteness theorem within the system itself.\n", "Dan Willard (2001) has studied some weak families of arithmetic systems which allow enough arithmetic as relations to formalise Gödel numbering, but which are not strong enough to have multiplication as a function, and so fail to prove the second incompleteness theorem; these systems are consistent and capable of proving their own consistency (see self-verifying theories).\n\nSection::::Formal systems: completeness, consistency, and effective axiomatization.:Conflicting goals.\n" ]

[ "There is only one Godel's incompleteness theorem to be explained." ]

[ "There are several Godel's incompleteness theorems that are interrelated which can be explained." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "There is only one Godel's incompleteness theorem to be explained.", "There is only one Godel's incompleteness theorem." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "There are several Godel's incompleteness theorems that are interrelated which can be explained.", "There are several Godel's incompleteness theorems" ]

[ "BULLET::::- In early test versions of Google Maps, searching for a route between locations separated by expanses of water (for example, Paris and New York City) provided road directions to the coast of the embarkation country (in this case, the west coast of France) before suggesting \"Swim the Atlantic Ocean (3,500 miles)\" or another ocean for a different distance.\n\nBULLET::::- While Google Maps' \"walking directions\" were in beta, requesting them from the start point of \"The Shire\" or \"Rivendell\" to the destination of \"Mordor\", the directions returned the warning: \"Use caution – One does not simply walk into Mordor.\"\n", "Once the user has searched for a destination, the map will cache along the intended route. Note that the application requires an Internet connection to search for the route, but once a route has been found, the user no longer requires an Internet connection as the route is temporarily saved onto the device.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n\nThe application is available in the following regions, as of 27 November 2014:\n\nBULLET::::- Algeria\n\nBULLET::::- Andorra\n\nBULLET::::- Angola\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- Armenia\n\nBULLET::::- Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Austria\n\nBULLET::::- Bahamas\n\nBULLET::::- Bahrain\n\nBULLET::::- Belgium\n\nBULLET::::- Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::- Botswana\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Bulgaria\n\nBULLET::::- Cameroon\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n", "This can though be completed with an implementation of a distance vector protocol called RIP.\n\nSection::::Implementations.\n\nThe split-horizon method is effective and simple to implement, and is therefore used by most distance-vector protocols. It is notably used by:\n\nBULLET::::- RIP\n\nBULLET::::- IGRP\n\nBULLET::::- EIGRP\n\nBULLET::::- VPLS, which uses the split horizon technique to avoid loops in the forwarding plane\n\nBULLET::::- Babel, which applies split-horizon to wired links only\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Split-horizon DNS, a similar concept in DNS performing selective publishing of information\n\nBULLET::::- Route poisoning\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Local queries are only needed if start and target already lie close together, therefore every suitable shortest-path algorithm such as Dijkstra's algorithm or extensions thereof can be chosen.\n\nSection::::Concrete instances.:Geometrical approach using grids.:Space requirements.\n\nThe pre-computed distances between each node and the corresponding access node as well as the pairwise distances between transit nodes need to be stored in distance tables.\n", "BULLET::::1. If at least one route was learned from an external neighbor (i.e., the route was learned from eBGP), drop all routes learned from iBGP.\n\nBULLET::::2. Prefer the route with the lowest interior cost to the NEXT_HOP, according to the main routing table. If two neighbors advertised the same route, but one neighbor is reachable via a low-bitrate link and the other by a high-bitrate link, and the interior routing protocol calculates lowest cost based on highest bitrate, the route through the high-bitrate link would be preferred and other routes dropped.\n", "The ECF has written a route development manual for those working on developing EuroVelo routes. According to the guidelines, all EuroVelo routes should fulfill the following criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- They must be based on existing or planned national or regional routes of the involved countries.\n\nBULLET::::- At least two countries must be involved.\n\nBULLET::::- Route length must be at least .\n\nBULLET::::- Steep sections should be avoided wherever possible and for very steep sections (if unavoidable) alternative transport options (i.e. public transport or alternative routes) should be provided.\n\nBULLET::::- Easy to communicate - internationally recognisable identity and name (marketing potential).\n", "BULLET::::- TriMet (Transit agency for Portland, Oregon)\n\nBULLET::::- Ordnance Survey (National Mapping Agency of the UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Institut Géographique National (National Mapping Agency of France)\n\nBULLET::::- GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility)\n\nBULLET::::- World Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Global Earthquake Model\n\nBULLET::::- GMOS (Global Mercury Observation System)\n\nBULLET::::- FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)\n\nBULLET::::- New York City Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications\n\nBULLET::::- TeamSurv\n\nBULLET::::- ITU (International Telecommunication Union)\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n", "Section::::History.:Distributed journey planners.\n\nIn the 2000s, Several major projects developed distributed trip planning architectures to allow the federation of separate trip planners each covering a specific area to create a composite engine covering a very large area.\n\nBULLET::::- The UK [[Transport Direct Portal]] launched in 2004 by the UK Department of Transport, used the [[JourneyWeb]] protocol to link eight separate regional engines covering data from 140 local transport authorities in England, Scotland and Wales as a unified engine. The portal integrated both road and public transport planners allowing a comparison between modes of travel times, C02 footprint etc..\n", "BULLET::::- Otherwise, for every pair of routeing points the guide lists at least one map (or series of maps) that may be used to get from one point to the other. These maps in turn define which lines are valid between routeing points. Any route on these maps is valid so long as it does not involve doubling back (passing through the same station twice), unless there is a specific \"easement\" allowing doubling back, or the doubling back is done within a \"station group\" for the purposes of interchange.\n", "In output filtering, a filter is applied to routes before they are announced to a neighbour. A route that has been filtered out is never learned by a neighbour, and hence not considered for inclusion in the remote route database.\n\nSection::::Reasons to filter.\n\nSection::::Reasons to filter.:Economic reasons.\n\nWhen a site is multihomed, announcing non-local routes to a neighbour different from the one it was learned from amounts to advertising the willingness to serve for transit, which is undesirable unless suitable agreements are in place. Applying output filtering on these routes avoids this issue.\n\nSection::::Reasons to filter.:Security reasons.\n", "BULLET::::- the numbers between nodes is the cost of the links.\n\nFollowing this topology and we assume this distance vector table of Z: \n\nDestination Z Y X\n\nAs Z routes via Y to get to X and because of that have the cost 3. \n\nThe poison reverse kicks in when we broadcast our distance vector to our neighbors:\n\nThe distance tables we broadcast is:\n\nTo Y:\n\n[0, 1, ∞]\n\nTo X:\n\n[0, 1, 3]\n", "The routes table identifies distinct routes. This is to be distinguished from distinct routings, several of which may belong to a single route.\n\nRequired fields:\n\nBULLET::::- route_id (primary key)\n\nBULLET::::- route_short_name\n\nBULLET::::- route_long_name\n\nBULLET::::- route_type\n\nSection::::Structure.:Mandatory tables.:trips.\n\nRequired fields:\n\nBULLET::::- trip_id (primary key)\n\nBULLET::::- route_id (foreign key)\n\nBULLET::::- service_id (foreign key)\n\nOptional fields:\n\nBULLET::::- block_id - The block ID indicates the schedule block to which a trip belongs.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Mandatory tables.:stop_times.\n\nRequired fields:\n\nBULLET::::- stop_id (primary key)\n\nBULLET::::- trip_id (foreign key)\n\nBULLET::::- arrival_time\n\nBULLET::::- departure_time\n\nBULLET::::- stop_sequence\n", "After the trip planner has computed and prioritised a trip or set of possible trips, these are presented to the user as a list for the user to choose from, they may also or instead be displayed on a map. Again, depending on the capabilities of the planner and the available data, the results may include;\n\nBULLET::::- The times and departure points of trips from stops or stations, possibly with the exact platform to use and even the boarding point on the platform.\n\nBULLET::::- Trip maps showing the path of the trip legs on a map.\n", "BULLET::::- the technically easiest route carries a much higher risk of e.g. rockfalls or avalanche and is therefore avoided in favour of a more difficult route (Watzespitze).\n\nBULLET::::- the technically easier route requires a complicated or long approach march, or all access may be banned via one country (Mount Everest).\n", "[[Google]] started to add trip planning capabilities to its product set with a version of Google Transit in 2005, covering trips in the [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] region, as described by the [[TriMet]] agency manager Bibiana McHugh. This led to the development of the [[General Transit Feed Specification]] (GTFS), a format for collecting transit data for use in trip planners that has been highly influential in developing an ecosystem of PT data feeds covering many different countries. The successful uptake of GTFS as an available output format by large operators in many countries has allowed Google to extend its trip planner coverage to many more regions around the world. The Google Transit trip planning capabilities were integrated into the Google Map product in 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- IFOPT, a CEN standard for defining public transport access information (building on NaPTAN and NPTG).\n\nBULLET::::- JourneyWeb, a protocol to allow the development of a distributed journey planning service (which became the Transport Direct Portal).\n\nBULLET::::- NaPTAN for the exchange of information associated with bus stops, railway station and other public transport access point.\n\nBULLET::::- NPTG for the exchange of information about places and points of interest.\n\nBULLET::::- SIRI, a CEN standard for exchanging real-time public transport information.\n", "BULLET::::- All other stations are \"associated\" with one or more routeing points. When a station has more than one routeing point available, fares from each routeing point to the other station are compared, and only those where the fare is equal to or cheaper than the overall journey are deemed \"appropriate\".\n\nJourneys\n\nThe rules can be summarised thus:\n\nBULLET::::- Where both stations have a common routeing point, only the shortest route between them is valid.\n", "If a router receives new information, then it uses the latest sequence number. If the sequence number is the same as the one already in the table, the route with the better metric is used. Stale entries are those entries that have not been updated for a while. Such entries as well as the routes using those nodes as next hops are deleted.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nThe availability of paths to all destinations in network always shows that less delay is required in the path set up process.\n", "Section::::Individual strategies.\n\nThese are listed in order of publication; they are all established:\n\nBULLET::::- South West Main Line RUS (March 2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Cross London RUS (August 2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Scotland RUS (March 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Freight RUS (March 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- North West RUS (May 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Greater Anglia RUS (December 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- East Coast Main Line RUS (February 2008)\n\nBULLET::::- supplemented by the East Coast Main Line 2016 Capacity Review (December 2010)\n\nBULLET::::- South London RUS (March 2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Lancashire and Cumbria RUS (August 2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Wales RUS (25 November 2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Merseyside RUS (27 March 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Network RUS\n", "Bibiana and Tim McHugh eventually got into contact with Google and provided the company with CSV exports of TriMet's schedule data. In December 2005, Portland became the first city to be featured in the first version of Google's “Transit Trip Planner”. In September 2006, five more US cities were added to the Google Transit Trip Planner, and the data format released as the \"Google Transit Feed Specification\".\n", "BULLET::::- Work with and orchestrate the travel and transport information communities within the UK, Europe and internationally to promote the use of standards and common processes to deliver an effective transport information supply chain.\n", "BULLET::::- CLC (part of historical Cheshire Lines Committee lines) corridor (MAN and MCO) This is a little further south of due west of Manchester, and the main route to Liverpool, via Warrington.\n\nBULLET::::- Northwich corridor (MAN) This is more or less south-west of Manchester, via Sale and Altrincham.\n\nBULLET::::- Styal corridor (MAN) This is a little west of due south of Manchester, and the route to Manchester Airport, also an alternative route to the WCML via Wilmslow.\n\nBULLET::::- St Helens corridor This is a little north of due east of Liverpool, and the main link with the WCML northwards.\n", "BULLET::::- Gap B - between passenger demand and capacity in the peaks on the West and East Coastway routes\n\nBULLET::::- Gap C - between passenger demand and capacity on key regional links\n\nBULLET::::- Gap D - between existing and desired journey times on key regional links\n\nBULLET::::- Gap E - accessing the rail network\n\nBULLET::::- Gap F - achieving performance targets on an increasingly busy railway\n\nBULLET::::- Gap G - between passenger demand at the weekend and in the evening and services provided\n\nBULLET::::- Gap H - between demand and capacity for freight services\n", "Split horizon route advertisement\n\nIn computer networking, split-horizon route advertisement is a method of preventing routing loops in distance-vector routing protocols by prohibiting a router from advertising a route back onto the interface from which it was learned. \n\nThe concept was suggested in 1974 by Torsten Cegrell, and originally implemented in the Arpanet inspired Swedish network TIDAS.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nIn this example, network node \"A\" routes packets to node \"B\" in order to reach node \"C\". The links between the nodes are distinct point-to-point links.\n", "BULLET::::- Nepal\n\nBULLET::::- Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Nicaragua\n\nBULLET::::- Nigeria\n\nBULLET::::- Norway\n\nBULLET::::- Oman\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Panama\n\nBULLET::::- Paraguay\n\nBULLET::::- Peru\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines\n\nBULLET::::- Poland\n\nBULLET::::- Portugal\n\nBULLET::::- Puerto Rico\n\nBULLET::::- Qatar\n\nBULLET::::- Romania\n\nBULLET::::- Russia\n\nBULLET::::- Rwanda\n\nBULLET::::- Saudi Arabia\n\nBULLET::::- Senegal\n\nBULLET::::- Serbia\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- Slovakia\n\nBULLET::::- Slovenia\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Spain\n\nBULLET::::- Sri Lanka\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Switzerland\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan\n\nBULLET::::- Tanzania\n\nBULLET::::- Thailand\n\nBULLET::::- Trinidad and Tobago\n\nBULLET::::- Tunisia\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- Uganda\n\nBULLET::::- Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- United Arab Emirates\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- Uruguay\n\nBULLET::::- Venezuela\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]

[ "Google is suggesting a slower route." ]

[ "Google is predicting traffic in the future based on historical data. The predictions lead to choosing a different route." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Google is suggesting a slower route." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Google is predicting traffic in the future based on historical data. The predictions lead to choosing a different route." ]

[ "The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an \"Ion\" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film.\n\nSection::::Social and cultural implications.\n", "Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.\n\nSection::::History.:Atomic theory.\n", "Section::::History.:Imaging Atom Probe.\n", "BULLET::::- The first color pictures of the rail bridge across the Belaya were taken by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky in 1910. Photography was carried out by the method of registering on a single glass plate three separate black and white images taken through the blue, green and red filters.\n", "For the development of explosives the image of a line of sample was projected onto an arc of film via a rotating mirror. The advance of flame appeared as an oblique image on the film, from which the velocity of detonation was measured.\n", "Section::::Research with Biva Choudhuri.\n\nA discussion during the 1938 Science Congress Session prompted D. M. Bose and his colleague Biva Choudhuri to study cosmic rays using photographic plates. Since the particle accelerators were not available at this time, high-energy subatomic particles were only obtainable from atmospheric cosmic rays. Walther Bothe gave the duo the idea of considering photographic emulsion as a continuously active cloud chamber to register and store tracks.\n", ", showed that an image of a surface can be obtained by heating a sample and monitoring the atoms that evaporate from the surface. King and Bigas suggest it could be possible to form an image by scattering atoms from the surface, though it was some time before it was demonstrated\n\nThe idea of imaging with atoms instead of light was subsequently widely discussed in the literature\n", "\"He proceeded to state that photography had revealed the fact that photographically active rays extended a distance of nine or ten times the length of the visual spectrum. and both from the ultra violet and the infra red portion of the spectrum; there emanated a long series of rays which, though quite invisible, possessed chemical energy and heat, and with which it was quite possible to make radiographs through many opaque substances, and it was supposed that somehow in these outskirts of the spectrum, the X-rays would be found if they are associated with light at all.\"\n", "Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pin Hole camera. X-Ray machines are similar in design to Pin Hole cameras with high-grade filters and laser radiation.\n\nPhotography has become universal in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and improved much further since that time.\n", "BULLET::::- In the first shootdown of an American military aircraft by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, two Soviet Lavochkin La-11 fighters intercepted and downed a U.S. Navy PB4Y-2 Privateer surveillance plane that was flying over or near the Latvian SSR with ten men on board, the first of over 350 American servicemen lost in Cold War missions.\n\nBULLET::::- Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology showed the first photograph demonstrating the appearance of an atom, using x-rays to simulate a pattern of iron and sulphur atoms, within the mineral marcasite, magnified more than 10,000,000 times.\n", "Section::::History.:Secondary emission.:First photomultiplier, single-stage (early 1934).\n", "BULLET::::- 21 May – Amelia Earhart, the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic, lands just outside Derry having taken 14 hours to cross the ocean.\n\nBULLET::::- 9 June – Éamon de Valera and some members of his government leave for discussions with the British Government concerning the Ottawa Conference.\n\nBULLET::::- 14 June – the first pictures of the atom-splitting apparatus are released. The machine was constructed by Dr. John Cockcroft and Dr. Ernest Walton of Trinity College, Dublin.\n", "In 1911, James Bagley was instructed to return to Washington from his work in Alaska, and to come through Ottawa. He was instructed \"to investigate the method of photo-topographic surveys in use by the Canadian government, with a view of obtaining information which will be useful in introducing these methods for some of the Alaskan surveys.\" That winter, Baglet, F. H. Moffit and J. B. Mertie, two geologists, developed their ideas for the construction of a tri-lens camera and transformer in 1916.\n", "In Europe, Cecil Frank Powell independently used exactly the same method to identify the new particle pi-meson (now pion), but with improved full-tone photographic emulsion plates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1950 \"for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method\". Powell acknowledge the method developed by Bose and Choudhuri as the first attempt in this field in his 1959 book \"The Study of Elementary Particles by the Photographic Method\".\n\nSection::::Later life.\n", "BULLET::::- 1947: Berta Karlik, an Austrian physicist, was awarded the Haitinger Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for her discovery of Astatine\n\nBULLET::::- 1952: Photograph 51, an X-ray diffraction image of crystallized DNA, was taken by Raymond Gosling in May 1952, working as a PhD student under the supervision of British chemist and biophysicist Rosalind Franklin; it was critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA.\n", "Section::::Scientific work.:Use of X-ray spectrometer.\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 Max Planck states his quantum hypothesis and blackbody radiation law\n\nBULLET::::- 1902 Philipp Lenard observes that maximum photoelectron energies are independent of illuminating intensity but depend on frequency\n\nBULLET::::- 1902 Theodor Svedberg suggests that fluctuations in molecular bombardment cause the Brownian motion\n\nBULLET::::- 1905 Albert Einstein explains the photoelectric effect\n\nBULLET::::- 1906 Charles Barkla discovers that each element has a characteristic X-ray and that the degree of penetration of these X-rays is related to the atomic weight of the element\n\nBULLET::::- 1909 Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden discover large angle deflections of alpha particles by thin metal foils\n", "Nuclear battery technology began in 1913, when Henry Moseley first demonstrated the beta cell. The field received considerable in-depth research attention for applications requiring long-life power sources for space needs during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1954 RCA researched a small atomic battery for small radio receivers and hearing aids. Since RCA's initial research and development in the early 1950s, many types and methods have been designed to extract electrical energy from nuclear sources. The scientific principles are well known, but modern nano-scale technology and new wide-bandgap semiconductors have created new devices and interesting material properties not previously available.\n", "Another very notable practitioner was Adolf Miethe, with whom Prokudin-Gorsky studied in Germany in 1902. Miethe was a photochemist who greatly improved the panchromatic characteristics of the black-and-white photographic materials suitable for use with this method of color photography. He presented projected color photographs to the German Imperial Family in 1902 and was exhibiting them to the general public in 1903, when they also began to appear in periodicals and books. Miethe took the first known aerial color photographs, from a hot air balloon, in 1906.\n", "BULLET::::- A. Choudry, G.W.Goetze, S.Nudelman and T.Y. Shen, Photoelectronic Image Recording Device Optimized for High Detective Quantum Efficiency Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Edited by L. Marton, Volume 33B, Academic Press, New York and London, 1972, Fifth Symposium at Imperial College, London, Photo-Electronic Image Devices 13–17 September 1971, pp 903–910\n", "However, such early efforts were independently and privately funded by various organizations until 1922 when the Radium Institute in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) opened and industrialized the research.\n\nFrom the 1920s until the late 1930s, Russian physicists had been conducting joint research with their European counterparts on the advancement of atomic physics at the Cavendish Laboratory run by a New Zealander physicist, Ernest Rutherford, where Georgi Gamov and Pyotr Kapitsa had studied and researched.\n", "In the cyclotron, they had a powerful scientific instrument, but this did not translate into scientific discovery. In April 1932, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton at the Cavendish laboratory in England announced that they had bombarded lithium with protons and succeeded in transmuting it into helium. The energy required turned out to be quite low—well within the capability of the 11-inch cyclotron. On learning about it, Lawrence wired the Berkeley and asked for Cockcroft and Walton's results to be verified. It took the team until September to do so, mainly due to lack of adequate detection apparatus.\n", "English physicist H. G. J. Moseley constructed the first of these. Moseley’s apparatus consisted of a glass globe silvered on the inside with a radium emitter mounted on the tip of a wire at the center. The charged particles from the radium created a flow of electricity as they moved quickly from the radium to the inside surface of the sphere. As late as 1945 the Moseley model guided other efforts to build experimental batteries generating electricity from the emissions of radioactive elements.\n\nSection::::Non-thermal converters.:Betavoltaics.\n", ", showed that an image of a surface can be obtained by heating a sample and monitoring the atoms that evaporate from the surface. King and Bigas suggest it could be possible to form an image by scattering atoms from the surface, though it was some time before it was demonstrated.\n", "BULLET::::- 1909 – Robert Andrews Millikan: conducts the oil drop experiment and determines the charge on an electron\n\nBULLET::::- 1910 – Williamina Fleming: the first white dwarf, 40 Eridani B\n\nBULLET::::- 1911 – Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus\n\nBULLET::::- 1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: Superconductivity\n\nBULLET::::- 1912 – Alfred Wegener: Continental drift\n\nBULLET::::- 1912 – Max von Laue : x-ray diffraction\n\nBULLET::::- 1912 – Vesto Slipher : galactic redshifts\n\nBULLET::::- 1912 – Henrietta Swan Leavitt: Cepheid variable period luminosity relation\n\nBULLET::::- 1913 – Henry Moseley: defined atomic number\n\nBULLET::::- 1913 – Niels Bohr: Model of the atom\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Before Grant started the myth, he stated that he found that the highly visible, brightly colored light beams seen in movies do not exist in the real world, as not only would it defeat the purpose of making the laser system hard to get around, but real light moves far too quickly to be seen by the naked eye, thereby making such laser systems impossible to create in the first place. In its place, he fashioned a makeshift system using laser pointers that worked on the same principle (breaking the beam sets off the alarm.)\n", "A 1995 paper by Richard E. Russo from National Laboratory in Berkley, California, discusses the functions of lasers and mildly argues the \"Star Wars\" depiction of lasers as accurate.\n", "A shielded fairy can also be seen by if an anti-shield filter or by a high-speed camera, but requires viewers to look at the video frame by frame. In \"The Atlantis Complex\", Butler and Juliet see a shielded fairy using a type of sunglasses that Artemis had created which enable the wearer to see through fairy shields. However, rats and two species of monkey can naturally see through the shield.\n\nSection::::Fairy concepts.:Softnose laser.\n", "Though present in a number of movies, the myth came primarily from the movie \"Firetrap\", in which Max Hopper (Dean Cain) scales a duct silently using magnets. Adam and Jamie were tasked with the entry phase – scaling a 20-foot air duct stealthily. After each had devised his own system, they tested whether a person can surreptitiously scale an air duct by using a system of...\n\nSection::::Episode 54 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 1\".:Laser Beam Dodge.\n", "Studies have shown that many criminals are aware of this effect and actively exploit it.\n\nThe optimal design will also depend on whether the area will be watched directly by humans or by closed-circuit television, and on the location of the observers or cameras.\n", "American military research on high power laser weapons started in the 1960s, and has continued to the present day, with the U.S. Army planning, as of 2008, the deployment of practical battlefield laser weapons. Lower-powered lasers are currently used for military purposes as laser target designators and for military rangefinding. Laser weapons intended to blind combatants have also been developed, but are currently banned by the Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons, although low-power versions designed to dazzle rather than blind have been developed experimentally. Gun-mounted lasers have also been used as psychological weapons, to let opponents know that they have been targeted in order encourage them to hide or flee without having to actually open fire on them.\n", "Each part of the myth came from the movie \"Entrapment\" – specifically, the scene where Gin Baker (Catherine Zeta-Jones) and Mac MacDougal (Sean Connery) infiltrate Bedford Palace to steal a priceless mask. Kari and Tory took this on as their first challenge and tested whether a person can successfully navigate a system of laser beam detectors by...\n\nSection::::Episode 54 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 1\".:Infrared Beam Dodge.\n\nAfter getting through the visible lasers, Kari and Tory faced the real-world equivalent: infrared photo-beam detectors. They tested the following methods:\n\nSection::::Episode 54 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 1\".:Glass Door Forced Entry.\n", "Most novels of the 1950s and 1960s tended to overestimate near-term progress in space and weapons technologies, while neglecting the rise of computer technology. In this version of the 1990s, characters wield laser weapons, which can kill or stun depending on how focussed the beam is. In the opening sequence the attack on Gregson's flying craft involves both lasers and .50 caliber machine guns, which elicits the comment \"Something old, something new\" from Wellford.\n", "One defense against laser dazzlers are narrowband optical filters tuned to the frequency of the laser. To counter such defense, dazzlers can employ emitters using more than one wavelength, or tunable lasers with wider range of output. Another defense is photochromic materials able to become opaque under high light energy densities. Nonlinear optics techniques are being investigated: e.g. vanadium-doped zinc telluride (ZnTe:V) can be used to form electro-optic power limiters able to selectively block the intense dazzler beam without affecting weaker light from an observed scene.\n\nSection::::Legislation.\n", "The softnose laser is an illegal type of laser weapon with a lifetime of less than ten years. They were originally powered with solar cells, but were adapted to be powered by simple AA alkaline batteries in \"The Arctic Incident\". The softnose fires a laser at a slower speed, penetrating the target (instead of incapacitating), causing greater damage than a normal laser. The B'wa Kell goblin triad was armed with these weapons by Opal Koboi in the failed storming of Police Plaza.\n\nSection::::Fairy concepts.:Solinium 2.\n", "Another common approach similar to false radiosity is the manual placement of standard omni-type lights with limited attenuation in places in the 3D scene where the artist would expect radiosity reflections to occur. This method uses many lights and can require an advanced light-grouping system, depending on what assigned materials/objects are illuminated, how many surfaces require false radiosity treatment, and to what extent it is anticipated that lighting strategies be set up for frequent changes. \n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Autodesk interview with Hartness about False Radiosity and real-time design\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ambient occlusion\n\nBULLET::::- \"CGarchitect interviewReal-time 3D design\"\n", "Section::::History.:Renewed interest.\n\nHagelstein published his PhD thesis in January 1981 on the \"Physics of short-wavelength-laser design\". In contrast to Chapline and Wood's earlier work which focused on civilian applications, the thesis' introduction mentions several potential uses, even weapons taken from science fiction works.\n", "In the \"Stand Alone Complex\" alternate timeline, however, this technology seems to have been perfected and is capable of operating in highly illuminated environment, as evidenced in the episode \"Android and I\". The visual distortions are therefore purely for the benefit of the viewers.\n\nThere is present-day research into the active optic camouflage at the University of Tokyo inspired by the technology's fictional portrayal in the series.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Think tanks.\n", "Tractor/Repulsor Beams have been realized as Laser-based Optical tweezers, and more recently as a pair of Bessel beams. These instruments use the radiation from the laser beam to manipulate microscopic particles in what is called an \"optical trap\" along the length of the beam as desired.\n\nFictional Tractor beams have been prominently used in the \"Star Wars\" universe and in the \"Star Trek\" universe. In an early scene of \"\" a large spaceship uses such a beam to seize a small one, in order to capture the protagonists.\n", "Scientists have explored the concept of tractor beams, having some success since the early 2010s. In that time, they have managed to produce lasers with unusual intensity-beam profiles that allow them to attract and repel tiny particles. Some breakthroughs include the successful project of a team of science researchers from the Australian National University, who managed to produce a doughnut shaped laser that can drag hollow glass spheres by a distance of roughly 7.8 inches, several times the distance of previous experiments.\n", "The advantage to high-key lighting is that it doesn't require adjustment for each scene which allows the production to complete the shooting in hours instead of days. The primary drawback is that high-key lighting fails to add meaning or drama by lighting certain parts more prominently than others.\n", "In 2012, the United States Navy built a robot modeled after C-3PO, but appears to function for both military and civilian purposes.\n\nSection::::Lasers.\n", "Israeli company Rafael Advanced Defense Systems claimed in 2014 that it is close to developing laser shields named Iron Beam, which company spokesman compares by similarity to the lasers of \"Star Wars\". The company claims that Iron Beam can deflect drones, missiles, rockets and mortars.\n\nIn a similar development, Chinese scientists produced laser guns that can disable the sensors of missiles, satellites and other sensor equipped devices. The guns are expected to be used by the Chinese military in future warfare and have been compared to \"Star Wars\" laser guns.\n", "The X-Men from the Ultimate Marvel universe also have a Danger Room with similar technology, including smaller holographic training rooms in the hidden safehouses prepared by Professor X. However, these are prone to malfunctions, such as a fight sequence producing Hasidic rabbis instead of ninjas (though to no less of an effect towards the latter intent).\n\nSection::::Other versions.:What If?\n\nSection::::Other versions.:What If?:Danger became Ultron's wife.\n", "Despite the name of the movie, there are not that many scenes in the movie depicting lasers. At least two scenes feature lasers, as Michael Gold sets off a laser guided motion detector. The film was also featured on the third episode of the second season of \"This Movie Sucks!\" with Ed the Sock, Liana K and Ron Sparks making fun of it, most notably making reference to Borgnine's advanced age and the ridiculousness of the plot.\n\nSection::::Copyright.\n", "Laser fence\n\nA laser fence or laser wall is a mechanism to detect objects passing the line of sight between the laser source and the detector. Stronger lasers can be used to injure entities passing the laser beam. In fiction, laser fences may have the ability to stop intruders by blocking or injuring them.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- Ice Cold in Alex\n\nBULLET::::- Die Hard\n\nBULLET::::- Speed\n\nSection::::BBC series (2001–02).:Episodes.:Second series.\n\nThe second series consisted of four half-hour episodes. \n\nBreak-Ins\n\nBULLET::::- The Score - If one fills a safe with water, will an explosion produce a more powerful door-busting effect?\n\nBULLET::::- - Could a mediaeval trebuchet fire Robin Hood and Will Scarlet into a castle, and land them on target?\n\nBULLET::::- The Thomas Crown Affair - Would knocking out the air conditioning cause Infra-Red cameras to become useless?\n\nGross Out\n", "Background: Eleanor was the Country's youngest member - both her parents were of the Country so she was born and raised within it. With both of them among the dead in the Station's raids eight years ago she was left alone and rose quickly up the ranks. While her ability is not an offensive one, she is able to use it to predict a person's movements making exceedingly difficult to match in combat.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Ray Steele.\n\nAge: 41\n\nHeight: 179 cm\n\nTrigger: none \n\nHeightening: none \n", "Completing the Defender becomes the sole preoccupation of Diemert and his friend. Trying to ensure that the aerodynamics are properly established leads to a curious use of a bathroom scale mounted on the back of a pickup truck, an example of the unorthodox engineering that is employed in the project. Another example of Diemert's out-of-the-box thinking comes when his children ask him to build a swimming pool. His wife comes back from work to find a swimming pool in the living room, complete with wall-to-wall carpeting.\n", "The report noted this was particularly true of pop-up X-ray lasers. They noted that:\n\nA specific concern, in this case, was the susceptibility of the optics, and especially their coatings, of the various space-based weapons. Even relatively low-intensity laser light could damage these devices, blinding their optics and rendering the weapons unable to track their targets. Given the light weight of the Excalibur-type weapons, the Soviets could rapidly pop-up such a device just prior to launching an attack, and blind all the SDI assets in the region even with a low-powered weapon.\n\nSection::::History.:Woodruff affair, GAO report.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Movies should be logical and not allow for people to slip through laser defenses." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Movies are made to work perfectly for the story. That involves putting logic to the side sometimes. " ]

[ "BULLET::::- Computer security researchers at Graz University of Technology and Catholic University of Leuven, in a coordinated disclosure with Intel, announce the discovery of a group of Microarchitectural Data Sampling vulnerabilities, affecting millions of Intel microprocessors, which they named Fallout, RIDL (Rogue In-Flight Data Load) and ZombieLoad.\n", "Hang (computing)\n\nIn computing, a hang or freeze occurs when either a computer program or system ceases to respond to inputs. A typical example is a graphical user interface that no longer responds to the user's keyboard or mouse, but the term covers a wide range of behaviors in both clients and servers, and is not limited to graphical user interface issues.\n", "Freeze could also be in three forms – temporary, permanent and controlled. Temporary meant that once the client count dropped to zero, the library would be unfrozen and terminated. Permanent meant that the library remained available for further clients even if the client count dropped to zero – permanent libraries could be unfrozen by an operator with a THAW command. A controlled freeze meant that the library actually kept running, so that it could execute monitoring functions and perform data initialization and cleanup functions for each linking client.\n", "A computer may seem to hang when in fact it is simply processing very slowly. This can be caused by too many programs running at once, not enough memory (RAM), or memory fragmentation, slow hardware access (especially to remote devices), slow system APIs, etc. It can also be caused by hidden programs which were installed surreptitiously, such as spyware.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n\nIn many cases programs may appear to be hung, but are making slow progress, and waiting a few minutes will allow the task to complete.\n", "BULLET::::- Search engine links may be redirected to rogue security software sites, which can be avoided by copy and pasting addresses.\n\nBULLET::::- MS Juan may cause webpages to fail to load after sessions of browsing and present a blank page in the browser instead of the webpage. When this happens any programs may also fail to start and it may become impossible to use windows shutdown.\n\nBULLET::::- The hard drive may start to be constantly accessed by the winlogon.exe process, thus periodic freezes may be experienced.\n\nBULLET::::- Warnings about SuperMWindow not shutting down may occur.\n", "BULLET::::- Jerusalem-Captain Trips: Jerusalem-Captain Trips contains the strings \"Captain Trips\" and \"SPITFIRE\". Captain Trips is the name of the apocalyptic plague described in Stephen King's novel The Stand. If the year is any year other than 1990 and the day is a Friday on or after the 15th, Jerusalem-Captain Trips creates an empty file with the same name as any program run that day. On the 16th Jerusalem-Captain Trip re-programs the video controller, and on several other dates it installs a routine in the timer tick that activates when 15 minutes pass. Jerusalem-Captain Trips has several errors.\n", "For three hours on August 22, 2013, trading was halted on the Nasdaq Stock Market. Trading on the exchange stopped at 12:14pm and resumed at 3:25pm, with 35 minutes left of trading for the day. One week after the trading halt NASDAQ OMX credited the freeze to an overloading of the Securities Information Processor (SIP) caused by reconnection issues with the New York Stock Exchange Arca. The freeze received substantial media coverage and generated discussions on the security of increasingly technologically advanced stock exchanges. The event coined the term \"flash freeze\" following the earlier \"flash crash\" on May 6, 2010.\n", "Deep Freeze (software)\n\nDeep Freeze, by Faronics, is a software application available for the Microsoft Windows, and macOS operating systems which allows system administrators to protect the core operating system and configuration files on a workstation or server by restoring a computer back to the saved configuration, each time the computer is restarted. Also known as Reboot to Restore Software.\n", "BULLET::::- March: The city of Atlanta, Georgia USA computer systems are seized by hackers with ransomware. They did not pay the ransom, and two Iranians were indicted by the FBI on cyber crime charges for the breach.\n\nBULLET::::- May: A speculative execution exploit named Speculative Store Bypass (sometimes referred to as \"Variant 4\") is disclosed by researchers. The town of Wasaga Beach in Ontariao, Canada computer systems are seized by hackers with ransomware.\n\nBULLET::::- June: Lazy FP State Restore, a speculative execution exploit affecting Intel Core CPUs, is announced by Intel.\n", "Freeze\n\nFreeze may refer to:\n\nSection::::Liquids turning to solids.\n\nBULLET::::- Freezing, the physical process of a liquid turning into a solid\n\nSection::::Cessation of movement or change.\n\nBULLET::::- Freeze (b-boy move), the halting of all movement in a clever position\n\nBULLET::::- codice_1, an old command-line compressor program\n\nBULLET::::- Freeze (computing), a condition when computer software becomes unresponsive\n\nBULLET::::- Freeze (software engineering), a period of stricter rules for changing the software during its development\n\nSection::::Cessation of movement or change.:Types of freezes.\n\nBULLET::::- Brain freeze, a common alternate name for a cold-stimulus headache\n", "BULLET::::- A similar problem will occur in 2038 (the year 2038 problem), as many Unix-like systems calculate the time in seconds since 1 January 1970, and store this number as a 32-bit signed integer, for which the maximum possible value is (2,147,483,647) seconds.\n\nBULLET::::- An error in the payment terminal code for Bank of Queensland rendered many devices inoperable for up to a week. The problem was determined to be an incorrect hexadecimal number conversion routine. When the device was to tick over to 2010, it skipped six years to 2016, causing terminals to decline customers' cards as expired.\n", "Prior to a public statement made by Nasdaq OMX released on the evening of August 22, there was speculation in financial markets as to the cause of the outage. Some media outlets suggested that the outage was caused by a coding error, while others speculated that hacking could have been the cause.\n", "The cause of the outage was identified as being a capacity issue with the Nasdaq SIP. A capacity assessment had been run on the SIP in January 2013 which found that each of the 50 ports in the system could tolerate 10,000 items per second, meaning the whole SIP had a capacity of 500,000 items per second. On August 22, 2013 the NYSE Arca system sent multiple sequences to Nasdaq which consumed a large amount of the system’s capacity. The SIP then received quote for inaccurate symbols, the few characters which are used to represent a security on an exchange, from NYSE Arca. This resulted in the SIP generating a numerous quote rejects which further absorbed capacity of the SIP. Every connect and disconnect sequence sent by NYSE Arca to the SIP resulted in over 26000 updates, per port per second. This enormously overwhelmed the Nasdaq SIP and resulted in a system shut down to ensure fairness in the market and prevent further overloading. Nasdaq stated that the volume of activity, per port, per second, at the time of the freeze, was 26 times that of a usual trading day.\n", "nProtect Netizen, nProtect Personal and nProtect Keycrypt are programs used mostly for internet banking in Korea. They are programmed to terminate processes that are not associated with banking, but processes are terminated indiscriminately if they are deemed a threat and thus may compromise a system's stability. These programs also inject themselves into all existing processes from startup, and sometimes collide with other anti-viruses. More problematically, Korean banks do not update their program every time INCA releases an update.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- nProtect GameGuard\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-Virus Software\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- nProtect GameGuard Online Scanner website\n\nBULLET::::- nProtect GameGuard official website\n", "Downturns in a country's national economy cause budget cuts in universities. The \"core contents\" tendency worsen the effect on AI research and investors in the market are likely to put their money into less risky ventures during a crisis. Together this may amplify an economic downturn into an AI winter. It is worth noting that the Lighthill report came at a time of economic crisis in the UK, when universities had to make cuts and the question was only which programs should go.\n\nSection::::Underlying causes behind AI winters.:Insufficient computing capability.\n", "On 12 December 2014, from 15:30 until 16:30, traffic flow throughout the London airspace was restricted due to a computer system failure at NATS. At 15:30 an announcement was made by Eurocontrol that \"There has been a failure of the flight data computer server at London ACC [area control centre].\" At 16:30 the airspace was reopened, however it remained restricted with some landing flights being turned away. NATS reported that the failure was due to a single faulty line of software source code.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "When a child process terminates, it becomes a \"zombie process,\" and continues to exist as an entry in the system process table even though it is no longer an actively executing program. Under normal operation it will typically be immediately waited on by its parent, and then reaped by the system, reclaiming the resource (the process table entry). If a child is not waited on by its parent, it continues to consume this resource indefinitely, and thus is a resource leak. Such situations are typically handled with a special \"reaper\" process that locates zombies and retrieves their exit status, allowing the operating system to then deallocate their resources.\n", "Deep Freeze is a kernel-level driver that runs at a low system level to protect drive integrity. Running at this low system level allows the driver to redirect information which is being written to the drive, leaving the original data intact. This redirected information is no longer referenced once the computer is restarted, thus restoring the system to its original state at the disk sector level. To the computer user, the computing experience is unaffected when Deep Freeze is active.\n", "Section::::Freezing.\n", "Deadline is a special case of batch. A deadline run looks just like any other batch run except that a deadline time is specified on the @RUN or @START control statement. The deadline time is used in conjunction with the maximum SUPS (time estimate) on the control statement. A deadline job runs at normal batch priorities unless or until it appears that it could miss its deadline time. Then the more the mismatch between time until the deadline and remaining SUPS, the higher the priority. While deadline can’t totally shut off transactions and has no effect on real time, it can effectively shut off most other processing in the system if necessary to achieve its goal.\n", "Halloween Problem\n\nIn computing, the Halloween Problem refers to a phenomenon in databases in which an update operation causes a change in the physical location of a row, potentially allowing the row to be visited more than once during the operation. This could even cause an infinite loop in some cases where updates continually place the updated record ahead of the scan performing the update operation.\n", "Buffer over-reads can be triggered, as in the Heartbleed bug, by maliciously crafted inputs that are designed to exploit a lack of bounds checking to read parts of memory not intended to be accessible. They may also be caused by programming errors alone. Buffer over-reads can result in erratic program behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security. Thus, they are the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited to access privileged information.\n", "BULLET::::- Bugs in applications can cause them to stop responding to events; for instance, an infinite loop or a deadlock. Applications thus afflicted rarely recover.\n\nBULLET::::- Problems with the virtual memory system—such as slow paging caused by a spun-down hard disk or disk read-errors—will cause the wait cursor to appear across multiple applications, until the hard disk and virtual memory system recover.\n", "Early in the computing history the potential for neural networks was understood but it has never been realized. Fairly simple networks require significant computing capacity even by today's standards.\n\nSection::::Underlying causes behind AI winters.:Empty pipeline.\n", "In November 2015, VTech has suffered a severe data breach on their information storing system, where the hackers used an SQL injection, which is “an injection attack wherein an attacker can execute malicious SQL statements (also commonly referred to as a malicious \"payload\") that control a web application’s database server (also commonly referred to as a \"Relational Database Management System – RDBMS\"),” to get full authorization to the database where he can access children and parents’ personal data.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In 2016, an analysis of the geography of Welsh surnames commissioned by the Welsh Government found that 718,000 people (nearly 35% of the Welsh population) have a family name of Welsh origin, compared with 5.3% in the rest of the United Kingdom, 4.7% in New Zealand, 4.1% in Australia, and 3.8% in the United States, with an estimated 16.3 million people in the countries studied having at least partial Welsh ancestry. Over 300,000 Welsh people live in London alone.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Black Welsh people\n\nBlack Welsh people are inhabitants of Wales who have an African or a Caribbean background. Wales is home to one of the United Kingdom's oldest Afro communities, and Tiger Bay in Cardiff has housed a large Somali population from the municipality's inception. The 2011 census reported there were 18,276 Welsh African people, amounting to 0.6% of the Welsh population.\n\nSome famous Welsh African people include Shirley Bassey; Vaughan Gething, member of the National Assembly for Wales; athlete Colin Jackson; frontman of the alternative metal band Skindred, Benji Webbe; and TV presenter Josie d'Arby.\n", "A particularly large proportion of the African American population has Welsh surnames. Factors leading to this result are predominantly in adopting the surname of their former slave masters. A large number of Welsh Americans settled in the American South and were predominant in the slave trade. Examples of slave plantation owning Americans include American Founding Father Thomas Jefferson. While there were cases of slaves adopting slaveholders' names, there were also Welsh religious groups and anti-slavery groups helping to assist slaves to freedom and evidence of names adopted for this reason. In other situations, slaves took on their own new identity of Freeman, Newman, Liberty, while others choose the surnames of American heroes or founding fathers, which in both cases could have been Welsh in origin.\n", "The proportion of the population with a name of Welsh origin ranges from 9.5% in South Carolina to 1.1% in North Dakota. Typically names of Welsh origin are concentrated in the mid-Atlantic states, the Carolinas, Georgia and Alabama and in Appalachia, West Virginia and Tennessee. By contrast, there are relatively fewer Welsh names in New England, the northern Midwest, and the southwest. \n\nSection::::Welsh immigration to the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel Ifor Enoch (1914-2001), Principal of the United Theological College, Aberystwyth\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas Evans (1766–1838), Nonconformist minister\n\nBULLET::::- Saints Philip Evans and John Lloyd, Roman Catholic priests and two of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Griffiths (1776–1805), religious poet and hymn-writer\n\nBULLET::::- David Griffiths (1792–1863), missionary to Madagascar, translator of the first Bible written in an African language\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Richard Gwyn (c.1537–1584)\n\nBULLET::::- Howell Harris (1714–1773), Methodist minister\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Illtud (died mid-6th century)\n\nBULLET::::- Bishop William Morgan (1545–1604), translator of the first complete Bible in Welsh (1588)\n", "Chicago Welsh Societies\n\nThere are at least three associations of people with Welsh origins in Chicago. These are the Chicago Tafia, the Cambrian Benevolent Society of Chicago, and the Women’s Welsh Club of Illinois.\n\nSection::::The Cambrian Benevolent Society of Chicago.\n", "BULLET::::- Button Gwinnett (1735–1777), United States Declaration of Independence signatory\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948), Governor of New York\n\nBULLET::::- Andrew Humphreys (1821–1904), U.S. Representative from Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- Andrew A. Humphreys (1810–1883), United States Army officer and Union General in the American Civil War\n\nBULLET::::- E. Howard Hunt (1918–2007), CIA Intelligence Officer; a key figure in organizing and participating in the Watergate burglaries\n\nBULLET::::- Arthur James (1883–1973), Governor of Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), third President of the United States; first Secretary of State; said his father came from the foothills of Snowdon\n\nBULLET::::- Robert E. Lee (1807–1870), Confederate general\n", "BULLET::::- John Tabatabai (born 1987), professional poker player\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Vaughan (c.1592–16 May 1667), antiquary\n\nBULLET::::- Bryn Williams (born 1977), chef\n\nBULLET::::- John Tudno Williams (born 1938), theologian\n\nBULLET::::- William Richard Williams (1896–1962), theologian\n\nBULLET::::- Glyn Wise (born 1988), \"Big Brother\" 2006 runner-up\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Wynne (1627–1691), surgeon, Quaker and friend of William Penn\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Young (born 1945), TV producer\n\nBULLET::::- Andrew House (born 1965), President and Group CEO of Sony Computer Entertainment (2011–Present)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 100 Welsh Heroes\n\nBULLET::::- Canadians of Welsh descent\n\nBULLET::::- List of people by nationality\n\nBULLET::::- List of Welsh Americans\n\nBULLET::::- Welsh American\n", "Section::::Southern United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Patrick, patron saint of Ireland\n\nBULLET::::- Alwyn Rice Jones (1934–2007), Bishop of St Asaph and also Archbishop of Wales\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Richards (priest) (c. 1687–1760), Anglican priest and canon of St Asaph's Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Evan Roberts (1878–1950), Methodist preacher in the Welsh Revival\n\nBULLET::::- Reverend John Davies (Shon Gymro) (1804–1884), Welsh Congregational Minister, linguist, writer and poet\n\nBULLET::::- John Roberts (Ieuan Gwyllt) (1822–1877), Methodist preacher and hymn-writer\n\nBULLET::::- Daniel Rowland (1713–1790), Methodist preacher in the Welsh Revival\n\nBULLET::::- William Salesbury (c. 1520–1584?), Welsh translator of the New Testament\n", "Several branches of the Easmon family intermarried with Creole families of African American, Jamaican Maroon,\n\nNorthern Irish, French, and English descent including the Boyle, Cuthbert, Elliott, George, MacCormac, Maillat, and Smith, and Spilsbury families. The Easmon family also extends to Ghana and branches of the family in Ghana intermarried mainly with Ga-Dangme families of Sierra Leone Creole, Danish, Scottish, and Welsh descent including the Dove, Augustt, and Evans families.\n", "BULLET::::- Patty Murray (born 1950), United States Senator from Washington\n\nBULLET::::- Barack Obama (born 1961), 44th President United States; distant Welsh ancestry\n\nBULLET::::- P.B.S. Pinchback (1837–1921), Governor of Louisiana\n\nBULLET::::- Hugh H. Price (1859–1904), U.S. Representative from Wisconsin\n\nBULLET::::- Rodman M. Price (1816–1894), Governor of New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- John H. Pugh (1827–1905), U.S. Representative from New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Rees (1925–2003), U.S. Congressman, parents/grandparents from Wales\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Romney (born 1949), wife of American businessman and politician Mitt Romney\n\nBULLET::::- Isaac Shelby (1750–1826), Governor of Kentucky\n\nBULLET::::- Daniel Webster (1782–1852), United States Senator and Secretary of State\n", "BULLET::::- Cardiff, Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiff, Maryland\n\nBULLET::::- East Swanzey, New Hampshire\n\nBULLET::::- Hawarden, Iowa\n\nBULLET::::- Lower Gwynedd Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Lower Merion Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Merion, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Monmouth Junction, New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- Monmouth, Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- Monmouth, Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- Monmouth, Iowa\n\nBULLET::::- Narberth, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- North Pembroke, Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- North Wales, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Cambria, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Pembrey, Delaware\n\nBULLET::::- Pembroke, Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- Swansea, Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- Swansea, California\n\nBULLET::::- Swansea, Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- Swansea, Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- Swansea, Nevada\n\nBULLET::::- Swansea, South Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Swanzey, New Hampshire\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Gwynedd Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\n", "Section::::Mid-Atlantic United States.:Maryland.\n\nFive towns in northern Maryland and southern Pennsylvania were constructed between 1850 and 1942 to house Welsh quarry workers producing Peach Bottom slate. During this period the towns retained a Welsh ethnic identity, although their architecture evolved from the traditional Welsh cottage form to contemporary American. Two of the towns in Harford County now form the Whiteford-Cardiff Historic District.\n\nSection::::Mid-Atlantic United States.:Virginia.\n\nAfter the Eastern European people, the Welsh people represents a significant minority there.\n\nSection::::Western United States.\n", "There has been migration from Wales to the rest of Britain throughout its history. During the Industrial Revolution thousands of Welsh people migrated, for example, to Liverpool and Ashton-in-Makerfield. As a result, some people from England, Scotland and Ireland have Welsh surnames.\n", "Section::::The Welsh in Canada.:Welsh in Alberta.\n\nIn a 2001 census, Alberta had the highest number of people of Welsh descent with about 60,000.\n\nBULLET::::- Earl W. Bascom (1906-1995), artist, inventor, rodeo pioneer, \"Father of Modern Rodeo\" and of Welsh descent\n\nBULLET::::- David Milwyn Duggan, a Welshman, was the mayor of Edmonton from 1921 to 1923.\n\nSection::::Welsh culture in Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- John Tudno Williams (born 1938), Moderator of the Presbyterian Church of Wales 2006–7\n\nBULLET::::- Rheinallt Nantlais Williams (1911-1993), Principal of the United Theological College, Aberystwyth\n\nBULLET::::- Rowan Williams (born 1950), Archbishop of Canterbury from 2003–2012\n\nBULLET::::- William Richard Williams (1896–1962), Principal of the United Theological College, Aberystwyth\n\nBULLET::::- William Williams Pantycelyn (1717–1791), hymn-writer\n\nSection::::Scientists.\n\nBULLET::::- Glyn Daniel (1914–1986), archaeologist, broadcaster\n\nBULLET::::- Donald Watts Davies (1924–2000), \"father of the internet\"; co-inventor of packet switching (and originator of the term)\n\nBULLET::::- Hugh Davies (1793–1821), botanist, clergyman\n\nBULLET::::- Huw Dixon (born 1958), economist\n", "BULLET::::- Murray Humphreys (1899–1965), Chicago mobster, chief political and labor racketeer in the Chicago Outfit during Prohibition\n\nBULLET::::- Frank James (1843–1915), cowboy/outlaw\n\nBULLET::::- Jesse James (1847–1882), cowboy/outlaw\n\nBULLET::::- George Jones (1811–1891), \"New-York Daily Times\" co-founder\n\nBULLET::::- John L. Lewis (1880–1969), organized labor union leader\n\nBULLET::::- Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809), explorer\n\nBULLET::::- Chelsea Manning (born 1987), mother was Welsh\n\nBULLET::::- Daniel Morgan (1736–1802), Brigadier General in the American Revolution in the Continental Army; served in the United States House of Representatives, representing Virginia\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Phelps (born 1985), Olympian swimmer, distant Welsh ancestry\n", "BULLET::::- William Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose (1879–1954), newspaper publisher\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Blackman (born 1984), events and entertainment millionaire\n\nBULLET::::- David Davies Llandinam (1818–1890), industrialist\n\nBULLET::::- Griffith J. Griffith (1850–1919), mining millionaire\n\nBULLET::::- John Josiah Guest (1785–1852), ironmaster\n\nBULLET::::- John Hughes (1814–1889), businessman and founder of the city of Donetsk, Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- Sir William Thomas Lewis (1837–1914), coalowner\n\nBULLET::::- Terry Matthews (born 1943), telecommunications billionaire, owner of Celtic Manor Resort\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Moritz (born 1962), investor\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Stewart Rolls (1877–1910), motor car manufacturer and aviator\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Stringer (born 1942), businessman\n\nBULLET::::- David Sullivan (born 1949), publisher\n", "Welsh history in Chicago\n\nOver the years Chicago has been called home by many immigrant groups and cultures, the Welsh included.\n\nSection::::The Welsh in the early history of Chicago.\n\nThomas Jefferson Vance Owen, whose grandparents were from Wales, is considered \"The True Founder of Chicago\". He became the first president of the town of Chicago in 1833, and is responsible for sub-dividing the city into sections and towns. In fact, in early Chicago history, some of the city's mayors were of close Welsh heritage, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Buckner Stith Morris 1838–39\n\nBULLET::::- Alexander Loyd 1840–41\n\nBULLET::::- John P. Hopkins 1893–95\n", "BULLET::::- Reg Thomas (1907–1946), British Empire Games gold and silver medallist, and Olympic distance runner\n\nBULLET::::- Angela Tooby (born 1960), Commonwealth Games bronze medallist\n\nBULLET::::- Susan Tooby (born 1960), Olympic long distance runner\n\nBULLET::::- Hayley Tullett (born 1975), Commonwealth Games silver and bronze medallist, and Olympic middle distance runner\n\nBULLET::::- Kirsty Wade (born 1962), Commonwealth Games gold medallist, and Olympic middle distance runner\n\nBULLET::::- Nigel Walker (born 1963), Olympic 110m high hurdler and Wales international rugby union player\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Whitehead (1933–2002), Commonwealth Games bronze medallist and bronze medallist at the 1960 Summer Olympics\n", "BULLET::::- Jackie Lewis (born 1936), Formula One racing driver\n\nBULLET::::- David Llewellin (born 1960), rally driver\n\nBULLET::::- Hywel Lloyd (born 1985), Formula Three racing driver\n\nBULLET::::- Ian Lougher (born 1963), motorcycle racer\n\nBULLET::::- Charlie Martin (1913–1998), Grand Prix racing driver\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Mills (born 1963), rally co-driver\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Morris (born 1975), speedway rider\n\nBULLET::::- J. G. Parry-Thomas (1884–1927), racing driver and one time Land Speed Record holder\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Pryce (1949–1977), Formula One racing driver\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Rees (born 1938), Formula One racing driver\n\nBULLET::::- Gareth Rees (born 1969), former racing driver and motorsport commentator\n", "A related colloquialism is the verb \"to welsh\"/\"welch\" ('to renege') as in 'to Welsh/welch on a deal or bet', which may be derived from an age-old 'English' stereotype of the Welsh/Celtic peoples as unreliable oath-breakers, though that etymology remains conjectural. The potential association with a negative stereotype results in it being considered a somewhat pejorative term.\n\nSection::::People.\n\nBULLET::::- Barry Welsh, comedy character played by John Sparkes\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Welsh, former baseball pitcher and current announcer the Cincinnati Reds\n\nBULLET::::- Christie Welsh, American soccer player\n\nBULLET::::- David Welsh, Scottish religious leader\n\nBULLET::::- Freddie Welsh, Welsh World Lightweight boxing champion\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Recorde (1510–1558), mathematician and physician; inventor of the 'equals' sign in mathematics\n\nBULLET::::- Gareth Roberts (1940–2007), physicist\n\nBULLET::::- Graham Sutton (1903–1877), meteorologist\n\nBULLET::::- Llewellyn Hilleth Thomas (1903–1992), physicist; discoverer of the 'Thomas precession' in relativity theory\n\nBULLET::::- Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), biologist, co-discoverer of the theory of evolution by natural selection\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Williams (1939–2003), astrophysicist, politician\n\nSection::::Sports people.\n\nSection::::Sports people.:Athletes.\n\nBULLET::::- John Ainsworth-Davis (1895–1976), gold medallist at the 1920 Summer Olympics\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Alford (1913–2004), British Empire Games gold medallist\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Barry (born 1950), Commonwealth Games gold medallist\n", "Jackson and Gallia counties in Ohio were settled by Welsh immigrants in the 19th century, many from the Ceredigion area of West Wales.\n\nSection::::North America.:New York.\n\nNumerous Welsh immigrants settled in the town of Freedom and surrounding townships in Cattaraugus County, New York during the 19th century. In 1795 Welsh immigrants settled in the village of Remsen, New York where their families flourished as dairy farmers. Numerous stone houses and barns in the region attest to the Welsh heritage. The Welsh language was still spoken in the area well into the 1970s.\n\nSection::::South America.\n" ]

[ "Welsh surnames are common in African Americans." ]

[ "Welsh surnames are not that common to African Americans. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Welsh surnames are common in African Americans." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Welsh surnames are not that common to African Americans. " ]

[ "The half-life of the drug refers to the drug's elimination from the bloodstream which can be caused by metabolism, urine, and other forms of excretion. If the active compound has a long half-life (over 6 hours), it is sustained on its own. If the active compound has a short half-life, it would require a large amount to maintain a prolonged effective dose. In this case, a broad therapeutic window is necessary to avoid toxicity; otherwise, the risk is unwarranted and another mode of administration would be recommended. Appropriate half-lifes used to apply sustained methods are typically 3–4 hours and a drug greater than 0.5 grams is too big.\n", "BULLET::::- The duration of infusion determines whether or not steady state was reached\n\nBULLET::::- Once a drug enters the body, elimination and distribution begins. Initially the drug present in central compartment (i.e. circulation system) is being distributed into the tissues, and being eliminated\n\nBULLET::::- At steady state, the concentration of free drug in the central compartment (i.e. circulation system) is equal to the concentration of free drug in the peripheral compartment (i.e. body tissues)\n\nBULLET::::- If steady state is reached, context-sensitive half-life is equal to elimination half-life\n\nBULLET::::- Only free drug that is in the plasma is metabolised\n", "BULLET::::- Many drugs follow the multi-compartment model. In other words, a drug may have a preference for a particular body compartment which will result in the majority of that drug to ultimately settle in that particular compartment.\n\nBULLET::::- For highly polar drugs very little will be in the tissues of the body\n\nBULLET::::- For highly lipophilic drugs majority of drug will be located in body tissues\n", "BULLET::::- Initially, because the drug is given intravenously, the drug will distribute to the central compartment (i.e. circulation system). The drug (e.g. lipophilic drug) will move out of the central compartment and move into the peripheral compartments\n\nBULLET::::- The movement from one compartment to another is influenced by passive diffusion (Moves from an area of high concentration low concentration)\n\nBULLET::::- A drug like fentanyl is very fat soluble. Initial doses ‘wear off’ relatively quickly because the drug redistributes to adipose tissue. However, if the infusion is ongoing then the peripheral compartment (body tissue) will have a large store of fentanyl\n", "In clinical practice, this means that it takes 4 to 5 times the half-life for a drug's serum concentration to reach steady state after regular dosing is started, stopped, or the dose changed. So, for example, digoxin has a half-life (or t) of 24–36 h; this means that a change in the dose will take the best part of a week to take full effect. For this reason, drugs with a long half-life (e.g., amiodarone, elimination t of about 58 days) are usually started with a loading dose to achieve their desired clinical effect more quickly.\n\nSection::::Rate equations.:Biphasic half-life.\n", "The main reasons for this is to avoid trials in the later phases using doses that are significantly different from those that will subsequently be recommended for clinical use and also to avoid the need for modification of dosing schedules at later stages where a large amount of data has already been accumulated for a different dose range.\n", "The duration of action should be determined during dose-ranging study, as it will allow definition of the dosage schedule. Because it is hard to measure reliable pharmacodynamic parameter, it is difficult to determine the duration of action during early clinical trials. Other parameters instead are suggested as a tentative dosage, such as half-lives in plasma and urine in various test species and human, receptor binding in vitro, or pharmacodynamic data in vivo in animals.\n", "BULLET::::- Metabolism results in the concentration of free drug in the peripheral compartment to decrease\n\nBULLET::::- Due to passive diffusion, free drug will leave the peripheral compartment (i.e. tissues) and enter the central compartment, replenishing any drug that was metabolised from the plasma\n\nBULLET::::- If steady state is not reached, context-sensitive half-life is shorter than elimination half-life\n\nBULLET::::- Only free drug that is in the plasma is metabolised\n\nBULLET::::- Overall the entire body has less lipophilic drug. The infusion was stopped earlier. Not as much drug was able to enter the peripheral compartment.\n", "Remifentanil is relatively context insensitive whilst fentanyl and thiopentone are examples of drugs which have significant context-sensitive changes in their half-life.\n\nThe Context-Sensitive Half-Time describes the time required for the plasma drug concentration to decline by 50% after terminating an infusion of a particular duration.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nIt is the time required for drug plasma concentration to decrease by 50% after stopping administration. The drug is administered continuously.\n\nSection::::Context-sensitive half-life of fentanyl.\n", "In a medical context, half-life explicitly describes the time it takes for the blood plasma concentration of a substance to halve (\"plasma half-life\") its steady-state when circulating in the full blood of an organism. This measurement is useful in medicine and pharmacology because it helps determine how much of a drug needs to be taken and how frequently it needs to be taken if a certain average amount is needed constantly. In contrast, the stability of a substance direct in plasma is described with \"plasma stability\" that is essential to ensure accurate analysis of drugs in plasma and for Drug discovery.\n", "BULLET::::- Because steady state is not reached, the peripheral compartment (i.e. tissues) has lesser free drug than the central compartment\n\nBULLET::::- The drug continues to move into the peripheral compartment until equilibrium is reached. Remember the drug moves due to passive diffusion. It moves into the peripheral compartment because it has lesser free drug\n\nBULLET::::- Once equilibrium is reached, the only other way the drug is able to leave the plasma is by elimination. This causes the free drug concentration in the central compartment to fall\n", "The therapeutic index also factors whether a drug can be used as a time release drug. A drug with a thin therapeutic range, or small therapeutic index, will be determined unfit for a sustained release mechanism in partial fear of dose dumping which can prove fatal at the conditions mentioned. For a drug that is made to be released over time, the general goals is to stay within the therapeutic range as long as needed.\n\nThere are many different methods used to obtain a sustained release.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Diffusion systems.\n", "When a drug which has a multicompartmental pharmacokinetic model is given by intravenous infusion it initially will distribute to the central compartment and then move out of this compartment into one or two peripheral compartments. Once this infusion is discontinued, drug continues to move into the peripheral compartments until an equilibrium is reached. At this time, the only way drug may leave plasma is by metabolism or excretion. As the plasma concentration falls, the concentration gradient of drug reverses and drug moves from peripheral compartments back into plasma, maintaining the plasma concentration of the drug, often prolonging the pharmacological effect. If an infusion has reached steady state then the context-sensitive half-life is equal to the terminal plasma half-life of the drug. Otherwise it will be shorter than the terminal elimination half-life.\n", "BULLET::::- \"C: Maximum serum concentration that drug achieves in body after the drug has been and administrated\n\nBULLET::::- \"t: Time to achieve maximum plasma concentration\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"t: Biological half-life\"/small\n\nIn studies that were made on healthy people and people with type II diabetes mellitus, who were given dapagliflozin in either single ascending dose (SAD) or multiple ascending dose (MAD) showed results that confirmed a pharmacokinetic profile of the medication. With dose-dependent concentrations the half-life is about 12–13 hours, Tmax 1–2 hours and it is protein-bound, so the medication has a rapid absorption and minimal excretion by the kidney.\n", "Prescription drug dosage is based typically on body weight. Drugs come with a recommended dose in milligrams or micrograms per kilogram of body weight, and that is used in conjunction with the patient's body weight to determine a safe dosage. In single dosage scenarios, the patient's body weight and the drug's recommended dose per kilogram are used to determine a safe one-time dose. In drugs where multiple doses of treatment are needed in a day, the physician must take into account information regarding the total amount of the drug which is safe to use in one day, and how that should be broken up into intervals for the most effective treatment for the patient. Medication underdosing occurs commonly when physicians write prescriptions for a dosage that is correct for a certain time, but fails to increase the dosage as the patient needs (i.e. weight based dosing in children, or increasing dosages of chemotherapy drugs if a patient's condition worsens).\n", "BULLET::::- personal dose equivalent\n\nIn the US there are further differently named dose quantities which are not part of the ICRP system of quantities.\n\nSection::::Related quantities.:Use of old factors.\n", "Context-sensitive half-life\n\nContext-sensitive half-life or context sensitive half-time is defined as the time taken for blood plasma concentration of a drug to decline by one half after an infusion designed to maintain a steady state (i.e. a constant plasma concentration) has been stopped. The \"context\" is the duration of infusion.\n", "BULLET::::- Revision of report by Task Group\n\nBULLET::::- Reconsideration by Committees and Main Commission\n\nBULLET::::- Public Consultation\n\nSection::::Units.\n\nThe SI unit of measure for equivalent dose is the sievert, defined as one Joule per kg. In the United States the roentgen equivalent man (rem), equal to 0.01 sievert, is still in common use, although regulatory and advisory bodies are encouraging transition to sieverts.\n\nSection::::Related quantities.\n\nSection::::Related quantities.:Limitation of equivalent dose calculation.\n", "For a drug such as this, a doctor might prescribe a loading dose of \"one gram\" to be taken on the first day. That immediately gets the drug's concentration in the body up to the therapeutically-useful level. \n\nBULLET::::- First day: 1000 mg; the body clears 100 mg, leaving 900 mg.\n\nBULLET::::- On the second day, the patient takes 100 mg, bringing the level back to 1000 mg; the body clears 100 mg overnight, still leaving 900 mg, and so forth.\n\nSection::::Calculating the loading dose.\n\nFour variables are used to calculate the loading dose:\n\nThe required loading dose may then be calculated as\n", "Suppose a patient just started taking 100 mg of \"foosporin\" every day. \n\nBULLET::::- On the first day, they'd have 100 mg in their system; their body would clear 10 mg, leaving 90 mg.\n\nBULLET::::- On the second day, the patient would have 190 mg in total; their body would clear 19 mg, leaving 171 mg.\n\nBULLET::::- On the third day, they'd be up to 271 mg total; their body would clear 27 mg, leaving 244 mg.\n\nAs one can see, it would take many days for the total amount of drug within the body to come close to 1 gram (1000 mg) and achieve its full therapeutic effect.\n", "Section::::In biology and pharmacology.\n\nA biological half-life or elimination half-life is the time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose one-half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiological activity. In a medical context, the half-life may also describe the time that it takes for the concentration of a substance in blood plasma to reach one-half of its steady-state value (the \"plasma half-life\").\n\nThe relationship between the biological and plasma half-lives of a substance can be complex, due to factors including accumulation in tissues, active metabolites, and receptor interactions.\n", "Most drugs are eliminated from the blood plasma with first-order kinetics. For this reason, when a drug is introduced into the body at a constant rate by intravenous therapy, it approaches a new steady concentration in the blood at a rate defined by its half-life. Similarly, when the intravenous infusion is ended, the drug concentration decreases exponentially and reaches an undetectable level after 5–6 half-lives have passed. If the same drug is administered as a bolus (medicine) with a single injection, peak concentration is achieved almost immediately and then the concentration declines exponentially.\n", "Prior to 1990, the ICRP used the term \"dose equivalent\" to refer to the absorbed dose at a point multiplied by the quality factor at that point, where the quality factor was a function of linear energy transfer (LET). Currently, the ICRP's definition of \"equivalent dose\" represents an average dose over an organ or tissue, and radiation weighting factors are used instead of quality factors.\n\nThe phrase \"dose equivalent\" is only used for which use Q for calculation, and the following are defined as such by the ICRU and ICRP:\n\nBULLET::::- ambient dose equivalent\n\nBULLET::::- directional dose equivalent\n", "The best example is the radiation exposure (X-rays, gamma-radiation or particle radiation) for which a maximum short-time-, as well as a cumulative year-, and a life-dose are well defined for every type of radiation in order to avoid cancer (e.g. maximum number of dental X-rays per year). In this case the maximum load of the definition is represented by the dose (see also Radiation Safety). A controversial field is the uses of mobile (cellular) phones, for which there are no proven damages.\n", "The USP standard for dosage uniformity expresses statistical criteria in the complex language of sampling protocols. The pharmaceutical dosage literature sometimes boils this down as requiring a standard deviation in dosage weight of less than 6%, which roughly corresponds to the weaker rule-of-thumb offered for public consumption that the vast majority of dosage units should be within 15% of the dosage target. \"Dosage unit\" is a technical term which covers oral medications (tablets, pills, capsules), as well as non-oral delivery methods.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::4. Owing to the \"circumstances, conditions or dispositions,\" the same objects appear different. The same temperature, as established by instrument, feels very different after an extended period of cold winter weather (it feels warm) than after mild weather in the autumn (it feels cold). Time appears slow when young and fast as aging proceeds. Honey tastes sweet to most but bitter to someone with jaundice. A person with influenza will feel cold and shiver even though she is hot with a fever.\n", "Studies on conditioned taste aversion which involved irradiating rats were conducted in the 1950s by Dr. John Garcia, leading to it sometimes being called the Garcia effect.\n\nConditioned taste aversion sometimes occurs when sickness is merely coincidental to, and not caused by, the substance consumed. For example, a person who becomes very sick after consuming vodka-and-orange-juice cocktails may then become averse to the taste of orange juice, even though the sickness was caused by the over-consumption of alcohol. Under these circumstances, conditioned taste aversion is sometimes known as the \"Sauce-Bearnaise Syndrome\", a term coined by Seligman and Hager.\n\nSection::::Garcia's study.\n", "If the flavor has been encountered before the subject becomes ill, the effect will not be as strong or will not be present. This quality is called latent inhibition. Conditioned taste aversion is often used in laboratories to study gustation and learning in rats.\n\nAversions can also be developed to odors as well as to tastes.\n", "Dysgeusia, or an alteration in taste perception, is common, especially for those who are receiving concomitant radiation therapy to the neck and mouth area. \"Taste blindness\", or an altered sense of taste, is a temporary condition that occurs because of effects on taste buds that are mostly located in the tongue. Sometimes, only partial recovery of taste occurs. Common complaints are of food tasting too sweet or too bitter or of a continuous metallic taste.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n", "Section::::Coherence and interaction of neurons during tasting.\n\nGC neurons cohere and interact during tasting. GC neurons interact across milliseconds, and these interactions are taste specific and define distinct but overlapping neural assemblies that respond to the presence of each tastant by undergoing coupled changes in firing rate. These couplings are used to discriminate between tastants. Coupled changes in firing rate are the underlying source of GC interactions. Subsets of neurons in GC become coupled after presentation of particular tastants and the responses of neurons in that ensemble change in concert with those of others.\n\nSection::::Taste familiarity.\n", "BULLET::::- Purple or red pigmentation may occur due to conditions such as: haemangioma, kaposi’s sarcoma or a giant cell lesion\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature\n\nBULLET::::- If the lesion is warm it is thought an inflammatory cause is most likely (e.g. abscess or haemangioma)\n\nBULLET::::- Tenderness\n\nBULLET::::- If a lesion is significantly tender on palpation the origin is usually thought to be inflammatory\n\nBULLET::::- Discharge\n\nBULLET::::- Are there any secretions associated with the lesion upon palpation or spontaneously occurring\n\nBULLET::::- Movement\n\nBULLET::::- The lesion should be tested to determine whether it is attached to adjacent structures or the overlying mucosa\n\nBULLET::::- Consistency\n", "Color of the flowers as in case \"Catharanthus roseus\" and \"Catharanthus alba,\" presence of thorns in case of \"Asparagus recemosus\" and absence in \"Asparagus officinalis\", arrangement of flowers in case of \"Withania semnifera\" or \"Witharia coagulens\" can help in differentiating the varieties of the same plant.\n\nArrangement of cracks and wrinkles in case of stem bark of varieties of Cinchona bark, or the color of ALOE can separate in varieties.\n", "Sour flavor is cold and dry and cause dryness and coldness in the body as well. Vinegar and pickled vegetables and fruits preserved in vinegar, sour fruits or sour juices, verjuice, and Qarehqurut or black kashk (fabricated from the liquid yoghurt) are all cold and dry.\n\nSalty, bitter and spicy flavors which are usually used to give foods a special taste are warm and dry. Although spicy foods are warmer and dryer than bitter and salty foods respectively.\n", "Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. Five basic tastes – sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami (savory) are universally recognized, although some cultures also include pungency and oleogustus (\"fattiness\"). The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists.\n", "As with most medications, if any severe side effects are experienced the patient is encouraged to contact their doctor or local poison control center immediately.\n\nSection::::Taste and texture.\n\nOral barium sulfate suspensions are sometimes described as having the consistency of a very thick glass of milk, or a very thin milkshake. Some patients may experience the texture as a chalky liquid, similar to calcium carbonate containing liquid antacids and with a slight medicinal taste. Dr. Roscoe Miller, in his article, \"Flavoring Barium Sulfate\", noted that taste thresholds vary per person, and patient toleration of the medicine also varies.\n", "BULLET::::- Mushrooms, including molds (e.g. noble-mold on different cheeses and salamis)\n\nBULLET::::- Tomatoes (including ketchup and pizza)\n\nBULLET::::- avocado\n\nBULLET::::- eggplant\n\nBULLET::::- spinach\n\nBULLET::::- horseradish\n\nBULLET::::- garlic\n\nBULLET::::- bamboo sprouts\n\nBULLET::::- bananas\n\nBULLET::::- beans\n\nBULLET::::- figs\n\nBULLET::::- citrus fruit: oranges, lemons, grapefruit, tanerines, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- kiwi fruit\n\nBULLET::::- pineapple\n\nBULLET::::- papayas\n\nBULLET::::- strawberries\n\nBULLET::::- plums\n\nBULLET::::- raisins\n\nBULLET::::- soy and soy products (e.g. tofu)\n\nBULLET::::- nut and cocoa products\n", "BULLET::::- Fino: The most common wine of the region. A clean, bright, light wine, yellow in colour in general while the ones from Moriles can have olive coloured overtones. In the nose, these are complex, subtle and delicate wines. Notes of yeast, almonds, tobacco and sometimes liquorice are the most common aromas. In the mouth, they are dry, bitter and smooth at the same time, and persistent in taste.\n", "BULLET::::- 2. Do We All Smell Different? (smell)\n\nBULLET::::- 3. Amazing Maze (mazes)\n\nBULLET::::- 4. Trumpet (trumpets)\n\nBULLET::::- 5. Snowballs (snow)\n\nBULLET::::- 6. Eyebrows (eyes)\n\nBULLET::::- 7. What's Cooking? (food and drink)\n\nBULLET::::- 8. All Bunged Up (bungee jumping)\n\nBULLET::::- 9. Nina Needs A Wee (digestion)\n\nBULLET::::- 10. Spy Kit (household applies)\n\nBULLET::::- 11. Granny's Glasses (sight)\n\nBULLET::::- 12. Where's The Bad Smell? (bad smelling)\n\nBULLET::::- 13. Wakey Wakey (sleep)\n\nBULLET::::- 14. Why Is My Tongue Wet? (saliva)\n\nBULLET::::- 15. Shadows (shadows)\n\nBULLET::::- 16. Birthday Surprise (birthdays)\n\nBULLET::::- 17. Different Tastes (taste)\n\nBULLET::::- 18. Monster Hunt (illusions)\n", "Section::::Transduction and the senses.:The olfactory system.\n\nIn the olfactory system, odorant molecules in the mucus bind to G-protein receptors on olfactory cells. The G-protein activates a downstream signalling cascade that causes increased level of cyclic-AMP (cAMP), which trigger neurotransmitter release.\n\nSection::::Transduction and the senses.:The gustatory system.\n\nIn the gustatory system, perception of five primary taste qualities (sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami [savoriness] ) depends on taste transduction pathways, through taste receptor cells, G proteins, ion channels, and effector enzymes.\n\nSection::::Transduction and the senses.:The somatosensory system.\n", "Olfaction, taste, and trigeminal receptors (also called chemesthesis) together contribute to flavor. The human tongue can distinguish only among five distinct qualities of taste, while the nose can distinguish among hundreds of substances, even in minute quantities. It is during exhalation that the olfaction contribution to flavor occurs, in contrast to that of proper smell, which occurs during the inhalation phase of breathing. The olfactory system is the only human sense that bypasses the thalamus and connects directly to the forebrain.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other senses.:Audition.\n", "Section::::Taste.\n\nTaste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.\n", "Section::::Raw chilli taste.\n\nWhen eating a whole white chili and chewing for at least 10 seconds before swallowing (not recommended for untrained tasters) the heat may be first felt aggressively in the back of the throat, up the nose, then eventually moves to the roof of the mouth and finally the tongue where the pain is intense, at which point there can be gustatory sweating and tears from the eyes. Some tasters note the strong, fruity Fatalii flavour, which is quite distinct, as being almost identical to the yellow version. Others find it milder.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cortinarius clandestinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius claricolor\" – eaten in Europe, unknown edibility in North America\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cliduchus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius coerulescentium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius collinitus\" – belted slimy cort (North America)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius controversus\" – Australia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius corrugatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius corrugis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cotoneus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius crassus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cremeiamarescens\" – Southern Europe and western North America\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius croceofolius\" – edible, but deadly look-alikes (\"C. gentilis\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius crocolitus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cruentipellis\" – Northwest Europe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius crystallinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cucumeris\" - New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cumatilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cupreorufus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cuprescens\" – France\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cyanites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius cyanosterix\" – France\n", "Section::::Five \"traditional\" senses.:Taste.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pittosporum multiflorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum muricatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum napaliense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum nativitatis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum obcordatum\" – heart-leaved kohuhu\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum oreillyanum\" – O'Reilly's pittosporum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum ornatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum orohenense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum paniense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum parvifolium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum patulum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum pauciflorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum pentandrum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum phillyreoides\" – weeping pittosporum, willow pittosporum, butterbush, native apricot\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum pickeringii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum raivavaeense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum rapense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum resiniferum\" – petroleum nut\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum revolutum\" – rough-fruited pittosporum, wild yellow jasmine, yellow pittosporum, Brisbane laurel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum rhombifolium\" (now \"Auranticarpa rhombifolia\") – Queensland pittosporum, diamond pittosporum, Hollywood\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittosporum rhytidocarpum\"\n", "Both consistency studies and fMRI scans have validated JIW’s lexical-gustatory synesthesia. A fMRI scan showed the bilateral activation of the Broca’s area 43 in the brain during JIW’s taste experiences. The Broca’s area 43 is a part of the primary gustatory cortex which is responsible for the perception of taste. Further studies of the underlying brain regions involved in synesthetes like JIW could aid in identifying the root physiological mechanisms involved in lexical-gustatory synesthesia.\n\nSection::::Experimental studies.:Case studies.:SC.\n", "Physical pathological sensation, as occurs in IBS, COPD, and other illnesses, is also influential in affective sensation and response. The emotional response to especially a chronic illness can be correlated with its severity. This has been shown in COPD, where emotionally-driven descriptions of sensation due to breathing impairments may reflect the severity of the illness and probability of long-term, responsal behavior changes. Additionally, in IBS patients, affective sensation and its correlative brain areas including the ACC, insula, and VMPFC demonstrated heightened fMRI activity in response to painful visceral stimuli, and an inability to down-regulate their activation and modulate the emotional response to pain. This link between perceptual intensity and affective sensation persists in the case of chili pepper consumption. Those individuals who eat chili peppers more often, and presumably enjoy them, also report less burning sensation in response to eating chilis. While this could be due to either individual taste-perception differences or intensity judgement differences, it is more likely due to the latter because previous spicy food-consumption experiences do not correlate with the differences in affective sensation responses.\n", "While naming a flavor or food refines its representation strengthens its recall in memory, the patterns and tendencies in word choice to describe flavor suggests limits to the our perception and communication. In describing the flavor of wine, tasters tend to use words that function as a combination of visual and texture descriptors, and references to objects with similar odorant profiles. Color perception heavily influences the word choice describing a flavor; the color of word's semantic reference is often congruent with the food's color when the taster can see the food.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis maculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis magnicallosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis mimica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis mindanaensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis odoratissima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis orchidea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis paniculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis pantherina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis papuana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis pauciflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis persicina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis philippinensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis punctata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis pusilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis ramosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis retusa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis rigida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis rosea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis scandens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis scaphigera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis seidenfadenii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis simplex\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis sitihasmahae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis smithii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis sororia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis subviolacea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis tamesisii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis tenera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis tenuis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis tinekeae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis tricostata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis triflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichoglottis uexkuelliana\"\n", "The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent somatosensory information from the tongue, that is, mouthfeel. Scent, in contrast, is not combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions, such as the insula and orbitofrontal cortex.\n\nSection::::Human sensory system.\n\nThe human sensory system consists of the following subsystems:\n\nBULLET::::- Visual system\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory system\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Among others, Christopher Nolan has criticized the huge brightness loss: \"You're not that aware of it because once you're 'in that world,' your eye compensates, but having struggled for years to get theaters up to the proper brightness, we're not sticking polarized filters in everything.\"\n", "Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety. Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety. For those who need to be awake at night, light at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.\n", "BULLET::::- Seborrhoeic dermatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmune bullous diseases (immunobullous diseases)\n\nBULLET::::- Mycosis fungoides\n\nBULLET::::- Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Porphyria cutanea tarda\n\nAlso, many conditions are aggravated by strong light, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\nBULLET::::- Sjögren’s syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Sinear Usher syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Rosacea\n\nBULLET::::- Dermatomyositis\n\nBULLET::::- Darier’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Kindler-Weary syndrome\n\nSection::::Fluorescent lamps.\n\nThe Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) in 2008 reviewed the connections between light from fluorescent lamps, especially from compact fluorescent lamp, and numerous human diseases, with results including:\n", "Research proved that it is more toxic in the presence of light than in the dark. Sulfacetamide is slightly irritant when UV-A light is present. In the presence of light sulfacetamide gets sensitized and degraded which might cause irritation which will lead to toxicity when it is used continuously. In the dark only slight irritation has been shown. Therefore it should be stored in the dark.\n\nThere are no known carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. It has a moderate toxicity according to the Chemwatch hazard ratings.\n\nSection::::Effects on organisms.\n", "BULLET::::- Excessive levels of artificial light may adversely affect health. These detrimental effects may depend on the spectrum as well as the overall brightness level of light.\n\nOver illumination can be reduced by installing occupancy sensors, using natural sunlight whenever possible, turning off lights when leaving a room, or changing the type of lightbulb. Over illumination does not refer to snowblindness, where high exposure to ultraviolet light causes physical damage to the eye. Too little light, the opposite of over illumination, is associated with seasonal affective disorder.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nOver illumination can be caused by several factors:\n", "BULLET::::- One cause of cataracts is exposure to ultraviolet light. Provided the level of UV emission from lamps is within safe limits, and the lamp a sufficient distance away from the individual, there should be no increased risk of developing cataracts.\n\nBULLET::::- Photophobia is a symptom of excessive sensitivity to light which affects 5 to 20% of the population. No studies have been conducted into the effect of compact fluorescent light on sufferers of photophobia but there is the possibility for compact fluorescent light to affect sufferers.\n", "Two types of light offer potential decay to cultural heritage: ultraviolet (UV) light and visual light (light that can be perceived by the human eye). Although they can be affected simultaneously by removing light sources, reducing overall intensity, or increasing the distance between a light source and an object, best preventive practice treats these types of light separately due to their differences.\n", "The non-profit Lighting Research Center, a group of utility companies, experts and government agencies, established the National Lighting Product Information Program (NLPIP) in the USA to provide objective information about the effectiveness of different lighting systems. According to the NLPIP, full-spectrum light does not provide any improved benefits over similar light systems.\n\nA Cornell University study reached mixed conclusions on the use of full-spectrum lighting in restaurants to promote sales.\n", "Television has traditionally been the most common source of seizures in PSE. For people with PSE, it is especially hazardous to view television in a dark room, at close range, or when the television is out of adjustment and is showing a rapidly flickering image (as when the horizontal hold is incorrectly adjusted). Modern digital television sets that cannot be maladjusted in this way and refresh the image on the screen at very high speed present less of a risk than older television sets.\n", "Avoiding the use of benzalkonium chloride solutions while contact lenses are in place is discussed in the literature.\n\nSection::::Bioactive agents.:Adverse effects.\n\nAlthough historically benzalkonium chloride has been ubiquitous as a preservative in ophthalmic preparations, its ocular toxicity and irritant properties, in conjunction with consumer demand, have led pharmaceutical companies to increase production of preservative-free preparations, or to replace benzalkonium chloride with preservatives which are less harmful.\n", "Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to over-design illumination, lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency, stress, and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels. In addition, glare or excess light can decrease worker efficiency.\n", "Muschietti himself found mainstream 1980s lighting too artificial thus preferred to through windows and bounce off the floor, allowing him to convey a feeling of intimacy with the characters, while admiring the approach of unsettling backlights and soft lights. Chung spoke of his experience on \"Stoker\" (2013), which taught him how to light quickly using one source: \"I feel lucky because some directors will always say, ‘Can you make more light?’ But this movie is very naturalistic. My responsibility is to the audience and to tell the story, and if you want this movie to scare people, a natural look is best.\"\n", "According to Mario Motta, president of the Massachusetts Medical Society, \"... glare from bad lighting is a public-health hazard—especially the older you become. Glare light scattering in the eye causes loss of contrast and leads to unsafe driving conditions, much like the glare on a dirty windshield from low-angle sunlight or the high beams from an oncoming car.\" In essence bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads can partially blind drivers or pedestrians and contribute to accidents.\n", "International legislation concerning the legality of audience scanning varies greatly. The biggest point of contention is the method of calculating the level of exposure actually received. The MPE (maximum permissible exposure) is essentially the same throughout the world, but some countries are far more conservative in their estimations of the amount of light received by the eye. Audience scanning is not widely practiced in the United States; it is far more accepted in the United Kingdom, despite having been stopped for a period, and in the rest of Europe.\n\nSection::::Laser injury reports.\n", "Photophobia may preclude or limit a person from working in places where offensive lighting is virtually ubiquitous (e.g., big box stores, airports, libraries, hospitals, warehouses, offices, workshops, classrooms, supermarkets and storage spaces), unless the person is able to obtain a reasonable accommodation (which may be required to be provided by an employer under the Americans with Disabilities Act). Some people with photophobia may be better able to work at night, or be more easily accommodated in the work place at night. Outdoor night lighting may be equally offensive for persons with photophobia, however, given the wide variety of bright lighting used for illuminating residential, commercial and industrial areas, such as LED lamps.\n", "Whether it is easier or healthier to read text on a dark background was disputed by vision and perception researchers; there was similar dispute between users. However, a recent article by \"Popular Science\" suggests that \"Dark mode is easier on the eyes and battery\"\n\nSection::::Energy usage.\n\nLight on dark color schemes require less energy to display on some display technologies, such as OLED, CRT and LCD displays. This can impact battery life and overall energy conservation.\n", "The US Consumer Product Safety Commission reports it receives about 10 reports per year where nightlights close to flammable materials were cited as responsible for fires; they recommend the use of nightlight with bulbs cooler than the four or seven watt incandescent bulbs still used in some older products.\n\nSection::::Potential health issues and benefits.\n\nA University of Pennsylvania study indicated that sleeping with the light on or with a nightlight was associated with a greater incidence of nearsightedness in children. However, a later study at Ohio State University contradicted the earlier conclusion. Both studies were published in the journal \"Nature\".\n", "Short-wave UV light is harmful to humans. In addition to causing sunburn and (over time) skin cancer, this light can produce extremely painful inflammation of the cornea of the eye, which may lead to temporary or permanent vision impairment. It can also damage the retina of the eye. For this reason, the light produced by a germicidal lamp must be carefully shielded against direct viewing, while reflections and dispersed light is not an issue. A February 2017 risk analysis of UV-C lights concluded that ultraviolet light from these lamps can cause skin and eye problems.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Neo-Futurism as an aesthetic, as well as the format of TML, are both creations of founder Greg Allen. Although, due to the changing roster of plays in \"TML\", Allen did not actually have a play in the show at all times during its run. In 2003, Allen ceased to be a member of the performing ensemble. The Neo-Futurism aesthetic is a variant of the early 20th century Italian Futurism movement. Greg Allen came up with the name from a young autistic child who would smash light bulbs and say, \"Too much light makes the baby go blind\". Later, when he was creating this show, the saying came back to his mind.\n", "BULLET::::- The inner-ear condition Ménière's disease can be aggravated by flicker. Sufferers of vertigo are recommended to not use fluorescent lights.\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphous light eruption is a condition affecting the skin thought to be caused by an adverse reaction to ultraviolet light. Its prevalence across Europe is 10-20% of the population. Artificial light sources may provoke the condition, and compact fluorescent light have been shown to produce an eruption.\n", "Section::::Fibre optics for communications.\n\nFibre optic laser safety is characterised by the fact that in normal operation the light beam is inaccessible, so something has to be unplugged or broken for it to become accessible. The resultant exit beam is quite divergent, so eye safety is highly dependent on distance, and if a magnifying device is used.\n\nIn practice, accidental exposure to the large majority of installed systems is unlikely to have any health impact, since power levels are usually below 1 mW and the wavelength in the infra-red, e.g. Class 1. However, there are a few significant exceptions.\n", "The science of scotobiology gathers together under a single descriptive heading a wide range of approaches to the study of the biology of darkness. This includes work on the effects of darkness on the behavior and metabolism of animals, plants, and microbes. Some of this work has been going on for over a century, and lays the foundation for understanding the importance of dark night skies, not only for humans but for all biological species.\n", "While some aspects of illumination are readily controllable, such as turning off lights when exiting a room, others are determined by the architecture and construction of the building. For example, skylights decrease the amount of artificial lighting that is required during the daytime, but most buildings do not have them installed. In addition, too few light switches can also cause issues. If an office building with large windows only has one switch per floor, then electric lights will illuminate the perimeter areas (with abundant natural light) to same level as the interior zones (which receive less sunlight).\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Long-term effects of acute or chronic chlormethine exposure are caused by damage to the immune system. White blood cell counts drop, increasing the risk of infection, and red blood cell and platelet counts may also drop due to bone marrow damage. Chronic eye infections may result from exposure, but blindness is temporary. Long-term effects on the respiratory system include anosmia (inability to smell), ageusia (inability to taste), inflammation, chronic infections, fibrosis, and cancer. Skin that has been damaged by HN2 can change pigmentation or become scarred, and may eventually develop cancer.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Scientific rationale.\n\nLight pollution, the introduction of artificial light into formerly dark ecosystems, has numerous adverse ecological effects. Exposure to artificial light can prove fatal for some organisms (e.g. moths that fly into a burning flame), can interrupt a life cycle phase for others (e.g. glowworms are unable to attract mates), and can reduce the possibilities for finding food (because of increased risk of predation). Light at night can also interfere with the chronobiology of many animals, including humans, through suppression of melatonin secretion.\n" ]

[ "It is harmful to eyes if you watch TV in a dark room.", "It is harmful to eyes to watch TV in a dark room." ]

[ "Watching TV in a dark room will not damage the human eye.", "It is not harmful to eyes to watch TV in a dark room." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is harmful to eyes if you watch TV in a dark room.", "It is harmful to eyes to watch TV in a dark room." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Watching TV in a dark room will not damage the human eye.", "It is not harmful to eyes to watch TV in a dark room." ]

[ "Once the simulated battery voltage is set, the user connects the charger to be tested to the input of the simulator. The charger will detect that a battery has been connected and the charging process will begin. The simulator keeps the voltage constant at the set value, while the analogue ammeter indicates the charging current. If the battery simulator has current limit feature and if the current exceed the maximum set value, the simulator automatically increases the voltage to limit the current\n", "The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging electrode. Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.\n", "Leakage current testing is performed using a PAT by applying a nominal voltage to the live conductors (active and neutral) of an appliance, and placing 0 volt reference on the earthed parts of a Class I appliance or the external metal parts of a Class II appliance;\n\nBULLET::::- Nominal voltage is 230 V AC. (therefore it can not be performed with a digital multimeter)\n", "For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage across the battery increases slowly during the charging process, until the battery is fully charged. After that, the voltage \"decreases\", which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers are often labeled as a ΔV, \"delta-V,\" or sometimes \"delta peak\", charger, indicating that they monitor the voltage change.\n", "In the United Kingdom, the Data Communication Company, which transports the commands from the supplier to the smart meter, performs an additional anomaly check on commands issued (and signed) by the energy supplier.\n", "In case of high-security parameters, the meter challenges the handheld unit with a cryptographic password. The handheld unit must return an encrypted password. If the password exchange is correct, the meter accepts the handheld unit: it is \"signed on.\"\n", "If, however, the unmetered supplies are being traded as non half-hourly the UMSO undertakes the responsibility to calculate an EAC (Estimated Annual Consumption). This is done using a simple formula which takes into account the circuit watts of the equipment and the annual hours of operation. For example, a piece of equipment that is in use 24 hours per day will have annual hours of 8766. For, say, a CCTV camera rated at 24 circuit watts the EAC would be 210.384kWh, calculated as circuit watts x annual hours divided by 1000.\n", "Devices, at the circuit level, use various techniques to measure current:\n\nBULLET::::- Shunt resistors\n\nBULLET::::- Hall effect current sensor transducers\n\nBULLET::::- Transformers (however DC cannot be measured)\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetoresistive field sensors\n\nBULLET::::- Rogowski coils\n\nBULLET::::- current clamps\n\nSection::::Resistive heating.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nAll the related products are based on the company’s on-site analytical laboratories, real-time and automated data surveillance, component tracking systems, and the new product incubation centers, under , ISO 13485 and ISO 14001 and many other standards, with Six Sigma to manage quality.\n", "With Automatic Meter Reading, manufacturers have developed pulse or encoder registers to produce electronic output for radio transmitters, reading storage devices, and data logging devices. Pulse meters send a digital or analog electronic pulse to a recording device. Encoder registers have an electronic means permitting an external device to interrogate the register to obtain either the position of the wheels or a stored electronic reading. Frequent transmissions of consumption data can be used to give smart meter functionality.\n", "Section::::Type.:Universal battery charger–analyzer.\n\nThe most sophisticated types are used in critical applications (e.g. military or aviation batteries). These heavy-duty automatic “intelligent charging” systems can be programmed with complex charging cycles specified by the battery maker. The best are universal (i.e. can charge all battery types), and include automatic capacity testing and analyzing functions too.\n\nSection::::Type.:USB-based charger.\n", "BULLET::::- Current sensors which monitor the power consumed, and maintain the connection only if the demand is within a predetermined range. Sensor wires react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail and are possibly less expensive to design and implement. Current sensors however can use standard connectors and can readily provide an option for suppliers to monitor or charge for the electricity actually consumed.\n\nBULLET::::- Additional physical \"sensor wires\" which provide a feedback signal such as specified by the undermentioned SAE J1772 and IEC 62196 schemes that require special (multi-pin) power plug fittings.\n", "Smart meter power data usage patterns can reveal much more than how much power is being used. Research has demonstrated that smart meters sampling power levels at two-second intervals can reliably identify when different electrical devices are in use.\n", "BULLET::::- \"dumb\" batteries, which lack any internal electronic circuitry.\n\nThe output current of a smart charger depends upon the battery's state. An intelligent charger may monitor the battery's voltage, temperature or time under charge to determine the optimum charge current and to terminate charging.\n", "When the required charge pressure has finally been calculated it is converted to the PWM signal that controls the solenoid valve, The ECU then controls that the actual pressure (measured by the pressure sensor) corresponds with the required pressure. If needed the PWM is fine tuned by multiplication of a correction factor. The correction factor (adaptation) is then stored in the memory of the ECU and is always used in the calculation of the PWM signal. The rationale with this is to make sure that the actual pressure as soon as possible will be equal to the required after a change of the load has occurred.\n", "The Paddle reading process begins by writing to POTGO which resets the POT* values to 0, the ALLPOT value to $FF, and discharges the potentiometer read capacitors. The POT* values increment as they are being scanned until reaching the resistance value of the potentiometer. When the Paddle reading is complete the corresponding bit in ALLPOT is reset to 0.\n", "Many voltage measurements cannot be made using conventional contacting voltmeters because they require charge transfer to the voltmeter, thus causing loading and modification of the source voltage. For example, when measuring voltage distribution on a dielectric surface, any measurement technique that requires charge transfer, no matter how small, will modify or destroy the actual data.\n\nSection::::Charge meter.:Principle of operation.\n", "Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Combined approaches.\n", "Additionally, there are electromechanical meters, like prepaid water meters and automatic meter reading meters. The latter integrates an electronic measurement component and a LCD with a mechanical water meter. Mechanical water meters normally use a reed switch, hall or photoelectric coding register as the signal output. After processing by the microcontroller unit (MCU) in the electronic module, the data are transmitted to the LCD or output to an information management system.\n", "Section::::Principle of CASY technology.\n", "Two types of sense are used, depending on where the power supply output is measured. In local sense, the supply simply measures the voltage at its output terminals, where the leads to the load connect. This method has the problem of not accounting for the voltage drop due to resistance of the leads, which is proportional to the amount of current drawn by the load. That is, the supply might be producing the correct voltage at its output terminals, but there will be a lower voltage at the input terminals of the load.\n", "Meters can be prepaid or postpaid, depending on the payment method. Most mechanical type water meters are of the postpaid type, as are electromagnetic and ultrasonic meters. With prepaid water meters the user purchases and prepays for a given amount of water from a vending station. The amount of water credited is entered on media such as an IC or RF type card. The main difference is whether the card needs a contact with the processing part of the prepaid water meter. In some areas a prepaid water meter uses a keypad as the interface for inputting the water credit.\n", "Additionally, a BMS may calculate values based on the above items, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum charge current as a charge current limit (CCL)\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum discharge current as a discharge current limit (DCL)\n\nBULLET::::- Energy [kWh] delivered since last charge or charge cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Internal impedance of a cell (to determine open circuit voltage)\n\nBULLET::::- Charge [Ah] delivered or stored (sometimes this feature is called Coulomb counter)\n\nBULLET::::- Total energy delivered since first use\n\nBULLET::::- Total operating time since first use\n\nBULLET::::- Total number of cycles\n\nSection::::Functions.:Communication.\n", "In 1974, Mr. Paraskevakos was awarded a U.S. patent for this technology. In 1977, he launched Metretek, Inc., which developed and produced the first fully automated, commercially available remote meter reading and load management system. Since this system was developed pre-Internet, Metretek utilized the IBM series 1 mini-computer. For this approach, Mr. Paraskevakos and Metretek were awarded multiple patents.\n", "Before the Battery Charging Specification was defined, there was no standardized way for the portable device to inquire how much current was available. For example, Apple's iPod and iPhone chargers indicate the available current by voltages on the D− and D+ lines. When D+ = D− = 2.0 V, the device may pull up to 900 mA. When D+ = 2.0 V and D− = 2.8 V, the device may pull up to 1 A of current. When D+ = 2.8 V and D− = 2.0 V, the device may pull up to 2 A of current.\n\nSection::::Power.:USB Battery Charging.:Accessory charging adaptors (ACA).\n" ]

[ "A phone or portable or other device is designed to know how much it's charged.", "A charger knows how much is charged." ]

[ "Devices like cell phones and portable chargers do not know exactly how much they are charged, but they make an estimate, by coulomb counting for example.", "A charger only has an estimate of how much is charged." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A phone or portable or other device is designed to know how much it's charged.", "A charger knows how much is charged." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Devices like cell phones and portable chargers do not know exactly how much they are charged, but they make an estimate, by coulomb counting for example.", "A charger only has an estimate of how much is charged." ]

[ "Section::::Functional sensitivity.\n\nThe canonical characteristics described above of the Dm effect give a general description of the component; however, the strength, timing, topographical distribution and even whether or not the effect is seen is sensitive to a variety of experimental manipulations.\n\nSection::::Functional sensitivity.:Incidental versus intentional encoding.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n\nTo the extent that greater positivity for subsequently remembered items spans several ERP components (P300, N400, and an LPC), coupled with differing topographical distributions depending on task, it is likely that the neural generators of the Dm effect are widespread in the brain. Pinning down the location in the brain that gives rise to any ERP component is very difficult if not impossible because of the inverse problem.\n", "Remember and know responses are quite often differentiated by their functional correlates in specific areas in the brain. For instance, during \"remember\" situations it is found that there is greater EEG activity than \"knowing\", specifically, due to an interaction between frontal and posterior regions of the brain. It is also found that the hippocampus is differently activated during recall of \"remembered\" (vs. familiar) stimuli. On the other hand, items that are only \"known\", or seem familiar, are associated with activity in the rhinal cortex.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Section::::Functional sensitivity.:False memories.\n", "Evidence has been found for the existence of state-dependent learning in conditions of pain. Individuals who were subject to induced pain by placing their hands in ice water recalled a given list of words better when their hands were once again in the ice water than when their hands were placed in warm water. Participants who first learned the list of words while their hands were immersed in warm water, thus posing no threat of induced pain, recalled the words most effectively when they were in a similar warm water condition than the ice water condition. When the level of pain at the time of encoding matches the level of pain at the time of recall, individuals show an improved ability to remember a given list of words. These results show that pain states can also affect memory.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Depth of processing.\n\nWhen more detailed, elaborate encoding and associations are made, more remember responses are reported than know responses. The opposite occurs with shallow, surface encoding which results in fewer remember responses.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Serial position.\n", "Section::::Factors affecting recall.:State-dependent learning.\n\nThis is another example of how matching the conditions at the encoding and retrieval can influence memory. \"State-dependent learning\" is associated with a specific \"internal state\", such as mood or state of awareness. According to the principle of state-dependent learning, memory will be better when a person's internal state during retrieval matches his or her internal state during encoding. Two ways of matching encoding and retrieval include matching the physical situation (encoding specificity) or an internal feeling (state-dependent learning).\n\nSection::::Factors affecting recall.:Transfer-appropriate processing.\n", "Section::::Functional sensitivity.:Type of memory at retrieval.\n\nThe Dm effect has been shown to be sensitive to how participants are asked to display their memory for previous items. In a 1988 paper by Paller, McCarthy and Wood, a greater Dm effect was observed for items that were freely recalled with no external cues, compared to items that were presented and the subject was asked if he or she recognizes the item as old. This is suggestive of the Dm effect being larger for stronger representations, as recall is generally more difficult than recognition.\n", "Laney et al. (2004) demonstrated this by using an audio narrative to give the presented slides either neutral or emotional meaning, instead of presenting shockingly salient visual stimuli. In one of the experiments, participants in both the neutral and emotional conditions viewed slides of a date scenario of a woman and man at a dinner date. The couple engaged in conversation, then, at the end of the evening, embraced. The event concluded with the man leaving and the woman phoning a friend.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence both remember and know responses are.:Word vs. non-word memory.\n\nWhen words are used as stimuli, more remember responses and fewer know responses are produced in comparison to when nonwords are used as stimuli.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence both remember and know responses are.:Gradual vs. rapid presentation.\n\nGradual presentation of stimuli causes an increase in familiarity and thus an increase in associated know responses; however, gradual presentation causes a decrease in remember responses.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Role of emotion.\n", "Regarding Terry's kiss with Stan Larsen, Jamie Anne Allman stated: \"I think this is her feeling guilt about giving Rosie her ID, which she opened a bank account with, and that Rosie found out about Beau Soleil through Terry, being on her computer in her bedroom, and the guilt that she has from that. And the guilt that she has from all those things, that she wants forgiveness for the things that she’s done, and the secrets that she has...She just needs some kind of comfort. I think that’s where, for both of them, I feel like that’s what was stemming from that. And then it was awkward, because I think they both realize it was wrong, but they needed it, but it was weird.\"\n", "Myside bias has been shown to influence the accuracy of memory recall. In an experiment, widows and widowers rated the intensity of their experienced grief six months and five years after the deaths of their spouses. Participants noted a higher experience of grief at six months rather than at five years. Yet, when the participants were asked after five years how they had felt six months after the death of their significant other, the intensity of grief participants recalled was highly correlated with their current level of grief. Individuals appear to utilize their current emotional states to analyze how they must have felt when experiencing past events. Emotional memories are reconstructed by current emotional states.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Neurological causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Neurological causes.:Neurological basis of false recognition.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Neurological causes.:False memories and PET scans.\n", "In his SPI model, Tulving stated that encoding into episodic and semantic memory is serial, storage is parallel, and retrieval is independent. By this model, events are first encoded in semantic memory before being encoded in episodic memory; thus, both systems may have an influence on the recognition of the event.\n\nSection::::Possible theories.:High threshold model.\n", "As expected, the results revealed that details central to the event were remembered more accurately when that event was emotional than when neutral, However, this was not at the expense of memory for peripheral (in this case, spatially peripheral or plot-irrelevant) details, which were also remembered more accurately when the event was emotional. Based on these findings it has been suggested that the dual enhancing and impairing effects on memory are not an inevitable consequence of emotional arousal.\n\nSection::::Memory of felt emotion.\n", "Section::::Experimental research.:Cryptomnesia.\n", "BULLET::::- Mood-congruency - Items/events are better recalled when the mood of the individual at the time of the event and the time of recall are the same. Thus, if the mood at the time of recall does not match the mood experienced at the time the event occurred, there is an increased chance that complete recall will be affected/interrupted.\n\nSection::::Memory errors in Abnormal Psychology.\n", "Levels of processing have been an integral part of learning about memory. The self-reference effect describes the greater recall capacity for a particular stimulus if it is related semantically to the subject. This can be thought of as a corollary of the familiarity modifier, because stimuli specifically related to an event in a person's life will have widespread activation in that person's semantic network. For example, the recall value of a personality trait adjective is higher when subjects are asked whether the trait adjective applies to them than when asked whether trait adjective has a meaning similar to another trait.\n", "“What attracted me most to the project was being able to see through someone else’s eyes” explains actor Billy Zane who catapulted to fame in the top-grossing movie “Titanic”. “Taylor,” explains Zane “is a good guy who now has the memories of committing horrible acts. It opposites, a good and very bad person getting slammed together in one mind that made it most interesting.”\n", "Activity in the orbitofrontal and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex are associated with remembering for both positive and negative items. When it comes to remembering, it has been suggested that negative items may be remembered with more detail in comparison to positive or neutral items; support for this has been found in the temporo-occipital regions, which showed activity specific to negative items that were \"remembered\". A study found that in addition to being remembered in more detail, negative items also tended to be remembered for longer durations than positive items.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Role of emotion.:Knowing.\n", "Section::::Theory.\n", "People exhibit better memory for more intensely emotional events than less intensely emotional events. The precise cause of this is unclear, but it has been demonstrated, for decades, across a wide variety of surveys and experiments. In addition, people do not always recognize that the events that they remember are more emotionally intense than the \"average\" event of its kind. This failure to correct for the atypicality of extreme memories can lead people to believe those extreme moments are representative of the \"set\" being judged. Boston Red Sox fans asked to recall any one game they saw when the Red Sox won, for example, tended to recall the best game they could remember. They only realized this game was unrepresentative of past winning games by the Red Sox if they were explicitly asked to recall the best game they could remember, as evidenced by their subsequent \"affective forecasts\". This bias for more intense emotional experiences is evident in \"nostalgic preferences\". People asked to recall a television show or movie from the past tend to recall the most enjoyable show or movie that they can remember, and use this extreme example to rate all shows from its era unless they are also able to spontaneously recall shows or movies that are worse than the first show or movie they remember.\n", "The primacy effect is related to enhanced remembering. In a study, a free recall test was conducted on some lists of words and no test on other lists of words prior to a recognition test. They found that testing led to positive recency effects for remembered items; on the other hand, with no prior test, negative recency effects occurred for remembered items. Thus, both primary and recency effects can be seen in remember responses.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence know responses but not remember responses are.\n", "Section::::Recreating internal state.\n\nStudies have shown that simply creating the same internal state that you had at the time of encoding is sufficient to serve as a retrieval cue. Therefore putting yourself in the same mindset that you were in at the time of encoding will help recall in the same way that being in the same situation helps recall. This effect called context reinstatement was demonstrated by Fisher and Craik 1977 when they matched retrieval cues with the way information was memorized.\n\nSection::::Implications.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Normally, the body compensates, but in the presence of other factors, e.g. hypovolemia, diseases and medications, this response may not be sufficient.\n\nThere are medications to treat hypotension. In addition, there are many lifestyle advices. Many of them, however, are specific for a certain cause of orthostatic hypotension, e.g. maintaining a proper fluid intake in dehydration.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypercoagulability.\n", "Although standing per se is not dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n\nOrthostatic hypotension is characterized by an unusually low blood pressure when the patient is standing up.\n\nIt can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n", "Normally, a series of cardiac, vascular, neurologic, muscular, and neurohumoral responses occur quickly so the blood pressure does not fall very much. One response is a vasoconstriction (baroreceptor reflex), pressing the blood up into the body again. (Often, this mechanism is exaggerated and is why diastolic blood pressure is a bit higher when a person is standing up, compared to a person in the horizontal position.) Therefore, some factor that inhibits one of these responses and causes a greater than normal fall in blood pressure is required. Such factors include low blood volume, diseases, and medications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Apart from addressing the underlying cause, orthostatic hypotension may be treated with a recommendation to increase salt and water intake (to increase the blood volume), wearing compression stockings, and sometimes medication (fludrocortisone, midodrine or others). Salt loading (dramatic increases in salt intake) must be supervised by a doctor, as this can cause severe neurological problems if done too aggressively.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Blood pressure that is too low is known as hypotension. This is a medical concern if it causes signs or symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases, circulatory shock.\n\nCauses of low arterial pressure include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis\n\nBULLET::::- Hemorrhage – blood loss\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiogenic shock\n\nBULLET::::- Neurally mediated hypotension (or reflex syncope)\n\nBULLET::::- Toxins including toxic doses of blood pressure medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Hormonal abnormalities, such as Addison's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa and bulimia\n\nSection::::Disorders of blood pressure.:Low blood pressure.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n", "Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome\n\nPostural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) is a condition in which a change from lying to standing causes an abnormally large increase in heart rate. This occurs with symptoms that may include lightheadedness, trouble thinking, blurred vision or weakness. Other commonly associated conditions include irritable bowel syndrome, insomnia, chronic headaches, Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia.\n", "When standing, gravity pulls the blood downwards to the lower part of the body. Body mechanisms, such as vasoconstriction and valves of the veins, assist in pumping blood upwards. As blood is pumped through the body, the valves within the veins prevent the blood from flowing backwards. After extensive, prolonged standing, these valves can become weak and eventually fail. When this happens, blood is no longer being prevented from flowing backward. Gravity will pull the blood back into an individuals legs, ankles and feet. This forces the veins to expand or \"balloon\" to accommodate this extra blood.\n", "The causes of POTS are varied. Often, it begins after a viral infection, surgery or pregnancy. Risk factors include a family history of the condition. Diagnosis in adults is based on an increase in heart rate of more than 30 beats per minute within ten minutes of standing up which is accompanied by symptoms. Low blood pressure with standing, however, does not occur. Other conditions which can cause similar symptoms, such as dehydration, heart problems, adrenal insufficiency and Parkinson disease, must not be present.\n", "Orthostatic hypotension happens when gravity causes blood to pool in the lower extremities, which in turn compromises venous return, resulting in decreased cardiac output and subsequent lowering of arterial pressure. For example, changing from a lying position to standing loses about 700 ml of blood from the thorax, with a decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressures. The overall effect is an insufficient blood perfusion in the upper part of the body.\n", "Section::::Complications.\n", "Orthostatic hypertension\n\nOrthostatic hypertension, is a medical condition consisting of a sudden and abrupt increase in blood pressure when a person stands up. Orthostatic hypertension is diagnosed by a rise in systolic blood pressure of 20 mmHg or more when standing. \"Orthostatic diastolic hypertension\" is a condition in which the diastolic raises to 98 mmHg or over in response to standing; however, this definition currently lacks clear medical consensus and is thus subject to change. Orthostatic hypertension involving the systolic is known as \"systolic orthostatic hypertension\".\n", "Evidence for the treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome as of 2014 is poor.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Physical measures.\n\nStretching, occupational and physical therapy are common non-invasive approaches used in the treatment of TOS. The goal of stretching is to relieve compression in the thoracic cavity, reduce blood vessel and nerve impingement, and realign the bones, muscles, ligaments, or tendons that are causing the problem.\n", "Lumbar hyperlordosis (also known as anterior pelvis tilt, lordosis and lumbar lordosis) has a noticeable impact on the height of individuals suffering from this medical issue, a height loss of 0.5-2.5 inches is common. \n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "An example of premature ventricular contraction, is the classic athletic heart syndrome. Sustained training of athletes causes a cardiac adaptation where the resting SAN rate is lower (sometimes around 40 beats per minute). This can lead to atrioventricular block, where the signal from the SAN is impaired in its path to the ventricles. This leads to uncoordinated contractions between the atria and ventricles, without the correct delay in between and in severe cases can result in sudden death.\n\nSection::::Autorhythmicity.:Regulation by the autonomic nervous system.\n", "People who present to the emergency department who are asymptomatic, with unremarkable physical exams, have non-diagnostic EKGs and normal laboratory studies, can safely be sent home and instructed to follow up with their primary care provider or cardiologist. Patients whose palpitations are associated with syncope, uncontrolled arrhythmias, hemodynamic compromise, or angina should be admitted for further evaluation.\n", "On physical examination, these clinical signs may be noticed:\n\nBULLET::::- Low blood pressure with or without orthostatic hypotension (blood pressure that decreases with standing)\n", "Circulatory collapse\n\nA circulatory collapse is defined as a general or specific failure of the circulation, either cardiac or peripheral in nature. Although the mechanisms, causes and clinical syndromes are different, the pathogenesis is the same—the circulatory system fails to maintain the supply of oxygen and other nutrients to the tissues and to remove the carbon dioxide and other metabolites from them. The failure may be hypovolemic or distributive.\n\nA common cause of this could be shock or trauma from injury or surgery.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nHypertension, or abnormally high blood pressure, often signifies an elevated level of both psychological and physiological stress. Often, hypertension goes hand in hand with various atrial fibrillations including premature atrial contractions (PACs). Additional factors that may contribute to spontaneous premature atrial contractions could be: \n\nBULLET::::- Increased age\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal body height\n\nBULLET::::- History of cardiovascular disease (CV)\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal ANP levels\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated cholesterol\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nPremature atrial contractions are typically diagnosed with an electrocardiogram, Holter monitor, or cardiac event monitor.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Electrocardiogram.\n", "In up to one third of people with POTS, fainting occurs in response to postural changes or exercise. Migraine-like headaches are common, sometimes with symptoms worsening in an upright position (orthostatic headache). Some people with POTS develop acrocyanosis, or blotchy, red/blue skin upon standing, especially over the feet (indicative of blood pooling). 48% of people with POTS report chronic fatigue and 32% report sleep disturbances. Others exhibit only the cardinal symptom of orthostatic tachycardia.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Prolonged still standing significantly activates the coagulation cascade, called orthostatic hypercoagulability. Overall, it causes an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume crosses into the extravascular compartment. This plasma shift causes an increase in the concentration of coagulation factors and other proteins of coagulation, in turn causing hypercoagulability.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic tremor.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "Besides the definitive threshold, an abrupt fall in systolic blood pressure around 30 mmHg from one's \"typical average systolic pressure\" can also be diagnosed with hypotension.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Orthostatic hypotension and syncope are associated with the body's poor ability to control blood pressure without active alpha-adrenergic receptors. Patients on prazosin should be told to rise to stand up slowly, since their poor baroreflex may cause them to faint if their blood pressure is not adequately maintained during standing. The nasal congestion is due to dilation of vessels in the nasal mucosa.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "BULLET::::- One commonly prescribed set of stretches includes moving the shoulders anteriorly (forward – called \"hunching\"), then back to a neutral position, then extending them posteriorly (backward, called \"arching\"), then back to neutral, followed by lifting the shoulders up as high as possible, and then back down to neutral, repeated in cycles as tolerated.\n\nBULLET::::- Another set of stretches involves tilting and extending the neck opposite to the side of the injury while keeping the injured arm down or wrapped around the back.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "With the advent of modern electric lights, tastevins have very little practical use, although sommeliers often wear them on a ribbon or chain around the neck as a nod to tradition.\n", "Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party).\n", "Knowledge about the culture of grapevines was conserved by the Catholic Church: wine was necessary for the celebration of Mass and the monks planted vines at high latitudes and increased the monastic acreages. Difficult to transport and store, wine long remained a product for local consumption. The trade was re-established initially after the enrichment of the nobles and prelates because, as with the Romans, the art of the table reflected the reputation of the host.\n", "Specialist cooking wines, liqueurs, vermouths and eaux de vie are widely used by professional chefs to enhance flavour in traditional and modern dishes. These are specially created to be an ingredient in cooking, not a beverage. As well as offering value for money, they have a longer shelf life which avoids wastage. The addition of specialist cooking wines, liqueurs and vermouths adds flavour to finished meat and fish dishes; desserts benefit from the use of sweet or dry wines. In addition, the use of specialist cooking wine in marinades can tenderise meat and is of particular benefit to game dishes. Many chefs discourage serving the same alcoholic beverage with the meal that was cooked using it. \n", "The wine is served according to a complex system. Ministers are asked to give their preferences when they take office. Food being served at the banquet or function is usually factored in. National sensitivities and customs are also considered – for example when there is a Chinese delegation vintages from 1988 are used as '8' is considered a lucky number in China.\n", "Until the World War II, wine was the preserve of the upper classes in western Europe, and virtually non-existent in the U.S. due to Prohibition, but servicemen returning home from the European theatre brought with them the newly acquired habit of wine drinking. With the emergence of mass tourism in the 1950s and the greater spending power of the 1960s, a whole new generation visited France, Italy and Spain, bringing back the continental culture of wine.\n", "Post's first book was published during Prohibition, and she noted, \"A water glass standing alone at each place makes such a meager and untrimmed looking table that most people put on at least two wine glasses, sherry and champagne, or claret and sherry, and pour something pinkish or yellowish into them. [...] Those few who still have cellars, serve wines exactly as they used to, white wine, claret, sherry and Burgundy warm, champagne ice cold; and after dinner, green mint poured over crushed ice in little glasses, and other liqueurs of room temperature.\"\n", "In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19) describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding them to \"do this in remembrance of me.\" Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among denominations (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).\n", "A common rule by gourmets is to serve at table the same wine that has been used in cooking.\n\nSection::::Culinary aspects.:Nutrition facts.\n\nSource: US government\n\nSection::::In art.\n\nSection::::In art.:Painted or drawn white wine.\n\nSince the Middle Ages white wine has inspired many painters to include it in still lifes or for the representation of the everyday life, party life, or life to excess. An abundance of English, Dutch and German paintings from the 17th century depicted a high consumption of white wine at that time replacing the consumption of beer in the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Nonetheless, there are many \"cultural\" parallels with the use of wine in European culture. Chinese food employs \"jiǔ\" in its recipes and formal dining in an analogous manner; likewise, there are many parallels in upper-class etiquette and religious observance. It appears prominently in all of the Chinese classics, including the Rites of Zhou and the Record of Rites, and has been a constant theme of Chinese poetry since its origins, all similar to the treatment of wine in Europe.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient China.\n", "Sacramental wine\n\nSacramental wine, Communion wine, or altar wine is wine obtained from grapes and intended for use in celebration of the Eucharist (also referred to as the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion, among other names). It is usually consumed after sacramental bread.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nWine was used in the earliest celebrations of the Lord's Supper. Paul the Apostle writes in :\n", "Section::::History.\n\nWine has had a long history of being served as an accompaniment to food. The early history of wine has it origins as another dietary staple and a beverage that was often more sanitary than the local water supply. There is little evidence that much serious thought was given to pairing particular dishes to particular wines with most likely whatever wine was available being used. However, as culinary traditions in a region developed, so too did local winemaking tradition.\n", "Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n\nSection::::Alcohol measurement.\n\nSection::::Alcohol measurement.:Alcohol concentration.\n", "White wine has also inspired designers, cartoonists, advertising etc.\n\nAdèle Blanc-Sec, heroine of comics winked at the beverage. She also has cinematic posterity with \"The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec\".\n\nSection::::In art.:In literature.\n", "Georgia is the birthplace of wine and its table culture is deeply connected to the philosophical toast making rituals that are passed down from one generation to the next during Supras.\n\nSection::::North America.\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.\n", "Section::::Historical information.\n", "The Catholic Church continues to use wine in the celebration of the Eucharist because it is part of the tradition passed down through the ages starting with Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, where Catholics believe the consecrated bread and wine \"literally\" become the body and blood of Jesus Christ, a dogma known as transubstantiation. Wine is used (not grape juice) both due to its strong Scriptural roots, and also to follow the tradition set by the early Christian Church. The Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church (1983), Canon 924 says that the wine used must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt. In some circumstances, a priest may obtain special permission to use grape juice for the consecration; however, this is extremely rare and typically requires sufficient impetus to warrant such a dispensation, such as personal health of the priest.\n", "There is also a wide selection of drinks which are associated with the city. The area around Rome is one of the most significant wine-producing areas in Europe, and its history spans 2,000 years. Today, red wine is drunk along with main meals, whilst white wine is usually drunk alongside desserts. There are also several different types of popular Roman aperitifs and different digestifs, including several renowned coffees.\n", "Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n\nSection::::Religious significance.\n\nSection::::Religious significance.:Ancient religions.\n", "Throughout the world there are some wineries that exist either solely for the production of sacramental wines, or with sacramental wines as an auxiliary business. The same is true of wine used by other religions, \"e.g.\", kosher wine. These wineries are small and often run by religious brothers, priests or dedicated laity.\n", "The temperature of service is a criterion to put wine in the best condition for drinking. The wine must be chilled but not be served with ice. Between 8 and 9 °C, the chill will accentuate the liveliness of the bubbles and reduce the sweetness of a sweet or Fortified wine. For an aromatic dry wine service between 10 and 12 °C stimulates vivacity and gives freshness to the flavours. Finally, the great white wines are best at a temperature between 12 and 14 °C which allows the flavours and the structure to be revealed.\n\nSection::::Culinary aspects.:Harmony of white wine and food.\n", "Section::::Wine in Greek culture.\n", "In addition to the set courses, little relish dishes of radishes, celery, olives, or almonds could be set on the table as \"hors-d'œuvre\". Wines, too, were often greatly reduced in number. Amy Vanderbilt noted in her book, \"The Complete Book of Etiquette\", \"At a formal dinner champagne may be the only wine served after the service of sherry with the soup.\"\n", "As part of the ruins of ancient Pompeii, a price list on the wall of a bar establishment notes\n\nThe Roman poet Catullus extolled the virtues of Falernian in one of his poems\n\nThe Roman poet Horace mentioned Falernian in one of his poems\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In the UK from 1993 to 2012, the common octopus (\"Octopus vulgaris\") was the only invertebrate protected under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986.\n\nCephalopods are the only invertebrates protected under the 2010 European Union directive \"on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Animal cognition\n\nBULLET::::- Animal consciousness\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"So you think you're smarter than a cephalopod?\" by Wendy Williams, At the Smithsonian's Ocean Portal.\n\nBULLET::::- \"What behavior can we expect of octopuses?\" by Dr. Jennifer Mather, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge and Roland C. Anderson, The Seattle Aquarium.\n", "This measurement of approximate intelligence is more accurate for mammals than for other classes and phyla of Animalia.\n\nSection::::EQ and intelligence in mammals.\n", "BULLET::::- The encephalization quotient varies widely between species. The La Plata dolphin has an EQ of approximately 1.67; the Ganges river dolphin of 1.55; the orca of 2.57; the bottlenose dolphin of 4.14; and the tucuxi dolphin of 4.56; In comparison to other animals, elephants have an EQ ranging from 1.13 to 2.36; chimpanzees of approximately 2.49; dogs of 1.17; cats of 1.00; and mice of 0.50.\n", "In 1995, Marten and Psarakos used television to test dolphin self-awareness. They showed dolphins real-time footage of themselves, recorded footage, and another dolphin. They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behavior. While this particular study has not been repeated since then, dolphins have since passed the mirror test.\n\nSection::::Comparative cognition.\n\nResearch of the comparative cognition of the dolphin is one of the primary methods of the investigation of cetacean intelligence.\n", "As the cognitive ability and intelligence in non-human animals cannot be measured with verbal scales, it has been measured using a variety of methods that involve such things as habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Principal Component Analysis and factor analytic studies have shown that a single factor of intelligence is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice. These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by a similar single factor known as the general factor of intelligence in humans (40-50%).\n", "BULLET::::- The majority of mammals are born with a brain close to 90% of the adult weight. Humans are born with 28% of the adult weight, chimpanzees with 54%, bottlenose dolphins with 42.5%, and elephants with 35%.\n", "Section::::Brain evolution.\n", "Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it has the same meaning across species (e.g. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and also operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.\n", "Early studies found evidence both for and against measurable intelligence using the \"g factor\" in rats. Part of the difficulty of understanding animal cognition generally, is determining what to measure. One aspect of intelligence is the ability to learn, which can be measured using a maze like the T-maze. Experiments done in the 1920s showed that some rats performed better than others in maze tests, and if these rats were selectively bred, their offspring also performed better, suggesting that in rats an ability to learn was heritable in some way.\n\nSection::::As food.\n", "In controlled experiments, cats showed that they had fully developed concepts of object permanence, meaning that sensorimotor intelligence is completely developed in cats. For human infants, tests involving multiple invisible displacements of an object are used to assess the beginning of mental representation in the sixth and last stage of sensorimotor intelligence. The cats' searches on these tasks were consistent with representation of an unsensed object and fully developed sensorimotor intelligence. The working memory for object permanence of the domesticated cat is surmised from experiment as being of 16 hours.\n", "Cetacean intelligence\n\nCetacean intelligence is the cognitive ability of the order Cetacea of mammals. This order includes whales, porpoises, and dolphins.\n\nSection::::Brain size.\n", "Intelligence is generally defined as the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills. Though these criteria are difficult to measure in nonhuman animals, cephalopods seem to be exceptionally intelligent invertebrates. The study of cephalopod intelligence also has an important comparative aspect in the broader understanding of animal cognition because it relies on a nervous system fundamentally different from that of vertebrates. In particular, the Coleoidea subclass (cuttlefish, squid, and octopuses) is thought to be the most intelligent invertebrates and an important example of advanced cognitive evolution in animals, though nautilus intelligence is also a subject of growing interest among zoologists.\n", "By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native inheritance.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Communication.\n\nMany cephalopods are highly social creatures; when isolated from their own kind, some species have been observed shoaling with fish.\n", "Cephalopod intelligence\n\nCephalopod intelligence is a measure of the cognitive ability of the cephalopod class of molluscs.\n", "Section::::Latent learning.\n", "Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Studies have shown that \"g\" is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by \"g\" in humans (40-50%).\n\nSection::::In plants.\n", "Self-awareness, though not well defined scientifically, is believed to be the precursor to more advanced processes like meta-cognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that are typical of humans. Scientific research in this field has suggested that bottlenose dolphins, alongside elephants and great apes, possess self-awareness.\n\nThe most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test, developed by Gordon Gallup in the 1970s, in which a temporary dye is placed on an animal's body, and the animal is then presented with a mirror.\n", "In 2015, it was shown for the first time that a species of dolphin, the long-finned pilot whale, has more neocortical neurons than any mammal studied to date including humans.\n", "Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or \"g\" factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, the \"g\" factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dolphin Communication and Cognition: Past, Present, and Future\", edited by Denise L. Herzing and Christine M. Johnson, 2015, MIT Press\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Animal cognition\n\nBULLET::::- Animal consciousness\n\nBULLET::::- Morgan's Canon\n\nBULLET::::- John C. Lillypioneer researcher in human–dolphin communication.\n\nBULLET::::- Louis Hermanscientist in dolphin cognition and sensory abilities\n\nBULLET::::- Animal language\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal learning\n\nBULLET::::- Spindle neuron\n\nBULLET::::- Military dolphin\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program\n\nBULLET::::- \"So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish\"fiction novel which derives its title from the idea of dolphins leaving the Earth.\n", "Section::::Methods of study.\n\nStudying the evolution of cognition is accomplished through a comparative cognitive approach where a cognitive ability and comparing it between closely related species and distantly related species. For example, a researcher may want to analyze the connection between spatial memory and food caching behavior. By examining two closely related animals (chickadees and jays) and/or two distantly related animals (jays and chipmunks), hypotheses could be generated about when and how this cognitive ability evolved.\n\nSection::::Animals with high levels of cognition.\n", "Section::::Model organisms of neurogenesis.:Chick.\n\nThough avians have been used primarily to study early embryonic development, in recent decades the developing chick has played a critical role in the examination of neurogenesis and regeneration as the young chick is capable of neuronal-turnover at a young age, but loses the neurogenerative capacity into adulthood. The loss of neuroregenerative ability over maturation has allowed investigators to further examine genetic regulators of neurogenesis.\n\nSection::::Model organisms of neurogenesis.:Rodent.\n", "BULLET::::- Uplift Universea series of novels, involving genetically-enhanced (\"uplifted\") intelligent dolphins\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Cetacean brain\n\nBULLET::::1. Brain facts and figures.\n\nBULLET::::2. Neuroanatomy of the Common Dolphin (\"Delphinus delphis\") as Revealed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).\n\nBULLET::::3. \"The Dolphin Brain Atlas\" – A collection of stained brain sections and MRI images.\n\nBULLET::::4. Bottle-nose dolphin brain from the comparative mammalian brain collection.\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Dolphin brains\" – An AAAS Science Netlinks feature.\n", "Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, \"Chaser\", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands, although a 2018 study on canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are not more exceptional than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees or cats.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Power supply.\n", "Section::::Safety.\n", "The resolution of a multimeter is the smallest part of the scale which can be shown, which is scale dependent. On some digital multimeters it can be configured, with higher resolution measurements taking longer to complete. For example, a multimeter that has a 1 mV resolution on a 10 V scale can show changes in measurements in 1 mV increments.\n", "Additional scales such as decibels, and measurement functions such as capacitance, transistor gain, frequency, duty cycle, display hold, and continuity which sounds a buzzer when the measured resistance is small have been included on many multimeters. While multimeters may be supplemented by more specialized equipment in a technician's toolkit, some multimeters include additional functions for specialized applications (temperature with a thermocouple probe, inductance, connectivity to a computer, speaking measured value, etc.).\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "To avoid the loading of the measured circuit by the current drawn by the meter movement, some analog multimeters use an amplifier inserted between the measured circuit and the meter movement. While this increases the expense and complexity of the meter, by use of vacuum tubes or field effect transistors the input resistance can be made very high and independent of the current required to operate the meter movement coil. Such amplified multimeters are called VTVMs (vacuum tube voltmeters), TVMs (transistor volt meters), FET-VOMs, and similar names.\n", "A multimeter can use many different test probes to connect to the circuit or device under test. Crocodile clips, retractable hook clips, and pointed probes are the three most common types. Tweezer probes are used for closely spaced test points, as for instance surface-mount devices. The connectors are attached to flexible, well insulated leads terminated with connectors appropriate for the meter. Probes are connected to portable meters typically by shrouded or recessed banana jacks, while benchtop meters may use banana jacks or BNC connectors. 2 mm plugs and binding posts have also been used at times, but are less commonly used today. Indeed, safety ratings now require shrouded banana jacks.\n", "To measure resistance, switches arrange for a small battery within the instrument to pass a current through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the battery which changes over time, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohm scale to zero it. In the usual circuits found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance, so full-scale will be 0 Ω, and higher resistance will correspond to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.\n", "Multimeters were invented in the early 1920s as radio receivers and other vacuum tube electronic devices became more common. The invention of the first multimeter is attributed to British Post Office engineer, Donald Macadie, who became dissatisfied with the need to carry many separate instruments required for maintenance of telecommunications circuits. Macadie invented an instrument which could measure amperes (amps), volts and ohms, so the multifunctional meter was then named Avometer. The meter comprised a moving coil meter, voltage and precision resistors, and switches and sockets to select the range.\n", "BULLET::::- large currents — adapters are available which use inductance (AC current only) or Hall effect sensors (both AC and DC current), usually through insulated clamp jaws to avoid direct contact with high current capacity circuits which can be dangerous, to the meter and to the operator\n", "Manufacturers can provide calibration services so that new meters may be purchased with a certificate of calibration indicating the meter has been adjusted to standards traceable to, for example, the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), or other national standards organization.\n", "A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. \n\nMultimeters are available in a wide range of features and prices. Cheap multimeters can cost less than US$10, while laboratory-grade models with certified calibration can cost more than US$5,000.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A switch (usually rotary) allows greater resistance to be inserted in series with the meter movement to read higher voltages. The product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the range. \n", "Modern meters may be interfaced with a personal computer by IrDA links, RS-232 connections, USB, or an instrument bus such as IEEE-488. The interface allows the computer to record measurements as they are made. Some DMMs can store measurements and upload them to a computer.\n\nThe first digital multimeter was manufactured in 1955 by Non Linear Systems. It is claimed that the first \"handheld\" digital multimeter was developed by Frank Bishop of Intron Electronics in 1977, which at the time presented a major breakthrough for servicing and fault finding in the field.\n\nSection::::Analog multimeters.\n", "Because of the absence of amplification, ordinary analog multimeter are typically less susceptible to radio frequency interference, and so continue to have a prominent place in some fields even in a world of more accurate and flexible electronic multimeters.\n\nSection::::Probes.\n", "The basic moving coil meter is suitable only for direct current measurements, usually in the range of 10 μA to 100 mA. It is easily adapted to read heavier currents by using shunts (resistances in parallel with the basic movement) or to read voltage using series resistances known as multipliers. To read alternating currents or voltages, a rectifier is needed. One of the earliest suitable rectifiers was the copper oxide rectifier developed and manufactured by Union Switch & Signal Company, Swissvale, Pennsylvania, later part of Westinghouse Brake and Signal Company, from 1927.\n", "Measurement of low resistance requires lead resistance (measured by touching the test probes together) to be subtracted for best accuracy. This can be done with the \"delta\", \"zero\", or \"null\" feature of many digital multimeters. Contact pressure to the device under test and cleanliness of the surfaces can affect measurements of very low resistances. Some meters offer a four wire test where two probes supply the source voltage and the others take measurement. Using a very high impedance allows for very low voltage drop in the probes and resistance of the source probes is ignored resulting in very accurate results.\n", "The upper end of multimeter measurement ranges varies considerably; measurements over perhaps 600 volts, 10 amperes, or 100 megohms may require a specialized test instrument.\n\nSection::::Burden voltage.\n\nEvery inline series-connected ammeter, including a multimeter in a current range, has a certain resistance. Most multimeters inherently measure voltage, and pass a current to be measured through a shunt resistance, measuring the voltage developed across it. The voltage drop is known as the burden voltage, specified in volts per ampere. The value can change depending on the range the meter sets, since different ranges usually use different shunt resistors.\n", "As an example, a meter movement that required 1 mA for full-scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 Ω, would, on a 10 V range of the multimeter, have 9,500 Ω of series resistance.\n\nFor analog current ranges, matched low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1 mA, 500 Ω movement on a 1 A range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5 Ω.\n", "The burden voltage can be significant in very low-voltage circuit areas. To check for its effect on accuracy and on external circuit operation the meter can be switched to different ranges; the current reading should be the same and circuit operation should not be affected if burden voltage is not a problem. If this voltage is significant it can be reduced (also reducing the inherent accuracy and precision of the measurement) by using a higher current range.\n\nSection::::Alternating current sensing.\n", "By convention, if the most significant digit can be either 0 or 1, it is termed a half-digit; if it can take higher values without reaching 9 (often 3 or 5), it may be called three-quarters of a digit. A -digit multimeter would display one \"half digit\" that could only display 0 or 1, followed by five digits taking all values from 0 to 9. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199999. A -digit meter can display a quantity from 0 to 3999 or 5999, depending on the manufacturer.\n", "The Automatic Coil Winder and Electrical Equipment Company (ACWEECO), founded in 1923, was set up to manufacture the Avometer and a coil winding machine also designed and patented by MacAdie. Although a shareholder of ACWEECO, Mr MacAdie continued to work for the Post Office until his retirement in 1933. His son, Hugh S. MacAdie, joined ACWEECO in 1927 and became Technical Director. The first AVO was put on sale in 1923, and many of its features remained almost unaltered through to the last Model 8.\n\nSection::::General properties of multimeters.\n", "A meter's AC voltage and current accuracy may have different specifications at different frequencies.\n\nSection::::Sensitivity and input impedance.\n\nWhen used for measuring voltage, the input impedance of the multimeter must be very high compared to the impedance of the circuit being measured; otherwise circuit operation may be changed, and the reading will also be inaccurate.\n", "Section::::Measuring distance.\n", "Each Category rating also specifies maximum safe transient voltages for selected measuring ranges in the meter. Category-rated meters also feature protections from over-current faults. On meters that allow interfacing with computers, optical isolation may be used to protect attached equipment against high voltage in the measured circuit.\n", "Analog meters can measure voltage and current by using power from the test circuit, but require a supplementary internal voltage source for resistance testing, while electronic meters always require an internal power supply to run their internal circuitry. Hand-held meters use batteries, while bench meters usually use mains power; either arrangement allows the meter to test devices. Testing often requires that the component under test be isolated from the circuit in which they are mounted, as otherwise stray or leakage current paths may distort measurements. In some cases, the voltage from the multimeter may turn active devices on, distorting a measurement, or in extreme cases even damage an element in the circuit being investigated.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Factors influencing absorption.\n\nAlong with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route of exposure for bioactive substances including medications. Absorption of substances through the skin depends on a number of factors:\n\nBULLET::::- Concentration\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular Weight of the molecule\n\nBULLET::::- Duration of contact\n\nBULLET::::- Solubility of medication\n\nBULLET::::- Physical condition of the skin\n\nBULLET::::- Part of the body exposed including the amount of hair on the skin\n", "The permeability properties of the stratum corneum are, for the most part, unchanged after its removal from the body. Skin that has been removed carefully from animals may also be used to see the extent of local penetration by putting it in a chamber and applying the chemical on one side and then measuring the amount of chemical that gets into a fluid on the other side. One example of this ex vivo technique is the isolated perfused porcine flap. This method was first described in 1986 as a humane alternative to in vivo animal testing.\n", "To be absorbed through the skin, a chemical must pass through the epidermis, glands, or hair follicles. Sweat glands and hair follicles make up about 0.1 to 1.0 percent of the total skin surface. Though small amounts of chemicals may enter the body rapidly through the glands or hair follicles, they are primarily absorbed through the epidermis. Chemicals must pass through the seven cell layers of epidermis before entering the dermis where they can enter the blood stream or lymph and circulate to other areas of the body. Toxins and toxicants can move through the layers by passive diffusion. The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis and the rate-limiting barrier in absorption of an agent. Thus, how quickly something passes through this thicker outer layer determines the overall absorption. The stratum corneum is primarily composed of lipophilic cholesterol, cholesterol esters and ceramides. Thus lipid-soluble chemicals make it through the layer and into the circulation faster, however nearly all molecules penetrate it to some minimal degree. Absorption of chemicals in municipal water and dental products such as VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds), TTHM (Total Trihalomethanes), fluoride and disinfectants is a major exposure to environmental health hazards.\n", "Petroleum jelly is also soluble in lower-molecular-weight oils. Using an oil to dissolve the petroleum jelly first can render it more soluble to solvents and soaps that would not dissolve pure petroleum jelly. Vegetable oils such as canola and olive oil are commonly used to aid in the removal of petroleum jelly from hair and skin.\n\nSection::::Health.\n", "In general the rate of absorption of chemicals through skin follows the following scheme from fastest to slowest: Scrotal Forehead Armpit ≥ Scalp Back = Abdomen Palm = under surface of the foot.\n\nSection::::Structures influencing absorption.\n", "A chemical may be directly applied to the skin followed by blood and urine measurements, at set time points after the application, to assess the amount of chemical that entered the body. The concentration in the blood or urine at particular time points can be graphed to show an area under the curve and the extent and duration of absorption and distribution to provide a measure of systemic absorption. This can be done in animals or humans with a dry chemical powder or a chemical in solution. Rats are commonly used for these experiments. An area of skin is shaved before the chemical is applied. Often the area of chemical application is covered to prevent ingestion or rubbing off of the test material. Samples of blood and urine are taken at specific time intervals following application (0.5, 1, 2, 4, 10, and 24 hours) and in some protocols at the chosen end time the animal maybe necropsied. Tissue samples may also be evaluated for the presence of the test chemical. In some test protocols many animals may be tested and necropsies may occur at set intervals after exposure. Biomonitoring, such as taking urine samples at intervals, from workers exposed to chemicals may provide some information but it is difficult to distinguish dermal from inhalation exposure using this method.\n", "All oils degrade in response to heat, light, and oxygen. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production – a process called tank blanketing.\n\nIn a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use.\n", "Bronaugh cells are similar to Franz cells but use a flow-through system beneath the membrane layer and samples of the liquid below are taken continuously rather than at set time points. Bronaugh cells have been replaced with inline cells by some manufacturers.\n\nSection::::Measurement of skin absorption.:Indirect measurement.\n", "Hydrocarbon chains are long chains which consist of a carbon backbone hydrogen substituents, making them very hydrophobic. Hydrocarbon chains alone form waxes and oils and retain these characteristics when they are incorporated into surfactant. A good example of surfactants containing a hydrocarbon chain are lipids, which form cell membranes.\n", "In both cases, this may happen in isolated or complex environmental microbial communities. So far the understanding on the interaction between pH and environmental microbial communities remains unknown, despite the efforts of the last decade. Little is known of the ecophysiology of complex microbial communities, and research is still in developmental stage.\n\nSection::::Environmental constraints.:Oxidation potential.\n", "Section::::Types of scales.\n\nTwo main classifications of scales are known; inorganic and organic scales and the two types are mutually inclusive, occurring simultaneously in the same system, referred to as mixed scale. Mixed scales may result in highly complex structured scales that are difficult to treat. Such scales require aggressive, severe and sometimes costly remediation techniques. Paraffin wax, asphaltenes and gas hydrates are the most often encountered organic scales in the oil industry. This article focuses on the simplest and common form of scales encountered; inorganic scales.\n\nSection::::Types of scales.:Inorganic scale.\n", "Skin (percutaneous, dermal) absorption is the transport of chemicals from the outer surface of the skin both into the skin and into circulation. Skin absorption relates to the degree of exposure to and possible effect of a substance which may enter the body through the skin. Human skin comes into contact with many agents intentionally and unintentionally. Skin absorption can occur from occupational, environmental, or consumer skin exposure to chemicals, cosmetics, or pharmaceutical products. Some chemicals can be absorbed in enough quantity to cause detrimental systemic effects. Skin disease (dermatitis) is considered one of the most common occupational diseases. In order to assess if a chemical can be a risk of either causing dermatitis or other more systemic effects and how that risk may be reduced one must know the extent to which it is absorbed, thus dermal exposure is a key aspect of human health risk assessment.\n", "Often the terms \"oil purification\" and \"oil regeneration\" are used synonymously. Although in fact they are not the same. Oil purification cleans oil from contaminants. it can be used independently or as a part of oil regeneration. Oil regeneration also removes aging products (with the help of adsorbents) and stabilizes oil with additives. Regenerated oil is clean from carcinogenic products of oil aging and stabilized with the help of additives.\n", "Some species of vascular plants also contain intracellular structures called oil bodies. Vascular plant oil bodies consist mainly of triacylglycerols surrounded by a layer consisting of phospholipids and the protein oleosin. These oil bodies occur largely in seeds but also occur in other plant parts, including leaves.\n\nSection::::Oil Bodies in Seeds.\n", "Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the \"absolute\".\n", "Section::::Measurement of skin absorption.\n\nThe amount of chemical that is absorbed through the skin can be measured directly or indirectly. Studies have shown there are species with differences in the absorption of different chemicals. Measurements in rats, rabbits or pigs may or may not reflect human absorption. Finding the rate at which agents penetrate the skin is important for assessing the risk from exposures.\n\nSection::::Measurement of skin absorption.:In vivo.\n", "Section::::Conditions affecting skin absorption.\n\nAgents that injure the stratum corneum, such as strong acids, are absorbed faster than chemicals that do not. Skin damage due to burns, abrasions, wounds and skin diseases also increase absorption. Thus populations with skin damage may be more susceptible to adverse effects of agents that are absorbed through the skin. \n", "Section::::Oil biodegradation.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cooking.\n\nSeveral edible vegetable and animal oils, and also fats, are used for various purposes in cooking and food preparation. In particular, many foods are fried in oil much hotter than boiling water. Oils are also used for flavoring and for modifying the texture of foods (e.g. Stir Fry). Cooking oils are derived either from animal fat, as butter, lard and other types, or plant oils from the olive, maize, sunflower and many other species.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cosmetics.\n", "Absorption (skin)\n\nSkin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin. Along with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route of exposure for toxic substances and route of administration for medication. Absorption of substances through the skin depends on a number of factors, the most important of which are concentration, duration of contact, solubility of medication, and physical condition of the skin and part of the body exposed.\n", "Biosurfactants produced by microbe or bacteria can be used to enhance oil production by microbial enhanced oil recovery method (MEOR).\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSurfactants play an important role as cleaning, wetting, dispersing, emulsifying, foaming and anti-foaming agents in many practical applications and products, including detergents, fabric softeners, \n", "Animal fat\n\nAnimal fats and oils are lipid materials derived from animals. Physically, oils are liquid at room temperature, and fats are solid. Chemically, both fats and oils are composed of triglycerides. Although many animal parts and secretions may yield oil, in commercial practice, oil is extracted primarily from rendered tissue fats obtained from livestock animals like pigs, chickens and cows. Dairy products also yield popular animal fat and oil products such as cheese, butter, and milk.\n", "Section::::Regeneration by chemical methods.\n\nChemical methods of regeneration remove asphalt, silicic, acidic, some hetero-organic compounds and water from oils. These methods are based on the interaction of contaminating substances in oil with special reagents introduced into them. The compounds formed as a result of these chemical reactions are then easily removed from oil. Chemical methods include acid and alkaline refining, drying with calcium sulphate or reduction with metal hydrides.\n\nSection::::Choice of methods of regeneration.\n\nIn practice, to achieve a complete regeneration of oil using only one method is difficult. Therefore, a combination of different approaches are often used.\n", "There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant may be placed under pressure to extract the oil, giving an expressed (or pressed) oil. The oils included in this list are of this type. Oils may also be extracted from plants by dissolving parts of plants in water or another solvent. The solution may be separated from the plant material and concentrated, giving an extracted or leached oil. The mixture may also be separated by distilling the oil away from the plant material. Oils extracted by this latter method are called essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed or leached vegetable oils. Finally, macerated oils are made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil, a process called liquid–liquid extraction.\n", "There is an important distinction between transudates and exudates. Transudates are caused by disturbances of hydrostatic or colloid osmotic pressure, not by inflammation. They have a low protein content in comparison to exudates and thus appear clearer.\n\nLevels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or a Rivalta test can be used to distinguish transudate from exudate.\n\nTheir main role in nature is to protect elements of the skin and other subcutaneous substances against the contact effects of external climate and the environment and other substances – it also plays a role in integumental hygiene.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Oils are absorbed by the skin and moves on to the body." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Not all oil is absorbed by the skin. Some oil that is absorbed by skin is used in skin cells." ]

[ "Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Growing season\n\nBULLET::::- Cereal germ — the part of the cereal seed that grows into a plant\n\nBULLET::::- Seed dormancy\n\nBULLET::::- Stratification — the simulation of natural winter conditions for seeds\n", "Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.\n", "They require a proper cycle which contains cooling them in winters. Pair is heavily fed till November and left to hibernate. During their hibernation period you just have to leave a water bowl in their enclosure and a hiding spot. no light or heat source was used in this period.\n", "Badgers begin to prepare for winter sleep during late summer by accumulating fat reserves, which reach a peak in October. During this period, the sett is cleaned and the nesting chamber is filled with bedding. Upon retiring to sleep, badgers block their sett entrances with dry leaves and earth. They typically stop leaving their setts once snow has fallen. In Russia, badgers retire for their winter sleep from late October to mid-November and emerge from their setts in March and early April. In areas such as England and Transcaucasia, where winters are less harsh, badgers either forgo winter sleep entirely or spend long periods underground, emerging in mild spells.\n", "Researchers Ted Pengelley and Ken Fisher studied the circannual clock in the golden-mantled ground squirrel. They exposed the squirrels to twelve hours of light and 12 hours of darkness and at a constant temperature for three years. Despite this constant cycle, they continued to hibernate once a year with each episode preceded by an increase in body weight and food consumption. During the first year, the squirrels began hibernation in late October. They started hibernating in mid August and early April respectively for the following two years, displaying a circannual rhythm with a period of about 10 months.\n", "These marmots are \"deep hibernators\"; they cannot easily be awoken. Their body temperature drops to below and heart rate can slow to three beats per minute. Marmots warm their bodies about every ten days. Olympic marmots lose 50% of their body mass over the seven to eight months of winter hibernation. Hibernation is the most dangerous time for them as, in years of light snowfall, as many as 50% of the young born that year will die from the cold because of the lack of insulation that is provided by good snow cover. When they emerge in early May, thick snow cover is still present from the preceding winter, so they are not very active at this time. Sometimes they are so disoriented after awaking from hibernation that they have to relearn the colony's landmarks (which are now covered in snow, which obscures them even more); they wander around aimlessly until they find their burrows.\n", "The typical winter season for obligate hibernators is characterized by periods of [[torpor]] interrupted by periodic, euthermic arousals, during which body temperatures and heart rates are restored to more typical levels. The cause and purpose of these arousals is still not clear; the question of why hibernators may return periodically to normal body temperatures has plagued researchers for decades, and while there is still no clear-cut explanation, there are multiple hypotheses on the topic. One favored hypothesis is that hibernators build a \"[[sleep debt]]\" during hibernation, and so must occasionally warm up to sleep. This has been supported by evidence in the [[Arctic ground squirrel]]. Other theories postulate that brief periods of high body temperature during hibernation allow the animal to restore its available energy sources or to initiate an immune response.\n", "They have been known to eat their own fallen antlers, probably for calcium. There is also some evidence to suggest that on occasion, especially in the spring when they are nutritionally stressed, they will feed on small rodents (such as lemmings), fish (such as Arctic char), and bird eggs. Reindeer herded by the Chukchis have been known to devour mushrooms enthusiastically in late summer. \n\nDuring the Arctic summer, when there is continuous daylight, reindeer change their sleeping pattern from one synchronised with the sun to an ultradian pattern in which they sleep when they need to digest food.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Predators.\n", "As an adaptation to their Arctic environment, they have lost their circadian rhythm.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Distribution and habitat.\n", "Weddell seals are non-migratory phocids that move regionally to follow the distribution of breathing holes in the ice between seasons. Weddell seals dive to forage for food, maintain breathing holes in fast ice, and explore to find more ice holes. These seals exhibit a diurnal haul-out pattern. A higher frequency of seals haul out during the afternoon, usually around 4:00 PM, because of warmer air temperatures.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Breeding.\n", "During their time in hibernation, an American black bear's heart rate drops from 40–50 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute and the metabolic rate can drop to a quarter of the bear's (non-hibernating) basal metabolic rate (BMR). These reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear to decrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation.\n", "Historically there was a question of whether or not [[bears]] truly hibernate since they experience only a modest decline in body temperature (3–5 °C) compared with the much larger decreases (often 32 °C or more) seen in other hibernators. Many researchers thought that their deep sleep was not comparable with true, deep hibernation, but recent research has refuted this theory in captive black bears.\n\nHibernating bears are able to recycle their proteins and urine, allowing them both to stop urinating for months and to avoid [[muscle atrophy]].\n\nSection::::Birds.\n", "BULLET::::- Some animals store food for the winter and live on it instead of hibernating completely. This is the case for squirrels, beavers, skunks, badgers, and raccoons.\n\nBULLET::::- Resistance is observed when an animal endures winter but changes in ways such as color and musculature. The color of the fur or plumage changes to white (in order to be confused with snow) and thus retains its cryptic coloration year-round. Examples are the rock ptarmigan, Arctic fox, weasel, white-tailed jackrabbit, and mountain hare.\n", "Hibernation is common in each of the species for \"Erinaceus\". Most have the ability to lower the body temperature close that of the environmental temperature. In particular \"Erinaceus europaeus\" the body temperature can drop down to 1 °C and lower its heart rate down to 22 beats per minute.\n\nSection::::Reproduction and lifespan.\n", "Obligate hibernators are animals that spontaneously, and annually, enter hibernation regardless of ambient temperature and access to food. Obligate hibernators include many species of [[ground [[mouse lemur]]s, [[European hedgehog]]s and other [[insectivores]], [[monotremes]], and [[marsupials]]. These species undergo what has been traditionally called \"hibernation\": a physiological state wherein the body temperature drops to near ambient temperature, and heart and respiration rates slow drastically.\n", "In the summer period they feed on blueberries, crowberries, humpback salmon, and steelhead. In autumn, they eat nuts from nut-pines and mountain ash, and fish. In times of famine they eat dead fish or marine mammals, berries, and graminoid vegetation.\n", "Section::::Adaptations.\n\nSince plateau pikas live in such extremely cold environments and are a non-hibernating species, they have acquired physiological adaptations to better assist with their survival. These adaptations include their high resting metabolic rate and non- shivering thermogenesis along with the production of leptin which is a thermogenesis regulatory hormone.\n\nSection::::Conservation and management.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Sleep.\n\nPinnipeds spend many months at a time at sea, so they must sleep in the water. Scientists have recorded them sleeping for minutes at a time while slowly drifting downward in a belly-up orientation. Like other marine mammals, seals sleep in water with half of their brain awake so that they can detect and escape from predators. When they are asleep on land, both sides of their brain go into sleep mode.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Section::::Behavior and life history.:Hibernation.\n", "Depending on where this species is geographical located determines whether or not it hibernates and for how long. In Israel, forest dormice stay active throughout the year. However, during the winter they do go through a period of torpor for a certain amount of time each day. Forest dormice located in the north tend to hibernate from October until April. During this period of hibernation, northern dormice will sit on their back legs and curl up into a ball. Its tail will wrap around its body and its hands may touch its cheeks. In all hibernating species, body temperature decreases from the range of 35-37 °C to about 5 °C.\n", "The majority of females of the West Siberian Laika have one estrus per year, usually in February and March. Some females have their first estrus not fixed by a certain season. The first estrus can be at age of one to two and a half years. Russian experts do not recommend breeding Laikas until they are at least two years old. The number of puppies per litter varies from one to nine, but litters of three to seven puppies are most frequent. Females of the West Siberian Laika are good mothers and, if conditions permit, dig their own whelping dens, give birth to puppies and raise them without any assistance as soon as the food is available.\n", "The body temperature of the American black bear does not drop significantly, like other mammalian hibernators (staying around ) and they remain somewhat alert and active. If the winter is mild enough, they may wake up and forage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snow melts. During winter, American black bears consume 25–40% of their body weight. The footpads peel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue.\n", "Section::::Life History and Behavior.\n\nSection::::Life History and Behavior.:Sociality.\n\nGray marmots live in social groups called extended families with multiple individuals living in a burrow and several burrows forming a colony. The extended families usually consist of a pair of dominant adults and a few subordinate adults, yearling and babies. Gray marmots also have species specific alarm calls, which can be used to distinguish them from other species. When environmental conditions are harsh extended families are limited. When conditions are moderate to good the extended families become more complex.\n\nSection::::Life History and Behavior.:Hibernation.\n", "The mice are nocturnal, but are only active for the summer months, hibernating for the rest of the year. In at least some areas, they spend between eight and ten months of the year hibernating. They subsist entirely on their fat reserves while dormant, and do not cache food; a typical mouse may lose 25% of its body weight during the eight to ten months of its hibernation. However, the hibernation is not continuous throughout this period, with the mice waking, on average, once every 38 days.\n", "Sleep the Season\n\nSleep the Season are a Canadian alternative pop music group formed in Welland in 2005. Their specialty is playing acoustic instruments only and using a cello.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nTheir first album \"Under Stars\" was released September, 5th 2005 and contained 5 songs. The Second album \"don't make a move\" was released September 4, 2006 and can be considered at the first long play album containing 13 songs.\n\n\"Four Songs\" was released February 11, 2008 and was their first independent release.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Miller and Rattner left from New York in October 1940, driving south towards Florida before heading west. Miller brought along a few of his favorite books, including \"Mysteries\" by Knut Hamsun and \"Leaves of Grass\" by Walt Whitman. Miller wrote to Nin that he let Rattner do most of the driving, despite the fact that he considered himself the superior driver. They spent a night at Caresse Crosby's estate in Bowling Green, Virginia, where Salvador Dalí and his wife were also staying. Miller and Dali did not get along, with Miller describing Dalí as vain. They later stopped in Jackson, Mississippi to visit the writer Eudora Welty.\n", "Very young children can perish from heat or cold if left unattended in a parked car, whether deliberately or through absent-mindedness. In 2004, the U.S. NHTSA estimated 25 fatalities per year among children left in hot cars.\n\nSection::::Issues for particular demographic groups.:Teenage drivers.\n", "Since the heater core relies on the coolant's heat to warm the cabin air up, it obviously won't begin working until the engine's coolant warms up enough. This problem can be resolved by equipping the vehicle with an auxiliary heating system, which can either use electricity or burn the vehicle's fuel in order to rapidly bring the engine's coolant to operating temperatures.\n\nSection::::Air cooled engines.\n", "An example of a new source of heat \"turning on\" within an object, causing transient conduction, is an engine starting in an automobile. In this case, the transient thermal conduction phase for the entire machine is over, and the steady state phase appears, as soon as the engine reaches steady-state operating temperature. In this state of steady-state equilibrium, temperatures vary greatly from the engine cylinders to other parts of the automobile, but at no point in space within the automobile does temperature increase or decrease. After establishing this state, the transient conduction phase of heat transfer is over.\n", "The behavioral actions significantly influence energy simulation inputs, and researchers are developing behavior models to improve the accuracy of simulation results. For example, there are many window-opening models that have been developed to date, but there is no consensus over the factors that trigger window opening.\n\nPeople might adapt to seasonal heat by becoming more nocturnal, doing physical activity and even conducting business at night.\n\nSection::::Specificity and sensitivity.\n\nSection::::Specificity and sensitivity.:Individual differences.\n", "When the outside temperature is , the temperature inside a car parked in direct sunlight can quickly exceed . Young children or elderly adults left alone in a vehicle are at particular risk of succumbing to heat stroke. \"Heat stroke in children and in the elderly can occur within minutes, even if a car window is opened slightly.\" As these groups of individuals may not be able to open car doors or to express discomfort verbally (or audibly, inside a closed car), their plight may not be immediately noticed by others in the vicinity. In 2018 51 children in the United States died in hot cars, more than the previous high of 49 in 2010.\n", "Thermal comfort as a \"condition of mind\" is \"defined\" in psychological terms. Among the factors that affect the condition of mind (in the laboratory) are a sense of control over the temperature, knowledge of the temperature and the appearance of the (test) environment. A thermal test chamber that appeared residential \"felt\" warmer than one which looked like the inside of a refrigerator.\n\nSection::::Models.:Adaptive comfort model.:Physiological Adaptation.\n", "To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and the Tesla Model S and 3 can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged in.\n", "Psychological adaptation is subtly different in the static and adaptive models. Laboratory tests of the static model can identify and quantify non-heat transfer (psychological) factors that affect reported comfort. The adaptive model is limited to reporting differences (called psychological) between modeled and reported comfort.\n", "The title arises from the operation of somec, the life extension drug forming the foundation of the interstellar Empire. Somec creates an unbearable, torturous burning sensation throughout the body while pushing the patient to suspended animation. However, the somec process exterminates the user's memory, and so these memories are recorded and stored separately shortly before they go under, to be returned to the body after they have awakened, and so the memory of the process itself cannot be retained. Thus, each somec patient experiences the panic of burning hot sleep \"for the first time\" (as far as their memory goes) no matter how many times they have taken somec before.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "BULLET::::- The study shows that households adapted their driving around the capabilities of the electric car, and respondents said the MINI E met 90% of their daily driving needs.\n\nBULLET::::- Many drivers found that having limited cargo space and only two seats was more restrictive than the limited range.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold weather had a significant impact on drivers in the New York and New Jersey areas, which suffered a particularly harsh winter during the study period. These drivers discovered an unacceptable drop in the vehicles' range when using the heater.\n", "Section::::History.:Private Accommodations.:Compartments and Double Bedrooms.\n\nCompartments and Double Bedrooms are private rooms for two passengers, with upper and lower berths, washbasins, and private toilets, placed on one side of the car, with the corridor running down the other side (thus allowing the accommodation to be slightly over two thirds the width of the car). Frequently, these accommodations have movable partitions allowing adjacent accommodations to be combined into a suite.\n\nSection::::History.:Private Accommodations.:Drawing Rooms and Larger Accommodations.\n", "Section::::Title.\n", "\"As we have noted earlier, one's expectation of privacy in an automobile and of freedom in its operation are significantly different from the traditional expectation of privacy and freedom in one's residence. United States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. at 422 U. S. 896 n. 2; see Cardwell v. Lewis, 417 U. S. 583, 417 U. S. 590-591 (1974) (plurality opinion).\"\n", "On arrival in Málaga, Steve ends up giving the last decent car to Walter to get rid of him. He takes an Italian car with an awkward clutch, which he has trouble driving to Vickie's discomfort and annoyance. At the hotel, they end up struggling up several flights of stairs in order to reach a double room.\n", "Section::::Author.\n", "The song describes three self-absorbed suitors with whom Twain, as the title implies, is not impressed: a know-it-all (\"Okay, so you're a rocket scientist\"), a man obsessed with his hair (\"Okay, so you're Brad Pitt\"), and another obsessed with his car (\"Okay, so you've got a car\"). Twain states that brains, hair, and the car \"won't keep (her) warm in the middle of the night\" and seeks a man with \"the touch\" that can do so.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "In an attempt to convince BMW that a more powerful air conditioner was needed for the United States market, two BMW engineers were subjected to a long trip to Texas in the rear seat of a black BMW 530i with the power windows disabled.\n", "However Jean Kent later stated she \"didn't like\" the film \"and didn't get on very well\" with Carstairs. \"You never knew where you were with him... I don't remember enjoying it. I had silly clothes. I wanted to be very French in plain black and a little beret but I had to wear these silly New Look clothes. I was playing a superspy of some kind. But who was I spying for?\"\n\nSection::::Release.\n\nThe film proved more popular in the US than most British films, enjoying a long run in New York.\n", "In July 1964, British magazine \"Motorcycle Mechanics\" carried an announcement from editor Bill Lawless of the use of two police 'Q–cars' – a black Daimler SP250 sports car and a green Farina Austin A40 – patrolling the A20 between London and Maidstone, Kent.\n\nSection::::Beginnings.\n", "Section::::Exile.:Chicago.\n\nWith war looming over Europe, Blackett and others advised Rossi to leave Britain. Consequently, he wrote to Compton, who invited him to attend a summer symposium in Chicago, and hinted that a job might become available. In June 1939, the Rossis sailed for New York, where they were greeted by Fermi and his wife Laura, who had also left Italy because of the racial laws. After a brief reunion with the Fermis, the Rossis were offered a ride to Chicago by Bethe. They gratefully accepted, and arrived at the University of Chicago in mid-June 1939.\n\nSection::::Exile.:Mesotron decay.\n", "The Reconstruction period and its subsequent end led to a discussion among both Blacks and Whites in the South how to interpret \"equal rights\" and the new Reconstruction Amendments. J. P. Weaver, a Black preacher, had advised Blacks to accept separate accommodations if they are \"first-class\". \"But if there is no such accommodation set apart for you, and you are crowded upon by base and reckless beings, depriving you of all that tends to your happiness ... excuse yourself for being colored, and walk in another car and cabin\".\n", "A Drawing Room is a relatively rare accommodation for three people traveling together, again with a washbasin and private toilet, again on one side of the car. Even rarer are larger rooms accommodating four or more; generally the needs of large parties were better served with multiple rooms, with or without the ability to combine them into a suite.\n\nSection::::History.:Private Accommodations.:Modern Amtrak Accommodations.\n", "\"The capacity to be 'quickly moved' was clearly the basis of the holding in Carroll, and our cases have consistently recognized ready mobility as one of the principal bases of the automobile exception.\" In addition, \"'[b]esides the element of mobility, less rigorous warrant requirements govern because the expectation of privacy with respect to one's automobile is significantly less than that relating to one's home or office.'\" The Court noted that the automobile exception has been applied several times by the Court even when the vehicle is no longer readily movable, if it was readily movable at the time of seizure.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::2. Carbon build up behind the intake valves. Since fuel is directly injected inside the combustion chamber, it never gets a chance to wash any contaminants behind the valves. This results in excessive carbon build up over time, hindering performance. Some cars (like the Toyota 2GR-FSE engine in the Lexus IS) combine direct injection with traditional multi port fuel injection to ameliorate this problem\n", "For the R391, Nissan would decide to use a new version of the VH engine, opting to no longer use turbocharging as they had on the VRH35L. Instead, a modified naturally aspirated version would be constructed, named the VRH50A. At a larger 5.0 liters, the engine was able to overcome the loss of its turbocharging while still maintaining the benefits of the original VRH35L design.\n\nSection::::Indy Racing League/IndyCar.\n\nSection::::Indy Racing League/IndyCar.:First Generation (G-Force GF01).\n", "In Formula One, in the so-called \"Turbo Era\" of until . Renault, Honda, BMW, and Ferrari produced engines with a capacity of able to generate . Renault was the first manufacturer to apply turbo technology in F1. Turbocharged engines dominated and ended the Cosworth DFV era in the mid-1980s. In , \"FIA\" decided to limit the maximum boost before the technology was banned for . Rule changes for the season marked a return of turbocharged engines to the sport, from the previous normally aspirated 2.4 litre V8 engines to turbocharged 1.6 litre V6 engines.\n", "Speaking to Current E, Preston commented: \"We're going to stay with the current car. Because the battery is not changing (it's going to be refreshed), that means that we've only got the same amount of power in the race and therefore there is no real difference in the race mode. And the gearbox is fine. There's 170kW that we can use, but the calculation says that if you can only just do the race at 150kW, then you're not going to be able to suddenly do the whole race at 170kW. You're going to have to mix and match. At McLaren myself and Peter actually carried over one of the cars one year and came second in the championship by one point from Ferrari, so we know it's possible\".\n", "BULLET::::- The need to update existing turbomachinery and recertification of the unit adds additional costs and can be time consuming.\n\nBULLET::::- There will be additional weight to add an ETC to a current unit.\n\nBULLET::::- challenges with high-speed turbo generators such as high stress in the rotors, heat generation of the electrical machine and rotordynamics of the turbogenerator system.\n\nSection::::Exhaust Energy Recovery Systems.\n", "While a parallel twin-turbo set-up theoretically has less turbo lag than a single turbocharger set up, this is not always the case due to many factors. Marginally reduced combined inertial resistance, simplified exhaust plumbing, and the simultaneous spooling of both turbos means that there can still be a noticeable bit of lag, especially in high-flow turbo/high boost applications. Some ways to counter this are to use a light pressure set up with smaller turbos, where the turbos are designed to output less boost but spool earlier. While this setup sacrifices some top end power, it still has less lag than a similar engine with a single turbo set up making the same power. Another system would be the use of variable geometry turbochargers. This system changes the angle of the guide vanes depending on the exhaust pressure, giving the system excellent power throughout the rev range. Once used mainly in turbocharged diesel engines, Chrysler was the first to use it in mass-production gasoline-powered vehicles with the Shelby CSX, debuted in 1989.\n", "Increasing the compression ratio is an easy change that improves the mean effective pressure (MEP), but leads to engine knocking from inconsistent detonation. Uncontrolled, knock can damage the engine and was a major block on the way to improved power settings. This change would also increase the operating temperatures, which presented a problem with the valves. Valves were already reaching temperatures that would cause pre-ignition of the fuel as it flowed past them.\n", "In its debut season, the Motori Moderni engine was producing approximately . This compared to the approximately of the Renault, Honda and BMW turbo engines, and the of the TAG-Porsche and Ferrari engines.\n\nSection::::V6 Turbo.:1986.\n", "There was also the 1989 400SX, a supercharged version developed by \"Northern TVR Centre\" in Barrow-in-Furness. Along with DPR Forced Induction Systems Sprintex supercharger units were fitted, and while power and torque outputs are unknown the smaller engined 350SX showed increases of over thirty percent, which would mean ample power for most. The supercharged versions provided superrb mid-range punch, compared to the peakier naturally aspirated models.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduction in engine power output: the Pistons have to provide more work to push the exhaust out of the cylinder, slightly decreasing the engine crankshaft work output.\n\nBULLET::::- Reduction in volumetric efficiency: marginally more of the exhaust gases are trapped in the cylinder during scavenging, leaving less space for the fresh air to come in.\n\nNevertheless, the power produced by the ETC system more than compensates for this power loss in the engine and therefore provides an overall efficiency improvement for the system.\n\nSection::::System architecture and working principle of ETC.:Turbo generator.\n", "Turbocharging has been more popular than superchargers among auto manufacturers owing to better power and efficiency. For instance Mercedes-Benz and Mercedes-AMG previously had supercharged \"Kompressor\" offerings in the early 2000s such as the C230K, C32 AMG, and S55 AMG, but they have abandoned that technology in favor of turbocharged engines released around 2010 such as the C250 and S65 AMG biturbo. However, Audi did introduce its 3.0 TFSI supercharged V6 in 2009 for its A6, S4, and Q7, while Jaguar has its supercharged V8 engine available as a performance option in the XJ, XF, XKR, and F-Type, and, via joint ownership by Tata motors, in the Range Rover also.\n", "In 2004, the first ETC prototype was created for the heavy truck industry by Bowman Power Ltd in partnership with John Deere. In 2009, Bowman Power Ltd developed an ETC system for the power generation industry. In 2010, Controlled Power Technologies (CPT) designed an ETC system called TIGERS for passenger car applications (Green cars congress reference2010). In 2014, F1 includes heat recovery technology to complement kinetic energy recovery under the name MGU-H to boost the engines power output.\n\nSection::::Advantages of using ETC.\n\nBULLET::::- Improves overall efficiency of the genset, including fuel input costs and helping end-users reduce amount of fuel burned.\n", "Section::::Wastegate sizing.\n\nWastegate sizing is inversely proportional to the desired level of boost and is somewhat independent of the size or power of the engine. One vendor's guide for wastegate sizing is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- big turbo/low boost = bigger wastegate\n\nBULLET::::- big turbo/high boost = smaller wastegate\n\nBULLET::::- small turbo/low boost = bigger wastegate\n\nBULLET::::- small turbo/high boost = smaller wastegate\n\nHowever, exhaust flow is an effect of power. So, another decision chart should look like this.\n\nBULLET::::- big turbo/small engine/small power = small wastegate\n\nBULLET::::- big turbo/small engine/big power = big wastegate\n", "By June 2015, the company had indicated that battery swapping capabilities was no longer a significant part of Tesla's plans for on-road energy replacement for their vehicles.\n\nSection::::Battery-swap proposal.:History.\n", "BULLET::::- Class A - Consists mainly of the AJPV8 powered Tuscans. Turbo cars up to 3.0 litres and more than 300 bhp (261 kW), normally aspirated cars with 5.0 litres or more than 300 bhp (261 kW). No Aero allowed.\n\nBULLET::::- Class B - Consists mainly of the Rover V8 Tuscans and TVR road converted cars. Turbo cars up to 3.0 litres with less than 300 bhp (261 kW), normally aspirated cars between 3.0-5.0 litres and less than 300 bhp (261 kW). Aero currently allowed.\n", "The first example of a turbocharged bike is the 1978 Kawasaki Z1R TC. Several Japanese companies produced turbocharged high-performance motorcycles in the early 1980s, such as the CX500 Turbo from Honda- a transversely mounted, liquid cooled V-Twin also available in naturally aspirated form. Since then, few turbocharged motorcycles have been produced. This is partially due to an abundance of larger displacement, naturally aspirated engines being available that offer the torque and power benefits of a smaller displacement engine with turbocharger, but do return more linear power characteristics.\n", "Rew and Rooster Turbos also did at least one twin-turbo conversion. This engine used the Cosworth pistons, Weber carburretion and water injection to cool the intake charge. Output was estimated to have been .\n\nSection::::History.:AC (Scotland).\n", "Ford offered a limited run of approximately 150 \"Capri turbos\" with turbocharged 2.8 engines. These engines displayed RS badging and used a productionized version of an existing aftermarket kit offered by a Ford dealer in Germany.\n\nTVR Tasmin/280i used the Cologne 2.8 with Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection, as did the early TVR 'S' series in 2.8 and revised 2.9 efi injection form.\n\nApplications:\n\nBULLET::::- TVR 280i/Tasmin\n\nBULLET::::- TVR S1\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Ranger\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Bronco II\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Aerostar\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Pinto\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury Bobcat\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury Capri\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Mustang II\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Mustang (Gen 3 1979)\n", "From there the rot set in for the team. The car's shortcomings were exposed at the next race in Mexico where Larini failed to qualify despite the thinner air in the high altitude of Mexico City giving the turbo powered cars an extra 20-25% horsepower advantage over their atmospheric rivals than was normal (meaning that the Osella V8 could still use most of its reported 700 bhp while the best atmo engine, the Ford DFR used by Benetton, was only producing around 560-590 bhp). The FA1L was the only turbo car not to qualify in Mexico, blown off by even the equally struggling Zakspeed 881 turbos.\n", "Section::::Motorsport.:Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft and Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters.\n\nIn Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft, in the so-called \"Turbo Era\" of 1985 until 1987, Volvo and BMW was the first manufacturer to apply turbo technology in old DTM. Turbochargers were banned at the start of 1988 season due to cost reasons. Rule changes for the 2019 new DTM season marked a return of turbocharged engines to the sport, from the previous classical normally aspirated V8 engines to road car-based turbocharged inline-4 engines as a regulation sharing with Japanese Super GT \"Class One\" regulation.\n\nSection::::Motorsport.:Rally.\n", "With turbos banned from the season, the Arrows team reverted to using , naturally aspirated Ford DFR V8 power plants.\n", "Gordon Murray insisted that the engine for this car be naturally aspirated to increase reliability and driver control. Turbochargers and superchargers increase power but they increase complexity and can decrease reliability as well as introducing an additional aspect of latency and loss of feedback. The ability of the driver to maintain maximum control of the engine is thus compromised. Murray initially approached Honda for a powerplant rated at , with of block length and a total weight of , it should be derived from the Formula One powerplant in the then-dominating McLaren/Honda cars.\n", "The lesser funded teams (the former Minardi team spends less than 50 million, while Ferrari spent hundreds of millions of euros a year developing their car) had the option of keeping the current V10 for another season, but with a rev limiter to keep them competitive with the most powerful V8 engines. The only team to take this option was the Toro Rosso team, which was the reformed and regrouped Minardi.\n", "Turbochargers suffer (to a greater or lesser extent) from so-called \"turbo-spool\" (turbo lag; more correctly, boost lag), in which initial acceleration from low RPM is limited by the lack of sufficient exhaust gas mass flow (pressure). Once engine RPM is sufficient to raise the turbine RPM into its designed operating range, there is a rapid increase in power, as higher turbo boost causes more exhaust gas production, which spins the turbo yet faster, leading to a belated \"surge\" of acceleration. This makes the maintenance of smoothly increasing RPM far harder with turbochargers than with engine-driven superchargers, which apply boost in direct proportion to the engine RPM. The main advantage of an engine with a mechanically driven supercharger is better throttle response, as well as the ability to reach full-boost pressure instantaneously. With the latest turbocharging technology and direct gasoline injection, throttle response on turbocharged cars is nearly as good as with mechanically powered superchargers, but the existing lag time is still considered a major drawback, especially considering that the vast majority of mechanically driven superchargers are now driven off clutched pulleys, much like an air compressor.\n", "The quantity of power unit components a driver may use during the season was reduced from four complete power units during the entire season in 2017 to a new system where each of the power unit components is considered separately. Therefore, in 2018, each driver is permitted to use up to three each of internal combustion engines (ICE), heat motor generator units (MGU-H), and turbochargers (TC); and two each of the kinetic motor generator units (MGU-K), energy stores (ES), and control electronics (CE).\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Some specific foods are linked to specific cancers. A high-salt diet is linked to gastric cancer. Aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminant, causes liver cancer. Betel nut chewing can cause oral cancer. National differences in dietary practices may partly explain differences in cancer incidence. For example, gastric cancer is more common in Japan due to its high-salt diet while colon cancer is more common in the United States. Immigrant cancer profiles mirror those of their new country, often within one generation.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Infection.\n", "Some specific foods have been linked to specific cancers. Studies have shown that individuals that eat red or processed meat have a higher risk of developing breast cancer, prostate cancer, and pancreatic cancer. This may be partially explained by the presence of carcinogens in food cooked at high temperatures. Several risk factors for the development of colorectal cancer include high intake of fat, alcohol, red and processed meats, obesity, and lack of physical exercise. A high-salt diet is linked to gastric cancer. Aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminate, is associated with liver cancer. Betel nut chewing has been shown to cause oral cancers.\n", "A second example, relating a dietary component to a cancer, is illustrated by lung cancer. Two large population-based studies were performed, one in Italy and one in the United States. In Italy, a study population of 1721 individuals diagnosed with lung cancer and no severe disease and 1918 control individuals with absence of lung cancer history or any advanced diseases. All individuals filled out a food frequency questionnaire including consumption of walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, and peanuts, and indicating smoking status. In the United States, 495,785 members of AARP were questioned on consumption of peanuts, walnuts, seeds, or other nuts in addition to other foods and smoking status. In this U.S. study 18,533 incident lung cancer cases were identified during up to 16 years of follow-up. Overall, individuals in the highest quintile of frequency of nut consumption had a 26% lower risk of lung cancer in the Italian study and a 14% lower risk of lung cancer in the U.S. study. Similar results were obtained among individuals who were smokers.\n", "Foods and drinks that promote weight gain: Limit consumption of energy-dense foods; Avoid sugary drinks. As calorie consumption is one of the harder tasks when it comes to monitoring weight-gain, it is a very important component in reducing the risk of cancer. Foods that have been processed heavily tend to contain more sugar and fat. This method usually increases the “taste” of those foods. As a result of the processing, the calorie level in those foods tends to spike. Monitoring the size and how many portions you are consuming each day of the processed foods tends to help reduce the risk of cancer. Foods that are typically low in calorie density tend to contain higher amounts of healthy fiber and water content.\n", "Some specific foods are linked to specific cancers. Studies have linked eating red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer, and pancreatic cancer, which may be partially explained by the presence of carcinogens in foods cooked at high temperatures. Aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminate, causes liver cancer, but drinking coffee is associated with a reduced risk. Betel nut chewing causes oral cancer. Pickled vegetables are directly linked to increased risks of several cancers. The differences in dietary practices may partly explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries. For example, stomach cancer is more common in Japan due to its high-salt diet and colon cancer is more common in the United States. Immigrant communities tend to develop the risk of their new country, often within one generation, suggesting a substantial link between diet and cancer.\n", "Note that the \"food safe\" symbol doesn't guarantee food safety under all conditions. The composition of materials contacting foodstuffs aren't the only factor controlling carcinogen migration into foodstuffs, there are other factors that can have a significant role in food safety. Examples include: the temperature of food products, the fat content of the food products and total time of contact with a surface. The safety of foam food containers is currently debated and is a good example of all three of these factors at play. Polystyrene may melt when in contact with hot or fatty foods and may pose a safety risk. In the United States, materials in contact with food may not contain more than 1% polystyrene by weight (0.5% for fatty foods).\n", "Reports from the Food Standards Agency have found that the known animal carcinogen acrylamide is generated in fried or overheated carbohydrate foods (such as french fries and potato chips). Studies are underway at the FDA and European regulatory agencies to assess its potential risk to humans.\n\nSection::::In cigarettes.\n", "Dietary factors are not proven causes and the association between stomach cancer and various foods and beverages is weak. Some foods including smoked foods, salt and salt-rich foods, red meat, processed meat, pickled vegetables, and bracken are associated with a higher risk of stomach cancer. Nitrates and nitrites in cured meats can be converted by certain bacteria, including \"H. pylori\", into compounds that have been found to cause stomach cancer in animals.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2005 Indonesia food scare, where carcinogenic formaldehyde was found to be added as a preservative to noodles, tofu, salted fish, and meatballs.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2008 Chinese milk scandal, melamine was discovered to have been added to milk and infant formula which caused 54,000 babies to be sent to the hospital. Six babies died because of kidney stones related to the contaminant.\n\nSection::::Hair in food.\n", "During contact with the food, molecules can migrate from the food contact material to the food, for example via blooming. Because of this, in many countries regulations are made to ensure food safety.\n\nSection::::Food safe symbol.\n", "On the other hand, temperatures below convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns. They are believed to be probable carcinogens and their occurrence in cooked foods is being studied for potentially influencing health problems.\n", "Human diet was estimated to cause perhaps around 35% of cancers in a human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981. These cancer may be caused by carcinogens that are present in food naturally or as contaminants. Food contaminated with fungal growth may contain mycotoxins such as aflatoxins which may be found in contaminated corn and peanuts. Other carcinogens identified in food include heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature, polyaromatic hydrocarbons in charred meat and smoked fish, and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon.\n", "Smoking and alcohol abuse as the major risk factors. Viral causes has recently been taken under consideration as one of the risk factors. Viruses such as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) (majorly involved in causing nasopharyngeal carcinoma) and human papilloma virus are included in this category. Chewing of betel nut (\"Areca catechu\") quid has been directly associated to cause oral cancers. It has also been stated under the FDA poisonous plant data base by the U.S Food and Drug Administration \n\nAn unbalanced diet, deficit in fruits and vegetables has shown to increase the risk of cancer.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce cancer risks, the evidence to support them is not definitive. The primary dietary factors that increase risk are obesity and alcohol consumption. Diets low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat have been implicated but reviews and meta-analyses do not come to a consistent conclusion. A 2014 meta-analysis find no relationship between fruits and vegetables and cancer. Coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer. Studies have linked excess consumption of red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer and pancreatic cancer, a phenomenon that could be due to the presence of carcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures. In 2015 the IARC reported that eating processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) and, to a lesser degree, red meat was linked to some cancers.\n", "Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight), x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally \"is\" carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer. In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.\n\nSubstances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or gamma) are not carcinogenic. In contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation.\n\nSection::::In prepared food.\n", "Anticarcinogens that may help prevent cancer can also be found in many food especially fruit and vegetables. Antioxidants are important groups of compounds that may help remove potentially harmful chemicals. It is however often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase or decrease cancer risk since many food, such as beef steak and broccoli, contain low concentrations of both carcinogens and anticarcinogens.\n\nThere are many international certifications in cooking field, such as Monde Selection、A.A. Certification、iTQi. They use the high quality evaluation methods to make the food become more safe.\n\nSection::::Diet.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Cultural and religious diets.\n", "Long-term rat studies showed that PhIP causes cancer of the colon and mammary gland in rats. Female rats given doses of 0, 12.4, 25, 50, 100 or 200 ppm of PhIP showed a dose-dependent incidence of adenocarcinomas. The offspring of female rats exposed to PhIP while pregnant had a higher prevalence of adenocarcinomas than those whose mothers had not been exposed. This was true even for offspring who were not exposed to PhIP. PhIP was transferred from mothers to offspring in their milk.\n\nSection::::Cancer.:Epidemiological studies.\n", "The relationship between diet and the development of particular cancers may partly explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries. For example, gastric cancer is more common in Japan due to the frequency of high-salt diets and colon cancer is more common in the United States due to the increased intake of processed and red meats. Immigrant communities tend to develop the cancer risk profile of their new country, often within one to two generations, suggesting a substantial link between diet and cancer.\n\nSection::::Lifestyle.:Obesity.\n", "Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on immune system and endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to overnutrition rather than from eating too little healthy foods.\n\nSection::::Hormones.\n\nSome hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins play a key role in cancer cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis.\n", "Toxic food environment\n\nA food environment is the \"physical presence of food that affects a person’s diet, a person’s proximity to food store locations, the distribution of food stores, food service, and any physical entity by which food may be obtained, or a connected system that allows access to food\". In the United States, the food environment the citizens are encompassed in makes it far too hard to choose healthy foods, and all too easy to choose unhealthy foods. Some call this food environment \"'toxic' because of the way it corrodes healthy lifestyles and promotes obesity\". \n", "In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US. Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet. Mutagens identified in food include mycotoxins from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as aflatoxins which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn; heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon (ascobate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation). Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate acrylamide, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies. Excessive alcohol consumption has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen acetaldehyde, and the induction of the cytochrome P450 system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.\n", "Colon cancer provides one example of the mechanisms by which diet, the top factor listed in the table, is an external factor in cancer. The Western diet of African Americans in the United States is associated with a yearly colon cancer rate of 65 per 100,000 individuals, while the high fiber/low fat diet of rural Native Africans in South Africa is associated with a yearly colon cancer rate of <5 per 100,000. Feeding the Western diet for two weeks to Native Africans increased their secondary bile acids, including carcinogenic deoxycholic acid, by 400%, and also changed the colonic microbiota. Evidence reviewed by Sun and Kato indicates that differences in human colonic microbiota play an important role in the progression of colon cancer.\n", "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, few have significant supporting scientific evidence. Obesity and drinking alcohol have been correlated with the incidence and progression of some cancers. Lowering the drinking of beverages sweetened with sugar is recommended as a measure to address obesity. A diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat has been implicated but not confirmed, and the effect may be small for well-nourished people who maintain a healthy weight.\n", "Time and temperature control plays a critical role in food safety. To prevent time-temperature abuse, the amount of time food spends in the danger zone must be minimized. A logarithmic relationship exists between microbial cell death and temperature: a significantly large number of cells may survive slightly lower temperatures. In addition to reducing the time spent in the danger zone, foods should be moved through the danger zone as few times as possible when reheating or cooling.\n\nFoods that are potentially hazardous inside the danger zone:\n\nBULLET::::- Meat: beef, poultry, pork, seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs and other protein-rich foods\n", "GSE, particularly coeliac disease, increases the risk of cancers of specific types. There are two predominant cancers associated with coeliac disease, cancer of the esophagus and lymphoproliferative diseases such as gluten-sensitive enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL). For non-EATL cancers it is thought the mineralemias such as zinc and selenium may play a role in increasing risk. GSE associated cancers are invariably associated with advanced coeliac disease, however, in de-novo EATL, the cancer is frequently detected in advance of the coeliac diagnosis, also EATL is the most common neoplasm.\n\nSection::::Cancers.:Esophageal cancer.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Results from another recent study suggest that fetuses were able to form both short and long term memories. This conclusion was drawn from the fact that habituation rates (number of stimuli needed to habituate) were higher in babies in the neonatal stage that had not previously undergone fetal stimulations when compared to those who had: therefore demonstrating the memory of the stimulus in its fetal stage being carried into the neonatal stage.\n\nSection::::Measurement techniques.:Exposure Learning.\n", "Section::::Diseases and conditions affecting fetal memory.:Rubella.\n", "Section::::Study techniques.\n\nSection::::Study techniques.:To assess infants.\n\nInfants do not have the language ability to report on their memories and so verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children's memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants' recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants' recognition memory and the deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants' recall memory.\n\nTechniques used to assess infants' recognition memory include the following:\n", "Another study replicated these findings.\n", "Techniques used to assess infants' recall memory include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter shows infants a unique sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push a button on a box) and then, after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions. Studies using deferred imitation have shown that 14-month-olds' memories for the sequence of actions can last for as long as four months.\n", "Section::::Neurobiology.:Familiarity processes.\n\nLateral prefrontal cortex, superior parietal cortices\n\nThe contribution of the lateral prefrontal cortex to working memory has already been recognized in adults. Also, the superior parietal cortex is activated for individual items that have been encountered previously. It has only recently, however, been demonstrated that the LPFC is already active in children by the ages of 5 and 6.\n\nSection::::Neurobiology.:Recollective processes.\n\nAnterior medial prefrontal cortex, lateral parietal / temporal regions, hippocampus\n", "Section::::Neurobiology.\n", "Memory development\n\nThe development of memory in children becomes evident within the first 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in declarative memory. This enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in short term memory, working memory, long term memory and autobiographical memory.\n\nRecent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice.\n\nSection::::Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Development.\n", "Another older hypothesis that has been thrown into question is that of the prominent psychologists Daniel Schacter (1974) and Ulrich Neisser (1962), who hypothesized that memories are forgotten because cognitive schemas change between childhood and adulthood, meaning that information is lost with an adult's reconstruction of childhood events because present (adult) schemas are not suitable. Schemas change drastically around age six due to socialization and language development. However, this theory has received criticism. Recent data suggest that a preschooler's schemas are not dramatically different from the older child's or the adult's, meaning that the ways of representing and interpreting reality do not change markedly from childhood to adulthood. Tests of very young children and adults show that in all age groups, memory recall shows the same sequential cause-and-effect pattern. One interpretation is that childhood memories differ from adult memories mainly in what is noticed: an adult and a child experiencing an event both notice different aspects of the event, and will have different memories of the same event. For example, a child may not show remarkable memory for events that an adult would see as truly novel, such as the birth of a sibling, or a plane trip to visit relatives. Conversely, children show stronger memories for aspects of experiences that adults find unremarkable. Therefore, the schematic organization hypothesis of childhood amnesia may be inadequate to explain what is remembered and later recalled.\n", "BULLET::::8. They make autobiographical remembering specific.\n\nBULLET::::9. They are recollectively experienced when accessed.\n\nSection::::Cognitive neuroscience.\n\nThe formation of new episodic memories requires the medial temporal lobe, a structure that includes the hippocampus. Without the medial temporal lobe, one is able to form new procedural memories (such as playing the piano) but cannot remember the events during which they happened (See the hippocampus and memory).\n", "BULLET::::- The use of MDMA (\"Ecstasy\") has been associated with persistent deficits in episodic memory.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n\nTulving (1983) proposed that to meet the criteria of episodic memory, evidence of conscious recollection must be provided. Demonstrating episodic memory in the absence of language, and thus in non-human animals, is impossible, because there are no agreed upon non-linguistic behavioral indicators of conscious experience (Griffiths et al., 1999).\n", "Section::::Diseases and conditions affecting fetal memory.:Implications and future possibilities.\n", "Section::::Autobiographical Memory.\n\nThe amount of information that is able to be recalled depends on the child’s age at the time of the event. Children at the age of 1-2 can recall personal events, though only in fragments when questioned several months later. Two-year-old children form autobiographical memories and remember them over periods of at least several months.\n", "Difficulty in assessing memory in young children can be attributed to their level of language skills; this is because memory tests usually occur in the form of a verbal report. It is unclear whether performance on memory assessments is due to poor memory for the event or to the inability to express what they remember in words. However, memory tests assessing performance with a nonverbal photograph recognition test and behavioral re-enactment showed that children had signs of recall from 27 months, as opposed to 33 months using verbal recall testing.\n\nSection::::Autobiographical Memory.:Childhood Amnesia.\n", "Research into the neural substrates of infantile amnesia using animal models has found that the major inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) may be involved in the regulation of retrieval of infantile memories in adults. GABA activity is known to be higher in early childhood development than it is in adulthood, not just in animals but also in humans. Researchers have hypothesized that increased GABA activity in development has an effect on memory retrieval later in life. Past studies have shown that GABA aids in forgetting of fear memories in infancy and that it may be a general mechanism for regulating infant memory retrieval. This can also be seen in humans. Benzodiazepines are a class of psychiatric medication which increase GABA expression and are known to produce anterograde amnesia, or a failure to encode memories after taking the medication. Subjects taking benzodiazepines are found to perform worse on learning and memory tasks compared to drug-naive subjects.\n", "Declarative memory develops very rapidly throughout the first 2 years of life; infants of this age show evidence of cognitive development in many ways (e.g., increased attention, language acquisition, increasing knowledge). There is a difference in the brain development of explicit and implicit memory in infants. Implicit memory is controlled by an early-developing memory system in the brain that is present very early on, and can be explained by the early maturation of striatum, cerebellum, and brain stem, which are all involved in implicit learning and memory.\n", "Section::::Measurement techniques.\n\nThere are considered to be three paradigms used to investigate fetal learning and memory. They are: classical conditioning, habituation and exposure learning.\n\nSection::::Measurement techniques.:Classical Conditioning.\n", "Although previous hypotheses have suggested that the role of the memory talk is active rehearsal, newer research suggests that its role might be reinstatement. In the context of infant memory studies, a learned response (example: playing with a mobile) that would otherwise be forgotten can be reinstated if the context is re-presented within a given time period. In this sense, verbal rehearsal of events between a child and a family member might serve to reinstate the cognitive context of the original event.\n\nSection::::Recall.\n", "Age is a significant factor that effects memory. There is tremendous evidence that infants can learn and remember. However, infantile amnesia is an important, yet difficult area to study. Events from infancy simply cannot be remembered. Many studies have tried and failed to determine the cause of this. Consequently, many theories have been developed to explain this phenomenon. These theories range from the Freudian psychodynamic theory that remembering events from infancy would be damaging to the \"ego\", to theories that explain the underdeveloped hippocampus of an infant, and also theories that conclude that infants have not yet developed autonoetic consciousness of having experienced remembered events. This theory relies on Tulving's view of episodic memory.\n", "Infants need stimulation, however, if stimulation is too great than it could distract infants and young children from other tasks, and replace other, more crucial activities to their development such as social interaction.\n\nSection::::The development of mental processes.:Memory.\n\nThe development of memory in children becomes evident within the first 2 to 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in declarative memory. This enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in short term memory, working memory, long term memory and autobiographical memory.\n", "One study suggested that children exposed to prenatal heroin performed worse in memory subscales of the McCarthy Scales. In other words, youth who had been prenatally exposed to heroin performed worse on general cognitive tasks, including those associated with memory.\n\nSection::::Longitudinal Memory Effects of Prenatal Drug Exposure.:Methamphetamine.\n", "While the neurological explanation does account for blanks in very young children's memories, it does not give a full explanation for childhood amnesia because it fails to account for the years after the age of four. It also fails to address the issue that children themselves do not show childhood amnesia. Children around the age of two to three have been found to remember things that occurred when they were only one to two years old. This discovery that three-year-olds can retrieve memories from earlier in their life implies that all necessary neurological structures are in place.\n", "As both of these studies have only been done on rats, it is still unknown for certain whether the same effects of choline would be seen in humans. Further research in this area is needed.\n\nSection::::Longitudinal Memory Effects of Prenatal Drug Exposure.\n", "Section::::Research.:Honey Bees.\n", "There is some evidence that fetal memory may begin within the second trimester after conception. Substantial evidence for fetal memories has been found at around 30 weeks after conception. Fetal memory is important for parental recognition, and facilitates the bond between child and parents. One of the most important types of memory is that which stores information contributing to the maternal bond between infant and mother. This form of memory is important for a type of development known as attachment. Fetal memory is thus critical to the survival of the fetus both prenatally (in the womb) and after birth as an infant.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Terahertz radiation can penetrate thin layers of materials but is blocked by thicker objects. THz beams transmitted through materials can be used for material characterization, layer inspection, and as an alternative to X-rays for producing high resolution images of the interior of solid objects.\n", "Most materials of the type affecting radio wave transmission over NLOS links are intermediate: they are neither good insulators nor good conductors. Radio waves incident upon an obstruction comprising a thin intermediate material are partly reflected at both the incident and exit boundaries and partly absorbed, depending on the thickness. If the obstruction is thick enough the radio wave might be completely absorbed. Because of the absorption, these are often called lossy materials, although the degree of loss is usually extremely variable and often very dependent on the level of moisture present. They are often heterogeneous and comprise a mixture of materials with various degrees of conductor and insulator properties. Such examples are hills, valley sides, mountains (with substantial vegetation) and buildings constructed from stone, brick or concrete but without reinforced steel. The thicker they are the greater the loss. For example, a wall absorbs much less RF power from a normally incident wave than a building constructed from the same material.\n", "Wall-penetrating radar can read through non-metallic structures as demonstrated to ASIO and Australian Police in 1984 while surveying an ex Russian Embassy in Canberra. Showed police how to watch people up to two rooms away laterally and through floors vertically, could see metal lumps that might be weapons; GPR can even act as a motion sensor for military guards and police, Project carried out first in 1984 Canberra Australia.(Also used for detecting \"Ghosts\" on TV show.{air disturbance in a locked room})\n", "Section::::Far-field (radiative) techniques.\n\nFar field methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the distance is much greater than the diameter of the device(s). High-directivity antennas or well-collimated laser light produce a beam of energy that can be made to match the shape of the receiving area. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by diffraction.\n\nIn general, visible light (from lasers) and microwaves (from purpose-designed antennas) are the forms of electromagnetic radiation best suited to energy transfer.\n", "It has been suggested that the high reflectivity of low-E windows can contribute to a concentration of solar radiation which can potentially cause damage to their surroundings; damage to the sidings of homes and to automobiles has been reported not only in news stories, but may cause legal issues as well.\n\nLow-e windows may also block radio frequency signals. Buildings without distributed antenna systems may then suffer degraded cell phone reception.\n\nSection::::Reflective thermal insulation.\n", "Section::::Atmosphere and magnetosphere.\n\nMost UV and X-rays are blocked by absorption first from molecular nitrogen, and then (for wavelengths in the upper UV) from the electronic excitation of dioxygen and finally ozone at the mid-range of UV. Only 30% of the Sun's ultraviolet light reaches the ground, and almost all of this is well transmitted.\n\nVisible light is well transmitted in air, as it is not energetic enough to excite nitrogen, oxygen, or ozone, but too energetic to excite molecular vibrational frequencies of water vapor.\n", "This is also a major bottleneck of the technology when based on the visible spectrum, as it is restricted to the illumination purpose and not ideally adjusted to a mobile communication purpose. Technologies that allows as roaming between various Li-Fi cells, also known as handover, may allow to seamless transition between Li-Fi.\n\nThe light waves cannot penetrate walls which makes a much shorter range, though more secure from hacking, relative to Wi-Fi. Direct line of sight is not necessary for Li-Fi to transmit a signal; light reflected off the walls can achieve 70 Mbit/s.\n", "Section::::Electric current.\n\nElectric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies (\"RF currents\") have special properties not shared by direct current or alternating current of lower frequencies.\n\nBULLET::::- Energy from RF currents in conductors can radiate into space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). This is the basis of radio technology.\n\nBULLET::::- RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this is known as the skin effect.\n", "In the case of high-frequency electromagnetic radiation, the above-mentioned adjustments take a non-negligible amount of time, yet any such radiation energy, as far as it is not reflected, is absorbed by the skin (unless it is extremely thin), so in this case there is no electromagnetic field inside either. This is one aspect of a greater phenomenon called the skin effect. A measure of the depth to which radiation can penetrate the shield is the so-called skin depth.\n\nSection::::Magnetic shielding.\n", "All antennas’ most intense fields are local, and rapidly diminish with distance from the antenna, so ground losses \"can\" be reduced or effectively eliminated if the antenna can be placed strategically far away from any electrical or magnetic obstacle. For example, very high frequency (VHF) quarter-wavelengths are about 5 feet (1.5 m), so a quarter-wave or half-wave VHF antenna is small enough to be feasibly mounted on a non-conducting mast several quarter-wavelengths above the earth and far from other antennas, metal-clad or cement buildings, or metal-frame structures.\n\nSection::::Calculation.\n\nIn general, electrical power is calculated by:\n", "It is predicted that future home and building automation will be highly dependent on the Li-Fi technology for being secure and fast. As the light cannot penetrate through walls, the signal cannot be hacked from a remote location.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Security.\n\nIn contrast to radio frequency waves used by Wi-Fi, lights cannot penetrate through walls and doors. This makes it more secure and makes it easier to control access to a network. As long as transparent materials like windows are covered, access to a Li-Fi channel is limited to devices inside the room.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Underwater application.\n", "The RF signal for the wireless data transfer can be picked up with antennas. The distance from which an attacker is able to eavesdrop the RF signal depends on multiple parameters, but is typically less than 10 meters. Also, eavesdropping is highly affected by the communication mode. A passive device that doesn't generate its own RF field is much harder to eavesdrop on than an active device. An attacker can typically eavesdrop within 10 m of an active device and 1 m for passive devices.\n", "According to Beer-Lambert law, the intensity of an electromagnetic wave inside a material falls off exponentially from the surface as\n\nIf formula_2 denotes the penetration depth, we have \n", "A consequence of this more-than-order-of-magnitude difference in wavelength between solar and planetary radiation is that filters designed to pass one and block the other are easy to construct. For example, windows fabricated of ordinary glass or transparent plastic pass at least 80% of the incoming 5778 K solar radiation, which is below 1.2 µm in wavelength, while blocking over 99% of the outgoing 288 K thermal radiation from 5 µm upwards, wavelengths at which most kinds of glass and plastic of construction-grade thickness are effectively opaque.\n", "Radio waves are \"nonionizing radiation\", which means they do not have enough energy to separate electrons from atoms or molecules, ionizing them, or break chemical bonds, causing chemical reactions or DNA damage. The main effect of absorption of radio waves by materials is to heat them, similarly to the infrared waves radiated by sources of heat such as a space heater or wood fire. The oscillating electric field of the wave causes polar molecules to vibrate back and forth, increasing the temperature; this is how a microwave oven cooks food. However, unlike infrared waves, which are mainly absorbed at the surface of objects and cause surface heating, radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy inside materials and biological tissues. The depth to which radio waves penetrate decreases with their frequency, and also depends on the material's resistivity and permittivity; it is given by a parameter called the \"skin depth\" of the material, which is the depth within which 63% of the energy is deposited. For example, the 2.45 GHz radio waves (microwaves) in a microwave oven penetrate most foods approximately 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 inches). Radio waves have been applied to the body for 100 years in the medical therapy of diathermy for deep heating of body tissue, to promote increased blood flow and healing. More recently they have been used to create higher temperatures in hyperthermia treatment and to kill cancer cells. Looking into a source of radio waves at close range, such as the waveguide of a working radio transmitter, can cause damage to the lens of the eye by heating. A strong enough beam of radio waves can penetrate the eye and heat the lens enough to cause cataracts.\n", "It's practical in some cases to apply specialized wall paint and window film to a room or building to significantly attenuate wireless signals, which keeps the signals from propagating outside a facility. This can significantly improve wireless security because it's difficult for hackers to receive the signals beyond the controlled area of an enterprise, such as within parking lots.\n\nSection::::Security measures.:Denial of service defense.\n\nMost DoS attacks are easy to detect. However, a lot of them are difficult to stop even after detection. Here are three of the most common ways to stop a DoS attack.\n", "Section::::Construction.:Floors.\n", "The main exception to this is shiny metal surfaces, which have low emissivities both in the visible wavelengths and in the far infrared. Such surfaces can be used to reduce heat transfer in both directions; an example of this is the multi-layer insulation used to insulate spacecraft.\n\nLow-emissivity windows in houses are a more complicated technology, since they must have low emissivity at thermal wavelengths while remaining transparent to visible light.\n", "Section::::Radiation shielding.:Electromagnetic radiation.\n\nElectromagnetic radiation consists of emissions of electromagnetic waves, the properties of which depend on the wavelength.\n", "Diffraction depends on the relationship between the wavelength and the size of the obstacle. In other words, the size of the obstacle in wavelengths. Lower frequencies diffract around large smooth obstacles such as hills more easily. For example, in many cases where VHF (or higher frequency) communication is not possible due to shadowing by a hill, it is still possible to communicate using the upper part of the HF band where the surface wave is of little use.\n", "If an object that changes a LOS link to NLOS is not a good conductor but an intermediate material, it absorbs some of the RF power incident upon it. However, if it has finite thickness the absorption is also finite and the resulting attenuation of the radio waves may be tolerable and an NLOS link may be set up using radio waves that actually pass through the material. As an example, wireless local area networks (WLANs) often use finite absorption NLOS links to communicate between a WLAN access point and WLAN client(s) in the typical office environment. The radio frequencies used, typically a few gigahertz (GHz) normally passes through a few thin office walls and partitions with tolerable attenuation. After many such walls though or after a few thick concrete or similar (non-metallic) walls the NLOS link becomes unworkable.\n", "The requirements for receiving antennas at ELF frequencies are far less stringent than transmitting antennas: In ELF receivers, noise in the signal is dominated by the large atmospheric noise in the band. Even the tiny signal captured by a small, inefficient receiving antenna contains noise that greatly exceeds the small amount of noise generated in the receiver itself. Because the outside noise is what limits reception, very little power from the antenna is needed for the intercepted signal to overwhelm the internal noise, and hence small receive antennas can be used with no disadvantage.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Communication with submarines\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave ovens do not cook food from the inside out. 2.45 GHz microwaves can only penetrate approximately into most foods. The inside portions of thicker foods are mainly heated by heat conducted from the outer portions.\n\nSection::::Arts and culture.:Law, crime, and military.\n", "The ultrasonic detector operates by the transmitter emitting an ultrasonic signal into the area to be protected. The sound waves are reflected by solid objects (such as the surrounding floor, walls and ceiling) and then detected by the receiver. Because ultrasonic waves are transmitted through air, then hard-surfaced objects tend to reflect most of the ultrasonic energy, while soft surfaces tend to absorb most energy.\n", "Furthermore, electromagnetic energy is light energy, but only a small part of it is visible light. This energy travels in waves. Shorter wavelengths, such as visible light and infrared, carry more energy per photon than longer waves, such as microwaves and radio waves. For the sciences, the light spectrum is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.\n\nSection::::Science of cloaking devices.:The properties of optics and light.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Light cannot penetrate walls but radio waves can." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Radio waves are a form of light, just not on the visible spectrum. Therefore light can pass through walls, just not light in the visible spectrum. " ]

[ "The Earth's mean distance from the Sun is approximately , though the distance varies as the Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July. At this average distance, light travels from the Sun to Earth in about 8 minutes, 19 seconds. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. As recently as the 19th century scientists had little knowledge of the Sun's physical composition and source of energy. This understanding is still developing; a number of present-day anomalies in the Sun's behavior remain unexplained. Sun.§\n\nSection::::Solar cycle.\n", "Sun\n\nThe Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 1.39 million kilometers (864,000 miles), or 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth. It accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.\n", "Section::::Sun.\n", "The Sun is a star located at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma and magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about , around 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (1.989 kilograms, approximately 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for some 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The remaining 1.69% (equal to 5,600 times the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon and iron.\n", "Section::::Structure and fusion.:Photons and neutrinos.\n", "Section::::Sun.\n\nThe Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses), which comprises 99.86% of all the mass in the Solar System, produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it a main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.\n", "The luminosity of the Sun increases as it progresses through its life cycle and are visible over the course of millions of years. Sunspots can form on the Sun's surface, which can cause greater variability in the emissions that Earth receives.\n", "BULLET::::- Sunlight, including the visible spectrum, infrared, ultraviolet, and any other wavelength of electromagnetic radiation the Sun gives off\n\nBULLET::::- Insolation, solar radiation energy received on a given surface area during a given time\n\nBULLET::::- Direct insolation, solar irradiance which reaches a location on the Earth after absorption and scattering in the atmosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Total solar irradiance = Solar cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Solar variation\n\nBULLET::::1. Sunspots\n\nBULLET::::2. Solar flares\n\nBULLET::::3. Solar wind\n\nBULLET::::- Solar storm (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::1. Solar flare, a large explosion in the Sun's atmosphere\n\nBULLET::::2. Coronal mass ejection (CME), a massive burst of solar wind associated with solar flares\n", "Section::::Sunspots.\n", "Section::::Legend.:First sun.\n", "There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.\n", "Section::::Background and composition.\n", "Section::::Legend.:Second sun.\n", "Section::::Magnetic activity.:Variation in activity.\n", "Section::::Starspot.\n", "Over billions of years, the Sun is gradually expanding, and emitting more energy from the resultant larger surface area. The unsolved question of how to account for the clear geological evidence of liquid water on the Earth billions of years ago, at a time when the sun's luminosity was only 70% of its current value, is known as the faint young Sun paradox.\n\nSection::::Variations due to atmospheric conditions.\n", "On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, some thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. However, black body or thermal radiation is continuous: it gives off radiation at all wavelengths. Of these natural thermal radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.\n\nSection::::Regions within the infrared.\n", "Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough gravitational potential energy to power its luminosity by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale.)\n", "Dr. Research explains that the Sun is 93 million miles away and its light takes 8 minutes to reach the earth. Light from the next closest star, Alpha Centauri, takes more than 4 years to get to us at a speed greater than 186,000 miles per second. The sun weighs the same as 330,000 earths and is 95% hydrogen and helium gas and not solid. The Sun is compressed by gravity so tightly that the gas at the center is more than 100 times heavier than water with a pressure of one billion tons per square inch while the surface is about one pound per square inch. The center is 30 million degrees Fahrenheit while the surface is only 10,000 degrees, but the corona is 1 million degrees Fahrenheit though nobody knows why, so scientists study the corona during each solar eclipse.\n", "BULLET::::- Current conditions: Space weather\n\nBULLET::::- Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Lab\n\nBULLET::::- Sun|trek website An educational resource for teachers and students about the Sun and its effect on the Earth\n\nBULLET::::- Tools to display the current sunspot number in a browser\n\nBULLET::::- Propfire – displays current sunspot number in browser status bar\n\nBULLET::::- HamLinks Toolbar – displays solar flux, A Index and K Index data in a toolbar\n\nBULLET::::- The Sharpest View of the Sun \n\nBULLET::::- Daily Sunspot Update and Picture of the Sun (www.spaceweather.com)\n\nBULLET::::- Animated explanation of Sunspots in the Photosphere (University of South Wales)\n", "Earth is located within the extended atmosphere of a magnetic variable star that drives the local solar system and sustains life on Earth. The Sun is observed to vary from multiple perspectives. The Sun emits light in the infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and at x-ray energies, and it emits a magnetic field, bulk plasma (the solar wind) and energetic particles moving up to nearly the speed of light, and all of these emissions vary.\n", "Dr. Research continues, telling how science believes the Sun started as a loose cloud of hydrogen gas compressed by gravity and this compression raised the temperature until it reached 30 million degrees and started the thermonuclear reaction. The nuclear reactions expand the Sun and gravity compresses it until the two forces reach a balance. The Sun has only used small portion of its hydrogen and has about 98% of it left which will take about 50 to 100 billion years until it is gone and the Sun dies.\n", "BULLET::::2. Solar output - Direct measurements of solar irradiance, or solar output, have been available from satellites only since the late 1970s. These measurements show a very small peak-to-peak variation in solar irradiance (roughly 0.1 percent of the 1,366 watts per square metre received at the top of the atmosphere, for approximately 0.12 watt per square metre). Encyclopædia Britannica\n\nBULLET::::- Solar brightness = solar luminosity\n\nBULLET::::- Solar flux = Radiant flux\n\nBULLET::::- Solar disk = Photosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Aurora borealis = Aurora (astronomy)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- G-type main-sequence star\n\nBULLET::::- Solar irradiance\n", "Section::::Specific subfields.:Solar astronomy.\n\nAt a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the Sun, a typical main-sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not considered a variable star, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot cycle. This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number. Sunspots are regions of lower-than- average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity.\n", "The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V) based on spectral class and it is informally designated as a \"yellow dwarf\" because its visible radiation is most intense in the yellow-green portion of the spectrum. It is actually white, but from the Earth's surface it appears yellow because of atmospheric scattering of blue light. In the spectral class label, \"G2\" indicates its surface temperature, of approximately 5778 K () and \"V\" indicates that the Sun, like most stars, is a main-sequence star, and thus generates its energy via fusing hydrogen into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses about 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each second.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Nosebleeds can occur due to a variety of reasons. Some of the most common causes include trauma from nose picking, blunt trauma (such as a motor vehicle accident), or insertion of a foreign object (more likely in children). Relative humidity (including centrally heated buildings), respiratory tract infections, chronic sinusitis, rhinitis or environmental irritants can cause inflammation and thinning of the tissue in the nose, leading to a greater likelihood of bleeding from the nose.\n", "The vast majority of nose bleeds occur in the anterior (front) part of the nose from the nasal septum. This area is richly endowed with blood vessels (Kiesselbach's plexus). This region is also known as Little's area. Bleeding farther back in the nose is known as a posterior bleed and is usually due to bleeding from Woodruff's plexus, a venous plexus situated in the posterior part of inferior meatus. Posterior bleeds are often prolonged and difficult to control. They can be associated with bleeding from both nostrils and with a greater flow of blood into the mouth.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Initial treatment.\n", "Most causes of nose bleeding are self-limiting and do not require medical attention. However, If nosebleeds are recurrent or do not respond to home therapies, an underlying cause may need to be investigated. Some rarer causes of recurrent or prolonged epistaxis are categorized and listed below:\n\nCoagulopathy:\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombocytopenia (thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura\n\nBULLET::::- Von Willebrand's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Hemophilia\n\nBULLET::::- Leukemia\n\nBULLET::::- HIV\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic liver disease—cirrhosis causes deficiency of factor II, VII, IX,& X\n\nInflammatory:\n\nBULLET::::- Granulomatosis with polyangiitis\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\nMedications/Drugs:\n\nBULLET::::- Anticoagulation (warfarin, heparin, etc)\n\nBULLET::::- Insufflated drugs (particularly cocaine)\n", "BULLET::::- Patients usually complain of nasal obstruction despite the roomy nasal cavity, which can be caused either by the obstruction produced by the discharge in the nose, or as a result of sensory loss due to atrophy of nerves in the nose, so the patient is unaware of the air flow. In the case of the second cause, the sensation of obstruction is subjective.\n\nBULLET::::- Bleeding from the nose, also called epistaxis, may occur when the dried discharge (crusts) are removed.\n\nBULLET::::- Septal perforation and dermatitis of nasal vestibule can occur. The nose may show a saddle-nose deformity.\n", "The nasal mucosa contains a rich blood supply that can be easily ruptured and cause bleeding. Rupture may be spontaneous or initiated by trauma. Nosebleeds are reported in up to 60% of the population with peak incidences in those under the age of ten and over the age of 50 and appear to occur in males more than females. An increase in blood pressure (e.g. due to general hypertension) tends to increase the duration of spontaneous epistaxis. Anticoagulant medication and disorders of blood clotting can promote and prolong bleeding. Spontaneous epistaxis is more common in the elderly as the nasal mucosa (lining) becomes dry and thin and blood pressure tends to be higher. The elderly are also more prone to prolonged nose bleeds as their blood vessels are less able to constrict and control the bleeding.\n", "Nosebleed\n\nA nosebleed, also known as epistaxis ( ), is the common occurrence of bleeding from the nose. It is usually noticed when blood drains out through the nostrils.\n\nThere are two types: anterior (the most common), and posterior (less common, more likely to require medical attention). Sometimes in more severe cases, the blood can come up the nasolacrimal duct and out from the eye. Fresh blood and clotted blood can also flow down into the stomach and cause nausea and vomiting.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative (more invasive) treatment.:Surgery.\n", "BULLET::::- Nasal sprays (particularly prolonged or improper use of nasal steroids)\n\nNeoplastic:\n\nBULLET::::- Squamous cell carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Melanoma\n\nBULLET::::- Nasopharyngeal carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma\n\nTraumatic:\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical deformities (\"e.g.\" septal spurs)\n\nBULLET::::- Blunt trauma (usually a sharp blow to the face such as a punch, sometimes accompanying a nasal fracture)\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign bodies (such as fingers during nose-picking)\n\nBULLET::::- Digital trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Middle ear barotrauma (such as from descent in aircraft or ascent in scuba diving)\n\nBULLET::::- Nasal bone fracture\n\nBULLET::::- Septal fracture/perforation\n\nBULLET::::- Surgery (\"e.g.\" septoplasty and functional endoscopic sinus surgery)\n\nVascular Malformation:\n", "The pressure difference causes the mucosal lining of the sinuses to become swollen and submucosal bleeding follows with further difficulties ventilating the sinus, especially if the orifices are involved. Ultimately fluid or blood will fill the space.\n", "If you’ve had surgery around your nose or frequently get a bloody nose, your doctor may insert gauze or cotton up your nose to stop the bleeding. This process is called therapeutic nasal packing.Nasal packing sometimes causes blood to back up in your middle ear, causing hemotympanum. If you’ve recently had nasal packing done and notice hemotympanum symptoms, contact your doctor. They can remove the packing to allow the blood to drain out of your ear. You may also need antibiotics to avoid getting an ear infection.\n\nBleeding disorders\n", "BULLET::::- Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler–Weber–Rendu disease)\n\nBULLET::::- Angioma\n\nBULLET::::- Aneurysm of carotid artery\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Cantharidin is an extract of the blister beetle that causes epidermal necrosis and blistering . It is used to treat warts .\n\nSection::::Nasal cauterization.\n\nFrequent nosebleeds are most likely caused by an exposed blood vessel in the nose, usually one in Kiesselbach's plexus.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nChoanal atresia can be suspected if it is impossible to insert a nasal catheter.\n\nAlso, if one notices a continuous stream of mucus draining from one or both nostrils, it could be a sign of an atresia. Another common sign is cyanosis in an infant while breast feeding, as breathing is dependent on nasal patency in this situation.\n\nDiagnosis is confirmed by radiological imaging, usually CT scan.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "One of the most common medical conditions involving the nose is a nosebleed (epistaxis). Most nosebleeds occur in Kiesselbach's plexus, a vascular plexus in the lower front part of the septum involving the convergence of four arteries. A smaller proportion of nosebleeds that tend to be nontraumatic, occur in Woodruff's plexus. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus of large thin-walled veins lying in the posterior part of the inferior meatus.\n", "An acute nosebleed may be managed with a variety of measures, such as packing of the nasal cavity with absorbent swabs or gels. Removal of the packs after the bleeding may lead to reopening of the fragile vessels, and therefore lubricated or atraumatic packing is recommended. Some patients may wish to learn packing themselves to deal with nosebleeds without having to resort to medical help.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative (more invasive) treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Alternative (more invasive) treatment.:Chemical cauterization.\n\nThis method involves applying a chemical such as silver nitrate to the nasal mucosa, which burns and seals off the bleeding. Eventually the nasal tissue to which the chemical is applied will undergo necrosis. This form of treatment is best for mild bleeds, especially in children, that are clearly visible. A topical anesthetic (such as lidocaine) is usually applied prior to cauterization. Silver nitrate can cause blackening of the skin due to silver sulfide deposit, though this will fade with time.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Alternative (more invasive) treatment.:Nasal packing.\n", "A rapidly dilating arteriolar circulation to these bones may lead to a sharp increase in the pressure within, in response to acute cooling of the body core. The pain from this pressure is often referred to as \"brain freeze\", and is frequently associated with the rapid consumption of ice cream. The shallowness of the venous blood supply of the mucosa contributes to the ease with which nosebleed can occur.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnostic tests may be conducted for various reasons. Firstly, some tests are needed to confirm or refute the diagnosis. Secondly, some are needed to identify any potential complications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Telangiectasias.\n\nThe skin and oral cavity telangiectasias are visually identifiable on physical examination, and similarly the lesions in the nose may be seen on endoscopy of the nasopharynx or on laryngoscopy. The severity of nosebleeds may be quantified objectively using a grid-like questionnaire in which the number of nosebleed episodes and their duration is recorded.\n", "BULLET::::- The respiratory segment comprises most of each nasal fossa and is lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium (also called respiratory epithelium). The conchae, or turbinates, are located in this region. The turbinates have a very vascularized lamina propria (erectile tissue) allowing the venous plexuses of their mucosa to engorge with blood, restricting airflow and causing air to be directed to the other side of the nose, which acts in concert by shunting blood out of its turbinates. This cycle occurs approximately every two and a half hours.\n", "A common anatomic variant is an air-filled cavity within a concha known as a concha bullosa. In rare cases a polyp can form inside a bullosa. Usually a concha bullosa is small and without symptoms but when large can cause obstruction to sinus drainage.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.\n\nDiseases of the nasal cavity include viral, bacterial and fungal infections, nasal cavity tumors, both benign and much more often malignant, as well as inflammations of the nasal mucosa.\n\nMany problems can affect the nose, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Deviated septum - a shifting of the wall that divides the nasal cavity into halves\n\nBULLET::::- Nasal polyps - soft growths that develop on the lining of the nose or sinuses\n\nBULLET::::- Nosebleeds\n\nBULLET::::- Rhinitis - inflammation of the nose and sinuses sometimes caused by allergies. The main symptom is a runny nose.\n", "Unless there are unusual complications, there is no swelling or discoloration of the external nose or face with septoplasty alone. Packing is rare with modern surgical techniques, but splinting the inside of the nose for a few days is common; the splints are not visible externally. One percent of patients can experience excessive bleeding afterwards — the risk period lasts up to two weeks. This could require packing or cautery, but is generally handled safely and without compromise of the ultimate surgical result. Septal perforation and septal hematoma are possible, as is a decrease in the sense of smell. Temporary numbness of the front upper teeth after surgery is common. Sometimes the numbness extends to the upper jaw and the tip of the nose. This almost always resolves within several months. \n", "BULLET::::- Acute: Any sinus infection which lasts for a maximum of three weeks can be referred to as acute sinusitis; with the affected individual displaying symptoms such as congestion, post nasal drip, halitosis, a runny nose as well as sinus pressure and pain in the affected areas.\n", "Hot nose sign\n\nThe hot nose sign refers to increased perfusion in the nasal region on nuclear medicine cerebral perfusion studies in the setting of brain death. The absent or reduced flow in the internal carotid arteries is thought to lead to increased flow within the external carotid arteries and subsequent increased perfusion in the nasal region.\n", "In New Zealand, nose pressing (\"hongi\") is a traditional greeting originating among the Māori people. However it is now generally confined to certain traditional celebrations.\n\nThe Hanazuka monument enshrines the mutilated noses of at least 38,000 Koreans killed during the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598.\n\nThe septal cartilage can be destroyed through repeated nasal inhalation of drugs such as cocaine. This, in turn, can lead to more widespread collapse of the nasal skeleton.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Regulations by jurisdiction and agency.:Australia.\n\nFood Standards Australia New Zealand requires all food businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and they include basic food safety training for at least one person in each business.\n\nFood safety training is delivered in various forms by, among other organisations, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), after which staff are issued a nationally recognised unit of competency code on their certificate.\n\nBasic food safety training includes:\n", "The safe storage of food for home use should strictly adhere to guidelines set out by reliable sources, such as the United States Department of Agriculture. These guidelines have been thoroughly researched by scientists to determine the best methods for reducing the real threat of food poisoning from unsafe food storage. It is also important to maintain proper kitchen hygiene, to reduce risks of bacteria or virus growth and food poisoning. The common food poisoning illnesses include Listeriosis, Mycotoxicosis, Salmonellosis, E. coli, Staphylococcal food poisoning and Botulism. There are many other organisms that can also cause food poisoning.\n", "In another study, AN participants were found to have less ability to concentrate in the presence of explicit distractors, as well as to have a conscious cognitive bias towards illness-related words. These explicit biases were associated with longer duration of the illness. A different study characterized AN patients as having trouble integrating positive and negative experiences and that the length of the illness also affected these symptoms and reinforced these impairments. The results of these studies suggest that there are clear differences in the explicit cognitive processing of stimuli between AN individuals and healthy controls and that length of the illness can affect the extent of these memory biases.\n", "An analysis of the data of the nutritionDay audit 2006 performed by Hiesmayr et al. (2009) revealed that less than half of all patients in European hospitals included in the audit eat less than provided as regular meal. Further, an association of reduced food intake with an increased risk of mortality in patients after 30 days was found. Reduced food intake can therefore be seen as a risk factor for hospital mortality.\n", "Breast feeding and eating should resume as soon as possible. Drinks such as soft drinks, fruit juices, or sweetened teas are not recommended as they contain too much sugar and may worsen diarrhea. Broad spectrum antibiotics are recommended in all severely undernourished children with diarrhea requiring admission to hospital.\n", "Proper storage, sanitary tools and work spaces, heating and cooling properly and to adequate temperatures, and avoiding contact with other uncooked foods can greatly reduce the chances of contamination. Tightly sealed water and air proof containers are good measures to limit the chances of both physical and biological contamination during storage. Using clean, sanitary surfaces and tools, free of debris, chemicals, standing liquids, and other food types (different than the kind currently being prepared, i.e. mixing vegetables/meats or beef/poultry) can help reduce the chance of all forms of contamination. However, even if all precautions have been taken and the food has been safely prepared and stored, bacteria can still form over time during storage. Food should be consumed within one to seven (1-7) days while it has been stored in a cold environment, or one to twelve (1-12) months if it was in a frozen environment (if it was frozen immediately after preparation). The length of time before a food becomes unsafe to eat depends on the type of food it is, the surrounding environment, and the method with which it is kept out of the danger zone.\n", "In addition; the likelihood of contracting a food-borne illness (such as E. coli, hepatitis B, H. pylori, listeria, salmonella, norovirus and typhoid) is greatly increased due to food not being kept below 40 degrees Fahrenheit or cooked to a temperature of higher than 160 degrees Fahrenheit, not washing hands for at least 20 seconds for food handlers or not washing contaminated cutting boards and other kitchen tools in hot water.\n\nSection::::Types of service.\n", "Section::::Issues associated with sell by / use by dates.\n\nAccording to the UK Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP), 33% percent of all food produced is wasted along the cold chain or by the consumer. At the same time, a large number of people get sick every year due to spoiled food. According to the WHO and CDC, every year in the USA there are 76 million foodborne illnesses, leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.\n", "Food intolerance rates were found to be similar in the population in Norway. Out of 4,622 subjects with adequately filled-in questionnaires, 84 were included in the study (1.8%) Perceived food intolerance is a common problem with significant nutritional consequences in a population with IBS. Of these 59 (70%) had symptoms related to intake of food, 62% limited or excluded food items from the diet.\n", "The diagnosis of balantidiasis can be an intricate process, partly because the related symptoms may or may not be present. However, the diagnosis of balantidiasis can be considered when a patient has diarrhea combined with a probable history of current exposure to amebiasis through travel, contact with infected persons, or anal intercourse. In addition, the diagnosis of balantidiasis can be made by microscopic examination of stool or tissue samples.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nPreventative measures require effective personal and community hygiene. Some specific safeguards include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Purification of drinking water.\n\nBULLET::::- Proper handling of food.\n\nBULLET::::- Careful disposal of human feces.\n", "Section::::Effects of food insecurity.:Stunting and chronic nutritional deficiencies.\n", "Infant food safety\n\nFoodborne illness (also foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the food spoilage of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food.\n\nInfant food safety is the identification of risky food handling practices and the prevention of illness in infants. Fooddborne illness is a serious health issue, especially for babies and children. \n", "Section::::Government agencies.:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.\n", "Diagnosis is often based on a diagnostic checklist to test whether an individual is exhibiting certain behaviors and characteristics. Clinicians will look at the variety of foods an individual consumes, as well as the portion size of accepted foods. They will also question how long the avoidance or refusal of particular foods has lasted, and if there are any associated medical concerns, such as malnutrition. Unlike most eating disorders, there may be a higher rate of ARFID in young boys than there is in young girls.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Criteria.\n", "Recommended measures for ensuring food safety include maintaining a clean preparation area with foods of different types kept separate, ensuring an adequate cooking temperature, and refrigerating foods promptly after cooking.\n", "A study by the Australian National University, published in November 2014, found in 2010 that there were an estimated 4.1 million cases of foodborne gastroenteritis acquired in Australia on average each year, along with 5,140 cases of non-gastrointestinal illness. The study was funded by the Australian Department of Health, Food Standards Australia New Zealand and the NSW Food Authority.\n", "Bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness. In the United Kingdom during 2000, the individual bacteria involved were the following: \"Campylobacter jejuni\" 77.3%, \"Salmonella\" 20.9%, 1.4%, and all others less than 0.56%. In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be more prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus and no active surveillance was being done for this particular agent. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply. As a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in some cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning, the onset of illness can be as soon as 30 minutes after ingesting contaminated food.\n", "Section::::Risk analysis.:Risk assessment.:General characteristics.:\"Risk characterization\".\n\n\"The qualitative and/or quantitative estimation, including attendant uncertainties, of the probability of occurrence and severity of known or potential adverse health effects in a given population based on hazard identification, hazard characterization and exposure assessment.\" During this stage, estimates of risk are generated from the outputs of hazard identification, hazard characterization, and exposure assessment. A proper risk characterization should take into account multiple degrees of uncertainty and variability.\n\nSection::::Risk analysis.:Risk communication.\n", "Food-borne bacteria, in large enough numbers, may cause food poisoning, symptoms similar to gastroenteritis or \"stomach flu\" (a misnomer, as true influenza primarily affects the respiratory system). Some of the symptoms include stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fever. Food-borne illness becomes more dangerous in certain populations, such as people with weakened immune systems, young children, the elderly, and pregnant women. In Canada, there are approximately 11 million cases of food-borne disease per year. These symptoms can begin as early as shortly after and as late as weeks after consumption of the contaminated food.\n", "BULLET::::- Separate cutting boards should be used for foods of animal origin and other foods. After preparing raw food of animal origin, all cutting boards and countertops should be carefully cleaned with soap and hot water.\n\nBULLET::::- Contact with pet saliva and feces should be avoided.\n\nThe World Health Organization recommends the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Food should be properly cooked and hot when served.\n\nBULLET::::- Consume only pasteurized or boiled milk and milk products, never raw milk products.\n\nBULLET::::- Make sure that ice is from safe water.\n", "Excess protein is sometimes cited as the cause of this condition, however when meat and fat are consumed in the correct ratio, such as that found in pemmican (which is 50% fat by volume), the diet is considered nutritionally complete and can support humans for months or more. Other stressors, such as severe cold or a dry environment, may intensify symptoms or decrease time to onset. Symptoms include diarrhea, headache, fatigue, low blood pressure, slow heart rate, and a vague discomfort and hunger (very similar to a food craving) that can be satisfied only by the consumption of fat.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Anxiety disorder.\n\nSpecific food avoidances could be caused by food phobias that cause great anxiety when a person is presented with new or feared foods. Most eating disorders are related to a fear of gaining weight. Those who have ARFID do not have this fear, but the psychological symptoms and anxiety created are similar. Some people with ARFID have fears such as emetophobia (fear of vomiting) or a fear of choking, but this is not common.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "There are different kinds of 'sub-categories' identified for ARFID:\n\nBULLET::::- Sensory-based avoidance, where the individual refuses food intake based on smell, texture, color, brand, presentation\n\nBULLET::::- A lack of interest in consuming the food, or tolerating it nearby\n\nBULLET::::- Food being associated with fear-evoking stimuli that have developed through a learned history\n\nBULLET::::- Anorexia and bulimia often occur in individuals suffering from ARFID.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Autism.\n", "The suspect cook had prepared all 40 omelettes served in first class, as well as 72 out of 108 for one of the main deck galleys. Furthermore, he handled all 108 omelettes for another galley (sources differ on whether he put the ham on these omelettes, or both cooks took the slices of ham for the omelettes they prepared from the same container). He had therefore handled a total of 220 meals. According to Eisenberg’s hypothesis, 36 persons who received a meal from one of the front galleys, as well as the 108 who were served their meal from the rear one, had eaten meals which were not contaminated.\n", "This data pertains to reported medical cases of 23 specific pathogens in the 1990s, as opposed to total population estimates of all food-borne illness for the United States.\n\nIn France, for 750,000 cases (1210 per 100,000 inhabitants):\n\nBULLET::::- 70,000 people consulted in the emergency department of a hospital (113 per 100,000 inhabitants);\n\nBULLET::::- 113,000 people were hospitalized (182 per 100,000 inhabitants);\n\nBULLET::::- 460 people died (0.75 per 100,000 inhabitants).\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Australia.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In the traveler system, also called the \"common\" system, the power line (hot, shown in red) is fed into the common terminal of one of the switches; the switches are then connected to each other by a pair of wires called \"travelers\" (or \"strappers\" in the UK), and the lamp is connected to the common line of the second switch, as shown.\n\nUsing the traveler system, there are four possible permutations of switch positions: two with the light on and two with the light off.\n\nSection::::Two locations.:Alternative system.\n", "The term \"H bridge\" is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit. An H bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.\n", "Ideal switches are considered as having only two exclusive states, for example, open or closed. In some analysis, the state of a switch can be considered to have no influence on the output of the system and is designated as a \"don't care\" state. In complex networks it is necessary to also account for the finite switching time of physical switches; where two or more different paths in a network may affect the output, these delays may result in a \"logic hazard\" or \"race condition\" where the output state changes due to the different propagation times through the network.\n", "As told above, a commutation cell must be placed between a voltage source and a current source. Depending on the state of the cell, both sources are either connected, or isolated. When isolated, the current source must be shorted, as it is impossible for a current to be created in an open circuit. The basic schematic of a commutation cell is therefore given in figure 3 (top). It uses two switches with opposite states: In the configuration depicted in figure 3, both sources are isolated, and the current source is shorted. When the top switch is on (and the bottom switch is off), both sources are connected.\n", "Every Moore machine formula_13 is equivalent to the Mealy machine with the same states and transitions and the output function formula_14, which takes each state-input pair formula_15 and yields formula_16, where formula_17 is formula_13's output function.\n", "Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "As mentioned above, the above circuit can be extended by using multiple 4-way switches between the 3-way switches to extend switching ability to any number of locations.\n\nSection::::Low voltage relay switching.\n\nSystems based on relays with low-voltage control circuits permit switching the power to lighting loads from an arbitrary number of locations. For each load, a latching relay is used that mechanically maintains its on- or off-state, even if power to the building is interrupted. Mains power is wired through the relay to the load.\n", "Single-pole illuminated switches derive the power to energize their in-built illuminating source (usually, a \"neon\" lamp) from the current passing through the lamp(s) which they control. Such switches work satisfactorily with incandescent lamps, halogen lighting, and non-electronic fluorescent fixtures, because the small current required for the switch's illuminating source is too small to produce any visible light from such devices controlled by the illuminated switch. However, if they control only compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and/or LED lamps, the small amount of current required to energize the lighting source within switch also slowly charges the internal input capacitor in the electronic ballast of the CFL or LED until the voltage across it rises to the point where it produces a brief discharge through the CFL. This cycle may repeat indefinitely, resulting in repetitive brief flashing of the lamp(s) (and the light inside the switch) while the illuminated switch is in the \"off\" position.\n", "Another option is to have a DPDT relay to set the direction of current flow and a transistor to enable the current flow. This can extend the relay life, as the relay will be switched while the transistor is off and thereby there is no current flow. It also enables the use of PWM switching to control the current level.\n\nSection::::Construction.:N and P channel semiconductors.\n", "Two or more light switches can be interconnected to allow control of lighting from, for example, two ends of a long hallway or landings at the upper and lower landings of a flight of stairs. Multiway switching is done using special switches that have additional contacts.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state without \"bouncing\" between on and off positions.\n", "When more than one common terminal is used, the number of poles increases. Figure 1C shows a double-pole, single-throw (DPST) switch. Both poles are actuated simultaneously when the relay is energized. In this case, both poles are either always closed or always open. Figure 1D illustrates a double-pole, double throw (DPDT) switch.\n", "The states of each cell include three distinguished states: \"active\", \"quiescent\", and \"firing\", and the transition function must be such that a cell that is quiescent and whose neighbors are quiescent remains quiescent. Initially, at time , all states are quiescent except for the cell at the far left (the general), which is active. The goal is to design a set of states and a transition function such that, no matter how long the line of cells is, there exists a time such that every cell transitions to the firing state at time , and such that no cell belongs to the firing state prior to time .\n", "Electrically, a typical \"3-way\" switch is a single pole, double throw (SPDT) switch. By correctly connecting two of these switches together, toggling either switch changes the state of the load from off to on, or vice versa. The switches may be arranged so that they are in the same orientation for off, and contrasting orientations for on.\n", "In the example, the physical state of the float switch contacts must be considered when choosing \"normally open\" or \"normally closed\" symbols in the ladder diagram. The PLC has two discrete inputs from float switches (Low Level and High Level). Both float switches (normally closed) open their contacts when the water level in the tank is above the physical location of the switch.\n", "Figure 1 shows a typical relay logic diagram. In this circuit, a STOP/START station is used to control two pilot lights. When the START button is pressed, the control relay energizes and its associated contacts change state. The green pilot light is now ON and the red lamp is OFF. When the STOP button is pressed, the contacts return to their resting state, the red pilot light is ON, and the green switches OFF.\n\nSection::::Relay logic design.\n", "The switches must be controlled so that at no time are both switches in the same leg turned on or else the DC supply would be shorted. This requirement may be met by the complementary operation of the switches within a leg. i.e. if A is on then A is off and vice versa. This leads to eight possible switching vectors for the inverter, V through V with six active switching vectors and two zero vectors.\n", "A \"4-way\" (intermediate) switch is a purpose built double pole, double throw (DPDT) switch, internally wired in manufacture to reverse the connections between the input and output and having only four external terminals. This switch has two pairs of \"traveler\" terminals that it connects either straight through, or crossed over (transposed, or swapped). An intermediate switch can, however, be implemented by adding appropriate external wiring to an ordinary (six terminal) DPDT switch, or by using a separate DPDT relay.\n", "While the contacts are separating, any electrical energy stored in the inductance of the circuit being disconnected is dissipated as an arc within the switch, prolonging the transition and worsening the heating effect on the contacts. Switches are commonly rated by the current they are designed to break, under specified voltage and power factor conditions, as this is the most stringent limitation.\n", "In the Carter system, the incoming live (energized) and neutral wires were connected to the traveler screws of both 3-way switches, and the lamp was connected between the common screws of the two switches. If both switches were flipped to hot or both were flipped to neutral, the light would remain off; but if they were switched to opposite positions, the light would illuminate. The advantage of this method was that it used just one wire to the light from each switch, having a hot and neutral in both switches.\n", "When simulating complex power electronic systems, however, the processes during switching are of little interest. Here, it is more appropriate to use ideal switches that toggle instantaneously between a closed and an open circuit. This approach, which is implemented in PLECS, has two major advantages: Firstly, it yields systems that are piecewise-linear across switching instants, (thus resolving the otherwise difficult problem of simulating the non-linear discontinuity that occurs in the equivalent-circuit at the switching instant). Secondly, to handle discontinuities at the switching instants, only two integration steps are required (one for before the instant, and one after). Both of these advantages speed up the simulation considerably.\n", "For example, a very simple synchronous circuit is shown in the figure. The inverter is connected from the output, Q, of a register to the register's input, D, to create a circuit that changes its state on each rising edge of the clock, clk. In this circuit, the combinational logic consists of the inverter.\n", "The critical step in building a distributed system of State Machines is choosing an order for the Inputs to be processed. Since all non-faulty replicas will arrive at the same State and Output if given the same Inputs, it is imperative that the Inputs are submitted in an equivalent order at each replica. Many solutions have been proposed in the literature.\n\nA \"Visible Channel\" is a communication path between two entities actively participating in the system (such as clients and servers).\n\nA \"Hidden Channel\" is a communication path which is not revealed to the system.\n", "3. Control devices are always shown between L1 and the output device. Control devices may be connected either in series or in parallel with each other.\n\n4. Devices which perform a STOP function are usually connected in series, while devices that perform a START function are connected in parallel.\n\n5. Electrical devices are shown in their normal conditions. An NC contact would be shown as normally closed, and an NO contact would appear as a normally open device. All contacts associated with a device will change state when the device is energized.\n", "A State Machine begins at the State labeled Start. Each Input received is passed through the transition and output function to produce a new State and an Output. The State is held stable until a new Input is received, while the Output is communicated to the appropriate receiver.\n\nThis discussion requires a State Machine to be deterministic: multiple copies of the same State Machine begin in the Start state, and receiving the same Inputs in the same order will arrive at the same State having generated the same Outputs.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "An early last billing credit in a film's opening simply listed a question mark (?) as portraying the monster in the 1931 classic \"Frankenstein\", which still lists it that way today, although the reissued prints seen today add actor Boris Karloff to the end credit listings, as the film made him a huge star such that the credits of the film's first sequel \"The Bride of Frankenstein\" credits him only by his last name.\n", "The \"CD\" remains as a liaison between director, actors and their agents/managers and the studio/network to get the characters in the script cast. Some casting directors build an impressive career working on numerous Hollywood productions such as Marion Dougherty, Mary Jo Slater, Mary Selway, Lynn Stalmaster, April Webster, Tammara Billik, Marci Liroff, Avy Kaufman, Mindy Marin, and Robi Reed.\n", "One of the first \"and-as\" credits was afforded Spencer Tracy (as Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle) in the 1944 World War II film \"Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo\", since another top box office star of the time, Van Johnson, had top billing and Tracy was too big a star to receive second billing. In all the posters and the screen credits, Tracy's name is displayed in larger letters than Johnson's.\n", "As both Tony Curtis and Jerry Lewis wanted top billing for \"Boeing Boeing\" (1965), their animated names appeared in a spinning, circular fashion in front of an airplane engine's rotating nacelle. For the trailer, the circular animation of the two names was repeated and neither name was spoken aloud. For the posters, the names made an X, Lewis' going up from the bottom left and Curtis' going down from the upper left.\n", "\"Then, CSA president Richard Hicks took the stage and recapped \"a great year\" for casting directors, including the achievement of \"branch status\" at the Academy, which he said was \"a sign that perceptions are beginning to change -- we thank you, Academy.\" He then acknowledged \"Casting By\", calling it \"a beautiful gift\" to the memory of its principal subject, the late Marion Dougherty, and all members of the profession. \"If we're lucky,\" he continued, \"it might just get nominated for an Oscar.\" \n", "In the case of the Kenneth Branagh \"Hamlet\", there were many famous actors playing supporting or bit roles, and these actors were given prominent billing in the posters along with the film's actual stars: Branagh, Derek Jacobi, Julie Christie, and Kate Winslet. In the actual film's credits, they (along with the other actors in the film) were listed in alphabetical order and in the same size typeface.\n", "After completing the program at VanArts, Douglas performed with the Okanagan Shakespeare Company in Canada. Many of his early acting jobs were the result of his work as a \"reader\" for auditions. His job was to read the other side of the dialogue for the person auditioning for a role. Often, after the audition was finished, the director would turn to him and say something like, \"You know that cop role with three lines, do you want to do it?\" He began building his resume off those small parts.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "For some major productions, the process of selecting actors for sometimes hundreds of speaking parts and roles, may often require a specialized staff. While the last word remains with the people in charge such as the director, producer, artistic departments and overall production team, a casting director or \"CD\" (and sometimes the casting associate) is in charge of most of the daily work involved in this process during pre-production. A casting director is sometimes assisted by a casting associate; productions with large numbers of extras may have their own extras casting director as well, however in all aspects of a film or television production's budget, they are all a part of the above-the-line, answering to the director as part of his or her staff.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1974 film \"Earthquake\", Walter Matthau agreed to provide a cameo performance without compensation on the condition that he not be credited under his real name; he was credited under a fictitious name of his choosing, \"Walter Matuschanskayasky.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Because he played the part without pay, Bruce Willis is not credited for his prominent role in the portion of \"Four Rooms\" directed by Quentin Tarantino.\n\nBULLET::::- Owen Wilson does not receive credit for his \"Jedidiah\" character in \"Night at the Museum\", though he receives credit in the sequel, \"\".\n", "Casting Associates: Associates is the second chain of command in a casting office. Once a casting associate has worked for two years in the field of casting, they can apply for membership in Casting Society of America. Typically, the work under a Casting Director running pre-read sessions, prepping deal memos, and doing any calls to agents. Many associates begin to take on smaller scale projects so they can amass enough credits to move up in rank in CSA to a full-fledged Casting Director.\n", "An actor may go through several casting calls before receiving a part, and even though well known actors or actresses oftentimes still go through this very necessary process, some are privileged enough to have well known writers, screenwriters and or directors /producers pitch a project for their intent to be cast in a role. The well known actor or actress oftentimes negotiates producer credit as well as very lucrative monetary compensation.\n", "If a film has an ensemble cast with no clear lead role, it is traditional to bill the participants alphabetically or in the order of their on-screen appearance. An example of the former is \"A Bridge Too Far\" (1977), which featured 14 roles played by established stars, any one of whom would have ordinarily received top billing as an individual. The cast of the \"Harry Potter\" films includes many recognized stars in supporting roles who are billed alphabetically, but after the three principals who were initially child actors.\n", "BULLET::::- As Gary Oldman appeared under heavy make-up in \"Hannibal\", he requested that his name be completely removed from the billing and credits in order to \"do it anonymously\". However, Nathan Murray is still credited as \"Mr. Oldman's assistant\" and Oldman's name was added to the end credits upon the film's home video release.\n\nBULLET::::- Even though Gene Hackman had a prominent role in \"The Firm (1993 film)\" he chose not to receive any billing credit because Tom Cruise was afforded sole, above the title, top billing with the letters of his name equal to that of the film title.\n", "Central Casting was established on December 4, 1925 as the Central Casting Bureau by Will H. Hays and the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) in an effort to regulate the thousands who sought employment as extras in the film industry.\n\nHays had four main goals for Central Casting: to do away with the high fees extras were charged by private employment agencies, to ensure extras were paid legally, to discourage the influx of people flocking to Hollywood to seek employment as extras, and to provide steady employment to qualified extras.\n", "The film is a celebration of the casting profession, highlighting its previously unsung role in film history while also serving as an elegy to the lost era of the New Hollywood. It focuses on casting pioneer Marion Dougherty, an iconoclast whose exquisite taste, tenacity and gut instincts brought a new kind of actor to the screen that would mark the end of the old studio system and help to usher in this revolutionary new period. The film draws a line through the last half century to show us the profession’s evolution from studio system type-casting to the rise of large ensemble films populated with unique and diverse casts.\n", "Section::::Casting process.:Casting Society of America (CSA).\n\nThe significant organization of professional screen, television, reality, and theater casting in the US is the Casting Society of America (CSA), but membership is optional. Casting directors organized in 2005 and became members of a collective bargaining unit, the Hollywood Teamsters Local 399 and New York Teamsters Local 817.\n\nSection::::Casting process.:Casting director workshops.\n", "Houseman says one time during filming his associate producer, Jud Kinberg, \"came down to the stage and heard this awful caterwauling. As he got near he heard: [German accent] \"You are not a professional! We pay you a lot of money to be a professional actor, and it seems to me you are stupid, you are lazy, you are nothing at all...!\" Jud came around the corner, and saw that the recipient of this was a little boy of eleven!\" The little boy being referred to was obviously Jon Whiteley, as he was the only boy actor in the film. But Jon was only nine years old during the filming and not eleven.\n", "In 1944, the agency introduced a second phone line, GArfield 3621 for men and GArfield 3711 for women. Though registration decreased due to World War II, the switchboard often received up to 4,000 calls an hour from extras looking for work.\n\nIn 1976, the Motion Picture Association of America (the former MPPDA) sold Central Casting to Production Payment, Inc., a subsidiary of Talent & Residuals, making the agency privately owned for the first time.\n", "In November 2016, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences’ Board of Governors awarded Lynn Stalmaster with an Academy Honorary Award for casting. He became the first person to receive an Oscar for casting.\n\nSection::::Accolades/awards.:Woody Allen's Open Letter.\n\nWoody Allen wrote a rare, open letter to The Hollywood Reporter magazine a week after \"Casting By\" opening in New York on Nov. 1, 2012, and recognized his own casting director, Juliet Taylor (who is one of Marion Dougherty’s protégées), for her tenacity and insight in her casting work for his films.\n\nSection::::Home media.\n", "350 professional actresses responding to calls from casting directors in five cities present themselves for three major roles in a dramatic film to be set in the late 1940s. They converse with the film’s writer/director about their background, training, professional experience and skills. They then perform prepared pieces from established works, followed by their presentation of the character in readings from the script of the project, all the while guided and evaluated by the director. Before the project was placed on hold, the casting footage was intended to be integrated into the theatrical film itself as a reflection of its themes of fiction overlapping reality, voyeurism and intimacy.\n", "Gregg once said of her work as a character actress on television: \"I work steadily, but I have no identity.\" She added, \"When casting people have a call for a woman who looks like the wrath of God, I'm notified.\"\n", "Some films have both an \"and-as\" credit and a separate last billing credit, such as the Irwin Allen 1978 disaster film \"The Swarm\", the opening credits of which, after listing an already large cast of stars, concludes with \"Fred MacMurray as Clarence ... and Henry Fonda\".\n\nSection::::Films.:Unbilled appearances.\n\nAn actor may go uncredited, and not be listed in either or both of the opening and closing credits. Reasons for this may vary. Some examples include:\n", "BULLET::::- In 1980, George Lucas resigned from the Directors Guild of America after it insisted, against his wishes, that Irvin Kershner, the director of \"The Empire Strikes Back\", be credited at the beginning of the film because the company name Lucasfilm was there; it had previously allowed the original \"Star Wars\" (1977), which had a similar opening sequence, to go unchallenged because the writer-director credit (George Lucas) matched the company name Lucasfilm Ltd.\n", "Within the production of a prestigious work under consideration for film or television, and depending on the difficulty in finding a lead or supporting actor for the role, such as with the casting of the biopic films Notorious, Straight Outta Compton and All Eyez on Me, casting calls may go out into the general public at large, this is referred to as a Cattle Call (typical for community theater), to professional and semi-professional local actors where a similar process is followed (for supporting roles in theater and film) or for specifically selected actors (for leading roles, especially in films).\n", "When the agency’s parent company International Digitronics Corporation merged with Draney Information Services Corporation in 1991, Central Casting merged with Richmar Casting to become part of the newly formed Entertainment Partners. During this process, Central Casting overhauled their digital casting system, making it easier for casting directors to search through their 15,000 registered extras. Around this time, extras begin to refer to themselves as background actors.\n\nSection::::History.:New York.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In 2011, Mazda announced i-ELOOP, a system which uses a variable-voltage alternator to convert kinetic energy to electric power during deceleration. The energy stored in a double-layer capacitor, is used to supply power needed by vehicle electrical systems. When used in conjunction with Mazda’s start-stop system, i-Stop, the company claims fuel savings of up to 10%.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Opel/Vauxhall.\n\nIn 2010, Opel introduced Start/stop in their \"EcoFLEX\" branded models. The system is used with Family 0, Ecotec and MGE petrol and MultiJet, Circle L, and Family B diesel engines.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Renault.\n", "In automobiles, a start-stop system or stop-start system automatically shuts down and restarts the internal combustion engine to reduce the amount of time the engine spends idling, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions. This is most advantageous for vehicles which spend significant amounts of time waiting at traffic lights or frequently come to a stop in traffic jams. Start-stop technology may become more common with more stringent government fuel economy and emissions regulations. This feature is present in hybrid electric vehicles, but has also appeared in vehicles which lack a hybrid electric powertrain. For non-electric vehicles fuel economy gains from this technology are typically in the range of 3-10 percent, potentially as high as 12 percent. In the United States, idling wastes approximately 3.9 billion gallons of gasoline per year.\n", "Turning the engine off instead of idling does save fuel. Traffic lights are in most cases predictable, and it is often possible to anticipate when a light will turn green. A support is the Start-stop system, turning the engine off and on automatically during a stop. Some traffic lights (in Europe and Asia) have timers on them, which assist the driver in using this tactic.\n", "In 2008 Land Rover fitted its Freelander with Stop/Start which could reduce fuel consumption and emissions by up to 10%. As of 2016 all Land Rover and Range Rover models are fitted with \"Intelligent Eco Stop/Start\".\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Mahindra & Mahindra.\n\nMahindra's were the first in India to launch stop-start based Micro Hybrid system in May 2000. This involved home-grown technology and first of its kind component development like Hall sensor based neutral and clutch pedal sensors, and later a joint venture with Bosch for common rail based vehicles.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Mazda.\n", "BMW is including the technology across many of its cars and the MINI line for 2008 as part of its \"Efficient Dynamics\" brand. BMW has been interested in ways to reduce parasitic losses on engines, so the company took the technology a step further. Instead of using an Integrated Starter Generator (ISG), BMW has used an enhanced starter which is a conventional starter, developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, that can withstand the increased number of engine-starts in a stop-start vehicle.\n", "Section::::Carmakers and models.:Volvo.\n\nVolvo introduced their Start/Stop technology in 2009 under their DRIVe branding.\n\nSection::::Concerns.\n\nThe US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) raised questions about non-hybrid Honda vehicles equipped with the company's 'Idle Stop' transmissions in February 2001 due to concerns over the \"sudden lurching forward of a vehicle in an automatic restart\" – rather than the \"gradual creeping forward found in current transmission designs.\"\n", "The system needs to be implemented in conjunction with modifications and reinforcements on many of the car's components in order to reinforce the engine and electrical system durability and long-term wear resistance, due to the increased loads that the added stopping and starting cycles impose. To accomplish similar levels of durability, comfort and user experience to that of older cars without the system, the car's manufacturer can include one or more of the following enhancements in the car's industrial design:\n", "BMW has developed the system such that the alternator is not activated most of the time. This means that electrical components in the vehicle are normally running on battery power. When the battery needs to be charged or when decelerating or braking, the alternator is activated to recharge the battery (regenerative braking). Since this battery experiences very different load characteristics than a normal car battery, BMW used an absorptive glass mat (AGM) type instead.\n", "The switching on of the ignition starts the engine and, in addition, automatically restarts the engine whenever it stalls, as long as the ignition is switched on.\n", "Jaguar's \"Intelligent Eco Stop/Start\" was first fitted to the XF and XJ models in 2011 before expanding to the rest of the range.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Kia.\n\nThe redesigned 2012 Kia Rio and Rio5 (hatchback) debuted at the 2011 New York Auto Show was announced with their Intelligent Stop and Go (ISG) feature, or stop-start technology.\n\nKia claims the combination of direct fuel injection and stop-start will offer 30MPG City/40MPG on the highway in both 6 speed manual and automatic transmissions.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Land Rover.\n", "The \"Smart Idle Stop System\" Mazda system avoids electrical restart: at stop, the motor is stopped in a configuration which allow immediate starting in 0.35 seconds.\n\nThe ISG EcoDynamics system provided by Kia uses Bosch, Valeo and Varta components.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Bentley.\n\nStop-Start technology was fitted to a Bentley for the first time in 2016 on the Bentayga model. Bentley's system stops the engine when the car is stopped or moving slowly.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:BMW.\n", "Start/stop technology came to Europe first, due to regulatory differences. 25 percent of the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is spent idling. In comparison, only an estimated 11 percent of the United States United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) test is spent at idle. Start/stop activation depends on specific driver inputs as well as operating conditions. The engine must have reached proper temperature to get adequate light-off of its catalytic converter and also to ensure proper lubrication and as effortless a restart as possible.\n", "On April 8, 2003, General Motors announced this technology (now called Active Fuel Management) to be commercially available on 2005 GMC Envoy XL, Envoy XUV and Chevrolet TrailBlazer EXT using optional Vortec 5300 V8 engine. GM also extended the technology on the new High Value \"LZ8\" V6 engine in the Chevrolet Impala and Monte Carlo as well as the 5.3L V8 LS4 engine in the last generation Chevrolet Impala SS, Monte Carlo SS and Pontiac Grand Prix GXP. In both designs, half of the cylinders can be switched off under light loads.\n", "Formerly, only the 2.7-liter turbocharged V-6 version came with stop-start, which requires a more robust (and expensive) absorbent-glass-mat (AGM) battery that can better handle the constant cycling and the heavier draw from vehicle accessories with the engine off.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:General Motors.\n\nIn 2012 General Motors released its Chevrolet Malibu Eco model with eAssist technology, which combines start-stop technology with regenerative braking and electric boost in certain conditions.\n\nIn 2014 General Motors announced that the Chevrolet Impala and Malibu would have a (non-eAssist) start-stop system across all models.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Honda.\n", "Late in 2010, Ford announced that its start-stop system, already used in its hybrids as well as several mainstream models in Europe, would be introduced in North America with the 2012 models, initially with 4-cylinder engines and later proliferating into V6s and V8s. Eventually the system will be available in all Ford vehicles.\n\nIn 2013, it announced that start-stop technology would be brought into the second generation Ford Fusion models, and it built start-stop systems into the Ford F150 2015 model for the first time as a standard feature rather than an option.\n", "The i-Stop system, Mazda’s first start stop system, detects which piston is in the best position to restart quickest, which is the one in the combustion stroke phase, where air and fuel are in the cylinder, ready to be ignited. The mixture in this cylinder is ignited by the spark plug, forcing that piston down, and with assistance from the starter motor, results in a near instantaneous engine restart time of 0.35 seconds.\n", "More recently, Toyota has been selling cars with start-stop system on their internal combustion engine vehicles since 2009, and since 1997 in their Prius hybrid line. Both Toyota and Mazda introduced stop-start technology, available also outside of Japan, in some of their 2009 model year vehicles.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Volkswagen.\n", "Volkswagen began using start-stop systems with the Polo Formel E with SSA around 1983, after having previewed the system on the 1981 Auto 2000 research car. Later the LUPO 3L, and after that in the Polo, Golf and Passat BlueMotion, which also include weight and aerodynamic improvements. The system is now commonplace in the Volkswagen range, fitted to all vehicles with the Bluemotion Technology package, though certain other models have the technology too. For the Lupo 3L, with an automated manual gearbox and clutch, the engine stops four seconds after the car becomes stationary with the driver's foot on the brake pedal. No other action is necessary. Removing the foot from the brake pedal initiates engine start and the car can be driven away. The gear lever remains in the drive D position throughout. The same applies to the Audi A2 1.2TDi, which is almost identical mechanically.\n", "BULLET::::- The engine main (crankshaft) bearings are coated with special polymers that have properties of dry lubricants, such as Polyamide. This aids the lack of the motor oil film and hydrodynamic lubrication when the crankshaft stops, preventing metal-to-metal contact that would otherwise produce accelerated wear on the bearing surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- The main battery is either AGM or EFB technology, both supporting an increased number of charging cycles and increased load. This is important because all the car's electrical system must be maintained by the battery after the alternator stops generating current.\n", "Most of the fuel energy loss in cars occurs in the thermodynamic losses of the engine. The next biggest loss is from idling, or when the engine is in \"standby\", which explains the large gains available from shutting off the engine.\n", "Renault introduced the technology in all of its European models in 2010.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Roewe.\n\nIn 2009, Roewe's Rover 75 based 750 was fitted with stop-start as standard with the hybrid 1.8 Rover K-series engine.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:SAAB.\n\nA Start/Stop function was fitted to the second-generation 9-5 in 2009. The button to control the system was placed next to the gearshift like SAAB ignition keys of old.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Suzuki.\n", "Honda has been using the start-stop function for over a decade via their IMA mild hybrid system in first generation Insight models in the Japanese domestic market since 1999. and more recently on the Civic Hybrid.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Hyundai.\n\nWhile both the Kia Rio and Rio5 share the same new direct-injected four-cylinder 1.6L engine with its cousin Hyundai Accent/Verna (also newly redesigned for 2012), Hyundai made no mention of this feature in their Accent line. Hyundai 1.4 manual has the ISG (Intelligent Stop & Go) system (in Israel).\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Jaguar.\n", "With a manual-gearbox car, engine shutdown typically comes with braking to a complete stop, gearbox in neutral and clutch release. Cars with automatic transmissions shut down upon braking to a full stop - the shut down is activated by the footbrake pedal being in use when the car comes to a halt. If the car is slowed initially by manual use of the automatic gear box and final stoppage is by use of the handbrake the engine will not shut down.\n\nSection::::Enhanced components.\n", "When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking depending on the type of transmission, and mode. An EV would coast when the accelerator is similarly released, if it was not for regenerative braking which mimics the familiar response, and recharges the battery to an extent. Regenerative brakings also reduces the use of the conventional brakes just as engine braking would in an internal combustion vehicle, reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.\n\nSection::::Batteries.\n", "It is possible for the engine to enter into never-ending loops in which the agenda never reaches the empty state. For this reason, most engines support explicit \"halt\" verbs that can be invoked from production action lists. They may also provide automatic loop detection in which never-ending loops are automatically halted after a given number of iterations. Some engines support a model in which, instead of halting when the agenda is empty, the engine enters a wait state until new facts are asserted externally.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Automobile stop/start technology may not save fuel." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Modern engines start very easily and they are already warm when using start/stop technology so they don't need the additional fuel that a cold engine would need." ]

[ "GRAS Substances According to the FDA\n\nSection::::Dilution.\n\nEssential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: \"\"oil-loving\"\") compounds that usually are not miscible with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol.\n\nThe most common way to safely dilute essential oils for topical use is in a carrier oil. This can be any vegetable oil readily available, the most popular for skin care being jojoba, coconut, wheat germ, olive and avocado.\n\nSection::::Raw materials.\n\nEssential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.\n", "Section::::Dangers.:Handling.\n", "Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects. With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents, many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.\n", "Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, \"sfumatura\", absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.\n", "Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy, a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation, and children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing.\n\nSection::::Production.:Expression.\n", "BULLET::::- 4 parts myrrh essential oil\n\nBULLET::::- 2 parts galangal essential oil\n\nBULLET::::- 7 parts olive oil\n", "Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.\n", "The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as a Class 3 Flammable Liquid, as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C.\n\nSection::::Dangers.:Gynecomastia.\n", "Section::::Use as pesticide.\n", "Section::::Use in aromatherapy.\n", "Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of forms. Essential oil extracts can be applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil. Many essential oils can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight; diluting them in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical. Salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions are other forms of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as an oil for topical application. Many massage oils, antibacterial salves, and wound healing compounds are made this way.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nThe crushed leaves of all species exude a spicy, fragrant essential oil. Of the species examined in one study, \"M. didyma\" contained the highest concentration of oil.\n", "Section::::Raw materials.:Balsam of Peru.\n\nBalsam of Peru, an essential oil derived from the \"Myroxylon\", is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for healing properties. However, a number of national and international surveys have identified Balsam of Peru as being in the \"top five\" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.\n\nSection::::Raw materials.:Garlic oil.\n\nGarlic oil is an essential oil derived from garlic.\n\nSection::::Raw materials.:Eucalyptus oil.\n", "The United States, Europe, India, and Japan are the main consumers.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Perfumery and aromatherapy.:Essential oil.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Perfumery and aromatherapy.:Essential oil.:Composition.\n\nVetiver oil or \"khus\" oil is a complex oil, containing over 100 identified components, typically:\n", "The essential oil of \"Jasminum officinale\" is used in aromatherapy. Jasmine absolute is known as the 'King of Oils', and its heavy, sweet scent is loved by most people. The flowers release their perfume at dusk, so flowers are picked at night and a tiny amount of oil is obtained by solvent extraction. The result is a very expensive oil, but it can be used in low concentrations so it is not that uneconomic to use it in products. The aroma of jasmine is described as calming and soothing without being soporific.\n", "Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets (SDS) to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women.\n\nEssential Oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults. \n\nSection::::Dangers.:Flammability.\n", "BULLET::::- 1 part cassia essential oil\n\nBULLET::::- 7 parts olive oil\n\nThis is a highly fragranced oil that may be applied to the skin in more liberal amounts; it is a close, modern approximation of the oil described by Abramelin to Abraham of Worms.\n\nEssential oil variation of the Biblical recipe:\n\nBULLET::::- 1 part myrrh oil\n\nBULLET::::- 1 part cassia oil\n\nBULLET::::- 1/2 part cinnamon leaf oil\n\nBULLET::::- 1/2 part \"keneh bosem\" oil, which is sometimes spelled \"kaneh bosem\" (see article Holy anointing oil section \"Identification of kaneh bosem\")\n\nBULLET::::- 7 parts olive oil.\n", "There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.\n\nSection::::Dangers.:Pregnancy.\n", "Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Distillation.\n", "\"The fact that perfumes are absorbed and retained by oils and fats was known in Egypt at an early date, and later to the Greeks and Romans; it was the basis of perfume-making in the ancient world, and it is still the principle of one of the modern methods employed when dealing with certain delicate flower-perfumes. Balanos oil, which is obtained from the seeds of \"Balanitesa egyptiaca\", a tree that at one time grew plentifully in Egypt and is still abundant in the Sudan (where it is called \"heglig\"), is a bland odourless oil that does not readily become rancid and is hence very suitable for making perfumes. If balanos oil be warmed with myrrh, the volatile oil of the myrrh is absorbed by the fixed (non-volatile) balanos oil, which in consequence becomes perfumed, and when the extraction is finished, the perfumed balanos oil can be separated from the exhausted and useless residue by pressing.\" \n", "Section::::Essential oil.\n", "Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the \"absolute\".\n", "Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses. Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards. Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; there has been at least one case of death. As such, the use of essential oils as an alternative medicine should be approached with caution.\n", "Many essential oils affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil, may cause contact dermatitis. They are used in antiseptics and liniments in particular. Typically, they produce rubefacient irritation at first and then counterirritant numbness. Turpentine oil and camphor are two typical examples of oils that cause such effects. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. This is caused by its effect on heat-sensing nerve endings. Some essential oils, such as clove oil or eugenol, were popular for many hundred years in dentistry as antiseptics and local anesthetics. \n" ]

[ "Oil isn't good for skin because oil and water don't mix" ]

[ "Oil can be absorbed into skin." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Oil isn't good for skin because oil and water don't mix", "Oil isn't good for skin because oil and water don't mix" ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Oil can be absorbed into skin.", "Oil can be absorbed into skin." ]

[ "In Southeast Asia, coconut milk is used to make many traditional drinks. \"Cendol\" is a popular iced drink from this region containing chilled coconut milk and green jellies made of rice flour. Coconut milk is also used in hot drinks such as \"bandrek\" and \"bajigur\", two popular drinks from Indonesia. Sweetened coconut milk, and coconut milk diluted with water are two popular coconut beverages in southern China and Taiwan.\n", "Coconut milk and coconut cream extracted from grated coconut is frequently added to various dessert and savory dishes, as well as in curries and stews. It can also be diluted into a beverage. Various other products made from thickened coconut milk with sugar and/or eggs like coconut jam and coconut custard are also widespread in Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, sweetened reduced coconut milk is marketed as coconut syrup and is used for various desserts. Coconut oil extracted from coconut milk or copra is also used for frying, cooking, and making margarine, among other uses.\n", "Coconuts are known for their versatility of uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. The inner flesh of the mature seed, as well as the coconut milk extracted from it, forms a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits because their endosperm contains a large quantity of clear liquid, called \"coconut water\" or \"coconut juice\".\n", "The leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production, coconut meal, is used as livestock feed. The dried calyx is used as fuel in wood-fired stoves. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in plant tissue culture and micropropagation. The smell of coconuts comes from the 6-pentyloxan-2-one molecule, known as δ-decalactone in the food and fragrance industries.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Other uses.:Tool and shelter for animals.\n", "Coconut water can be drunk fresh or used in cooking as in \"binakol\". It can also be fermented to produce a jelly-like dessert known as \"nata de coco\".\n\nCoconut sap, usually extracted from cut inflorescence stalks is sweet when fresh and can be drunk as is like in \"tuba fresca\" of Mexico. They can also be processed to extract palm sugar. The sap when fermented can also be made into coconut vinegar or various palm wines (which can be further distilled to make arrack).\n\nCoconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Culinary uses.:Nutrition.\n", "The jelly-like pulp from the inside of the coconut is often added to coconut water to make a tropical drink. In Brazil, for example, coconut milk is mixed with sugar and \"cachaça\" to make a cocktail called . Puerto Rico is also popular for tropical drinks containing coconut, such as \"piña colada\" and \"coquito\", which typically contain coconut milk or coconut cream.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Palmyra and date palm sap is harvested in Bengal, India, to process into \"gur\" and \"jaggery\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dragon's blood, a red resin used traditionally in medicine, varnish, and dyes, may be obtained from the fruit of \"Daemonorops\" species.\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut is the partially edible seed of the fruit of the coconut palm (\"Cocos nucifera\").\n\nBULLET::::- Coir is a coarse, water-resistant fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. In India, beekeepers use coir in their bee smokers.\n", "Coconuts for drinking are served chilled, fresh, or packaged. They are often sold by street vendors who cut them open with machetes or similar implements in front of customers. Coconut water for retail can be found in ordinary aluminum cans, Tetra Paks, or plastic bottles, sometimes with coconut pulp or coconut jelly included.\n\nCoconut water can be fermented to produce coconut vinegar. It is also used to make \"nata de coco\", a jelly-like food.\n\nSection::::Nutritional value.\n", "When coconut prices began to fall in the early 1980s, pressure mounted to alter the structure of the industry. In 1985, the Philippine government agreed to dismantle the United Coconut Oil Mills as part of an agreement with the IMF to bail out the Philippine economy. Later in 1988, United States law requiring foods using tropical oils to be labeled indicating the saturated fat content had a negative impact on an already ailing industry and gave rise to protests from coconut growers that similar requirements were not levied on oils produced in temperate climates.\n", "In the Philippines, coconut milk can also be further processed into coconut caramel and coconut curds, both known as \"latik\". The coconut caramel version of \"latik\" made from a reduction of muscovado sugar and coconut milk has been developed into a commercial product marketed as coconut syrup (not to be confused with coconut sugar derived from coconut sap).\n", "The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries use coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators. Biodiesel fuel derived from coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines. Further research into the potential of coconut oil as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific, although to date it appears that it is not useful as a fuel source due to the cost of labour and supply constraints. \n", "BULLET::::- Hybrid (red and green mix) and green coconuts\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia\n\nBULLET::::- Central Plantation Crops Research Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut production in Kerala\n\nBULLET::::- Coir Board of India\n\nBULLET::::- Death by coconut\n\nBULLET::::- List of coconut dishes\n\nBULLET::::- List of dishes made using coconut milk\n\nBULLET::::- Ravanahatha\n\nBULLET::::- \"Voanioala gerardii\" – forest coconut, the closest relative of the modern coconut\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "When coconut prices began to fall in the early 1980s, pressure mounted to alter the structure of the industry. In 1985, the Philippine government agreed to dismantle the United Coconut Oil Mills as part of an agreement with the IMF to bail out the Philippine economy. Later in 1988, United States law requiring foods using tropical oils to be labeled indicating the saturated fat content had a negative impact on an already ailing industry and gave rise to protests from coconut growers that similar requirements were not levied on oils produced in temperate climates.[5]\n", "Coconut water\n\nCoconut water, less commonly coconut juice, is the clear liquid inside coconuts (fruits of the coconut palm). In early development, it serves as a suspension for the endosperm of the coconut during the nuclear phase of development. As growth continues, the endosperm matures into its cellular phase and deposits into the rind of the coconut pulp. The liquid inside young coconuts is often preferred to the liquid of a ripened coconut.\n\nSection::::Harvesting.\n", "Coconut milk can be used in both sweet and savory dishes. In many tropical and Asian cuisines, it is a traditional ingredient in curries and other dishes, including desserts.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food.:Southeast Asia.\n\nIn Indonesia, coconut milk is one of the ingredients of the rice pancake \"serabi\". It is also used in coconut rice, a widespread Southeast Asian dish of rice cooked in coconut milk which include the \"nasi lemak\" of Malaysia and the \"nasi uduk\" of Indonesia.\n", "Lauric acid, as a component of triglycerides, comprises about half of the fatty-acid content in coconut milk, coconut oil, laurel oil, and palm kernel oil (not to be confused with palm oil), Otherwise, it is relatively uncommon. It is also found in human breast milk (6.2% of total fat), cow's milk (2.9%), and goat's milk (3.1%).\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:In various plants.\n\nBULLET::::- The palm tree \"Attalea speciosa\", a species popularly known in Brazil as \"babassu\" – 50% in \"babassu\" oil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Attalea cohune\", the cohune palm (also rain tree, American oil palm, corozo palm or manaca palm) – 46.5% in cohune oil\n", "Coconut milk is also an intermediate step in the traditional wet process methods of producing virgin coconut oil by gradual heating, churning, or fermentation. These methods, however, are less efficient than coconut oil production from copra.\n\nSection::::Traditional preparation.:Coconut graters.\n\nManual coconut graters are a standard kitchen equipment in households in the tropical Asia-Pacific and Eastern Africa, underscoring the importance of coconut milk and coconut oil extraction in the Indo-Pacific. They reached as far as Polynesia before European contact via the Austronesian expansion.\n", "great importance to the inhabitants of the tropics. In the Laccadives it forms the chief food, each person consuming four nuts per day, and the fluid, commonly called milk, which it contains, affords them an agreeable beverage. While young they yield a delicious substance resembling blancmange. Among other products of this palm may be mentioned \" toddy,\" which when fermented is intoxicating; strong arrack is also distilled from it, besides which it yields vinegar and \"jaggery\" or sugar.\"\n\nSection::::Production and cultivation.:Production by country.:Bermuda.\n", "Anecdotal sources describe coconut water being used in India for the senicide of elderly people, a procedure known as thalaikoothal. In this custom, the elderly person is made to drink an excessive amount of coconut water, eventually resulting in fever and death, the exact causes of which were not determined.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.\n", "Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant and as a transformer oil. Coconut oil (and derivatives, such as coconut fatty acid) are used as raw materials in the manufacture of surfactants such as cocamidopropyl betaine, cocamide MEA, and cocamide DEA.\n\nAcids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides. Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as cochin oil.\n", "Coconut sugar\n\nCoconut sugar (also known as coco sugar, coconut palm sugar, coco sap sugar or coconut blossom sugar) is a palm sugar produced from the sap of the flower bud stem of the coconut palm.\n\nOther types of palm sugar are made from the Palmyra palm, the date palm, the sugar date palm, the sago palm or the sugar palm.\n\nUsed as a sweetener in many countries, coconut sugar has no significant nutritional or health benefits over other sweeteners.\n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n\nCoconut sugar comes in crystal or granule form, block or liquid.\n", "The Italian explorer, Antonio Pigafetta, stated that the arrack that he drank in Palawan and nearby islands in 1521 was made from distilled rice wine. However, he was likely referring to \"pangasi\", a rice wine which is not distilled.\n\nSection::::Arrack in different countries.:Sri Lanka.\n\nSri Lanka is the largest producer of coconut arrack and up until 1992 the government played a significant role in its production.\n", "Section::::By continent and country.:Vietnam.\n\nCoconut is a cash crop of Vietnam.\n\nSection::::Global cash crops.\n\nCoconut palms are cultivated in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tonnes per year. The oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and frying; coconut oil is also widely used in soaps and cosmetics.\n\nSection::::Sustainability of cash crops.\n", "Fractionated coconut oil provides fractions of the whole oil so that its different fatty acids can be separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12-carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. The fractionation of coconut oil can also be used to isolate caprylic acid and capric acid, which are medium-chain triglycerides, as these are used for medical applications, special diets and cosmetics, sometimes also being used as a carrier oil for fragrances.\n\nSection::::Production.:Figures.\n", "Coconut milk can also be used to produce milk substitutes (differentiated as \"coconut milk beverages\"). These products are not the same as regular coconut milk products which are meant for cooking, not drinking. A sweetened, processed, coconut milk product from Puerto Rico is also known as cream of coconut. It is used in many desserts and beverages like the piña colada, though it should not be confused with coconut cream.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Also known as a \"bogie hearth\", the car furnace is an extremely large batch furnace. The floor is constructed as an insulated movable car that is moved in and out of the furnace for loading and unloading. The car is usually sealed using sand seals or solid seals when in position. Due to the difficulty in getting a sufficient seal, car furnaces are usually used for non-atmosphere processes.\n\nSection::::Furnace types.:Batch furnaces.:Elevator-type furnace.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 - Michigan State University builds the first wave disk engine. An internal combustion engine which does away with pistons, crankshafts and valves, and replaces them with a disc-shaped shock wave generator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of rocket and missile technology - Rockets can be considered to be heat engines. The heat of their exhaust gases is converted into mechanical energy.\n\nBULLET::::- History of thermodynamics\n\nBULLET::::- History of the internal combustion engine\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of motor and engine technology\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of steam power\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Sources.\n", "All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors.\n\nSection::::Fuels and oxidizers.:Fuels.\n", "Section::::Parts.:Heat shielding systems.\n", "Block heaters that run directly on the vehicle's own gasoline or diesel fuel supply are also available; these do not require an external power source. The coolant is heated and circulated, usually by thermosiphon, through the engine and the vehicle's heater core. \n", "Some cars, such as the second generation Toyota Prius, pump hot coolant from the cooling system into a 3-litre insulated thermos-style reservoir at shutdown, where it stays warm for up to 3 days.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "These systems often work in combination with engine cooling and exhaust systems. Heat shielding is necessary to prevent engine heat from damaging heat-sensitive components. The majority of older cars use simple steel heat shielding to reduce thermal radiation and convection. It is now most common for modern cars are to use aluminium heat shielding which has a lower density, can be easily formed and does not corrode in the same way as steel. Higher performance vehicles are beginning to use ceramic heat shielding as this can withstand far higher temperatures as well as further reductions in heat transfer.\n\nSection::::Parts.:Lubrication systems.\n", "BULLET::::4. In the air conditioning test, the ambient temperature of the test cell is raised to 35 °C. The vehicle's climate control system is then used to lower the internal cabin temperature. Starting with a warm engine, the test averages 35 km/h and reaches a maximum speed of 88 km/h. Five stops are included, with idling occurring 19% of the time.\n", "Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that is not translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.\n", "A heater core is a small radiator located under the dashboard of the vehicle, and it consists of conductive aluminium or brass tubing with cooling fins to increase surface area. Hot coolant passing through the heater core gives off heat before returning to the engine cooling circuit.\n\nThe squirrel cage fan of the vehicle's ventilation system forces air through the heater core to transfer heat from the coolant to the cabin air, which is directed into the vehicle through vents at various points.\n\nSection::::Control.\n", "An example of a new source of heat \"turning on\" within an object, causing transient conduction, is an engine starting in an automobile. In this case, the transient thermal conduction phase for the entire machine is over, and the steady state phase appears, as soon as the engine reaches steady-state operating temperature. In this state of steady-state equilibrium, temperatures vary greatly from the engine cylinders to other parts of the automobile, but at no point in space within the automobile does temperature increase or decrease. After establishing this state, the transient conduction phase of heat transfer is over.\n", "Section::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:Honda.\n\nHonda also develops a module based on a Rankine Cycle to improve overall efficiency of hybrid vehicles, by recovering the heat of the engine and turning it into electricity for the battery pack.\n\nIn the US highway cycle, the Rankine cycle system regenerated three times as much energy as the vehicle's regenerative braking system.\n\nSection::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:Exoès.\n", "Timeline of heat engine technology\n\nThis Timeline of heat engine technology describes how heat engines have been known since antiquity but have been made into increasingly useful devices since the 17th century as a better understanding of the processes involved was gained. They continue to be developed today.\n\nIn engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine performs the conversion of heat energy to mechanical work by exploiting the temperature gradient between a hot \"source\" and a cold \"sink\". Heat is transferred to the sink from the source, and in this process some of the heat is converted into work.\n", "Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to implement. Typically, the term \"engine\" is used for a physical device and \"cycle\" for the model.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "In thermodynamics and engineering, a heat engine is a system that converts heat or thermal energy—and chemical energy—to mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a higher state temperature to a lower state temperature. A heat source generates thermal energy that brings the working substance to the high temperature state. The working substance generates work in the working body of the engine while transferring heat to the colder sink until it reaches a low temperature state. During this process some of the thermal energy is converted into work by exploiting the properties of the working substance. The working substance can be any system with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas or liquid. During this process, a lot of heat is lost to the surroundings and so cannot be converted to work.\n", "A typical run-around coil system comprises two or more multi-row finned tube coils connected to each other by a pumped pipework circuit. The pipework is charged with a heat exchange fluid, normally water, which picks up heat from the exhaust air coil and gives up heat to the supply air coil before returning again. Thus heat from the exhaust air stream is transferred through the pipework coil to the circulating fluid, and then from the fluid through the pipework coil to the supply air stream.\n", "Section::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.\n\nFacing the new American, European, Japanese or Chinese regulation, more and more stringent concerning CO2 emissions, exhaust heat recovery sounds like one of the most efficient ways to recover a free energy, since heat is generated in many ways by the engine. Numerous companies develop system based upon a Rankine Cycle:\n\nSection::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:BMW.\n\nThe German company has been one of the first major to study exhaust heat recovery with a Rankine system called Turbosteamer.\n", "Section::::Engine cooling function.\n", "Section::::Brown dwarfs.\n", "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell performance.\n\nA battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.\n\nSection::::Capacity and discharge.\n", "In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from the passenger compartment to the environment. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into the ambient environment.\n", "The internal combustion engine in most cars and trucks is cooled by a water and antifreeze mixture that is circulated through the engine and radiator by a water pump to enable the radiator to give off engine heat to the atmosphere. Some of that coolant can be diverted through the heater core to give some engine heat to the cabin, or adjust the temperature of the conditioned air.\n", "In other words, a heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high temperature heat source, converting part of it to useful work and delivering the rest to the cold temperature heat sink.\n\nIn general, the efficiency of a given heat transfer process (whether it be a refrigerator, a heat pump or an engine) is defined informally by the ratio of \"what is taken out\" to \"what is put in\".\n\nIn the case of an engine, one desires to extract work and puts in a heat transfer.\n", "Section::::Energy transfer process.:Use in gas turbines.\n", "Section::::Low heat rejection engines.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Uses.\n\nThe \"Annual Bubble Wrap Competition For Young Inventors\" was hosted by Sealed Air from 2006 to 2008, in which children were encouraged to design products made out of bubble wrap that had uses outside of the packaging industry. Inventions included a \"Bubble Wrap Car Door Cover\", a \"Bubble Wrap Cushy Wheelchair\", and \"Transformable Bubble Wrap Kite\".\n\nPopping Bubble Wrap is sometimes used as stress-relief, and Sealed Air's corporate offices have \"stress relief boxes\" that are filled with Bubble Wrap for the employees to pop.\n", "In 2012, Cadbury Schweppes Pty. Ltd. (in Australia) began producing a chocolate product named \"Marvellous Creations Jelly Popping Candy Beanies\" which contains popping candy, jelly beans and beanies (candy covered chocolate). By 2013 Whittakers (New Zealand) had also released a local product (white chocolate with a local carbonated drink \"Lemon and Paeroa' or \"L&P\" for short). Prominent British chef Heston Blumenthal has also made several desserts incorporating popping candy, both for the peculiar sensory experience of the popping and for the nostalgia value of using an ingredient popular in the 1970s.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.\n", "Section::::Amusement.\n\nBecause bubble wrap makes a satisfying popping sound when compressed and ruptured, it is often used as a source of amusement. Acknowledging this alternative use, some websites provide a virtual bubble wrap program which displays a sheet of bubble wrap that users may pop by clicking on the bubbles, while the Mugen Puchipuchi is a compact electronic toy simulating bubble wrap popping.\n", "Popping boba\n\nPopping boba is a type of \"boba\" used in bubble tea. Unlike traditional boba, which is tapioca-based, popping boba is made using the spherification process that relies on the reaction of sodium alginate and either calcium chloride or calcium lactate. Popping boba has a thin, gel-like skin with juice inside that bursts when squeezed. The ingredients for popping boba generally consist of water, sugar, fruit juice or other flavors, and the ingredients required for spherification.\n", "The song has been featured on the online game \"Audition Online\" and an update trailer for the online game \"Blockland\" as well as in television programmes such as \"Glee\", \"Skam\", and \"Grey's Anatomy\". The song was also featured in the film \"Big Momma's House 2\".\n\nSection::::Background and writing.\n", "Cake pops use many of the ingredients used in baking a traditional cake and can be made from cakes of any flavor. \n", "Cake pop\n\nA cake pop is a form of cake styled as a lollipop. Cake crumbs are mixed with icing or chocolate, and formed into small spheres or cubes in the same way as cake balls, before being given a coating of icing, chocolate or other decorations and attached to lollipop sticks\n\nThe cake pop increased in popularity between 2009 and 2011. A book called \"Cake Pop\" by Bakerella appeared on the New York Times bestseller list.. \n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Originally not frosted when first introduced in 1964, it was later determined that frosting could withstand the toaster, and the first frosted Pop-Tarts were officially released in 1967. The first Pop-Tarts came out in four different flavors: strawberry, blueberry, brown sugar cinnamon, and apple currant. As of 2016, there is a wide variety of Pop-Tart flavors, including hot fudge sundae, s'mores, raspberry, and peanut butter.\n", "After the war, Walter Reid III, the son of the founder, took control of the company and made it the leading producer of hard candy in the world. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the company developed the Charms Blow Pop, the first bubble gum filled lollipop in the world.\n\nThe company was led by Reid III, Ross B. Cameron Sr. (Walter W. Reid Jr.’s son-in-law) and his two sons, Ross B. Cameron Jr. and Reid B. Cameron.\n", "Cable in the Classroom has used a Pop-Tarts television commercial as an example in its media literacy program for children. They ask adults to watch a Pop-Tarts commercial with their children or students and \"have them look at how much product information is presented and how much is really about lifestyle or attitude.\"\n\nSection::::Recalls.\n\nPop-Tarts have been the subject of various recalls where mislabeling could lead to serious or life-threatening allergic reactions:\n\nBULLET::::- August 4, 1995: 94,500 cases of Smucker's Real Fruit Frosted Strawberry pastries actually contained the Chocolate Fudge variety.\n", "Popping Boba are spheres and have fruit juices or syrups inside of them. They are also popular toppings. The many flavors include mango, lychee, strawberry, green apple, passion fruit, pomegranate, orange, cantaloupe, blueberry, coffee, chocolate, yogurt, kiwi, peach, banana, lime, cherry, pineapple, red guava, etc.\n\nSome shops offer milk or cheese foam top off the drink too, which has a thicker consistency similar to that of whipped cream.\n", "The fuzzy navel was one of the first drinks to arise in the new popularity of cocktails and mixed drinks in the 1980s. The drink was invented over 30 years ago by Ray Foley, a well known bartender and founder of \"Bartender Magazine\". The story goes that Ray was cutting an orange for a garnish when a man nearby made the remark that he could still smell the fuzz of the peach schnapps through the orange juice. Ray looked at the orange and saw the printed word \"Navel\" for navel orange. Thus the cocktail was born.\n", "Rice Krispies (US and UK) and Rice Bubbles (AU) make a \"snap, crackle, pop\" when one pours on milk. During the 1930s, the illustrator Vernon Grant developed Snap, Crackle and Pop as gnome-like mascots for the Kellogg Company.\n", "Section::::Music video and promotion.\n", "As one of the earliest funk styles, popping is closely related to hip hop dancing. It is often performed in battles, where participants try to outperform each other in front of a crowd, giving room for improvisation and freestyle moves that are seldom seen in shows and performances, such as interaction with other dancers and spectators. Popping and related styles such as waving and tutting have also been incorporated into the electronica dance scene to some extent, influencing new styles such as liquid and digits and turfing.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Hi-Chew\n\nSection::::Origin.\n\nThis soft chewy candy was first released in 1975. It was re-released in its current shape (a stick of several individually wrapped candies) in February 1996.\n", "BULLET::::- \"We'd rather have a bowl of Coco Pops!\" (United Kingdom) (1986-2005; 2011-2015) (Variations were used for Choco Krispies Coco Rocks and Mega Munchers and an instrumental version still remains as the jingle for the adverts)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coco Pops and milk make a bowl full of fun\" (United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coco Pops Crunchers – Can you handle the crunch?\" (United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- \"New Coco Pops Creations make a bowlful of fun!\" (United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coco Pops and hot milk are chocolatey fun!\" (United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coco Pops make milk go choc!\"\n", "Chocolate crackles\n\nChocolate crackles (also known as chocolate bubble cakes) are a popular children's confection in Australia and New Zealand, especially for birthday parties and at school fêtes. The earliest recipe found so far is from \"The Australian Women's Weekly\" in December 1937.\n\nThe principal ingredient is the commercial breakfast cereal Rice Bubbles. The binding ingredient is hydrogenated coconut oil (such as the brand Copha), which is solid at room temperature. Since making chocolate crackles does not require baking it is often used as an activity for young children.\n\nSection::::Recipe.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Reception.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "A different form of this fetish is the \"Bubblegum Balloon Fetish\" or \"Bubblegum Looning\", where, instead of latex balloons, Bubblegum is used to produce small to big balloons in the form of bubbles (depending on the size of the gum). In this case, the \"popper\" or \"non-popper\" difference is absent since balloons can be produced over and over (differently from latex ones, that, once burst, have to be discarded).\n\nBubblegum looners tend to like watching people produce balloons with bubblegum or producing balloons themselves.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe birth of bubblegum is generally dated from the success of The Lemon Pipers' psychedelic bubblegum hit \"Green Tambourine\" (1967), 1910 Fruitgum Company's \"Simon Says\" (1968) and The Ohio Express' \"Yummy Yummy Yummy\" (1968), but music critics have identified novelty songs including The Dixie Cups' \"Iko Iko\" (1965), Patti Page's \"(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?\" (1953) and the hits of Annette Funicello as possible precursors.\n", "Bubble Wrap Appreciation Day is celebrated on the last Monday of January. The last Monday of January was designated as Bubble Wrap Appreciation Day after a radio station in Bloomington, Indiana, received a shipment of microphones wrapped in bubble wrap, which, after being unwrapped and installed, inadvertently broadcast the sound of their wrappings being popped.\n\nSealed Air has controversially decided to create a new iBubble wrap, which will not be able to be popped.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cushioning\n\nBULLET::::- Packaging\n\nBULLET::::- List of generic and genericized trademarks\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Specific citations:\n\nBULLET::::- General references\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes and sometimes other fruits. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16% ABV.\n\n\"Fruit wines\" are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples.\n\nSake is a popular example of \"rice wine\".\n\nSparkling wine like French Champagne, Catalan Cava or Italian Prosecco can be made by means of a secondary fermentation.\n\nSection::::Distilled drinks.\n", "BULLET::::- Birch sap\n\nBULLET::::- Blåbärssoppa\n\nBULLET::::- Bread Drink\n\nBULLET::::- Cendol\n\nBULLET::::- Chalap\n\nBULLET::::- Champurrado\n\nBULLET::::- Champús\n\nBULLET::::- Chass\n\nBULLET::::- Chicha morada\n\nBULLET::::- Cholado\n\nBULLET::::- Chai\n\nBULLET::::- Desi tharra\n\nBULLET::::- Egg cream\n\nBULLET::::- Egg nog\n\nBULLET::::- Elderflower cordial\n\nBULLET::::- Es bir\n\nBULLET::::- Falooda\n\nBULLET::::- Garapa\n\nBULLET::::- Ginger ale\n\nBULLET::::- Ginger tea\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaiian Punch\n\nBULLET::::- Horchata\n\nBULLET::::- Hot chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Hwachae\n\nBULLET::::- Jindallae hwachae\n\nBULLET::::- Kefir\n\nBULLET::::- Kombucha\n\nBULLET::::- Kvass\n\nBULLET::::- Lassi\n\nBULLET::::- Licuado\n\nBULLET::::- Mattha\n\nBULLET::::- Mazamorra\n\nBULLET::::- Mocochinchi\n\nBULLET::::- Mote con huesillo\n\nBULLET::::- Nectar\n\nBULLET::::- Orange drink\n\nBULLET::::- Orange soft drink\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut punch\n\nBULLET::::- Punch without rum\n", "BULLET::::- Wine is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in grapes; cider and perry are produced by similar fermentation of natural sugar in apples and pears, respectively; and other fruit wines are produced from the fermentation of the sugars in any other kinds of fruit. Brandy and eaux de vie (e.g. slivovitz) are produced by distillation of these fruit-fermented beverages.\n\nBULLET::::- Mead is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in honey.\n", "BULLET::::- Kefir\n\nBULLET::::- Kombucha\n\nBULLET::::- Kvass\n\nBULLET::::- Lassi\n\nBULLET::::- Lemonade\n\nBULLET::::- Licuado\n\nBULLET::::- Mattha\n\nBULLET::::- Mazamorra\n\nBULLET::::- Milk\n\nBULLET::::- Milkshake\n\nBULLET::::- Mocochinchi\n\nBULLET::::- Mote con huesillo\n\nBULLET::::- Nectar\n\nBULLET::::- Orange drink\n\nBULLET::::- Orange soft drink\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut milk\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut punch\n\nBULLET::::- Roasted barley tea\n\nBULLET::::- Root beer\n\nBULLET::::- Sarsaparilla\n\nBULLET::::- Sharbat\n\nBULLET::::- Shikanjvi\n\nBULLET::::- Smoothie\n\nBULLET::::- Squash (drink)\n\nBULLET::::- Subak hwachae\n\nBULLET::::- Sujeonggwa\n\nBULLET::::- Switchel\n\nBULLET::::- Tea\n\nBULLET::::- Tereré\n\nBULLET::::- Thadal\n\nBULLET::::- Water\n\nBULLET::::- Yerba Mate\n\nBULLET::::- Yuja hwachae\n\nSection::::List of branded non-alcoholic drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Accelerade\n\nBULLET::::- Bonjus\n\nBULLET::::- Burple\n\nBULLET::::- Claytons\n\nBULLET::::- Cocaine\n\nBULLET::::- Coolatta\n\nBULLET::::- Crodino\n", "Cider or cyder ( ) is a fermented alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice; apple juice (traditional and most common), peaches, pears (\"Perry\" cider) or other fruit. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% ABV to 8.5% or more in traditional English ciders. In some regions, cider may be called \"apple wine\".\n\nSection::::Fermented drinks.:Mead.\n", "Aguardientes are strong alcoholic beverages, obtained by fermentation and later distillation of sugared or sweet musts, vegetable macerations, or mixtures of the two. This is the most generic level; by this definition, aguardientes may be made from a number of different sources. Fruit-based aguardientes include those made from oranges, grapes, bananas, or medronho (\"cane apple\"). Grain-based ones may be made from millet, barley, or rice and tuber-based aguardientes from beet, manioc, or potato, and finally what are classed as \"true\" aguardientes from sugarcane and other sweet canes, including some species of bamboo. Under this definition, many other distinct liquors could be called aguardientes, including vodka, shochu, \"pisco\", and certain forms of hard \"chicha\".\n", "Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes or other fruits. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. The well-known variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation, along with human intervention in the overall process. The final product may contain tens of thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a few parts per billion.\n", "Non-alcoholic drink\n\nAn alcohol-free or non-alcoholic drink is a version of an alcoholic drink made without alcohol, or with the alcohol removed or reduced to almost zero. These may take the form of a non-alcoholic mixed drink (a \"virgin drink\"), non-alcoholic beer (\"near beer\"), and \"mocktails\", and are widely available where alcoholic drinks are sold.\n\nSection::::Scientific definition.\n\nSection::::Scientific definition.:Low-alcoholic drink.\n\nSparkling apple cider, soft drinks, and juice naturally contain trace amounts or no alcohol. Some fresh orange juices are above the UK 'alcohol free' limit of 0.05% ABV, as are some yogurts and rye bread.\n", "BULLET::::- order Myrtales\n\nBULLET::::- order Crossosomatales\n\nBULLET::::- order Picramniales\n\nBULLET::::- order Malvales\n\nBULLET::::- order Brassicales\n\nBULLET::::- order Huerteales\n\nBULLET::::- order Sapindales\n\nBULLET::::- clade Superasterids\n\nBULLET::::- order Berberidopsidales\n\nBULLET::::- order Santalales\n\nBULLET::::- order Caryophyllales\n\nBULLET::::- clade Asterids\n\nBULLET::::- order Cornales\n\nBULLET::::- order Ericales\n\nBULLET::::- clade Campanulids\n\nBULLET::::- order Aquifoliales\n\nBULLET::::- order Asterales\n\nBULLET::::- order Escalloniales\n\nBULLET::::- order Bruniales\n\nBULLET::::- order Apiales\n\nBULLET::::- order Dipsacales\n\nBULLET::::- order Paracryphiales\n\nBULLET::::- clade Lamiids\n\nBULLET::::- order Solanales\n\nBULLET::::- order Lamiales\n\nBULLET::::- order Vahliales\n\nBULLET::::- order Gentianales\n\nBULLET::::- order Boraginales\n\nBULLET::::- order Garryales\n\nBULLET::::- order Metteniusales\n\nBULLET::::- order Icacinales\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Williamine - Brand of Poire Williams made from Williamine pears\n\nBULLET::::- Plum Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Damassine\n\nBULLET::::- Slivovitz Plum brandy aka Schlivowitz, Slivovitsa, Slivovice, Slivovka, Slivovika\n\nBULLET::::- Ţuică\n\nBULLET::::- Raspberry Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Chambord\n\nBULLET::::- Himbeergeist\n\nSection::::Distilled drinks.:List of known spirits.:Grain-based Distillations.\n\nBULLET::::- Barley Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Gin\n\nBULLET::::- ManX Spirit\n\nBULLET::::- Whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Irish whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Scotch whisky aka Scottish Whiskey, Scotch\n\nBULLET::::- Corn Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- American Whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama Whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Bourbon whiskey aka Kentucky whiskey, Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Tennessee whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Texas whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Canadian whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Quinoa Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- American Whiskey - Corsair\n\nBULLET::::- Oat Distillations\n", "BULLET::::- Pulque (originally made by the natives of Mexico, made from the sap of the maguey plant)\n\nBULLET::::- Sakurá (made from cassava)\n\nBULLET::::- Sake (made from rice)\n\nBULLET::::- Sonti\n\nBULLET::::- Tepache\n\nBULLET::::- Tiswin (made from corn or saguaro, a large cactus)\n\nBULLET::::- Tonto\n\nBULLET::::- Wine\n\nBULLET::::- Fortified wine\n\nBULLET::::- Port\n\nBULLET::::- Madeira\n\nBULLET::::- Marsala\n\nBULLET::::- Sherry\n\nBULLET::::- Vermouth\n\nBULLET::::- Vinsanto\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit wine\n\nBULLET::::- Table wine\n\nBULLET::::- Sangria\n\nBULLET::::- Sparkling wine\n\nBULLET::::- Champagne\n\nSection::::Distilled drinks.\n\nSection::::Distilled drinks.:Definition.\n", "\"Aqua vitae\" was typically prepared by distilling wine; it was sometimes called \"spirits of wine\" in English texts, a name for brandy that had been repeatedly distilled.\n\n\"Aqua vitae\" was often an etymological source of terms applied to important locally produced distilled spirits. Examples include whisky (from the Gaelic \"uisce beatha\"), \"eau de vie\" in France, \"acquavite\" in Italy, and \"akvavit\" in Scandinavia, \"okowita\" in Poland, оковита (\"okovyta\") in Ukraine, акавіта (\"akavita\") in Belarus, and яковита (\"yakovita\") in southern Russian dialects.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alchemy\n\nBULLET::::- Akvavit\n\nBULLET::::- Holy water\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aqua fortis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aqua regia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Vodka\n", "Section::::Distilled drinks.:List of known spirits.:Cane Sugar/Sugar Beet/Honey Distillations.\n\nBULLET::::- Arrack\n\nBULLET::::- Cachaça\n\nBULLET::::- Horilka aka Samohon\n\nBULLET::::- Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Puncheon rum\n\nSection::::Distilled drinks.:List of known spirits.:Fruit Distillations.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Applejack\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit brandy Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Borovička - Juniper\n\nBULLET::::- Eau-de-vie (French origin)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirsch\n\nBULLET::::- Rakia\n\nBULLET::::- Schnapps - Obstwasser (German)\n\nBULLET::::- Slivovitz Plum brandy aka Schlivowitz, Slivovitsa, Slivovice, Slivovka, Slivovika\n\nBULLET::::- Medronho\n\nBULLET::::- Grape/Wine Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Armagnac\n\nBULLET::::- Cognac\n\nBULLET::::- Metaxa\n\nBULLET::::- Palinka\n\nBULLET::::- Singani\n\nBULLET::::- Pisco - (Peru; Chile)\n\nBULLET::::- Pear Distillations\n\nBULLET::::- Poire Williams\n", "BULLET::::- Virgin colada\n\nSection::::List of traditional non-alcoholic drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Aam panna\n\nBULLET::::- Aguas frescas\n\nBULLET::::- Aguapanela\n\nBULLET::::- Almdudler\n\nBULLET::::- Apfelschorle\n\nBULLET::::- Atole\n\nBULLET::::- Babycino\n\nBULLET::::- Baesuk\n\nBULLET::::- Bandrek\n\nBULLET::::- Bandung\n\nBULLET::::- Barley water\n\nBULLET::::- Birch sap\n\nBULLET::::- Blåbärssoppa\n\nBULLET::::- Bread Drink\n\nBULLET::::- Cendol\n\nBULLET::::- Chalap\n\nBULLET::::- Champurrado\n\nBULLET::::- Champús\n\nBULLET::::- Chass\n\nBULLET::::- Chicha morada\n\nBULLET::::- Cholado\n\nBULLET::::- Chai\n\nBULLET::::- Cola\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee\n\nBULLET::::- Doogh\n\nBULLET::::- Egg cream\n\nBULLET::::- Egg nog\n\nBULLET::::- Elderflower cordial\n\nBULLET::::- Es bir\n\nBULLET::::- Falooda\n\nBULLET::::- Garapa\n\nBULLET::::- Ginger ale\n\nBULLET::::- Ginger tea\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaiian Punch\n\nBULLET::::- Horchata\n\nBULLET::::- Hot chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Hwachae\n\nBULLET::::- Jindallae hwachae\n", "In Spain, \"patxaran\" is made by soaking sloe drupes in an anise-flavoured spirit, resulting in a light reddish-brown, sweet liquid, around 25–30% alcohol by volume. In Italy, bargnolino is made by soaking sloe drupes with sugar and spices in spirit alcohol (recipe varies locally), resulting a reddish, sweet liquor, around 40–45% alcohol by volume; it is often chilled before serving. In Poland, tarninówka is an infusion (nalewka) of sloes in vodka or rectified spirit.\n", "There are a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 355 ml (the normal size of a soda pop can) in the US, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that \"are\" simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available.\n", "Section::::Selected Plantinga brands.\n\nNote that quite a few of these brands did not come around until after Plantinga's death in 1922.\n\nAlcoholic:\n\nBULLET::::- Beerenburg\n\nBULLET::::- 34 Beerenburg\n\nBULLET::::- Boeren Beerenburg\n\nBULLET::::- Plantiac (previously Plantinga Cognac) (Dutch brandy)\n\nBULLET::::- Friesch Rood Bessenjenever (berry gin)\n\nBULLET::::- Kersen Brandewijn (cherry brandy)\n\nBULLET::::- Vlierbessenjenever (elderberry gin)\n\nBULLET::::- Voorburg (a sweet type of liqueur aimed at women)\n\nBULLET::::- Frambozen Brandewijn (raspberry brandy)\n\nBULLET::::- Zuivere Brandewijn (pure brandy)\n\nBULLET::::- Jenever (gin)\n\nBULLET::::- Zeer oude Jenever (very old gin)\n\nBULLET::::- Dubbel gebeide Jonge Jenever\n\nBULLET::::- Citroenjenever (lemon gin)\n\nBULLET::::- Boerenjongens\n\nBULLET::::- Verlofschilletje\n\nBULLET::::- Schilletje Speciaal\n", "Section::::Drinks by raw material.\n\nThe names of some alcoholic drinks are determined by their raw material.\n\nSection::::Fermented drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Beer\n\nBULLET::::- Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Barleywine\n\nBULLET::::- Bitter ale\n\nBULLET::::- Brown ale\n\nBULLET::::- Cask ale\n\nBULLET::::- Mild ale\n\nBULLET::::- Old ale\n\nBULLET::::- Pale ale\n\nBULLET::::- Scotch ale\n\nBULLET::::- Porter (dark beer made from brown malt)\n\nBULLET::::- Stout (strong Porter)\n\nBULLET::::- Stock ale\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit beer\n\nBULLET::::- Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Pale lager (also \"dry beer\", made with a slow acting yeast that ferments at a low temperature while being stored)\n\nBULLET::::- Bock (strong lager)\n\nBULLET::::- Maerzen/Oktoberfest Beer\n", "Section::::Varieties.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Pimm's Fruit Cup.\n\nPimm's No. 1 is a gin-based drink invented by James Pimm, at 25% ABV. Pimm's numbers 2-6 were based on Scotch Whisky, Brandy, Rum, Rye whiskey, and Vodka, respectively. As of 2012, only Pimm's No. 1, Pimm's Winter Cup (a variant of No. 3), and Pimm's No. 6 (renamed simply Pimm's 'Vodka Cup') still survive.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Plymouth Fruit Cup.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Agra intermedia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra invicta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra iota\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra iquitosana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra iris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra itatiaya\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra iycisca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra janzeni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra jedlickai\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra jimwappes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra julie\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra katewinsletae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra kayae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra ketschuana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra klugii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lacrymosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra laeticolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra laetipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lamproptera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra laticeps\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra latifemoris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra latipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lavernae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra leprieuri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra liebkei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra ligulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lilu\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra limulus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lindae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra littleorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra liv\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agra lobata\"\n", "The word \"aquavit\" derives from the Latin \"aqua vitae\", \"water of life.\" Compare the word \"whisky\", from Gaelic \"uisce beatha\", which has the same meaning. Likewise, clear fruit brandy is called \"eau de vie\" (French for \"water of life\"). A story holding that the term really means \"water from the vine\" – from a conflation of the Latin \"vītae\" (genitive of \"vita\") and the Italian term \"vite\" (wine grapes: a poetic synonym for \"wine\") – is no more than a picturesque piece of folk etymology.\n\nSection::::Drinking culture.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.:Production.\n\nEthanol is produced naturally as a byproduct of the metabolic processes of yeast and hence is present in any yeast habitat, including even endogenously in humans. It is manufactured as a petrochemical through hydration of ethylene or by brewing via fermentation of sugars with yeast (most commonly \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\"). In the case of the latter, the sugars are commonly obtained from sources like steeped cereal grains (e.g., barley), grape juice, and sugarcane products (e.g., molasses, sugarcane juice). Petrochemical and yeast manufacturing routes both produce an ethanol–water mixture which can be further purified via distillation.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Analogues.\n", "Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer and wine, but are made with less than .5 percent alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n", "Names like \"life water\" have continued to be the inspiration for the names of several types of beverages, like Gaelic whisky, French eaux-de-vie and possibly vodka. Also, the Scandinavian akvavit spirit gets its name from the Latin phrase \"aqua vitae\".\n", "Fruits have been used as a beer adjunct or flavouring for centuries, especially with Belgian lambic styles. Cherry, raspberry, and peach are a common addition to this style of beer. Modern breweries may add only flavoured extracts to the finished product, rather than actually fermenting the fruit.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- At the end of the film \"Mary Poppins\", Mr. Dawes, Sr. is said to have died laughing after being told a joke. Unlike most examples, this is presented as a positive, his son stating that he \"had never look so happy in all his life.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In the musical and film \"Little Shop of Horrors\", a character asphyxiates on laughing gas and his last words are \"I've laughed myself to death\".\n\nBULLET::::- In Episode 12 of Season 1 of \"1000 Ways to Die\", a man dies after laughing continuously for 36 hours at an unknown joke.\n", "BULLET::::- One ancient account of the death of Chrysippus, the 3rd-century BC Greek Stoic philosopher, tells that he died of laughter after he saw a donkey eating his figs; he told a slave to give the donkey neat wine with which to wash them down, and then, \"...having laughed too much, he died\" (Diogenes Laërtius 7.185).\n\nBULLET::::- In 1410, King Martin of Aragon died from a combination of indigestion and uncontrollable laughter triggered by a joke told by his favourite court jester.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1556, Pietro Aretino \"is said to have died of suffocation from laughing too much\".\n", "List of deaths from laughter\n\nThis is a list of notable people who have died from laughter, in chronological order.\n\nBULLET::::- Zeuxis, a 5th-century BC Greek painter, is said to have died laughing at the humorous way he painted the goddess Aphrodite – after the old woman who commissioned it insisted on modeling for the portrait.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1660, Thomas Urquhart, the Scottish aristocrat, polymath, and first translator of François Rabelais's writings into English, is said to have died laughing upon hearing that Charles II had taken the throne.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1799, William Cushing, a pauper who lived in the parish of St Andrew's, Norwich, England, died from \"a fit of excessive laughter, which lasted five minutes.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In 1893, farmer Wesley Parsons laughed to death over a joke told in Laurel, Indiana. He laughed for nearly an hour. He then died two hours after the incident.\n", "Laughter in literature, although considered understudied by some, is a subject that has received attention in the written word for millennia. The use of humor and laughter in literary works has been studied and analyzed by many thinkers and writers, from the Ancient Greek philosophers onward. Henri Bergson's \"Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic\" (\"Le rire\", 1901) is a notable 20th-century contribution.\n\nSection::::Research.:Ancient Greece.\n\nSection::::Research.:Ancient Greece.:Herodotus.\n\nFor Herodotus, laughers can be distinguished into three types:\n\nBULLET::::- Those who are innocent of wrongdoing, but ignorant of their own vulnerability\n\nBULLET::::- Those who are mad\n", "Norman Cousins developed a recovery program incorporating megadoses of Vitamin C, along with a positive attitude, love, faith, hope, and laughter induced by Marx Brothers films. \"I made the joyous discovery that ten minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep,\" he reported. \"When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In 1989, Ole Bentzen, a Danish audiologist who was reportedly in good health, was observing a screening of the 1988 comedy film \"A Fish Called Wanda.\" During the screening, Bentzen laughed uncontrollably at a scene where Michael Palin's character had food stuffed into his nose and mouth, to the point that his heart rate rose to an estimated 250–500 beats per minute, leading to a fatal heart attack.\n", "There are several titles \"It Only Hurts When I Laugh\" and \"Only When I Laugh\", which allude to the punch line of a joke which exists in numerous versions since at least the 19th century. A typical setup is that someone badly hurt (e.g., a Wild West rancher with an arrow in his chest, a Jew crucified by the Romans, etc.) is asked \"Does it hurt?\" — \"I am fine; it only hurts when I laugh.\"\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Laughter is synonymous with happiness. A proposal is made here that when a line of thought (e.g. joke) or sensation (e.g. tickling) is not expected by one's psychological or physiological order respectively, it triggers a certain chaos and temporary breakdown of that order. The innate Contentment intrinsic to the person then breaks through this temporal breach to express itself in happy laughter.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "General facts on the comic\n\nBergson begins to note three facts on the comic:\n\nBULLET::::- the comic is strictly a human phenomenon. A landscape cannot be a source of laughter, and when humans make fun of animals, it is often because they recognize some human behaviour in them. Man is not only a being that can laugh, but also a being that is a source of laughter.\n\nBULLET::::- laughter requires an indifference, a detachment from sensibility and emotion: it is more difficult to laugh when one is fully aware of the seriousness of a situation.\n", "BULLET::::- In \",\" the heroes cross a \"Chasm of Death\" filled with gas fumes that induce uncontrollable laughter, frequently killing those who try to cross the chasm.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Monty Python sketch \"The Funniest Joke in the World\", the British win the Second World War by translating a lethally funny joke into German and transmitting it to German troops and two Gestapo officers.\n\nBULLET::::- In Coleman Barks' translation of Jelaluddin Rumi's poem \"Dying, Laughing\", from his collection of poems \"The Essential Rumi\": \"He opened like a rose that drops to the ground and died laughing.\"\n", "It Only Hurts When I Laugh\n\nIt Only Hurts When I Laugh is a punchline of a joke which exists in numerous versions since at least 19th century. A typical setup is that someone badly hurt (e.g., a Wild West rancher with an arrow in his chest, a Jew crucified by the Nazis, etc.) is asked \"Does it hurt?\" — \"I'm fine. It only hurts when I laugh.\"\n\nthe phrase may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- It Only Hurts When I Laugh (album)\n\nBULLET::::- It Only Hurts When I Laugh (TV series)\n", "The album had been certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of over 300,000 copies and sold 583,000 copies in the UK during 2015. It has since been certified 3× Platinum for sales of over 900,000 copies.\n\nSection::::Singles.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Joan Crawford as Ivy Stevens\n\nBULLET::::- Neil Hamilton as Howard Palmer\n\nBULLET::::- Clark Gable as Carl Loomis\n\nBULLET::::- Marjorie Rambeau as Ruby\n\nBULLET::::- Guy Kibbee as Cass Wheeler\n\nBULLET::::- Cliff Edwards as Mike\n\nBULLET::::- Roscoe Karns as Fred Geer\n\nBULLET::::- Gertrude Short as Edna\n\nBULLET::::- George Cooper as Joe\n\nBULLET::::- George F. Marion as Humpty\n\nBULLET::::- Bert Woodruff as Tink\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Casting.\n", "Displays of amusement have been distinguished from related emotions like embarrassment and shame. More recent studies have confirmed that laughter is a distinct signal of amusement and is recognizable across cultures.\n\nSection::::Emotional expression of amusement.:Facial expression.\n\nAn amused facial expression typically has these characteristics:\n\nBULLET::::- Head: Thrown back with jaw lifted\n\nBULLET::::- Eyes: Crow's feet at the eyes indicating that the muscles have tightened\n\nBULLET::::- Mouth: Open, jaw dropped with relaxed muscles\n\nSection::::Emotional expression of amusement.:Vocal burst.\n", "The French magazine Télérama published an interview of Pierre Desproges on 24th November 1982, two months after the broadcast, where Pierre Desproges explains: “I think we have the right to laugh at everything. But to laugh with anyone, maybe not. (...) Laughter is an outlet and I do not understand why we should not laugh at what hurts. Things hurt less when we laugh”.\n", "Laughter can also be brought on by tickling. Although most people find it unpleasant, being tickled often causes heavy laughter, thought to be an (often uncontrollable) reflex of the body.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nLaughter can be classified according to:\n\nBULLET::::1. intensity: the chuckle, the titter, the giggle, the chortle, the cackle, the belly laugh, the sputtering burst.\n\nBULLET::::2. the overtness: snicker, snigger, guffaw.\n\nBULLET::::3. the respiratory pattern involved: snort.\n\nBULLET::::4. the emotion it is expressed with: relief, mirth, joy, happiness, embarrassment, apology, confusion, nervous laughter, paradoxical laughter, courtesy laugh, evil laughter.\n", "The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it have been carefully investigated by psychologists. They agree the predominant characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a \"sudden glory\". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the \"play instinct\" and its emotional expression.\n", "People may laugh nervously when exposed to stress due to witnessing others' pain. For instance, in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment, subjects (\"teachers\") were told to shock \"learners\" every time the learners answered a question incorrectly. Although the \"learners\" were not actually shocked, the subjects believed they were. As they were going through the study, many of the \"subjects showed signs of extreme tension and conflict\". Milgram observed some subjects laughing nervously when they heard the \"learners'\" false screams of pain. In \"A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness\", neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran suggests that laughter is used as a defense mechanism used to guard against overwhelming anxiety. Laughter often diminishes the suffering associated with a traumatic event.\n", "It Only Hurts When I Laugh (TV series)\n\nIt Only Hurts When I Laugh is an American television series that premiered on TruTV on October 22, 2009. The program showcases painful but humorous moments that are caught on camera. Produced by Brad Lachman Productions, the series follows several other home movie-based series previously created by Lachman, including \"The World's Funniest!\", \"The Planet's Funniest Animals\" and \"Funniest Pets & People\". The series includes an off-screen narrator, sound effects, and a laugh track. Season 2 debuted on April 15, 2010. Season 3 started on October 11, 2010.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Despite the mixed reception, \"I Cry When I Laugh\" was named the 16th and 10th best pop album of 2015 by \"Rolling Stone\" and \"Entertainment Weekly\", respectively. \"The New York Observer\" placed the album at number 5 in their list of best debut albums of 2015.\n\nSection::::Commercial performance.\n", "BULLET::::- On October 14, 1920, 56-year-old Mr. Arthur Cobcroft, a dog trainer from Loftus Street, Leichhardt, Australia, was reading a five year old newspaper and was amused at the prices rulling for some commodities in 1915 as compared to 1920. He made a remark to his wife regarding this, and burst into laughter, and in the midst of it he collapsed and died. A doctor named Nixon was called in, and stated that the death was due to heart failure, brought by excessive laughter.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Cheryl Pepsii Riley as Carol\n\nBULLET::::- Chandra Currelley as Belinda\n\nBULLET::::- Palmer Williams Jr. as Floyd\n\nBULLET::::- D'Atra Hicks as Niecy\n\nBULLET::::- Támar Davis as Lisa\n\nBULLET::::- Stephanie Ferrett as Anna\n\nBULLET::::- Donny Sykes as Tony\n\nBULLET::::- Rachel Richards as Jane\n\nBULLET::::- Anthony Dalton as Donnie\n\nBULLET::::- Celestin Cornielle as Eddie\n\nBULLET::::- Wess Morgan as Peter\n\nSection::::Live Tour Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Cheryl Pepsii Riley as Carol\n\nBULLET::::- Chandra Currelley as Belinda\n\nBULLET::::- Palmer Williams Jr. as Floyd\n\nBULLET::::- D'Atra Hicks as Niecy\n\nBULLET::::- Tamar Davis as Lisa\n\nBULLET::::- Donny Sykes as Tony\n\nBULLET::::- Stephanie Ferrett as Anna\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "In fact, the aging of a dog varies by breed (larger breeds tend to have shorter lifespans than small and medium-sized breeds); dogs also develop faster and have longer adulthoods relative to their total life span than humans. Most dogs are sexually mature by 1 year old, which corresponds to perhaps 13 years old in humans. Giant dog breeds and bulldogs tend to have the strongest linear correspondence to human aging, with longer adolescences and shorter overall lifespans; such breeds typically age about nine times as fast as humans throughout their lives.\n\nSection::::Time.:Galactic year.\n", "The ages of domestic cats and dogs are often referred to in terms of \"cat years\" or \"dog years\", representing a conversion to human-equivalent years. One formula for cat years is based on a cat reaching maturity in approximately 1 year, which could be seen as 16 in human terms, then adding about 4 years for every year the cat ages. A 5-year-old cat would then be (5 − 1) × 4 + 16 = 32 \"cat years\" (i.e. human-equivalent years), and a 10-year-old cat (10 − 1) × 4 + 16 = 52 in human terms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- The other common system defines \"dog years\" to be the actual calendar years (365 days each) of a dog's life, and \"human years\" to be the \"equivalent age\" of a human being. By this terminology, the age of a 6-year-old dog is described as 6 dog years or 40–50 human years, a reversal from the previous definition.\n\nHowever, regardless of which set of terminology is used, the relationship between dog years and human years is not linear, as the following section explains.\n\nSection::::Aging profile.\n\nThey can be summarized into three types:\n", "The terms \"dog years\" and \"human years\" are frequently used when describing the age of a dog. However, there are two diametrically opposed ways in which the terms are defined:\n\nBULLET::::- One common nomenclature uses \"human years\" to represent a strict calendar basis (365 days) and a \"dog year\" to be the \"equivalent portion\" of a dog's lifetime, as a calendar year would be for a human being. Under this system, a 6-year-old dog would be described as having an age of 6 human years or 40–50 (depending on the breed) dog years.\n", "Rozalyn Anderson\n\nRozalyn (Roz) Anderson is an associate professor at the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health. She studies aging and caloric restriction in primates.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "Biodemographic studies found that even genetically identical laboratory animals kept in constant environment have very different lengths of life, suggesting a crucial role of chance and early-life developmental noise in longevity determination. This leads to new approaches in understanding causes of exceptional human longevity.\n", "BULLET::::- Size/breed specific calculators – These try to factor in the size or breed as well. These are the most accurate types. They typically work either by expected adult weight or by categorizing the dog as \"small\", \"medium\", or \"large\".\n\nNo one formula for dog-to-human age conversion is scientifically agreed on, although within fairly close limits they show great similarities.\n", "Aging in dogs\n\nAging in dogs (\"Canis lupus familiaris\") varies from breed to breed, and affects the dog's health, physical ability and life expectancy.\n\nAs with humans, advanced years often bring changes in a dog's ability to hear, see and move about easily. Skin condition, appetite and energy levels often degrade with geriatric age, and medical conditions such as cancer, renal failure, arthritis, dementia, and joint conditions, and other signs of old age may appear.\n", "BULLET::::- A standard (365-day) calendar year of a dog's life, whereas a \"human year\" is the period of a dog's (or other animal's) life that is claimed to be equivalent to a year of a human being's life (or seven calendar years).\n\nWhen these units are used, measurements in both \"dog years\" and \"human years\" are often included together, to more clearly indicate which name is used for each unit.\n", "Section::::Research.:Rodents.\n\nIt has been known since the 1930s that reducing the number of calories fed to laboratory rodents increases their life spans. The life extension varies for each species, but on average there was a 30–40% increase in life span in both mice and rats. In late adulthood, acute CR partially or completely reverses age-related alterations of liver, brain and heart proteins, and mice placed on CR at 19 months of age show an increases in life span.\n\nSection::::Research.:Yeast.\n", "When examining the body-size vs. lifespan relationship, one also observes that predatory mammals tend to live longer than prey mammals in a controlled environment, such as a zoo or nature reserve. The explanation for the long lifespans of primates (such as humans, monkeys, and apes) relative to body size is that their intelligence, and they would have a lower intrinsic mortality.\n\nSection::::Diseases.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Progeria.\n", "There are two diametrically opposed definitions of the \"dog year\", primarily used to approximate the equivalent age of dogs and other animals with similar life spans. Both are based upon a popular myth regarding the aging of dogs that states that a dog ages seven years in the time it takes a human to age one year.\n\nBULLET::::- One seventh of a year, or approximately 52 days. When this definition is used, a standard calendar year is known as a \"human year\".\n", "As a rough approximation, the human equivalent of a one-year-old dog is between about 10 and 15 years—a one-year-old dog or cat has generally reached its full growth and is sexually mature, although it might still be lanky and need to fill in a more mature musculature, similar to human teenagers. The second year is equivalent to about another 3 to 8 years in terms of physical and mental maturity, and each year thereafter is equivalent to only about 4 or 5 human years.\n", "BULLET::::- “Age and associated illnesses: Most experimental studies are conducted on healthy, young animals under rigorously controlled laboratory conditions. However, the typical stroke patient is elderly with numerous risk factors and complicating diseases (for example, diabetes, hypertension and heart diseases)” (Dirnagl 1999)\n\nBULLET::::- Morphological and functional differences between the brain of humans and animals: Although the basic mechanisms of stroke are identical between humans and other mammals, there are differences.\n", "My Life in Dog Years\n\nMy Life in Dog Years is a non-fiction book for children written by the American author Gary Paulsen, together with his wife, Ruth Wright Paulsen. It was published first by Delacorte Press in 1997.\n\nThe book contains a chapter about each different dog in his life. As he goes through each chapter, he delves into the personality of each dog as companions and not just animals.\n", "The aging profile of dogs varies according to their adult size (often determined by their breed): smaller dogs often live over 15–16 years, medium and large size dogs typically 10 to 13 years, and some giant dog breeds such as mastiffs, often only 7 to 8 years. The latter reach maturity at a slightly older age than smaller breeds—giant breeds becoming adult around two years old compared to the norm of around 12–15 months for other breeds.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "BULLET::::- Aging\n\nBULLET::::- List of oldest dogs\n\nBULLET::::- Old age\n\nBULLET::::- Pet loss\n\nBULLET::::- Dog year\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Convert Dog years and Human years (Basic and Advanced methods)\n\nBULLET::::- Dog Years Calculator – Uses Pets.WebMD.com method of calculation\n\nBULLET::::- From petplace.com:\n\nBULLET::::- Index of articles on senior and geriatric dogs\n\nBULLET::::- A compilation of dog longevity data from multi-breed and single-breed surveys (K. M. Cassidy)\n\nBULLET::::- Dog/Human Age Calculator\n\nBULLET::::- Dog/Human Age Calculator and Guidance (courtesy FPSI French Property)\n\nBULLET::::- A discussion of factors that affect dog aging that includes a table to help determine age \n", "BULLET::::- Popular myth – It is popularly believed that one human year equals seven dog years. This is inaccurate on two scores, because the first year or two years represent some 18–25 years, and the ratio varies with size and breed.\n\nBULLET::::- One size fits all – Another commonly used system suggests that the first two years equal 10.5 years each, with subsequent years equaling four human years. This is more accurate but still fails to allow for size/breed, which is a significant factor.\n", "BULLET::::- for Brown rat, 3.8\n\nBULLET::::- for dogs, 29 (See List of oldest dogs)\n\nBULLET::::- for cats, 38 (See List of oldest cats)\n\nBULLET::::- for polar bears, 42 (Debby)\n\nBULLET::::- for horses, 62\n\nBULLET::::- for Asian elephants, 86\n\nThe longest-lived vertebrates have been variously described as\n\nBULLET::::- Large parrots (macaws and cockatoos can live up to 80–100 years in captivity)\n\nBULLET::::- Koi (a Japanese species of fish, allegedly living up to 200 years, though generally not exceeding 50 – a specimen named Hanako was reportedly 226 years old upon her death)\n\nBULLET::::- Tortoises (Galápagos tortoise) (190 years)\n", "The US National Institute on Aging currently funds an intervention testing programme, whereby investigators nominate compounds (based on specific molecular ageing theories) to have evaluated with respect to their effects on lifespan and age-related biomarkers in outbred mice. Previous age-related testing in mammals has proved largely irreproducible, because of small numbers of animals and lax mouse husbandry conditions. The intervention testing programme aims to address this by conducting parallel experiments at three internationally recognised mouse ageing-centres, the Barshop Institute at UTHSCSA, the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor and the Jackson Laboratory.\n", "In general, dogs age in a manner similar to humans. Their bodies begin to develop problems that are less common at younger ages, they are more prone to serious or fatal conditions such as cancer, stroke, etc., they become less mobile and may develop joint problems such as arthritis, and in old age often become less physically active and may even develop dementia. Additionally, they become less able to handle change, including wide climatic or temperature variation, and may develop dietary or skin problems or go deaf. In some cases incontinence may develop and breathing difficulties may appear.\n", "The linear bone resorption rate (M) cannot be measured directly, but it approximates a third of σ.\n\nSection::::Interspecies differences.\n\nEach vertebrate species exhibits a distinct duration of bone regeneration and remodeling, and it appears as though there is an inversely proportional relationship between the rate of bone regeneration and the phylogenetic evolution of the animal. Each remodeling period lasts 3–6 months in humans, 3 months in dogs, and 6 weeks in rabbits.\n", "Section::::Evidence.\n\nSection::::Evidence.:Growth and aging.\n\nThere is a large body of evidence indicating the negative effects of growth on longevity across many species. As a general rule, individuals of a smaller size generally live longer than larger individuals of the same species.\n\nSection::::Evidence.:Growth and aging.:Animal models.\n", "Section::::Genre.\n", "Section::::In animals.\n\nSmall animals such as birds and squirrels rarely live to their maximum life span, usually dying of accidents, disease or predation.\n\nThe maximum life span of most species is documented in the Anage repository.\n\nMaximum life span is usually longer for species that are larger or have effective defenses against predation, such as bird flight, chemical defenses or living in social groups.\n\nThe differences in life span between species demonstrate the role of genetics in determining maximum life span (\"rate of aging\"). The records (in years) are these:\n\nBULLET::::- for common house mouse, 4\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "According to a USB-IF chairman, \"at least 10 to 15 percent of the stated peak 60 MB/s (480 Mbit/s) of Hi-Speed USB goes to overhead—the communication protocol between the card and the peripheral. Overhead is a component of all connectivity standards\". Tables illustrating the transfer limits are shown in Chapter 5 of the USB spec.\n\nFor isochronous devices like audio streams, the bandwidth is constant, and reserved exclusively for a given device. The bus bandwidth therefore only has an effect on the number of channels that can be sent at a time, not the \"speed\" or latency of the transmission.\n", "Similarly, connecting a (slow) SE single-ended device onto a (fast) LVD SCSI chain will cause the HBA to sync down to the lowest speed.\n\nWhile interconnectivity of a number of devices may look straightforward, there are many pitfalls, and with older SE devices the cabling length becomes an issue as signal degrades.\n\nSection::::Parallel SCSI.:Drive caddies.\n", "Signals transmitted over consumer-grade TOSLINK connections are identical in content to those transmitted over coaxial connectors, though TOSLINK S/PDIF commonly exhibits higher jitter.\n\nSection::::Protocol specifications.\n", "This is caused by the omission of both overlapped and queued feature sets from most parallel ATA products. Only one device on a cable can perform a read or write operation at one time; therefore, a fast device on the same cable as a slow device under heavy use will find it has to wait for the slow device to complete its task first.\n", "Both HDMI and DVI use TMDS to send 10-bit characters that are encoded using 8b/10b encoding that differs from the original IBM form for the Video Data Period and 2b/10b encoding for the Control Period. HDMI adds the ability to send audio and auxiliary data using 4b/10b encoding for the Data Island Period. Each Data Island Period is 32 pixels in size and contains a 32-bit Packet Header, which includes 8 bits of BCH ECC parity data for error correction and describes the contents of the packet. Each packet contains four subpackets, and each subpacket is 64 bits in size, including 8 bits of BCH ECC parity data, allowing for each packet to carry up to 224 bits of audio data. Each Data Island Period can contain up to 18 packets. Seven of the 15 packet types described in the HDMI 1.3a specifications deal with audio data, while the other 8 types deal with auxiliary data. Among these are the General Control Packet and the Gamut Metadata Packet. The General Control Packet carries information on AVMUTE (which mutes the audio during changes that may cause audio noise) and Color Depth (which sends the bit depth of the current video stream and is required for deep color). The Gamut Metadata Packet carries information on the color space being used for the current video stream and is required for xvYCC.\n", "Congestion on the host bus to which the ATA adapter is attached may also limit the maximum burst transfer rate. For example, the maximum data transfer rate for conventional PCI bus is 133 MB/s, and this is shared among all active devices on the bus.\n", "When high data rates are used, the application is limited to a shorter cables. It is possible to use longer cables when low data rates are used. The DC resistance of the cable limits the length of the cable for low data rate applications by increasing the noise margin as the voltage drop in the cable increases. The AC effects of the cable limit the quality of the signal and limit the cable length to short distances when high data rates are used. Examples of data rate and cable length combinations vary from 90 kbit/s at 1.2 km to 10 Mbit/s at 5m for RS-422. \n", "Depending on the bandwidth requirement, the standard makes use of a variable number of USB Type-C's four SuperSpeed differential pairs to carry each TMDS lane: a single lane is required for resolutions up to 4K/60 Hz, two lanes for 4K/120 Hz, and all four lanes for 8K/60 Hz. The MHL eCBUS signal is sent over a side-band (SBU) pin on the USB Type-C connector. When one or two lanes are used, USB 3.1 data transfer is supported.\n", "Bus and Tag cables are \"daisy chained\"; and one interface can attach up to eight peripheral control units. The last control unit in the chain must have a terminator plug. Each control unit can attach a number of devices, \"sixteen is a typical number.\" There is an architectural limit of 256 devices per channel, and initially a limitation of , later extended to , between the mainframe and the control unit. Bus and Tag channels handle data rates up to 4.5 MB per second. Only one device can transfer data at a time/\n", "An HDMI cable is composed of four shielded twisted pairs, with impedance of the order of 100 Ω (±15%), plus seven separate conductors. HDMI cables with Ethernet differ in that three of the separate conductors instead form an additional shielded twisted pair (with the CEC/DDC ground as a shield).\n", "The cables that carry digital video are almost invariably serial—such as coax cable plugged into a HD-SDI port, a webcam plugged into a USB port or Firewire port, Ethernet cable connecting an IP camera to a Power over Ethernet port, FPD-Link, etc.\n\nOther such cables and ports, transmitting data one bit at a time, include Serial ATA, Serial SCSI, Ethernet cable plugged into Ethernet ports, the Display Data Channel using previously reserved pins of the VGA connector or the DVI port or the HDMI port.\n\nSection::::Serial buses.\n", "In a standard DisplayPort connection, each lane has a dedicated set of twisted-pair wires, and transmits data across it using differential signaling. This is a self-clocking system, so no dedicated clock signal channel is necessary. Unlike DVI and HDMI, which vary their transmission speed to the exact rate required for the specific video format, DisplayPort only operates at a few specific speeds; any excess bits in the transmission are filled with \"stuffing symbols\".\n", "Buses can be parallel buses, which carry data words in parallel on multiple wires, or serial buses, which carry data in bit-serial form. The addition of extra power and control connections, differential drivers, and data connections in each direction usually means that most serial buses have more conductors than the minimum of one used in 1-Wire and UNI/O. As data rates increase, the problems of timing skew, power consumption, electromagnetic interference and crosstalk across parallel buses become more and more difficult to circumvent. One partial solution to this problem has been to double pump the bus. Often, a serial bus can be operated at higher overall data rates than a parallel bus, despite having fewer electrical connections, because a serial bus inherently has no timing skew or crosstalk. USB, FireWire, and Serial ATA are examples of this. Multidrop connections do not work well for fast serial buses, so most modern serial buses use daisy-chain or hub designs.\n", "802.11 networks in ad hoc mode are still half-duplex, but devices communicate directly rather than through an access point. In this mode all devices must be able to \"see\" each other, instead of only having to be able to \"see\" the access point.\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Computer buses.\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Computer buses.:Main buses.\n\n LPC protocol includes high overhead. While the gross data rate equals 33.3 million 4-bit-transfers per second (or ), the fastest transfer, firmware read, results in . The next fastest bus cycle, 32-bit ISA-style DMA write, yields only . Other transfers may be as low as .\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Computer buses.:Storage.\n", "Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n", "In many circumstances a transmitter might be able to send data faster than the receiver is able to process it. To cope with this, serial lines often incorporate a \"handshaking\" method, usually distinguished between \"hardware\" and \"software\" handshaking.\n", "BULLET::::- Limited adapter speed – Although the pinout and digital signal values transmitted by the DP port are identical to a native DVI/HDMI source, the signals are transmitted at DisplayPort's native voltage (3.3V) instead of the 5V used by DVI and HDMI. As a result, dual-mode adapters must contain a level-shifter circuit which changes the voltage. The presence of this circuit places a limit on how quickly the adapter can operate, and therefore newer adapters are required for each higher speed added to the standard.\n", "The chipset and drivers used to implement USB and FireWire have a crucial impact on how much of the bandwidth prescribed by the specification is achieved in the real world, along with compatibility with peripherals.\n\nSection::::Comparisons with other connection methods.:Ethernet.\n", "As USB has become faster, devices have also become hungrier for data and so there is now demand for sending large amounts of data - either to be stored on the device, or be relayed over wireless links (see 3GPP Long Term Evolution).\n\nSince the new devices, although faster than before, are still much lower in power than desktop PCs, the issue of careful data handling arises, to maximize use of DMA resources on the device and minimize (or eliminate) copying of data (zero-copy). The NCM protocol has elaborate provisions for this. See link below for careful protocol comparisons.\n", "Each device may contain one or more HDCP transmitters and/or receivers. (A single transmitter or receiver chip may combine HDCP and HDMI functionality.)\n", "Some digital connection standards were designed from the beginning to primarily carry audio and video signals simultaneously:\n\nBULLET::::- HDMI combines DVI-compliant uncompressed video data with compressed or uncompressed audio, and supports other protocols.\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL)\n\nMany analog connectors carry both:\n\nBULLET::::- F connectors, also known as RF connectors, were the standard analog connector of the analog era in the Americas, used primarily with coaxial cable (RG-59 and RG-6), and have been repurposed for generic digital data connections.\n\nBULLET::::- SCART was the standard connector of the analog era in Europe.\n", "The speed includes bits for framing (stop bits, parity, etc.) and so the effective data rate is lower than the bit transmission rate. For example, with 8-N-1 character framing only 80% of the bits are available for data (for every eight bits of data, two more framing bits are sent).\n\nBit rates commonly supported include 75, 110, 300, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600 and 115200 bit/s.\n", "There are many debates about how much a slow device can impact the performance of a faster device on the same cable. There is an effect, but the debate is confused by the blurring of two quite different causes, called here \"Lowest speed\" and \"One operation at a time\".\n\nSection::::Parallel ATA interface.:Two devices on one cable—speed impact.:\"Lowest speed\".\n\nOn early ATA host adapters, both devices' data transfers can be constrained to the speed of the slower device, if two devices of different speed capabilities are on the same cable.\n", "Transition-minimized differential signaling (TMDS) on HDMI interleaves video, audio and auxiliary data using three different packet types, called the Video Data Period, the Data Island Period and the Control Period. During the Video Data Period, the pixels of an active video line are transmitted. During the Data Island period (which occurs during the horizontal and vertical blanking intervals), audio and auxiliary data are transmitted within a series of packets. The Control Period occurs between Video and Data Island periods.\n", "The cables for connecting equipment together have a male plug at each end. Some of the wires such as ground, data, switching and RGB connect to the identical pin number at each end. Others such as audio and video are swapped so that an output signal at one end of the cable connects to an input signal at the other end. The complete list of wires that are swapped is: pins 1 and 2, pins 3 and 6, pins 17 and 18, pins 19 and 20.\n" ]

[ "Cables are increasing throughput without changing size.", "If cables like USB and HDMI use similar connectors they should not be able to continously keep increasing data throughout regularly. " ]

[ "Software that encodes/decodes the data is getting better and allowing for more data to be transferred. ", "Newer standards can read shorter more compressed signals, whilst the cables just carry patterns of electricity." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Cables are increasing throughput without changing size.", "If cables like USB and HDMI use similar connectors they should not be able to continously keep increasing data throughout regularly. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Software that encodes/decodes the data is getting better and allowing for more data to be transferred. ", "Newer standards can read shorter more compressed signals, whilst the cables just carry patterns of electricity." ]

[ "While spray bottles existed long before the middle of the 20th century, they used a rubber bulb which was squeezed to produce the spray; the quickly-moving air siphoned fluid from the bottle. The rapid improvement in plastics after World War II increased the range of fluids that could be dispensed, and reduced the cost of the sprayers because assembly could be fully automated.\n", "Unlike the rubber bulb dispenser which primarily moved air with a small amount of fluid, modern spray bottles use a positive displacement pump that acts directly on the fluid. The pump draws liquid up a siphon tube from the bottom of the bottle and forces it through a nozzle. Depending on the sprayer, the nozzle may or may not be adjustable, so as to select between squirting a stream, aerosolizing a mist, or dispensing a spray. \n", "In a spray bottle, the dispensing is powered by the user's efforts, as opposed to the spray can, in which the user simply actuates a valve and product is dispensed under pressure.\n\nSeveral designs have been developed. \n\nSome of the pumping mechanisms of spray bottles are similar to those of Pump dispensers which are used for more viscous products.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aerosol spray\n\nBULLET::::- Atomizer nozzle\n\nBULLET::::- List of bottle types, brands and companies\n\nBULLET::::- Nebulizer\n\nBULLET::::- Pesticide application\n\nBULLET::::- Spray nozzle\n\nBULLET::::- Squeeze bottle\n\nBULLET::::- Water gun\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Nozzle performance factors.:Nozzle wear.\n\nNozzle wear is indicated by an increase in nozzle capacity and by a change in the spray pattern, in which the distribution (uniformity of spray pattern) deteriorates and increases drop size. Choice of a wear-resistant material of construction increases nozzle life. Because many single fluid nozzles are used to meter flows, worn nozzles result in excessive liquid usage.\n\nSection::::Nozzle performance factors.:Material of construction.\n", "BULLET::::- Yam, K. L., \"Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology\", John Wiley & Sons, pp 275-276, 2009,\n\nBULLET::::- Soroka, W, \"Fundamentals of Packaging Technology\", IoPP, 2002,\n\nSection::::References.:Standards, ASTM International.\n\nBULLET::::- D3890 Standard Test Method for Number of Strokes to Prime a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D4041 Standard Practice for Determining Spray Patterns of Mechanical Pump Dispensers\n\nBULLET::::- D4333 Test Method for the Compatibility of Mechanical Pump Dispenser Components\n\nBULLET::::- D4334 Standard Test Method for the Determination of the Dip Tube Retention of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D4335 Standard Test Method for Determination of Component Retention of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n", "In the late 1960s, spray bottles with trigger-style actuators appeared and quickly became popular, as this design was less fatiguing to use. The original pump-style bottle remained more popular for applications like non-aerosol deodorants, where size was a factor and repeated pumps were not required. \n\nSection::::History.:Modern spray bottles.\n", "Spray bottle\n\nA spray bottle is a bottle that can squirt, spray or mist fluids. A common use for spray bottles is dispensing cool cleaners, cosmetics, and chemical specialties. Another wide use of spray bottles is mixing down concentrates such as pine oil with water.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Engineering.\n\nSprayers are fully integrated, mechanical systems, meaning they are composed of various parts and components that work together to achieve the desired effect, in this case: the projection of the spray fluid. This can be as simple as a hand sprayer attached to a bottle that is pumped and primed by a spring-lever, tube, and vacuum-pressure; or as complex as a 150 foot reach boom sprayer with a list of system components that work together to deliver the spray fluid. \n", "The Drackett company, manufacturers of Windex glass cleaner, was a leader in promoting spray bottles. Roger Drackett raised soybeans, converted the soybeans to plastic using technology purchased from Henry Ford, and was an investor in the Seaquist company, an early manufacturer of sprayers and closures. Initially, the brittle nature of early plastics required that sprayers be packaged in a cardboard box, and the sprayer inserted in the glass Windex bottle by the consumer. The cost in the manufacturing sprayers was also a factor; consumers would reuse the sprayers with bottle after bottle of glass cleaner. As plastics improved and the cost of sprayers dropped, manufacturers were able to ship products with the sprayer already in the bottle. \n", "The \"gas atomised spray forming\" (\"GASF\") process typically has a molten alloy flow rate of 1–20 kg/min, although twin atomizer systems can achieve metal flow rates of up to 80 kg/min. Special steel billets of 1 tonne or more have been produced by spray forming on a commercial basis, together with Ni super-alloy ring blanks of up to 500 kg and Al alloy extrusion billets of up to 400 kg.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and \"open\" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.\n", "In 2007 Unilever launched its new Persil Small and Mighty variant in the UK and Ireland. A 2013 update showcased a new design of bottle that enabled consumers to use the in built, flexible plastic dosing ball as a measurer and stain removal pre-treatment device. The ball is contained in a circular cutout in the centre of the bottle and is simply filled and placed directly into the drum. Because it's made of soft, heat resistant plastic it can be washed with the laundry and makes no banging noises. This campaign was launched with the tagline \"For Whatever life throws\".\n", "BULLET::::- D4336 Standard Test Methods for Determination of the Output Per Stroke of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D6534 Standard Test Method for Determining the Peak Force-to-Actuate a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D6535 Standard Test Method for Determining the Dip Tube Length of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D6536 Standard Test Method for Measuring the Dip Tube Length of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D6633 Standard Test Method for Basic Functional Stability of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- D6654 Standard Test Method for Basic Storage Stability of a Mechanical Pump Dispenser\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- How Stuff Works\n", "In this vessel, the gas flows horizontally through a number of spray sections. The amount and quality of liquid sprayed in each section can be varied, usually with the cleanest liquid (if recycled liquid is used) sprayed in the last set of sprays.\n\nSection::::Particle collection.\n", "The atomising gas mass flow rate to molten metal mass flow rate ratio is a key parameter in controlling the droplet diameter and hence the cooling rate, billet temperature and resulting solid particle nucleant density. The gas-metal ratio (GMR) is typically in the range 1.5 to 5.5, with yield decreasing and cooling rates in the spray increasing with increasing GMR. Typically at low (1.5) GMR, yield is 75%, if the GMR is increased to 5.0 with all other parameters remaining constant, the process yield is reduced to 60%. \n", "Electrostatic charging of sprays is very useful for high transfer efficiency. Examples are the industrial spraying of coatings (paint) and applying lubricant oils. The charging is at high voltage (20–40 kV) but low current.\n\nSection::::Nozzle performance factors.\n\nSection::::Nozzle performance factors.:Liquid properties.\n\nAlmost all drop size data supplied by nozzle manufacturers are based on spraying water under laboratory conditions, . The effect of liquid properties should be understood and accounted for when selecting a nozzle for a process that is drop size sensitive.\n\nSection::::Nozzle performance factors.:Temperature.\n", "This range of droplet sizes is between 500 and 1,000 µm for gravity-spray (counter current) towers. The injection of water at very high pressures – 2070–3100 kPa (300–450 psi) – creates a fog of very fine droplets. Higher particle-collection efficiencies can be achieved in such cases since collection mechanisms other than inertial impaction occur. However, these spray nozzles may use more power to form droplets than would a venturi operating at the same collection efficiency.\n\nSection::::Gas collection.\n", "Section::::Commercialisation.\n", "Section::::Non-propellant packaging alternatives.\n\nTrue aerosol sprays release their propellant during use. Some non-propellant alternatives include various spray bottles, squeeze bottles, and Bag on Valve (BoV) / Bag in Can (BiC) compressed gas aerosol systems.\n", "To make valid data comparisons, particularly from different sources, it is extremely important to know the type of instrument and range used, the sampling technique, and the percent volume for each size class. Instrumentation and reporting bias directly affect drop size data.\n\nSection::::Spray Drop Size.:Consider the Application.\n\nSelect the drop size mean and diameter of interest that is best suited for the application. If the object is simply to compare the drop size of alternate nozzles, then the VMD or SMD report are sufficient. Additional information such as RSF, DV90, DV10, and others should be used when appropriate.\n", "Spray nozzle manufacturers all tabulate capacity based on water. Since the specific gravity of a liquid affects its flow rate, the values must be adjusted using the equation below, where Qw is the water capacity and Spg is the specific gravity of the fluid used resulting the volumetric flow rate of the fluid used Qf.\n\nformula_1\n\nNozzle capacity varies with spraying pressure. In general, the relationship between capacity and pressure is as follows:\n\nformula_2\n\nwhere Q1 is the known capacity at pressure P1, and Q2 is the capacity to be determined at pressure P2.\n\nSection::::Spray Impact.\n", "These gravity-powered systems have a device to dispense water in a controlled manner.\n\nThese machines come in different sizes and vary from table units, intended for occasional use to floor-mounted units intended for heavier use. Bottled water is normally delivered to households or businesses on a regular basis, where empty returnable polycarbonate bottles are exchanged for full ones. In developing markets, PET is often used for large bottles despite shrinkage and lower washing temperature will lead to making it a more challenging material to use.\n", "As a result of their research, which began January 1941 at USDA, Lyle D. Goodhue of Berwyn, Maryland and William N. Sullivan of Washington D.C. received a patent in 1943 for an aerosol “dispensing apparatus.” This was the first commercially-feasible application which allowed a fine spray to escape through a nozzle mounted on a small container. The design, assigned to the U. S. government, was the ancestor of many popular commercial spray products in wide use today. Using liquified gas as a propellant,\n", "Spray towers have been used effectively to remove large particles and highly soluble gases. The pressure drop across the towers is very low – usually less than 2.5 cm (1.0 in) of water; thus, scrubber operating costs are relatively low. However, the liquid pumping costs can be very high.\n", "Spray towers are low energy scrubbers. Contacting power is much lower than in venturi scrubbers, and the pressure drops across such systems are generally less than 2.5 cm (1 in) of water. The collection efficiency for small particles is correspondingly lower than in more energy-intensive devices. They are adequate for the collection of coarse particles larger than 10–25 µm in diameter, although with increased liquid inlet nozzle pressures, particles with diameters of 2.0 µm can be collected. \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The words for \"to sacrifice\" and for \"sacrificer\" were \"blotan\" and \"blostreis\", used in Biblical Gothic in the sense of \"Christian worship\" and \"Christian priest\".\n", "The roots of the Gothic style lie in those towns that, since the 11th century, had been enjoying increased prosperity and growth alongside more and more freedom from traditional feudal authority. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states and kingdoms. The area encompassing modern Germany, southern Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Slovakia, Czech Republic and much of northern Italy (excluding Venice and Papal State) was nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire, but local rulers exercised considerable autonomy under the system of Feudalism. France, Denmark, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Portugal, Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Sicily and Cyprus were independent kingdoms, as was the Angevin Empire, whose Plantagenet kings ruled England and large domains in what was to become modern France. Norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, while Lusignan kings introduced French Gothic architecture to Cyprus. Gothic art is sometimes viewed as the art of the era of feudalism but also as being connected to change in medieval social structure, as the Gothic style of architecture seemed to parallel the beginning of the decline of feudalism. Nevertheless, the influence of the established feudal elite can be seen in the Chateaux of French lords and in those churches sponsored by feudal lords.\n", "At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states and kingdoms. The area encompassing modern Germany, southern Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Czech Republic and much of northern Italy (excluding Venice and Papal State) was nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire, but local rulers exercised considerable autonomy. France, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Portugal, Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Sicily and Cyprus were independent kingdoms, as was the Angevin Empire, whose Plantagenet kings ruled England and large domains in what was to become modern France. Norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries, the Baltic States and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, while Lusignan kings introduced French Gothic architecture to Cyprus.\n", "Gothic is also known to have served as the primary inspiration for Tolkien's invented language, Taliska which, in his legendarium was the language spoken by the race of Men during the First Age before being displaced by another of his invented languages, Adûnaic. Tolkien's Taliska grammar has not been published.\n\nSection::::Use in Romanticism and the Modern Age.:Others.\n", "In Denmark, Romantic nationalism led writers such as Johannes Ewald, N. F. S. Grundtvig (whose translation of \"Beowulf\" into Danish was the first into a modern language) and Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger to take a renewed interest in Old Norse subjects. In other parts of Europe, interest in Norse mythology, history and language was represented by the Englishmen Thomas Gray, John Keats and William Wordsworth, and the Germans Johann Gottfried Herder and Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock.\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n", "Gothic architecture was known during the period as (\"French/Frankish work\"). The term \"Gothic architecture\" originated in the 16th century and was originally very negative, suggesting something barbaric. Giorgio Vasari used the term \"barbarous German style\" in his 1550 \"Lives of the Artists\" to describe what is now considered the Gothic style, and in the introduction to the \"Lives\" he attributed various architectural features to \"the Goths\" whom he held responsible for destroying the ancient buildings after they conquered Rome, and erecting new ones in this style.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Origins – Early Gothic (1130–1200).\n", "The Thorvaldsen museum also has an alliterative poem, \"Thunravalds Sunau\", from 1841 by Massmann, the first publisher of the Skeireins, written in the Gothic language. It was read at a great feast dedicated to Thorvaldsen in the Gesellschaft der Zwanglosen in Munich on July 15, 1841. This event is mentioned by Ludwig Schorn in the magazine Kunstblatt from the 19th of July, 1841. Massmann also translated the academic commercium song \"Gaudeamus\" into Gothic in 1837.\n\nIn 2012, professor Bjarne Simmelkjær Hansen of the University of Copenhagen published a translation into Gothic of \"Adeste Fideles\" for Roots of Europe.\n", "International Gothic\n\nInternational Gothic is a period of Gothic art which began in Burgundy, France, and northern Italy in the late 14th and early 15th century. It then spread very widely across Western Europe, hence the name for the period, which was introduced by the French art historian Louis Courajod at the end of the 19th century.\n", "The term \"Southern French Gothic\" is applied mainly to buildings of worship, churches, and cathedrals. The same architectural principles of sobriety of construction, absence or limitation of carved decoration, massive appearance, and defensive elements can, however, be found in buildings used for other purposes. Examples in Toulouse include mansions and the Saint-Raymond College; in Albi, the Berbie Palace, etc.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nSection::::Sources.:General books.\n\nBULLET::::- Collectif, \"Cahiers de Fanjeaux\", , \"La naissance et l’essor du gothique méridional au XIIIs\", Toulouse, 1974.\n", "Section::::Survey.:Tapestry.\n", "A further vehicle of the International Gothic style was provided by the tapestry-weaving centers of Arras, Tournai and Paris, where tapestry production was permanently disordered by the English occupation of 1418–36. Under the consistent patronage of the Dukes of Burgundy, their courtly International Gothic style, elongated figures, rich details of attire, crowded composition, with figures disposed in tiers, owe their inspiration to manuscript illuminators and directly to painters: Baudouin de Bailleul, a painter established at Arras, supplied cartoons for tapestry workshops there and at Tournai, where elements of a local style are hard to distinguish (Weigert, p. 44). The Chatsworth \"Hunts\" (Victoria and Albert Museum) are inspired by Gaston de Foix's book on hunting and the many weavings of Trojan War cycles by contemporary romances.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval Gothic\n\nBULLET::::- Castle\n\nBULLET::::- Catenary arch\n\nBULLET::::- Czech Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- English Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- French Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Italian Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- List of Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Middle Ages in history\n\nBULLET::::- Polish Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Portuguese Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Renaissance of the 12th century\n\nBULLET::::- Spanish Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Gothic secular and domestic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Gothic architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Architectural history\n\nBULLET::::- Architectural style\n\nBULLET::::- Architecture of cathedrals and great churches\n\nBULLET::::- Sondergotik\n\nBULLET::::- Gothicmed\n\nBULLET::::- Gothic Revival architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Carpenter Gothic\n\nBULLET::::- Collegiate Gothic in North America\n\nBULLET::::- Tented roof\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Variations.:Haute Goth.\n\nIn 1977, Karl Lagerfeld hosted the Soirée Moratoire Noir party, specifying \"tenue tragique noire absolument obligatoire\" (black tragic dress absolutely required). The event included elements associated with leatherman style.\n", "Between 348 and 383, Ulfila likely presided over the translation of the Bible from Greek into the Gothic language, which was performed by a group of scholars., Thus, some Arian Christians in the west used vernacular languages – in this case Gothic – for services, as did many Nicaean Christians in the east. See also: Syriac versions of the Bible and the Coptic Bible), while Nicaean Christians in the west only used Latin, even in areas where Vulgar Latin was not the vernacular. Gothic probably persisted as a liturgical language of the Gothic-Arian church in some places even after its members had come to speak Vulgar Latin as their mother tongue.\n", "Section::::France.\n\nSection::::France.:Northern France.\n\nEven the Westhoek region in the very north of France, situated between Belgium and the Strait of Dover participates in northern Brick Gothic, with a high density of specific buildings. For example, there is an amazing similarity between the belfry of Dunkerque and the tower of St Mary's church in Gdańsk.\n\nSection::::France.:Southern French Gothic.\n", "The language survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) as late as the eighth century. Gothic-seeming terms are found in manuscripts subsequent to this date, but these may or may not belong to the same language. In particular, a language known as Crimean Gothic survived in the lower Danube area and in isolated mountain regions in Crimea. Lacking certain sound changes characteristic of Gothic, however, Crimean Gothic cannot be a lineal descendant of Bible Gothic.\n\nThe existence of such early attested texts makes it a language of considerable interest in comparative linguistics.\n", "By the end of the 5th century the term \"Gothic\" was used more generally in the historical sources for Pliny's \"Vandals\" to the east of the Elbe, including not only the Goths and Vandals, but also \"the Gepids along the Tisza and the Danube, the Rugians, Sciri and Burgundians, even the Iranian Alans.\"\n\nSection::::Linguistics.\n", "BULLET::::- A scattering of old documents: two deeds (the \"Naples\" and \"Arezzo\" deeds, on papyri), alphabets (in the \"Gothica Vindobonensia\" and the \"Gothica Parisina\"), a calendar (in the \"Codex Ambrosianus A\"), glosses found in a number of manuscripts and a few runic inscriptions (between three and 13) that are known or suspected to be Gothic: some scholars believe that these inscriptions are not at all Gothic. Several names in an Indian inscription were thought to be possibly Gothic by Krause. Furthermore, late ninth-century Christian inscriptions (using the Gothic alphabet, not runes, and copying or mimicking Biblical Gothic orthography) have been found at Mangup in Crimea.\n", "Gothic Mountain\n\nGothic Mountain is a prominent mountain summit in the West Elk Mountains range of the Rocky Mountains of North America. The peak is located in Gunnison National Forest, west by south (bearing 260°) of the ghost town of Gothic in Gunnison County, Colorado, United States. Gothic Mountain takes its name from its pinnacles said to resemble Gothic architecture.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Colorado mountain ranges\n\nBULLET::::- List of Colorado mountain summits\n\nBULLET::::- List of Colorado fourteeners\n\nBULLET::::- List of Colorado 4000 meter prominent summits\n\nBULLET::::- List of the most prominent summits of Colorado\n", "Southern French Gothic is a specific style of Gothic architecture developed in the south of France. It arose in the early 13th century following the victory of the Catholic church over the Cathars, as the church sought to re-establish its authority in the region. As a result, church buildings typically present features drawn from military architecture. \n\nThe construction material of Southern French Gothic is typically brick rather than stone. Over time, the style came to influence secular buildings as well as churches and spread beyond the area where Catharism had flourished.\n\nSection::::Gothic Revival – 19th-century Neo-gothic.\n", "\"Gothic art\" was strongly criticized by French authors such as Boileau, La Bruyère, Rousseau, before becoming a recognized form of art, and the wording becoming fixed. Molière would famously comment on Gothic:\n\npoem\n\nThe besotted taste of Gothic monuments,\n\nThese odious monsters of ignorant centuries,\n\nWhich the torrents of barbary spewed forth.\n\n/poem\n\nIn its beginning, Gothic art was initially called \"French work\" (\"Opus Francigenum\"), thus attesting the priority of France in the creation of this style.\n\nSection::::Painting.\n", "The word \"Gothic\" for art was initially used as a synonym for \"Barbaric\", and was therefore used pejoratively. Its critics saw this type of Medieval art as unrefined and too remote from the aesthetic proportions and shapes of Classical art. Renaissance authors believed that the Sack of Rome by the Gothic tribes in 410 had triggered the demise of the Classical world and all the values they held dear. In the 15th century, various Italian architects and writers complained that the new 'barbarian' styles filtering down from north of the Alps posed a similar threat to the classical revival promoted by the early Renaissance. The \"Gothic\" qualifier for this art was first used in Raphael's letter to Pope Leo X c. 1518 and was subsequently popularised by the Italian artist and writer Giorgio Vasari, who used it as early as 1530, calling Gothic art a \"monstrous and barbarous\" \"disorder\". Raphael claimed that the pointed arches of northern architecture were an echo of the primitive huts the Germanic forest dwellers formed by bending trees together – a myth which would resurface much later in a more positive sense in the writings of the German Romantic movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Troyes Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Vannes Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Vézelay Abbey\n\nBULLET::::- Saints-Pierre-et-Paul, Wissembourg\n\nSection::::Germany.\n\nBULLET::::- Aachen Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Albrechtsburg\n\nBULLET::::- Bamberg Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Bremen Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Brunswick Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Burg Lichtenberg (Palatinate)\n\nBULLET::::- Cologne Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Doberan Abbey\n\nBULLET::::- Frankfurt Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- Frauenkirche, Nuremberg\n\nBULLET::::- Freiburg Münster\n\nBULLET::::- Liebfrauenkirche, Trier (the earliest Gothic church in Germany)\n\nBULLET::::- Lübeck Marienkirche\n\nBULLET::::- Magdeburg Cathedral – First Gothic cathedral in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Marburg Elisabethkirche (the earliest Gothic church in Germany)\n\nBULLET::::- Munich Frauenkirche\n\nBULLET::::- Neubrandenburg\n\nBULLET::::- Regensburg Cathedral\n\nBULLET::::- St. Lorenz (Nürnberg)\n\nBULLET::::- St. Andrew's Church, Hildesheim\n\nBULLET::::- St. Martin's Church, Landshut\n", "While ordinary people lived very stationary, some groups that were important for the layout of buildings were internationally mobile, bishops, abbots, high aristocracy and long distance merchants, who decided to build, and the highly skilled specialists among the craftsmen. Therefore, also the Brique Gothic of the countries around the Baltic Sea was strongly influenced by the cathedrals of France and by the \"gothique tournaisien\" or \"Scheldt Gothic\" of the County of Flanders (where also some important Brick Gothic was erected).\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Rumbold's Cathedral at Mechelen, early Gothic building started around 1200 and consecrated 1312, its first clearly Brabantine Gothic features: ambulatory and 7 radiant chapels from 1335, possibly by Jean d'Oisy\n\nBULLET::::- Church of Our Lady in Aarschot, from 1337 by Jacob Piccart\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Martin's Basilica in Halle, from 1341 possibly by Jean d'Oisy\n\nBULLET::::- Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp, from 1352\n\nBULLET::::- Church of Our Lady-at-the-Pool in Tienen, from 1358 by Jean d'Oisy\n\nBULLET::::- Saint John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, from about 1370, considered the height of Brabantine Gothic in the present-day Netherlands\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is a symptom of many common illnesses, such as the common cold and influenza. \n\nSection::::Respiratory system.:Upper respiratory tract.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "During cold, dry seasons, the mucus lining nasal passages tends to dry out, meaning that mucous membranes must work harder, producing more mucus to keep the cavity lined. As a result, the nasal cavity can fill up with mucus. At the same time, when air is exhaled, water vapor in breath condenses as the warm air meets the colder outside temperature near the nostrils. This causes an excess amount of water to build up inside nasal cavities. In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils.\n\nSection::::Respiratory system.:Lower respiratory tract.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Subcapsular sinus.\n\nThe subcapsular sinus (lymph path, lymph sinus, marginal sinus) is the space between the capsule and the cortex which allows the free movement of lymphatic fluid and so contains few lymphocytes. It is continuous with the similar lymph sinuses that flank the trabeculae.\n\nA lymph node contains lymphoid tissue, i.e., a meshwork or fibers called \"reticulum\" with white blood cells enmeshed in it. The regions where there are few cells within the meshwork are known as \"lymph sinus\". It is lined by reticular cells, fibroblasts and fixed macrophages.\n", "The color of the sputum or nasal secretion may vary from clear to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Progression.\n", "Lymph is present throughout the body, and circulates through lymphatic vessels. These drain into and from lymph nodesafferent vessels drain into nodes, and efferent vessels from nodes. When lymph fluid enters a node, it drains into the node just beneath the capsule in a space called the subcapsular sinus. The subcapsular sinus drains into trabecular sinuses and finally into medullary sinuses. The sinus space is criss-crossed by the pseudopods of macrophages, which act to trap foreign particles and filter the lymph. The medullary sinuses converge at the hilum and lymph then leaves the lymph node via the \"efferent lymphatic vessel\" towards either a more central lymph node or ultimately for drainage into a central venous subclavian blood vessel.\n", "Through its copious mucus production, the sinus is an essential part of the immune defense/air filtration carried out by the nose. Nasal and sinal mucosae are ciliated and move mucus to the choanae and finally to the stomach. The thick upper layers of nasal mucus trap bacteria and small particles in tissue abundantly provided with immune cells, antibodies, and antibacterial proteins. The layers beneath are thinner and provide a substrate in which the cilia are able to beat and move the upper layer with its debris through the ostia toward the choanae.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "The most common upper respiratory tract infection is the common cold. However, infections of specific organs of the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, pharyngitis and laryngitis are also considered upper respiratory tract infections.\n\nSection::::Respiratory tract infections.:Lower respiratory tract infection.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "The respiratory epithelium that covers the erectile tissue (or lamina propria) of the conchae plays a major role in the body's first line of immunological defense. The respiratory epithelium is partially composed of mucus-producing goblet cells. This secreted mucus covers the nasal cavities, and serves as a filter, by trapping air-borne particles larger than 2 to 3 micrometers. The respiratory epithelium also serves as a means of access for the lymphatic system, which protects the body from being infected by viruses or bacteria.\n\nSection::::Function.:Smell.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "Bony fish, hagfish, snails, slugs, and some other invertebrates also produce external mucus. In addition to serving a protective function against infectious agents, such mucus provides protection against toxins produced by predators, can facilitate movement and may play a role in communication.\n\nSection::::Respiratory system.\n", "Aerosolized influenza virus is inhaled and embeds in the respiratory mucosa, of the upper and lower respiratory tract. The virus is attracted to the glycoproteins and mucopolysaccharides of the mucus coating the respiratory mucosa. If the infecting dose of virus is high, abundant viral neuraminidase breaks down the mucosal\n", "Section::::Pathogenesis.:Genes.:Infected cell genes.:Overexpressed genes.\n", "BULLET::::- The macrophages also carry receptors for lymphokines, and lymphoines act as cytokines which further attract T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. The damage produced by the immune response causes the lung tissue to inflame, expand, and swell with fluid then leak.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "\"Ciliated columnar epithelium\" moves mucus and other substances via cilia and is found in the upper respiratory tract, the Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the central part of the spinal cord. They are the primary target of infection for \"common cold viruses\" such as coronaviruses, influenza virus and rhinoviruses. These viruses may kill the ciliated cells or stop the cilia beating. In either case, mucus builds up and forms a good site for secondary bacterial infections, resulting in mucus.\n", "Section::::Histology.\n", "On microscopic examination, involved tissues show commonly show areas of necrosis and cellular infiltrates that are centered around and often injure or destroy small blood vessels. The infiltrates contain large granule-containing lymphocytes that express cell surface CD2, cytoplasmic CD3ε, and cell surface CD56 as well the cytotoplasmic intracellular proteins, perforin, granzyme B, and T cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1). These cells exhibit evidence of EBV infection as determined by \"in situ hybridization assays to detect one of the virus's latent products, typically EBER-1/2 micoRNAs. Identification of the genetic abnormalities cited above in the cells may be of help in establishing the diagnoses and be of use for selecting novel therapeutic approaches to individual patients. Non-malignant inflammatory white blood cells, including eosinophils, are also commonly found in these infiltrates.\n", "Section::::Recycling of nutrients.:Nitrogen cycling.\n\nSection::::Recycling of nutrients.:Nitrogen cycling.:Nitrogen cycle.\n", "Typical pathological lesions are very suggestive of the disease – they are localised exclusively to the lung and pleura. Lungs are normally a port wine colour and abundant pleural exudate and pleuritis and adhesions are common. The pleural exudates may have solidified forming a gelatinous covering. \n\nHistological examination of the lung tissues may show acute serofibrinous to chronic fibrino-necrotic pleuropneumonia with neutrophilic inflammation in the alveoli, bronchioles, interstitial septae and subpleural connective tissue.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Effects of disease.\n", "Although some disagreement exists on the exact boundary between the upper and lower respiratory tracts, the upper respiratory tract is generally considered to be the airway above the glottis or vocal cords. This includes the nose, sinuses, pharynx, and larynx.\n\nTypical infections of the upper respiratory tract include tonsillitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, sinusitis, otitis media, certain types of influenza, and the common cold. Symptoms of URIs can include cough, sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, headache, low grade fever, facial pressure and sneezing.\n\nSection::::Types.:Lower respiratory tract infection.\n", "Section::::Pathogenesis.:Epigenetic abnormalities.\n", "The infection initially presents common cold-like symptoms and a characteristic blistering process in the nose and mouth, before invading the nervous system. Although not as contagious as the influenza virus, it spreads rapidly through the same vectors as the common cold, mainly via airborne particulate matter coming in contact with the mucous membranes of the respiratory system. Although tussis is the primary source of these particles, the inclusion of nuclear polyhedrosis virus allows Cobra to form crystals, which can be easily processed into a fine powder.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The glyphs of lower-case letters can resemble smaller forms of the upper-case glyphs restricted to the base band (e.g. \"C/c\" and \"S/s\", cf. small caps) or can look hardly related (e.g. \"D/d\" and \"G/g\"). Here is a comparison of the upper and lower case variants of each letter included in the English alphabet (the exact representation will vary according to the typeface and font used):\n", "Often, in medieval manuscripts, old uncial letter forms were mixed in with the normal minuscule letters for writing titles or for emphasizing the initial letter of a word or sentence. Like in Latin, this became the root of the modern innovation of letter case, the systematic distinction between uppercase and lowercase letters in orthography. The uppercase letters of modern orthography are derived from the uncial script, while the lowercase letters are derived from minuscules.\n", "\"Majuscule\" ( or ), for palaeographers, is technically any script in which the letters have very few or very short ascenders and descenders, or none at all (for example, the majuscule scripts used in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, or the Book of Kells). By virtue of their visual impact, this made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase letters.\n", "The timeline of writing in Western Europe can be divided into four eras:\n\nBULLET::::- Greek majuscule (9th–3rd century BCE) in contrast to the Greek uncial script (3rd century BCE – 12th century CE) and the later Greek minuscule\n\nBULLET::::- Roman majuscule (7th century BCE – 4th century CE) in contrast to the Roman uncial (4th–8th century CE), Roman Half Uncial, and minuscule\n\nBULLET::::- Carolingian majuscule (4th–8th century CE) in contrast to the Carolingian minuscule (around 780 – 12th century)\n", "BULLET::::- Letters of the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets (some final forms only), and some jamo of the Korean hangul have different forms for initial or final placement, but these rules are strict and the different forms cannot be used for emphasis.\n\nBULLET::::- In Georgian, some authors use isolated letters from the ancient Asomtavruli alphabet within a text otherwise written in the modern Mkhedruli in a fashion that is reminiscent of the usage of upper-case letters in the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets.\n", "Minuscule (\"lowercase\") letters, punctuation and spaces of various widths are on the left; capital (\"uppercase\") letters are on the right, and numerals and some other symbols are at the top. The position and size of the compartments for lowercase letters vary according to the frequency of occurrence of the letters. The compartments for uppercase letters are uniform in size and ordered from \"A\" to \"Z\", except for \"J\" and \"U\", which were not used by early English printers, so they are assigned compartments following \"Z\".\n", "Most writing systems do not differentiate between uppercase and lowercase letters. For those scripts all letters are categorized as \"other letter\" or \"modifier letter\". Ideographs such as Unihan ideographs are also categorized as \"other letters\". A few scripts do differentiate between uppercase and lowercase however: Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Armenian, Georgian, and Deseret. Even for these scripts there are some letters that are neither uppercase nor lowercase.\n", "BULLET::::- An interjection such as \"er\", \"um\", etc.\n\nWhen hand-lettering, upper-case lettering saves time and effort because it requires drawing only three guidelines, while mixed-case lettering requires five.\n\nIn a few comics, uppercase and lowercase are used as in ordinary writing. Since the mid-1980s, mixed case lettering has gradually become more widely used in mainstream books. Some comics, such as \"Pearls Before Swine\", also use lowercase speech to mark a distinctive accent (in this case, the male crocodiles’ accented speech, opposed to all other characters who use standard uppercase speech).\n", "Most of the letters are based on a grid of 5 by 7 units, with 45-degree corners. Each glyph is represented by two or more sides of a square, with ascenders, descenders or tittles added where necessary. Glyphs with three horizontal bars (\"E\", \"3\") are represented faithfully, while those with three vertical bars (\"M\", \"W\") are not, instead being represented by underlined \"N\" and \"V\" glyphs respectively. There is no differentiation between uppercase and lowercase glyphs. \n", "Similar orthographic and graphostylistic conventions are used for emphasis or following language-specific or other rules, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Font effects such as italic type or oblique type, boldface, and choice of serif vs. sans-serif.\n\nBULLET::::- Typographical conventions in mathematical formulae include the use of Greek letters and the use of Latin letters with special formatting such as blackboard bold and blackletter.\n", "The terms \"upper\" and \"lower\" case originate from this division. By convention, when the two cases were taken out of the storage rack, and placed on a rack on the compositor's desk, the case containing the capitals and small capitals stood at a steeper angle at the back of the desk, with the case for the small letters, punctuation and spaces being more easily reached at a shallower angle below it to the front of the desk, hence upper and lower case.\n", "Works written in Insular scripts commonly use large initial letters surrounded by red ink dots (although this is also true of other scripts written in Ireland and England). Letters following a large initial at the start of a paragraph or section often gradually diminish in size as they are written across a line or a page, until the normal size is reached, which is called a \"diminuendo\" effect, and is a distinctive insular innovation, which later influenced Continental illumination style. Letters with ascenders (\"b\", \"d\", \"h\", \"l\", etc.) are written with triangular or wedge-shaped tops. The bows of letters such as \"b\", \"d\", \"p\", and \"q\" are very wide. The script uses many ligatures and has many unique scribal abbreviations, along with many borrowings from Tironian notes.\n", "In addition to the signs used to signify abbreviations, medieval manuscripts feature some glyphs that are now uncommon but were not sigla.\n\nMany more ligatures were used to reduce the space occupied, a characteristic that is particularly prominent in blackletter scripts.\n\nSome such as r rotunda, long s and uncial or insular variants (Insular G), Claudian letters were in common use, as well as letters derived from other scripts such as Nordic runes: thorn (þ=th) and eth (ð=dh).\n\nAn illuminated manuscript would feature miniatures, decorated initials or \"littera notabilior\", which later resulted in the bicamerality of the script (case distinction).\n", "BULLET::::- Italian uncial has round letters (, , etc.) with flatter tops, and with a sharp bow (as in African uncial), an almost horizontal rather than vertical stem in , and forked finials (i.e., serifs in some letters such as , , and ).\n", "A letter can have multiple variants, or allographs, related to variation in style of handwriting or printing. Some writing systems have two major types of allographs for each letter: an \"uppercase\" form (also called \"capital\" or \"majuscule\") and a \"lowercase\" form (also called \"minuscule\"). Upper- and lowercase letters represent the same sound, but serve different functions in writing. Capital letters are most often used at the beginning of a sentence, as the first letter of a proper name or title, or in headers or inscriptions. They may also serve other functions, such as in the German language where all nouns begin with capital letters. \n", "A few Tironian symbols are still used today, particularly the Tironian “”, used in Ireland and Scotland to mean \"and\" (where it is called ' in Irish and ' in Scottish Gaelic), and in the “z” of “viz.” (for ‘et’ in \"\"—though here the \"z\" is really a Latin abbreviation sign, encoded as a casing pair U+A76A Ꝫ and U+A76B ꝫ).\n\nIn blackletter texts (especially in German printing) it was used in the abbreviation = \"etc.\" (for \"et cetera\") still throughout the 19th century.\n\nThe Tironian \"\" can look very similar to an \"r rotunda\", , depending on the typeface.\n", "Underscore predates the existence of lower-case letters in many systems, so often it had to be used to make multi-word identifiers, as CamelCase (see below) was not available.\n\nSection::::Usage in computing.:Programming conventions.\n\nUnderscores inserted between letters are very common to make a \"multi word\" identifier in languages that cannot handle spaces in identifiers. This convention is known as \"snake case\" (the other popular method is called camelCase, where capital letters are used to show where the words start).\n", "There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have parts higher (ascenders) or lower (descenders) than the typical size. Normally, \"b, d, f, h, k, l, t \" are the letters with ascenders, and \"g, j, p, q, y\" are the ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by some traditional or classical fonts, \"6\" and \"8\" make up the ascender set, and \"3, 4, 5, 7\" and \"9\" the descender set.\n\nSection::::Bicameral script.\n", "Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule letters, spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds. When written quickly with a pen, these tended to turn into rounder and much simpler forms. It is from these that the first minuscule hands developed, the half-uncials and cursive minuscule, which no longer stayed bound between a pair of lines. These in turn formed the foundations for the Carolingian minuscule script, developed by Alcuin for use in the court of Charlemagne, which quickly spread across Europe. The advantage of the minuscule over majuscule was improved, faster readability.\n", "Similar developments have taken place in other alphabets. The lower-case script for the Greek alphabet has its origins in the 7th century and acquired its quadrilinear form (that is, characterized by ascenders and descenders) in the 8th century. Over time, uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script. The earliest dated Greek lower-case text is the Uspenski Gospels (MS 461) in the year 835. The modern practice of capitalising the first letter of every sentence seems to be imported (and is rarely used when printing Ancient Greek materials even today).\n\nSection::::History.:Type cases.\n", "BULLET::::- In Polish, specifically Polish letters derived from the Latin alphabet are collated after their originals: A, Ą, B, C, Ć, D, E, Ę, ..., L, Ł, M, N, Ń, O, Ó, P, ..., S, Ś, T, ..., Z, Ź, Ż. The digraphs for collation purposes are treated as if they were two separate letters.\n", "Regardless of who invented the case, in order to make typesetting more efficient, the inventor arranged the compartments according to the frequency of use of the letters. The more frequently used letters (\"t\", \"n\", \"e\", \"i\", \"o\", \"r\") are arranged in a rough circle directly in front of the typesetter; the less frequently used letters and characters are farther away. The arrangement of the letters in the California job case became so common that a skilled typesetter could \"read\" the text set by another typesetter, just by watching the typesetter remove type from the case, seeing from which compartments the letters were taken.\n", "BULLET::::- Insular uncial (not to be confused with the separate Insular script) generally has definite word separation, and accent marks over stressed syllables, probably because Irish scribes did not speak a language descended from Latin. They also use specifically Insular scribal abbreviations not found in other uncial forms, use wedge-shaped finials, connect a slightly subscript \"pendant \" with or (when at the end of a word), and decorate the script with animals and dots (\"Insular dotting\", often in groups of three).\n", "The letters to be drawn, though freehanded, should be stable and graceful. In some cases stability is impossible; for example, \"P\" and \"F\" are unavoidably top-heavy. In other cases the stability and grace of the letters may be maintained either by drawing the lower parts of the letters like \"B\",\"E\" etc. wider than the upper parts, or by drawing the horizontal line at the center of these letters just above their geometric axis. (Exception: In case of the letter \"A\", the horizontal member is drawn below the geometric center, to maintain \"equality of areas below and above the center line\". If a horizontal line is drawn exactly at the center, then the difference in the areas of the triangle above the line and the trapezium below the line is much larger. This creates an unusual effect to our eyes.)\n", "Insular script was spread to England by the Hiberno-Scottish mission; previously, uncial script had been brought to England by Augustine of Canterbury. The influences of both scripts produced the Insular script system.\n\nWithin this system, the palaeographer Julian Brown identified five grades, with decreasing formality:\n\nBULLET::::- Insular half-uncial, or \"Irish majuscule\": the most formal; became reserved for rubrics (highlighted directions) and other displays after the 9th century.\n\nBULLET::::- Insular hybrid minuscule: the most formal of the minuscules, came to be used for formal church books when use of the \"Irish majuscule\" diminished.\n\nBULLET::::- Insular set minuscule\n\nBULLET::::- Insular cursive minuscule\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "When meat cooks, the proteins on the surface of the meat denature because of the heat. This means that many of the secondary bonds that give the proteins their shape are broken. The protein molecules want to reform those interactions to return to their most thermodynamically stable state. Two opportune locations for the surface proteins to bind are the oil and the surface of the pan. Meat sticking to the bottom of the pan is caused by the interactions between proteins on the surface of the meat binding with the molecules on the surface of the pan. The denatured protein can also bind with the oil in the pan. This is not desirable for many health and flavor reasons. Since the proteins, the oil molecules, and in some cases the surface of the pan, all have a significant polarity, the force of their interactions can be high.\n", "The force of the interactions between the protein and oil or pan surface is modeled by the Coulomb force equation:\n", "In pan frying, the water that exits the meat forms a barrier between the meat and the oil or the surface of the pan. This barrier is critical for the success of pan frying meat. \n", "Section::::Importance of cooking temperature on interfaces.\n", "The interactions between food and pan are very dependent on the material that the pan is made of. Whether or not the pan is hydrophilic or hydrophobic, the heat conductivity and capacity, surface roughness, and more all determine how the food is cooked.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.:Stainless steel.\n", "Ceramic cookware (as in pans, not baking dishes) is not made of a solid ceramic, but rather is a metal pan, typically aluminum, with a nano-particle ceramic coating. This makes the surface rough on a small-scale and causes solutions to bead up more and not stick to the surface.\n\nThe downside is that the increased surface area means less surface contact with the food that is to be cooked and therefore has less heat transfer. Unfortunately, since the surface is fine, it can be scratched off over time, and the benefit from having it in the first place is lost.\n", "Section::::Importance of cooking temperature on interfaces.:Smoke points of oils.\n", "With other types of pans, some oil or fat is required to prevent hot food from sticking to the pan's surface. Food does not have the same tendency to stick to a non-stick surface; pans can be used with less, or no, oil, and are easier to clean, as residues do not stick to the surface.\n", "Toughness in meat is derived from several proteins, such as actin, myosin and collagen, that combined form the structure of the muscle tissue. Heating these proteins causes them to denature, or break down into other substances, which in turn changes the structure and texture of meat, usually reducing its toughness and making it more tender. This typically takes place between over an extended period of time.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Flavour.\n", "For the other methods of frame construction, the inside profile is created either by mitred sticking or by an applied moulding.\n\nIn mitred sticking, the profile (known as the sticking) is applied to the edges of both the rail and stile and then a section of the sticking at the ends of each stile is removed leaving a mitred edge which aligns to a similar mitre cut on the ends of the sticking on each rail. This traditional method is more time consuming to complete, hence the popularity of cope and stick for manufactured items.\n", "Surface gratings, consisting on ordered surface features due exposure of ordered muscle cells on cuts of meat. The structural coloration on meat cuts appears only after the ordered pattern of muscle fibrils is exposed and light is diffracted by the proteins in the fibrils. The coloration or wavelength of the diffracted light depends on the angle of observation and can be enhanced by covering the meat with translucent foils. Roughening the surface or removing water content by drying causes the structure to collapse, thus, the structural coloration to disappear.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Variable structures.\n", "Hide glue also functions as its own clamp. Once the glue begins to gel, it pulls the joint together. Violin makers may glue the center seams of top and back plates together using a \"rubbed joint\" rather than using clamps. This technique involves coating half of the joint with hot hide glue, and then rubbing the other half against the joint until the hide glue starts to gel, at which point the glue becomes tacky. At this point the plate is set aside without clamps, and the hide glue pulls the joint together as it hardens.\n", "The other effect that the seasoning oil has is to make the surface of a cast iron pan hydrophobic. This makes the pan non-stick during cooking, since the food will combine with the oil and not the pan. It also makes the pan easier to clean, but eventually the polymerized oil layer which seasons it comes off and it needs to be re-seasoned.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.:Ceramic.\n", "The surface is hydrophobic, and oils or fats for cooking will spread evenly. The seasoned surface will deteriorate at the temperature where the polymers break down. This is not the same as the smoke point of the original oils and fats used to season the pan because those oils and fats are transformed into the plasticized surface. (This is analogous to how the smoke point for crude oil and plastic are different).\n\nSection::::Care.\n", "The common trend in all examples of protein adsorption in the food industry is that of adsorption to minerals adsorbed to the surface first. This phenomenon has been studied but it is not well understood. Spectroscopy of proteins adsorbed onto clay-like minerals show variations in the C=O and N-H bond stretches, meaning that these bonds are involved in the protein binding.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms for protein adsorption.:Coulombic.\n", "In terms of surface interactions, chromium oxide is polar. The oxygen atoms on the surface have a permanent dipole moment, and are therefore hydrophilic. This means that water will wet it, but oils or other lipids will not.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.:Cast iron.\n", "BULLET::::1. Application: To apply minute quantities of an ingredient, spraying is used to disperse it first, instead of just pouring it. This hastens the dispersion on the whole surface of the product. For larger ratios of coating to substrate, mixing or dipping can be used. Multiple stages also can be used; breaded meats, for example, may have a dry application (predust) followed by a wet batter dip and then another dry crumb application.\n\nBULLET::::2. Adhesion: the coating must adhere to the product, meaning there must be a degree of affinity between the ingredient and the product.\n", "HCA formation during cooking depends on the type of meat, cooking temperature, the degree of browning and the cooking time. Meats that are lower in fat and water content show higher concentrations of HCAs after cooking. More HCAs are formed when pan surface temperatures are higher than 220C (428F) such as with most frying or grilling. However, HCAs also form at lower temperatures when the cooking time is long, as in roasting. HCA concentrations are higher in browned or burned crusts that result from high temperature. The pan drippings and meat bits that remain after meat is fried have high concentrations of HCAs. Beef, chicken and fish have higher concentrations than pork. Sausages are high in fat and water and show lower concentrations.\n", "Pan frying is an oil based cooking technique which is typically used to sear larger cuts of meat or to fully cook thinner cuts. This technique uses a thin layer of heated oil to coat the pan. The oil layer is the method of heat transfer between the burner and the food.\n", "When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.\n", "As the pH drops, proteins in the myofibers are denatured, leading to abnormal cell structure. The result is a pale tissue color, and a soft, almost mushy texture. The sarcomeres collapse excessively, and less water is held within the cell membrane and proteins. Subsequently, the myofibers will continue to lose water content as the meat is cooled and stored, leading to excessive drip loss.\n", "Section::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Water-based cooking techniques.\n", "Water vapor is a critical component of how pan frying works. Raw meat products contain up to 73% water. The meat is cooked by the evaporation of this water. When the water is vaporized it leaves the meat through pores in the surface of the meat. Another source of water vapor is the Maillard Reaction. This reaction is responsible for why meat, and many other food products, turn brown when cooked. This reaction only occurs at high temperatures. Water vapor is a byproduct of the Maillard reaction.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe adhering effect of smooth and polished solid surfaces is first mentioned by Desaguliers (1734). His discovery was based on the friction between two surfaces of solids. The better the surfaces are polished the lower the friction is between those solids. This statement he described is only valid until a specific point. From this point on the friction starts to rise and the surfaces of the solids start to adhere together.\n\nFirst reports of successful silicon direct bonding were published 1986 among others by J. B. Lasky.\n\nSection::::Conventional direct bonding.\n", "At the microscopic level, diffusion bonding occurs in three simplified stages:\n\nBULLET::::- Before the surfaces completely contact, asperities (very small surface defects) on the two surfaces contact and plastically deform. As these asperities deform, they interlink, forming interfaces between the two surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated temperature and pressure causes accelerated creep in the materials; grain boundaries and raw material migrate and gaps between the two surfaces are reduced to isolated pores.\n\nBULLET::::- Material begins to diffuse across the boundary of the abutting surfaces, blending this material boundary and creating a bond.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Fixed resistor.:Lead arrangements.\n\nThrough-hole components typically have \"leads\" (pronounced ) leaving the body \"axially,\" that is, on a line parallel with the part's longest axis. Others have leads coming off their body \"radially\" instead. Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology), while high power resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.\n\nSection::::Fixed resistor.:Carbon composition.\n", "In the \"Practical Dictionary of Mechanics\" of 1877, Edward Knight gives this definition: \"Tinker's-dam: a wall of dough raised around a place which a plumber desires to flood with a coat of solder. The material can be but once used; being consequently thrown away as worthless\".\n\nSection::::Tinker's curse.\n", "Holes in metal or another hard material will often have sharp edges. Electrical wires, cord, rope, lacings, or other soft vulnerable material passing through the hole can become abraded or cut, or electrical insulation may break due to repeated flexing at the exit point of the casing of a junction box for example. Rubber, plastic or plastic coated metal grommets are used to avoid this. Tight fitting rubber grommets can also prevent the entry of dirt, air, water, etc. The smooth and sometimes soft inner surface of the grommet shields the wire from damage.\n", "Isolation can be further improved by placing a metal wall on top of the via fence. These walls commonly form part of the device enclosure. The large holes in the via fences seen in figures 1 and 5 are screw holes for clamping these walls in place. The wall casting belonging to this circuit is shown in figure 3.\n", "In many fields, however, pinholes are a harmful and unwanted side-effect of manufacturing processes. For example, in the assembly of microcircuits, pinholes in the dielectric insulator layer coating the circuit can cause the circuit to fail. Therefore, \"[t]o avoid pinholes that might protrude through the entire thickness of the dielectric layer, it is a common practice to screen several layers of dielectric with drying and firing after each screening\", thereby preventing the pinholes from becoming continuous.\n\nSection::::Philosophy and psychology of holes.\n", "In engineering, machining, and tooling, a hole may be a blind hole or a through hole (also called a thru-hole or clearance hole). A blind hole is a hole that is reamed, drilled, or milled to a specified depth without breaking through to the other side of the workpiece. A through hole is a hole that is made to go completely through the material of an object. In other words, a through hole is a hole that goes all the way through something. Taps used for through holes are generally tapered since it will tap faster and the chips will be released when the tap exits the hole.\n", "Small spark gaps are very common in telephone switchboards, as the long phone cables are very susceptible to induced surges from lightning strikes. Larger spark gaps are used to protect power lines.\n\nSpark gaps are commonly implemented on Printed Circuit Boards in mains power electronics products using two closely spaced exposed PCB traces. This is an effectively zero cost method of adding crude overload protection to electronics products.\n\nTransils and trisils are the solid-state alternatives to spark gaps for lower-power applications. Neon bulbs are also used for this purpose.\n\nSection::::Applications.:High speed photography.\n", "Burr (edge)\n\nA burr is a raised edge or small piece of material remaining attached to a workpiece after a modification process.\n", "A cased hole gamma perforator is used to perform mechanical services, such as shooting perforations, setting downhole tubing/casing elements, dumping remedial cement, tracer surveys, etc. Typically, a gamma perforator will have some sort of explosively initiated device attached to it, such as a perforating gun, a setting tool, or a dump bailor. In certain instances, the gamma perforator is used to merely spot objects in the well, as in tubing conveyed perforating operations and tracer surveys.\n", "At the outside of the package, wire leads may be soldered to a printed circuit board or used to secure the device to a tag strip. Modern surface mount devices eliminate most of the drilled holes through circuit boards, and have short metal leads or pads on the package that can be secured by oven-reflow soldering. Aerospace devices in flat packs may use flat metal leads secured to a circuit board by spot welding, though this type of construction is now uncommon.\n\nSection::::Sockets.\n", "Section::::Geometric considerations.:Hole depth to diameter ratio.\n\nCore pins are used to produce holes in plastic parts. Through holes are easier to produce than blind holes which don't go through the entire part. Blind holes are created by pins that are supported at only one end; hence such pins should not be long. Longer pins will deflect more and be pushed by the pressure of the molten plastic material during molding. It is recommended that hole depth-to-diameter ratio should not be more than 2.\n\nSection::::Feature Based Rules.\n\nSection::::Feature Based Rules.:Ribs.\n", "The distributor cap is a prime example of a component that eventually succumbs to heat and vibration. It is a relatively easy and inexpensive part to replace if its bakelite housing does not break or crack first. Carbon deposit accumulation or erosion of its metal terminals may also cause distributor-cap failure.\n", "When a screw is driven into a material without a pilot hole, it can act as a wedge, generating outward pressure which can cause many materials to split. By drilling a small pilot hole into the material, into which a screw is then driven, less wedging takes place, thereby reducing the likelihood of the material being split. \n", "One use of through holes in electronics is with through-hole technology, a mounting scheme involving the use of leads on the components that are inserted into holes drilled in printed circuit boards (PCB) and soldered to pads on the opposite side either by manual assembly (hand placement) or by the use of automated insertion mount machines.\n\nSection::::Types of hole.:Engineering senses.:Pinholes.\n", "Many plug and socket connectors are attached to a wire or cable by soldering conductors to electrodes on the back of the connector. Soldered joints in connectors are robust and reliable if executed correctly, but are usually slower to make than crimped connections. When wires are to be soldered to the back of a connector, a backshell is often used to protect the connection and add strain relief. Metal \"solder buckets\" or \"solder cups\" are provided, which consist of a cylindrical cavity which an installer fills with solder before inserting the wire.\n", "The lead frame (and therefore the pins, if any, formed from that lead frame) are occasionally made from Invar or similar alloys, due to their low coefficient of thermal expansion.\n\nSection::::Electrical effects.\n", "Unibits are ideal for use in electrical work where thin steel, aluminum or plastic boxes and chassis are encountered. The short length of the unibit and ability to vary the diameter of the finished hole is an advantage in chassis or front panel work. The finished hole can often be made quite smooth and burr-free, especially in plastic.\n", "The small hole near the end of the power (non-ground) blades of some NEMA plugs is used for convenience in manufacturing; if present, it must be of specified diameter and position. Small specialized padlocks are available to fit these holes, allowing \"lockout\" of hazardous equipment, by physically preventing insertion of locked plugs into a power receptacle.\n", "It is usually an unwanted piece of material and is removed with a deburring tool in a process called 'deburring'. Burrs are most commonly created by machining operations, such as grinding, drilling, milling, engraving or turning. It may be present in the form of a fine wire on the edge of a freshly sharpened tool or as a raised portion of a surface; this type of burr is commonly formed when a hammer strikes a surface. Deburring accounts for a significant portion of manufacturing costs.\n", "When high voltage is applied to the gap, a spark forms across the bottom of the wires where they are nearest each other, rapidly changing to an electric arc. Air breaks down at about 30 kV/cm, depending on humidity, temperature, etc. Apart from the anode and cathode voltage drops, the arc behaves almost as a short circuit, drawing as much current as the electrical power supply can deliver, and the heavy load dramatically reduces the voltage across the gap.\n", "Section::::Mechanical features.:Locking mechanisms.\n\nSome connector housings are designed with locking mechanisms to prevent inadvertent disconnection or poor environmental sealing. Locking mechanism designs include locking levers of various sorts, screw locking, and toggle or bayonet systems. Depending on application requirements, housings with locking mechanisms may be tested under various environmental simulations that include physical shock and vibration, water spray, dust, etc. to ensure the integrity of the electrical connection and housing seals.\n\nSection::::Mechanical features.:Backshells.\n", "Available for processors and ball grid array (BGA) components, clips allow the attachment of a BGA heat sink directly to the component. The clips make use of the gap created by the ball grid array (BGA) between the component underside and PCB top surface. The clips therefore require no holes in the PCB. They also allow for easy rework of components.\n\nBULLET::::- Push pins with compression springs\n", "A bushing must be designed to withstand the electrical field strength produced in the insulation, when any earthed material is present. As the strength of the electrical field increases, leakage paths may develop within the insulation. If the energy of the leakage path overcomes the dielectric strength of the insulation, it may puncture the insulation and allow the electrical energy to conduct to the nearest earthed material causing burning and arcing.\n\nA typical bushing design has a 'conductor', (usually of copper or aluminium, occasionally of other conductive materials), surrounded by insulation, except for the terminal ends.\n", "Section::::Health hazards.\n", "The purpose of the plugs is to fill the holes that were made during the casting process, so the foundry could remove the core sand from the coolant passages. Saving the block from cracking in case of a freeze was never the manufacturer's intent for these plugs.\n\nSection::::Welch plug.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Depths of up to have been reported. A landscape covered in accumulated hail generally resembles one covered in accumulated snow and any significant accumulation of hail has the same restrictive effects as snow accumulation, albeit over a smaller area, on transport and infrastructure. Accumulated hail can also cause flooding by blocking drains, and hail can be carried in the floodwater, turning into a snow-like slush which is deposited at lower elevations.\n", "In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as \"Hail Alley\". Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season. To the north of this area and also just downwind of the Rocky Mountains is the Hailstorm Alley region of Alberta, which also experiences an increased incidence of significant hail events.\n\nSection::::Climatology.:Short-term detection.\n", "Hail\n\nHail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets (American English \"sleet\"), though the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Ice pellets fall generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Hail.\n", "Snowstorm intensity may be categorized by visibility and depth of accumulation. Snowfall's intensity is determined by visibility, as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Light\": visibility greater than\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moderate\": visibility restrictions between\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heavy\": visibility is less than\n", "Snow clouds usually occur in the context of larger weather systems, the most important of which is the low pressure area, which typically incorporate warm and cold fronts as part of their circulation. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect (also sea-effect) storms and elevation effects, especially in mountains.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.:Cloud formation.:Low pressure areas.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nHail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing . These types of strong updrafts can also indicate the presence of a tornado. The growth rate of hailstones is impacted by factors such as higher elevation, lower freezing zones, and wind shear.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Layer nature of the hailstones.\n", "Section::::Extraterrestrial snow.\n\nExtraterrestrial \"snow\" includes water-based precipitation, but also precipitation of other compounds prevalent on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- On Mars, observations of the \"Phoenix\" Mars lander reveal that water-based snow crystals occur at high latitudes. Additionally, carbon dioxide precipitates from clouds during the Martian winters at the poles and contributes to a seasonal deposit of that compound, which is the principal component of that planet's ice caps.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Winter storm\" — Winter storms may constitute any combination of sleet, snow, ice, and wind that accumulates or more of snow in 12 hours or less; or or more in 24 hours or of ice.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.:Precipitation.\n\nPrecipitation may be characterized by type and intensity.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.:Precipitation.:Type.\n", "Snow is produced at upper levels in such a winter storm system, but it eventually melts into rain as it falls through a warm air layer of above freezing temperature (of at least in depth) associated with the overrunning. The rain passes through colder air near the surface and is supercooled. When that rain touches the ground or any other cold surface in the cold air below, the droplets freeze on contact, creating accumulations of ice. If the cold air layer is too thick, the droplets refreeze before hitting the ground and form ice pellets, which are usually less hazardous.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n\nThe \"International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground\" has a more extensive classification of deposited snow than those that pertain to airborne snow. A list of the main categories (quoted together with their codes) comprises:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Precipitation particles (PP)\" (See below)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Machine-made snow (MM)\" – May be round polycrystalline particles from freezing of very small water droplets from the surface inward or crushed ice particles from crushing and forced distribution\n", "BULLET::::- Névé — Névé is a young, granular type of snow which has been partially melted, refrozen and compacted, yet precedes the form of ice. This type of snow is associated with glacier formation through the process of nivation. Névé that survives a full season of ablation turns into firn, which is both older and slightly denser.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penitentes\" — Penitentes are snow formations, found at high elevations, which form of elongated, thin blades of hardened snow or ice up to 5 meters in height, closely spaced and pointing towards the general direction of the sun. They are evolved suncups.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Extratropical cyclone\" — A winter extratropical cyclone (also \"nor-easter\") may cause snow, especially in its northwest quadrant (in the Northern Hemisphere) where the wind comes from the northeast.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lake-effect snow —\" Lake-effect or ocean-effect snow occurs when relatively cold air flows over warm lake (or ocean) water to cause localized, convective snow bands.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mountain snow\" — Orographic lift causes moist air to rise upslope on mountains to where freezing temperatures cause orographic snow.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Snow flurry —\" Snow flurries are an intermittent, light snowfall events of short duration with only a trace level of accumulation.\n", "BULLET::::- Late January 1977: Pensacola receives snowfall.\n\nBULLET::::- March 2, 1980: About of snow covers car tops and patio furniture in Jacksonville.\n\nBULLET::::- March 1, 1986: of snow accumulates overnight in Jacksonville before melting within 30 minutes due to the morning sun.\n", "Snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. In high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason.\n", "In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as \"Hail Alley\". Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season. In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia.\n", "Snow interacts with vegetation in two principal ways, vegetation can influence the deposition and retention of snow and, conversely, the presence of snow can affect the distribution and growth of vegetation. Tree branches, especially of conifers intercept falling snow and prevent accumulation on the ground. Snow suspended in trees ablates more rapidly than that on the ground, owing to its greater exposure to sun and air movement. Trees and other plants can also promote snow retention on the ground, which would otherwise be blown elsewhere or melted by the sun. Snow affects vegetation in several ways, the presence of stored water can promote growth, yet the annual onset of growth is dependent on the departure of the snowpack for those plants that are buried beneath it. Furthermore, avalanches and erosion from snowmelt can scour terrain of vegetation.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ice pellet\" — Ice pellets have two manifestations, \"sleet\" and \"small hail\", that result in irregular spherical particles, which typically bounce upon impact. Sleet comprises grains of ice that form from refreezing of largely melted snowflakes when falling through into a frozen layer of air near the surface. Small hail forms from snow pellets encased in a thin layer of ice caused either by accretion of droplets or by refreezing of each particle's surface.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hail\" — Hail forms in cumulonimbus clouds as irregular spheres of ice (\"hailstones\") with a diameter of 5 mm or more.\n", "Section::::Hail.\n", "Weather radar is a very useful tool to detect the presence of hail-producing thunderstorms. However, radar data has to be complemented by a knowledge of current atmospheric conditions which can allow one to determine if the current atmosphere is conducive to hail development.\n", "Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of or more. Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least and GS for smaller. Stones just larger than golf ball-sized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes. Hailstones can grow to and weigh more than . In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.\n", "Section::::Accumulation.:Snow events.\n", "BULLET::::- Highest snowfall total reported was 5 inches near Bella Vista and Pea Ridge.\n\nBULLET::::- 4.5 inches of sleet was also reported at Biggers.\n\nTexas\n\nBULLET::::- Highest snowfall total reported was 2 inches at Canadian and Lipscomb.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 feet of sleet was also reported at Quitman and Van.\n\nOklahoma\n\nBULLET::::- Highest snowfall total reported was 5.5 inches near Miami.\n\nNew Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- Highest snowfall total reported was 20 inches in Taos.\n\nArizona\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum wind gust measured was 64 miles per hour, at Grand Canyon Airport.\n\nBULLET::::- Pea-sized hail was reported in Peoria.\n", "BULLET::::- December 8, 2010: Snow mixed with rain is reported in western parts of the panhandle, north of Pensacola.\n\nBULLET::::- December 26, 2010: A mix of snow and sleet was reported in Jacksonville by the National Weather Service.\n\nBULLET::::- December 28, 2010: Light snow was reported at Tampa Executive Airport in eastern Hillsborough County at 01:00 and 05:00 local time, following a rare freezing fog event around midnight.\n\nBULLET::::- January 9, 2011: Sleet is reported in the Pensacola area, as well as other places in Escambia and Santa Rosa counties. There was no accumulation.\n", "By October 9, however, forecasters became concerned, given the high snow fall rates typical of snow squalls, accumulations would be possible even with temperatures above the freezing mark.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Humans are the only known reservoirs of \"M. tuberculosis\". A misconception is that \"M. tuberculosis\" can be spread by shaking hands, making contact with toilet seats, sharing food or drink, sharing toothbrushes, or kissing. It can only be spread through air droplets originating from a person who has the disease either coughing, sneezing, speaking, or singing.\n", "Diphtheria is usually spread between people by direct contact or through the air. It may also be spread by contaminated objects. Some people carry the bacterium without having symptoms, but can still spread the disease to others. The three main types of \"C. diphtheriae\" cause different severities of disease. The symptoms are due to a toxin produced by the bacterium. Diagnosis can often be made based on the appearance of the throat with confirmation by microbiological culture. Previous infection may not protect against future infection.\n", "One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.\n", "The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as measles employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the body's own immune response, and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by immunological resistance or host death. In contrast, some infectious agents such as the Feline leukemia virus, are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.\n", "The specific diagnosis of EVD is confirmed by isolating the virus, detecting its RNA or proteins, or detecting antibodies against the virus in a person's blood. Isolating the virus by cell culture, detecting the viral RNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and detecting proteins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are methods best used in the early stages of the disease and also for detecting the virus in human remains. Detecting antibodies against the virus is most reliable in the later stages of the disease and in those who recover. IgM antibodies are detectable two days after symptom onset and IgG antibodies can be detected six to 18 days after symptom onset. During an outbreak, isolation of the virus with cell culture methods is often not feasible. In field or mobile hospitals, the most common and sensitive diagnostic methods are real-time PCR and ELISA. In 2014, with new mobile testing facilities deployed in parts of Liberia, test results were obtained 3–5 hours after sample submission. In 2015 a rapid antigen test which gives results in 15 minutes was approved for use by WHO. It is able to confirm Ebola in 92% of those affected and rule it out in 85% of those not affected.\n", "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected with a virus are known as carriers. They serve as important reservoirs of the virus. If there is a high proportion of carriers in a given population, a disease is said to be endemic.\n", "Section::::Classification.:Contagiousness.\n", "Infection with \"Corynebacterium striatum\" was initially thought to occur through self-infection, transmitting the bacteria from a site where it persists as commensal and then allowing it to colonise in a situation as a pathogen. It is now understood that it can be transmitted person to person, particularly in a hospital setting.\n", "Diseases which can be transmitted from one organism to another are known as infectious diseases, and the causative biological agent involved is known as a pathogen. The process by which the pathogen is introduced into the body is known as inoculation, and the organism it affects is known as a biological host. When the pathogen establishes itself in a step known as colonization, it can result in an infection, consequently harming the host directly or through the harmful substances called toxins it can produce. This results in the various symptoms and signs characteristic of an infectious disease like pneumonia or diphtheria.\n", "Any living organism can contract a virus by giving parasites the opportunity to grow. Parasites feed on the nutrients of another organism which allows the virus to thrive. Once the human body detects a virus, it then creates fighter cells that attack the parasite/virus; literally, causing a war within the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately. Symptoms of this virus are very similar to the common cold but much worse. Body aches, sore throat, headache, cold sweats, muscle aches and fatigue are among the many symptoms accompanied by the virus. A viral infection in the upper respiratory tract results in the common cold. With symptoms like sore throat, sneezing, small fever, and a cough, the common cold is usually harmless and tends to clear up within a week or so. The common cold is also a virus that is spread through the air but can also be passed through direct contact. This infection takes a few days to develop symptoms; it is a gradual process unlike the flu.\n", "Most infections with CMV are not diagnosed because the virus usually produces few, if any, symptoms and tends to reactivate intermittently without symptoms. However, persons who have been infected with CMV develop antibodies to the virus, and these antibodies persist in the body for the lifetime of that individual. A number of laboratory tests that detect these antibodies to CMV have been developed to determine if infection has occurred and are widely available from commercial laboratories. In addition, the virus can be cultured from specimens obtained from urine, throat swabs, bronchial lavages and tissue samples to detect active infection. Both qualitative and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing for CMV are available as well, allowing physicians to monitor the viral load of people infected with CMV.\n", "It is not clear why some cats become clinically affected with \"C. felis\" while others never show any signs. There are speculations about resistance in some cats, and speculations about different strains of \"C. felis\" with differing virulence. There is not enough information to prove any of these theories, but cats in the same household or same regions can have drastically different clinical presentations. Some studies even show multi-cat households have had one cat die and another be persistently infected. When cats survive infection they have persistent parasitemia which shows up in the blood as piroplasms, but these cats do not have the tissue phase again and therefore do not again show the clinical illness.\n", "The virus is highly contagious and is spread by coughing and sneezing via close personal contact or direct contact with secretions. It can live for up to two hours in that airspace or nearby surfaces. Measles is so contagious that if one person has it, 90% of nearby non-immune people will also become infected. Humans are the only natural hosts of the virus, and no other animal reservoirs are known to exist.\n", "Direct transmission can occur from direct contact or direct droplet spread. Direct contact transmission between two people can happen through skin contact, kissing, and sexual contact. Humans serving as disease reservoirs can be symptomatic (showing illness) or asymptomatic (not showing illness), act as disease carriers, and often spread illness unknowingly. Human carriers commonly transmit disease because they do not realize they are infected, and consequently take no special precautions to prevent transmission. Symptomatic persons who are aware of their illness are not as likely to transmit infection because they take precautions to reduce possible transmission of the disease and/or seek out treatment to prevent the spread of the disease. Direct droplet spread is due to solid particles or liquid droplet suspended in air for some time. Droplet spread is considered the transmission of the pathogen to susceptible host within a meter of distance, they can spread from coughing, sneezing, and talking.\n", "Section::::Routes.:Airborne.\n\n\"Airborne transmission refers to infectious agents that are spread via droplet nuclei (residue from evaporated droplets) containing infective microorganisms. These organisms can survive outside the body and remain suspended in the air for long periods of time. They infect others via the upper and lower respiratory tracts.\" Diseases that are commonly spread by coughing or sneezing include bacterial meningitis, chickenpox, common cold, influenza, mumps, strep throat, tuberculosis, measles, rubella, whooping cough, SARS and leprosy. \n", "Measles is an airborne disease which spreads easily through the coughs and sneezes of infected people. It may also be spread through direct contact with mouth or nasal secretions. Nine out of ten people who are not immune and share living space with an infected person will be infected. People are infectious to others from four days before to four days after the start of the rash. Most people do not get the disease more than once. Testing for the measles virus in suspected cases is important for public health efforts.\n", "Three of the four types of influenza viruses affect humans: Type A, Type B, and Type C. Type D has not been known to infect humans, but is believed to have the potential to do so. Usually, the virus is spread through the air from coughs or sneezes. This is believed to occur mostly over relatively short distances. It can also be spread by touching surfaces contaminated by the virus and then touching the mouth or eyes. A person may be infectious to others both before and during the time they are showing symptoms. The infection may be confirmed by testing the throat, sputum, or nose for the virus. A number of rapid tests are available; however, people may still have the infection even if the results are negative. A type of polymerase chain reaction that detects the virus's RNA is more accurate.\n", "Due to its asymptomatic nature, hosts easily become infected with \"T. gondii\" and develop toxoplasmosis without knowing it. Although mild, flu-like symptoms occasionally occur during the first few weeks following exposure, infection with \"T. gondii\" produces no readily observable symptoms in healthy human adults. In most immunocompetent people, the infection enters a latent phase, during which only bradyzoites (in tissue cysts) are present; these tissue cysts and even lesions can occur in the retinas, alveolar lining of the lungs (where an acute infection may mimic a \"Pneumocystis jirovecii\" infection), heart, skeletal muscle, and the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain. Cysts form in the CNS (brain tissue) upon infection with \"T. gondii\" and persist for the lifetime of the host. Most infants who are infected while in the womb have no symptoms at birth, but may develop symptoms later in life.\n", "BULLET::::- Droplet contact, also known as the \"respiratory route\", and the resultant infection can be termed airborne disease. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces.\n", "Pathogens must have a way to be transmitted from one host to another to ensure their species' survival. Infectious agents are generally specialized for a particular method of transmission. Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary perspective viruses or bacteria that cause their host to develop coughing and sneezing symptoms have a great survival advantage, as they are much more likely to be ejected from one host and carried to another. This is also the reason that many microorganisms cause diarrhea.\n", "Contagiousness via textiles, unlike enterobius vermicularis, is unfounded. As is, generally speaking, person to person contagiousness of asymptomatic and disseminated infection. It has rarely been transmitted through organ transplantation. Married Vietnam War veterans who were infected, yet never developed significant hyperinfection, lived for multiple decades with non-debilitating disseminated infection, without treatment, with wives who failed to ever contract infection. Contraction occurs overwhelmingly from skin exposure to any contaminated soil, contaminated potting soil, contaminated waters, lack of sanitation, or environmental factors as potential vectors. Nearly never to extraordinarily very rarely documented is transmission from person to person (besides from infected male homosexual sex), other than closeness of contact to the productive coughing of a very ill hyperinfected individual. It has been shown possible to occur in that situation, or potentially other similar scenarios, it is speculated via pulmonary secretions of a direly hyperinfected individual. In which case treatment for others may be indicated, if deemed necessary by proximity, symptoms, precautions, probable exposures to the same vectors, or through screening of serology and stool samples, until infection is eradicated.\n", "Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.\n", "Bacteria and fungi may form complex biofilms, protecting from immune cells and proteins; biofilms are present in the chronic \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Burkholderia cenocepacia\" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.\n\nSection::::Immune evasion.:Viruses.\n", "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.\n\nSection::::Role in human disease.:Epidemiology.\n", "Although unaffected by the pathogen, carriers can transmit it to others or develop symptoms in later stages of the disease. Asymptomatic carriers play a critical role in the transmission of common infectious diseases such as typhoid, \"C. difficile\", influenzas, and HIV. While the mechanism of disease-carrying is still unknown, researchers have made progress towards understanding how certain pathogens can remain dormant in a human for a period of time. A better understanding of asymptomatic disease carriers is crucial to the fields of medicine and public health as they work towards mitigating the spread of common infectious diseases.\n" ]

[ "Asymptomatic people should not be able to spread a virus or disease." ]

[ "An asymptomatic person with a disease or virus is carrying a virus that has gone undetected by the immune system, therefore it can be spread to others." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Asymptomatic people should not be able to spread a virus or disease.", "Asymptomatic people should not be able to spread a virus or disease." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "An asymptomatic person with a disease or virus is carrying a virus that has gone undetected by the immune system, therefore it can be spread to others.", "An asymptomatic person with a disease or virus is carrying a virus that has gone undetected by the immune system, therefore it can be spread to others." ]

[ "In the laboratory, mummichogs have yielded clear examples of free-running circadian rhythms, in both body colour and swimming activity. For the latter, clear rhythms were obtained in single individuals as well as in groups of 5 or 25 individuals. Evidence of free-running semi-lunar rhythms have also been obtained in mummichogs: in constant laboratory conditions, egg production peaked every 14.8 days for up to 5 months.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Reproduction.\n", "Section::::Description.:Song.\n\nIt has a variety of songs. The most well known of the calls is a pair of \"whee-o, whee-o\", being repeated over and over again. Also another well known song is a descending thrill which is done about five seconds apart. It songs include a low chuckling sound, \"tjook, tjook, chouroup\" or a rarer song, \"hur-hur-hur-gluk-gluk-gluk\". \n\nSection::::Description.:Diet.\n", "Snipe in the genera \"Gallinago\" and \"Lymnocryptes\", as well as the closely related woodcocks \"Scolopax\", make courtship display flights, at dusk and on moonlit nights, producing mechanical sounds called \"drumming\", \"bleating\" or \"winnowing\", through the vibration of their modified outer tail feathers caused by the rush of air in the course of a power dive. Of his research in the Chatham Islands Miskelly wrote:\n\nand:\n", "Section::::History.:2006–08: eBay.\n", "Grey Poupon in music\n\nThe mustard brand Grey Poupon has been referred to in numerous songs.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Section::::Calls.\n\nCalling consists of a short ‘pip’ repeated every 2-3 s, as well as a ‘pipipipreeeet’ single note repeated rapidly 3-6 times. Adults call during the breeding season when joining groups, flying, alarming, and attending chicks. The alarm call is a ‘qui qui qui qui’ whilst flapping wings. When the predator is clear a ‘tick tick’ sound can be heard.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "At the very beginning of dawn, the tree courting begins on a thick branch of a lookout tree. The cock postures himself with raised and fanned tail feathers, erect neck, beak pointed skywards, wings held out and drooped and starts his typical aria to impress the females. The typical song in this display is a series of double-clicks like a dropping ping-pong ball, which gradually accelerate into a popping sound like a cork coming of a champagne bottle, which is followed by scraping sounds.\n", "BULLET::::7. What's That Sound? (Night Will Sing Us All to Sleep) - When Apollo is bothered by nighttime sounds, his friends help him to hear how the noises can become a soothing lullaby. The Pajanimals sing about sounds they hear at night. Cowbella sings about a clock ticking, Squacky sings about water dripping in the bathroom, Sweetpea Sue sings about the wind blowing through the leaves, and Apollo gazes out at the moon singing about the sounds all around them.\n", "The song is sung in the 1932 Betty Boop short entitled \"Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning\".\n\nSection::::Performances.:\"Yip Yip Yaphank\".\n", "Cock a doodle doo\n\n\"Cock a doodle doo\" is a popular English language nursery rhyme. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 17770.\n\nSection::::Lyrics.\n\nThe most common modern version is:\n\npoemCock a doodle do!\n\nMy dame has lost her shoe,\n\nMy master's lost his fiddlestick, \n\nAnd knows not what to do./poem\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "The rooster is often portrayed as crowing at the break of dawn (\"cock-a-doodle-doo\"). However, while many roosters crow shortly after waking up, this idea is not exactly true. A rooster can and will crow at any time of the day. Some roosters are especially vociferous, crowing almost constantly, while others only crow a few times a day. These differences are dependent both upon the rooster's breed and individual personality. A rooster can often be seen sitting on fence posts or other objects, where he crows to proclaim his territory.\n", "The call is a husky \"tsik-a-dee-dee\", a variant on the call which gives chickadees their name.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Firewater\" by Baby Blak (2003): \"You Burger King, I'm filet mignon / So where the beef? / You mayo (Hah) / I'm Grey Poupon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"That's Wusup\" by Mac Dre (2004): \"No shrimp, Dre eat prawns / And do you have any Grey Poupon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nevehoe\" by Anybody Killa (2004): \"See, I'm being tryin' to speak on / While you sit back and see me as a jar of Grey Poupon\"\n", "The first two lines were used in a murder pamphlet in England, 1606, which seems to suggest that children sang those lines, or very similar ones, to mock the cockerel's (rooster in US) \"crow\". The first full version recorded was in \"Mother Goose's Melody\", published in London around 1765. By the mid-nineteenth century, when it was collected by James Orchard Halliwell, it was very popular and three additional verses, perhaps more recent in origin, had been added:\n\npoemCock a doodle do!\n\nWhat is my dame to do?\n\nTill master's found his fiddlingstick,\n\nShe'll dance without her shoe.\n", "BULLET::::- The organizers of the \"Morning\" of radio operator Le Mouv' have creates a parody of the song, \"Fous ta capote\", at the time of Sidaction 2007.\n\nBULLET::::- At the beginning of 2007, Romano, organizer of radio operator Skyrock which animates at the sides of Difool the \"Radio Libre\" the evening and \"Morning\" of the morning, carried out a parody of \"Fous ta cagoule\" entitled \"Fous ta perruque\" in featuring with a listener who had composed the words of this one.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Sometimes he’d be out all day crowing and listening all over the country, and then come home dead tired, and rest and cool off in a hole that the hens had scratched for him in a damp place under the water-cask sledge.\"\"\n", "Section::::Calls.\n\nThe alarm call, referred to as ' call, is often heard both on the ground and in the air and can occur on its own, or paired with a \"tweet\", heard as '. The threat note is described as a \"twanging, metallic, sound\".\n\nSection::::Feeding.\n", "Section::::We Are One.:Usage in \"Masters of Horror\".\n\nThe song appeared on the soundtrack of the horror series \"Masters of Horror\" and was also used in the episode \"Dance of the Dead\" of the award winning series, when main character Peggy arrives at the town of Muskeet with his friends.\n\nSection::::We Are One.:Reception.\n", "This bird has a number of calls, including a harsh \"kuk kuk kuk\", usually heard at night. It also makes grunting noises. In spring, it will make \"tick-it\" or \"kid-ick\" calls.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Diet.\n", "BULLET::::4. How Do I Know if It's Morning Time? - Squacky wants to get out of bed and play, but can't because it's not yet morning (which annoys all of the other Pajanimals).\n\nBULLET::::5. Goodnight to Mom - The Pajanimals sing fondly of their mom and dad and imagine what they might be doing at night.\n\nBULLET::::6. Sleeping Makes Me Feel Alright - The Pajanimals sing a song about how sleeping at night help gives one enough energy for the next day.\n", "The lark in the morning ariseth from her nest\n\nAnd mounts in the air with the dew on her breast,\n\nWith the pretty ploughboy she’ll whistle & sing\n\nAnd at night she’ll return to her nest again.\n\nAnd goes on to describe the ploughboy's leisure pursuits:\n\nWhen his days work is done, that he has for to do\n\nPerhaps to some country wake he will go\n\nThere with his sweetheart he will dance and sing\n\nAnd at midnight return with his lass back again.\n", "The calls and song also differ subtly to an experienced ear: the Carolina chickadee's \"chick-a-dee\" call is faster and higher pitched than that of the black-capped chickadee, and the Carolina chickadee has a four note \"fee-bee-fee-bay\" song, whereas the black-capped omits the high notes. Identification is very difficult even with an excellent view.\n\nThe most famous call is the familiar \"chick-a-dee-dee-dee\" which gave this bird its name and its song is \"fee-bee-fee-bay\".\n", "Section::::Students.:Chad.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Filling Space\" by Scarub (2001): \"But they still deny you relish / That shit is still pickles / They just gone like Grey Poupon / Acting all stingy with the mayo\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Funkin' Around\" by Outkast (2002): \"See, we ain't even seen, the mountaintop counter clock / Wise goes the neighborhood hand-me-downs and canned goods / Won't cut the Grey Poupon we got that make you run\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wonder Pets\" — In the episode \"Save the Puppy\", they sang a spoof of the song about how everyone needs to \"wee-wee, pee-pee, tinkle\" using the lyrics \"Dogs do it, frogs do it, even funny winking hogs do it...\".\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Sesame Street\" song \"Let's Lay an Egg\" is a spoof of the song, using the lyrics \"Snails do it, slugs do it. Even tiny Twiddlebugs do it!\"\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Adjectives ending \"-ish\" can be used as collective demonyms (e.g. \"the English, the Cornish\"). So can those ending in \"-ch\" / \"-tch\" (e.g. \"the French\", \"the Dutch\") provided they are pronounced with a 'ch' sound (e.g. the adjective \"Czech\" does not qualify).\n\nWhere an adjective is a link, the link is to the language or dialect of the same name. (Reference: Ethnologue, Languages of the World)\n", "Adjectives ending in \"-ish\" can be used as collective demonyms (e.g. \"the English, the Cornish\"). So can those ending in \"-ch\" / \"-tch\" (e.g. \"the French\", \"the Dutch\") provided they are pronounced with a 'ch' sound (e.g. the adjective \"Czech\" does not qualify).\n\nMany place-name adjectives and many demonyms refer also to various other things, sometimes with and sometimes without one or more additional words. (Sometimes, the use of one or more additional words is optional.) Notable examples are cuisines, cheeses, cat breeds, dog breeds, and horse breeds. (See List of words derived from toponyms.)\n", "List of adjectivals and demonyms for subcontinental regions\n\nThe following is a list of adjectival forms of subcontinental regions in English and their demonymic equivalents, which denote the people or the inhabitants of these subcontinental regions.\n\nNote: Demonyms are given in plural forms. Singular forms simply remove the final 's' or, in the case of \"-ese\" endings, are the same as the plural forms.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Friesische Inseln\" : (the) Frisian Islands\n\nBULLET::::- \"Greifswalder Bodden\" : Greifswald Bodden or Bay of Greifswald\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hameln\" : Hamelin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hannover\" : Hanover\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harz\" : (the) Harz Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haßberge\" : Haßberge Hills\n\nBULLET::::- \"Helgoland\" : Heligoland\n\nBULLET::::- \"Helgoländer Bucht\" : Heligoland Bight or Helgoland Bight\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hessen\" : Hesse or Hessia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hocheifel\": High Eifel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hochrhein\" : High Rhine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holsteinische Schweiz\" : (the) Holstein Switzerland\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hohwachter Bucht\" : Hohwacht Bay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jadebusen\" : (the) Jade Bay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kaufunger Wald\" : Kaufungen Forest\n\nBULLET::::- \"Koblenz\" : Coblenz, (\"used only in a historical context\") Coblence\n", "In cases where two or more adjectival forms are given, there is often a subtle difference in usage between the two. This is particularly the case with Central Asian countries, where one form tends to relate to the nation and the other tends to relate to the predominant ethnic group (e.g. Uzbek is primarily an ethnicity, Uzbekistani relates to citizens of Uzbekistan).\n", "In English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e.g. \"Egyptian\", \"Japanese\", or \"Greek\". Significant exceptions exist; for instance, the adjectival form of Spain is \"Spanish\", but the demonym is \"Spaniard\".\n\nEnglish commonly uses national demonyms such as \"Ethiopian\" or \"Guatemalan\", while the usage of local demonyms such as \"Chicagoan\", \"Okie\", or \"Parisian\", is rare. Many local demonyms are rarely used and many places, especially smaller towns and cities, lack a commonly used and accepted demonym altogether.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms. For example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a \"British person\", a \"Briton\" or, informally, a \"Brit\". In some languages, a demonym may be borrowed from another language as a nickname or descriptive adjective for a group of people: for example, \"Québécois(e)\" is commonly used in English for a native of Quebec (though \"Quebecker\" is also available).\n", "Demonym\n\nA demonym (; from Greek δῆμος, \"dêmos\", \"people, tribe\" and όνομα, \"ónoma\", \"name\") \n\nor gentilic (from Latin \"gentilis\", \"of a clan, or gens\") \n\nis a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place and is usually derived from the name of the place.\n\nExamples of demonyms include \"Cochabambino\", for a person from the city of Cochabamba; \"American\" for a person from the country called the United States of America; and \"Swahili\", for a person of the Swahili coast.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ardabil province\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ardabilaki Tāti\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Khalkhal\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alborz mountains range\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Damāvandi\" \"(in Damavand, Iran)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Old Tehrani\" \"(modern Tehrani is a Persian dialect)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"North Khorasan province\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Khorāsāni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Tati/Ramandi\n\nBULLET::::- Harzandi/Harzani\n\nBULLET::::- Karingani\n\nBULLET::::- Kho'ini\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Taromi\n\nBULLET::::- Kabatei\n\nBULLET::::- Rudbari\n\nBULLET::::- Taromi\n\nBULLET::::- Talysh\n\nBULLET::::- Talysh\n\nBULLET::::- \"Southern-Central Talyshi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"South Talyshi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Central Talyshi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Northern Talyshi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gozarkhani\n\nBULLET::::- Kajali (nearly extinct)\n\nBULLET::::- Koresh-e Rostam (nearly extinct)\n\nBULLET::::- Maraghei\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dikini\"\n\nBULLET::::- Razajerdi (nearly extinct)\n\nBULLET::::- Shahrudi (nearly extinct)\n\nBULLET::::- Transitional Tati-Talysh-Central Iran\n\nBULLET::::- Tafresh\n", "BULLET::::- \"Westfälische Pforte\" : (the) Porta Westfalica or Westphalian Gate\n\nBULLET::::- \"Westfalen\" : Westphalia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Westpreußen\" : West Prussia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wismarbucht\" or \"Wismarer Bucht\" : Bay of Wismar\n\nSection::::Greece.\n\nΕλλάδα \"(Elláda)\" or Ἑλλάς \"(Ellás)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Athina\" (Αθήνα) : Athens\n\nBULLET::::- \"Attiki\" (Αττική) : Attica\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dhodhekanisa\" (Δωδεκάνησα) : Dodecanese\n\nBULLET::::- \"Evvia\" (Εύβοια) : Euboea\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ikaria\" (Ικαρία) : Icaria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ionia Nisia\" (Ιόνια Νησιά) : Ionian Islands\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ipeiros\" (Ήπειρος) : Epirus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Irakleio\" (Ηράκλειο) : Heraklion or Iraklion\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kríti\" (Κρήτη) : Crete\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kerkyra\" (Κέρκυρα) : Corfu\n\nBULLET::::- \"Korinthos\" (Κόρινθος) : Corinth\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kykladhes\" (Κυκλάδες) : Cyclades\n", "Norwegian is closely related to Swedish and has a similar pattern, but uses interfixing somewhat more moderately. Examples: \"arbeid\" + \"rom\" = \"arbeidsrom\" (workroom), but \"fabrikk\" + \"arbeider\" = \"fabrikkarbeider\" and \"familie\" + \"far\" = \"familiefar\". The most common interfix is -s-, but there are examples with -e-: \"barn\" + \"hage\" = \"barnehage\" (kindergarten), and \"bjørn\" + \"hi\" = \"bjørnehi\" (bear hive / bear's nest).\n", "Adjectives ending \"-ish\" can be used as collective demonyms (e.g. \"the English, the Cornish\"). So can those ending in \"-ch\" / \"-tch\" (e.g. \"the French\", \"the Dutch\") provided they are pronounced with a 'ch' sound (e.g. the adjective \"Czech\" does not qualify).\n\nWhere an adjective is a link, the link is to the language or dialect of the same name. (Reference: Ethnologue, Languages of the World)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Craig an Iobhair\" : Craignure\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dalabrog\" : Daliburgh\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diùra\" : Jura\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dùn Bheagain\" : Dunvegan\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ealaghol\" : Elgol\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eige\" : Eigg\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eilean Iarmain\" : Isleornsay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Èirisgeigh\" : Eriskay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heàrrlois\" : Harlosh\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ì Chaluim Chille\" : Iona\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ìle\" : Islay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lacadal\" : Laxdale\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leodhas\" : Isle of Lewis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liùrbost\" : Leurbost\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loch Baghasdail\" : Lochboisdale\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loch nam Madadh\" : Lochmaddy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Miolabhaig\" : Milovaig\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muc\" : Muck\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muile\" : Isle of Mull\n\nBULLET::::- \"Na Hearadh\" : Harris\n\nBULLET::::- \"Na Torrain\" : Torrin\n", "List of adjectivals and demonyms for former regions\n\nThe following is a list of adjectival forms of former regions in English and their demonymic equivalents, which denote the people or the inhabitants of these former regions.\n\nNote: Demonyms are given in plural forms. Singular forms simply remove the final 's' or, in the case of \"-ese\" endings, are the same as the plural forms. \n", "Mostly for Middle Eastern and South Asian locales and in Latinate names for the various people that ancient Romans encountered (e.g. Allemanni, Helvetii)\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-ic\".\n\nBULLET::::- Finland → Finnic (also \"\"Finnish\"\")\n\nBULLET::::- Antarctica → Antarctic\n\nBULLET::::- Greenland → Greenlandic (also \"\"Greenlander\"\")\n\nBULLET::::- Iceland → Icelandic (also \"\"Icelander\"\")\n\nBULLET::::- Iran → Iranic (also \"\"Iranian\"\" and \"\"Irani\"\")\n\nBULLET::::- Slav → Slavic\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-iot(e)\".\n\nBULLET::::- Chios → Chiot\n\nBULLET::::- Corfu → Corfiot\n\nBULLET::::- Cyprus → Cypriot (\"Cyprian\" before 1960 independence of Cyprus)\n\nBULLET::::- Phanar → Phanariote\n\nUsed especially for Greek locations.\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-asque\".\n\nBULLET::::- Menton → Mentonasque\n\nBULLET::::- Basque Country → Basque\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tehrani\" \"(Modern Tehrani)\" \"(basis of Standard Iranian Persian in Iran)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Qazvini\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Northeast Western Persian\" / \"Khorasani Persian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mashhadi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dzhidi (Judeo-Persian)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Afghanistan Persian / Dari Persian (Eastern Persian)\n\nBULLET::::- Afghanistan Persian (Dari Proper)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sistani\" \"(in Sistan)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Herati\" \"(in Herat)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mazari\" \"(in Mazar / Mazar-i-Sharif, Balkh Province)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Badakhshi\" \"(in Badakhshan)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Panjshiri\" \"(in Panjshir Valley)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kaboli\" \"(in Cabul)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laghmani\" \"(in Laghman Province)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pahlavni / Pahlavani (extinct)\n\nBULLET::::- Aimaq (several borrowings from Mongolic and Turkic but much less significant than Hazaragi)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Firozkohi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jamshidi\" \"(Jamshedi, Djamchidi, Yemchidi, or Dzhemshid)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Große Ungarische Tiefebene\" : Great Hungarian Plain\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kärnten\" : a href=\"Carinthia%20%28state%29\"Carinthia/a»\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neusiedler See\" : Lake Neusiedl\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niederösterreich\" : Lower Austria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nördliche Kalkalpen\" : Northern Limestone Alps\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oberösterreich\" : Upper Austria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pannonische Tiefebene\", \"Pannonisches Becken\" or \"Karpatenbecken\" : Pannonian Basin or Carpathian Basin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rätische Alpen\" : Rhaetian Alps\n\nBULLET::::- \"Steiermark\" : Styria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Südliche Kalkalpen\" : Southern Limestone Alps\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tannheimer Berge\" : Tannheim Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wien\" : Vienna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tirol\" : (the) Tyrol\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wettersteingebirge\" : Wetterstein (mountains)\n\nSection::::Azerbaijan.\n\n\"Azərbaycan\" - using Turkish-based Azerbaijani alphabet since 1991\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bakı\" : Baku\n", "BULLET::::- São Paulo → Paulistanos\n\nBULLET::::- Zamboanga City → Zamboangueño people\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-(e)r\".\n\nOften used for European locations and Canadian locations\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-ish\".\n\n\"-ish\" is usually proper only as an adjective. See note below list.\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-ien\".\n\nBULLET::::- Niger → Nigerien\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-ene\".\n\nBULLET::::- Cairo → Cairene\n\nBULLET::::- Cyrenaica → Cyrene\n\nBULLET::::- Damascus → Damascene\n\nBULLET::::- Nazareth → Nazarene\n\nBULLET::::- Palmyra → Palmyrene\n\nBULLET::::- Slovenia → Slovene (also \"\"Slovenian\"\")\n\nOften used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations.\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-ensian\".\n\nBULLET::::- Kingston-upon-Hull (UK) → Hullensian\n\nBULLET::::- Leeds (UK) → Leodensian\n\nBULLET::::- Reading (UK) → Readingensian\n\nSection::::Suffixation.:\"-ard\".\n\nBULLET::::- Spain → Spaniard (also \"\"Spanish\"\")\n", "Hungarian and Finnish, in particular, often simply concatenate suffixes. For example, Finnish \"talossanikinko\" \"in my house, too?\" consists of \"talo-ssa-ni-kin-ko\". However, in the Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian etc.) and the Sami languages, there are processes which affect the root, particularly consonant gradation. The original suffixes may disappear (and appear only by liaison), leaving behind the modification of the root. This process is extensively developed in Estonian and Sami, and makes them also inflected, not only agglutinating languages. The Estonian illative case, for example, is expressed by a modified root: \"maja\" → \"majja\" (historical form *\"maja-han\").\n\nSection::::In various languages.:Altaic languages (agglutinative).\n", "BULLET::::- In Albanian, \"klik\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Afrikaans, \"klik\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Arabic, \"chic chic\" تشك تشك\n\nBULLET::::- In Basque, \"klisk\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Batak, \"ceklek\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Bulgarian, \"щрак\" (shtrak)\n\nBULLET::::- In Catalan, \"cx, xic\", txc or \"txic\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Chinese, Mandarin, \"kā chā\"咔嚓\n\nBULLET::::- In Croatian, \"klik\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Czech, \"cvak\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Danish, \"klik\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Dutch, \"klik\"\n\nBULLET::::- In English, \"click\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Estonian \"klõps\", \"plõks\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Finnish, \"klik\"\n\nBULLET::::- In French, \"clic\"\n\nBULLET::::- In German, \"klick\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Hebrew, \"chik\" צִ'יק\n\nBULLET::::- In Hungarian, \"klikk\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Italian, \"clic\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Indonesian, \"cepret\", \"cekrek\"\n", "BULLET::::- Frisia, Friseland – Friesland\n\nBULLET::::- East Frisia – Ostfriesland\n\nBULLET::::- North Frisia – Nordfriesland\n\nBULLET::::- Fuld – Fulda\n\nBULLET::::- Fribergh – Freiberg\n\nBULLET::::- Friburgh – Freiburg\n\nBULLET::::- Friburg - Freiburg\n\nBULLET::::- Fribourg - Freiburg\n\nSection::::G.\n\nBULLET::::- German Bight - Deutsche Bucht\n\nBULLET::::- German Ocean - Nordsee\n\nBULLET::::- Germany – Deutschland\n\nBULLET::::- Glaris - Glarus\n\nBULLET::::- Gower – Sankt Goar\n\nBULLET::::- Glogaw – Glogau\n\nBULLET::::- Graybound – Graubünden\n\nBULLET::::- Gripswald – Greifswald\n\nBULLET::::- Grisons - Graubünden\n\nBULLET::::- Gulick – Jülich\n\nSection::::H.\n\nBULLET::::- Hailbron – Heilbronn h/e\n\nBULLET::::- Hamburgh – Hamburg\n\nBULLET::::- Hamelin – Hameln\n\nBULLET::::- Hanover – Hannover\n", "BULLET::::- Kannada: ಜರ್ಮನಿ (\"jarmani\")\n\nBULLET::::- Lao: ເຢຍລະມັນ (\"yīa la man\")\n\nBULLET::::- Latin: \"Germania\"\n\nBULLET::::- Macedonian: (\"\")\n\nBULLET::::- Malay: \"Jerman\"\n\nBULLET::::- Manx: \"Yn Ghermaan\"\n\nBULLET::::- Maltese: \"Ġermanja\"\n\nBULLET::::- Māori: \"Tiamana\"\n\nBULLET::::- Marathi: जर्मनी (\"jarmanī\")\n\nBULLET::::- Mongolian: (\"German\")\n\nBULLET::::- Nauruan: \"Djermani\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nepali: जर्मनी (\"jarmanī\")\n\nBULLET::::- Panjabi: ਜਰਮਨੀ (\"jarmanī\")\n\nBULLET::::- Romanian: \"Germania\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rumantsch: \"Germania\"\n\nBULLET::::- Russian: (\"Germánija\")\n\nBULLET::::- Samoan: \"Siamani\"\n\nBULLET::::- Scottish Gaelic: \"A' Ghearmailt\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sinhala: ජර්මනිය (\"jarmaniya\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sundanese: \"Jerman\"\n\nBULLET::::- Swahili: \"Ujerumani\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tahitian: \"Heremani\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tamil: இடாய்ச்சுலாந்து (\"idaichulandu\") செருமனி (\"cerumani\"), ஜெர்மனி (\"jermani\")\n\nBULLET::::- Thai: เยอรมนี (\"yəə-rá-má-nii\"), เยอรมัน (\"yəə-rá-mán\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tongan: \"Siamane\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mosel\" : Mosella\n\nBULLET::::- \"München\" : Munich\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niederbayern\" : Lower Bavaria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niederbayerisches Hügelland\" : Lower Bavarian Upland\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niederlausitz\" : Lower Lusatia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niedersachsen\" : Lower Saxony\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niederschlesien\" : Lower Silesia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordbaden\" : North Baden\n\nBULLET::::- \"Norddeutschland\" : North(ern) Germany\n\nBULLET::::- \"Norddeutsche Tiefebene\" or \"Norddeutsche Tiefland\" : North German Plain or Northern Lowland\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordeifel\" : North Eifel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordfriesische Inseln\" : (the) North Frisian Islands\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordfriesland\" : North Frisia or Northern Friesland\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordostseekanal\" : (the) Kiel Canal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordpfälzer Bergland\" : North Palatine Uplands\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nordrhein-Westfalen\" : North Rhine-Westphalia\n", "BULLET::::- \"Middle East Franconian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neurnbergerisch\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Southwest East Franconian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hohenlonish\"\n\nBULLET::::- South Franconian\n\nBULLET::::- \"Badish Franconian\"\n\nBULLET::::- Upper German\n\nBULLET::::- Alemannic\n\nBULLET::::- Swabian\n\nBULLET::::- \"South-East Swabian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Central Swabian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"West Swabian\"\n\nBULLET::::- Alemannic proper (basis of Swiss German)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Low Alemannic\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alsatian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baden dialect\"\n\nBULLET::::- Colonia Tovar\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lake Constance Alemannic\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"High Alemannic\"\n", "Section::::Europe.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Germ-line mutations are often at least in part the cause of disease onset at an earlier age. Though many germ-line mutations are deleterious, the genetic lens through which they may be viewed may provide insights to treatment, possibly through genetic counseling.\n", "Diseases are often categorized by their ages of onset as congenital, infantile, juvenile, or adult. Missed or delayed diagnosis often occurs if a disease that is typically diagnosed in juveniles (such as asthma) is present in adults, and vice versa (such as arthritis). Depending on the disease, ages of onset may impact features such as phenotype, as is the case in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. For example, the phenotype for juvenile Huntington's disease clearly differs from adult-onset Huntington's disease and late-onset Parkinson's exhibits more severe motor and non-motor phenotypes. \n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Most rare diseases are genetic and thus are present throughout the person's entire life, even if symptoms do not immediately appear. Many rare diseases appear early in life, and about 30% of children with rare diseases will die before reaching their fifth birthday. With only three diagnosed patients in 27 years, ribose-5-phosphate isomerase deficiency is considered the rarest known genetic disease.\n", "Aging (senescence) increases vulnerability to age-associated diseases, whereas genetics determines vulnerability or resistance between species and individuals within species. Some age-related changes (like graying hair) are said to be unrelated to an increase in mortality. But some biogerontologists believe that the same underlying changes that cause graying hair also increase mortality in other organ systems and that understanding the incidence of age-associated disease will advance knowledge of the biology of senescence just as knowledge of childhood diseases advanced knowledge of human development.\n", "Section::::Contemporary and classic theories.:Illnesses associated with aging.\n\nAs adult bodies undergo a variety of physical changes that cause health to decline, a higher risk of contracting a variety of illnesses, both physical and mental, is possible.\n\nBULLET::::- Cancer\n", "BULLET::::1. Complex diseases tend to vary in both age of onset and severity. This can be due to variation in penetrance and expressivity. For most human diseases, variable expressivity of the disease phenotype is the norm. This makes choosing one specific age group or phenotypic marker more difficult to select for study.\n\nBULLET::::2. The origins of complex disease involve many biological pathways, some of which may differ between disease phenotypes.\n", "On a pedigree, polygenic diseases do tend to \"run in families\", but the inheritance does not fit simple patterns as with Mendelian diseases. But this does not mean that the genes cannot eventually be located and studied. There is also a strong environmental component to many of them (e.g., blood pressure).\n\nBULLET::::- asthma\n\nBULLET::::- autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis\n\nBULLET::::- cancers\n\nBULLET::::- ciliopathies\n\nBULLET::::- cleft palate\n\nBULLET::::- diabetes\n\nBULLET::::- heart disease\n\nBULLET::::- hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- inflammatory bowel disease\n\nBULLET::::- intellectual disability\n\nBULLET::::- mood disorder\n\nBULLET::::- obesity\n\nBULLET::::- refractive error\n\nBULLET::::- infertility\n\nSection::::Chromosomal disorder.\n", "About 40 rare diseases have a far higher prevalence in Finland; these are known collectively as Finnish heritage disease. Similarly, there are rare genetic diseases among the Amish religious communities in the US and among ethnically Jewish people. \n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nRare diseases are usually genetic and are therefore chronic. EURORDIS estimates that at least 80% of them have identified genetic origins. Other rare diseases are the result of infections and allergies or due to degenerative and proliferative causes.\n\nSymptoms of some rare diseases may appear at birth or in childhood, whereas others only appear once adulthood is reached.\n", "An aging-associated disease is a disease that is most often seen with increasing frequency with increasing senescence. Essentially, aging-associated diseases are complications arising from senescence. Age-associated diseases are to be distinguished from the aging process itself because all adult animals age, save for a few rare exceptions, but not all adult animals experience all age-associated diseases. Aging-associated diseases do not refer to age-specific diseases, such as the childhood diseases chicken pox and measles. \"Aging-associated disease\" is used here to mean \"diseases of the elderly\". Nor should aging-associated diseases be confused with accelerated aging diseases, all of which are genetic disorders.\n", "Childhood chronic illness\n\nSome common childhood onset chronic illnesses are cystic fibrosis, cerebral palsy, juvenile diabetes, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer. Chronic illness is often a risk factor for developing psychopathologies, due to the psychological toll it takes on the children and their developing brains. Approximately 10 million children in the United States suffer from a childhood onset chronic illness.\n\nSection::::Chronic illness and development.\n", "Disease-causing mutations in specific genes are usually severe in terms of gene function, and are fortunately rare, thus genetic disorders are similarly individually rare. However, since there are many genes that can vary to cause genetic disorders, in aggregate they constitute a significant component of known medical conditions, especially in pediatric medicine. Molecularly characterized genetic disorders are those for which the underlying causal gene has been identified, currently there are approximately 2,200 such disorders annotated in the OMIM database.\n", "BULLET::::- Juvenile form of the disease shows symptoms starting at age 3 ranging to age 10 and, although the child usually dies by the time they are 15, it is possible for them to live longer if they are under constant care. Symptoms include autism, ataxia, motor skills regression, spacticity, and learning disorders.\n\nBULLET::::- Adult onset form of the disease is classified by its occurrence in older individuals and has an effect on the motor function of these individuals. It is not yet known if Sandhoff disease will cause these individuals to have a decrease in their life span.\n", "Even disorders that begin earlier, like schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses, can reveal themselves within the age range of emerging adulthood. Often, patients will not seek help until several years of symptoms have passed, if at all. For example, those diagnosed with social anxiety disorder will rarely seek treatment until age 27 or later. Typically, symptoms of more severe disorders, such as major depression, begin at age 25 as well.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Other factors.:Infections.\n\nAlthough more than 90% of AGEP are associated with the intake of a presumptively offending drug, reports have associated infection with Parvovirus B19, mycoplasma, cytomegalovirus, coxsackie B4 virus, \"Chlamydophila pneumoniae\", \"E. coli\", and \"Echinococcus\" with the drug-independent development of this disorder. The pathophysiology for the development of these drug-independent cases of AGEP is unclear. Viral infections have also been observed to be associated with the development of SJS, SJS/TEN, and TEN in the absence of a causative drug.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Other factors.:Autoimmune Disorders.\n", "In some cases, the age of onset may be the result of mutation accumulation. If this is the case, it could be helpful to consider ages of onset as a product of the hypotheses depicted in theories of aging. Even some mental health disorders, whose ages of onset have been found to be harder to define than physical illnesses may have a mutated component. The symptoms of standard mental disorders often start off non-specific. Pathological changes pertaining to disorders often become more detailed and less fickle before they can be defined in the American Psychiatric Association's DSM. The brain is a dynamic and complex system, it is constantly re-wiring itself and a major concern is what happens to the brain in earlier life that mirrors what occurs later in its psycho-pathological state. The typical onset of many mental disorders in late adolescence may reflect the critical development that happens at this time.\n", "Holoendemic\n\nA disease is holoendemic when essentially every individual in a population is infected.\n\nAlthough the infection is ubiquitous, symptoms of disease do not appear equally across age groups. The young are more likely to express pathogenic responses, whilst the older hosts will carry the disease asymptomatically, or with reduced damage, due to adaptive immunity.Therefore, holoendemic diseases differ from hyperendemic diseases, of which symptoms are expressed equally by members across all age groups of a population.\n", "It has been found that older age does increase the risk factor of contracting a cardiovascular disease. Hypertension and high cholesterol have also been found to increase the likelihood of acquiring a cardiovascular disease, which are also commonly found in older adults. Cardiovascular diseases include a variety of heart conditions that may induce a heart attack or other heart-related problems. Healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding smoking are usually used to prevent cardiovascular disease.\n\nBULLET::::- Immune system\n", "Penetrance for SCA1 is 100% for most alleles, so almost all individuals who have at least one copy of the mutated gene will eventually develop symptoms. At least one case has been reported where penetrance may have been incomplete in a woman with 44 glutamine repeats with histidine interruptions whose father had exhibited symptoms, but herself had not shown symptoms at the age of 66. Individuals with a low number of repeats, around 39 to 55, typically live past reproductive age and can pass on the disease to their children, while high repeats may express juvenile onset and fatality.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Genetic Broadly speaking, genetic diseases are caused by aberrations in genes or chromosomes. Many genetic diseases are developed from before birth. Genetic disorders account for a significant number of the health care problems in our society. Advances in the understanding of this diseases have increased both the life span and quality of life for many of those affected by genetic disorders. Recent developments in bioinformatics and laboratory genetics have made possible the better delineation of certain malformation and mental retardation syndromes, so that their mode of inheritance can be understood. This information enables the genetic counselor to predict the risk for occurrence of a large number of genetic disorders. Most genetic counseling is done, however, only after the birth of at least one affected individual has alerted the family to their predilection for having children with a genetic disorder. The association of a single gene to a disease is rare and a genetic disease may or may not be a transmissible disorder. Some genetic diseases are inherited from the parent’s genes, but others are caused by new mutations or changes to the DNA. In other occurrences, the same disease, for instance, some forms of carcinoma or melanoma, may stem from an inbred condition in some people, from new changes in other people, and from non-genetic causes in still other individuals.\n", "Prenatal causes of intellectual disability include:\n\nBULLET::::- Congenital infections such as cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, herpes, syphilis, rubella and human immunodeficiency virus\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged maternal fever in the first trimester\n\nBULLET::::- Exposure to anticonvulsants or alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Untreated maternal phenylketonuria (PKU)\n\nBULLET::::- Complications of prematurity, especially in extremely low-birth-weight infants\n\nBULLET::::- Postnatal exposure to lead\n\nSingle-gene disorders that result in intellectual disability include:\n\nBULLET::::- Fragile X syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Neurofibromatosis\n\nBULLET::::- Tuberous sclerosis\n\nBULLET::::- Noonan's syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Cornelia de Lange's syndrome\n\nThese single-gene disorders are usually associated with atypical physical characteristics. \n", "Age of onset\n\nThe age of onset is the age at which an individual acquires, develops, or first experiences a condition or symptoms of a disease or disorder. For instance, the general age of onset for the spinal disease scoliosis is \"10-15 years old,\" meaning that most people develop scoliosis when they are of an age between ten and fifteen years. \n", "A number of infectious diseases can be transmitted congenitally (either before or at birth), and can cause serious neurodevelopmental problems, as for example the viruses HSV, CMV, rubella (congenital rubella syndrome), Zika virus, or bacteria like \"Treponema pallidum\" in congenital syphilis, which may progress to neurosyphilis if it remains untreated. Protozoa like \"Plasmodium\" or \"Toxoplasma\" which can cause congenital toxoplasmosis with multiple cysts in the brain and other organs, leading to a variety of neurological deficits.\n\nSome cases of schizophrenia may be related to congenital infections though the majority are of unknown causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Metabolic disorders.\n", "Genetic testing can be administered at various stages of disease progression. When genetic testing is administered after the onset of symptoms, the test is said to be diagnostic; in adults prior to onset of symptoms it is presymptomatic, and the test can be performed for prenatal or preimplantation diagnoses. The European Molecular Quality Genetics Network (EMQN) recommends criteria for each type, which must be met before testing can begin. The EQMN recommends that labs receive a written clinical evaluation of symptoms by a neurologist and a disclosure of family history, or lack of history, before initiating diagnostic genetic testing. Because no preventative or curative treatments are known for SCAs, genetic testing for at risk individuals is not recommended for all cases, and is typically issued on an individual basis. Presymptomatic, prenatal, and preimplantation testing are typically requested through a genetic counsellor and require existing family history and documentation of informed consent of the consultand. Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 was one of the first late onset diseases for which presymptomatic testing was demonstrated effective and predictive; prior to the development of testing for SCA1, Huntington's disease was the only similar disease for which presymptomatic testing was available.\n", "Symptoms may be present at birth or may appear at any stage of life. There appears to be a growing number of people who do not become symptomatic until adulthood to middle age. While generally not progressive, again there appears to be a growing number of people who do experience a slow clinically significant progression of symptomatology. These cases may hypothetically be due to the large number of gene mutations of ryanodine receptor malfunction, and with continued research may in fact be found to be clinical variants.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Diet and lifestyle are major factors thought to influence susceptibility to many diseases. Drug abuse, tobacco smoking, and alcohol drinking, as well as a lack of or too much exercise may also increase the risk of developing certain diseases, especially later in life. Between 1995 and 2005 813,000 Australians were hospitalised due to alcohol.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Shampoo for infants and young children is formulated so that it is less irritating and usually less prone to produce a stinging or burning sensation if it were to get into the eyes. For example, Johnson & Johnson advertises Johnson's baby Shampoo under the premise of \"No More Tears\". This is accomplished by one or more of the following formulation strategies:\n\nBULLET::::- dilution, in case product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution\n", "Baby shampoo\n\nBaby shampoo /ˈbā-bē/ /ʃæmˈpuː/ is a hair care product that is used for the removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair; specially formulated for use on infants and young children by means of substituting chemicals which are purportedly less irritating to the eyes than those commonly found in regular shampoo.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fragrance\" is a broad category that may contain many chemicals that are otherwise unlisted on the label.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Baby.\n\nShampoo for infants and young children is formulated so that it is less irritating and usually less prone to produce a stinging or burning sensation if it were to get into the eyes. For example, Johnson's Baby Shampoo advertises under the premise of \"No More Tears\". This is accomplished by one or more of the following formulation strategies.\n", "There is broad disagreement regarding the role of shampoos. Some sources warn against frequent shampooing, others recommend it. Mild baby shampoo is often recommended, but the exact denotation of the label \"mild\" in this context is not quite clear. Baby shampoos often contain detergent surfactants, perfumes, quaternium-15 and other eczemagenic irritants. No studies have been performed on non-prescription shampoos.\n", "BULLET::::- adjusting pH to that of \"non-stress tears\", approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap\n\nBULLET::::- use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos\n\nBULLET::::- use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and/or polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates\n", "BULLET::::4. use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates\n\nThe distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount the controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or the use of the products so formulated.\n", "The distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount the controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or the use of the products so formulated.\n\nThe considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency and/or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the more popular brand baby shampoos.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Most contain sodium trideceth sulfate, which is formulated to act as a low-irritation cleansing agent.\n\nAlternatively, baby shampoo may be formulated using other classes of surfactants, most notably non-ionics which are much milder than any charged anionics used.\n\nSection::::Common ingredients.:Functional claims.\n", "BULLET::::1. dilution, in case the product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution\n\nBULLET::::2. adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap\n\nBULLET::::3. use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos (e.g. Sodium lauroamphoacetate)\n", "Ketoconazole shampoos and creams are currently shown to be the most effective medical treatment of moderate to serious cradle cap. Research indicates that this anti-fungal medication is not absorbed into the bloodstream.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Eyelids.\n\nTypical medical advice is to use baby shampoo, diluted with warm water, on a cotton swab to cleanse the eyelid. There is no agreement on the dilution, which ranges from as high as a 1:1 mix to as low as a few drops of shampoo per half-cup of water.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Animal.\n", "The European Herbal Medicinal Products Committee (HMPC) and the UK Herbal Medicines Advisory Committee (HMAC) recommended against the use of \"Echinacea\"-containing products in children under the age of 12. Manufacturers re-labelled all oral \"Echinacea\" products that had product licenses for children with a warning that they should not be given to children under 12 as a precautionary measure.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Pregnancy.\n\nAlthough research has not found increased risk of birth defects associated with use of \"Echinacea\" during the first trimester, it is recommended that pregnant women should avoid \"Echinacea\" products until stronger safety supporting evidence becomes available.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Lactation.\n", "One problem with anti-reflective coatings is that historically they have been very easy to scratch. Newer coatings, such as Crizal Alizé UV with its 5.0 rating and Hoya's Super HiVision with its 10.9 rating on the COLTS Bayer Abrasion Test (glass averages 12–14), try to address this problem by combining scratch resistance with the anti-reflective coating. They also offer a measure of dirt and smudge resistance, due to their hydrophobic properties (110° water drop contact angle for Super HiVision and 116° for Crizal Alizé UV).\n\nSection::::Lens coatings.:Ultraviolet protection.\n", "In stubborn cases some doctors may recommend keratolytic (dandruff) shampoos (e.g. with sulfur, selenium, zinc pyrithione, or salicylic acid) while others warn against the use of medicated shampoos in newborns due to systemic absorption. Dandruff shampoos often contain sodium dodecyl sulfate, a noted skin irritant.\n\nSteroid and tar preparations have also been used but may have drawbacks. Immunomodulators (tacrolimus/Protopic, pimecrolimus/Elidel) have not been approved for babies under two years.\n", "The main ingredients contained by pet shampoos can be grouped in insecticidals, antiseborrheic, antibacterials, antifungals, emollients, emulsifiers and humectants. Whereas some of these ingredients may be efficient in treating some conditions, pet owners are recommended to use them according to their veterinarian's indications because many of them cannot be used on cats or can harm the pet if it is misused.\n\nGenerally, insecticidal pet shampoos contain pyrethrin, pyrethroids (such as permethrin and which may not be used on cats) and carbaryl. These ingredients are mostly found in shampoos that are meant to fight against parasite infestations.\n", "BULLET::::- Randy Scheer as Dennis Lolly\n\nBULLET::::- Susanna Moore as Gloria\n\nBULLET::::- Carrie Fisher as Lorna Karpf\n\nBULLET::::- Luana Anders as Devra\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Olton as Ricci\n\nBULLET::::- Kathleen Miller as Anjanette\n\nBULLET::::- Richard E. Kalk as Detective Younger\n\nBULLET::::- Brad Dexter as Senator East\n\nBULLET::::- William Castle as Sid Roth\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Hesseman as Red Dog\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n", "Although some of the pet shampoos are highly effective, some others may be less effective for some condition than another. Yet, although natural pet shampoos exist, it has been brought to attention that some of these might cause irritation to the skin of the pet. Natural ingredients that might be potential allergens for some pets include eucalyptus, lemon or orange extracts and tea tree oil. On the contrary, oatmeal appears to be one of the most widely skin-tolerated ingredients that is found in pet shampoos. Most ingredients found in a shampoo meant to be used on animals are safe for the pet as there is a high likelihood that the pets will lick their coats, especially in the case of cats.\n", "Often referred as the \"Pink Brand\" (after the color of the bottle), Johnson's Baby Lotion appeared in 1942.\n\nSection::::History.:Johnson's Baby Shampoo (1953).\n\n\"No More Tears\" shampoo was introduced in 1953.\n\nAs noted by Nunes and Johnson:\n\nIn 1955 Johnson & Johnson placed advertising at the \"Adventures of Robin Hood TV series for Band-Aid and Johnson's baby shampoo. The later was advertised with the tagline \"Johnson's can't burn eyes\".\n\n\"No More Tears\" has been registered as a trademark only since 1959.\n\nSection::::History.:No More Tangles (1971).\n\n\"No More Tangles\" shampoo (named after popular \"No More Tears\" shampoo) debuted in 1971.\n", "BULLET::::- no damage to hair\n\nBULLET::::- repair of damage already done to hair\n\nMany shampoos are pearlescent. This effect is achieved by the addition of tiny flakes of suitable materials, e.g. glycol distearate, chemically derived from stearic acid, which may have either animal or vegetable origins. Glycol distearate is a wax. Many shampoos also include silicone to provide conditioning benefits.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Commonly used ingredients.\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonium chloride\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonium lauryl sulfate\n\nBULLET::::- Glycol\n", "Risks are comparable to or safer than ordinary contact lenses, since they are typically worn for much shorter periods (6–8 hours rather than daytime or 24/7) and while asleep rather than while active. They also compare favorably to surgical correction since no surgery is involved, corrections to the eye's shape can be handled over time (surgery corrects vision at a single point in time, but post-operative ongoing changes to eyesight will continue to occur during the patient's lifetime), and it is considered generally safe for younger patients. In addition, Ortho-K is broadly not 'new' from a safety viewpoint; contact lens safety generally speaking is considered to be well understood. However it is important, as with all contact lenses, to maintain good cleaning and hygiene discipline.\n", "Specialty shampoos are marketed to people with dandruff, color-treated hair, gluten or wheat allergies, an interest in using an organic product, and infants and young children (\"baby shampoo\" is less irritating). There are also shampoos intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe word \"shampoo\" entered the English language from the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era. It dates to 1762 and is derived from Hindi \"chāmpo\" (चाँपो ), itself derived from the Sanskrit root \"chapati\" (चपति), which means to press, knead, soothe.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Indian subcontinent.\n", "Section::::Lens materials.:Plastic.\n\nFor CR-39:\n\nBULLET::::- Refractive index (n): 1.498 (standard)\n\nBULLET::::- Abbe value (V): 59.3\n\nBULLET::::- Density: 1.31 g/cm\n\nBULLET::::- UV cutoff: 355 nm\n\nPlastic lenses are currently the most commonly prescribed lens, owing to their relative safety, low cost, ease of production, and high optical quality. The main drawbacks of many types of plastic lenses are the ease by which a lens can be scratched, and the limitations and costs of producing higher-index lenses. CR-39 lenses are an exception in that they have inherent scratch resistance.\n\nSection::::Lens materials.:Trivex.\n\nBULLET::::- Refractive index (n): 1.532\n", "Like shampoo and bubble bath products, many are marketed directly towards children. These often feature scents intended to appeal to children, such as fruit scents, or cookies or cotton candy scents. Many bottles feature popular characters from children's television or movies. As with men's body wash, they often are specifically designed to be used also as a shampoo and conditioner. They also often contain gentle ingredients designed for young skin.\n", "Sunglass lenses are made of either glass, plastic, or SR-91. Plastic lenses are typically made from acrylic, polycarbonate, CR-39 or polyurethane. Glass lenses have the best optical clarity and scratch resistance, but are heavier than plastic lenses. They can also shatter or break on impact. Plastic lenses are lighter and shatter-resistant, but are more prone to scratching. Polycarbonate plastic lenses are the lightest, and are also almost shatterproof, making them good for impact protection. CR-39 is the most common plastic lens, due to low weight, high scratch resistance, and low transparency for ultraviolet and infrared radiation. SR-91 is a proprietary material that was introduced by Kaenon Polarized in 2001. Kaenon's lens formulation was the first non-polycarbonate material to pass the high-mass impact ANSI Z.87.1 testing. Additionally, it was the first to combine this passing score with the highest marks for lens clarity. Jerry Garcia's sunglasses had a polykrypton-C type of lens which was 'cutting edge' in 1995.\n", "In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem.\n\nSection::::Health risks.\n\nA number of contact allergens are used as ingredients in shampoos, and contact allergy caused by shampoos is well known. Patch testing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic. The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Additionally, this might reduce the process speed and availability of process equipment. The main mechanical problem tends to be when foam enters the system as air is a poor lubricant, meaning metal to metal contact can occur.\n\nSection::::Industrial problems.:Mechanical problem factors.\n\nMechanical factors that may generate foam and entrapped air:\n\nBULLET::::- Leaky seals on pumps\n\nBULLET::::- High pressure pumps\n\nBULLET::::- Poor system design (tank, pump inlet, outlet and manifold design)\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure release\n\nThe main classes of air that are of concern to the mechanical systems are:\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic line if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high.\n", "An implosion \"can\" fling material outward (for example due to the force of inward falling material rebounding, or peripheral material being ejected as the inner parts collapse), but this is not an essential component of an implosion and not all kinds of implosion will do so. If the object was previously solid, then implosion usually requires it to take on a more dense form - in effect to be more concentrated, compressed, denser, or converted into a new material that is denser than the original.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Nuclear weapons.\n", "Explosive forming\n\nExplosive forming is a metalworking technique in which an explosive charge is used instead of a punch or press. It can be used on materials for which a press setup would be prohibitively large or require an unreasonably high pressure, and is generally much cheaper than building a large enough and sufficiently high-pressure press; on the other hand, it is unavoidably an individual job production process, producing one product at a time and with a long setup time.\n\nSection::::Various approaches.\n", "Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions are one type of mechanical explosion that can occur when a vessel containing a pressurized liquid is ruptured, causing a rapid increase in volume as the liquid evaporates. Note that the contents of the container may cause a subsequent chemical explosion, the effects of which can be dramatically more serious, such as a propane tank in the midst of a fire. In such a case, to the effects of the mechanical explosion when the tank fails are added the effects from the explosion resulting from the released (initially liquid and then almost instantaneously gaseous) propane in the presence of an ignition source. For this reason, emergency workers often differentiate between the two events.\n", "The room featured in \"Fermat's Room\" has a design similar to that of a hydraulic press. Boris Artzybasheff also created a drawing of a hydraulic press, in which the press was created out of the shape of a robot. In 2015, the Hydraulic Press Channel, a YouTube channel dedicated to crushing objects with a hydraulic press, was created by Lauri Vuohensilta, a factory owner from Tampere, Finland.\n", "Implosion is a key part of the gravitational collapse of large stars, which can lead to the creation of supernovae, neutron stars and black holes. \n", "BULLET::::- Some materials such as primary high explosives may detonate with mechanical shock or impact.\n\nBULLET::::- When glass bottles of liquid are dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic glass breakage.\n\nSection::::Considerations.\n\nWhen laboratory testing, field experience, or engineering judgement indicates that an item could be damaged by mechanical shock, several courses of action might be considered:\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce and control the input shock at the source.\n\nBULLET::::- Modify the item to improve its toughness or support it to better handle shocks.\n", "A small effort force acts on a small piston. This creates a pressure which is transferred through the hydraulic fluid to a large piston \n\nSection::::Application.\n\nHydraulic presses are commonly used for forging, clinching, moulding, blanking, punching, deep drawing, and metal forming operations.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Failure in an autoclave differs materially from ordinary machinery defects only when it involves the pressure containment. Since compressed air, gas, or steam can store considerable energy, strict measures are mandated by law to prevent such incidents. Generally, pressure vessel failure takes one of two forms. One is rupture of the vessel, normally by crack propagation. Cracks in steel under stress can spread at speeds of up to more than a mile per second. This results in the release of stored energy, one effect of which is the acceleration of the rupture itself. Such releases are effectively explosions. The other form is the failure of a mechanical safety device, such as the interlock that disables the door opening mechanism as long as vessel pressure exceeds a conservative value, such as ¼ or ½ psi.\n", "Spallation can occur when a tensile stress wave propagates through a material and can be observed in flat plate impact tests. It is caused by an internal cavitation due to stresses, which are generated by the interaction of stress waves, exceeding the local tensile strength of materials. A fragment or multiple fragments will be created on the free end of the plate. This fragment known as \"spall\" acts as a secondary projectile with velocities that can be as high as one third of the stress wave speed on the material. This type of failure is typically an effect of high explosive squash head (HESH) charges.\n", "There are various approaches; one is to place metal plate over a die, with the intervening space evacuated by a vacuum pump, place the whole assembly underwater, and detonate a charge at an appropriate distance from the plate. For complicated shapes, a segmented die can be used to produce in a single operation a shape that would require many manufacturing steps, or to be manufactured in parts and welded together with an accompanying loss of strength at the welds. There is often some degree of work hardening from the explosive-forming process, particularly in mild steel.\n\nSection::::Tooling.\n", "BULLET::::- If the pressure rise is slow, the metal can deform until the walls become thin and a hole is formed, causing a loud report from the gas release, but no shrapnel.\n\nBULLET::::- A rapid rate of pressure rise will cause the metal to act as a crystal and shatter into fragments, which are pushed outward in all directions by the expanding gases.\n\nSection::::Modes of failure.\n", "BULLET::::- In August 2007, the firm was fined £20,000 after three employees were seriously injured whilst trying to clear a blockage from an industrial cooker. Due to the lack of training provided to the staff, the three employees triggered a pressurised steam explosion as they used various trial and error techniques to remove the blockage.\n", "Section::::Types of filter presses.:Membrane filter press.\n", "Mechanical powder press\n\nA mechanical powder press is a machine press designed to compress powders, commonly used in the production of technical ceramics.\n\nSection::::Function-Principles of mechanical presses in the field of Technical Ceramics.\n\nThe function principles of the mechanic press machines differ in how to ensure the upper punch–main movement by cams, spindles-and friction drives, eccentric, knuckle-joints or by the round table principle, independent if the die-or lower punch movement is realized by cams- or eccentric systems or other mechanically or hydraulically combined systems.\n\nThe executions of auxiliary movements are also not decisive for a term-classification.\n", "BULLET::::- A wedge can be driven into a block of wood by force on the end, such as from hitting it with a sledge hammer, forcing the sides apart, but no amount of compression force from the wood walls will cause it to pop back out of the block.\n\nA machine will be self-locking if and only if its efficiency \"η\" is below 50%:\n", "BULLET::::- A rupture in the pressurizer vessel, which would also be a loss-of-coolant accident. In most reactor plant designs, however, this would not limit flowrate through the core and therefore would behave like a loss-of-pressure-control-accident rather than a loss-of-coolant accident.\n\nBULLET::::- Failure of either the spray nozzles (failing open would inhibit raising pressure as the relatively cool spray collapses the pressurizer vessel bubble) or the heaters of the pressurizing system.\n", "Since the 1940s high pressure has been used as a method of cell disruption, most notably by the French Pressure Cell Press, or French Press for short. This method was developed by Charles Stacy French and utilises high pressure to force cells through a narrow orifice, causing the cells to lyse due to the shear forces experienced across the pressure differential. While French Presses have become a staple item in many microbiology laboratories, their production has been largely discontinued, leading to a resurgence in alternate applications of similar technology.\n", "These auxiliary movements can also base on pneumatic and hydraulic principles.\n\nIn comparison to hydraulic press machines the maximum compaction forces of mechanical powder presses are limited and are placed in the range /= 5000 kN.\n\nFor the requirements of wet-and dry pressing techniques in the field of Technical Ceramics cams-, eccentric-, knuckle joint- as well as round table presses have proved and tested, whereas cam-presses especially used for wet-press-techniques of pourable materials.\n\nThe range of compaction force of mechanical presses for products of the Technical Ceramics is\n", "In this article, explosion means \"the sudden conversion of potential energy (chemical or mechanical) into kinetic energy\", as defined by the US National Fire Protection Association, or the common dictionary meaning, \"a violent and destructive shattering or blowing apart of something\". No distinction is made as to whether it is a deflagration with subsonic propagation or a detonation with supersonic propagation.\n\nSection::::Before World War I.\n", "Steam explosions are not normally chemical explosions, although a number of substances react chemically with steam (for example, zirconium and superheated graphite react with steam and air respectively to give off hydrogen, which burns violently in air) so that chemical explosions and fires may follow. Some steam explosions appear to be special kinds of boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), and rely on the release of stored superheat. But many large-scale events, including foundry accidents, show evidence of an energy-release front propagating through the material (see description of FCI below), where the forces create fragments and mix the hot phase into the cold volatile one; and the rapid heat transfer at the front sustains the propagation.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Chemical.\n\nThe most common artificial explosives are chemical explosives, usually involving a rapid and violent oxidation reaction that produces large amounts of hot gas. Gunpowder was the first explosive to be discovered and put to use. Other notable early developments in chemical explosive technology were Frederick Augustus Abel's development of nitrocellulose in 1865 and Alfred Nobel's invention of dynamite in 1866. Chemical explosions (both intentional and accidental) are often initiated by an electric spark or flame in the presence of Oxygen. Accidental explosions may occur in fuel tanks, rocket engines, etc.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Electrical and magnetic.\n", "Many plumbers, Firefighters, and steamfitters are aware of this phenomenon, which is called \"water hammer\". A several-ounce \"slug\" of water passing through a steam line at high velocity and striking a 90 degree elbow can instantly fracture a fitting that is otherwise capable of handling several times the normal static pressure. It can then be understood that a few hundred, or even a few thousand pounds of water \"moving at the same velocity\" inside a boiler shell can easily blow out a tube sheet, collapse a firebox, even toss the entire boiler a surprising distance through reaction as the water exits the boiler, like the recoil of a heavy cannon firing a ball.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "A proliferation of supraglacial lakes preceded the collapse of the Antarctic Larsen B ice shelf in 2001, and may have been connected.\n\nSuch lakes are also prominent in Greenland, where they have recently been understood to contribute somewhat to ice movement.\n\nSection::::Sediments.\n", "When these crevasses form, it can take a mere 2–18 hours to empty a lake, supplying warm water to the base of the glacier - lubricating the bed and causing the glacier to surge. The rate of emptying such a lake is equivalent to the rate of flow of the Niagara Falls. Such crevasses, when forming on ice shelves, may penetrate to the underlying ocean and contribute to the breakup of the ice shelf.\n", "These lakes are buried beneath deep layers of glacial ice. When a glacier is very thick, the pressure at the bottom is great enough that liquid water can exist at temperatures where water would freeze, at regular pressures. The ice above Lake Vostok, the largest antarctic lake, is approximately 4 kilometres thick.\n\nScientists studying the lakes, by careful drilling and water sampling, suggest conditions there may resemble the oceans believed to exist on planet Jupiter's moon Europa.\n", "If the hydrostatic seal is penetrated when the floating level is high, the water will start flowing out in a jökulhlaup. Due to melting of the channel the discharge increases exponentially, unless other processes allow the discharge to increase even faster. Due to the high head that can be achieved in subglacial lakes, jökulhlaups may reach very high rates of discharge.\n\nSection::::Antarctica.\n", "Section::::Legend.\n", "As the temperature continues to drop, the water on the surface may get cold enough to freeze and the lake/ocean begins to ice over. A new thermocline develops where the densest water () sinks to the bottom, and the less dense water (water that is approaching the freezing point) rises to the top. Once this new stratification establishes itself, it lasts until the water warms enough for the 'spring turnover,' which occurs after the ice melts and the surface water temperature rises to 4 °C. During this transition, a thermal bar may develop.\n", "BULLET::::- The lake is Monomictic Mixing type and develops thermal stratification in March to November. Maximum depth of the Thermocline is . Hypolimnion temperature ranges from to .\n\nBULLET::::- pH value varied from a maximum of 8.8 on the surface to a minimum of 7.7 at depth in year over the 12 months period\n\nBULLET::::- DO [mg l-1] value varied from a maximum of 10.4 on the surface to a minimum of 2.2 at the bottom in year over the 12 months period\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Nemi has been the subject for works by such artists as John Robert Cozens, George Inness, and Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes.\n\nBULLET::::- Muriel Spark's 1976 novel \"The Takeover\" is set in three fictitious villas overlooking Lake Nemi.\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Nemi inspired the first name of Norwegian comic character Nemi Montoya.\n\nBULLET::::- The lake and its surroundings are featured in the game Assassin's Creed Brotherhood wherein the title character destroys a war machine commissioned by the work's antagonist Cesare Borgia and invented by Leonardo da Vinci.\n", "BULLET::::- High House Tarn, south of Glaramara\n\nBULLET::::- Innominate Tarn, on Haystacks\n\nBULLET::::- Kelly Hall Tarn, south-east of Torver\n\nBULLET::::- Kentmere Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Knipe Tarn, south-east of Bowness-on-Windermere\n\nBULLET::::- Lanty's Tarn, west of Patterdale\n\nBULLET::::- Levers Water, on the east side of the Coniston fells\n\nBULLET::::- Lily Tarn, north of Clappersgate\n\nBULLET::::- Lingmoor Tarn, on Lingmoor Fell\n\nBULLET::::- Little Langdale Tarn\n\nBULLET::::- Little Tarn, near Orthwaite, south of Uldale\n\nBULLET::::- Littlewater Tarn, near Bampton\n\nBULLET::::- Long Moss, between Torver and Coniston Water\n\nBULLET::::- Loughrigg Tarn, below Loughrigg\n\nBULLET::::- Loweswater\n", "BULLET::::- Boretree Tarn, west of the southern end of Windermere\n\nBULLET::::- Bowscale Tarn, on the slopes of Bowscale Fell\n\nBULLET::::- Brothers Water\n\nBULLET::::- Burnmoor Tarn, Between Eskdale and Wasdale\n\nBULLET::::- Buttermere\n\nBULLET::::- Chapelhouse Reservoir, south-east of Uldale\n\nBULLET::::- Codale Tarn, east of High Raise and the Langdale Pikes\n\nBULLET::::- Cogra Moss, between Ennerdale Water and Loweswater\n\nBULLET::::- Coniston Water\n\nBULLET::::- Crummock Water\n\nBULLET::::- Dalehead Tarn, between Dale Head and High Spy\n\nBULLET::::- Derwent Water\n\nBULLET::::- Devoke Water\n\nBULLET::::- Dock Tarn, east of Rosthwaite, south of Watendlath\n\nBULLET::::- Easedale Tarn, west of Grasmere\n\nBULLET::::- Elter Water\n\nBULLET::::- Ennerdale Water\n", "Section::::Glacial Event.\n", "Other small lakes such as Lake Athabasca in northern Saskatchewan and Lake Nipigon in northwestern Ontario produce early season lake-effect snows. Smallwood Reservoir, a man-made lake located in Labrador has on occasion generated lake-effect snow.\n", "BULLET::::- Styhead Tarn, at the head of Styhead Gill, at Sty Head Pass, between Scafell Pike and Great Gable\n\nBULLET::::- Tarn at Leaves on Rosthwaite Fell\n\nBULLET::::- Tarn Hows\n\nBULLET::::- Tewet Tarn, below Low Rigg near St John's in the Vale\n\nBULLET::::- Thirlmere\n\nBULLET::::- Three Dubs Tarn, between Windermere and Esthwaite Water\n\nBULLET::::- Three Tarns, between Bowfell and Crinkle Crags\n\nBULLET::::- Torver Tarn, disused reservoir on Torver Low Common\n\nBULLET::::- Tosh Tarn, south east of Wast Water, near the River Irt\n\nBULLET::::- Ullswater\n\nBULLET::::- Wast Water\n\nBULLET::::- Watendlath Tarn\n\nBULLET::::- Wet Sleddale Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Windermere\n", "On 28 December 2018, the Subglacial Antarctic Lakes Scientific Access (SALSA) team announced they had reached Mercer Lake after melting their way through of ice with a high-pressure hot-water drill. The team is collecting water samples and bottom sediment samples down to 6 m deep.\n\nSection::::Extraterrestrial subglacial lakes.\n\nThere is also evidence that there are subglacial lakes outside of Earth.\n", "The role of subglacial lakes on ice dynamics is unclear - certainly on the Greenland Ice Sheet subglacial water acts to enhance basal ice motion in a complex manner (e.g. Zwally et al. 2002). The \"Recovery Lakes\" lie at the head of a major ice stream and may influence the dynamics of the region (Bell et al. 2007). A modest (10%) speed up of Byrd Glacier may have been influenced by a subglacial drainage event (Stearns et al. 2008). The flow of subglacial water is known in downstream areas where ice streams are known to migrate, accelerate or stagnate on centennial time scales and highlights that subglacial water may be discharged over the ice sheet grounding line (Fricker and Scambos 2009).\n", "The bottom of the lake is bowl shaped. It contains some shallow flat areas and a deep area in the middle. Nearly half of the lake is less than fifteen feet deep while the maximum depth is approximately fifty feet.\n", "The water below the ice remains liquid since geothermal heating balances the heat loss at the ice surface. The pressure causes the melting point of water to be below 0 °C. The ceiling of the subglacial lake will be at the level where the pressure melting point of water intersects the temperature gradient. In Lake Vostok the ice over the lake is thus much thicker than the ice sheet around it. Hypersaline lakes remain liquid due to their salt content.\n", "The downwelling of dense water at the thermal bar acts as a barrier to horizontal mixing. In spring, this concentrates warm water and suspended materials in the near shore waters around the edge of the lake. Satellite imagery has been used to identify thermal bars using their thermal characteristics as well as the concentration of suspended materials on their shoreward side, typically due to surface runoff to the lake.\n", "Section::::Phases.:Emerson Phase: 11,690–10,630 YBP.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nLake Neale was named after Frank Neale, one of the pilots of an aerial expedition to accurately survey the desert regions northwest of Alice Springs in 1930. Neale flew one of the two planes that had been hired by explorer Donald Mackay for the expedition. The team made 15 survey flights over 24 days, in which they mapped the dimensions of Lakes Amadeus and Neale and found the even larger Lake Mackay, further to the north.\n", "BULLET::::- Low Tarn, south of Red Pike, between Yewbarrow and the Seatallan-Haycock ridge\n\nBULLET::::- Low Water, north of the Old Man of Coniston\n\nBULLET::::- Meadley Reservoir, by Flat Fell, Ennerdale\n\nBULLET::::- Mortimere, south of Clappersgate\n\nBULLET::::- Moss Eccles Tarn, between Windermere and Esthwaite Water\n\nBULLET::::- Over Water, south of Uldale\n\nBULLET::::- Parkgate Tarn, near Eskdale\n\nBULLET::::- Potter Tarn, west of Garnett Bridge\n\nBULLET::::- Red Tarn (Helvellyn), below the summit of Helvellyn\n\nBULLET::::- Red Tarn (Langdale), between Cold Pike and Pike of Blisco\n\nBULLET::::- Rydal Water\n\nBULLET::::- Scales Tarn, below the summit of Blencathra and Sharp Edge\n", "Subglacial lake\n\nA subglacial lake is a lake under a glacier, typically an ice cap or ice sheet. There are many such lakes, with Lake Vostok in Antarctica being by far the largest known on Earth at present.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "The theme relates to the classical story of the warrior Marcus Curtius, who was said to have thrown himself in the Lacus Curtius near the Forum Romanum in order to stop a chasm made by the river Tiber. A similar story was told about King Midas.\n\nSection::::Identification.\n\nNot every lake mentioned in medieval sources can be identified with certainty. \"Loch Lainglinne\", for instance, might be another reference to Belfast Lough, which was known as \"Loch Laoigh\" or \"Loch Laigh\".\n", "At the base of the Crags, a lake forms temporarily each year. Known as the Crags Lake or the Chaos Crater, it forms in a depression that acts as a basin to collect melted snow during the spring season. The lake has cool temperatures near the shores, and grows colder near its center. It usually dries up by the end of August.\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "BULLET::::- Schoolknott Tarn, south east of the town of Windermere\n\nBULLET::::- Scoat Tarn, below Red Pike and Scoat Fell\n\nBULLET::::- Seathwaite Tarn, west of the Coniston fells\n\nBULLET::::- Simpson Ground Reservoir, east of Staveley-in-Cartmel\n\nBULLET::::- Siney Tarn, north of Eskdale\n\nBULLET::::- Skeggles Water, between Kentmere and Longsleddale\n\nBULLET::::- Slew Tarn, east of Skelwith Bridge\n\nBULLET::::- Small Water, between Mardale Ill Bell and Harter Fell\n\nBULLET::::- Sow How Tarn\n\nBULLET::::- Sprinkling Tarn, between Scafell Pike and Seathwaite Fell\n\nBULLET::::- Stickle Tarn, Langdale, below Pavey Ark in the Langdale Pikes\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Contemporary sidewalks are most often made of concrete in North America, while tarmac, asphalt, brick, stone, slab and (increasingly) rubber are more common in Europe. Different materials are more or less friendly environmentally: pumice-based trass, for example, when used as an extender is less energy-intensive than Portland cement concrete or petroleum-based materials such as asphalt or tar-penetration macadam). Multi-use paths alongside roads are sometimes made of materials that are softer than concrete, such as asphalt.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Wood.\n", "A flexible, or asphalt, or Tarmac pavement typically consists of three or four layers. For a four layer flexible pavement, there is a surface course, base course, and subbase course constructed over a compacted, natural soil subgrade. When building a three layer flexible pavement, the subbase layer is not used and the base course is placed directly on the natural subgrade.\n", "Different types of asphalt concrete have different performance characteristics in terms of surface durability, tire wear, braking efficiency and roadway noise. In principle, the determination of appropriate asphalt performance characteristics must take into account the volume of traffic in each vehicle category, and the performance requirements of the friction course.\n", "Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three layers - a prepared subgrade, base or subbase, and a concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed according to a designed choice of plan dimensions for the slab panels, directly influencing the intensity of thermal stresses occurring within the pavement. In addition to the slab panels, temperature reinforcements must be designed to control cracking behavior in the slab. Joint spacing is determined by the slab panel dimensions.\n", "In highly variable climates which undergo multiple freeze-thaw cycles, the concrete blocks will be separated by expansion joints to allow for thermal expansion without breakage. The use of expansion joints in sidewalks may not be necessary, as the concrete will shrink while setting.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Tarmac and asphalt.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, Australia and France suburban sidewalks are most commonly constructed of tarmac. In urban or inner-city areas sidewalks are most commonly constructed of slabs, stone, or brick depending upon the surrounding street architecture and furniture.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Amsterdammertje\n\nBULLET::::- Big Apple Pothole and Sidewalk Protection Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Café\n\nBULLET::::- Carwalking\n", "The weight of an asphalt pavement depends upon the aggregate type, the asphalt, and the air void content. An average example in the United States is about 112 pounds per square yard, per inch of pavement thickness.\n", "The construction of an effective, long-lasting asphalt pavement requires an experienced construction crew, committed to their work quality and equipment control.\n\nConstruction issues:\n\nBULLET::::- Asphalt mix segregation\n\nBULLET::::- Laydown\n\nBULLET::::- Compaction\n\nBULLET::::- Joints\n\nA prime coat is a low viscosity asphalt that is applied to the base course prior to laying the HMA surface course. This coat bonds loose material, creating a cohesive layer between the base course and asphalt surface.\n", "Asphalt concrete generates less roadway noise than a Portland cement concrete surface, and is typically less noisy than chip seal surfaces. Because tire noise is generated through the conversion of kinetic energy to sound waves, more noise is produced as the speed of a vehicle increases. The notion that highway design might take into account acoustical engineering considerations, including the selection of the type of surface paving, arose in the early 1970s.\n", "Today, most sidewalk ribbons are constructed with cross-lying strain-relief grooves placed or sawn at regular intervals typically apart. This partitioning, an improvement over the continuous slab, was patented in 1924 by Arthur Wesley Hall and William Alexander McVay, who wished to minimize damage to the concrete from the effects of tectonic and temperature fluctuations, both of which can crack longer segments. The technique is not perfect, as freeze-thaw cycles (in cold-weather regions) and tree root growth can eventually result in damage which requires repair.\n", "Likewise, macadam and tarmac pavements can still sometimes be found buried underneath asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, but are rarely constructed today.\n", "In the United States, adjoining property owners must in most situations finance all or part of the cost of sidewalk construction. In a legal case in 1917 involving E. L. Stewart, a former member of the Louisiana House of Representatives and a lawyer in Minden in Webster Parish, the Louisiana Supreme Court ruled that owners must pay whether they wish for the sidewalk to be constructed or not.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Transportation.\n", "In rural roads, sidewalks may not be present as the amount of traffic (pedestrian or motorized) may not be enough to justify separating the two. In suburban and urban areas, sidewalks are more common. In town and city centers (known as downtown in North America) the amount of pedestrian traffic can exceed motorized traffic, and in this case the sidewalks can occupy more than half of the width of the road, or the whole road can be reserved for pedestrians, see Pedestrian zone.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Environment.\n", "Also compared to older concrete armour units, as e.g. Tetrapod which are normally placed in double layer as for rock protection, modern single layer armour units involve significantly less concrete. Therefore, less construction material (cement, gravel) is required, reducing costs and also the carbon footprint of coastal protection works.\n", "Modern pavements are designed for heavier vehicle loads and faster speeds, requiring thicker slabs and deeper subbase. Subbase is the layer or successive layers of stone, gravel and sand supporting the pavement. It is needed to spread out the slab load bearing on the underlying soil and to conduct away any water getting under the slabs. Water will undermine a pavement over time, so much of pavement and pavement joint design are meant to minimize the amount of water getting and staying under the slabs.\n", "There are two most commonly used types of pavement surfaces used in highway construction: hot-mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These pavement surface courses provide a smooth and safe riding surface, while simultaneously transferring the heavy traffic loads through the various base courses and into the underlying subgrade soils.\n\nSection::::Construction, maintenance, and management.:Highway construction.:Surface course construction.:Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layers.\n\nHot-mix asphalt surface courses are referred to as flexible pavements. The Superpave System was developed in the late 1980s and has offered changes to the design approach, mix design, specifications, and quality testing of materials.\n", "BULLET::::- Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP): Chunks of asphalt that have been removed from a road, parking lot or driveway are considered reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). These chunks of asphalt typically are ripped up when making a routine asphalt repair, man hole repair, catch basin repair or sewer main repair. Because the asphalt has been compacted, RAP is a denser asphalt material and typically takes longer to recycle than blacktop cookies.\n", "Sidewalks may have a small effect on reducing vehicle miles traveled and carbon dioxide emissions. A study of sidewalk and transit investments in Seattle neighborhoods found vehicle travel reductions of 6 to 8% and CO emission reductions of 1.3 to 2.2%\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Road traffic safety.\n\nResearch commissioned for the Florida Department of Transportation, published in 2005, found that, in Florida, the Crash Reduction Factor (used to estimate the expected reduction of crashes during a given period) resulting from the installation of sidewalks averaged 74%.\n", "The presence or absence of sidewalks was one of three factors that were found to encourage drivers to choose lower, safer speeds.\n\nOn the other hand, the implementation of schemes which involve the removal of sidewalks, such as shared space schemes, are reported to deliver a dramatic drop in crashes and congestion too, which indicates that a number of other factors, such as the local speed environment, also play an important role in whether sidewalks are necessarily the best local solution for pedestrian safety.\n", "BULLET::::- Asphalt millings: Small pieces of asphalt produced by mechanically grinding asphalt surfaces are referred to as asphalt millings. Large millings that have a rich, black tint indicating a high asphalt cement content are best for asphalt recycling purposes. Surface millings are recommended over full depth millings when choosing asphalt millings to recycle. Full depth millings usually contain sub-base contaminants such as gravel, mud and sand. These sub base contaminants will leach oil away from original asphalt and dry out the material in the recycling process. Asphalt milled from asphalt is better than asphalt milled from concrete. When milling asphalt from concrete the dust that is created is not compatible with asphalt products because it is not asphalt.\n", "The asphalt plant is mainly composed of cold aggregate supply system, drum dryer, coal burner, coal feeder, dust collector, hot aggregate elevator, vibrating screen, filler supply system, weighing and mixing system, asphalt storage, bitumen supply system. All these components have characteristics that impact not only the overall quality of the asphalt but also the effect on the environment.\n", "In the United States and Canada, the most common type of sidewalk consists of a poured concrete ribbon, examples of which from as early as the 1860s can be found in good repair in San Francisco, and stamped with the name of the contractor and date of installation. When quantities of Portland cement were first imported to the United States in the 1880s, its principal use was in the construction of sidewalks.\n", "Segmental pavers have been used for thousands of years. The Romans built roads with them that are still there. But it was not until the mid-1940s that pavers began to be produced out of concrete. It started in the Netherlands where all the roads are made to be flexible because the country is below sea level and the ground shifts, moves and sinks. Poured concrete is not an option because it will crack. Individual units not set in concrete, and placed in sand perform far better than concrete. Before the paver was made from concrete, either real stone or a clay product was used.\n", "BULLET::::- Cable coatings\n\nBULLET::::- Paints\n\nBULLET::::- Building water proofing\n\nBULLET::::- Tile underlying waterproofing\n\nBULLET::::- Newspaper ink production\n\nBULLET::::- and many other applications\n\nSection::::Modern use.:Rolled asphalt concrete.\n\nThe largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe.\n", "Section::::Flexible pavement.\n", "There are two primary types of pavement — flexible and rigid. Resilient asphalt is a type of flexible pavement. Flexible pavement typically consists of a bituminous surface course (asphalt concrete) over a base course and sub-base course. Stress induced by traffic loading is highest at the bituminous surface; therefore, this course must be able to withstand the most stress. The layers below are equally important; however, they are not expected to withstand as much stress as the bituminous surface course. One major benefit of flexible pavement is that changes in atmospheric conditions or variations in temperature do not substantially influence its load-bearing qualities.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Spiders do not usually adhere to their own webs, because they are able to spin both sticky and non-sticky types of silk, and are careful to travel across only non-sticky portions of the web. However, they are not immune to their own glue. Some of the strands of the web are sticky, and others are not. For example, if a spider has chosen to wait along the outer edges of its web, it may spin a non-sticky prey or signal line to the web hub to monitor web movement. However, in the course of spinning sticky strands, spiders have to touch these sticky strands. They do this without sticking by using careful movements, dense hairs and nonstick coatings on their feet to prevent adhesion.\n", "After the radials are complete, the spider fortifies the center of the web with about five circular threads. It makes a spiral of non-sticky, widely spaced threads to enable it to move easily around its own web during construction, working from the inside outward. Then, beginning from the outside and moving inward, the spider methodically replaces this spiral with a more closely spaced one made of adhesive threads. It uses the initial radiating lines as well as the non-sticky spirals as guide lines. The spaces between each spiral and the next are directly proportional to the distance from the tip of its back legs to its spinners. This is one way the spider uses its own body as a measuring/spacing device. While the sticky spirals are formed, the non-adhesive spirals are removed as there is no need for them any more.\n", "Many webs span gaps between objects which the spider could not cross by crawling. This is done by first producing a fine adhesive thread to drift on a faint breeze across a gap. When it sticks to a surface at the far end, the spider feels the change in the vibration. The spider reels in and tightens the first strand, then carefully walks along it and strengthens it with a second thread. This process is repeated until the thread is strong enough to support the rest of the web.\n", "The best-known method of prey capture is by means of sticky webs. Varying placement of webs allows different species of spider to trap different insects in the same area, for example flat horizontal webs trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath while flat vertical webs trap insects in horizontal flight. Web-building spiders have poor vision, but are extremely sensitive to vibrations.\n", "After the spider has completed its web, it chews off the initial three center spiral threads then sits and waits. If the web is broken without any structural damage during the construction, the spider does not make any initial attempts to rectify the problem.\n", "Section::::Types.:Orb web construction.\n\nMost orb weavers construct webs in a vertical plane, although there are exceptions, such as \"Uloborus diversus\", which builds a horizontal web. During the process of making an orb web, the spider will use its own body for measurements.\n", "To open the old exoskeleton, the spider generally contracts its abdomen (opisthosoma) to supply enough fluid to pump into the prosoma with sufficient pressure to crack it open along its lines of weakness. The carapace lifts off from the front, like a helmet, as its surrounding skin ruptures, but it remains attached at the back. Now the spider works its limbs free and typically winds up dangling by a new thread of silk attached to its own exuviae, which in turn hang from the original silk attachment.\n", "After strengthening the first thread, the spider continues to make a Y-shaped netting. The first three radials of the web are now constructed. More radials are added, making sure that the distance between each radial and the next is small enough to cross. This means that the number of radials in a web directly depends on the size of the spider plus the size of the web. It is common for a web to be about 20 times the size of the spider building it.\n", "The larger part of the odd-clawed spider's web is composed of a network of supporting threads built up to above the ground. Two lateral support threads extend from this network and are attached to vegetation or ground below. These threads are held more or less parallel to each other by several short bridge threads. The spider spins the catching ladder in between them, composed of a loose irregular zigzag of cribellate thread. The catching ladder and the supporting webs are usually built far from the retreat of the spider in the tree hollows, as far as away. The retreat and the webs are connected to each other by a single sturdy thread.\n", "Most spiders that hunt actively, rather than relying on webs, have dense tufts of fine hairs between the paired claws at the tips of their legs. These tufts, known as scopulae, consist of bristles whose ends are split into as many as 1,000 branches, and enable spiders with scopulae to walk up vertical glass and upside down on ceilings. It appears that scopulae get their grip from contact with extremely thin layers of water on surfaces. Spiders, like most other arachnids, keep at least four legs on the surface while walking or running.\n\nSection::::Description.:Silk production.\n", "The spider, after spinning its web, then waits on or near the web for a prey animal to become trapped. The spider senses the impact and struggle of a prey animal by vibrations transmitted through the web. A spider positioned in the middle of the web makes for a highly visible prey for birds and other predators, even without web decorations; many day-hunting orb-web spinners reduce this risk by hiding at the edge of the web with one foot on a signal line from the hub or by appearing to be inedible or unappetizing.\n", "\"Theridiosoma gemmosum\" constructs a small orb web. The radii do not run directly to a central hub as with other orb webs, but are first joined into groups of two or three before combining to meet in the middle. A single thread runs from the centre to a nearby support, and is held by the spider. While the spider is holding this thread the tension pulls the web into a conical shape, described as \"like an umbrella turned inside out\". When a prey item hits the web, the spider releases the tension, causing the prey to become more enmeshed.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "The Linyphiidae generally make horizontal but uneven sheets, with tangles of stopping threads above. Insects that hit the stopping threads fall onto the sheet or are shaken onto it by the spider, and are held by sticky threads on the sheet until the spider can attack from below.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Fossil record.\n", "Some spiders have a cribellum, a modified spinneret with up to 40,000 spigots, each of which produces a single very fine fiber. The fibers are pulled out by the calamistrum, a comb-like set of bristles on the jointed tip of the cribellum, and combined into a composite woolly thread that is very effective in snagging the bristles of insects. The earliest spiders had cribella, which produced the first silk capable of capturing insects, before spiders developed silk coated with sticky droplets. However, most modern groups of spiders have lost the cribellum.\n", "BULLET::::4. Lay a loose \"temporary\" spiral of non-sticky silk, starting near the hub and ending near the edge of the web with about five times the spacing of the final sticky silk.\n\nBULLET::::5. Draw the tight spiral of sticky silk starting at the edge of the web and working inward, and removing during the same process the loose spiral.\n\nBULLET::::6. Remove lines at the center of the hub, leaving a hole or (in some species) replacing them with other lines\n", "The yellow garden spider can oscillate her web vigorously while she remains firmly attached in the center. This action might prevent predators like wasps and birds from drawing a good bead, and also to fully entangle an insect before it cuts itself loose.\n", "The stickiness of spiders' webs is courtesy of droplets of glue suspended on the silk threads. This glue is multifunctional – that is, its behavior depends on how quickly something touching it attempts to withdraw. At high velocities, they function as an elastic solid, resembling rubber; at lower velocities, they simply act as a sticky glue. This allows them to retain a grip on attached food particles. The web is electrically conductive which causes the silk threads to spring out to trap their quarry, as flying insects tend to gain a static charge which attracts the silk.\n\nSection::::Communal spider webs.\n", "Several different types of silk may be used in web construction, including a \"sticky\" capture silk and \"fluffy\" capture silk, depending on the type of spider. Webs may be in a vertical plane (most orb webs), a horizontal plane (sheet webs), or at any angle in between. It is hypothesized that these types of aerial webs co-evolved with the evolution of winged insects. As insects are spiders' main prey, it is likely that they would impose strong selectional forces on the foraging behavior of spiders. Most commonly found in the sheet-web spider families, some webs will have loose, irregular tangles of silk above them. These tangled obstacle courses serve to disorient and knock down flying insects, making them more vulnerable to being trapped on the web below. They may also help to protect the spider from predators such as birds and wasps.\n", "\"Araneus mitificus\" builds orb webs that are characteristically missing a section. The spider does not rest on the center of the web, but instead builds a silk-lined sanctuary in a leaf at the margins. The leaf is bent at the edges and roofed with a mesh of silk. If a prey animal becomes entangled in the web, the vibrations from its struggle travel to the center of the web, then along a single long strand of silk (the signal line) positioned in the empty section. The strand is linked to the hidden spider. Once the spider feels the signal line vibrate, it will rush out to capture the prey.\n", "This spider builds a funnel-shaped web to catch its prey. It usually consists of a multitude of stressed silk threads spun over a flat surface (such as a window sill) near any corner, with a funnel-like structure reaching for the corner, in which the spider would typically reside (hence the name). These webs can become quite large if undisturbed. They act like cord strings, helping the spider glide over them, and once a prey stumbles into the web, it will quickly get attacked, then dragged inside the funnel part and eaten, but very rarely stored underneath the structure.\n", "Spiders groom themselves regularly, and more often if wet or dirty. They moisten their fangs, draw the legs one at a time through the fangs, and \"comb\" the legs with the fangs and palps. The first and fourth pairs of legs are then used to groom other parts of the body, and the only place they appear not to reach is the dorsal surface of the carapace.\n", "The hubs of orb webs, where the spiders lurk, are usually above the center, as the spiders can move downwards faster than upwards. If there is an obvious direction in which the spider can retreat to avoid its own predators, the hub is usually offset towards that direction.\n", "Spiders in the genus \"Deinopis\" catch their prey in an unusual fashion. They first spin a small upright rectangular cribellate web. This is then detached from its supporting threads and held horizontally above the ground by the spider's long front two pairs of legs while the spider hangs almost vertically. Passing prey is then captured by dropping the \"net\" over it.\n\nSection::::Eyes.\n", "Like many species of spider, a \"P. schultzi\" lays a continuous dragline of silk as it moves, and from time to time anchors the dragline to a surface with a spot of sticky silk. This allows the spider to return to the surface if the animal is dislodged. A spider about to jump first lays a sticky silk anchor, and then lays out a dragline as it flies. Unlike those of most jumping spiders, \"P. schultzi\"′s draglines stick to each other and, when a \"P. schultzi\" has laid a few lines across a gap, it uses these as walkways and reinforces them with additional silk as it moves.\n", "Each of the eight legs of a spider consists of seven distinct parts. The part closest to and attaching the leg to the cephalothorax is the coxa; the next segment is the short trochanter that works as a hinge for the following long segment, the femur; next is the spider's knee, the patella, which acts as the hinge for the tibia; the metatarsus is next, and it connects the tibia to the tarsus (which may be thought of as a foot of sorts); the tarsus ends in a claw made up of either two or three points, depending on the family to which the spider belongs. Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton to flex their limbs, spiders and a few other groups still use hydraulic pressure to extend them, a system inherited from their pre-arthropod ancestors. The only extensor muscles in spider legs are located in the three hip joints (bordering the coxa and the trochanter). As a result, a spider with a punctured cephalothorax cannot extend its legs, and the legs of dead spiders curl up. Spiders can generate pressures up to eight times their resting level to extend their legs, and jumping spiders can jump up to 50 times their own length by suddenly increasing the blood pressure in the third or fourth pair of legs. Although larger spiders use hydraulics to straighten their legs, unlike smaller jumping spiders they depend on their flexor muscles to generate the propulsive force for their jumps.\n" ]

[ "Spiders should get stuck in their own web." ]

[ "Spiders produce an oil that makes their legs slippery." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Spiders should get stuck in their own web." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Spiders produce an oil that makes their legs slippery." ]

[ "In 2014, SpaceX tested grid fins on a first-stage demonstration test vehicle of its reusable Falcon 9 rocket, and on December 21, 2015 they were used during the high-velocity atmospheric portion of the reentry to help guide a commercial Falcon 9 first stage back to land for the first successful orbital booster landing in spaceflight history.\n\nThe 1st stage of the private Chinese company i-Space's Hyperbola-1 rocket appeared on July 25, 2019 to be equipped with steerable grid fins for attitude control.\n", "Section::::Origin and design.:Thunderbolt.\n\nThe Thunderbolt first appeared in the season 3 episode, \"Severed Dreams\", which initially aired in the United States in April 1996. With the addition of rotating airfoils, that when deployed essentially extend the length of the ‘wings’, located beside the 4 main thruster assemblies, this was depicted as the first atmospheric-capable production model of a \"Starfury\".\n", "Kiel probe\n\nA Kiel probe is a device for measuring stagnation pressure or stagnation temperature in fluid dynamics. It is a variation of a Pitot probe where the inlet is protected by a \"shroud\" or a \"shield.\" Compared to the Pitot probe, it is less sensitive to changes in yaw angle, and is therefore useful when the probe's alignment with the flow direction is variable or imprecise.\n", "The fin actuation subsystem (FAS) was originally designed and manufactured by the Claverham Group (formerly Fairey Hydraulics Limited) a Somerset, UK, based division of the U.S. company Hamilton Sundstrand. Currently the design has been taken onboard by the MBDA UK, at Stevenage. The FAS is mounted at the rear of the intake fairings. The design of the FAS is complicated by the linkages required between the actuator in the faring and the body mounted fins.\n\nSection::::Description.:Datalink.\n", "Grid fin\n\nGrid fins (or lattice fins) are a type of flight control surface used on rockets and bombs, sometimes in place of more conventional control surfaces, such as planar fins. They were developed in the 1950s by a team led by Sergey Belotserkovskiy and used since the 1970s in various Soviet ballistic missile designs such as the SS-12 \"Scaleboard\", SS-20 \"Saber\", SS-21 \"Scarab\", SS-23 \"Spider\", and SS-25 \"Sickle\", as well as the N-1 (the intended rocket for the Soviet moon program).\n", "Saturn INT-20\n\nThe Saturn INT-20 was a proposed intermediate-payload follow-on from the Apollo Saturn V launch vehicle. A conical-form interstage would be fitted on top of the S-IC stage to support the S-IVB stage, so it could be considered either a retrofitted Saturn IB with a more powerful first stage, or a stubby, cut-down Saturn V without the S-II second stage.\n\nThree variants were studied, one with three F-1 engines in the first stage, one with four, and one with five.\n\nSection::::Performance.\n", "Located at the rear of the four main engines are thrust vectoring baffles. Their purpose was to indicate the fine tuning of the direction of the exhaust during animated sequences. However, this idea was never realised due to the processing limitations of the early desktop computers used, and the added time necessary to accurately represent the movements.\n\nSection::::Origin and design.:Medium fighter.\n", "SpaceX Falcon 9-R — Grid fins are being used for increased precision in control of the landing location for reusable launch vehicles. The grid fin development effort is a part of the SpaceX reusable launch system development program that has been underway since 2012. The first hypersonic flight test with grid fins was in February 2015, and grid fins were subsequently used on all reusable Falcon 9 experimental test landings and, eventually, after December 2015, an increasing number of successful first stage landings and recoveries.\n", "A leading-edge root extension (LERX), which is a small fillet, is situated on the front section of the intake and wings of the aircraft. It has a typically roughly rectangular shape, running forward from the leading edge of the wing root to a point along the fuselage. Also, the AMCA has an In-flight refueling (IFR) probe that retracts beside the cockpit during normal operation.\n\nSection::::Design.:Airframe.\n", "China's Long March 2C launch, on July 25, 2019, tested grid fins atop the first stage for controlled re-entry of the spent rocket stage away from people in nearby towns and cities.\n\nSection::::Design characteristics.\n\nConventional planar control fins are shaped like miniature wings. By contrast, grid fins are a lattice of smaller aerodynamic surfaces arranged within a box. Their appearance has sometimes led them to be compared to potato mashers or waffle irons.\n", "BULLET::::- The interruption in the flow was caused by freezing of the hydrazine.\n\nBULLET::::- The freezing resulted from the proximity of hydrazine and cold helium feed lines, these lines being connected by the same support structure, which acted as a thermal bridge.\n\nBULLET::::- Ambiguities in the design documents allowed the installation of this type of thermal \"bridge\" between the two lines. In fact, such bridges have also been seen on other Fregat stages now under production at NPO Lavochkin.\n", "Designed by Tim Earls, who joined \"Babylon 5\" in season four, and built by Larry Bowman, this was the only \"Starfury\" variant to be seen that did not have the distinctive X configuration of the struts holding the thruster assemblies. Though it did retain the single standing pilot. Earls would reference real world objects and incorporate those ideas into a design as he approached them as if they were real. This can be seen with the texture map, the hydraulic and articulated lifting claws, and the more industrial appearance of the two struts holding the thrusters. Referred to as a forklift by Earls, it was never named in the show though it is often referred to as a construction or maintenance Fury by fans.\n", "In McPhee's words, the craft was \"a triangle with a deep belly and a vaulting back\" or a \"delta\" when seen from above and a \"fat and tremendous pumpkin seed\" from the side (hence \"deltoid pumpkin seed\").\n\nThe 26's structure was composed of aluminum tubes (salvaged from the wrecked \"AEREON III\"), joined using heli-arc welding and covered with aircraft cloth and aluminum sheet.\n\nSection::::Description.:Propulsion.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tom Swift\" - In the new Tom Swift Jr. book \"Tom Swift and The Deep-Sea Hydrodome\" (1958), Tom invents the \"repellatron\". The device can be set to repel specific chemical elements. It was used to create a bubble habitat on the ocean floor, and as the propulsion system for his spacecraft \"Challenger\".\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Honor Harrington\" books by David Weber\n", "In October 2018, at least two fairing recovery tests were performed, involving \"Mr. Steven\" and a helicopter, which would drop a fairing half from the height of about 3300 meters. The actual outcome of the tests is unclear.\n\nIn April 2019, during the second Falcon Heavy mission, recovery boat \"Go Searcher\" fished the fairing halves out of the sea and it was announced the fairings would be used on a Starlink mission.\n", "Living Plume Shield (satellite)\n\nThe Living Plume Shield or LIPS were a set of three satellites launched as secondary payloads on Atlas rockets.\n\nBULLET::::- LIPS I, launched on 8 December 1980 on Atlas E/F serial number 68E, failed to reach orbit.\n\nBULLET::::- LIPS II, launched on 9 February 1983 on Atlas H serial number 6001H, is still operating. It carries a UHF single-channel transponder.\n\nBULLET::::- LIPS III, launched on 15 May 1987 on Atlas H serial number 6005H, is still operating. It weighs 138 pounds and has performed over 140 solar-cell experiments.\n", "Iteration on the design of the Falcon 9 grid fins continued into 2017. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk announced in early 2017 that a new version of the Falcon 9 grid fins would improve reusability for the company's vehicles. Falcon 9 Block 5/Version 2.5 will introduce new cast and cut titanium grid fins. Musk had noted the original Falcon 9 grid fins were made from aluminum. The fins experience temperatures near their maximum survivability limits during reentry and landing, and so the aluminum fins were coated with an ablative thermal protection system. In fact, some aluminum grid fins have actually caught fire during the entry and landing sequence. The new titanium grid fins should introduce greater controllability to the rocket and increase the payload to orbit capability by allowing Falcon 9 to fly at a higher angle of attack.\n", "Since the module names are also the names of three of the four Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the NASA MPLM Group approached Mirage Studios (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles) artist A.C. Farley to design a logo with a ninja turtle in an astronaut flight suit. There were cloisonné pins produced, as well as stickers and embroidered patches. There are supposed to be mission jackets using this design as well. Because the Ninja Turtles are copyrighted by Mirage Studios, NASA gave Mirage the copyright to the logo in exchange for the use of the studio's character on it.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n", "In Russia, they are often referred to as \"\" grid fins after Russian computational mechanician (also known as an advisor of Yuri Gagarin's aerospace engineering thesis, where grid fins were examined too), who developed them in the 1950s.\n", "The sunshield segment also includes that trim flap at the end of a sunshield deployment boom. This is also called the momentum trim tab. The trim tab helps balance out solar pressure. The trim tab also manages the effects of the reaction wheels. The reaction wheels are located in the Spacecraft Bus (JWST)\n\nThe trim flap reduces the amount of fuel needed, because the spacecraft does not have to balance out the force from solar pressure.\n\nSection::::Layers.\n", "In March 2017, Jeff Bezos showed graphics of the New Glenn which had four large \"strakes\" (rotatable fins) at the bottom of the booster (not shown in the Sept 2016 images top right). In the September 2017 announcement, Blue announced a much larger payload fairing for \"New Glenn\", this one in diameter, up from in the originally announced design.\n", "BULLET::::- Hypersonic grid fins were added to the booster test vehicle design beginning on the fifth ocean controlled-descent test flight in 2014 in order to enable precision landing. Arranged in an \"X\" configuration, the grid fins control the descending rocket's lift vector once the vehicle has returned to the atmosphere to enable a much more precise landing location. Iteration on the design continued into 2017. Larger and more robust grid fins, made from forged titanium and left unpainted, were first tested in June 2017, and has been used on all reusable Block 5 Falcon 9 first stages since May 2018.\n", "Vulcain\n\nVulcain is a family of European first stage rocket engines for Ariane 5 and the future Ariane 6. Its development began in 1988 and the first flight was completed in 1996. The updated version of the engine, Vulcain 2, was first successfully flown in 2005. Both members of the family use liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen cryogenic fuel. The new version under development for Ariane 6 will be called Vulcain 2.1.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some types of development items include \"pathfinders\", \"test beds\", and \"engineering test units\". Sometimes a single item can be used for different functions, or it may not be a physically created item at all, but rather a software simulation. The NEXUS space telescope was complete space telescope, but essentially a scaled down JWST but with a number of changes including only three mirror segments with one folding out for a main mirror diameter of 2.8 meters. It was lighter, so it was envisioned it could be launched as early as 2004 on a Delta 2 launch rocket. The design was cancelled at the end of 2000. At that time NGST/JWST was still a 8-meter design (50 m2), a few years later this was reduced eventually to the 25 m2 (6.5 m) design.\n", "In the summer of 2010, an Aerion-designed calibration fixture was tested aboard a NASA F-15B.\n\nThe experiments were intended to influence future laminar flow airfoil manufacturing standards for surface quality and assembly tolerances.\n\nA second test surface was flown during the first half of 2013, its design guided by the 2010 test.\n\nThe new test surface was designed to provide large extents of laminar flow and be shaped so boundary layer instabilities grow relatively slowly and smoothly. These characteristics should facilitate good boundary layer imaging of the roughness and step-height experiments performed in next phase.\n\nSection::::External links.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Early product innovations were driven by the principle that men and women may have different needs when it comes to odor protection, but women should never have to compromise on efficacy. The slogan “Strong Enough for a Man, Made for a Woman” was developed in the early 1970s and grew to become one of Secret’s most famous advertising tag lines. (Reference: P&G Corporate Archives)\n\nThe 1980s\n", "During the 1980s, Secret adapted the solid antiperspirant/deodorant from a round stick to a wide stick in order to better fit under a woman’s arm. Secret also introduced three new scents: Powder Fresh, Spring Breeze and Sporty Clean, to meet growing consumer demand for a variety of scents. By the end of the 1980s, Secret was the leading women’s deodorant brand in dollar sales.\n\nThe 1990s\n", "BULLET::::- Andre Birleanu\n\nBULLET::::- Pietro Boselli\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Bracks\n\nBULLET::::- Mehcad Brooks\n\nBULLET::::- Lars Burmeister\n\nBULLET::::- Cody Calafiore\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Carter\n\nBULLET::::- Anthony Catanzaro\n\nBULLET::::- Will Chalker\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Cheesman\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver Cheshire\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Clarke\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Cohen\n\nBULLET::::- Didier Cohen\n\nBULLET::::- Jai Courtney\n\nBULLET::::- Francesco Cura\n\nBULLET::::- Alberto de la Bella\n\nBULLET::::- Justin Deeley\n\nBULLET::::- Nyle DiMarco\n\nBULLET::::- Jamie Dornan\n\nBULLET::::- Luca Dotto\n\nBULLET::::- Sandor Earl\n\nBULLET::::- Oscar Emboaba\n\nBULLET::::- Thom Evans\n\nBULLET::::- Travis Fimmel\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Foden\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Foster\n\nBULLET::::- Nolan Gerard Funk\n\nSection::::List of male underwear models.:G–L.\n\nBULLET::::- David Gandy\n\nBULLET::::- Angelo Garcia\n", "BULLET::::- I N Y\n\nBULLET::::- Trust the Midas touch\n\nBULLET::::- At Ford, Quality is Job 1\n\nBULLET::::- Flick your Bic\n\nBULLET::::- Raise your hand if you're Sure - Sure deodorant\n\nBULLET::::- The “disadvantages” of a longer-than-King-size cigarette - Benson and Hedges 100's, cigarettes\n\nSection::::Women On The Web.\n", "As a rule of thumb, women's fragrances tend to have higher levels of aromatic compounds than men's fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men are typically sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but today are mainly seen in parfum, EdP and EdT concentrations.\n\nSection::::Dilution classes.:Solvent types.\n", "BULLET::::- Justin Gaston\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Grabarz\n\nBULLET::::- Calvin Harris\n\nBULLET::::- James Haskell\n\nBULLET::::- Djimon Hounsou\n\nBULLET::::- Christof Innerhofer\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Patrick Johnson\n\nBULLET::::- Mitchell Johnson\n\nBULLET::::- Rusty Joiner\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Jonas\n\nBULLET::::- Daren Kagasoff\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Kehoe\n\nBULLET::::- Jon Kortajarena\n\nBULLET::::- Arthur Kulkov\n\nBULLET::::- Camille Lacourt\n\nBULLET::::- Francisco Lachowski\n\nBULLET::::- Todd Lasance\n\nBULLET::::- Kayne Lawton\n\nBULLET::::- Marios Lekkas\n\nBULLET::::- William Levy\n\nBULLET::::- Freddie Ljungberg\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Lochte\n\nBULLET::::- Mario Lopez\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Lundqvist\n\nBULLET::::- Kellan Lutz\n\nSection::::List of male underwear models.:M–R.\n\nBULLET::::- Filippo Magnini\n\nBULLET::::- James Magnussen\n\nBULLET::::- Fabio Mancini\n\nBULLET::::- Javi Martínez\n\nBULLET::::- Mariano Martínez\n\nBULLET::::- Clint Mauro\n", "BULLET::::- Shawn Mendes\n\nBULLET::::- Lionel Messi\n\nBULLET::::- Scott McGregor\n\nBULLET::::- Noah Mills\n\nBULLET::::- Matthew Mitcham\n\nBULLET::::- Christian Monzon\n\nBULLET::::- Miro Moreira\n\nBULLET::::- Rafael Nadal\n\nBULLET::::- Hidetoshi Nakata\n\nBULLET::::- Garrett Neff\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Nessman\n\nBULLET::::- Felix Neureuther\n\nBULLET::::- Brett Novek\n\nBULLET::::- Aitor Ocio\n\nBULLET::::- Barrett Pall\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Palmer\n\nBULLET::::- Horacio Pancheri\n\nBULLET::::- Lance Parker\n\nBULLET::::- Lukas Podolski\n\nBULLET::::- John Quinlan\n\nBULLET::::- Patrick Rafter\n\nBULLET::::- Stuart Reardon\n\nBULLET::::- Adam Rickitt\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Ritchson\n\nBULLET::::- James Rodríguez\n\nBULLET::::- Cristiano Ronaldo\n\nBULLET::::- Massimiliano Rosolino\n\nSection::::List of male underwear models.:S–Z.\n\nBULLET::::- Antonio Sabato Jr\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Salvatore\n\nBULLET::::- Danny Schwarz\n\nBULLET::::- Adam Senn\n", "Secret (deodorant brand)\n\nSecret is an antiperspirant/deodorant for women manufactured by Procter & Gamble. It is sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Secret was launched as the first female deodorant in 1956, after more than 10 years of research that began in 1945. Secret is the only female brand antiperspirant/deodorant in Procter & Gamble’s portfolio of products, which includes male brands Gillette and Old Spice.\n", "Abloh created all the shoes in mens sizes. Except for the Air Force 1s, which were released in toddler sizes in the all black and volt colour-ways. Abloh added deconstructed versions of the Air Max 97, Blazer Mid and Waffle Racer in Women's sizes only.\n\nDuring 2019, Abloh shared images from his 'Figures of Speech' exhibition at MCA Chicago, which included initial samples of Nike and Air Jordan shoes from this collaboration. It included remodelled versions of the Air Jordan IV, Nike Vaporfly and Air VaporMax. \n\nSection::::Deconstructed shoes.\n\nSection::::Deconstructed shoes.:Air Force 1.\n", "There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective. Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design. Males tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.\n", "Section::::Product formulations and formats.\n\nSection::::Product formulations and formats.:Formulations.\n\nCommon and historical formulations for deodorants include the following active ingredients:\n\nSection::::Product formulations and formats.:Formats.\n\nDeodorants and antiperspirants come in many forms. What is commonly used varies in different countries. In Europe, aerosol sprays are popular, as are cream and roll-on forms. In North America, solid or gel forms are dominant.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Product differentiation can account for a portion of the difference between the prices of men's goods and women's goods. Products like the Radio Flyer scooter may cost more due to the cost of slightly changing the product. For example, a pink scooter may cost more than a red scooter because it is more expensive to paint a scooter pink than red, assuming such a large difference for this reason of production would be because the red scooters are the larger production, and pink scooters are in the minority. They may also be seen as more of a \"special edition\", like camo-print trampolines. This also applies to services like haircuts or dry cleaning. Oftentimes, women's haircuts cost more than men's because women's haircuts can involve more over time and are more labor-intensive than men's; they need to price haircuts for women higher than for men. In dry cleaning, men's clothing tends to be more uniform while women's clothing tends to have a lot of variabilities which can make it harder to clean. Pressing machines, normally made for men's clothing, are more difficult to use on women's clothes, which results in the dry-cleaners resorting to hand-pressing the clothing.\n", "The men's version and women's version of each shoe model is built using gender-specific templates to accommodate anatomical differences. Altra calls this Fit4Her(tm) on the ladies side, and is the only running shoe brand to do a female specific fit line wide.\n\nSection::::Features.:Wearables and smart shoes.\n", "Section::::Types of Grooming.:Male Cosmetics.:Skin Care.\n\nEven though men are taking care of their appearance increasingly, it is not easy to find information about men's cosmetics. Therefore, there are often men who use relatively easy-to-access female cosmetics. However, men's skin is fundamentally different from women, so using women's makeup can damage their skin. Greasy faces and blandness are considered one of the three biggest problems for men in their 20s to 40s. Thus, they are encouraged to use toner and lotion for oily skin type.\n\nSection::::Types of Grooming.:Male Cosmetics.:BB Cream.\n", "In 1985, Fruit of the Loom, Hanes, and Jockey International had the largest shares of the U.S. men's underwear market; these companies had about 35%, 15%, and 10% of the market, respectively.\n", "2wink Australia released its first range of men's swimwear in 2011.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\n2wink Australia has 10 different ranges of Australian-made underwear available, including Hung Downunder, 70s, 80s, walkabout, Sweet As! Candy, LOADED, LOADED Gen2, Mechanic, Predator, Rage, and previous ranges, including The Tanga, Longbox, Glovebox, Minibox, Hot Angel, Cool Devil and Space Cadet. The brand is also developing additional new ranges.\n\nSome of the brand's variations include Graffiti Longbox, Graffiti Glovebox, Graffiti Minibox, Longbox Split and Loaded Gen2 in cherry and white.\n", "With consumer products, differential pricing is usually not based explicitly on the actual gender of the purchaser, but is achieved implicitly by the use of differential packaging, labelling, or colour schemes designed to appeal to male or female consumers. In many cases, where the product is marketed to make an attractive gift, the gender of the purchaser may be different from that of the end user.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Deodorant.\n", "Menin conducted DCA's first study of gender pricing disparities between goods sold in New York City, and published a report, \"From Cradle to Cane: The Cost of Being a Female Consumer.\" Through a comparison of nearly 800 products with clear male and female versions from more than 90 brands sold online and in stores at two dozen New York City stores, the study found that, on average, products for women cost seven percent more than similar products for men and women's products were priced higher 42 percent of the time.\n\nSection::::Career.:Commissioner of the Mayor's Office of Media and Entertainment.\n", "Products marketed specifically toward women cost on average 7% more than products marketed toward men, according to a New York City Department of Consumer Affairs study. This discrepancy applies to apparel, toys, and healthcare products, among other things. In the toy sector, girls' toys cost on average 7% more than boys' toys. The study talked about a side-by-side comparison of a Radio Flyer scooter where the red scooter costs $24.99 and a pink scooter, identical in all ways but color, costs $49. In children's apparel, girls' clothes were 4% more expensive than boys'. Men's clothing was 8% less expensive than women's clothes. The largest discrepancy came to personal care/hygiene products, where women's products cost 13% more than men's.\n", "Inch2 footwear is a blend of masculine allure and feminine elegance for women who prefer the masculine style and for men who don't forget about style in detail. There are three principles for which the brand stands for: style, comfort, and quality. Their shoes are classic in material and production but with a very modern style, with details and colors that make them unique and on-point. The brand footwear is made of leather from Italy and Portugal.\n\nSection::::Awards and honors.\n\nBULLET::::- The winner of the Debut of the Year in Fashion nomination by Riga Fashion Week (March 2015)\n", "Olfactory: Human beings can remember about 10,000 distinct odors that can trigger important memories that take us back to childhood. A study conducted by consumer psychologist Eric Spangenberg, found that Men do not like to spend lengthy periods of time in stores when it smells feminine, and equally the female counterpart when it smells masculine. A & F, knowing who they want in store, spray doses of their men's fragrance “Fierce”, which they deem to be “packed with confidence and a bold masculine attitude” aligning with image of their intended demographic. Their brand image of a “classic, good looking and cool” teen is therefore associated with the fragrance and store, creating a “self-fulfilling prophecy for male clientele”, the notion that the receiving demographic can be like the A & F models and staff (Khan, 2014).\n", "BULLET::::- 50 ml/ 1.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 30 ml/ 1.0 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 15 ml/ 0.5 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Body Lotion 200 ml/ 6.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Shower Gel 200 ml/ 6.7 oz\n\nSection::::Pulse Summer Edition.\n", "Although modern make-up has been traditionally used mainly by women, an increasing number of men are using cosmetics usually associated to women to enhance or cover their own facial features such as blemishes, dark circles, and so on. Cosmetics brands release products specially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "The National Cancer Institute states that \"no scientific evidence links the use of these products to the development of breast cancer\" and that \"no clear evidence that the use of aluminum-containing underarm antiperspirants or cosmetics increases the risk of breast cancer\", but also concludes that studies of antiperspirants and deodorants and breast cancer have provided conflicting results, additional research would be needed to determine whether a relationship exists\".\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, approximately 10–15% chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. Typical stainless steel knives are made of 420 stainless, a high-chromium stainless steel alloy often used in flatware. Stainless steel may be softer than carbon steel, but this makes it easier to sharpen. Stainless steel knives resist rust and corrosion better than carbon steel knives.\n", "Stainless steel is generally tougher, less likely to chip, and less sharp than carbon. At the highest end, they retain an edge longer and are similarly sized in carbides to carbon steel. Variants include:\n\nBULLET::::- Powdered steel which has large carbides broken up by powdering process and sintered together under high pressure and temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Semi stainless which has a less chromium-free to prevent rust of the iron and intermediate properties between carbon and stainless\n\nBULLET::::- Tool steel which is heavily alloyed but may or may not be stainless.\n", "Knife blades can be manufactured from a variety of materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. Carbon steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, can be very sharp. It holds its edge well, and remains easy to sharpen, but is vulnerable to rust and stains. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. It is not able to take quite as sharp an edge as carbon steel, but is highly resistant to corrosion. High carbon stainless steel is stainless steel with a higher amount of carbon, intended to incorporate the better attributes of carbon steel and stainless steel. High carbon stainless steel blades do not discolor or stain, and maintain a sharp edge. Laminated blades use multiple metals to create a layered sandwich, combining the attributes of both. For example, a harder, more brittle steel may be sandwiched between an outer layer of softer, tougher, stainless steel to reduce vulnerability to corrosion. In this case, however, the part most affected by corrosion, the edge, is still vulnerable. Damascus steel is a form of pattern welding with similarities to laminate construction. Layers of different steel types are welded together, but then the stock is manipulated to create patterns in the steel.\n", "Fillet knife blades are made of various types of materials. Stainless steel is often used. Since fillet knives are frequently wet, additional chromium in stainless steel blades makes the knives resist corrosion. Also, since fillet knives are used to prepare meat for consumption, the corrosion resistance prevents pitting corrosion so the blade remains smooth and easy to clean. Fillet knife blades often have a Rockwell hardness in the mid to upper 50s placing them in the medium hardness range. A medium hardness gives the blade moderate edge retention and relies on the thinness of the blade for flexibility rather than lack of hardness. \n", "Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface (mill scale) is removed by pickling, and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.\n\nBULLET::::- No. 0: Hot rolled, annealed, thicker plates\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1: Hot rolled, annealed and passivated\n\nBULLET::::- No. 2D: Cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated\n", "BULLET::::- Stainless steel: An alloy of iron, approximately 10-15% of chromium, nickel, or molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. Lower grades of stainless steel cannot take as sharp an edge as good-quality high-carbon steels, but are resistant to corrosion, and are inexpensive. Higher grade and 'exotic' stainless steels (mostly from Japan) are extremely sharp with excellent edge retention, and equal or outperform carbon steel blades.\n", "Carbon steels have less carbon than typical stainless steels do, but it is the main alloy element. They are more homogeneous than stainless and other high alloy steels, having carbide only in very small inclusions in the iron. The bulk material is harder than stainless, allowing them to hold a sharper and more acute edge without bending over in contact with hard materials. But they dull by abrasion quicker because they lack hard inclusions to take the friction. This also makes them quicker to sharpen. Carbon steel is well known to take a sharper edge than stainless.\n\nBULLET::::- 10xx series\n", "BULLET::::- Quenching (a rapid cooling in air, oil or water). The austenite is transformed into martensite, a hard body-centered tetragonal crystal structure. The as-quenched martensite is very hard and too brittle for most applications. Some residual austenite may remain.\n\nBULLET::::- Tempering, i.e. heating to around 500 °C, holding at temperature, then air cooling. Increasing the tempering temperature decreases the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength but increases the elongation and the impact resistance.\n\nSection::::Stainless steel families.:Martensitic stainless steels.:Nitrogen-alloyed martensitic stainless steels.\n", "BULLET::::4. Creep-resisting grades: Small additions of Nb, V, B, Co increase the strength and creep resistance up to about 650 °C.\n\nSection::::Stainless steel families.:Martensitic stainless steels.:Heat treatment of martensitic stainless steels.\n\nMartensitic stainless steels form a family of stainless steels that can be heat treated to provide the adequate level of mechanical properties.\n\nThe heat treatment typically involves three steps:\n\nBULLET::::- Austenitizing, in which the steel is heated to a temperature in the range 980 - 1050 °C depending on the grades. The austenite is a face centered cubic phase.\n", "BULLET::::- Carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, often including other elements such as vanadium and manganese. Carbon steel commonly used in knives has around 1.0% carbon (ex. AISI 1095), is inexpensive, and holds its edge well. Carbon steel is normally easier to resharpen than many stainless steels, but is vulnerable to rust and stains. The blades should be cleaned, dried, and lubricated after each use. New carbon-steel knives may impart a metallic or \"iron\" flavour to acidic foods, though over time, the steel will acquire a \"patina\" of oxidation which will prevent corrosion. Good carbon steel will take a sharp edge, but is not so hard as to be difficult to sharpen, unlike some grades of stainless steel.\n", "Ferritic stainless steels possess a ferrite microstructure like carbon steel, which is a body-centered cubic crystal structure, and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little or no nickel . This microstructure is present at all temperatures, due to the chromium addition, and like austenitic stainless steels these are not hardenable by heat treatment. They cannot be strengthened by cold work to the same degree as austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic like carbon steel.\n\nAs they do not contain Nickel, they cost less than austenitic grades and are now present in a wide range of industries.\n", "Carbon steel is a popular choice for rough use knives. Carbon steel used to be much tougher, much more durable, and easier to sharpen than stainless steel. They lack the chromium content of stainless steel, making them susceptible to corrosion.\n", "Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production. They possess an austenitic microstructure, which is a face-centered cubic crystal structure. This microstructure is achieved by alloying with sufficient nickel and/or manganese and nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point. Thus austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all temperatures.\n", "BULLET::::- select the right type of stainless steel: super austenitics such as grade 904L or super duplex (ferritic stainless steels and duplex stainless steels are very resistant to SCC)\n\nSection::::Corrosion resistance.:Galvanic corrosion.\n", "Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched.\n\nSection::::Applications.:3D printing.\n", "Austenitic stainless steel\n\nAustenitic stainless steel is a specific type of stainless steel alloy. Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into four main types: \"austenitic\", \"ferritic,\" \"martensitic and duplex.\" Austenitic stainless steels possess austenite as their primary crystalline structure (face centered cubic). This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the austenite stabilizing elements nickel, manganese and nitrogen. Due to their crystalline structure, austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment and are essentially non-magnetic.\n", "Section::::Type of blades.\n\nThere are two different types of blades for pruning shears: Stainless steel and carbon steel.\n\nIn addition there are pruning shears that have titanium coating.\n\nStainless steel have a high corrosion resistance, due to the protective chromium oxide layer that covers the steel surface after heat treatment. On the other hand, they are not durable for long.\n\nCarbon steel has a higher carbon content, which gives the steel a lower melting point, more malleability and durability, and better heat distribution. The disadvantages are the quick corrosion and staining.\n", "Martensitic stainless steel can be nondestructively tested using the magnetic particle inspection method, unlike austenitic stainless steel.\n", "Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be 40/60. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the yield strength of austenitic stainless steels. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steels Types 304 and 316.\n", "Bimetallic materials are materials that are made out of two different metals or alloys that are tightly bonded together. A good example of a bimetallic material would be a bimetallic strip which is used in some kinds of thermometers. In ISCR, bimetallic materials are small pieces of metals that are coated lightly with a catalyst such as palladium, silver, or platinum. The catalyst drives a faster reaction and the small size of the particles allows them to effectively move into and remain in the target zone.\n\nSection::::Reductants.:Proprietary materials.\n", "Thin sheets and small diameter bars can be strengthened by cold working, with an associated reduction of elongation. However, if they are welded, the welded area will return to the low strength level of the steel before cold working. This limits the use of cold-worked austenitic stainless steels. \n\nThey are essentially non-magnetic and maintain their ductility at cryogenic temperatures.\n\nThey can be further subdivided into two sub-groups, 200 series and 300 series:\n", "440 and 420 stainless steels, known also by the name \"Cutlery Stainless Steel\", are high carbon steels alloyed with chromium. They have very good corrosion resistance compared to other cutlery steels, but their corrosion resistance is inferior to 316 stainless. Biomedical cutting instruments are often made from 440 or 420 stainless due to its high hardness coupled with acceptable corrosion resistance.\n", "Some Beta titanium based alloys have also shown similar trends of increased strength through rapid cooling. However, most non-ferrous metals, like alloys of copper, aluminum, or nickel, and some high alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel (304, 316), produce an opposite effect when these are quenched: they soften. Austenitic stainless steels must be quenched to become fully corrosion resistant, as they work-harden significantly.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Tempering.\n", "Stainless steel is a popular class of material for knife blades because it resists corrosion and is easy to maintain. However, it is not impervious to corrosion or rust. In order for a steel to be considered stainless it must have a chromium content of at least 10.5%.\n\nBULLET::::- 154CM / ATS-34 steels\n\nThese two steels are practically identical in composition. They were introduced into custom knives by Bob Loveless circa 1972.\n\nBULLET::::- 154CM is produced by Crucible Industries. It is used extensively by Benchmade Knife Company and many others.\n", "Section::::Stainless steels.:Stainless steel in the home.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Cutting meat makes knives dull." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Hitting the cutting board makes knives dull." ]

[ "The drinking straw is a tube used for transferring a liquid to the mouth, usually a drink from one location to another. The first crude forms of drinking straws were made of dry, hollow, rye grass. Marvin Stone is the inventor of the drinking straw. Stone, who worked in a factory that made paper cigarette holders, did not like this design because it made beverages taste like grass. As an alternative, on January 3, 1888, Stone got a piece of paper from his factory and wrapped it around a pencil. By coating it with wax, his drinking straw became leak-proof so that it would not get waterlogged.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The first known straws were made by the Sumerians, and were used for drinking beer, probably to avoid the solid byproducts of fermentation that sink to the bottom. The oldest drinking straw in existence, found in a Sumerian tomb dated 3,000 BCE, was a gold tube inlaid with the precious blue stone lapis lazuli. Argentines and their neighbors have, for several hundred years, used (for drinking mate tea) a similar metallic device called a bombilla, that acts as both a straw and a sieve. The use of plastic straws became popular following World War 2 due to the inexpensiveness of the materials, as well as the cheapness of the drinks and/or meals that were provided with the plastic straws.\n", "BULLET::::- Many thousands of women and children in England (primarily in the Luton district of Bedfordshire), and large numbers in the United States (mostly Massachusetts), were employed in plaiting straw for making hats. By the late 19th century, vast quantities of plaits were being imported to England from Canton in China, and in the United States most of the straw plait was imported.\n\nBULLET::::- A fiber analogous to straw is obtained from the plant \"Carludovica palmata\", and is used to make Panama hats.\n\nBULLET::::- Traditional Japanese rain protection consisted of a straw hat and a mino cape.\n\nBULLET::::- Horticulture\n", "Section::::History.:Ryegrass straw.\n\nIn the 1800s, the rye grass straw came into fashion because it was cheap and soft, but it had an unfortunate tendency to turn to mush in liquid.\n\nSection::::History.:Wax paper straw.\n", "Section::::History.:Reformation.\n", "BULLET::::- Rope made from straw was used by thatchers, in the packaging industry and even in iron foundries.\n\nBULLET::::- Shoes\n\nBULLET::::- Koreans wear jipsin, sandals made of straw.\n\nBULLET::::- In some parts of Germany like Black Forest and Hunsrück people wear straw shoes at home or at carnival.\n\nBULLET::::- Targets\n", "Miller's first television appearance in Australia was on \"Bob Sanders People\" in 1963. In an improvised physics demonstration, he attempted to drive a drinking straw through a raw potato. A paper straw normally does not have sufficient strength but if one pinches the end, the trapped air acts as a piston, easily piercing the potato. For the first time in his career he could not get this to work, and he loudly exclaimed \"Australian straws ain't worth a damn!\". The next morning, Miller arrived at his Sydney University laboratory to find one million drinking straws on the floor with a telegram reading \"You might find one of these fitting your requirements\". He later stated \"I sat amongst the straws with straws stuck in my hair and ears. But clearly I had made a mistake. I should have said: 'Australian potatoes ain't worth a damn', and I'd have cornered the potato market!\"\n", "The first mass-produced twisted straw was Sip-N-See invented by Milton Dinhofer who later came up with the idea and designs for the chimp in the iconic game, Barrel of Monkeys. Dinhofer originally patented his straw in the shape of a scissor with two loops on top, but Macy's would not carry the straw unless it had a character on it. They suggested Dinhofer make three straws (eventually patented in 1950): a cowboy, a clown and an animal for which he made an elephant. Each of his characters were attached to a looping soft polyethylene straw, and users were to sip from another detachable, small, straight, straw of acetate. Rexor Corp. copyrighted the straw the same year, but Macy's decided not to carry them. Dinhofer was told the selling price was too low. Dinhofer then turned to Woolworth's and convinced the chain to let him deliver some to several of their stores near his home. After one weekend of sales, Woolworth's placed an order for all of its stores and Sip-N-See went national. The straws were sold in individual boxes, and more characters were eventually added. Other buyers began to carry it, too, and it was marketed as an \"action drinking toy.\" Sip-N-See went on to sell approximately 6 million units, and, a decade later, the s-shape of the arms on the cowboy straw would inspire Dinhofer's monkey design for Barrel of Monkeys.\n", "Straw bale construction is a more modern concept, but there even exists evidence that straw was used to make homes in African prairies as far back as the Paleolithic times.\n", "1888 Drinking straw\n", "It is now cited as an early example of Design for All.\n\nSection::::The Flexible Straw Corporation.:Role of Betty Friedman.\n", "Straw dog\n\nStraw dogs (), a figure of a dog made out of straw, were used as ceremonial objects in ancient China, but often thrown away after their usage.\n\nIn one translation Chapter 5 of the \"Tao Te Ching\" begins with the lines \"Heaven and Earth are heartless / treating creatures like straw dogs\".\n", "BULLET::::- Construction material:\n\nBULLET::::- In many parts of the world, straw is used to bind clay and concrete. A mixture of clay and straw, known as cob, can be used as a building material. There are many recipes for making cob.\n", "Straw plaiting\n\nStraw plaiting is a method of manufacturing textiles by braiding straw and the industry that surrounds the craft of producing these straw manufactures. Straw is plaited to produce products including straw hats and ornaments, and the process is undertaken in a number of locations worldwide.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nTo plait comes from late 14c., \"to fold, gather in pleats,\" also \"to braid or weave,\" from Old French pleir \"to fold,\" variant of ploier, ployer \"to fold, bend,\" from Latin plicare \"to fold\" \n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Early paper straws had a narrow bore similar to that of the grass stems then in common use. It was common to use two of them, to reduce the effort needed to take each sip. (The cocktail straw, which is sometimes used in pairs, may be derived from such early straws.) Modern plastic straws are made with a variety of bores, suited to the type of drink.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nBULLET::::- A basic drinking straw is straight for its full length.\n", "BULLET::::- Straw is used in cucumber houses and for mushroom growing.\n\nBULLET::::- In Japan, certain trees are wrapped with straw to protect them from the effects of a hard winter as well as to use them as a trap for parasite insects.\n\nBULLET::::- It is also used in ponds to reduce algae by changing the nutrient ratios in the water.\n\nBULLET::::- The soil under strawberries is covered with straw to protect the ripe berries from dirt, and straw is also used to cover the plants during winter to prevent the cold from killing them.\n", "BULLET::::- Heavy gauge straw rope is coiled and sewn tightly together to make archery targets. This is no longer done entirely by hand, but is partially mechanised. Sometimes a paper or plastic target is set up in front of straw bales, which serve to support the target and provide a safe backdrop.\n\nBULLET::::- Thatching\n\nBULLET::::- Thatching uses straw, reed or similar materials to make a waterproof, lightweight roof with good insulation properties. Straw for this purpose (often wheat straw) is grown specially and harvested using a reaper-binder.\n\nSection::::Health and safety.\n", "Straw painting\n\nStraw paintings are craft objects made by shaping straw into patterns and representational images.\n\nBy modeling and playing with straw, people, especially women, started weaving straw into artistic objects. As time passed, they acquired more skill in working with straw and a century ago, created a very specific art, the art of weaving straw into pictures by using and combining the natural colours and shades of oats, barley, rye, wheat, and other grasses. These \"paintings\" have become a speciality of China, Mexico, and Subotica in Serbia and its vicinity.\n\nSection::::China.\n", "American Marvin C. Stone patented the modern drinking straw, made of paper, in 1888, to address the shortcomings of the rye grass straw. He came upon the idea while drinking a mint julep on a hot day in Washington, D.C.; the taste of the rye was mixing with the drink and giving it a grassy taste, which he found unsatisfactory. He wound paper around a pencil to make a thin tube, slid out the pencil from one end, and applied glue between the strips. He later refined it by building a machine that would coat the outside of the paper with wax to hold it together, so the glue wouldn't dissolve in bourbon.\n", "BULLET::::- Basketry\n\nBULLET::::- Bee skeps and linen baskets are made from coiled and bound together continuous lengths of straw. The technique is known as lip work.\n\nBULLET::::- Bedding: humans or livestock\n\nBULLET::::- The straw-filled mattress, also known as a palliasse, is still used in many parts of the world.\n\nBULLET::::- It is commonly used as bedding for ruminants and horses. It may be used as bedding and food for small animals, but this often leads to injuries to mouth, nose and eyes as straw is quite sharp.\n\nBULLET::::- Biofuels\n", "Later, Stone developed the modern drinking straw. Prior to Stone's invention, people used natural rye grass straws, which imparted an undesirable grassy flavor in beverages. To combat the problem, Stone made the first drinking straw prototypes by spiraling a strip of paper around a pencil and gluing it at the ends. Next he experimented with paraffin wax-coated manila paper, so that the straw would not get soggy when used. Stone's straws were 8 1/2 inches long and had a diameter just wide enough to prevent things like fruit pips from getting lodged in the tube.\n", "It is not known, however, when the straw covering was introduced. A 14th century painting by Tomaso da Modena shows a small rounded flask, completely wrapped with cords of some kind. Other artistic depictions were provided by Botticelli (\"\") and Ghirlandaio (\"Buonomini di San Martino\" and \"The Birth of John the Baptist\"). The earliest fragments of \"sala\"-covered bottles date from the 15th century.\n", "Straw is usually gathered and stored in a straw bale, which is a bale, or bundle, of straw tightly bound with twine or wire. Straw bales may be square, rectangular, or round, and can be very large, depending on the type of baler used.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nCurrent and historic uses of straw include:\n\nBULLET::::- Animal feed\n", "The decline in popularity of straw characters in carnival today is thought to be largely due to the difficulty of obtaining straw of suitable length and quality. Modern farmers generally prefer cultivars with shorter straw, or use chemical sprays to make the straw grow shorter so that their crops are less prone to damage by storms. Artificial materials have replaced straw in a few places. In other places, such as Hirschauer, where the \"Äschadreppler\" is traditionally clad in peastraw, crops are being specially planted to ensure the supply of the appropriate straw for the costumes.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- The first number one hit not to be sung in English was Falco's \"Rock Me Amadeus\" in 1986. In its original recording, the song's lyrics are entirely in German, though the show would sometimes play a mix that omitted the verses in favor of a timeline (narrated in English) of the life of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.\n\nBULLET::::- In July 2018, \"Mine\" by Bazzi became the shortest song at 2:13 to reach #1. It is also the second shortest song on the chart after Anna Kendrick's version of \"Cups\" charted in 2013 with a length of 2:07.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- United States. \"Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Albums 1955-2016\". Menomonee Falls, Wisc.: Record Research, 2018\n\nBULLET::::- United States. Whitburn, Joel. \"Billboard Hot 100 Charts\". Menomonee Falls, Wisc.: Record Research, various dates (comprises 1950s; The Sixties; The Seventies; The Eighties; The Nineties; The 2000s) chronological\n\nBULLET::::- United States. \"Joel Whitburn presents Billboard Pop Album Charts 1965-1969\". Menomonee Falls, Wisc.: Record Research, 1993 chronological\n\nBULLET::::- Zimbabwe. Kimberley, C. \"Zimbabwe: singles chart book\". Harare: C. Kimberley, 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Zimbabwe. Kimberley, C. \"Albums chart book: Zimbabwe\". Harare: C. Kimberley, 1998\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Alaska Jim's music charts\n\nBULLET::::- Charts all over the world\n", "BULLET::::- The oldest artist to enter the chart is Louis Armstrong, whose \"What a Wonderful World\" entered the chart at #32 (where it peaked) in February 1988. Armstrong was 66 years old when the song was recorded and, had he survived to witness it, would have been 86 when the song became a hit. Recorded in 1967 and originally peaked at #116 on Billboard's pop chart, the song entered the Top 40 21 years later, after its appearance in the film \"Good Morning, Vietnam\". (The oldest living artist to chart on \"AT40\" was Gordon Sinclair, who recorded \"The Americans\" at age 71 and saw it become a hit at age 73, and the oldest songwriter to chart a song on \"AT40\" was Irving Berlin, who, at 95 years old, reached the top 40 with \"Puttin' on the Ritz\" as performed by Taco.)\n", "BULLET::::- The European nation whose artists have appeared in the top spot on the Hot 100 for the most weeks is again the UK, followed by Spain (19 weeks) and Ireland (15).\n\nBULLET::::- Apart from the UK, the European nation with the largest number of acts to reach number one in the US is Sweden with 4. Germany (all as West Germany), Ireland and the Netherlands have three each, and Belgium and Spain have two. Austria had one act reach number one in the pre-Hot 100 era and one in the Hot 100 era.\n", "In 2012, it was announced that much of the history of \"Record World\" (and its predecessor publication, \"Music Vendor\") would be chronicled in a 1954–1982 volume produced by Joel Whitburn's Record Research, long associated with \"Billboard\"-related publications. The book was distributed in September 2012. A second volume, featuring the \"Music Vendor\"/\"Record World\" \"Beat Of The Week\" charts (similar to \"Billboard\"'s \"Bubbling Under\"), spotlighting positions 101–150, was announced in November 2012.\n", "Section::::History.:Euro Hot 100.\n\nIn March 1984, \"Music & Media\" magazine in Amsterdam started their own singles chart, \"The Eurochart Hot 100\", which they published as a Euro Tip sheet for the first two years. The chart was based on national singles sales charts in sixteen European countries: Austria, Belgium (separately for Flanders and Wallonia), Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. This chart was accumulated by taking the chart positions in each country combined with the national sales percentage of records in that particular country.\n", "The issue dated July 11, 2009 was the first time any catalog album outsold the number-one album on the \"Billboard\" 200. Three of Michael Jackson's albums (\"Number Ones\", \"The Essential Michael Jackson\" and \"Thriller\") claimed positions 1-3 respectively on \"Top Pop Catalog Albums\" and \"Top Comprehensive Albums\" in the week following Jackson's death.\n\nAfter the continued success of such catalog albums, \"Billboard\" Comprehensive Albums chart was discontinued in November 2009, and the \"Billboard\" 200 began to incorporate the catalog albums. \"Billboard\" then started the Top Current Albums chart with the old rules of the \"Billboard\" 200.\n", "Reviewers often describe records using round number milestones within a chart. For example, a record that peaks at number 7 may be called a \"Top 10\" hit, even when there is no chart limited to only the top 10 records in that particular location.\n\nSection::::Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa:\n\nBULLET::::- Entertainment Monitoring Africa\n\nSection::::Asia.\n\nBULLET::::- One Asia Chart\n\nBULLET::::- China:\n\nBULLET::::- Baidu 500\n\nBULLET::::- Billboard China\n\nBULLET::::- China Top 100\n\nBULLET::::- China Airplay/FL\n\nBULLET::::- Sino Chart\n\nBULLET::::- MusicRadio China Top Chart\n\nBULLET::::- Beijing Music Radio Chart\n\nBULLET::::- ERS Chinese Top Ten\n\nBULLET::::- Global Chinese Music Golden Chart\n", "BULLET::::- There have been two exceptions for this, though: In October 1994, Pet Shop Boys's \"Yesterday, When I Was Mad\" stayed in the charts for only 1 week due to an error in the compilation, and in late September 2007, Kus's \"4 meiden\" just didn't sell enough to stay in the charts for 2 weeks.\n", "The complete presentation of the top 10 singles and albums, and later the top 20, was started in 1976 on the radio show \"Studio 344\" hosted by Akis Evenis on B. Program. The presentation would take place every Friday, a week earlier than the official publication of Billboard in the United States, as he would receive the charts directly from Voice of America.\n", "Initially, there used to be 50 positions only, which later in January 1980, was extended to 75 slots. Since 1989, however, GfK Entertainment has adapted the international standards providing 100 positions, now called \"Offizielle Top 100 Charts\" [Official Top 100 Charts]. In 2001, the Top-100 singles charts was modified to reflect the sales of the singles.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "Albums which are over 18 months old (from the date of release) and have dropped below position 100 on The \"Billboard\" 200 were removed from that chart and placed on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart.\n", "Billboard Comprehensive Albums\n\n\"Billboard\" Comprehensive Albums was established in 2003 and was a weekly albums chart produced by \"Billboard\" magazine that ranked the biggest selling albums in the United States regardless of the product's age or method of sales.\n\n\"Billboard\" Comprehensive Albums included any album, old or new, sold anywhere, for which sales data was available. Generally, the \"Billboard\" Comprehensive Albums was nearly identical to the \"Billboard\" 200, with the exception of approximately 20 to 30 \"catalog\" albums that still sell well enough to be one of the top 200-selling albums in any given week.\n", "BULLET::::- Note that the figures posted in the column of \"Total units\" for some markets may be lower than what the combined total from the columns of Singles, CDs, DVDs might represent. This is because the columns of Singles, CDs, DVDs represent shipped units, whereas the column of \"Total units\" represent sold units.\n", "Digital-only releases came into existence on 13 July 2007, for online downloads only, which also altered the way the sales figures were conducted up to that point. Consequently, chart positions would no longer be affected by the number of sold music downloads as before, but rather, they would be affected by the sales value of the sold product. Thus, the best-selling albums would not necessarily be the ones ending up in the number-one position on the charts.\n", "BULLET::::- South Korea:\n\nBULLET::::- Gaon Music Chart\n\nBULLET::::- Gaon Digital Chart\n\nBULLET::::- Gaon Album Chart\n\nBULLET::::- Gaon Social Chart\n\nBULLET::::- Gaon Weibo Chart\n\nBULLET::::- Instiz iChart\n\nBULLET::::- K-pop Hot 100\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan:\n\nBULLET::::- G-Music\n\nBULLET::::- Hit FM Hit-O-Radio Chart\n\nBULLET::::- KKBox\n\nBULLET::::- Thailand:\n\nBULLET::::- Thailand Top 100 by JOOX\n\nSection::::Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- European Hot 100 Singles\n\nBULLET::::- European Top 100 Albums\n\nBULLET::::- Austria:\n\nBULLET::::- Ö3 Austria Top 40\n\nBULLET::::- Austrian Ranking\n\nBULLET::::- FM4 Charts\n\nBULLET::::- Österreichische Airplaycharts\n\nBULLET::::- Belgium:\n\nBULLET::::- De Afrekening\n\nBULLET::::- Top 40\n\nBULLET::::- Ultratop\n\nBULLET::::- Ultratop 50 Singles\n\nBULLET::::- Ultratop 200 Albums\n\nBULLET::::- Bulgaria:\n\nBULLET::::- PROPHON\n\nBULLET::::- Croatia:\n", "Section::::Joint Sixth (17).:Jennifer Lopez.\n\nAmerican singer Jennifer Lopez has achieved 17 number one songs on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Dance Club Songs chart, and ranked ninth among the top 100 Dance Club Songs Artists in this category. She achieved her first number one in 1999 with the song Waiting for Tonight. She has had 11 consecutive number one singles. Lopez's 2019 single Medicine, a collaboration with French Montana, became her 17th number one single, tying her for 6th place with Mariah Carey and Kristine W.\n", "BULLET::::- Stephanie McIntosh, former star of the Australian television soap opera, \"Neighbours\", releases her debut single, \"Mistake\", in Australia, where it became a top three hit.\n\nBULLET::::- Family Values Tour 2006, featuring Korn, Deftones and Stone Sour, begins. This was the first Family Values Tour since 2001.\n\nBULLET::::- July 30 – The last ever weekly edition of the British television chart show, \"Top of the Pops\", is broadcast after 42 years on the air.\n", "List of Latin songs on the Billboard Hot 100\n\nLatin music in the United States is defined by both the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and \"Billboard\" magazine as any release with 51% or more of its content recorded in Spanish. The best performing Latin songs in the United States are compiled by \"Billboard\" since September 1986. The magazine had already a major overall songs chart titled Hot 100 since August 1958. Since 2007, the chart tracks digital sales, streaming figures and radio airplay. Prior to that, the Hot 100 only measured the latter format.\n", "BULLET::::- McCartney also has the most top 10 albums, with 51. This includes 32 with The Beatles (referenced earlier in this article), 7 albums with the group Wings, 1 album credited to him and his first wife Linda McCartney, and 11 solo albums.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Sound of Music\" set the record of 109 consecutive weeks in the top 10 from May 1, 1965 to July 16, 1966, but only spent 2 weeks at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200.\n", "Sales figures records in most countries are not available before the 1990s, so it is difficult to accurately determine best-selling records, either by country or worldwide. Certification levels have been used for most countries, but certification was not common until the 1970s in the US and UK, and later in other countries. In addition, in many countries certification is for shipments of a record to retailers, rather than actual sales. Complicating matters further are the changes from 2010 onwards as certifications have become based on a combined figure of sales and streaming, instead of sales alone.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nel Blu Dipinto Di Blu (Volare)\" – Domenico Modugno (Italian – August 18, 1958 for five non-consecutive weeks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sukiyaki\" – Kyu Sakamoto (Japanese – June 15, 1963 for three weeks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dominique\" – The Singing Nun (French – December 7, 1963 for four weeks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rock Me Amadeus\" – Falco (English/German – March 29, 1986 for three weeks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"La Bamba\" – Los Lobos (Spanish – August 29, 1987 for three weeks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macarena (Bayside Boys Mix)\" – Los del Río (English/Spanish – August 3, 1996 for fourteen weeks)\n", "\"Billboard\"s \"chart year\" runs from the first week of December to the final week in November. This altered calendar allows for \"Billboard\" to calculate year-end charts and release them in time for its final print issue in the last week of December.\n", "On the first chart of the year, the number one spot was held by Harpers Bizarre with their version of Glenn Miller's 1941 song \"Chattanooga Choo Choo\". It would prove to be the only \"Billboard\" chart-topper of the sunshine pop band's career, and after 1968 they would not achieve any further hits. Other acts to top the chart for the first time in 1968 included Brazilian bandleader Sérgio Mendes, who reached number one for the first time with a version of \"The Fool on the Hill\", originally recorded by The Beatles. After a lengthy period without further major success, Mendes would achieve a second number one 15 years after the first when he made a comeback in 1983.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Lens types.:Plano.\n\nA corrective lens with a power of zero is called a plano lens. These lenses are used when one or both eyes do not require correction of a refractive error. Some people with good natural eyesight like to wear eyeglasses as a style accessory, or want to change the appearance of their eyes using novelty contact lenses.\n\nSection::::Lens optical profile.\n", "Lazy eye\n\nLazy eye refers to several specific ophthalmic disorders:\n\nSection::::Medicine.\n\nBULLET::::- Amblyopia, a disorder of visual development in which the brain partially or wholly ignores input from one or both eyes\n\nBULLET::::- Strabismus, a disorder of ocular alignment in which the eyes aim in different directions\n\nBULLET::::- Ptosis (eyelid), drooping or falling of the upper or lower eyelid\n\nBULLET::::- Eye Therapy, using glasses with one eye closed\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lazy Eye\" (Goo Goo Dolls song), a song recorded by the Goo Goo Dolls for the soundtrack of the 1997 film \"Batman & Robin\"\n", "Convergence insufficiency may be treated with convergence exercises prescribed by an eyecare specialist trained in orthoptics or binocular vision anomalies. Some cases of convergence insufficiency are successfully managed by prescription of eyeglasses, sometimes with therapeutic prisms.\n", "Hubel further suggested that newborns may be already equipped with binocular depth neurons.\n\nIn her book \"Fixing my Gaze\", Barry points out that Wiesel and Hubel's results were mistakenly extrapolated, not by Wiesel and Hubel themselves, but by the majority of scientists and physicians, who mistakenly assumed that the critical period for developing amblyopia (a \"lazy eye\") also applied to the recovery from amblyopia. She concludes:\n\nSection::::Other cases of acquired stereo vision.\n", "In contrast, the eye moves to look through various parts of a corrective lens as it shifts its gaze, some of which can be as much as several centimeters off of the optical center. Thus, despite the eye's dispersive properties, the corrective lens's dispersion cannot be dismissed. People who are sensitive to the effects of chromatic aberrations, or who have stronger prescriptions, or who often look off the lens’s optical center, or who prefer larger corrective lens sizes may be impacted by chromatic aberration. To minimize chromatic aberration:\n", "Section::::Orthoptics.\n\nA complex approach to non-surgical management of strabismus (wandering eye), amblyopia (lazy eye) and eye movement disorders may include a variety of vision therapy methods, primarily directed at the abnormal retinal correspondence management such as eye occlusion with an eye patch, binocular vision training using a haploscope and many others. The orthoptic therapy can be used either before or after the surgical treatment, as it is prescribed by an eye care specialist.\n", "As corrective power increases, even optimally designed lenses will have distortion that can be noticed by a user. This particularly affects individuals that use the off-axis areas of their lenses for visually demanding tasks. For individuals sensitive to lens errors, the best way to eliminate lens induced aberrations is to use contact lenses. Contacts eliminate all these aberrations since the lens then moves with the eye.\n", "Strabismus is usually treated with a combination of eyeglasses, vision therapy, and surgery, depending on the underlying reason for the misalignment.\n\nWhereas amblyopia (lazy eye), if minor and detected early, can often be corrected with use of an eye patch on the dominant eye and/or vision therapy, the use of eye patches is unlikely to change the angle of strabismus.\n\nSection::::Management.:Glasses.\n", "BULLET::::- Research has confirmed that when nearsighted subjects remove their corrective lenses, over time there is a limited improvement (termed \"blur adaptation\") in their unaided visual resolution, even though refraction indicates no corresponding change in refractive error. This is believed to occur due to adjustments made in the visual system. One who has been practicing Bates' techniques and notices such improvement may not realize that simply leaving the glasses off would have had the same effect, which may be especially pronounced if the prescription was too strong to begin with.\n", "Lazy eye, in particular strabismus may be the result of coordination between the extraocular muscles, which prevents a person on directing both eyes in unison towards the same fixation point. The main cause of strabismus is usually the muscular imbalance of the six surrounding muscles that allow both eyes to focus on the same object. As each eye does not have the same focus, different images are sent to the brain, confusing it, resulting in the brain ignoring the image from the weaker eye and if left untreated will cause a loss of vision in the ignored eye called amblyopia. Further symptoms of strabismus include decreased vision, double vision, headaches, asthenopia and eye fatigue.\n", "The most common way to treat forms of aniseikonia, including macropsia, is through the use of auxiliary optics to correct for the magnification properties of the eyes. This method includes changing the shape of spectacle lenses, changing the vertex distances with contact lenses, creating a weak telescope system with contact lenses and spectacles, and changing the power of one of the spectacle lenses. Computer software, such as the Aniseikonia Inspector, has been developed to determine the prescription needed to correct for a certain degree of aniseikonia. The problem with correction through optical means is that the optics do not vary with field angle and thus cannot compensate for non-uniform macropsia. Patients have reported significantly improved visual comfort associated with a correction of 5-10% of the aniseikonia.\n", "Refractive errors are corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or surgery. Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider field of vision; however they are associated with a risk of infection. Refractive surgery permanently changes the shape of the cornea.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.:Lazy eye.\n", "BULLET::::- Use contact lenses in place of eyeglasses. A contact lens rests directly on the surface of the cornea and moves in sync with all eye movements. Consequently, the contact lens is always directly aligned on center with the pupil and there is never any off-axis misalignment between the pupil and the optical center of the lens.\n\nSection::::Optical quality.:Power error.\n", "Those with Costeff syndrome typically experience the first symptoms of visual deterioration within the first few years of childhood, which manifests as the onset of progressively decreasing visual acuity. This decrease tends to continue with age, even after childhood.\n\nThe majority of people with Costeff syndrome develop movement problems and motor disabilities later in childhood, the two most significant of which are choreoathetosis and spasticity. The former causes involuntary erratic, jerky, and twisting movements (see chorea and athetosis), whereas the latter causes twitches and spastic tendencies.\n", "Section::::Prescription of corrective lenses.:Self refraction.\n\nAlthough lenses are normally prescribed by optometrists or ophthalmologists, there is evidence from developing countries that allowing people to select lenses for themselves produces good results in the majority of cases and is less than a tenth of the cost of prescription lenses.\n\nSection::::Lens types.\n\nSection::::Lens types.:Single vision.\n\nSingle vision lenses correct for only one distance. If they correct for far distance, the person must accommodate to see clearly up close. If the person cannot accommodate, they may need a separate correction for near distances, or else use a multifocal lens (see below).\n", "Bates felt that corrective lenses, which he characterized as \"eye crutches\", are an impediment to curing poor vision. In his view, \"strain\" would increase as the eyes adjust to the correction in front of them. He thus recommended that glasses be discarded by anyone applying his method.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n", "The corrective effect is stable but not permanent. Left to itself, the eye will slowly lose its adjusted shape, taking around something of the region of 3 days to return to its former vision. The Ortho-K lenses must therefore be worn regularly so the corrected corneal shape is preserved and maintained. Usually they are worn only for part of the day (typically only when asleep at night); some users may only need to use them one night out of every two or three nights.\n\nSection::::Health considerations.\n\nSection::::Health considerations.:Indications and counter-indications.\n", "How refractive errors are treated or managed depends upon the amount and severity of the condition. Those who possess mild amounts of refractive error may elect to leave the condition uncorrected, particularly if the patient is asymptomatic. For those who are symptomatic, glasses, contact lenses, refractive surgery, or a combination of the three are typically used.\n\nStrategies being studied to slow worsening include adjusting working conditions, increasing the time children spend outdoors, and special types of contact lenses. In children special contact lenses appear to slow worsening of nearsightedness.\n", "Corrective lens\n\nA corrective lens is a lens typically worn in front of the eye to improve vision. The most common use is to treat refractive errors: myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism, and presbyopia. Glasses or \"spectacles\" are worn on the face a short distance in front of the eye. Contact lenses are worn directly on the surface of the eye. Intraocular lenses are surgically implanted most commonly after cataract removal, but can be used for purely refractive purposes. \n\nSection::::Prescription of corrective lenses.\n", "The characteristic symptom of Costeff syndrome is the onset of progressively worsening eyesight caused by degeneration of the optic nerve (optic atrophy) within the first few years of childhood, with the majority of affected individuals also developing motor disabilities later in childhood. Occasionally, people with Costeff syndrome may also experience mild cognitive disability.\n\nIt is type of 3-methylglutaconic aciduria, the hallmark of which is an increased level in the urinary concentrations of 3-methylglutaconic acid and 3-methylglutaric acid; this can allow diagnosis as early as at one year of age.\n", "The prognosis for a replaced eye is determined by the extent of damage to the cornea and sclera, the presence or absence of a pupillary light reflex, and the presence of ruptured rectus muscles. The rectus muscles normally help hold the eye in place and direct eye movement. Rupture of more than two rectus muscles usually requires the eye to be removed, because significant blood vessel and nerve damage also usually occurs. Compared to brachycephalic breeds, dochilocephalic (long-nosed) breeds usually have more trauma to the eye and its surrounding structures, so the prognosis is worse.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Boston's sign\n", "The orthokeratology website \"ortho-k.net\" explains in lay-terms that the mechanism behind ortho-k is that around 60% of the eye's focusing power is provided by the cornea, and this is extremely sensitive to very small changes: 6 µm flattening of corneal thickness (around 5% of the thickness of a human hair) results in 1 diopter of changed vision in myopia. Therefore a specially shaped lens can be used to lightly press the cornea, causing it gradually to be reshaped to the correct shape for focused vision. The corrective effect lasts up to 72 hours once initially acclimatized, which is long enough to be a practical means of eyesight correction. There is some evidence (see above) that unlike other eyesight correction mechanisms, Ortho-K may also reduce future or ongoing eyesight changes or increased myopia, although this is still being researched.\n", "A second type of accommodative esotropia also exists, known as 'convergence excess esotropia.' In this condition the child exerts excessive accommodative convergence relative to their accommodation. Thus, in such cases, even when all underlying hyperopic refractive errors have been corrected, the child will continue to squint when looking at very small objects or reading small print. Even though they are exerting a normal amount of accommodative or 'focusing' effort, the amount of convergence associated with this effort is excessive, thus giving rise to esotropia. In such cases an additional hyperopic correction is often prescribed in the form of bifocal lenses, to reduce the degree of accommodation, and hence convergence, being exerted. Many children will gradually learn to control their esotropias, sometimes with the help of orthoptic exercises. However, others will eventually require extra-ocular muscle surgery to resolve their problems.\n", "In his 1992 book \"The Bates Method, A Complete Guide to Improving Eyesight—Naturally\", \"Bates method teacher\" Peter Mansfield was very critical of eye care professionals for prescribing corrective lenses, recommending most of Bates' techniques to improve vision. The book included accounts of 12 \"real cases\", but did not report any information about refractive error.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Another approach is the use of iPS cells derived from patients to identify therapeutic drugs able to rescue a phenotype. For instance, iPS cell lines derived from patients affected by ectodermal dysplasia syndrome (EEC), in which the p63 gene is mutated, display abnormal epithelial commitment that could be partially rescued by a small compound.\n\nSection::::Medical research.:Disease modelling and drug development.\n", "Pluripotent stem cells, i.e. cells that can give rise to any fetal or adult cell type, can be found in a number of tissues, including umbilical cord blood. Using genetic reprogramming, pluripotent stem cells equivalent to embryonic stem cells have been derived from human adult skin tissue. Other adult stem cells are multipotent, meaning they are restricted in the types of cell they can become, and are generally referred to by their tissue origin (such as mesenchymal stem cell, adipose-derived stem cell, endothelial stem cell, etc.). A great deal of adult stem cell research has focused on investigating their capacity to divide or self-renew indefinitely, and their potential for differentiation. In mice, pluripotent stem cells can be directly generated from adult fibroblast cultures.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn the early 2000s, Charles Vacanti and Martin Vacanti conducted studies that led them to the idea that stem cells - spore-like cells - could be spontaneously recovered from ordinary tissues that are stressed via mechanical injury or increased acidity.\n", "iPSC derivation is typically a slow and inefficient process, taking 1–2 weeks for mouse cells and 3–4 weeks for human cells, with efficiencies around 0.01–0.1%. However, considerable advances have been made in improving the efficiency and the time it takes to obtain iPSCs. Upon introduction of reprogramming factors, cells begin to form colonies that resemble pluripotent stem cells, which can be isolated based on their morphology, conditions that select for their growth, or through expression of surface markers or reporter genes.\n\nSection::::Production.:First generation (mouse).\n", "More recently, various studies generate cell lines that were initially derived from differentiated P19 cells. Due to the pluripotency of P19 cells, those new derived cell lines can be ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm-like cells.\n\nSection::::Differentiation of P19 cells.\n", "An attractive feature of human iPS cells is the ability to derive them from adult patients to study the cellular basis of human disease. Since iPS cells are self-renewing and pluripotent, they represent a theoretically unlimited source of patient-derived cells which can be turned into any type of cell in the body. This is particularly important because many other types of human cells derived from patients tend to stop growing after a few passages in laboratory culture. iPS cells have been generated for a wide variety of human genetic diseases, including common disorders such as Down syndrome and polycystic kidney disease. In many instances, the patient-derived iPS cells exhibit cellular defects not observed in iPS cells from healthy patients, providing insight into the pathophysiology of the disease.\n", "Section::::Identity.\n\nInduced pluripotent stem cells are similar to natural pluripotent stem cells, such as embryonic stem (ES) cells, in many aspects, such as the expression of certain stem cell genes and proteins, chromatin methylation patterns, doubling time, embryoid body formation, teratoma formation, viable chimera formation, and potency and differentiability, but the full extent of their relation to natural pluripotent stem cells is still being assessed.\n\nGene expression and genome-wide H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 were found to be extremely similar between ES and iPS cells.\n", "Other considerations for starting cell type include mutational load (for example, skin cells may harbor more mutations due to UV exposure), time it takes to expand the population of starting cells, and the ability to differentiate into a given cell type.\n\nSection::::Production.:Genes used to produce iPSCs.\n\nThe generation of iPS cells is crucially dependent on the transcription factors used for the induction.\n", "Section::::Techniques and conditions for derivation and culture.:Induced pluripotent stem cells.\n\nThe iPSC technology was pioneered by Shinya Yamanaka’s lab in Kyoto, Japan, who showed in 2006 that the introduction of four specific genes encoding transcription factors could convert adult cells into pluripotent stem cells. He was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize along with Sir John Gurdon \"for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent.\" \n", "Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines are pluripotent stem cells that have been generated from adult/somatic cells. The method of generating iPSCs was developed by Shinya Yamanaka's lab in 2006; his group demonstrated that the introduction of four specific genes could induce somatic cells to revert to a pluripotent stem cell state.\n", "Recent findings with respect to epiblasts before and after implantation have produced proposals for classifying pluripotency into two distinct phases: \"naive\" and \"primed\". The baseline stem cells commonly used in science that are referred as Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are derived from a pre-implantation epiblast; such epiblast is able to generate the entire fetus, and one epiblast cell is able to contribute to all cell lineages if injected into another blastocyst. On the other hand, several marked differences can be observed between the pre- and post-implantation epiblasts, such as their difference in morphology, in which the epiblast after implantation changes its morphology into a cup-like shape called the \"egg cylinder\" as well as chromosomal alteration in which one of the X-chromosomes under random inactivation in the early stage of the egg cylinder, known as X-inactivation. During this development, the egg cylinder epiblast cells are systematically targeted by Fibroblast growth factors, Wnt signaling, and other inductive factors via the surrounding yolk sac and the trophoblast tissue, such that they become instructively specific according to the spatial organization. \n", "These second-generation iPSCs were derived from mouse fibroblasts by retroviral-mediated expression of the same four transcription factors (Oct4, Sox2, cMyc, Klf4). However, instead of using Fbx15 to select for pluripotent cells, the researchers used Nanog, a gene that is functionally important in ESCs. By using this different strategy, the researchers created iPSCs that were functionally identical to ESCs.\n\nSection::::Production.:Human induced pluripotent stem cells.\n\nSection::::Production.:Human induced pluripotent stem cells.:Generation from human fibroblasts.\n", "BULLET::::- DNA methylation globally: Human iPS cells are highly similar to ES cells in their patterns of which cytosines are methylated, more than to any other cell type. However, on the order of a thousand sites show differences in several iPS cell lines. Half of these resemble the somatic cell line the iPS cells were derived from, the rest are iPSC-specific. Tens of regions which are megabases in size have also been found where iPS cells are not reprogrammed to the ES cell state.\n", "In June 2007, three separate research groups, including that of Yamanaka's, a Harvard/University of California, Los Angeles collaboration, and a group at MIT, published studies that substantially improved on the reprogramming approach, giving rise to iPSCs that were indistinguishable from ESCs. Unlike the first generation of iPSCs, these second generation iPSCs produced viable chimeric mice and contributed to the mouse germline, thereby achieving the 'gold standard' for pluripotent stem cells.\n", "Section::::Production.:Human induced pluripotent stem cells.:Generation from additional cell types.\n\nObtaining fibroblasts to produce iPSCs involves a skin biopsy, and there has been a push towards identifying cell types that are more easily accessible. In 2008, iPSCs were derived from human keratinocytes, which could be obtained from a single hair pluck. In 2010, iPSCs were derived from peripheral blood cells, and in 2012, iPSCs were made from renal epithelial cells in the urine.\n", "Differentiating Naïve pluripotent Stem cells into primed pluripotent stem cells (e.g. adding activin and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) in the culture medium) can be accomplished but reprogramming of Primed cells into Naïve cells is more difficult. Several approaches to reprogramming EpiSC to achieve Naïve pluripotency have been applied. One of those methods is transfecting the primed pluripotent stem cell with a reprogramming factor, Klf4).\n", "Thomas et al., describe a forward programming strategy relying on the concurrent exogenous expression of 3 transcription factors: GATA1, FLI1 and TAL1. The forward programmed megakaryocytes proliferate and differentiate in culture for several months with megakaryocyte purity over 90% reaching up to 2x10 mature megakaryocytes per input hPSC. Functional platelets are generated throughout the culture allowing the prospective collection of several transfusion units from as few as one million starting hPSCs.\n\nSee also overview\n\nSection::::Induced progenitor stem cells.:Blood stem cells.:Immune cells.\n", "BULLET::::- A more recent study on motor functional recovery after spinal cord injuries in mice showed that after human-induced pluripotent stem cells were transplanted into the mice, the cells differentiated into three neural lineages in the spinal cord. The cells stimulated regrowth of the damaged spinal cord, maintained myelination, and formed synapses. These positive outcomes were observed for over 112 days after the spinal cord injury, without tumor formation. Nevertheless, a follow-up study by the same group showed distinct clones of human-induced pluripotent stem cells eventually formed tumors.\n", "Reprogramming of human cells to iPSCs was reported in November 2007 by two independent research groups: Shinya Yamanaka of Kyoto University, Japan, who pioneered the original iPSC method, and James Thomson of University of Wisconsin-Madison who was the first to derive human embryonic stem cells. With the same principle used in mouse reprogramming, Yamanaka's group successfully transformed human fibroblasts into iPSCs with the same four pivotal genes, Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and cMyc, using a retroviral system, while Thomson and colleagues used a different set of factors, Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, and Lin28, using a lentiviral system.\n", "Induced pluripotent stem cells were first generated by Shinya Yamanaka's team at Kyoto University, Japan, in 2006. They hypothesized that genes important to embryonic stem cell (ESC) function might be able to induce an embryonic state in adult cells. They chose twenty-four genes previously identified as important in ESCs and used retroviruses to deliver these genes to mouse fibroblasts. The fibroblasts were engineered so that any cells reactivating the ESC-specific gene, Fbx15, could be isolated using antibiotic selection.\n", "Also in 2008, Yamanaka et al. found that they could transfer the four necessary genes with a plasmid. The Yamanaka group successfully reprogrammed mouse cells by transfection with two plasmid constructs carrying the reprogramming factors; the first plasmid expressed c-Myc, while the second expressed the other three factors (Oct4, Klf4, and Sox2).\n", "BULLET::::- Tetraploid complementation: iPS cells from mouse fetal fibroblasts injected into tetraploid blastocysts (which themselves can only form extra-embryonic tissues) can form whole, non-chimeric, fertile mice, although with low success rate.\n\nBULLET::::- Epigenetic reprogramming\n", "BULLET::::- Studying whether the retrotransposons (also known as “jumping genes”, because they move around within the chromosomes of a single cell) residing in our DNA become more active when a skin cell is reprogrammed into an iPS cell.\n\nBULLET::::- Using iPS technology to create a new model for testing a vaccine for HIV/AIDS.\n\nTranslational Research\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Weinberg, Ph.D, Whitehead Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Colman, Ph.D, Singapore Stem Cell Consortium\n\nBULLET::::- Sheng Ding, Ph.D, Scripps Research Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Rudolf Jaenisch, Ph.D, Whitehead Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon M. Keller, Ph.D, McEwen Centre for Regenerative Medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Ruth McKernan, Ph.D, Pfizer Regenerative Medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Roy Ogle, Ph.D, University of Virginia\n\nBULLET::::- Lee Rubin, Ph.D, Harvard Stem Cell Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Leonard Zon, Ph.D, Children's Hospital Boston\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::1. Warren, L. et al. (2010) Highly Efficient Reprogramming to Pluripotency and Directed Differentiation of Human Cells with Synthetic Modified mRNA Cell Stem Cell. Published online before print September 30, 2010.\n", "However, reprogramming allows for the creation of pluripotent cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), from adult cells. These are not adult stem cells, but adult cells (e.g. epithelial cells) reprogrammed to give rise to cells with pluripotent capabilities. Using genetic reprogramming with protein transcription factors, pluripotent stem cells with ESC-like capabilities have been derived. The first demonstration of induced pluripotent stem cells was conducted by Shinya Yamanaka and his colleagues at Kyoto University. They used the transcription factors Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4 to reprogram mouse fibroblast cells into pluripotent cells. Subsequent work used these factors to induce pluripotency in human fibroblast cells. Junying Yu, James Thomson, and their colleagues at the University of Wisconsin–Madison used a different set of factors, Oct4, Sox2, Nanog and Lin28, and carried out their experiments using cells from human foreskin. However, they were able to replicate Yamanaka's finding that inducing pluripotency in human cells was possible.\n" ]

[ "Somatic cells revert back into pluripotent stem cells." ]

[ "Somatic cells are already differentiated, therefore they don't revert back to stem cells. If they do, this would indicate the individual has cancer." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Somatic cells revert back into pluripotent stem cells." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Somatic cells are already differentiated, therefore they don't revert back to stem cells. If they do, this would indicate the individual has cancer." ]

[ "Section::::Chemical defenses.\n\nUnlike pheromones, allomones harm the receiver at the benefit of the producer. This grouping encompasses the chemical arsenal that numerous insects employ. Insects with chemical weaponry usually make their presence known through aposematism. Aposematism is utilized by non-palatable species as a warning to predators that they represent a toxic danger. Additionally, these insects tend to be relatively large, long-lived, active, and frequently aggregate. Indeed, longer-lived insects are more likely to be chemically defended than short lived ones, as longevity increases apparency.\n", "Contact insecticides are toxic to insects upon direct contact. These can be inorganic insecticides, which are metals and include the commonly used sulfur, and the less commonly used arsenates, copper and fluorine compounds. Contact insecticides can also be organic insecticides, i.e. organic chemical compounds, synthetically produced, and comprising the largest numbers of pesticides used today. Or they can be natural compounds like pyrethrum, neem oil etc.\n\nContact insecticides usually have no residual activity.\n\nEfficacy can be related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets, such as aerosols often improving performance.\n\nSection::::Biological pesticides.\n", "Throughout the arthropod and insect realm, however, chemical defenses are quite unevenly distributed. There is great variation in the presence and absence of chemical arms among orders and families to even within families. Moreover, there is diversity among insects as to whether the defensive compounds are obtained intrinsically or extrinsically. Many compounds are derived from the main food source of insect larvae, and occasionally adults, feed, whereas other insects are able to synthesize their own toxins.\n", "In contrast to Class I chemicals, Class II chemicals are essentially harmless. They stimulate scent and taste receptors so as to discourage feeding. They tend to have low molecular weight and are volatile and reactive, including acids, aldehydes, aromatic ketones, quinones, and terpenes. Furthermore, they may be aposematic, indicating through odors the presence of chemical defenses. The two different classes are not mutually exclusive, and insects may use combinations of the two.\n", "Methoprene does not kill insects. Instead, it interferes with an insect’s life cycle and prevents it from reaching maturity or\n", "In addition small traces of other compounds are also formed in the reaction. It is unlikely that the ring compound (P-N=C-S-C=N-) {or its isomer} would act as a plant protection agent, but (FcP(S)(NR)(NCS)) compounds can act as nerve poisons in insects. These compounds bearing terminal sulfur atoms on the phosphorus atom are much less toxic than the compounds (such as sarin, VX and tetraethyl pyrophosphate) which have an oxygen in place of this terminal sulfur. This is because the P=S compound is not active as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor in either mammals or insects, in mammals the animals metabolism tends to remove lipophilic side groups from the phosphorus atom while an insect tends to oxidise the compound so removing the terminal sulfur and replacing it with a terminal oxygen which causes the compound to be more able to act as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.\n", "BULLET::::- Methoxychlor\n\nBULLET::::- Mirex\n\nBULLET::::- Pentachlorophenol\n\nBULLET::::- TDE\n\nSection::::Examples.:Organophosphates.\n\nBULLET::::- Acephate\n\nBULLET::::- Azinphos-methyl\n\nBULLET::::- Bensulide\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorethoxyfos\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorpyrifos\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorpyriphos-methyl\n\nBULLET::::- Diazinon\n\nBULLET::::- Dichlorvos (DDVP)\n\nBULLET::::- Dicrotophos\n\nBULLET::::- Dimethoate\n\nBULLET::::- Disulfoton\n\nBULLET::::- Ethoprop\n\nBULLET::::- Fenamiphos\n\nBULLET::::- Fenitrothion\n\nBULLET::::- Fenthion\n\nBULLET::::- Fosthiazate\n\nBULLET::::- Malathion\n\nBULLET::::- Methamidophos\n\nBULLET::::- Methidathion\n\nBULLET::::- Mevinphos\n\nBULLET::::- Monocrotophos\n\nBULLET::::- Naled\n\nBULLET::::- Omethoate\n\nBULLET::::- Oxydemeton-methyl\n\nBULLET::::- Parathion\n\nBULLET::::- Parathion-methyl\n\nBULLET::::- Phorate\n\nBULLET::::- Phosalone\n\nBULLET::::- Phosmet\n\nBULLET::::- Phostebupirim\n\nBULLET::::- Phoxim\n\nBULLET::::- Pirimiphos-methyl\n\nBULLET::::- Profenofos\n\nBULLET::::- Terbufos\n\nBULLET::::- Tetrachlorvinphos\n\nBULLET::::- Tribufos\n\nBULLET::::- Trichlorfon\n\nSection::::Examples.:Carbamates.\n\nBULLET::::- Aldicarb\n\nBULLET::::- Bendiocarb\n\nBULLET::::- Carbofuran\n\nBULLET::::- Carbaryl\n\nBULLET::::- Dioxacarb\n\nBULLET::::- Fenobucarb\n\nBULLET::::- Fenoxycarb\n", "Thiamethoxam is a broad-spectrum, systemic insecticide, which means it is absorbed quickly by plants and transported to all of its parts, including pollen, where it acts to deter insect feeding. An insect can absorb it in its stomach after feeding, or through direct contact, including through its tracheal system. The compound gets in the way of information transfer between nerve cells by interfering with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the central nervous system, and eventually paralyzes the muscles of the insects.\n", "Mortein \"Insect Seeking Fly Spray\" uses the active ingredients Allethrin (2.09 g/kg) and Resmethrin (0.39 g/kg), both Pyrethroid neuro-toxins which are considered generally safe in typical doses, although one study have found an association between exposure to pyrethroids and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in male, but not female children. Another study found an association between exposure to pyrethroids and the prevalence of biochemical markers for ADHD in developing mice. Pyrethroids break down in the environment after one or two days.\n", "Active ingredients of many household insecticides include permethrin and tetramethrin, which act on the nervous system of insects and arachnids.\n\nBug sprays should be used in well ventilated areas only, as the chemicals contained in the aerosol and most insecticides can be harmful or deadly to humans and pets. All insecticide products including solids, baits and bait traps should be applied such that they are out of reach of wildlife, pets and children.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- aerial application\n\nBULLET::::- Aerosol spray\n\nBULLET::::- Formulation\n\nBULLET::::- Integrated pest management (IPM)\n\nBULLET::::- Pest control\n\nBULLET::::- Pesticide\n\nBULLET::::- Insecticide\n\nBULLET::::- Fungicide\n\nBULLET::::- Weed control\n", "Pesticide toxicity to bees\n\nPesticides vary in their effects on bees. Contact pesticides are usually sprayed on plants and can kill bees when they crawl over sprayed surfaces of plants or other areas around it. Systemic pesticides, on the other hand, are usually incorporated into the soil or onto seeds and move up into the stem, leaves, nectar, and pollen of plants.\n", "causing paralysis and death. Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine to terminate signals from these receptors. However, acetylcholinesterase cannot break down neonicotinoids and their binding is irreversible.\n\nSection::::Mode of action.:Basis of selectivity.\n\nMammals and insects have different composition of the receptor subunits and the structures of the receptors. Because most neonicotinoids bind much more strongly to insect neuron receptors than to mammal neuron receptors, these insecticides are more toxic to insects than mammals.\n", "By inhibiting the cholinesterase the insect can no longer break down ACh in the NMJ and so its muscles lock up in a state of tetany (continuous contraction) making flying and respiration impossible, and the insect then dies of asphyxiation.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nFly spray is dangerous to pets as well as fish and should be used with caution.\n\nIn the United States, fly sprays often contain the powerful insect toxin dichlorvos which is often targeted by environmental groups as a carcinogenic compound.\n", "Insecticides can be used. Larvicides kill the developing larvae, but large quantities may need to be used to reach areas below the surface. Aerosols can be used in buildings to \"zap\" flies, but outside applications are only temporarily effective. Residual sprays on walls or resting sites have a longer-lasting effect. Many strains of housefly have become immune to the most commonly used insecticides.\n", "BULLET::::- Isoprocarb\n\nBULLET::::- Methomyl\n\nBULLET::::- 2-(1-Methylpropyl)phenyl methylcarbamate\n\nSection::::Examples.:Pyrethroids.\n\nBULLET::::- Allethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Bifenthrin\n\nBULLET::::- Cyhalothrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin\n\nBULLET::::- Cypermethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Cyfluthrin\n\nBULLET::::- Deltamethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Etofenprox\n\nBULLET::::- Fenvalerate\n\nBULLET::::- Permethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Phenothrin\n\nBULLET::::- Prallethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Resmethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Tetramethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Tralomethrin\n\nBULLET::::- Transfluthrin\n\nSection::::Examples.:Neonicotinoids.\n\nBULLET::::- Acetamiprid\n\nBULLET::::- Clothianidin\n\nBULLET::::- Imidacloprid\n\nBULLET::::- Nithiazine\n\nBULLET::::- Thiacloprid\n\nBULLET::::- Thiamethoxam\n\nSection::::Examples.:Ryanoids.\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorantraniliprole\n\nBULLET::::- Cyantraniliprole\n\nBULLET::::- Flubendiamide\n\nSection::::Examples.:Insect growth regulators.\n\nBULLET::::- Benzoylureas\n\nBULLET::::- Diflubenzuron\n\nBULLET::::- Flufenoxuron\n\nBULLET::::- Cyromazine\n\nBULLET::::- Methoprene\n\nBULLET::::- Hydroprene\n\nBULLET::::- Tebufenozide\n\nSection::::Examples.:Derived from plants or microbes.\n\nBULLET::::- Anabasine\n\nBULLET::::- Anethole (mosquito larvae)\n\nBULLET::::- Annonin\n\nBULLET::::- Asimina (pawpaw tree seeds) for lice\n\nBULLET::::- Azadirachtin\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine\n", "2. Organophosphates, e.g. parathion, methyl parathion and about 40 other insecticides are available nationally. Parathion is highly toxic, methyl-parathion is less so and Malathion is generally considered safe as it has low toxicity and is rapidly broken down in the mammalian liver. This group works by preventing normal nerve transmission as cholinesterase is prevented from breaking down the transmitter substance acetylcholine, resulting in uncontrolled muscle movements.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Agents of war.\n", "When applied in a dispersed way, for example through fumigation or spraying, these chemicals have an effect against a wide range of insect species, some of which may be beneficial to human activities, including crop-pollinators such as bees. In addition, as with many insecticides, application may result in the killing of natural predators or controls along with the pest, risking the possibility of a 'rebound effect' or pest resurgence, where the original target for the treatment returns with equal or even greater voracity.\n", "Pasteels, Grégoire, and Rowell-Rahier also grouped chemical defenses, albeit in a different manner. Weaponry is partitioned into chemical compounds that are truly poisonous, those that restrict movement, and those that repel predators. True poisons, essentially Class I compounds, interfere with specific physiological processes or act at certain sites. Repellents are similar to those classified under Class II as they irritate the chemical sensitivity of predators. Impairment of movement and sense organs is achieved through sticky, slimy, or entangling secretions that act mechanically rather than chemically. This last grouping of chemicals has both Class I and Class II properties. As with Class I and Class II compounds, these three categories are not mutually exclusive, as some chemicals can have multiple effects.\n", "Insect repellants containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) or \"p\"-menthane-3,8-diol (from lemon eucalyptus) were effective in repelling \"Ae. aegypti\" mosquitoes, while others were less effective or ineffective in a scientific study. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention article on \"Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods\" notes that \"Studies suggest that concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%\".\n", "By contrast, \"persistent\" agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as several weeks, complicating decontamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Non-volatile liquid agents, such as blister agents and the oily VX nerve agent, do not easily evaporate into a gas, and therefore present primarily a contact hazard.\n", "Section::::Environmental harm.\n\nSection::::Environmental harm.:Effects on nontarget species.\n\nSome insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.\n\nSection::::Environmental harm.:DDT.\n", "The two main groups of organochlorine insecticides are the DDT-type compounds and the chlorinated alicyclics.\n\nTheir mechanism of action differs slightly.\n\nBULLET::::- The DDT like compounds work on the peripheral nervous system. At the axon's sodium channel, they prevent gate closure after activation and membrane depolarization. Sodium ions leak through the nerve membrane and create a destabilizing negative \"afterpotential\" with hyperexcitability of the nerve. This leakage causes repeated discharges in the neuron either spontaneously or after a single stimulus.\n", "Section::::Other biological approaches.:Enzymes.\n\nMany plants exude substances to repel insects. Premier examples are substances activated by the enzyme myrosinase. This enzyme converts glucosinolates to various compounds that are toxic to herbivorous insects. One product of this enzyme is allyl isothiocyanate, the pungent ingredient in horseradish sauces.\n\nThe myrosinase is released only upon crushing the flesh of horseradish. Since allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant as well as the insect, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme.\n\nSection::::Other biological approaches.:Bacterial.\n", "Many organic compounds are produced by plants for the purpose of defending the host plant from predation. A trivial case is tree rosin, which is a natural insecticide. Specifically, the production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the defense response against insect attack and fungal pathogen infection. Many fragrances, e.g. oil of wintergreen, are in fact antifeedants.\n\nFour extracts of plants are in commercial use: pyrethrum, rotenone, neem oil, and various essential oils\n\nSection::::Other biological approaches.\n\nSection::::Other biological approaches.:Plant-incorporated protectants.\n", "For instance, parathion, one of the first OPPs commercialized, is many times more potent than malathion, an insecticide used in combating the Mediterranean fruit fly (Med-fly) and West Nile Virus-transmitting mosquitoes. Human and animal exposure to them can be through ingestion of foods containing them, or via absorption through the skin or lungs.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Research of artificial photosynthesis is experiencing a boom at the beginning of the 21st century. During 2000, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) researchers publicized their intent to emphasize carbon dioxide capture and its conversion to hydrocarbons. In 2003, the Brookhaven National Laboratory announced the discovery of an important intermediate part of the reduction of CO to CO (the simplest possible carbon dioxide reduction reaction), which could result in better catalysts.\n", "She discovered that Douglas Firs provide carbon to baby firs. She found that there was more carbon sent to baby firs that came from that specific mother tree, than random baby firs not related to that specific fir tree. It was also found the mother trees change their root structure to make room for baby trees.\n\nSection::::Interspecies Cooperation.\n", "During this decade-long experiment, Schlesinger and John Lichter (Bowdoin College) found only small changes in soil carbon content, suggesting that enhanced carbon storage in soils is unlikely to play a major role in slowing the growth of atmospheric CO and the magnitude of global climate change. Much larger changes were seen in the growth rate of trees, but even those were unlikely to sequester a significant increment of carbon worldwide as a result of rising CO in Earth’s atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Work at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, 2007-2014.\n", "Her early work in the plant field was dedicated to the molecular responses of plants to hypoxia and waterlogging, i.e. which genes are switched on by low oxygen levels. She, together with her collaborators, cloned the gene encoding the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and identified the regulatory motifs controlling its expression in response to the lack of oxygen. She also was involved in the research showing that all plants contain haemoglobin and that this molecule protects the plant against oxygen deprivation stress \n\nSection::::Research.:Plant flowering.\n", "In hundreds of experiments with carbon-11 produced from deuterons and boron-10 by Kamen in the Radiation Laboratory's 37-inch cyclotron, Ruben and Kamen, with collaborators from botany, microbiology, physiology and organic chemistry, pursued the path of carbon dioxide in plants, algae, and bacteria. Their results, confused by absorption of the products on proteinaceous residues, initially failed to reveal the path of carbon in photosynthesis but succeeded in exciting the interest of scientists worldwide in the search and revelation of metabolic processes, beginning a revolution in biochemistry and medicine.\n", "It was not until the end of the 18th century that Joseph Priestley discovered by accident the ability of plants to \"restore\" air that had been \"injured\" by the burning of a candle. He followed up on the experiment by showing that air \"restored\" by vegetation was \"\"not at all inconvenient to a mouse.\"\" He was later awarded a medal for his discoveries that: \"\"...no vegetable grows in vain... but cleanses and purifies our atmosphere.\"\" Priestley's experiments were followed up by Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch physician, who showed that \"restoration\" of air only worked in the presence of light and green plant parts.\n", "During the last two decades, a new form of electrode was developed based on the luminescence emission of a photo-active chemical compound and the quenching of that emission by oxygen. This quenching photophysics mechanism is described by the Stern–Volmer equation for dissolved oxygen in a solution:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2: Luminescence in the presence of oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3: Luminescence in the absence of oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4: Stern-Volmer constant for oxygen quenching\n\nBULLET::::- [O2]: Dissolved oxygen concentration\n\nThe determination of oxygen concentration by luminescence quenching has a linear response over a broad range of oxygen concentrations and has excellent accuracy and reproducibility. \n", "Section::::Current research.:Carbon dioxide reduction catalysts.\n", "One proposed method is by so-called \"artificial trees\". This concept, proposed by climate scientist Wallace S. Broecker and science writer Robert Kunzig, imagines huge numbers of artificial trees around the world to remove ambient CO. The technology is now being pioneered by Klaus Lackner, the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions (CNCE) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University, whose artificial tree technology can suck up to 1,000 times more CO from the air than real trees can at a rate of about one ton of carbon per day if the artificial tree is approximately the size of an actual tree. The CO would be captured in a filter and then removed from the filter and stored.\n", "Since the publication of a simple, accurate and direct dissolved oxygen analytical procedure by Winkler, the analysis of dissolved oxygen levels for water has been key to the determination of surface water purity and ecological wellness. The Winkler method is still one of only two analytical techniques used to calibrate oxygen electrode meters; the other procedure is based on oxygen solubility at saturation as per Henry's law. Though many researchers have refined the Winkler analysis to dissolved oxygen levels in the low PPB range, the method does not lend itself to automation.\n", "Keppler \"et al\". calculated a \"first estimate\" for the newly established CH source. Their calculations were based on broad assumptions, which they admitted neglected \"the complexity of terrestrial ecosystems\". \n\nThey estimated methane released by living vegetation to be in the range 62–236 Tg yr (average 149 Tg yr) with the main contribution assigned to tropical forests and grasslands. They believed that \"the detection of an additional source of this magnitude, some 10-30% of the present annual source strength, would necessitate reconsideration of the global CH budget\". \n", "The Clarks stepped as Co-Directors of La Selva in 1994 to conduct full-time research on tropical forest structure, life histories of tropical trees, and the effects of climate change. With funding from numerous source they implemented a 42 meter tower to measure atmospheric carbon as part a global array dedicated to studying climate change.\n", "Research into finding catalysts that can convert water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to carbohydrates or hydrogen is a current, active field. By studying the natural oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), researchers have developed catalysts such as the \"blue dimer\" to mimic its function or inorganic-based materials such as Birnessite with the similar building block as the OEC. \n\nPhotoelectrochemical cells that reduce carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide (CO), formic acid (HCOOH) and methanol (CHOH) are under development. However, these catalysts are still very inefficient.\n\nSection::::Current research.:Hydrogen catalysts.\n", "While Nocera and coworkers had accomplished water splitting to oxygen and protons, a light-driven process to produce hydrogen is desirable. During 2009, the Leibniz Institute for Catalysis reported inexpensive iron carbonyl complexes able to do just that. During the same year, researchers at the University of East Anglia also used iron carbonyl compounds to achieve photoelectrochemical hydrogen production with 60% efficiency, this time using a gold electrode covered with layers of indium phosphide to which the iron complexes were linked. Both of these processes used a molecular approach, where discrete nanoparticles are responsible for catalysis.\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers from Lancaster University, The University of Liverpool, and The University of Essex, UK, measured isoprene emission rates from an oil palm tree. Samples were collected using a photosynthetic system that controlled PAR and leaf temperature (1000 μmol m s; 30 °C). It had thought that PAR and temperature are the main controls of isoprene emission from the biosphere. This research showed that isoprene emissions from oil palm tree are under strong circadian control.\n", "On February 1, 2007, the DigitalGlobe satellite did a scan of the area and the thousands of images were posted to Amazon Mechanical Turk. Students, colleagues, and friends of Gray, and computer scientists around the world formed a \"Jim Gray Group\" to study these images for clues.\n\nOn February 16 this search was suspended, and an underwater search using sophisticated equipment ended May 31.\n", "In Brazil, the Suruí tribe is using Google Earth Engine to measure the removal of trees from their rainforest by illegal loggers. Through the Suruí Carbon Project, several members of the community were given Android phones that allowed them to calculate the carbon emissions of trees in their forest. Now, when they can monitor their forests for suspicious changes by illegal loggers.\n", "Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it (which gave off CO), the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly \"injure\" air. He then showed that the air that had been \"injured\" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.\n", "BULLET::::- The enzyme RuBisCO has been described as a \"notoriously inefficient\" enzyme, as it is inhibited by oxygen, has a very slow turnover and is not saturated at current levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The enzyme is inhibited as it is unable to distinguish between carbon dioxide and molecular oxygen, with oxygen acting as a competitive enzyme inhibitor. However, RuBisCO remains the key enzyme in carbon fixation, and plants overcome its poor activity by having massive amounts of it inside their cells, making it the most abundant protein on Earth.\n", "Crowther was inspired to conduct his tree study by Plant-for-the-Planet, the youth-led NGO leading the UN's Billion Tree Campaign. After he made the discovery, Crowther's story featured in a textbook to be distributed at global Plant-for-the-Planet Academies, stating \"Tom was teased over the years by his fellow Professors for being the 'tree counter'. But Tom stuck with it and on 2 September 2015, his findings were published in the Journal Nature, the most prestigious paper in his field\".\n", "As of 2014, Lovelace still used 431 primates and outnumbered all US institutions performing primate experiments like Battelle Memorial Institute (270) or USAMRIID (249).\n", "BULLET::::- Japanese researchers have reported that they developed a way of turning adult mice cells into stem cells by dipping them in acid. If true, this could pave the way for routine use of stem cells in regenerative medicine with a technique that is cheaper, faster and more efficient than before. However, other investigators could not reproduce the effect, and so this \"discovery\" remains controversial.\n\nBULLET::::- 31 January\n\nBULLET::::- A new way of electrochemically converting CO2 – a greenhouse gas – into carbon monoxide has been developed at the University of Delaware.\n", "Margulis initially sought out the advice of Lovelock for her own research: she explained that, \"In the early seventies, I was trying to align bacteria by their metabolic pathways. I noticed that all kinds of bacteria produced gases. Oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia—more than thirty different gases are given off by the bacteria whose evolutionary history I was keen to reconstruct. Why did every scientist I asked believe that atmospheric oxygen was a biological product but the other atmospheric gases—nitrogen, methane, sulfur, and so on—were not? 'Go talk to Lovelock,' at least four different scientists suggested. Lovelock believed that the gases in the atmosphere were biological.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The effect of CO enrichment on the photosynthetic behavior of an endangered medicinal herb was investigated by this team at Garhwal University, India. Photosynthetic rate (A) was stimulated during the first 30 days, then significantly decreased. Transpiration rate (E) decreased significantly throughout the CO enrichment, whereas stomatal conductance (gs) significantly reduced initially. Overall, it was concluded that the medicinally important part of this plant showed increased growth.\n", "Section::::In CAM plants.\n" ]

[ "Scientists can't figure out how trees turn c02 to oxygen." ]

[ "They have figured ouyt how it works, but that doesn't mean you can recreate it. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Scientists can't figure out how trees turn c02 to oxygen." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "They have figured ouyt how it works, but that doesn't mean you can recreate it. " ]

[ "In digital documents, pages are intentionally left blank so that the document can be printed correctly in double-sided format, rather than have new chapters start on the backs of pages. Intentionally blank pages have also been used in documents distributed in ring binders. The intention is to leave room for expansion without breaking the document's page numbering. This allows updates to be made to a document while requiring minimal new pages, reducing printing costs. The only drawback is the increased time required by the reader to manually insert various newly updated pages into their correct locations in the document.\n", "Section::::Uses for intentionally blank pages.:Sheet music.\n", "Intentionally blank pages placed at the end of books are often used to balance the folios that make up the book (see bookbinding). Often these pages are completely blank with no such statement or are used as \"Notes\" pages, serving a practical purpose. In the case of telephone-number directories, these pages are often used to list important numbers and addresses. These pages may list other books available from the same publisher.\n", "Intentionally blank pages are ubiquitous in technical and instructional manuals, directories, and other large, mass-produced volumes of text. The contents of manuals produced by a given product's vendor are often compiled from generic instructions suitable for a variety of products, with additional instructions or chapters included for the specific product or model in question. This automation of manual generation leads to intentionally blank pages to fit the requirements for mass printing.\n", "For example, if a book with 318 pages of content is printed using 32-page signatures, it will require 10 signatures, 320 pages in total. At the very end of the book — that is, at the end of the last signature — there will be 2 unused (blank) pages.\n\nIf a printer's document processor has been designed to skip completely blank pages, notices may also be required on intentionally blank pages to prevent incorrect page numbering.\n", "Book publishers have also used stylized designs (dingbats) underneath the last paragraph of a chapter to indicate that no other content is to be expected until the next chapter, allowing for the possibility of blank pages without misunderstandings by the readers.\n\nThere are also published books that, as a novelty, contain nothing but blank pages.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Section::::Uses for intentionally blank pages.:Classified documents.\n\nIn the United States armed forces, classified documents require page checks whenever custody is transferred or an inventory is conducted. Blank pages are all marked \"This page intentionally left blank\", so page checks are unambiguous, and every page of the document is accounted for.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Intentionally blank pages are usually the result of printing conventions and techniques. Chapters conventionally start on an odd-numbered page (recto page); therefore, if the preceding chapter happens to have an odd number of pages, a blank page is inserted at the end. Book pages are often printed on large sheets because of technical and financial considerations. Thus, a group of 8, 16, or 32 consecutive pages will be printed on a single sheet in such a way that when the sheet is mechanically folded and cut, the pages will be in the correct order for binding. This is called an even working, and the group of pages is called a section or signature. Books printed in this manner will always have a number of pages that is a multiple of the number in such a signature, such as a multiple of 8, 16, or 32. As a result, these books will usually have pages left blank, unless by chance or editorial ingenuity the exact number of pages is printed.\n", "Section::::Uses for intentionally blank pages.:Standardized tests.\n", "Intentionally blank page\n\nAn intentionally blank page or vacat page (from Latin: \"vacare\" for \"being empty\") is a page that is devoid of content and may be unexpected. Such pages may serve purposes ranging from place-holding to space-filling and content separation. Sometimes, these pages carry a notice such as \"This page [is] intentionally left blank.\" Such notices typically appear in printed works, such as legal documents, manuals, and exam papers, in which the reader might otherwise suspect that the blank pages are due to a printing error and where missing pages might have serious consequences.\n\nSection::::Uses for intentionally blank pages.\n", "BULLET::::- Andy Griffiths' book \"Just Stupid!\" begins with a cartoon snail saying to the reader, \"This page would be blank if I were not here telling you that this page would be blank if I were not here telling you that...\" on an endless loop.\n\nBULLET::::- Humorist Don Novello's 1977 book \"The Lazlo Letters\" ends with several otherwise-blank pages marked \"FREE PAPER!\".\n\nBULLET::::- Comedian Demetri Martin's book \"This Is A Book\" contains an otherwise blank page which says, \"This page unintentionally left blank.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Iranian novelist Reza Amirkhani's book \"Man-e-oo\" (His Ego) has one whole chapter of blank pages.\n", "BULLET::::- The phrase was a recurring joke in Infocom text adventure games. In their first title, \"Zork 1\", inspecting an engraved wooden door resulted in the text: \"The engravings translate to 'This space intentionally left blank'.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Idries Shah's book \"The Book of the Book\" contains 10 pages describing why the following pages are important, and then a big amount of blank pages. Its main purpose is to demonstrate the theory that you shouldn't judge the content by its container.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bookbinding\n\nBULLET::::- Cancels\n\nBULLET::::- Endpaper\n\nBULLET::::- Leiden Conventions\n\nBULLET::::- Octavo\n\nBULLET::::- Publishing\n\nBULLET::::- Self-reference\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "By the beginning of the early modern period, there was a trend among graduating university students of central Europe to have their personal bibles signed by classmates and instructors. Gradually these expanded from mere signatures to include poetry and sketches, and publication companies responded to this trend by appending blank pages to bibles. Eventually they began offering small, decorated books with only blank pages.\n", "In books of sheet music, relatively short pieces of music that span two to four pages often need to be arranged so the number of page turns for the performer is minimized. For example, a three-page work (starting on the left-hand sheet) followed immediately by a two-page work involves one page turn during each work. If a blank page immediately followed the three-page work (on the right-hand sheet), the two-page work will span the left and right pages, alleviating the need for a page turn during the second work. Intentionally blank pages may also prevent a page turn during a difficult passage.\n", "Intentionally blank pages can be useful in standardized tests such as the GCSE, Higher School Certificate, SAT, CAT, ACT, MCAT, and GRE. In these exams, there are often individual, timed sections in which test-takers are prohibited from proceeding to the next section until that section's time interval has passed and the examiner allows them to continue. Because all of these separate sections are printed consecutively in the examination booklet, it may be possible for a test-taker who has finished the section early to see through the page and read the problems in the next section. By placing intentionally blank pages between these sections, the test-taker is prevented from cheating in this way. By printing a notice on the page, such as \"this page has been intentionally left blank\", test-takers will not be concerned that their test has been misprinted, especially as test instructions often instruct students to check for missing or blank pages and to report any defective test booklets to a proctor. These pages may also be useful as scratch paper.\n", "Section::::Preprinting.\n\nNotebooks used for drawing and scrapbooking are usually blank. Notebooks for writing usually have some kind of printing on the writing material, if only lines to align writing or facilitate certain kinds of drawing. Inventor's notebooks have page numbers preprinted to support priority claims. They may be considered as grey literature. Many notebooks have graphic decorations. Personal organizers can have various kinds of preprinted pages.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "In his book, \"Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!\", the late physics Nobel Prize laureate Richard P. Feynman described his experiences as a member of a committee that evaluated science textbooks. At some instances, there were nonsensical examples to illustrate physical phenomena; then a company sent — for reasons of timing — a textbook that contained blank pages, which even got good critiques. Feynman himself experienced attempts at bribery.\n\nSection::::Mathematics.\n", "Some examples include the advent of Smash books created by EK Success, which in some ways, are a closer representation to original scrapbooks in that they are wire bound books in a variety of sizes consisting of blank printed background papers into which one can journal and glue mementos into.\n", "Hand unbinding will preserve text that runs into the gutters of bindings, and most critically allows more easy and complete high quality scans to be made of two page wide material, such as center cartoons, graphic art, and photos in magazines. The digital archive of The Liberator 1918-1924 on Marxist Internet Archive nicely demonstrates the quality of two page wide graphic art scans made possible by careful hand unbinding prior to flat bed or other scanning.\n", "Modern scrapbooking is done largely on 12 inch (30 cm) square or letter-size (US Letter (8.5 by 11 inch) or A4 (210 by 297 mm)) pages. More recently, smaller albums have become popular. The most common new formats are 6, 7, or 8-inch (15, 17.5, or 20 cm) square. It is important to many scrappers to protect their pages with clear page protectors.\n", "\"...The first printed books had no title pages. As with the manuscripts of the Middle Ages which the first printers sought to imitate as clearly as possible, and with which their books had to compete for a market, the reader launched at once into the text, with no more than a curt phrase at the head of the column which read \"incipit\": \"Here beginneth\"...\n", "Imposition has been a requirement since the earliest days of printing. When pages were set using movable type, pages were assembled in a metal frame called a \"chase\", and locked into place using wedges called \"quoins\".\n", "Modern books are paginated consecutively, and all pages are counted in the pagination whether or not the numbers appear. The page number, or folio, is most commonly found at the top of the page, flush left verso, flush right recto. The folio may also be printed at the bottom of the page, and in that location it is called a drop folio. Drop folios usually appear either centered on each page or flush left verso and flush right recto.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Front matter.\n", "In the final proof stage, page layouts are examined closely. Additionally, because final page proofs contain the final pagination, if an index was not compiled at an earlier stage in production, this pagination facilitates compiling a book's index and correcting its table of contents.\n\nSection::::Advance reading copies.\n", "Empty book\n\nEmpty books or blank books are novelty books whose title indicates that they treat some serious subject, but whose pages have been left intentionally blank. A number of such titles have been published as attempts at satire or polemic, to some commercial success. \n\nThe joke is that \"nothing\" is the answer to whatever the title of the book asserts. In 2017, \"The Guardian\" commented that the trend of publishing political empty books had led to \"the noble art of political parody [descending] into a one-joke turn that avoids words\".\n\nSection::::List of empty books.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Japan had the earliest working HDTV system, with design efforts going back to 1979. The country began broadcasting wideband analog high-definition video signals in the late 1980s using an interlaced resolution of 1035 or 1080-lines active (\"1035i\") or 1125-lines total supported by the Sony HDVS line of equipment.\n\nThe Japanese system, developed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories in the 1980s, employed filtering tricks to reduce the original source signal to decrease bandwidth utilization. MUSE was marketed as \"Hi-Vision\" by NHK.\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese broadcast engineers rejected conventional vestigial sideband broadcasting.\n", "Modern HD specifications date to the early 1980s, when Japanese engineers developed the HighVision 1,125-line interlaced TV standard (also called MUSE) that ran at 60 frames per second. The Sony HDVS system was presented at an international meeting of television engineers in Algiers, April 1981 and Japan's NHK presented its analog HDTV system at a Swiss conference in 1983.\n", "In the end, however, the DVB standard of resolutions (1080, 720, 480) and respective frame rates (24, 25, 30) were adopted in conjunction with the Europeans that were also involved in the same standardization process. The FCC officially adopted the ATSC transmission standard (which included both HD and SD video standards) in 1996, with the first broadcasts on October 28, 1998.\n\nSection::::History.:2000s.\n", "In the mid 2000s, when the digital HD technology and standard debuted on the market, this type of resolution was very often and commonly referred to (both by the public and by the marketers) by its friendlier branded and certified name HD ready.\n\nFew screens have been built that actually use this resolution natively. Most employ 16:9 panels with 768 lines instead (WXGA), which resulted in odd numbers of pixels per line, i.e. 1365 are rounded to 1360, 1364, 1366 or even 1376, the next multiple of 16.\n\nSection::::High-definition.:12801080.\n", "BULLET::::- It was decided early on that MUSE would be a satellite broadcast format as Japan economically supports satellite broadcasting.\n\nIn the typical setup, three picture elements on a line were actually derived from three separate scans. Stationary images were transmitted at full resolution. However, as MUSE lowers the horizontal and vertical resolution of material that varies greatly from frame to frame, moving images were blurred in a manner similar to using 16 mm movie film for HDTV projection. In fact, whole-camera pans would result in a loss of 50% of horizontal resolution.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe first electronic scanning format, 405 lines, was the first \"high definition\" television system, since the mechanical systems it replaced had far fewer. From 1939, Europe and the US tried 605 and 441 lines until, in 1941, the FCC mandated 525 for the US. In wartime France, René Barthélemy tested higher resolutions, up to 1,042. In late 1949, official French transmissions finally began with 819. In 1984, however, this standard was abandoned for 625-line color on the TF1 network.\n\nSection::::History.:1980s.\n", "There were four major HDTV systems tested by SMPTE in the late 1970s, and in 1979 an SMPTE study group released \"A Study of High Definition Television Systems\":\n\nBULLET::::- EIA monochrome: 4:3 aspect ratio, 1023 lines, 60 Hz\n\nBULLET::::- NHK color: 5:3 aspect ratio, 1125 lines, 60 Hz\n\nBULLET::::- NHK monochrome: 4:3 aspect ratio, 2125 lines, 50 Hz\n\nBULLET::::- BBC colour: 8:3 aspect ratio, 1501 lines, 60 Hz\n", "Section::::Standards conversion methods in common use.:Nyquist subsampling.:How it works.\n\nIn a typical image transmission setup, all stationary images are transmitted at full resolution. Moving pictures possess a lower resolution visually, based on complexity of interframe image content.\n\nWhen one uses Nyquist subsampling as a standards conversion technique, the horizontal and vertical resolution of the material are reduced – this is an excellent method for converting HDTV to standard definition television, but it works very poorly in reverse.\n", "A number of online video streaming/on demand and digital download services offer HD video, among them YouTube, Vimeo, Hulu, Amazon Video On Demand, Netflix Watch Instantly, and others. Due to heavy compression, the image detail produced by these formats are far below that of broadcast HD, and often even inferior to DVD-Video (3-9 Mbit/s MP2) upscaled to the same image size. The following is a chart of numerous online services and their HD offering:\n\nSection::::HD content.:HD in video surveillance.\n", "Several systems were proposed as the new standard for the US, including the Japanese MUSE system, but all were rejected by the FCC because of their higher bandwidth requirements. At this time, the number of television channels was growing rapidly and bandwidth was already a problem. A new standard had to be more efficient, needing less bandwidth for HDTV than the existing NTSC.\n\nSection::::History.:Demise of analog HD systems.\n", "Section::::System.:Variant resolution systems.\n", "In 1993, Texas Instruments built a 2048x1152 DMD prototype. No rationale is exposed in the papers for choosing this specific resolution over the Japanese 1035 active lines system, or alternatively doubling the 480 lines of the standard US TV to 960, but that way it could cover all resolutions expected to be present on the market, and that included the European one, which happened to be the highest. Some legacy of this development may be seen in \"2K\" and \"4K\" digital movie projectors using TI DLP chips, which run a slightly wider than usual 2048x1080 or 4096x2160 resolution, giving 1.896:1 aspect ratio without anamorphic stretching (vs the 1.778:1 of regular 16:9, with 1920 or 3840 horizontal pixels), give a little (6.7%) more horizontal resolution with anamorphic lenses when showing 2.21:1 (or wider) movies specifically prepared for them, and further enhancement (~13.78%) through reduced letterboxing if used \"without\" such lenses.\n", "In 1986, the European Community proposed HD-MAC, an analog HDTV system with 1,152 lines. A public demonstration took place for the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. However HD-MAC was scrapped in 1993 and the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) project was formed, which would foresee development of a digital HDTV standard.\n\nSection::::History.:Analog systems.:Japan.\n", "In 1979, the Japanese public broadcaster NHK first developed consumer high-definition television with a 5:3 display aspect ratio. The system, known as Hi-Vision or MUSE after its multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding (MUSE) for encoding the signal, required about twice the bandwidth of the existing NTSC system but provided about four times the resolution (1035i/1125 lines). In 1981, the MUSE system was demonstrated for the first time in the United States, using the same 5:3 aspect ratio as the Japanese system. Upon visiting a demonstration of MUSE in Washington, US President Ronald Reagan was impressed and officially declared it \"a matter of national interest\" to introduce HDTV to the US. NHK taped the 1984 Summer Olympics with a Hi-Vision camera, weighing 40 kg.\n", "It also includes the alternative 1440×1152 HDMAC scan format. (According to some reports, a mooted 750-line (720p) format (720 progressively scanned lines) was viewed by some at the ITU as an enhanced television format rather than a true HDTV format, and so was not included, although 1920×1080i and 1280×720p systems for a range of frame and field rates were defined by several US SMPTE standards.)\n\nSection::::Inaugural HDTV broadcast in the United States.\n", "In 2008, Aptina Imaging announced the introduction of a new CMOS image sensor specifically designed for the NHK UHDTV project. During IBC 2008 Japan's NHK, Italy's RAI, BSkyB, Sony, Samsung, Panasonic Corporation, Sharp Corporation, and Toshiba (with various partners) demonstrated the first ever public live transmission of UHDTV, from London to the conference site in Amsterdam.\n\nOn September 29, 2010, the NHK partnered up and recorded The Charlatans live in the UK in the UHDTV format, before broadcasting over the internet to Japan.\n\nSection::::History.:2011.\n", "Another qualifying parameter for a scanner is its \"resolution\", measured in pixels per inch (ppi), sometimes more accurately referred to as Samples per inch (spi). Instead of using the scanner's true optical resolution, the only meaningful parameter, manufacturers like to refer to the \"interpolated resolution\", which is much higher thanks to software interpolation. , a high-end flatbed scanner can scan up to 5400 ppi and drum scanners have an optical resolution of between 3,000 and 24,000 ppi.\n", "Section::::Home and professional recording.:New standards: SuperBetamax and Extended Definition Betamax.:Comparison with other video formats.\n\nBelow is a list of modern, digital-style resolutions (and traditional analog \"TV lines per picture height\" measurements) for various media. The list only includes popular formats. Note that listed resolution applies to luminance only, with chroma resolution usually halved in each dimension for digital formats, and significantly lower for analog formats.\n\nEquivalent pixel resolutions are calculated from analog line resolution numbers:\n", "Also in May 2012, NHK showed the ultra-high-definition imaging system it has developed in conjunction with Shizuoka University, which outputs 33.2-megapixel video at 120 fps with a color depth of 12 bits. As ultra-high-definition broadcasts at full resolution are designed for large, wall-sized displays, there is a possibility that fast-moving subjects may not be clear when shot at 60 fps, so the option of 120 fps has been standardized for these situations. To handle the sensor output of approximately 4 billion pixels per second with a data rate as high as 51.2 Gbit/s, a faster analog-to-digital converter has been developed to process the data from the pixels, and then a high-speed output circuit distributes the resulting digital signals into 96 parallel channels. This CMOS sensor is smaller and uses less power when compared to conventional ultra-high-definition sensors, and it is also the world's first to support the full specifications of the ultra-high-definition standard.\n", "Europe developed HD-MAC (1,250 lines, 50 Hz), a member of the MAC family of hybrid analogue/digital video standards; however, it never took off as a terrestrial video transmission format. HD-MAC was never designated for video interchange except by the European Broadcasting Union.\n\nThe current high-definition video standards in North America were developed during the course of the advanced television process initiated by the Federal Communications Commission in 1987 at the request of American broadcasters. In essence, the end of the 1980s was a death knell for most analog high definition technologies that had developed up to that time.\n\nSection::::History.:1990s.\n", "In September, 1988, the Japanese performed the first High Definition broadcasts of the Olympic games, using their Hi-Vision system (NHK produced material using this format since 1982). In that same month of September, Europe showed for the first time a credible alternative, namely a complete HD-MAC broadcasting chain, at IBC 88 in Brighton. This show included the first progressive scan HD video camera protoTypes (Thomson/LER).\n", "Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and 8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Consumer Electronics Association announced on 17 October 2012, that \"Ultra High Definition\", or \"Ultra HD\", would be used for displays that have an aspect ratio of at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting native video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels.\n\nSection::::Sets.:Market share.\n", "Ultra-high-definition television is also known as Ultra HD, UHD, UHDTV and 4K. In Japan, 8K UHDTV will be known as Super Hi-Vision since Hi-Vision was the term used in Japan for HDTV. In the consumer electronics market companies had previously only used the term 4K at the 2012 CES but that had changed to \"Ultra HD\" during the 2013 CES. The \"Ultra HD\" term is an umbrella term that was selected by the Consumer Electronics Association after extensive consumer research, as the term has also been established with the introduction of \"Ultra HD Blu-ray\".\n\nSection::::Technical details.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Resolution.\n", "BULLET::::- Some countries also use a non-standard CEA resolution, such as 1440×1080i: 777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or 1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame\n\nThe letter \"p\" here stands for progressive scan, while \"i\" indicates interlaced.\n", "The FCC process, led by the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) adopted a range of standards from interlaced 1,080-line video (a technical descendant of the original analog NHK 1125/30 Hz system) with a maximum frame rate of 30 Hz, (60 fields per second) and 720-line video, progressively scanned, with a maximum frame rate of 60 Hz.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "In plants, the pectins form a unified and continuous layer between adjacent cells. Frequently, it is difficult to distinguish the middle lamella from the primary wall, especially in cells that develop thick secondary walls. In such cases, the two adjacent primary walls and the middle lamella, and perhaps the first layer of the secondary wall of each cell, may be called a compound middle lamella. When the middle lamella is degraded by enzymes, as happens during fruit ripening, the adjacent cells will separate.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cell wall\n\nBULLET::::- Plasma membrane\n\nSection::::References.\n\n2.Telugu Akademi Hyderabad \"Intermediate first year Botany\"\n", "Greasy spot, a fungal disease caused by the \"Mycosphaerella citri\", produces leaf spots and premature defoliation, thus reducing the tree's vigour and yield. Ascospores of \"M. citri\" are generated in pseudothecia in decomposing fallen leaves. Once mature, ascospores are ejected and subsequently dispersed by air currents.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Sweet oranges have also given rise to a range of hybrids, notably the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. A spontaneous backcross of the grapefruit and sweet orange then resulted in the orangelo. Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines has produced a group collectively known as tangors, which includes the clementine and Murcott. More complex crosses have also been produced. The so-called Ambersweet orange is actually a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid, legally designated a sweet orange in the United States so it can be used in orange juices. The citranges are a group of intergeneric sweet orange x trifoliate orange hybrids.\n", "BULLET::::- Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color\n\nBULLET::::- Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century\n", "Blood orange\n\nThe blood orange is a variety of orange (\"Citrus\" × \"sinensis\") with crimson, almost blood-colored flesh.\n", "Canopy-shaking mechanical harvesters are being used increasingly in Florida to harvest oranges. Current canopy shaker machines use a series of six-to-seven-foot-long tines to shake the tree canopy at a relatively constant stroke and frequency.\n\nNormally, oranges are picked once they are pale orange.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Degreening.\n", "BULLET::::- Sanguinelli: a mutant of the Doble Fina, discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in the Castellón province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily.\n\nBULLET::::- Scarlet navel: a variety with the same mutation as the navel orange.\n\nBULLET::::- Tarocco: a relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in late January.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Acidless oranges.\n", "Oranges must be mature when harvested. In the United States, laws forbid harvesting immature fruit for human consumption in Texas, Arizona, California and Florida. Ripe oranges, however, often have some green or yellow-green color in the skin. Ethylene gas is used to turn green skin to orange. This process is known as \"degreening\", also called \"gassing\", \"sweating\", or \"curing\". Oranges are non-climacteric fruits and cannot post-harvest ripen internally in response to ethylene gas, though they will de-green externally.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Storage.\n", "While most other citrus are diploid, many of the Key lime hybrid progeny have unusual chromosome numbers. For example, the Persian lime is triploid, deriving from a diploid Key lime gamete and a haploid lemon ovule. A second group of Key lime hybrids, including the Tanepao lime and Madagascar lemon, are also triploid but instead seem to have arisen from a backcross of a diploid Key lime ovule with a citron haploid gamete. The 'Giant Key lime' owes its increased size to a spontaneous duplication of the entire diploid Key lime genome to produce a tetraploid.\n", "Commercially grown orange trees are propagated asexually by grafting a mature cultivar onto a suitable seedling rootstock to ensure the same yield, identical fruit characteristics, and resistance to diseases throughout the years. Propagation involves two stages: first, a rootstock is grown from seed. Then, when it is approximately one year old, the leafy top is cut off and a bud taken from a specific scion variety, is grafted into its bark. The scion is what determines the variety of orange, while the rootstock makes the tree resistant to pests and diseases and adaptable to specific soil and climatic conditions. Thus, rootstocks influence the rate of growth and have an effect on fruit yield and quality.\n", "In 2012, the genome of the orange was found, with 29,445 protein-coding genes. It also found that the sweet orange originated from a backcross hybrid between pummelo and mandarin orange.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- California Citrus State Historic Park\n\nBULLET::::- Eliza Tibbets\n\nBULLET::::- Laraha\n\nBULLET::::- Mother Orange Tree\n\nBULLET::::- Midknight Valencia Orange\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- HOME FRUIT PRODUCTION-ORANGES at Texas Cooperative Extension Texas A&M Horticulture program\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet Oranges (including Valencia Oranges: Campbell Valencia orange, Cutter Valencia orange, Delta Valencia orange, Midknight Valencia orange, Olinda Valencia orange at University of California Riverside Citrus Variety Collection\n", "Similar to the \"dek1\" mutation, genes with a mutation in the \"cr4\" gene also cause a switch in the fate of aleurone cells. The \"cr4\" gene codes for a receptor kinase and so is involved in signal transduction pathways involving the fate of aleurone cells. Plants with a mutated \"cr4\" gene are shorter than normal and produce crinkled leaves. \n", "Section::::Description.:Samuyao.\n", "Section::::Compatibility with other crops.\n", "Section::::Host-parasite interaction.\n\nHigh population densities of the citrus nematode can result in severe damage on the citrus tree. Some above ground symptoms can be observed such as suppression of citrus tree growth, lack of vigor or decline symptoms, yellowing of foliage and small size of fruit. The young adult females penetrate into the cortex cells, become sedentary and form multiple‘nurse’ cells. The nematode feeding from these nurse cells reduces the amount of water and nutrients available to the growing plant.\n\n(Source: Nemaplex UC Davis Nematology)]]\n", "Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly two-hundred-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are, therefore, clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Navel oranges.:Cara cara navels.\n", "The fruits are green, ripening to yellow, and in diameter similar in size to a lime and resembling a small orange, but with a finely downy surface and having a fuzzy texture similar to a peach. The fruits also have distinctive smell from other citrus varieties and often contain a high concentration of seeds.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cultivation.\n", "Orangelo\n\nAn orangelo (Spanish chironja - C. ×paradisi × C. ×sinensis) is a hybrid citrus fruit believed to have originated in Puerto Rico. The fruit, a cross between a grapefruit and an orange, had spontaneously appeared in the shade-providing trees grown on coffee plantations in the Puerto Rican highlands. \n\nIn 1956, Carlos G. Moscoso, from the Horticulture, Agricultural Extension Service of the University of Puerto Rico noticed trees that grew fruits that were larger and a brighter yellow than those of the other trees on the plantations.\n", "Dwarfing fruit trees acts through a reduction in the nutrients which travel from the roots through the trunk to the leaves and buds. Many commercial orchards of various species use this technique to improve the overall health and productivity of the individual trees. An individual tree may be made up of three or more separate cultivars - one for the root system, which is generally selected for good stability and resistance to soil-borne diseases, one for the trunk, which modifies the overall height of the tree, and one for the productive limbs and buds, which actually produces the fruit. Frequently, the root system stock is the most resistant to cold damage - both by natural selection and by protection from the cold air by the earth. When frost severely damages a tree, the more productive branch and bud cultivar may be killed off, leaving the root to sprout new stalks. In the case of oranges and other citrus, this results in sweet orange trees being frozen back so that the more hardy, cold-tolerant sour orange rootstock puts out new growth.\n", "Stem-pitting is another symptom of CTV that manifests in most host types under the proper conditions, and especially in \"Citrus\" trees grafted onto sour orange rootstock. The host will develop pits in the trunk and stem. This results is decreased tree vigor and reduced fruit yield. This is typically caused by the more virulent strains of CTV.\n\nThe third major symptom of CTV infection is seedling yellows. This tends to occur on sour orange, Natsudaidai, lemon and buntan. Symptoms include yellowing of foliage and general dieback.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Structure and genome.\n", "Section::::Cultivation.:Propagation.\n\nIt is possible to grow orange trees directly from seeds, but they may be infertile or produce fruit that may be different from its parent. For the seed of a commercial orange to grow, it must be kept moist at all times. One approach is placing the seeds between two sheets of damp paper towel until they germinate and then planting them, although many cultivators just set the seeds straight into the soil.\n", "Section::::Interaction with other species.:Parasitism.\n\n\"Trigona corvina\" have been known to act as parasites to citrus plantations. They typically collect the sticky propolis from the surfaces of young orange leaves and then they collect the liquid that emerges from the leaf margins after they destroy them with their mandibles. They are so effective in their destruction of the citrus plants that they are able to prevent its growth.\n\nSection::::Interaction with other species.:Defense.\n", "BULLET::::- Fukuhara: grown in Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet\n\nBULLET::::- Homosassa: grown in Florida\n\nBULLET::::- Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as \"Shamouti\"\n\nBULLET::::- Jincheng: the most popular orange in China\n\nBULLET::::- Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas\n\nBULLET::::- Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon\n", "Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:\n\nBULLET::::- Mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\") is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.\n\nBULLET::::- Bitter orange (\"Citrus aurantium\"), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.\n" ]

[ "All oranges grow a smaller orange inside of them.", "Oranges grow smaller oranges inside of them." ]

[ "This is a mutation and is not normal.", "Not every single orange grows a smaller orange inside of it, organges that have an orange inside are considered mutant oranges." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All oranges grow a smaller orange inside of them.", "Oranges grow smaller oranges inside of them." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "This is a mutation and is not normal.", "Not every single orange grows a smaller orange inside of it, organges that have an orange inside are considered mutant oranges." ]

[ "When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.\n", "Toughness in meat is derived from several proteins, such as actin, myosin and collagen, that combined form the structure of the muscle tissue. Heating these proteins causes them to denature, or break down into other substances, which in turn changes the structure and texture of meat, usually reducing its toughness and making it more tender. This typically takes place between over an extended period of time.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Flavour.\n", "As the temperature in the environment increases, molecules move faster. Hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions are important stabilizing forces in proteins. If the temperature rises and molecules containing these interactions are moving too fast, the interactions become compromised or even break. At high temperatures, these interactions cannot form, and a functional protein is denatured. However, it relies on two factors; the type of protein used and the amount of heat applied. The amount of heat applied determines whether this change in protein is permanent or if it can be transformed back to its original form.\n", "Protein folding is key to whether a globular or membrane protein can do its job correctly; it must be folded into the right shape to function. However, hydrogen bonds, which play a big part in folding, are rather weak and thus easily affected by heat, acidity, varying salt concentrations, and other stressors which can denature the protein. This is one reason why tight homeostasis is physiologically necessary in many life forms.\n\nThis concept is unrelated to denatured alcohol, which is alcohol that has been mixed with additives to make it unsuitable for human consumption.\n\nSection::::Common examples.\n", "Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just simmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since thermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, (sous-vide) to (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough collagen in connective tissue into gelatin through hydrolysis, with minimal toughening.\n", "Denaturation (food)\n\nThe word denature is used in two food-related contexts.\n\nSection::::Protein.\n\nWhen preparing proteins for consumption, there are three ways of denaturing the proteins: heating, acids, and mechanical force (e.g. whisking eggs). All three methods have the same result: hydrogen bonds in the proteins are broken allowing the proteins to \"unwind\". When the proteins are unwound, they have been altered from their natural state and are considered denatured. Once denatured, the proteins are free to interact with other chemicals in the food like the Maillard reaction or recombine with itself to coagulate.\n\nSection::::Preventing consumption.\n", "\"Cooking off\" is typically encountered only in fully automatic weapons, such as machine guns, when they are fired for long periods of time without allowing the barrel and chamber of the weapon to cool down to safe temperatures. For this reason, modern crew-served machine guns are equipped with spare barrels to allow a machine gun crew to replace an overheated barrel with a cool one, thus restoring the weapon to action while the overheated barrel is allowed to cool. Also, the majority of machine guns fire from an open bolt, so the round is chambered only after pressing the trigger, just before firing.\n", "Protein folding consists of a balance between a substantial amount of weak intra-molecular interactions within a protein (Hydrophobic, electrostatic, and Van Der Waals Interactions) and protein-solvent interactions. As a result, this process is heavily reliant on environmental state that the protein resides in. These environmental conditions include, and are not limited to, temperature, salinity, pressure, and the solvents that happen to be involved. Consequently, any exposure to extreme stresses (e.g. heat or radiation, high inorganic salt concentrations, strong acids and bases) can disrupt a protein's interaction and inevitably lead to denaturation.\n", "Low-temperature cooking has been used for a long time; evidence of its use can be found in indigenous cultures. Samoans and Tongans slow-cook meat in large pits for celebrations and ceremonies. However, the technique was not scientifically examined until the 18th century, when Benjamin Thompson \"described how he had left a joint of meat in a drying oven overnight and was amazed when, the next morning, he found that the meat was tender and fully cooked.\" Professor Nicholas Kurti from the University of Oxford repeated these experiments in 1969, and showed that the temperature of Thompson's trial never exceeded 70 degrees Celsius.\n", "The force of the interactions between the protein and oil or pan surface is modeled by the Coulomb force equation:\n", "Whey can be denatured by heat. High heat (such as the sustained high temperatures above 72 °C associated with the pasteurization process) denatures whey proteins. While native whey protein does not aggregate upon renneting or acidification of milk, denaturing the whey protein triggers hydrophobic interactions with other proteins, and the formation of a protein gel. Heat-denatured whey can still cause allergies in some people.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Denaturation of proteins is a process of transition from the folded to the unfolded state. It happens in cooking, in burns, in proteinopathies, and in other contexts. \n", "Kurti demonstrated making meringue in a vacuum chamber, the cooking of sausages by connecting them across a car battery, the digestion of protein by fresh pineapple juice, and a reverse baked alaska—hot inside, cold outside—cooked in a microwave oven. Kurti was also an advocate of low temperature cooking, repeating 18th century experiments by British scientist Benjamin Thompson by leaving a lamb joint in an oven at . After 8.5 hours, both the inside and outside temperature of the lamb joint were around , and the meat was tender and juicy. \n", "Whey can be denatured by heat. High heat (such as the sustained high temperatures above 72 °C associated with the pasteurization process) denatures whey proteins. While native whey protein does not aggregate upon renneting or acidification of milk, denaturing the whey protein triggers hydrophobic interactions with other proteins, and the formation of a protein gel.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "A fully denatured protein lacks both tertiary and secondary structure, and exists as a so-called random coil. Under certain conditions some proteins can refold; however, in many cases, denaturation is irreversible. Cells sometimes protect their proteins against the denaturing influence of heat with enzymes known as heat shock proteins (a type of chaperone), which assist other proteins both in folding and in remaining folded. Some proteins never fold in cells at all except with the assistance of chaperones which either isolate individual proteins so that their folding is not interrupted by interactions with other proteins or help to unfold misfolded proteins, allowing them to refold into the correct native structure. This function is crucial to prevent the risk of precipitation into insoluble amorphous aggregates. The external factors involved in protein denaturation or disruption of the native state include temperature, external fields (electric, magnetic), molecular crowding, and even the limitation of space, which can have a big influence on the folding of proteins. High concentrations of solutes, extremes of pH, mechanical forces, and the presence of chemical denaturants can contribute to protein denaturation, as well. These individual factors are categorized together as stresses. Chaperones are shown to exist in increasing concentrations during times of cellular stress and help the proper folding of emerging proteins as well as denatured or misfolded ones.\n", "A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, which are typically largely egg albumins in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming an interconnected solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid. The skin that forms on curdled milk is another common example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by chemically \"cooking\" raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade, without heat.\n", "Oxidative rancidity is associated with the degradation by oxygen in the air. The double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid can be cleaved by free-radical reactions involving molecular oxygen. This reaction causes the release of malodorous and highly volatile aldehydes and ketones. Because of the nature of free-radical reactions, the reaction is catalyzed by sunlight. Oxidation primarily occurs with unsaturated fats. For example, even though meat is held under refrigeration or in a frozen state, the poly-unsaturated fat will continue to oxidize and slowly become rancid. The fat oxidation process, potentially resulting in rancidity, begins immediately after the animal is slaughtered and the muscle, intra-muscular, inter-muscular and surface fat becomes exposed to oxygen of the air. This chemical process continues during frozen storage, though more slowly at lower temperature. Oxidative rancidity can be prevented by light-proof packaging, oxygen-free atmosphere (air-tight containers) and by the addition of antioxidants.\n", "When a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact. Since all structural levels of the protein determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured. This is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active and tend to fold upon binding to their biological target.\n\nSection::::Protein denaturation.:How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure.\n", "The use of temperatures much lower than for conventional cooking is an equally essential feature of sous-vide, resulting in much higher succulence at these lower temperatures, as cell walls in plant-based food do not burst. In the case of meat cooking, tough collagen in connective tissue can be hydrolysed into gelatin, without heating the meat’s proteins high enough that they denature to a degree that the texture toughens and moisture is wrung out of the meat. In contrast, with the cooking of vegetables, where extreme tenderness or softness is seen as undesirably overcooked, the ability of the sous-vide technique to cook vegetables at a temperature below the boiling point of water allows vegetables to be thoroughly cooked (and pasteurized, if necessary) while maintaining a firm or somewhat crisp texture. While the cell walls will generally not burst, the de-polymerization of the pectic polysaccharides that connect the vegetable cells together and/or the gelatinisation of starch in the vegetable can be achieved without overcooking.\n", "As the pH drops, proteins in the myofibers are denatured, leading to abnormal cell structure. The result is a pale tissue color, and a soft, almost mushy texture. The sarcomeres collapse excessively, and less water is held within the cell membrane and proteins. Subsequently, the myofibers will continue to lose water content as the meat is cooled and stored, leading to excessive drip loss.\n", "Section::::Examples of adsorption.:Dairy industry.\n\nThermal treatment of milk by indirect heating (e.g. pasteurization) to reduce microbial load and increase shelf life is generally performed by a plate heat exchanger. Heat exchanger surfaces can become fouled by adsorbed milk protein deposits. Fouling is initiated by formation of a protein monolayer at room temperature, followed by heat induced aggregation and deposition of whey protein and calcium phosphate deposits. Adsorbed proteins decrease efficiency of heat transfer and potentially affect product quality by preventing adequate heating of milk.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms for protein adsorption.\n", "Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at \"Homo erectus\" campsites dating from 420,000 years ago. Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food preparation.:Cooking.:Cooking equipment.\n\nThere are many different types of equipment used for cooking.\n", "When meat cooks, the proteins on the surface of the meat denature because of the heat. This means that many of the secondary bonds that give the proteins their shape are broken. The protein molecules want to reform those interactions to return to their most thermodynamically stable state. Two opportune locations for the surface proteins to bind are the oil and the surface of the pan. Meat sticking to the bottom of the pan is caused by the interactions between proteins on the surface of the meat binding with the molecules on the surface of the pan. The denatured protein can also bind with the oil in the pan. This is not desirable for many health and flavor reasons. Since the proteins, the oil molecules, and in some cases the surface of the pan, all have a significant polarity, the force of their interactions can be high.\n", "Elsewhere in the body, uncoupling protein activities are known to affect the temperature in micro-environments. This is believed to affect other proteins' activity in these regions, though work is still required to determine the true consequences of uncoupling-induced temperature gradients within cells.\n\nSection::::In mammals.:Role in ATP concentrations.\n", "Most metals, when heated, experience a reduction in yield strength. If the material's yield strength is sufficiently lowered by heating, locations within the material that experienced residual stresses greater than the yield strength (in the heated state) would yield or deform. This leaves the material with residual stresses that are at most as high as the yield strength of the material in its heated state.\n" ]

[ "Meat is made up only of cells." ]

[ "Meat is made up of cells and stringy fibrous stroma." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Meat is made up only of cells." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Meat is made up of cells and stringy fibrous stroma." ]

[ "BULLET::::- Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of VPN. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line.\n\nBULLET::::- Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.\n", "While it is possible to use desktop processors in laptops, this practice is generally not recommended, as desktop processors heat faster than notebook processors and drain batteries faster.\n\nSection::::Models.\n\nSection::::Models.:Current.\n\nBULLET::::- ARM architecture (used in Chromebooks, Windows 10 laptops, and Linux netbooks)\n\nBULLET::::- MediaTek\n\nBULLET::::- Nvidia: Tegra\n\nBULLET::::- Qualcomm: Snapdragon\n\nBULLET::::- Rockchip\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Electronics: Exynos\n\nBULLET::::- x86\n\nBULLET::::- AMD: A-Series APU, Ryzen Mobile\n\nBULLET::::- Intel: Pentium M, Core Duo, Core 2 Duo and the budget Celeron M and quad-core\n\nSection::::Models.:Former.\n\nBULLET::::- PowerPC\n\nBULLET::::- Freescale Semiconductor made PowerPC G4 processors for the pre-Intel Apple Computer notebooks.\n\nBULLET::::- x86\n", "For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users. Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with a higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. This is because laptops use the mobile versions of processors to conserve power, and these lag behind desktop chips when it comes to performance. Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.\n", "The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were miniaturized and adapted to mobile use, although desktop systems increasingly use the same smaller, lower-power parts which were originally developed for mobile use. The design restrictions on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.\n", "Most desktop computers design power and cooling systems around the worst-case CPU power dissipation at the maximum frequency, maximum workload, and worst-case environment.\n\nTo reduce weight and cost, many laptop computers systems choose to use a much lighter, lower-cost cooling system designed around a much lower Thermal Design Power, that is somewhat above expected maximum frequency, typical workload, and typical environment.\n\nTypically such systems reduce (throttle) the clock rate when the CPU die temperature gets too hot, reducing the power dissipated to a level that the cooling system can handle.\n\nSection::::Electronics.:Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Transmeta\n\nBULLET::::- Acorn RISC Machine (ARM)\n", "The Mobile 915 Express chipset, like its desktop version, supports many new features such as DDR2, PCI Express, Intel High Definition Audio, and SATA. Unfortunately, the introduction of PCI Express and faster Pentium M processors causes laptops built around the Sonoma platform to have a shorter battery-life than their Carmel counterparts; Sonoma laptops typically achieve between 3.5–4.6 hours of battery-life on a 53 W-h battery.\n\nSection::::Notebook implementations.:Napa platform (2006).\n", "The power consumption of these new processors is extremely low—average use energy consumption is to be in the 1–2 watt range in ultra low voltage variants, with thermal design powers (TDPs) of 65 watts for Conroe and most Woodcrests, 80 watts for the 3.0 GHz Woodcrest, and 40 watts for the low-voltage Woodcrest. In comparison, an AMD Opteron 875HE processor consumes 55 watts, while the energy efficient Socket AM2 line fits in the 35 watt thermal envelope (specified a different way so not directly comparable). Merom, the mobile variant, is listed at 35 watts TDP for standard versions and 5 watts TDP for Ultra Low Voltage (ULV) versions.\n", "The Pentium 4-M and Mobile Pentium 4 were based on the same 130 nm Northwood core as the desktop version that preceded them. There were few differences between the two laptop variants, besides the latter chips having a faster front side bus clock (533 MHz vs 400 MHz), Hyper Threading and a much higher thermal design power. Due to the high TDPs of the Mobile Pentium 4s, laptops employing these chips often had severe overheating issues due to woefully inadequate cooling mechanisms and very poor battery life due to the high power consumption of the CPU.\n", "Mobile processor\n\nA mobile processor is found in mobile computers and cellphones.\n\nA CPU chip is designed for portable computers. It is typically housed in a smaller chip package, but more importantly, in order to run cooler, it uses lower voltages than its desktop counterpart and has more sleep mode capability. A mobile processor can be throttled down to different power levels or sections of the chip can be turned off entirely when not in use. Further, the clock frequency may be stepped down under low processor loads. This stepping down conserves power and prolongs battery life.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad (Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992), and handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top, 1987). Some CPUs, such as the 1990 Intel i386SL, were designed to use minimum power to increase battery life of portable computers and were supported by dynamic power management features such as Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! in some designs.\n", "Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop, but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small more enough to be called ultra mobile PCs. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it does not have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.\n", "Section::::vPro hardware requirements.:Laptop PC requirements.\n\nLaptops with Intel vPro require:\n\nBULLET::::- For Intel AMT release 9.0 (4th Generation Intel Core i5 and Core i7):\n\nBULLET::::- 22 nm Intel 4th Generation Core i7 Mobile processors\n\nBULLET::::- 22 nm Intel 4th Generation Core i5 Mobile processors\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile QM87 chipsets\n\nBULLET::::- For Intel AMT release 8.0 (3rd Generation Intel Core i5 and Core i7):\n\nBULLET::::- 32 & 45 nm Intel 3rd Generation Core i7 Mobile processors\n\nBULLET::::- 32 & 45 nm Intel 3rd Generation Core i5 Mobile processors\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile QM77 & Q77 chipsets\n\nBULLET::::- For Intel AMT release 4.1 (Intel Centrino 2 with vPro technology):\n", "With lower voltage comes lower overall power consumption. By consuming less power, the system will be less expensive to run, but more importantly for portable or mobile systems, it will run much longer on existing battery technology. The emphasis on battery operation has driven many of the advances in lowering processor voltage because this has a significant effect on battery life. The second major benefit is that with less voltage and therefore less power consumption, there will be less heat produced. Processors that run cooler can be packed into systems more tightly and will last longer. The third major benefit is that a processor running cooler on less power can be made to run faster. Lowering the voltage has been one of the key factors in allowing the clock rate of processors to go higher and higher.\n", "In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processor instead of the laptop version and have had high performance gains at the cost of greater weight, heat, and limited battery life, but the practice was largely extinct as of 2013. Unlike their desktop counterparts, laptop CPUs are nearly impossible to overclock. A thermal operating mode of laptops is very close to its limits and there is almost no headroom for an overclocking–related operating temperature increase. The possibility of improving a cooling system of a laptop to allow overclocking is extremely difficult to implement.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Graphical processing unit.\n", "There are several ways of supplementing a laptop for engineers who travel, but need more horsepower for their work. It involves not only engineering laptops as client workstations, but \"thin clients\", which are computers that depend heavily on other computers, and their server, to fulfill their computational roles. To bring this hardware together, engineers are utilizing a full-fledged computer network and at least one server with enough scalability, capacity and performance to take on many different types of design requirements and projects, including analysis and simulation. The idea is to take your entire computing environment, including servers, workstations, thin clients and network infrastructure.\n", "2016-era laptops use lithium ion batteries, with some thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance gradually decreases over time; substantial reduction in capacity is typically evident after one to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.\n", "While the first processors in this category were single core (such as the SU3500), newer CULV processors are dual core (e.g., the SU9600). They are all based on the Intel Core 2 architecture, but the ultra-low voltage versions have a thermal rating of 5.5 W – more than the Intel Atom, but a fraction of the dual-core mainstream Intel mobile chips rated at 25 and 35 watts – and they come in a small 22 mm chip package.\n\nThe newest CULV processors come from the Core i5 and Core i7 product lines, and are based on a 14 nm process.\n", "As of 2013, processors specifically designed for wristwatches are the lowest-power processors manufactured today—often 4-bit, 32 kHz processors.\n\nSection::::History.:Mobile computing.\n", "Increases in clock frequency have grown more slowly over the past few years, compared to power reduction improvements. This has been driven by the end of Moore's Law and demand for longer battery life and reductions in size for mobile technology. This change in focus from higher clock rates to power consumption and miniaturization can be shown by the significant reductions in power consumption, as much as 50%, that were reported by Intel in their release of the Haswell microarchitecture; where they dropped their power consumption benchmark from 30-40 watts down to 10-20 watts. Comparing this to the processing speed increase of 3 GHz to 4 GHz (2002 to 2006) it can be seen that the focus in research and development are shifting away from clock frequency and moving towards consuming less power and taking up less space.\n", "A laptop's central processing unit (CPU) has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Typically, laptop CPUs have two processor cores, although 4-core models are also available. For low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest 4-to-8-core desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest 4-core laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts.\n", "The trend is towards lower core voltages, which conserve power. This presents the CMOS designer with a challenge, because in CMOS the voltages go only to ground and the supply voltage, the source, gate, and drain terminals of the FETs have only the supply voltage or zero voltage across them.\n", "One common problem of the 600 series was a battery defect, where the battery would discharge rapidly or otherwise have a poor battery life; use of a third-party battery as well as a BIOS update can help alleviate this problem.\n\nSection::::Models.\n", "According to performance tests run by \"TechRadar\" using SunSpider and Peacekeeper benchmarking software, the Yoga 11 runs slightly slower than the Microsoft Surface RT, which uses the same processor. The Yoga 11 was able to run 9 hours and 32 minutes in battery tests, significantly outperforming the Microsoft Surface RT. In a test conducted by \"PC Pro\" the batteries took 11 hours and 58 minutes to run down.\n", "BULLET::::- Power-saving processors. While laptops in 1991 were limited to the 80286 processor because of the energy demands of the more powerful 80386, the introduction of the Intel 386SL processor, designed for the specific power needs of laptops, marked the point at which laptop needs were included in CPU design. The 386SL integrated a 386SX core with a memory controller and this was paired with an I/O chip to create the SL chipset. It was more integrated than any previous solution although its cost was higher. It was heavily adopted by the major notebook brands of the time. Intel followed this with the 486SL chipset which used the same architecture. However, Intel had to abandon this design approach as it introduced its Pentium series. Early versions of the mobile Pentium required TAB mounting (also used in LCD manufacturing) and this initially limited the number of companies capable of supplying notebooks. However, Intel did eventually migrate to more standard chip packaging. One limitation of notebooks has always been the difficulty in upgrading the processor which is a common attribute of desktops. Intel did try to solve this problem with the introduction of the MMC for mobile computing. The MMC was a standard module upon which the CPU and external cache memory could sit. It gave the notebook buyer the potential to upgrade his CPU at a later date, eased the manufacturing process somewhat, and was also used in some cases to skirt U.S. import duties as the CPU could be added to the chassis after it arrived in the U.S. Intel stuck with MMC for a few generations but ultimately could not maintain the appropriate speed and data integrity to the memory subsystem through the MMC connector. A more specialized power saving CPU variant for laptops is the PowerPC 603 family. Derived from IBM's 601 series for laptops (while the 604 branch was for desktops), it found itself used on many low end Apple desktops before it was wildly used in laptops, starting with PowerBook models 5300, 2400, 500 upgrades. What started out as a laptop processor was eventually used across all platforms in its follow up, the PowerPC 750 AKA G3.\n", "There have been a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from both Intel, AMD, and other manufacturers. On non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Many laptops have removable CPUs, although this has become less common in the past few years as the trend has been towards thinner and lighter models. In other laptops the CPU is soldered on the motherboard and is non-replaceable; this is nearly universal in ultrabooks.\n" ]

[ "Mobile processors are overtaking laptop/desktop processors re: power." ]

[ "Mobile processors don't outperform desktop processors." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Mobile processors are overtaking laptop/desktop processors re: power." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Mobile processors don't outperform desktop processors." ]

[ "Due to the functional mapping of the corpus callosum, a partial callosotomy has less detrimental effects because it leaves parts of the corpus callosum intact. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies on adults, the most neuroplasticity is seen in young children but not in infants.\n", "There are cases where a person that received major trauma to one side of the brain, such as a gunshot wound, has required a hemispherectomy and survived. The most notable case is that of Ahad Israfil, who lost the right side of his cerebrum in 1987 in a gun-related work accident. He eventually regained most of his faculties, though he still required a wheelchair. It was noted that reconstructive surgery was difficult due to the gunshot shattering his skull, and he is living with a large indentation on that side of his head.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Corpus callosotomy\n", "BULLET::::6. Synaptic pruning: Brain cells that are not used have a tendency to degenerate. Hence if 90 percent of the brain were inactive, autopsy of normal adult brains would reveal large-scale degeneration.\n", "BULLET::::- Alobar holoprosencephaly, the most serious form, in which the brain fails to separate, is usually associated with severe facial anomalies, including lack of a nose and the eyes merged to a single median structure, see Cyclopia\n\nBULLET::::- Semilobar holoprosencephaly, in which the brain's hemispheres have somewhat divided, is an intermediate form of the disease.\n\nBULLET::::- Lobar holoprosencephaly, in which there is considerable evidence of separate brain hemispheres, is the least severe form. In some cases of lobar holoprosencephaly, the patient's brain may be nearly normal.\n", "After the right and left brain are separated, each hemisphere will have its own separate perception, concepts, and impulses to act. Having two \"brains\" in one body can create some interesting dilemmas. When one split-brain patient dressed himself, he sometimes pulled his pants up with one hand (that side of his brain wanted to get dressed) and down with the other (this side did not). He also reported to have grabbed his wife with his left hand and shaken her violently, at which point his right hand came to her aid and grabbed the aggressive left hand. However, such conflicts are very rare. If a conflict arises, one hemisphere usually overrides the other.\n", "In neurosurgery, as a treatment for severe epilepsy, the corpus callosum, or the area of the brain that connects the two hemispheres, would be completely bisected. By eliminating the connection between the two hemispheres of a patient's brain, electrical communication would be cut off greatly diminishing the amount and severity of the epileptic seizures. For some, seizures would be completely eliminated.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSince primary injury occurs at the moment of trauma and is over so rapidly, little can be done to interfere with it other than prevention of the trauma itself. However, since secondary injury occurs over time, it can be prevented in part by taking measures to prevent complications such as hypoxia (oxygen deficiency). Furthermore, secondary injury presents opportunities for researchers to find drug therapies to limit or prevent the damage. Since a variety of processes occur in secondary injury, any treatments that are developed to halt or mitigate it will need to address more than one of these mechanisms.\n", "Section::::In fiction.\n\nThe concept of a brain in a jar (or brain in a vat) is a common theme in science fiction:\n\nSection::::In fiction.:Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- In Alexander Beliaev's novel \"Head of Prof. Dowell\" (1925), Professor Dowell discovers a way of keeping heads of dead people alive and even to give them new bodies. After his death Dowell himself becomes a subject of such an experiment.\n", "Injuries to the base of the skull can damage nerves that emerge directly from the brain (cranial nerves). Cranial nerve damage may result in:\n\nBULLET::::- Paralysis of facial muscles\n\nBULLET::::- Damage to the nerves responsible for eye movements, which can cause double vision\n\nBULLET::::- Damage to the nerves that provide sense of smell\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of vision\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of facial sensation\n\nBULLET::::- Swallowing problems\n", "Following a stroke or other injury to the brain, functional deficiencies are common. The deficits are expected to be in areas related to the part of the brain that has been damaged; if a stroke has occurred in the motor cortex, deficits may include paralysis, abnormal posture, or abnormal movement synergies. Significant recovery occurs during the first several weeks after the injury. However, recovery is generally thought not to continue past 6 months. If a specific region of the brain is injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be transferred and taken over by a neighbouring region. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies; however, much more plasticity can be seen in infant patients receiving a hemispherectomy, which suggests that the opposite hemisphere can adapt some functions typically performed by its opposite pair. In a study done by Anderson, it proved a correlation between the severity of the injury, the age of the individual and their cognitive performance. It was evident that there was more neuroplasticity in older children, even if their injury was extremely severe, than infants who suffered moderate brain injury. In some incidents of any moderate to severe brain injury, it mostly causes developmental impairments and in some of the most severe injuries it can cause a profound impact on their development that can lead to long-term cognitive effects. In the aging brain, it is extremely uncommon for neuroplasticity to occur; \"olfactory bulb and hippocampus are two regions of the mammalian brain in which mutations preventing adult neurogenesis were never beneficial, or simply never occurred\" (Anderson, 2005).\n", "In the 19th century and to a lesser extent the 20th, it was thought that each side of the brain was associated with a specific gender: the left corresponding with masculinity and the right with femininity and each half could function independently. The right side of the brain was seen as the inferior and thought to be prominent in women, savages, children, criminals, and the insane. A prime example of this in fictional literature can be seen in Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde\".\n\nSection::::Evolutionary advantage.\n", "Changes in personality are common in cases of traumatic brain injury involving the frontal lobes, the most famous example of this is the case of Phineas Gage who survived having a tamping iron shot through his head in a railway construction accident.\n\nDeclines from premorbid levels of intelligence and other cognitive functions are observed in stroke, traumatic brain injury, and dementia as well as in mental illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia.\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n\nNeurologist Barry Gordon describes the myth as false, adding, \"we use virtually every part of the brain, and that (most of) the brain is active almost all the time.\" Neuroscientist Barry Beyerstein sets out seven kinds of evidence refuting the ten percent myth:\n\nBULLET::::1. Studies of brain damage: If 10 percent of the brain is normally used, then damage to other areas should not impair performance. Instead, there is almost no area of the brain that can be damaged without loss of abilities. Even slight damage to small areas of the brain can have profound effects.\n", "In the 2009 film, \"Gamer\", Michael C. Hall's character Ken Castle develops a nanotechnology method to supplant one's biological central nervous system with a synthetic one, cell by cell. The percentage of supplanted cells in an individual's brain varied by character, depending on the desired function (i.e.- wirelessly receive information like a computer, or send it, in the case of Ken Castle). Although not fully expressed in any character of the film, Castle ultimately presents the audience with the concept of fully supplanting one's biological brain with an entirely synthetic one. Midway into the film, Theseus' Ship Paradox does come into question when the character of Gina Parker Smith (Kyra Sedgwick) shares that she would rather have the new parts removed, a statement that prompts Trace (Alison Lohman) to explain that such an attempt would kill the individual because it would mean removing a part of one's brain.\n", "When a hydra gets cut in half, the head portion can regenerate and form a new foot with the basal disc, as well as, the foot portion can regenerate and form a new head with the hypostome region. If a hydra was severed into smaller pieces, the middle pieces would still form a head and foot at the appropriate regions of the hydra. This results in a smaller hydra that was regenerated by morphallaxis and occurs without cellular division.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "The brain is the most complex and least understood organ in the body, resulting in modeling the brain as a whole virtually impossible with current technology. In order to compensate for this complexity, models for the brain must be explicitly defined as to what exactly they model. Doing this inevitably results in many well defined models for different parts of the brain. However, they are all taken out of context of the 'whole brain', meaning that brain models do not incorporate aspects such as spatial and depth characteristics that a whole brain would have to prevent damage.\n\nSection::::Future applications.\n", "Visual extinction arises from damage to the parietal lobe of the brain. This damage most frequently arises following a stroke or other infarction in that area – however, any traumatic event sufficient to cause widespread tissue damage in the area may cause sufficient harm. Although both sides of the brain are vulnerable to such damage, it is more unusual for extinction to occur when the left hemisphere is damaged than the right.\n", "BULLET::::3. The brain is enormously costly to the rest of the body, in terms of oxygen and nutrient consumption. It can require up to 20 percent of the body's energy—more than any other organ—despite making up only 2 percent of the human body by weight. If 90 percent of it were unnecessary, there would be a large survival advantage to humans with smaller, more efficient brains. If this were true, the process of natural selection would have eliminated the inefficient brain portions. It is also highly unlikely that a brain with so much redundant matter would have evolved in the first place; given the historical risk of death in childbirth associated with the large brain size (and therefore skull size) of humans, there would be a strong selection pressure against such a large brain size if only 10 percent was actually in use.\n", "Brain metastases are often managed surgically if they are accessible. Surgical resection followed by stereotactic radiosurgery or whole-brain irradiation deliver superior survival compared to whole brain irradiation alone. Therefore, in patients with only one metastatic brain lesion and controlled or limited systemic disease, a life expectancy of at least 3 months and a good performance status might be expected.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chemotherapy.\n", "Because in the initial treatment of multiple trauma every minute counts, can even choose between life and death, will thus gain precious time and reduced the mortality significantly.\n\nSection::::Priorities.:Burn center.\n\nThe extensive thermal trauma is one of the worst possible injury.\n", "Section::::Occurrences.:Occurrence in humans.:Craniopagus parasiticus.\n\nCraniopagus parasiticus is an extremely rare condition in which the two heads are joined directly together, and one twin (known as the autosite) has a functioning torso, while the other (known as the parasite) has only a vestigial torso. The parasite is supported by blood supplied from the autosite head. This threatens the life of the autosite by placing an additional burden on the autosite's vital organs. Operations to separate the two heads have been performed in the hope of saving the autosite.\n\nSection::::Occurrences.:Occurrence in animals.\n", "BULLET::::- In the animated series \"Evil Con Carne\", the main character Hector Con Carne was reduced to a brain and a stomach in two jars. Both of them are able to move and talk, even without jars. Hector's brain sometimes controls the bear Boskov while Hector's stomach digests parts of Boskov's food.\n\nBULLET::::- The science fantasy television series \"LEXX\" includes a robot head containing human brain tissue. Also whenever the current Divine Shadow body dies his brain is removed and placed in a device that allows him to speak and kept with rest of the Divine Predecessors.\n", "BULLET::::7. The doctrine of necessity allows, for example, a surgeon to separate conjoined twins, killing the weaker twin to allow the stronger twin to survive.\n", "BULLET::::- The three pre-cogs in Minority Report lead to a conviction even when one disagrees.\n\nBULLET::::- To rule out that a single win was \"a fluke\", some competitions use a two out of three falls match. This isn't true TMR, however, because the three falls are not independent of each other – each competitor knows who has most falls at any point in the competition, which influences their future actions.\n\nBULLET::::- In Arthur C. Clarke's science fiction novel \"Rendezvous with Rama\", the Ramans make heavy use of triple redundancy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fault tolerant system\n\nBULLET::::- Lockstep (computing)\n", "The fact that the Alien Hand Syndrome eventually goes away in some split-brain patients is not evidence of one consciousness “defeating” the other and taking complete control of the brain. It is likely that the plasticity of the brain may be the cause for alleviating the disorder. Eventually the split patient's brain may find adaptive routes to compensate for the lost interhemispheric communication, such as alternative pathways involving subcortical structures that perform subcortical interhemispheric inhibition to regain a sense of normalcy between the two hemispheres.\n\nSection::::Models of multiple consciousnesses.\n" ]

[ "You can survive with one half of the brain." ]

[ "The brain can adapt to slow or progressive damage but cannot adapt if half is destroyed at one time." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "You can survive with one half of the brain." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The brain can adapt to slow or progressive damage but cannot adapt if half is destroyed at one time." ]

[ "In some countries, clogging has become more frequent due to regulations that require the use of small-tanked low-flush toilets in attempt to conserve water. Sometimes, three to four flushes periodically during the use of a low-flush toilet may be required to prevent clogging, thus using more water than larger-tanked toilets. Designs which increase the velocity of flushed water or improve the travel path can improve low-flow reliability.\n", "If clogging occurs, it is usually the result of an attempt to flush unsuitable items, or too much toilet paper. Clogging can occur spontaneously due to limescale fouling of the drain pipe, or by overloading the stool capacity of the toilet. Stool capacity varies among toilet designs and is based on the size of the drainage pipe, the capacity of the water tank, the velocity of a flush, and the method by which the water attempts to vacate the bowl of its contents. The size and consistency of the stool is a hard-to-predict contributory factor.\n", "Section::::Design.:Fixtures.\n\nPublic toilets by their nature see heavy usage, so they may rely on a flushometer with a stronger and louder flush than a home toilet. Some high-vandalism settings, such as beaches or stadiums, will use metal toilets. Public toilets generally contain several of the following fixtures.\n\nSection::::Design.:Fixtures.:In the lockable cubicle (stall).\n\nBULLET::::- Toilet with toilet seat; whereas a home toilet seat has a lid, a public toilet may or may not\n\nBULLET::::- Toilet paper, often within a lockable dispenser\n\nBULLET::::- Coat hook\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pull-down\" purse holder\n", "Partial clogging is particularly insidious, as it is usually not discovered immediately, but only later by an unsuspecting user trying to flush an incompletely emptied toilet. Overflowing of the water mixed with excrement may then occur, depending on the bowl volume, tank capacity and severity of clogging. For this reason, rooms with flush toilets may be designed as wet rooms, with a second drain on the floor, and a shower head capable of reaching the whole floor area. Common means to remedy clogging include use of a toilet plunger, drain cleaner, or a plumber's snake.\n\nSection::::Maintenance and hygiene.:Aerosols.\n", "Thorough cleaning and maintenance are important for public toilets. This task is usually performed by a \"public toilet attendant\" (who is there during an entire shift) or by professional cleaning staff. They maintain and clean the facilities, ensuring that toilet paper, soap, paper towels, and other necessary items are kept stocked.\n\nPublic toilets need both periodic maintenance and emergency cleaning. Volunteer-managed facilities may also be an option in some cases.\n\nSection::::Costs and economics.\n\nSection::::Costs and economics.:User fees.\n", "During flushing, the user activates the valve via a button or lever, which releases the pressurized water into the bowl at a flow rate much higher than a conventional gravity-flow toilet. An advantage includes lower water consumption than a gravity-flow toilet, or more effectiveness with a similar amount of water. As a result, the toilet doesn't clog easily.\n", "Some public toilets are known for drug-taking and drug-selling, as well as vandalism. This type of criminal activity is associated with all \"neglected, unsupervised buildings\", not just toilets, and good cleanliness and maintenance, and ideally an attendant on the premises, can act as a protection against these problems.\n", "Households may produce wastewater from flush toilets, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines, bath tubs, and showers. Households that use dry toilets produce less wastewater than those that use flush toilets.\n", "Methods used to make up for the inadequacies of low flow toilets include using thinner toilet paper, plungers, and adding extra cups of water to the bowl manually.\n\nSection::::Maintenance and hygiene.\n\nSection::::Maintenance and hygiene.:Clogging.\n", "In 1988 Massachusetts became the first state in the U.S. to mandate the use of low-flush toilets in new construction and remodeling. In 1992 U.S. President George H. W. Bush signed the Energy Policy Act. This law made 1.6 gallons per flush a mandatory federal maximum for new toilets. This law went into effect in January 1, 1994 for residential buildings and January 1, 1997 for commercial buildings. \n", "Compared to flush toilets connected to sewer systems and wastewater treatment plants, UDDTs are usually less expensive. However, to enable accurate comparisons of costs, this needs to be assessed on a case-by-case basis because the sewer system and treatment plant also transports and treats greywater whereas the UDDT does not. This means that the two systems provide a different level of service to the user. An example calculation for such a cost comparison exists for the case of Lima, Peru.\n", "Women/girls often spend more time in toilet rooms than men/boys, both for physiological and cultural reasons. The requirement to use a cubicle rather than a urinal means that urination takes longer and sanitation is a far greater issue, often requiring more thorough hand washing. Females also make more visits to toilets. Urinary tract infections and incontinence are more common in females. Pregnancy, menstruation, breastfeeding, and diaper-changing increase usage. The elderly, who are disproportionately female, take longer and more frequent toilet visits. Unisex public toilets can alleviate this problem by providing equal sanitation space for all genders, eliminating the prospect of unused cubicles in the male toilets.\n", "As an \"away-from-home\" toilet room, a public toilet can provide far more than access to the toilet for urination and defecation. People also wash their hands, use the mirrors for grooming, get drinking water (e.g. refilling water bottles), attend to menstrual hygiene needs, and use the waste bins. Public toilets may also become places for harassment of others or illegal activities, particularly if principles of Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) are not applied in the design of the facility.\n\nSection::::Purposes.:Health aspects.\n", "The cost of installation is high because of the number of elbows and small pieces of pipe required. The largest cost outlay with modern plastic drain pipes is labor. Use of street elbows is helpful.\n", "Public toilets serve people who are \"toilet challenged\". First, some people need to go very frequently, including young and old people, females who are pregnant or menstruating, and those with some medical conditions. Second, some people need toilet access urgently, suddenly and without warning: such as those with chronic conditions such as Crohn's disease and colitis, and those temporarily afflicted with food-borne illnesses.\n", "Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. I.E., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a -inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping, the vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose.\n", "Private firms may maintain permanent public toilets. The companies are then permitted to use the external surfaces of the enclosures for advertising. The installations are part of a street furniture contract between the out-of-home advertising company and the city government, and allow these public conveniences to be installed and maintained without requiring funds from the municipal budget.\n", "Especially where space is limited, the double design of the sanitary facilities is not possible or only possible to a limited extent. Unisex toilets are often used in many public transport systems, such as rail vehicles or airplanes.\n\nUnisex public toilets are less problematic to use by caretakers of dependents (who include very young children, the elderly, and the mentally and physically disabled) to enter the toilet room together with their charge.\n", "Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the anticipated life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production, and flow peaking from timing of daily routines. Minimum sewer diameters are often specified to prevent blockage by solid materials flushed down toilets; and gradients may be selected to maintain flow velocities generating sufficient turbulence to minimize solids deposition within the sewer. Commercial and industrial wastewater flows are also considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers.\n\nSection::::Types.:Force mains.\n", "Violent crime inside public toilets can be a problem in areas where the rate of such crimes in general is very high. In South Africa for instance, many people have reported being afraid to use public toilets. There have been several highly publicized murders in public toilets, such as the Seocho-dong public toilet murder case in South Korea in 2016. In the US, an infamous case was the murder of a 9-year-old boy in 1998 in a San Diego county public toilet.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Anonymous sex.\n", "Section::::Magnitude of the problem.:Worldwide perspective.\n\nDeveloped European countries and Japan have similar or somewhat larger percentages of SSO events compared to the U.S.\n", "Modern public toilets often have a service entrance, utilities passage, and the like, that run behind all the fixtures. Sensors are installed in a separate room, behind the fixtures. Usually the separate room is just a narrow corridor or passageway.\n\nSection::::Design.:Sensors.\n", "In 2011, the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" reported that, while low-flush toilets are estimated to have saved the city of San Francisco 20 million gallons of water per year, the reduction in water volume caused waste sludge to back up in the city sewer pipes, designed expecting a higher ratio of water to solids. The city was attempting to solve this by adding chlorine bleach to the pipes, a proposal that raised environmental objections.\n", "Section::::Locations.\n\nSection::::Locations.:At private companies.\n", "Since 1994, there is a significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets. This has resulted in the emergence of low flush toilet designs and local or national standards on water consumption for flushing. As an alternative some people modify an existing high flush toilet to use less water by placing a brick or water bottle into the toilet's water tank. Other modifications are often done on the water system itself (such as by using greywater), or a system that pollutes the water less, for more efficient water use.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Temporal Theory posits that the cause is from looking at the phase locking to tell what the pitch is. This theory has a hard time explaining diplacusis. There are some examples of pitch which don’t have an \"edge\" on the basilar membrane, which this would account for—i.e. white noise, clicks, etc. (need a reference)\n", "Theatrical features originally photographed at 24 frame/s are shown at 25 frame/s. While this is usually not noticed in the picture (but may be more noticeable during action speed, especially if footage was filmed undercranked), the 4% increase in playback speed causes a slightly noticeable increase in audio pitch by just over 0.679 semitones, which is sometimes corrected using a pitch shifter, though pitch shifting is a recent innovation and supersedes an alternative method of telecine for 25 frame/s formats.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Extreme effects.\n", "Diplacusis may also occur if for some reason the density of the fluid in the cochlea is altered. To a good approximation, the resonant frequency of a given hair cell will vary inversely as the square root of density, so that for example the hair cells associated with middle C will shift their resonance to C# if the fluid density decreases by about 12%. Thus the C# will be perceived by the brain as a C natural. In this hypothesis, which may explain some cases of diplacusis, the entire spectrum of tones is shifted by the same amount. (need a reference) \n", "Section::::Error correction.:Pitch correction circuit.\n\nIn higher performance audio synchronizers, the rate of delay change is allowed to be much faster, generally in the order of 25%, and the resulting pitch error is corrected with a pitch correction circuit. The pitch correction circuitry is frequently a proprietary design, due to the difficulty in performing correction so the errors are imperceptible to critical listeners. These higher performance audio synchronizers allow the audio delay to track even large and quick video delay changes without generating any artifacts that are perceptible to even critical listeners for most audio program material.\n\nSection::::Error correction.:Recent developments.\n", "Section::::Neural Pathway.\n\nNeurons of the midbrain tegmentum of the CF-FM bat brain have been implicated in the DSC mechanism. Neurons of the tegmentum have firing properties that make them strong candidates for regulating DSC. The neuronal response in the tegmentum is dependent on the time delay between an auditory stimulus and the subsequent feedback, and the neurons only respond to paired stimuli that occur in DSC.\n", "Usually 24 Hz material from film is usually sped up by 4%, when it is of feature film origin. The sound is also raised in pitch slightly as a result of the 4% speedup but pitch correction circuits are typically used.\n\nBULLET::::- Older technology allows an alternative option where every 12th film frame is held for three video fields instead of two mostly fixing the problem.\n\nBULLET::::- More modern film playback technology allows for every 25th frame to be interpolated, with less objectionable results and no need for pitch modification.\n", "The software generally goes through a two-step process to accomplish this. First, the audio file is played back at a lower sample rate than that of the original file. This has the same effect as playing a tape or vinyl record at slower speed - the pitch is lowered meaning the music can sound like it is in a different key. The second step is to use Digital Signal Processing (or DSP) to shift the pitch back up to the original pitch level or musical key.\n\nSection::::Transcription aids.:Pitch tracking software.\n", "Section::::Video correction.\n\nAs far back as 1956, professional reel-to-reel audio tape recorders relying on mechanical stability alone were stable enough that pitch distortion could be below audible level without time base correction. However, the higher sensitivity of video recordings meant that even the best mechanical solutions still resulted in detectable distortion of the video signals. A video signal consists of picture information but also sync and subcarrier signals which allow the image to be framed up square on the monitor, reproduce colors accurately and, importantly, allow the combination and switching of two or more video signals.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "Audio time stretching and pitch scaling\n\nTime stretching is the process of changing the speed or duration of an audio signal without affecting its pitch. Pitch scaling is the opposite: the process of changing the pitch without affecting the speed. Pitch shift is pitch scaling implemented in an effects unit and intended for live performance. Pitch control is a simpler process which affects pitch and speed simultaneously by slowing down or speeding up a recording. \n", "This effect may be achieved by measuring the zero axis crossings of the master oscillator and retriggering the slave oscillator after every other crossing.\n\nThis form of oscillator sync is more common than soft sync, but is prone to generating aliasing in naive digital implementations.\n\nSection::::Soft Sync.\n", "The simplest way to change the duration or pitch of a digital audio clip is through sample rate conversion. This is a mathematical operation that effectively rebuilds a continuous waveform from its samples and then samples that waveform again at a different rate. When the new samples are played at the original sampling frequency, the audio clip sounds faster or slower. Unfortunately, the frequencies in the sample are always scaled at the same rate as the speed, transposing its perceived pitch up or down in the process. In other words, slowing down the recording lowers the pitch, speeding it up raises the pitch. This is analogous to speeding up or slowing down an analogue recording, like a phonograph record or tape, creating the Chipmunk effect. Using this method the two effects cannot be separated. A drum track containing no pitched instruments can be moderately sample rate converted for tempo without adverse effects, but a pitched track cannot.\n", "BULLET::::- Hard Sync which is disabled when the frequency of the slave extends too high above or too far below the frequency of the master.\n\nBULLET::::- Hard Sync which is disabled when the frequency of the slave is lower than the frequency of the master.\n\nSoft Sync may accurately refer to any of these, depending on the synthesizer or manufacturer in question.\n\nSection::::Soft Sync.:Phase Advance 'Sync'.\n\nThe phase of the slave is advanced by some amount when the master oscillator level crosses some threshold. Used for audio synthesis, this may give an audible effect similar to Soft Sync.\n", "24p material can be converted to the PAL format with the same methods used to convert film to PAL. The most popular method is to speed up the material by 1/24 (≈4.1%). Each 24p frame will take the place of two 50i fields. This method incurs no motion artifacts other than the slightly increased speed, which is typically not noticeable. As for audio, the ≈4% increase in speed raises the pitch by 0.7 of a semitone, which again typically is not noticed. Sometimes the audio is pitch shifted to restore the original pitch.\n", "In fluids, only the medium's compressibility and density are the important factors, since fluids do not transmit shear stresses. In heterogeneous fluids, such as a liquid filled with gas bubbles, the density of the liquid and the compressibility of the gas affect the speed of sound in an additive manner, as demonstrated in the hot chocolate effect.\n", "Audio synchronizers that use variable speed reading are generally preferred in professional applications. The control of audio delay is generally more accurate and more easily accomplished. Pitch errors in lower performance devices are uncompensated and kept to a level generally not perceived by the average viewer, by limiting the amount of change of reading speed. Typically the change limit is in the order of 0.2%. Unfortunately, this limits the rate of delay change and when large video delay changes occur the slow tracking rate of these uncompensated synchronizers can cause the audio-video sync to be off for several seconds or minutes until the audio delay catches up with the video delay. Additionally, listeners with excellent pitch perception may notice and be annoyed by even these small pitch errors.\n", "Some controllers, such as pitch bend, are special. Whereas the data range of most continuous controllers (such as volume, for example) consists of 128 steps ranging in value from 0 to 127, pitch bend data may be encoded with over 16,000 data steps. This produces the illusion of a continuously sliding pitch, as in a violin's portamento, rather than a series of zippered steps such as a guitarist sliding their finger up the frets of their guitar's neck. Thus, the pitch wheel on a MIDI keyboard may generate large amounts of data which can lead to a slowdown of data throughput.\n", "Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level (loudness, volume) of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases. For instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder. These results were obtained in the pioneering works by S.Stevens and W.Snow . Later investigations, i.e. by A.Cohen, had shown that in most cases the apparent pitch shifts were not significantly different from pitch‐matching errors. When averaged, the remaining shifts followed the directions of Stevens' curves but were small (2% or less by frequency, i.e. not more than a semitone)\n", "Another method for time stretching relies on a spectral model of the signal. In this method, peaks are identified in frames using the STFT of the signal, and sinusoidal \"tracks\" are created by connecting peaks in adjacent frames. The tracks are then re-synthesized at a new time scale. This method can yield good results on both polyphonic and percussive material, especially when the signal is separated into sub-bands. However, this method is more computationally demanding than other methods.\n\nSection::::Speed hearing and speed talking.\n\nFor the specific case of speech, time stretching can be performed using PSOLA.\n", "Another use of this side effect has resulted in its use as a forensic tool. When a recording is made that captures audio near an AC appliance or socket, the hum is also incidentally recorded. The peaks of the hum repeat every AC cycle (every (1000/50) round 2 ms for 50 Hz AC, or every (1000/60) round 2 ms for 60 Hz AC). Any edit of the audio that is not a multiplication of the time between the peaks will distort the regularity, introducing a phase shift. A continuous wavelet transform analysis will show discontinuities that may tell if the audio has been cut.\n", "Prior to the invention of digital transcription aids, musicians would slow down a record or a tape recording to be able to hear the melodic lines and chords at a slower, more digestible pace. The problem with this approach was that it also changed the pitches, so once a piece was transcribed, it would then have to be transposed into the correct key. Software designed to slow down the tempo of music without changing the pitch of the music can be very helpful for recognizing pitches, melodies, chords, rhythms and lyrics when transcribing music. However, unlike the slow-down effect of a record player, the pitch and original octave of the notes will stay the same, and not descend in pitch. This technology is simple enough that it is available in many free software applications.\n", "In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In droop speed control, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.)\n", "Falsing sometimes occurs on a voice circuit when a human voice hits the exact pitch to which the tone decoder is tuned, a condition called \"talk-off\".\n\nFor the tone decoder to work reliably, the audio input level must be in the linear range of audio stages, (undistorted). A 1,500 Hz tone fed into an amplifier that distorts the tone could produce a harmonic at 3,000 Hz, falsely triggering a decoder that is tuned to 3,000 Hz.\n\nSection::::Reducing the possibility of falsing.\n", "Section::::Scientific studies.\n\nSection::::Scientific studies.:History of study and terminologies.\n", "The accuracy of a digital system is dependent on the sampled amplitude values, but it is also dependent on the temporal regularity of these values. This temporal dependency is inherent to digital recording and playback and has no analog equivalent, though analog systems have their own temporal distortion effects (pitch error and wow-and-flutter).\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "In August 2006, the MTA announced that all future subway stations, which include 34th Street–Hudson Yards, South Ferry, and all Second Avenue Subway stations, will have platforms outfitted with air-cooling systems. The existing Grand Central–42nd Street station also has these cooling systems; however, for the most part, subway stations lack air-cooling systems due to their expense, and only a few stations have ceiling fans.\n\nSection::::Station facilities and amenities.:Facilities and amenities.:Artwork.\n", "Seven of the New York City Subway's stations contain artificial air-condition systems. The air-cooling systems are mostly located in subway stations that were built in the 21st century. In August 2006, the MTA revealed that all new subway stations would be outfitted with air-cooling systems to reduce the temperature along platforms by as much as . The stations with artificial cooling systems are the Grand Central–42nd Street station on the ; the Cortlandt Street and South Ferry stations on the , which both replaced older stations; the 34th Street–Hudson Yards station on the ; and three stations on the Second Avenue Subway.\n", "In August 2006, the MTA revealed that all future subway stations—including stations on the Second Avenue Subway and the 7 Subway Extension, as well as the new South Ferry station—would be outfitted with air-cooling systems to reduce the temperature along platforms by as much as . In early plans, the Second Avenue Subway was also to have platform screen doors to assist with air-cooling, energy savings, ventilation, and track safety, but this plan was scrapped in 2012 as cost-prohibitive.\n", "Section::::Air conditioning in stations.\n", "Early on in the project, it was announced that the new stations would feature platform screen doors. The stations (along with the new South Ferry station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and the three Phase 1 Second Avenue Subway stations in the Upper East Side) would include special air-cooling systems to reduce the temperature along platforms. Due to its depth, the extension has ventilation towers, rather than the ventilation grates ubiquitous in the rest of the subway system.\n", "In August 2006, the MTA revealed that all future subway stations—including stations on the Second Avenue Subway and the 7 Subway Extension, as well as the new South Ferry station—would be outfitted with air-cooling systems to reduce the temperature along platforms by as much as . In early plans, the Second Avenue Subway was also to have platform screen doors to assist with air-cooling, energy savings, ventilation, and track safety, but this plan was scrapped in 2012 as cost-prohibitive. Stations constructed as part of Phase 2 may receive platform screen doors depending on the results of studies being conducted for their installation elsewhere.\n", "In July 2017, as temperatures in the city rose, straphangers expressed complaints about the high temperatures of stations along the line, even though they were supposed to be climate-controlled. This was since the MTA had to get permission from the City Health Department to cool the air, with a test ensuring no Legionnaires' disease in the cooling towers, a precaution arising from several deadly outbreaks in the city in previous years. The MTA had not conducted the test quickly enough, but after criticism, it received permission on July 7. Climate control was expected to be turned on by July 14.\n", "Heat is extracted from the tunnels using ventilation shafts, with air forced out of the vents by the piston effect (trains pushing air forwards as they pass through the tunnels) or fans.\n\nSection::::Cooling methods.:Stations.\n", "From 2010 to 2012, the glazing of the roof of Waverley station was entirely replaced with new strengthened clear glass panels, replacing the old of mixed surfaces including felt, cloudy wired glass and plastic sheet. Part of a £130 million upgrade, this has greatly increased the amount of natural light in the station.\n\nSection::::History.:Recent developments.\n", "For almost 30 years, passengers transferring between 30th Street Station and the trolley and subway lines below Market Street have lacked a covered, climate-controlled route, forced instead to leave the station and cross a busy 30th Street. The Plan proposes to re-establish a convenient and safe connection between these stations, via a new stairway within 30th Street Station’s Main Hall and through an active and day-lit below-grade retail concourse.\n", "A year-long trial of a groundwater cooling system began in June 2006 at Victoria station. If successful, the trial will be extended to 30 other deep-level stations. For this trial Metronet installed London South Bank University's system comprising three fan coil units which use water that has seeped into the tunnels and is pumped from the tunnels to absorb the heat, after which it is discharged in the sewer system. The scheme was one of the winners in the Carbon Trust's 2007 Innovation Awards.\n\nSection::::Cooling methods.:Tube trains.\n", "Heating and cooling of rooms is achieved through a shared system based on heat exchange, integrated into the water heating and cooling system, and delivered via air-conditioning (meaning that units contain no boilers or radiators). Instead of being expelled into the atmosphere, waste heat from warm parts of the building (such as busy offices) can, for example, be transferred to cool parts of the building (such as north-facing residences), or used to warm water.\n\nSection::::Sustainability features.:Electricity generation and conservation.\n\nBULLET::::- The building has two wind turbines contributing electricity to communal lighting and lifts.\n\nBULLET::::- Corridor lighting is controlled by sensors.\n", "In 2010, new S-stock trains were delivered to replace the A, C and D stock trains on the subsurface Lines (Metropolitan, Circle, Hammersmith & City, and District). These have standard air-conditioning, as the subsurface tunnels are large enough to displace the exhausted hot air.\n\nSection::::Cooling methods.:More efficient braking.\n", "To help moderate temperatures in the station, a system using cool ground water extracted from boreholes sunk into the chalk aquifer below London was installed. The extracted water passes through a heat exchanger connected to the cast-iron tunnel lining and the warmed water is returned to the aquifer through a second set of boreholes away.\n\nSection::::Proposal for new connection.\n", "In 2013, BART began design of a prototype glass canopy for the station entrance on the northeast corner of 20th Street and Broadway. The canopy would protect the escalator from weather damage, improve lighting, and allow the escalator to be fully closed off when the station is not open. The BART board voted to construct the canopy in January 2014; it was completed in March 2015 and includes real-time train arrival information screens at street level. The canopy reduced escalator downtime by one-third, prompting the installation of similar canopies at downtown San Francisco stations beginning in 2017.\n", "The ILC racks in this setup effectively function as air handlers which maintain the entire room temperature and absorb all thermal energy leakage from the DLC and TLC environments.\n\nSection::::Micro infrastructure example.\n", "In January 2006, PAL technology is one of the emerging project management companies in UAE involved in the diversified business of desalination, sewage treatment and district cooling system. More than 400,000 Tons (1400 MW) of district cooling projects are planned. The Palm Jumeirah utilises district cooling supplied by Palm Utilities LLC to provide air conditioning for buildings on the trunk and crescent of the Palm. The Dubai Metro system, inaugurated in 2009, is the first mass transit network in the world to use district cooling to lower temperatures in stations and trains.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Netherlands.\n", "In systems like the London Underground, stations are simply closed off when they are overcrowded, such as the busy Oxford Circus tube station, which had to close more than 100 times in a year. That type of restriction is not necessary yet on the New York City Subway, according to MTA spokesman Kevin Ortiz.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Subway flooding.\n", "Section::::Architecture.\n", "In January 2017, upgrades began on the station's bus exchange, which included an additional bus bay to allow all buses to use the bus loop as well as three new crosswalks to improve safety and access. Construction was completed in February 2018.\n\nSection::::Station information.\n\nSection::::Station information.:Entrances.\n", "Section::::Construction areas.:Above-ground structures.\n\nThe extension contains five street-level structures:\n\nBULLET::::- Site A, a ventilation building at 11th Avenue between 25th and 26th Streets\n\nBULLET::::- Site J, a ventilation building at 11th Avenue between 33rd and 34th Streets next to the main entrance and elevator entrance\n\nBULLET::::- Site K, a ventilation building at 11th Avenue between 35th and 37th Streets\n\nBULLET::::- Site L, a ventilation building at 41st Street and Dyer Avenue\n\nBULLET::::- Site P, the secondary station entrance between 11th Avenue between 34th and 35th Streets\n\nSection::::Proposals.\n\nSection::::Proposals.:10th Avenue station.\n", "In some stations, especially where trains are fully automated, the entire platform is screened from the track by a wall, typically of glass, with automatic platform-edge doors (PEDs). These open, like elevator doors, only when a train is stopped, and thus eliminate the hazard that a passenger will accidentally fall (or deliberately jump) onto the tracks and be run over or electrocuted.\n", "The first major wave of digital advertisements in the subway were introduced with the deployment of the On the Go! Travel Station in 2011. From 2016 on, the LCD countdown clocks also provided another way to show advertisements to passengers.\n", "The sensation of space produced by the structure is of significant importance in the stations, and it is determined by the quality of the used materials. \n\nThe use of the material, processing, the color, grain and texture determine the different functions of the complex; chosen materials are especially linked to local tradition (in this case, the tuff) and make the architectural work immediately perceptible and recognizable by the user, especially by the residents of the area.\n", "Section::::Station layout.:Features.\n\nThe station includes air-conditioning systems that keeps the station's temperature at year-round. It also includes the largest ventilation towers in the New York City Subway stations. Originally, the new station was also planned to feature platform screen doors. However, plans for screen doors in New York City Subway stations were dropped in 2012 because doors for each platform edge would have cost $1 million.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Modern electric toothbrushes run on low voltage, 12v or less. A few units use a step-down transformer to power the brush, but most use a battery, usually but not always rechargeable and non-replaceable, fitted inside the handle, which is hermetically sealed to prevent water damage. While early NiCd battery toothbrushes used metal tabs to connect with the charging base, some toothbrushes use inductive charging.\n\nSection::::Environmental concerns.\n", "The newest developments in this field are ultrasonic toothbrushes, which use ultrasonic waves to clean the teeth. In order for a toothbrush to be considered \"ultrasonic\" it has to emit a wave at a minimum frequency of 20,000 Hz or 2,400,000 movements per minute. Typically, ultrasonic toothbrushes approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) operate at a frequency of 1.6 MHz, which translates to 192,000,000 movements per minute.\n", "The use of an AC line voltage appliance in a bathroom environment was problematic. By the early 1990s Underwriter Laboratories (UL) and Canadian Standards Association (CSA) no longer certified line-voltage appliances for bathroom use. Newer appliances had to use a step-down transformer to operate the actual toothbrush at low voltage (typically 12, 16 or 24 volts). Wiring standards in many countries require that outlets in bath areas must be protected by a RCD/GFCI device (e.g., required in USA since the 1970s on bathroom outlets in new construction).\n", "The following are some examples of unsafe practices which could lead to electric injury (cannot cover every possible scenario):\n\nBULLET::::- Using electrical appliances while wet (showering, bathing, etc.) as plumbing is often connected to electrical ground, and wet skin loses much of its resistance. Exception for newer quality appliances \"intended for the bathroom\" when \"not\" simultaneously showering, bathing, being in a path of water going to plumbing, or touching bare concrete or sheet metal. Standing on a dry carpet or rug is ideal.\n", "Electric toothbrushes can be classified according to the frequency (speed) of their movements as power, sonic or ultrasonic toothbrushes, depending on whether they make movements that are below, in or above the audible range (20–20,000 Hz or 2400–2,400,000 movements per minute), respectively.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "This difference causes a current in the sense coil (6), which is picked up by the sense circuitry (7). The sense circuitry then removes power from the solenoid (5), and the contacts (4) are forced apart by a spring, cutting off the electricity supply to the appliance.\n", "In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher resistance than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant for a wet or surgical situation.\n", "For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.\n", "BULLET::::- \"No current\": A dry contact is the synonym of volt free - it is not \"wetted\" by a voltage source. Dry contact can refer to a secondary set of contacts of a relay circuit which does not make or break the primary current being controlled by the relay. Usually some other contacts or devices have the job of starting or stopping the primary current being controlled. For example, a reed relay matrix switch is normally switched with all contacts dry. After the contacts are all connected, a wire spring relay is energized and connects a supervisory scan point, or main switch, through which the primary current being controlled then flows. Dry contacts are primarily employed in 49 volt or less (extra-low voltage) distribution circuits.\n", "The effectiveness of an electric toothbrush depends not only on its type of action and on correct use, but also on the condition of the brush head. Most manufacturers recommend that heads be changed every three to six months at minimum, or as soon as the brush head has visibly deteriorated.\n\nSection::::Power source and charging.\n", "Ultrasonic toothbrushes emit vibrations that are very high in frequency but low in amplitude. These vibrations break up bacterial chains that make up dental plaque and remove their methods of attachment to the tooth surface up to 5 mm below the gum line.\n", "Sonic toothbrushes are a subset of electric toothbrushes with movement that is fast enough to produce vibration in the audible range. Most modern rechargeable electric toothbrushes from brands such as Sonicare, FOREO, and Oral-B fall into this category and typically have frequencies that range from 200 to 400 Hz, that is 12,000–24,000 oscillations or 24,000–48,000 movements per minute. Because sonic toothbrushes rely on sweeping motion alone to clean the teeth, the movement that they provide is often high in amplitude, meaning that the length of the sweeping movements that they make is large.\n\nSection::::Ultrasonic toothbrush.\n", "Electric toothbrushes have been used by the public since the early 1950s. Today, they have evolved and based on the speed of their vibration, can be divided into three categories: electric, sonic and ultrasonic.\n", "Electric toothbrushes can also be classified according to the speed of their movements as standard power toothbrushes, sonic toothbrushes or ultrasonic toothbrushes. If the motion of the toothbrush is sufficiently rapid to produce a hum in the audible frequency of human range (20 Hz to 20,000 Hz), it can be classified as a sonic toothbrush. Any electric toothbrush with movement faster than this limit can be classified as an ultrasonic toothbrush. Certain ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Megasonex and the Ultreo, have both sonic and ultrasonic movements.\n\nSection::::Sonic toothbrush.\n", "BULLET::::- The resistance of the sliding brush contact causes a voltage drop in the motor circuit called which consumes energy.\n\nBULLET::::- The repeated abrupt switching of the current through the inductance of the windings causes sparks at the commutator contacts. These are a fire hazard in explosive atmospheres and a source of degrading UV radiation, and create electronic noise, which can cause electromagnetic interference in nearby microelectronic circuits.\n", "Ultrasound has been used in Medicine for close to half a century and its safety has been studied for almost the same period of time. In 1992, the US FDA first allowed the use of ultrasound at a frequency of 1.6 MHz in a toothbrush. In 1993, the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine (AIUM), in conjunction with the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) developed the Output Display Standard (ODS), including the thermal index and mechanical index which have been incorporated into the FDA’s new regulations. These regulations limit the power output of these devices to a level low enough to avoid raising surrounding tissue temperature by more than 1 °C.\n", "The first ultrasonic toothbrush, first called the Ultima and later the Ultrasonex, was patented in the U.S. in 1992, the same year the FDA gave it approval for daily home use. Initially, the Ultima worked only on ultrasound, but a few years later, a motor was added to give the Ultrasonex brush additional sonic vibration. Today, several ultrasonic toothbrushes simultaneously provide both ultrasound and sonic vibration. In more modern times, electric toothbrushes have been used as a substitute for vibrators for those that wish to avoid embarrassment.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nElectric brushes can be classified according to their type of action:\n", "Electric toothbrushes are toothbrushes with moving or vibrating bristle heads. The two main types of electric toothbrushes are the sonic type which has a vibrating head, and the oscillating-rotating type in which the bristle head makes constant clockwise and anti-clockwise movements.\n", "Electric toothbrush\n\nAn electric toothbrush is a toothbrush that makes rapid automatic bristle motions, either back-and-forth oscillation or rotation-oscillation (where the brush head alternates clockwise and counterclockwise rotation), in order to clean teeth. Motions at sonic speeds or below are made by a motor. In the case of ultrasonic toothbrushes, ultrasonic motions are produced by a piezoelectric crystal. A modern electric toothbrush is usually powered by a rechargeable battery charged through inductive charging when the brush sits in the charging base between uses.\n", "In AC systems, where the current passes through zero twice for each cycle, all but the most energetic arcs are extinguished at the zero crossing. The problem is more severe with DC where such zero crossings do not occur. This is why contacts rated for one voltage for switching AC frequently have a lower voltage rating for DC.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n\nContacts can be produced from a wide variety of materials. Typical materials include:\n\nBULLET::::- Silver alloys\n\nBULLET::::- Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Platinum-group metals\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon\n\nSection::::Electrical contact theory.\n\nRagnar Holm contributed greatly to electrical contact theory and application.\n", "Electric shock drownings are most commonly caused by improper electrical connections on boats and docks. By law, all connections near water are required to have working ground fault circuit interruption technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \n", "Some taps, particularly fiber taps, can use no power and no electronics at all for the \"pass-through\" and \"monitor\" portion of the network traffic. This means that the tap should never suffer any kind of electronics failure or power failure that results in a loss of network connectivity. One way this can work, for fiber-based network technologies, is that the tap divides the incoming light using a simple physical apparatus into two outputs, one for the \"pass-through\", one for the \"monitor\". This can be called a \"passive\" tap. Other taps use no power or electronics for the \"pass-through\", but do use power and electronics for the \"monitor\" port. These can also be referred to as \"passive\".\n", "Electric toothbrushes can be classified, according to the speed of their movements as: standard power toothbrushes, sonic toothbrushes, or ultrasonic toothbrushes. Any electric toothbrush is technically a power toothbrush. If the motion of the toothbrush is sufficiently rapid to produce a hum in the audible frequency range (20 Hz to 20,000 Hz), it can be classified as a sonic toothbrush. Any electric toothbrush with movement faster than this limit can be classified as an ultrasonic toothbrush. Certain ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Megasonex and the Ultreo, have both sonic and ultrasonic movements.\n\nSection::::Types of toothbrush.:Interdental brush.\n", "According to Friends of the Earth, \"Disposable electric toothbrushes are one example of a terrible product ... it's virtually impossible to separate out the tech from the batteries and plastic casing which means valuable and often toxic materials are dumped in landfill or burnt in incinerators.\"\n\nSection::::Optional features.\n\nSection::::Optional features.:Timer.\n\nMany modern electric toothbrushes have a timer which buzzes, or briefly interrupts power, typically after two minutes, and sometimes every 30 seconds. This is associated with a customary recommendation to brush for two minutes, 30 seconds for each of the four quadrants of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Optional features.:Display.\n", "The sensor does not have any physically given hysteresis as it is known from capacitance hygrometers and sensors, and does not require regular cleaning as its surface is not the effectively sensing element. Volatiles, in principle, influence the measurement performance—especially those that dissociate in the electrolyte and thereby change its resistance. Such influences can easily be avoided by using chemical protection filters that absorb the volatile compound before arriving at the sensor.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Capacitance hygrometers.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Under the Road Vehicle Lighting Regulations 1989, police vehicles may display blue flashing lights to alert other road users to their presence or when the driver feels that the journey needs to be undertaken urgently. These lights are usually mounted on the roof and incorporated into the standard vehicle system of external lights. Most police vehicles are also fitted with a siren. In addition to blue lights, many traffic and incident response cars are fitted with flashing red lights that are only visible at the rear of the vehicle. These indicate that the vehicle is stopped or moving slowly.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "During the daytime, the Multanova unit uses a standard \"white\" flash, but in low light or night time, a red filter is added to the flash so as to not dazzle the driver.\n", "In Virginia any member of a fire department, volunteer fire company, or volunteer emergency medical services agency and any police chaplain may equip one vehicle owned by him with no more than two flashing or steady-burning red or red and white combination warning light units of types approved by the Superintendent of the State Police.\n\nSection::::Colors.\n", "For Police S.W.A.T. use, long-range weapon lights with exceptional range have always been a problem. Tactical weapon lighting companies such as ExtremeBeam for example have created small light duty lights which S.W.A.T. officers are able to mount to their modern weapons giving them an extended range out to beyond 300 meters (325+yards). This has allowed officer to blind suspects and protect officers closer at hand from being detected and thereby allowing for a better resolution of the situation with less lethal force.\n\nSection::::Lighting features.\n", "On some occasions, motorists who flashed their headlights to warn of police activity have unwittingly helped fugitives evade police. In 2008, one of Jamaica's most wanted men went around police checkpoints which had been set up on his most likely routes after a driver had flashed his headlights to warn of police ahead. Drivers were warned that flashing headlights may result in \"unwittingly facilitating criminal activity\".\n\nSection::::Legality and meaning.:Philippines.\n", "Police vehicles are often fitted with audible and visual warning systems to alert other motorists of their approach or position on the road. In many countries, use of the audible and visual warnings affords the officer a degree of exemption from road traffic laws (such as the right to exceed speed limits, or to treat red stop lights as a yield sign) and may also suggest a duty on other motorists to move out of the direction of passage of the police car or face possible prosecution.\n", "A development is the use of the RDS, a system of car radios, whereby the vehicle can be fitted with a short range FM transmitter, set to RDS code 31, which interrupts the radio of all cars within range, in the manner of a traffic broadcast, but in such a way that the user of the receiving radio is unable to opt out of the message (as with traffic broadcasts). This feature is built into all RDS radios for use in national emergency broadcast systems, but short range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence, although is not able to alert pedestrians, non-RDS radio users, or drivers with their radios turned off.\n", "MSP vehicles also feature a clear plastic sign, referred to as a \"hood light\" or \"hailer\" or \"shark fin\" on the hood that lights up when activated. The historical use of this hood light dates from the time when a \"side stop\" patrol stop would be initiated by pulling up next to an offender and the Trooper would motion them to pull over in daylight; at night the hood light was illuminated displaying the words \"State Police\" and \"STOP\" (MSP no longer use the \"side stop\").\n", "Many new Police, Fire and Ambulance vehicles manufactured by SVP (Specialist Vehicle Preparartion) have Premier Hazard Systems installed. This usually consists of a Controller and Control pad which allows the user to switch 'Siren' 'Rear Reds' 'Rear Blues' '360 only' and 'Flash Headlamps' function. As well as user defined processes such as 'Alley Lamps' and 'Run Lock' (Run Lock allows the engines to continue to run without the need for keys in the ignition) to avoid the vehicle being stolen whilst attending an incident.\n", "In Virginia, headlight flashing to warn of police activity is not against the law; however radar detectors remain outlawed. Virginia motor vehicle code specifies an \"audible or light signal\" to indicate overtaken vehicles should yield in certain situations \n", "Visual warnings on a police car can be of two types: either \"passive\" or \"active\".\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Audible and visual warnings.:Passive visual warnings.\n", "In Wisconsin, the law allows a vehicle operator to intermittently flash a vehicle’s highbeam headlamps at an oncoming vehicle whose highbeam headlamps are lit.\n\nSection::::Urban legend.\n", "The simplest form of lighting is a steadily burning lamp. These may be white lights used on scene to enable emergency workers to see what they are doing, or they may be colored lights that advertise the emergency vehicle's presence. In the latter case, steadily burning lights are often used alongside rotating or flashing lights rather than on their own, though historically some emergency vehicles only displayed steadily burning lights. For example, California Vehicle Code Section 25252 states: “Every authorized emergency vehicle shall be equipped with at least one steady burning red warning lamp visible from at least 1,000 feet to the front of the vehicle”\n", "Silent cop\n\nA silent cop, also referred to as a \"sleeping policeman\" or a \"traffic dome\", is a traffic management device formerly widely used in Australia. It consisted of a metal or concrete dome, about wide and about tall, embedded in the road surface. They were usually painted yellow and often decorated with retro-reflective glass beads or \"cats eyes\". The name has its origins from the Northern Beaches area of Sydney and was derived from the early days of motoring when policemen would be deployed at busy street corners to direct traffic, before traffic signals became widespread. \n", "The lamps are then fitted, typically for a Police vehicle they will have an external roof lightbar, blue repeaters and flashing headlamp relays. The siren can also be controlled by the original vehicles horn switch (steering wheel). This is only activated when the '999' or 'Siren' button is depressed on the controller inside the vehicle.\n", "Silent cops were placed in the middle of street intersections at cross roads, and turning drivers were expected to drive around one, keeping it to the right of the vehicle when turning right or left. They were also placed in the centre of the terminating street at T-intersections to force drivers turning in or out of the street to be on the correct side of the road rather than cut the corner.\n", "BULLET::::- Photosensitive epilepsy - This is an epileptic reaction to flashing lights in susceptible persons, which can range in severity from an unusual feeling or involuntary twitch to a generalized seizure. This epileptogenic response can be triggered by lights flashing in the frequency range of 10–20 Hz, regardless of color. While individual light sources used on emergency vehicles generally have much lower flash rates than this, the Loughborough study suggests that such possibilities be minimized. It also notes that emergency workers may report distraction and eyestrain unrelated to epilepsy from working under the lights.\n", "The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing colored lights (also known as 'beacons' or 'lightbars'). These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users as the police car approaches, or to provide warning to motorists approaching a stopped vehicle in a dangerous position on the road. Common colours for police warning beacons are blue and red, however this often varies by force. Several types of flashing lights are used, such as rotating beacons, halogen lights, or light emitting diode strobes. Some police forces also use arrow sticks to direct traffic, or message display boards to provide short messages or instructions to motorists. The headlights of some vehicles can be made to flash, or small strobe lights can be fitted in the headlight, tail light and indicator lights of the vehicle.\n", "Since their introduction in 1948, rotating beacons have become widely accepted as a means of attracting attention to one's vehicle. Although the use of the single beacon in law enforcement has dropped since the introduction of light bars, they are still used by some police departments, because of their lower cost or due to tradition. One agency that continues to employ traditional red rotating beacons on its patrol cars is the Michigan State Police. Beacons are also occasionally used on construction equipment when a full-sized lightbar would be unnecessary or impractical to attach to the vehicle.\n", "Toyota, Mercedes-Benz, Volvo, and BMW have released vehicles equipped to convey a special light signal when the vehicle is braked rapidly and severely. This is officially referred to as \"emergency stop signal\", and UN Regulation 48 calls for the lamps providing the ESS to flash at 4 Hz when a passenger car decelerates at greater than 6 m/s or a truck or bus decelerates at greater than 4 m/s. Mercedes vehicles flash the stop lamps for the ESS, while vehicles from the Volkswagen Group of manufacturers (VW, Audi, SEAT and Skoda) flash the hazard flashers.\n", "Most forces allow their PCSOs, commonly those assigned to duties managing traffic, and to drive marked police vehicles. PCSOs may only use blue lights when they come across an accident to indicate the danger present to members of the public, to alert the public to a road hazard and when asked to by a Senior Officer.\n\nPCSOs also regularly use mountain bikes or other bicycles. Since 2007, PCSOs and police constables have had to take a training course before being allowed to use bicycles whilst on duty, after a trainee PCSO died after being hit by a truck in Wigan.\n", "Police cars, fire trucks, ambulances or other emergency vehicles have sirens and red lights. On the other hand, private vehicles operated by volunteer fire and rescue squad members (with emergency vehicle identification) responding to an emergency call use blue lights. If an officer pulls a vehicle over for using courtesy lights, the driver will need to provide sufficient identification proving their Emergency Personnel statusbadge, ID number, ID cardand their reasoning for usage of courtesy lights.\n", "Some provinces restrict municipal peace officers (the exact title varies by province) to a different color; for instance, red-only in Québec, and amber in Ontario. However, Ontario does permit certain types of provincial enforcement officers, such as Ministry of Transportation, red lights. Officers appointed to enforce the Highway Traffic Act and other statutes use red or red and blue lights as well, such as Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources, City of Yellowknife Municipal Enforcement Division, Iqaluit Municipal Enforcement Dept, Alberta and Saskatchewan Peace officers, University Constables and others. White flashing lights are common as a supplemental light on emergency vehicles, particularly for fire and ambulance vehicles.\n", "In Maryland, police officers sometimes ticket drivers for flashing car headlights under a law which prohibits driving in a vehicle with flashing lights and laws prohibiting \"obstructing a police investigation\". The American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland challenges the current interpretation of the law, contending the law refers to an adjective and not a verb; that automatic flashing lights on non-emergency vehicles are illegal, but the act by a driver of manually flashing a vehicle's headlamps is not. Though ticketing was common in the 1990s, Maryland and Washington DC police say that flashing one's headlights was not against the law in either place.\n", "   (c) Upon approaching a stationary authorized emergency vehicle, when the authorized emergency vehicle is giving a signal by displaying alternately flashing red, red and white, blue, or red and blue lights or amber or yellow warning lights, a person who drives an approaching vehicle shall:\n\n       (1) proceeding with due caution, yield the \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Carbonated water is a key ingredient in soft drinks: sweet beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener and a flavoring, such as cola, root beer, or orange soda. Plain carbonated water is often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks; some brands, such as La Croix, produce unsweetened seltzer products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils. Carbonated water is often consumed mixed with fruit juice, or infused with flavor by the addition of cut-up fresh fruit or mint leaves.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Alcoholic beverages.\n", "Section::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda makers.\n\nSoda makers or soda carbonators are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. Soda makers may reach a higher level of carbonation than home soda siphons. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists. The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.\n\nOne major producer of soda carbonators is SodaStream. Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.:Commercial.\n", "Home soda siphons and soda water are enjoying a renaissance in the 21st century as retro items become fashionable. Contemporary soda siphons are commonly made of aluminum, although glass and stainless steel siphons are available. The valve-heads of today are made of plastic, with metal valves, and replaceable o-ring seals. Older siphons are in demand on on-line auction sites. Carbonated water, without the acidity regulating addition of soda, is currently seen as fashionable although home production (see above) is mainly eschewed in favor of commercial products.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda siphons.\n", "In the late 18th century, scientists made important progress in replicating naturally carbonated mineral waters. In 1767, Englishman Joseph Priestley first discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide to make carbonated water when he suspended a bowl of distilled water above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. His invention of carbonated water (also known as soda water) is the major and defining component of most soft drinks.\n", "BULLET::::- A frozen carbonated beverage is a mixture of flavored sugar syrup, carbon dioxide, and water that is frozen by a custom machine creating a drink consisting of a fine slush of suspended ice crystals, with very little liquid. In 1961, Omar Knedlik of Coffeyville, Kansas invented the first frozen carbonated drink machine and is thus recognized as the inventor of the frozen carbonated beverage. In 1965, 7-Eleven licensed the machine, and began selling Knedlik's invention by the brand name popularly known as Slurpee.\n\n1961 Biofeedback\n", "Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries mainly in Europe, Asia and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle. One etymology of the term \"codswallop\" originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology.\n", "It was not long before flavoring was combined with carbonated water. The earliest reference to carbonated ginger beer is in a \"Practical Treatise on Brewing\". published in 1809. The drinking of either natural or artificial mineral water was considered at the time to be a healthy practice, and was promoted by advocates of temperance. Pharmacists selling mineral waters began to add herbs and chemicals to unflavored mineral water. They used birch bark (see birch beer), dandelion, sarsaparilla, fruit extracts, and other substances. Flavorings were also added to improve the taste.\n\nSection::::History.:Mass market and industrialization.\n", "Another Englishman, John Mervin Nooth, improved Priestley's design and sold his apparatus for commercial use in pharmacies. Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman invented a generating apparatus that made carbonated water from chalk by the use of sulfuric acid. Bergman's apparatus allowed imitation mineral water to be produced in large amounts. Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius started to add flavors (spices, juices, and wine) to carbonated water in the late eighteenth century.\n", "Social drinking changed with the counter-culture movement of the 1970s and the arrival of new bottled and canned beverages in the 1980s, and soda water has declined in popularity. Soda siphons are still bought by the more traditional bar trade and are available at the bar in many upmarket establishments, but in the UK there are now only two wholesalers of soda-water in traditional glass siphons, and an estimated market of around 120,000 siphons per year (2009). Worldwide, preferences are for beverages in recyclable plastic containers.\n", "In the United Kingdom and Canada today, drink mixers sold as \"soda water\" or \"club soda\" contain bicarbonate of soda, which gives them a specific flavor and differentiates them from carbonated water. It is popularly used for mixed drinks such as whiskey and soda and Campari soda.\n\nSection::::History.:Popularity.\n", "Soda syphons were popular in the 1920s and 1930s. The rise of bottled carbonated beverages and the destruction of many of the siphon manufacturers' plants in Eastern Europe during World War II led to a decline in their popularity in the years after the war. These bottles are still commonly used in some bars to make drinks.\n", "While Priestley is regarded as “the father of the soft drink,” he did not benefit financially from his invention. He did however receive scientific recognition when the Council of the Royal Society “were moved to reward its discoverer with the Copley Medal” in 1772.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nNatural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount of sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium sulfate, or disodium phosphate, depending on the product. These occur naturally in mineral waters but are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile.\n", "In America, soda fountains were initially more popular, and many Americans would frequent the soda fountain daily. Beginning in 1806, Yale University chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman sold soda waters in New Haven, Connecticut. He used a Nooth apparatus to produce his waters. Businessmen in Philadelphia and New York City also began selling soda water in the early 19th century. In the 1830s, John Matthews of New York City and John Lippincott of Philadelphia began manufacturing soda fountains. Both men were successful and built large factories for fabricating fountains. Due to problems in the U.S. glass industry, bottled drinks remained a small portion of the market throughout much of the 19th century. (However, they were known in England. In \"The Tenant of Wildfell Hall\", published in 1848, the caddish Huntingdon, recovering from months of debauchery, wakes at noon and gulps a bottle of soda-water.)\n", "English chemist Joseph Priestley discovered an artificial method for producing soda water, described in a pamphlet called \"Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air\", published in 1772. The pamphlet explained the process of dripping sulfuric acid onto chalk, which produced carbon dioxide CO which was captured in a bowl of agitated water. Priestley thought such carbonated water was a cure for scurvy and proposed the process to Captain James Cook to prevent scurvy during his second voyage to the South Seas. Priestley never realized the commercial potential of his product, though he did refer to it as his \"happiest discovery.\" In 1783 Jacob Schweppe, a jeweller and amateur scientist of Geneva, began the commercial production of carbonated mineral water by dissolving the CO under pressure. In 1807, Benjamin Silliman, a Yale chemistry professor, began producing carbonated water under pressure and selling it in New Haven, Connecticut. In the 1830's Anyos Jedlik of Hungary opened a large-scale carbonated water factory. The original trademarked club soda was made by Cantrell & Cochrane of Dublin, Ireland in 1877. The 'club' being the Kildare Street Club in Dublin who commissioned them to produce it.\n", "The bottles were regularly produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, they are relatively rare and have become collector items, particularly in the UK. They could be found at retail shops and restaurants in many parts of the world until recently. Due to the risk of explosion and injuries from fragmented glass pieces, use of this type of bottle is no longer encouraged in most countries. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune and in the Indian drink called Banta.\n", "Priestley’s apparatus, which featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, was soon joined by a wide range of others, but it wasn’t until 1781 that carbonated water began being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley’s system with large bellows. J. J. Schweppe developed a process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water based on the discovery of Priestley, founding the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783. Schweppes regards Priestley as “the father of our industry”. In 1792 he moved to London to develop the business there. In 1799 Augustine Thwaites founded Thwaites' Soda Water in Dublin. A \"London Globe\" article claims that this company was the first to patent and sell \"Soda Water\" under that name. The name soda water arose from the observation by Richard Bewley, an 18th-century English chemist from Norfolk, that the addition of a little sodium carbonate to the water greatly facilitated the absorption of carbon dioxide.\n", "BULLET::::- In Chris Lynch's \"Vietnam\" series, one of the four main characters, Ivan Bucyk, greatly enjoys Moxie soda and claims that its being medicine is what makes him so athletic. The other characters do not share his enthusiasm and say it tastes like \"carbonated tires.\" Later, when one of the four main characters is driven mad from his experiences in the Vietnam War, the others say he looks crazier than the mad scientist on the Moxie logo.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of brand name soft drink products\n\nSection::::References.\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n", "A particularly famous product in Ireland is C&C Club Orange, a carbonated orange soft drink developed in the 1930s. Other flavours were subsequently developed, such as Club Lemon and Club Rock Shandy (an orange and lemon blend). With C&C's increasing emphasis on alcoholic beverages, the Club range of soft drinks and bottled water was sold to Britvic Ireland in 2007.\n", "and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.\n\nSection::::Commercial trade.:International exports and imports.:Industry size.\n\nFor the calendar year 2016, the United States beverage industry was valued at $24.1 billion with single-serve bottled water accounting for $900 million of the total. Carbonated beverages accounted for $81.6 billion in annual sales in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Commercial trade.:Investment.\n", "The arrival of carbonated water onto the cocktail scene changed the way people drank. Instead of drinking liquor straight or neat (without a mixer), soda water and carbonated soft drinks helped dilute alcohol, and made having a drink more socially acceptable. Whisky and sodas can be seen in many British TV series and films from the 1960s and earlier and the soda siphon is ubiquitous in many movies made before 1970. Only a small amount of soda water is added; a 'splash', and 'Scotch and a splash' was a common bar order. Whisky and soda was commonly drunk without ice in the UK.\n", "The popularity of bottled mineral waters quickly led to a market for imitation products. Carbonated waters developed as means for approximating the natural effervescence of spring-bottled water, and in 1809 Joseph Hawkins was issued the first U.S. patent for “imitation” mineral water. As technological innovation in nineteenth century lowered the cost of making glass and improved production speed for bottling, bottled water was able to be produced on a larger scale and the beverage grew in popularity. Bottled water was seen by many as a safer alternative to 19th century municipal water supplies that could be contaminated with pathogens such as cholera and typhoid. By the middle of the century one of America's most popular bottlers, Saratoga Springs, was producing more than 7 million bottles of water annually.\n", "Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provide a degree of 'fizz'.\n\nAdding soda water to 'short' drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them 'long' not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth. Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cooking.\n", "Carbonated drinks refer to drinks which have carbon dioxide dissolved into them. This can happen naturally through fermenting and in natural water spas or artificially by the dissolution of carbon dioxide under pressure. The first commercially available artificially carbonated drink is believed to have been produced by Thomas Henry in the late 1770s.\n\nCola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be added later.\n\nThe most consumed carbonated soft drinks are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group.\n", "In the 1950s, Royal Crown Cola and moon pies were a popular \"working man's lunch\" in the American South. In 1954, Royal Crown was the first company to sell soft drinks in a can, and later the first company to sell a soft drink in an aluminum can.\n", "The forerunner of the machine, the \"apparatus for aerating liquids\", was created in 1903 by Guy Hugh Gilbey of the London gin distillers, W & A Gilbey Ltd., and was sold to the upper classes (including the royal household). Flavoured concentrates such as cherry ciderette and sarsaparilla were introduced in the 1920s, along with commercial carbonation machines, and the first machine for home carbonation of drinks was produced in 1955.\n\nThe SodaStream was originally sold in the UK, and later spread to other countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and Germany.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Drill bushings can generally be classified as: \"press fit\" bushings or \"renewable\" bushings. Other classification methods include by head type, by use, and by liner type (or lack thereof).\n\nSection::::Types.:Press-fit bushings.\n\nPress fit are available in two types with liners or without (\"wearing\" bushings). Liner bushings, sometimes called \"master bushings\", are permanently installed into the jig and accept liners that can easily be replaced. Press-fit wearing bushings are used in short run applications or in applications where the tolerance on a hole location is so tight that it cannot facilitate the use of a liner bushing.\n\nSection::::Types.:Renewable bushings.\n", "Renewable bushings are installed in liner bushings. This type of bushing is used in large production runs where a bushing will wear out over time or when multiple renewable bushings are used in one liner to provide various sized holes. There are two types of renewable bushings: \"fixed\" and \"slip\".\n", "Section::::Types.:Specification.\n\nCustomary bushings are specified using the following specification layout:\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nBULLET::::- As shock mounts\n\nBULLET::::- In vehicles:\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-roll bar (US Sway bar) links and mountings\n\nBULLET::::- Shock absorber mountings\n\nBULLET::::- Double wishbone suspension assemblies\n\nBULLET::::- Gear stick for vehicles with a manual transmission\n", "Fixed renewable bushings are used in applications where the liner is meant to be used until it wears out. Slip renewable bushings are designed to be interchangeable with a given sized liner so that two different sized slip renewable bushings can be used in one liner bushing. This facilitates the ability to do multiple machining operations that require different inner diameter (ID) bushings, such as drilling and reaming. They usually have knurled heads so they can be easily removed.\n", "BULLET::::- Bushing: Bushings are donut-shaped polyurethane pieces that are inserted onto the kingpin of a truck. There are two bushings per truck, one above and one below where the hanger fits onto the kingpin. Adjusting the kingpin nut to tighten or loosen the bushings will adjust the turning radius and response of the truck itself. Tighter bushings mean stiffer trucks and less chance of \"wheel bite,\" which is when the wheels stop spinning as they come into contact with the deck. Loose bushings make for easier turning at the cost of more frequent wheel bite.\n", "This type of protective bushings is quite common in applications that range from telecom switches and data center cabinets to complex and dense wire/cable and even hydraulic tubing in aircraft, transportation vehicles and medical equipment.\n\nSection::::As reinforcement or crafting.\n", "The design of any electrical bushing must ensure that the electrical strength of the insulated material is able to withstand the penetrating 'electrical energy' passing through the conductor, via any highly stressed areas. It must also be capable of enduring, occasional and exceptional high voltage moments as well as the normal continual service withstand voltage, as it is the voltage that directs and controls the development of leakage paths and not current.\n", "BULLET::::- In skateboards, bushings enable the tilting of the trucks, thus allowing the board to turn.\n\nBULLET::::- In fastening, bushings are also used to transfer loads from a fastening to a much larger area in the underlying structure, the object being to reduce the strain on individual fibers within the underlying structure. (See also grommet.)\n\nSection::::History.\n\nCharles E. Sorensen credits Walter Chrysler as being a leader in encouraging the adoption of rubber vibration-isolating mounts. In his memoir (1956), he says that, on March 10, 1932, Chrysler called at Ford headquarters to show off a new Plymouth model.\n", "BULLET::::- There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no heat formed from friction\n\nBULLET::::- The container liner will last longer due to less wear\n\nBULLET::::- The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals zones are less likely.\n\nThe disadvantages are:\n", "A \"bushing\", also known as a \"bush\", is an independent plain bearing that is inserted into a housing to provide a bearing surface for rotary applications; this is the most common form of a plain bearing. Common designs include \"solid\" (\"sleeve\" and \"flanged\"), \"split\", and \"clenched\" bushings. A sleeve, split, or clenched bushing is only a \"sleeve\" of material with an inner diameter (ID), outer diameter (OD), and length. The difference between the three types is that a solid sleeved bushing is solid all the way around, a split bushing has a cut along its length, and a clenched bearing is similar to a split bushing but with a clench (or clinch) across the cut connecting the parts. A flanged bushing is a sleeve bushing with a flange at one end extending radially outward from the OD. The flange is used to positively locate the bushing when it is installed or to provide a thrust bearing surface.\n", "In the case of a busbar, the conductor terminals will support the busbar in its location. In the case of a bushing, a fixing device will also be attached to the insulation to hold it in its location. Usually, the fixing point is integral or surrounds the insulation over part of the insulated surface. The insulated material between the fixing point and the conductor is the most highly stressed area.\n", "Section::::Manufacture.\n\nThere are three classes of manufactured tubing: seamless, as-welded or electric resistant welded (ERW), and drawn-over-mandrel (DOM).\n\nBULLET::::- Seamless tubing is produced via extrusion or rotary piercing.\n\nBULLET::::- Drawn-over-mandrel tubing is made from cold-drawn electrical-resistance-welded tube that is drawn through a die and over a mandrel to create such characteristics as dependable weld integrity, dimensional accuracy, and an excellent surface finish.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n\nThere are many industry and government standards for pipe and tubing. Many standards exist for tube manufacture; some of the most common are as follows:\n", "Condenser bushings produce electric stress fields which are significantly less potent around the fixing flange than designs without foils and, when used in conjunction with resin impregnation, produce bushings which can be used at service voltages over one million with great success.\n\nSection::::Types.:Resin insulation.\n\nSince the 1965s, resin materials have been used for all types of bushing up to the highest voltages. The flexibility of using a castable form of insulation has replaced paper insulation in many product areas and dominates the existing insulated bushing market.\n", "BULLET::::- S - Slip renewable\n\nBULLET::::- F - Fixed renewable\n\nBULLET::::- L - Headless liner\n\nBULLET::::- HL - Head liner\n\nBULLET::::- P - Headless press-fit\n\nBULLET::::- H - Head press-fit\n\nThe following two tables give the tolerances for the ID and OD.\n\nSection::::Types.:Custom bushings.\n", "A small grommet may also be called an eyelet, used for example on shoes, tarps and sails for lacing purposes. \n\nGrommets in electrical applications are referred to as \"insulating bushings\". Most common are molded rubber bushings that are inserted into hole diameters up to 2\" (51 mm). There are many hole configurations from standard round to assorted U-shapes. Larger penetrations that are irregular in shape as well as long straight edges are often fitted with extruded or stamped strips of continuous length, referred to as \"grommet edging\".\n", "BULLET::::- A backplate with a female (self-releasing) taper may seat on the matching male taper of the taper(ed) spindle nose (for lathe work) or of an adapter plate with the same nose, to be mounted on a table. This system improves the repeatability of the mounting concentricity down to a very small total indicated runout (TIR) value. Subtypes:\n", "BULLET::::- It can be run over smaller diameter sheaves, and wound on smaller diameter spools or reels without overstressing by bending (where the wire bends makes it weaker. Where it makes a complete circle, such as a counter wheel, makes it weaker yet).\n\nBULLET::::- It keeps the reel drum size to a minimum (which reduces the area needed in the back of the slickline unit to house the drum and hydraulic pump, reducing weight and leaving more room for the other specialized equipment needed for slickline operations).\n\nBULLET::::- It provides a small cross-section area for operation under pressure.\n", "Drill bushing\n\nA drill bushing, also known as a jig bushing, is a tool used in metalworking jigs to guide cutting tools, most commonly drill bits. Other tools that are commonly used in a drill bushing include counterbores, countersinks, and reamers. They are designed to guide, position, and support the cutting tool.\n\nIn the USA, Customary sized bushings are standardized via ASME B94.33 and metric bushings are standardized via ASME B94.33.1. There are over 50,000 standard configurations of customary sized bushings.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Bushing (electrical)\n\nIn electric power, a bushing is an insulated device that allows an electrical conductor to pass safely through a grounded conducting barrier such as the case of a transformer or circuit breaker. Bushings are typically made from porcelain; though other insulating materials are also possible, generally porcelain is used.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "BULLET::::- Gauge Ring runs (which is running a special sized downhole tool called a gauge ring, which comes in various pre-machined diameters, designed to ensure the pipe is clear to a certain point)\n\nBULLET::::- Tubing Broach / Plunger Installations (a tubing broach looks like an aggressive, tubular file, available in different diameters, used for removing burrs and crimps in the inside of tubing and casing in oil and gas wells)\n", "Insulated bushings can be installed either indoor, or outdoor, and the selection of insulation will be determined by the location of the installation and the electrical service duty on the bushing.\n\nFor a bushing to work successfully over many years, the insulation must remain effective both in composition and design shape and will be key factors in its survival. Bushings can therefore vary considerably in both material and design style.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Porcelain insulation.\n", "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n\nThe main advantage of a bushing, as compared to a solid connection, is less noise and vibration are transmitted. Another advantage is that they require little to no lubrication.\n\nDisadvantages include:\n\nBULLET::::- Rubber bushings can deteriorate quickly in the presence of oils (e.g., motor oil, mineral oil) and extreme heat and cold.\n", "BULLET::::- The chuck may be held against the taper with a threaded retainer ring (large thin nut), typically wrenched with a spanner wrench of the pin or hook variety. The peak of popularity for building this type of spindle nose was the 1940s and 1950s.\n\nBULLET::::- The chuck may be held against the taper with cam-lock posts that wedge into a stuck-fast position. Industry-standard spindle nose designs allow wide interchangeability. This cam lock spindle nose system replaced the earlier systems on most machine tools in the 1960s.\n\nSection::::Mounting methods.:Mounting of collet chucks.\n", "Some drills, wire wheels, etc. use a threaded shank. One example is cylindrical wire wheels meant to be pushed into a pipe of some sort to clean the inside of the pipe, but some ordinary, but mostly rather large, wood drills have threaded shanks as well.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident.\n", "The triggering event, if not managed effectively, leads to a harmful action that exacerbates the situation, and the most commonly identified harmful action is an emergency ascent, which shows that most of the divers chose to try to escape to the surface instead of dealing with the problem underwater. The next stage of the cascade/sequence is an incapacitating injury, which prevents the diver from further efforts to control the incident, most commonly asphyxia, followed by the official cause of death as the final stage. This is usually found to be drowning.\n", "There are a large range of circumstances, some within the control of the dier, some not, which can temporarily degrade the ability of the diver to dive safely. Some of these are purely physical, others have a psychological influence. Many are to some extent self-inflicted.\n\nExamples:\n\nBULLET::::- Accepting the responsibilities of a buddy diver before the dive and then not paying due attention to staying within appropriate distance of the buddy.\n\nBULLET::::- Taking on responsibilities of a buddy diver knowing that one is not capable of carrying them out in an emergency.\n", "In almost all circumstances, two highly competent, totally self-sufficient divers diving a specific dive profile as a buddy pair are at lower risk than those same two divers diving exactly the same profile separately, but this raises the question \"how often do normal buddy divers both really fit into this particular description?\" When considering the risks in solo diving the alternative risks found predominantly in buddy diving need also be considered. The greatest danger to sports divers is inexperience – 60% of all diving fatalities involve divers having less than 20 completed dives. The buddy system itself can be a source of risk – a 2006 survey showed that 52% of buddy divers were at some time actually endangered by a buddy's behavior or actions.\n", "Not everyone has the physical and mental capacity to dive safely. Professional diving can be physically demanding work, and some diving tasks require considerable strength and stamina, and a sufficient reserve of physical and psychological strength to cope with unexpected situations.\n", "The majority of accidents that are classified as 'diving-related' are incidents caused by individuals jumping from structures such as bridges or piers into water of inadequate depth. Many accidents also occur when divers do not account for rocks and logs in the water. Because of this many beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty.\n", "BULLET::::- Ignoring warning alarms and information on instruments and safety systems.\n\nSection::::Why accidents happen.:Preconditions for unsafe actions.\n\nSection::::Why accidents happen.:Preconditions for unsafe actions.:Substandard practices.\n\nSection::::Why accidents happen.:Preconditions for unsafe actions.:Substandard practices.:Communication and team skills.\n\nGood communication and team or buddy skills are necessary to limit the risk of a recoverable incident deteriorating into an accident. A good team has more capacity to deal with an emergency than a solo diver in most circumstances, but in the absence of adequate team or buddy skills, a solo diver may be safer\n", "These error mechanisms explain the psychological basis for errors, but the\n\nmechanisms are not readily observable.\n\nSection::::Human factors.:Stress.\n\nStress has been defined as \"the result of an imbalance between the demands placed upon an individual and the capacity of that individual to respond to the demands\" \n\nA person will respond to stress by taking actions to change the situation in order to reduce the stress When the actions are successful the result is described as 'coping', when unsuccessful the level of stress will increase and may lead to panic.\n", "When professional divers dive as buddy pairs their responsibility to each other is specified as part of the standard operating procedures, code of practice or governing legislation.\n\nSection::::Analysis of incidents.\n\nThe incidents that are documented and analysed are usually those which lead to serious injury or death. Valuable understanding of the risks of diving can be derived from analysis of such incidents, but they are a small fraction of the potential learning opportunities because for each documented accident there are estimated to be possibly hundreds of undocumented near-misses.\n", "The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Accident modes.\n\nSeveral factors are identifiable as predispositions to accidents in technical diving. The techniques and equipment are complex, which increases the risk of errors or omissions - the task loading for a CCR diver during critical phases of a dive is greater than for open circuit scuba equipment, The circumstances of technical diving generally mean that errors or omissions are likely to have more serious consequences than in normal recreational diving, and there is a tendency towards competitiveness and risk taking among many technical divers which appears to have contributed to some well publicized accidents.\n", "When all else fails, the consequences of missing some decompression time are usually less severe than drowning.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Drowning.\n\nDrowning is the most likely consequence of a failure to reach the surface during an independent emergency ascent, and is a significant risk even if the diver reaches the surface if he or she loses consciousness on the way.\n\nSection::::Mitigation of hazards.\n", "There is a large range of hazards to which the diver may be exposed. These each have associated consequences and risks, which should be taken into account during dive planning. Where risks are marginally acceptable it may be possible to mitigate the consequences by setting contingency and emergency plans in place, so that damage can be minimised where reasonably practicable. The acceptable level of risk varies depending on legislation, codes of practice and personal choice, with recreational divers having a greater freedom of choice.\n\nSection::::Environmental factors.\n", "Section::::Health implications.\n\nSome research suggests that the impact associated with high diving could have negative effects on the joints and muscles of athletes. To avoid injury to their arms upon impact with the water, divers from significant heights may enter the water feet first.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 FINA High Diving World Cup\n\nBULLET::::- La Quebrada Cliff Divers\n\nBULLET::::- List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in high diving\n\nBULLET::::- Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series – annual international series of cliff diving events that was established in 2009\n\nSection::::See also.:Olympic events.\n", "BULLET::::- High task loading due to a combination of these factors can result in a dive that goes well enough until something goes wrong, and the diver's residual capacity is not enough to cope with the changed circumstances. This can be followed by a cascade of failures, as each problem loads the diver more and triggers the next. In such cases the diver is lucky to survive, even with the assistance of a buddy or team, and there is a significant risk of others becoming part of the accident.\n\nSection::::Human factors.:Dive team performance.\n", "Section::::Professional public safety diving courses.\n\nFor this purpose, diving training agencies such as Emergency Response Diving International (ERDI), the National Academy of Police Diving (NAPD), and Team Lifeguard Systems have developed special courses to train divers on how to safely respond to situations where the hazards exceed those acceptable for recreational diving.\n", "BULLET::::- Helmet flood. Depending on the severity of the flood, this can range from an annoyance to an emergency. A slow leak can be controlled by opening the free flow valve, which will drive a moderate flow of water out of the exhaust valve. A neck dam failure usually has this effect.\n", "These risks can be reduced and the consequences mitigated by correct application of knowledge, skills, fitness and equipment. Where a single point of failure is likely to seriously compromise safety, redundant equipment can be carried, and the skills learned to effectively use the equipment without undue delay.\n", "Psychological factors can affect fitness to dive, particularly where they affect response to emergencies, or risk taking behaviour. The use of medical and recreational drugs, can also influence fitness to dive, both for physiological and behavioural reasons. In some cases prescription drug use may have a net positive effect, when effectively treating an underlying condition, but frequently the side effects of effective medication may have undesirable influences on the fitness of diver, and most cases of recreational drug use result in an impaired fitness to dive, and a significantly increased risk of sub-optimal or inappropriate response to emergencies.\n", "A safety study estimated about a million shortcuts taken per fatal accident. \n\nThe fatality is the peak of the accident pyramid. The base of the pyramid is the shortcuts, and in between are escalating levels of near-accidents which could (but too often do not) serve as lessons learned. \"Blumenberg, 1996\"\n\nAccident investigations typically focus on the end event, and attempt to erect barriers to similar accidents, such as personal protection equipment, backup equipment or alarm systems. These are intended to prevent the recurrence of similar accidents, and are often effective in this limited goal.\n", "The major factors influencing diving safety are the environment, the diving equipment and the performance of the diver and the dive team. The underwater environment is alien, both physically and psychologically stressful, and usually not amenable to control, though divers can be selective in the conditions in which they are willing to dive. The other factors must be controlled to mitigate the overall stress on the diver and allow the dive to be completed in acceptable safety. The equipment is critical to diver safety for life support, but is generally reliable, controllable and predictable in its performance.\n", "Section::::Factors influencing the performance of a diving team.\n\nA dive team may be considered as a system which is influenced by the following factors:\n\nBULLET::::- equipment\n\nBULLET::::- procedures\n\nBULLET::::- organization\n\nBULLET::::- environment\n\nBULLET::::- individuals\n\nBULLET::::- interactions\n\nThere are considerations associated with each of these factors relating specifically to diving.\n\nSection::::Human factors.\n", "Suicide bridge\n\nA suicide bridge is a bridge used frequently to die by suicide, most typically by jumping off and into the water or ground below. A fall from the height of a tall bridge into water may be fatal, although people have survived jumps from high bridges such as the Golden Gate Bridge. Medical examiners at the Golden Gate Bridge state that jumpers suffer a gruesome death as their bodies hit the water at about , with severe organ damage (multiple ruptured organs) and broken necks, pelvises, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- The most generally effective method is for each diver to carry an independent bailout set sufficient to safely reach the surface, after completing all required decompression. This is relatively expensive and there may be unacceptable additional task loading to carry the equipment.\n\nBULLET::::- An economical and effective method of reducing risk while sharing air is use of secondary (octopus) demand valves. This is effective only if the buddy is available for sharing at the time of the emergency.\n", "The risk of injury varies with the mode and classification of the dive. In recreational diving it is generally possible for a diver to make several errors of judgement or calculation without adverse effects. More technical dive profiles may be less tolerant of error to the extent that a single error may be life-threatening, so technical divers tend to carry and use equipment to mitigate such possible errors, and to use and practice procedures known to reduce the risk of committing such errors. Professional diving is generally required to have a risk as low as reasonably practicable, and this implies the use of equipment resundancy, procedures known to minimise risk, and the availability of support personnel and equipment on site to mitigate reasonably foreseeable incidents.\n" ]

[ "If divers dive from much higher heights than bridges and survive, then jumping from a bridge should not be considered suicidal." ]

[ "Professional divers are very well skilled and know how to dive into the water at extreme heights without causing damage to themselves." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If divers dive from much higher heights than bridges and survive, then jumping from a bridge should not be considered suicidal.", "If divers dive from much higher heights than bridges and survive, then jumping from a bridge should not be considered suicidal." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Professional divers are very well skilled and know how to dive into the water at extreme heights without causing damage to themselves.", "Professional divers are very well skilled and know how to dive into the water at extreme heights without causing damage to themselves." ]

[ "Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by presence of certain magic numbers of neutrons or protons which represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. As in the case of tin, a magic number for Z, the atomic number, tends to increase the number of stable isotopes for the element.\n", "Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons, which attract each other through the nuclear force, while protons repel each other via the electric force due to their positive charge. These two forces compete, leading to some combinations of neutrons and protons being more stable than others. Neutrons stabilize the nucleus, because they attract protons, which helps offset the electrical repulsion between protons. As a result, as the number of protons increases, an increasing ratio of neutrons to protons is needed to form a stable nucleus; if too many or too few neutrons are present with regard to the optimum ratio, the nucleus becomes unstable and subject to certain types of nuclear decay. Unstable isotopes decay through various radioactive decay pathways, most commonly alpha decay, beta decay, or electron capture. Many other rare types of decay, such as spontaneous fission or cluster decay are known. (See radioactive decay for details.)\n", "Of the different isotopes that exist, one common classification is distinguishing radioactive isotopes from stable isotopes. Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that will decay into a different isotope. For example, H (tritium) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. It decays into He with a half-life of ~12.3 years. By comparison, stable isotopes are more stable, decaying much more slowly and having much longer half-lives. Examples of stable isotopes are Sr and Sr. These isotopes of strontium have half-lives on the order of billions of years or are unmeasured because of how stable they are. On timescales that geologists and environmental scientists investigate, these isotopes are stable. Both of these types of isotopes are useful to scientists. Radioactive isotopes are generally more useful on shorter timescales, such as investigating modern circulation of the ocean using C, while stable isotopes are generally more useful on longer timescales, such as investigating differences in river flow with strontium stable isotopes.\n", "When there is not equilibrium between phases or chemical compounds, \"kinetic fractionation\" can occur. For example, at interfaces between liquid water and air, the forward reaction is enhanced if the humidity of the air is less than 100% or the water vapor is moved by a wind. Kinetic fractionation generally is enhanced compared to equilibrium fractionation, and depends on factors such as reaction rate, reaction pathway and bond energy. Since lighter isotopes generally have weaker bonds, they tend to react faster and enrich the reaction products.\n", "The composition of an atomic nucleus is determined by the number of protons \"Z\" and the number of neutrons \"N\", which sum to mass number \"A\". The atomic number \"Z\" determines the position of an element in the periodic table, but the more than 3000 nuclides are commonly represented in a chart with \"Z\" and \"N\" for its axes and the half-life for radioactive decay indicated for each unstable nuclide (see figure). 252 nuclides are thought to be stable (having never been observed to decay), and these follow a general trend in which the number of neutrons rises more rapidly than the number of protons. The last element in the periodic table that has a stable isotope is lead (\"Z\" = 82), with stability generally decreasing in heavier elements. The half-lives of nuclei also decrease when there is a lopsided neutron-proton ratio, such that the resulting nuclei have too few or too many neutrons to be stable.\n", "Unstable isotopes decay to their daughter products (which may sometimes be even more unstable) at a given rate; eventually, often after a series of decays, a stable isotope is reached: there are about 200 stable isotopes in the universe. Stable isotopes have ratios of neutrons to protons in their nucleus which are typical about 1 for light elements (e.g. 1 in helium-4) and gradually increase to around 1.5 for the heaviest elements such as lead (e.g. 1.536 in lead-208). No nuclide heavier than lead-208 is stable; these heavier elements have to shed weight to achieve stability, most usually as alpha decay. The other common decay method for isotopes with a high neutron to proton ratio (n/p) is beta decay, in which the nuclide changes elemental identity while keeping the same weight and lowering its n/p ratio. For some isotopes with a relatively low n/p ratio, there is an inverse beta decay, by which a proton is transformed into a neutron, thus moving towards a stable isotope; however, since fission almost always produces products which are neutron heavy, positron emission is relatively rare compared to electron emission. There are many relatively short beta decay chains, at least two (a heavy, beta decay and a light, positron decay) for every discrete weight up to around 207 and some beyond, but for the higher weight elements (isotopes heavier than lead) there are only four pathways which encompass all decay chains. This is because there are just two main decay methods: alpha radiation, which reduces the weight by 4 atomic mass units (amu), and beta, which does not change the atomic weight at all (just the atomic number and the p/n ratio). The four paths are termed 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2, and 4n + 3; the remainder from dividing the atomic weight by four gives the chain the isotope will use to decay. There are other decay modes, but they invariably occur at a lower probability than alpha or beta decay. (It should not be supposed that these chains have no branches: the diagram below shows a few branches of chains, and in reality there are many more, because there are many more isotopes possible than are shown in the diagram.) For example, the third atom of nihonium-278 synthesised underwent six alpha decays down to mendelevium-254, followed by an electron capture (a form of beta decay) to fermium-254, and then a seventh alpha to californium-250, upon which it would have followed the 4n + 2 chain as given in this article. However, the heaviest superheavy nuclides synthesised do not reach the four decay chains, because they reach a spontaneously fissioning nuclide after a few alpha decays that terminates the chain: this is what happened to the first two atoms of nihonium-278 synthesised, as well as to all heavier nuclides produced.\n", "Section::::Isotopes and nuclear properties.:In search for the island of stability: Fl.:Evidence for Z=114 closed proton shell.\n", "Section::::Variation in properties between isotopes.:Even and odd nucleon numbers.\n", "The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. It depends also on evenness or oddness of its atomic number \"Z\", neutron number \"N\" and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number \"A\". Oddness of both \"Z\" and \"N\" tends to lower the nuclear binding energy, making odd nuclei, generally, less stable. This remarkable difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd-\"A\" isobars, has important consequences: unstable isotopes with a nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by beta decay (including positron decay), electron capture or other exotic means, such as spontaneous fission and cluster decay.\n", "The building blocks of materials are the chemical elements. These can be identified by their atomic number Z, which is the number of protons in the nucleus. An element can have more than one value for N, the number of neutrons in the nucleus. The sum of these is the mass number, which is roughly equal to the atomic mass. Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers are called isotopes. A given isotope is identified by a letter for the element preceded by a superscript for the mass number. For example, two common isotopes of chlorine are Cl and Cl. There are about 1700 known combinations of Z and N, of which only about 260 are stable. However, most of the unstable isotopes do not occur in nature. In geochemistry, stable isotopes are used to trace chemical pathways and reactions, while isotopes are primarily used to date samples.\n", "Stable nuclide\n\nStable nuclides are nuclides that are not radioactive and so (unlike radionuclides) do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay. When such nuclides are referred to in relation to specific elements, they are usually termed stable isotopes.\n", "For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.\n", "The majority of stable nuclides are even-proton-even-neutron, where all numbers \"Z\", \"N\", and \"A\" are even. The odd-\"A\" stable nuclides are divided (roughly evenly) into odd-proton-even-neutron, and even-proton-odd-neutron nuclides. Odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclei are the least common.\n\nSection::::Variation in properties between isotopes.:Even and odd nucleon numbers.:Even atomic number.\n", "Kinetic isotope effects are common in biological systems and are especially important for hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry. Kinetic effects usually result in larger fractionations than equilibrium reactions. In any isotope system, kinetic effects are stronger for larger mass differences. Light isotopes in most systems also tend to move faster but form weaker bonds. At high temperatures, entropy explains a large signal in isotope composition. However, when temperature decreases isotope effects are more expressed and randomness plays less of a role. These general trends are exposed in further understanding of bond breaking, diffusion or effusion, and condensation or evaporation reactions.\n", "Pb is the final step in the decay chain of U, the \"radium series\" or \"uranium series\". In a closed system, over time, a given mass of U will decay in a sequence of steps culminating in Pb. The production of intermediate products eventually reaches an equilibrium (though this takes a long time, as the half-life of U is 245,500 years). Once this stabilized system is reached, the ratio of U to Pb will steadily decrease, while the ratios of the other intermediate products to each other remain constant.\n", "Most stable isotopes in the earth are believed to have been formed in processes of nucleosynthesis, either in the Big Bang, or in generations of stars that preceded the formation of the solar system. However, some stable isotopes also show abundance variations in the earth as a result of decay from long-lived radioactive nuclides. These decay-products are termed radiogenic isotopes, in order to distinguish them from the much larger group of 'non-radiogenic' isotopes.\n\nThe so-called island of stability may reveal a number of long-lived or even stable atoms that are heavier (and with more protons) than lead.\n\nSection::::Isotopes per element.\n", "Since a nucleus with an odd number of protons is relatively less stable, odd-numbered elements tend to have fewer stable isotopes. Of the 26 \"monoisotopic\" elements that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number — the single exception being beryllium. In addition, no odd-numbered element has more than two stable isotopes, while every even-numbered element with stable isotopes, except for helium, beryllium, and carbon, has at least three.\n\nSection::::Tables.\n", "The 80 elements with one or more stable isotopes comprise a total of 252 nuclides that have not been known to decay using current equipment (see list at the end of this article). Of these elements, 26 have only one stable isotope; they are thus termed monoisotopic. The rest have more than one stable isotope. Tin has ten stable isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes known for an element.\n\nSection::::Definition of stability, and naturally occurring nuclides.\n", "Section::::Uncertainty and error in reference materials.\n\nSection::::Uncertainty and error in reference materials.:Uncertainty in absolute isotope ratios.\n", "Section::::Isotopic reference materials.:Non-traditional isotope systems.:Clumped isotopes.\n", "Section::::Theory.\n", "The curve of binding energy is a graph that plots the binding energy per nucleon against atomic mass. This curve has its main peak at iron and nickel and then slowly decreases again, and also a narrow isolated peak at helium, which as noted is very stable. The heaviest nuclei in nature, uranium U, are unstable, but having a half-life of 4.5 billion years, close to the age of the Earth, they are still relatively abundant; they (and other nuclei heavier than helium) have formed in stellar evolution events like supernova explosions preceding the formation of the solar system. The most common isotope of thorium, Th, also undergoes alpha particle emission, and its half-life (time over which half a number of atomformula_1s decays) is even longer, by several times. In each of these, radioactive decay produces daughter isotopes that are also unstable, starting a chain of decays that ends in some stable isotope of lead.\n", "Section::::Isotopic reference materials.\n\nSection::::Isotopic reference materials.:Traditional isotope systems.\n", "Eighty elements have at least one stable isotope which is never observed to decay, amounting to a total of about 254 stable isotopes. However, thousands of isotopes have been characterized as unstable. These \"radioisotopes\" decay over time scales ranging from fractions of a second to trillions of years. Plotted on a chart as a function of atomic and neutron numbers, the binding energy of the nuclides forms what is known as the valley of stability. Stable nuclides lie along the bottom of this energy valley, while increasingly unstable nuclides lie up the valley walls, that is, have weaker binding energy.\n", "Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).\n\nSection::::Description.:Isotopic mass and atomic mass.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is opening and draining. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases. A small amount of evidence did not find benefit from packing the abscess with gauze.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Incision and drainage.\n\nThe abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Over-the-counter medications.\n\nCommon over-the-counter medications for pimples are benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, adapalene, and antibacterial agents such as triclosan. These topical medications, which can be found in many creams and gels used to treat acne (acne vulgaris), induce skin to slough off more easily, helping to remove bacteria faster. Before application, the face should be washed with warm water or a topical cleanser and then dried. Check the skin care product for the following labels: \"non-comedogenic\", \"non-acnegenic\", \"oil-free\", \"won’t clog pores,\" as these products are least likely to cause additional skin irritation or acne.\n", "As with many streptococcal infections, beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g penicillins) are the most effective treatments. However, some authorities are of the opinion that use of antibiotics is contraindicated once abscesses have begun to form, as they predispose to lymphatic spread of the infection (bastard strangles), which has a much higher mortality rate.\n\nAfter an abscess has burst, keeping the wound clean is important. A diluted povidone-iodine solution has been used with good results to disinfect the open hole, flushing the inside with a syringe-tipped catheter or with a teat cannula, followed by gentle scrubbing to keep the surrounding area clean.\n", "Section::::Management.:Procedures.\n\nComedo extraction is supported by limited evidence but is recommended for comedones that do not improve with standard treatment. Another procedure for immediate relief is injection of a corticosteroid into an inflamed acne comedo. Electrocautery and electrofulguration have also been reported as effective treatments for comedones.\n", "Rosacea is not caused by bacterial infection. It is commonly treated with tretinoin.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Expression.\n\nExpression, the manual bursting of pimples which have evolved into whiteheads with one's fingers, can allow bacteria to be introduced into the open wound this creates. This can result in infection and permanent scarring. Thus expression is generally recommended against by dermatologists and estheticians in favor of allowing pimples to run through their natural lifespans.\n", "An emerging treatment for pimples is toothpaste, which contains anti-microbial agents that are associated with reducing pimples.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Prescription medication.\n", "In general, it is recommended that people with acne do not wash affected skin more than twice daily. For people with acne and sensitive skin, a fragrance free moisturizer may be used to reduce irritation. Skin irritation from acne medications typically peaks at two weeks after onset of use and tends to improve with continued use. Cosmetic products that specifically say \"non-comedogenic\", \"oil-free\", and \"won't clog pores\" are recommended.\n\nSection::::Management.:Diet.\n\nA diet low in simple sugars is recommended as a method of improving acne. As of 2014, evidence is insufficient to recommend milk restriction for this purpose.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.:Benzoyl peroxide.\n", "IAPs have been considered to be associated with the emergence of resistant bacterial strains and with an increase in the incidence of early-onset infections caused by other pathogens, mainly Gram-negative bacteria such as \"Escherichia coli\". Nevertheless, most studies have not found an increased rate of non-GBS early-onset sepsis related to the widespread use of IAP.\n\nOther strategies to prevent GBS-EOD have been studied, and chlorhexidine intrapartum vaginal cleansing has been proposed to help preventing GBS-EOD, nevertheless no evidence has been shown for the effectiveness of this approach.\n\nSection::::Pregnancy.:Identifying candidates to receive IAP.\n", "While hirsuties papillaris genitalis poses no risk to a male's health, some men or their sexual partners may consider them aesthetically displeasing. There are several medical ways to remove them. Like any elective medical procedure, there is always some risk of unexpected consequences, so doctors advise against their removal unless they are causing a patient serious problems.\n", "Topical and oral preparations of nicotinamide (the amide form of vitamin B) have been suggested as alternative medical treatments. It is thought to improve acne due to its anti-inflammatory properties, its ability to suppress sebum production, and by promoting wound healing. Topical and oral preparations of zinc have similarly been proposed as effective treatments for acne; evidence to support their use for this purpose is limited. The purported efficacy of zinc is attributed to its capacity to reduce inflammation and sebum production, and inhibit \"C. acnes\". Antihistamines may improve symptoms among those already taking isotretinoin due to their anti-inflammatory properties and their ability to suppress sebum production.\n", "Some, but not all, skin products might increase comedones by blocking pores, and greasy hair products (like pomades) can worsen acne. Skin products that claim to not clog pores may be labeled noncomedogenic or non-acnegenic. Make-up and skin products that are oil-free and water-based may be less likely to cause acne. It is not known whether dietary factors or sun exposure make comedones better, worse or have no effect.\n\nA hair that does not emerge normally, an ingrown hair, can also block the pore and cause a bulge or lead to infection (causing inflammation and pus).\n", "Squeezing blackheads and whiteheads can remove them, but it can also damage the skin. Doing so increases the risk of causing or transmitting infection and scarring, as well as potentially pushing any infection deeper into the skin. Comedo extractors are used with careful hygiene in beauty salons and by dermatologists, usually after using steam or warm water.\n\nComplementary medicine options for acne in general have not been shown to be effective in trials. These include aloe vera, pyridoxine (vitamin B6), fruit-derived acids, kampo (Japanese herbal medicine), ayurvedic herbal treatments and acupuncture.\n", "If performed skillfully, this treatment may be beneficial to the patient. Possible negative effects of the procedure include incomplete extraction, refilling, scarring and tissue damage. There are few articles describing the use of comedo extraction in peer-reviewed dermatology journals. In one 1964 study of extraction of non-inflamed whiteheads on patients' foreheads (the only study of the procedure cited in a 2007 literature review), the procedure reduced the number of future inflamed lesions and the recurrence rate of comedones, but worsened patients' inflamed cystic lesions.\n", "Subcision is useful for treatment of superficial atrophic acne scars and involves the use of a small needle to loosen the fibrotic adhesions that result in the depressed appearance of the scar.\n", "Early and effective treatment of acne scarring can prevent severe acne and the scarring that often follows. no prescription drugs for the treatment or prevention of scars were available.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chemical peels.\n\nChemical peels are chemicals which destroy the epidermis in a controlled manner, leading to exfoliation and the alleviation of certain skin conditions, including superficial acne scars. Various chemicals can be used depending upon the depth of the peel, and caution should be used, particularly for dark-skinned individuals and those individuals susceptible to keloid formation or with active infections.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Filler injections.\n", "When no pus is present, warm soaks for acute paronychia are reasonable, even though there is a lack of evidence to support its use. Antibiotics such as clindamycin or cephalexin are also often used, the first being more effective in areas where MRSA is common. If there are signs of an abscess (the presence of pus) drainage is recommended.\n\nChronic paronychia is treated by avoiding whatever is causing it, a topical antifungal, and a topical steroid. In those who do not improve following these measures oral antifungals and steroids may be used or the nail fold may be removed surgically.\n", "Treatment of acne with topical crushed dry ice (termed \"cryoslush\") was first described in 1907, but is no longer performed commonly. Prior to 1960, the use of X-rays was also a common treatment.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "The traditional usage of Kogel mogel as a home remedy for treating a sore throat is supported by research done in Israel. The simplest form of preparation as a remedy is with no egg, but only honey added to warm milk. More commonly, a single raw egg is added to a cup of warm milk and mixed with a tablespoon of honey.\n\nSection::::Cultural references.\n\nIn the German translation of Lewis Carroll's \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", Humpty Dumpty is called \"Goggelmoggel\".\n", "Bumps located in the genital area may be treated in an effort to prevent them from spreading. When treatment has resulted in elimination of all bumps, the infection has been effectively cured and will not reappear unless the person is reinfected.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.\n\nFor mild cases, over-the-counter wart medicines, such as salicylic acid may shorten infection duration. Daily topical application of tretinoin cream may also trigger resolution. \n\nStudies have found cantharidin to be an effective and safe treatment for removing molluscum contagiosum. This medication is usually well-tolerated though mild side effects such as pain or blistering are common. \n", "Section::::Prevention.:Vaccines.\n", "Cradle cap is not caused by bacterial infection, allergy or poor hygiene. Cradle cap is also not contagious. Doctors do not agree on what causes cradle cap, but the two most common hypotheses are fungal infection and overactive sebaceous glands. Cradle cap is an inflammatory condition.\n", "Section::::Prevention and treatment.\n", "Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005 in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nThe Latin medical aphorism \"\"ubi pus, ibi evacua\"\" expresses \"where there is pus, there evacuate it\" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine.\n", "Dermoid cyst symptoms are minor and the cysts are usually painless. They are not harmful to a child’s health. If they become infected, the infection must be treated and the cyst should be removed. It is easier to remove cysts and prevent scars if the cyst is removed before it gets infected.\n\nSection::::Location.:Spinal dermoid cysts.\n", "Some practitioners use an acetic acid solution to identify smaller warts (\"subclinical lesions\"), but this practice is controversial. Because a diagnosis made with acetic acid will not meaningfully affect the course of the disease, and cannot be verified by a more specific test, a 2007 UK guideline advises against its use.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Bad to pop zits." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "It can be ok to pop zits if you do it cleanly and when it is ready. " ]

[ "Higher speeds can be attained if the skydiver pulls in his or her limbs (see also freeflying). In this case, the terminal velocity increases to about 320 km/h (200 mph or 90 m/s), which is almost the terminal velocity of the peregrine falcon diving down on its prey. The same terminal velocity is reached for a typical .30-06 bullet dropping downwards—when it is returning to earth having been fired upwards, or dropped from a tower—according to a 1920 U.S. Army Ordnance study.\n", "They found that while bullets traveling on a perfectly vertical trajectory tumble on the way down, creating turbulence that reduces terminal velocity below that which would kill, it was very difficult to fire a bullet in a near-ideal vertical trajectory. In practice, bullets were likely to remain spin-stabilized on a ballistic trajectory and fall at a potentially lethal terminal velocity. They also verified cases of actual deaths from falling bullets.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Stray bullet\n\nBULLET::::- Feu de joie\n\nBULLET::::- 21-gun salute\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Higher speeds can be attained if the skydiver pulls in their limbs (see also freeflying). In this case, the terminal speed increases to about 320 km/h (200 mph or 90 m/s), which is almost the terminal speed of the peregrine falcon diving down on its prey. The same terminal speed is reached for a typical .30-06 bullet dropping downwards—when it is returning to the ground having been fired upwards, or dropped from a tower—according to a 1920 U.S. Army Ordnance study.\n", "Bullets fired into the air usually fall back with terminal velocities much lower than their muzzle velocity when they leave the barrel of a firearm. Nevertheless, people can be injured, sometimes fatally, when bullets discharged into the air fall back down to the ground. Bullets fired at angles less than vertical are more dangerous as the bullet maintains its angular ballistic trajectory and is far less likely to engage in tumbling motion; it therefore travels at speeds much higher than a bullet in free fall.\n", "It was reported that two of the victims of the Lockerbie bombing survived for a brief period after hitting the ground (with the forward nose section fuselage in freefall mode), but died from their injuries before help arrived.\n", "BULLET::::- () Fall on and from scaffolding\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall from, out of or through building or structure\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall from tree\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall from cliff\n\nBULLET::::- () Diving or jumping into water causing injury other than drowning or submersion\n\nBULLET::::- () Other fall from one level to another\n\nBULLET::::- () Other fall on same level\n\nBULLET::::- () Unspecified fall\n\nSection::::V01–X59 – Accidents.:(W00-X59) Other external causes of accidental injury.:(W20-W49) Exposure to inanimate mechanical forces.\n\nBULLET::::- () Struck by thrown, projected or falling object\n\nBULLET::::- () Striking against or struck by sports equipment\n", "Such an act can be survivable: In World War II, US Marine Jack Lucas, in the Battle of Iwo Jima, placed two grenades under his steel M1 Helmet and himself before they exploded. Lucas lived, but spent the rest of his life with over 200 pieces of shrapnel in his body. In 2008 near Sangin in Afghanistan British Royal Marine Matthew Croucher used his rucksack to pin the grenade to the floor, and that and his body armor absorbed the majority of the blast. On November 21, 2010 in Marjah, Helmand Province, Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, US Marine Lance Corporal Kyle Carpenter threw himself upon a grenade, thrown onto a rooftop, to save a fellow Marine, sustaining injuries to his face and right arm and losing his right eye; he survived these wounds. Despite these rare instances, however, the odds of survival are extremely slim. With modern medicine, however, odds are greatly increased when compared to falling on a grenade in the 20th century.\n", "BULLET::::- Nicholas Alkemade, British Avro Lancaster B Mk. II crewman who survived falling from his burning aircraft in 1944\n\nBULLET::::- Vesna Vulović, Serbian flight attendant who survived the mid-air breakup of her McDonnell Douglas DC-9 in 1972 and holds the world record for surviving the highest fall without a parachute\n\nBULLET::::- Juliane Koepcke, German teenager who survived a fall after her Lockheed Electra flight broke up over the Peruvian Amazon.\n\nBULLET::::- Other\n\nBULLET::::- Freefall\n\nBULLET::::- List of sole survivors of aviation accidents or incidents\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Check-Six.com - The Free-Fall of Alan Magee\n", "BULLET::::- \"Steel\" (1979). A.J. Bakunas died doubling for George Kennedy in a fall from the Kincaid Towers in Lexington, Kentucky. Bakunas had successfully performed a fall from the ninth floor of the construction site, but when he learned that Dar Robinson had broken his record high fall for a non-film related publicity stunt, Bakunas returned to perform the fall from the top of the construction site. Bakunas performed the fall expertly, but the airbag split and he was killed.\n", "Section::::Specifications.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:HS 96.\n\nBULLET::::- Scaffold Height: 140 ft\n\nBULLET::::- Hill Size: HS 96\n\nBULLET::::- K-point: 90 meters\n\nBULLET::::- Angle of take-off: 11.5 degrees\n\nBULLET::::- Landing angle: 36.5 degrees\n\nBULLET::::- Year of construction: 1925\n\nSection::::Specifications.:HS 66.\n\nBULLET::::- Hill Size: HS 66\n\nBULLET::::- K-point: 60 meters\n\nBULLET::::- Year of Construction: 1925\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Injuries to the legs: joint injury; ruptured tendons; ligament injury; broken legs.\n\nBULLET::::- Internal injuries, especially to the lungs\n\nStudies done of cats that have fallen from 2 to 32 stories, and are still alive when brought to a veterinarian clinic, show that the overall survival rate is 90 percent of those treated.\n", "Gunshot victims frequently fall or collapse when shot; this is less a result of the momentum of the bullet pushing them over, but is primarily caused by physical damage or psychological effects, perhaps combined with being off balance. This is not the case if the victim is hit by heavier projectiles such as 20 mm cannon shell, where the momentum effects can be enormous; this is why very few such weapons can be fired without being mounted on a weapons platform or involve a recoilless system (e.g. a recoilless rifle).\n\nExample:\n", "Using pig carcasses, they worked out the terminal velocity of a falling bullet and had a mixed result, answering the question with all three of the show's possible outcomes: Confirmed, Plausible and Busted. They tested falling bullets by firing them from both a handgun and a rifle, by firing them from an air gun designed to propel them at terminal velocity, and by dropping them in the desert from an instrumented balloon.\n", "BULLET::::- December 1859: An autopsy showed that a native servant in India, who suddenly fell dead for no apparent reason, was mortally wounded from a bullet fired from a distance too far for the shot to be heard. The falling bullet had sufficient energy to pass through the victim's shoulder, a rib, a lung, his heart and his diaphragm.\n\nSection::::Notable incidents.:United States.\n\nBULLET::::- July 1, 2017: A 13-year-old boy, Noah Inman, was struck in his head and killed while playing basketball in the street.\n", "BULLET::::- Fallturm Bremen University of Bremen in Bremen – 4.74 s free fall\n\nBULLET::::- Queensland University of Technology Drop Tower - 2.0 s free fall\n\nSection::::Weightless and reduced weight environments.:Neutral buoyancy.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2002 Vin Diesel film \"XXX\" includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the Foresthill Bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground.\n", "BULLET::::- () Fall on same level involving ice and snow\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall on same level from slipping, tripping and stumbling\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall involving ice-skates, skis, roller-skates or skateboards\n\nBULLET::::- () Other fall on same level due to collision with, or pushing by, another person\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall while being carried or supported by other persons\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall involving wheelchair\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall involving bed\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall involving chair\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall involving other furniture\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall involving playground equipment\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall on and from stairs and steps\n\nBULLET::::- () Fall on and from ladder\n", "BULLET::::- Maximian (310 AD), Roman emperor\n\nBULLET::::- Vladimir Mayakovsky (1930), Russian and Soviet poet, gunshot\n\nBULLET::::- Jacques Mayol (2001), French free diver and subject of the movie \"The Big Blue\", hanging\n\nBULLET::::- Allyson McConnell (2013), Australian-Canadian woman who killed her two children, jumped off a bridge while in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Kid McCoy (1940), American world champion boxer, overdose of sleeping pills\n\nBULLET::::- Mindy McCready (2013), American country music singer, gunshot\n\nBULLET::::- Evelyn McHale (1947), American bookkeeper, subject of an iconic photograph showing her body after she jumped from an observation platform of the Empire State Building\n", "BULLET::::- In Wisconsin, criminal charges for this type of offense range from \"endangering safety by use of a dangerous weapon\" to \"reckless homicide\" in the event of a death, with penalties ranging from nine months to 25 years in prison.\"\n\nSection::::Cultural references.\n\nThe non-fiction U.S. cable television program \"MythBusters\" on the Discovery Channel covered this topic in Episode 50: \"Bullets Fired Up\" (original airdate: April 19, 2006). Special-effects experts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman conducted a series of experiments to answer the question: \"Can celebratory gunfire kill when the bullets fall back to earth?\"\n", "Firearms expert Julian Hatcher studied falling bullets in the 1920s and calculated that .30 caliber rounds reach terminal velocities of 90 m/s (300 feet per second or 186 miles per hour).\n\nA bullet traveling at only 61 m/s (200 feet per second) to 100 m/s (330 feet per second) can penetrate human skin.\n\nIn 2005, the International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA) ran education campaigns on the dangers of celebratory gunfire in Serbia and Montenegro.\n\nIn Serbia, the campaign slogan was \"every bullet that is fired up, must come down.\"\n\nSection::::Property damage.\n", "Section::::Song list.\n\nBULLET::::- Just Don't Make No Sense\n\nBULLET::::- Coolest Place in Town\n\nBULLET::::- You Can Get Up Before Noon Without Being a Square\n\nBULLET::::- Mirror Mirror on the Wall\n\nBULLET::::- Come Raising Your Leg on Me\n\nBULLET::::- You Gotta Be Holdin Out Five Dollars on Me\n\nBULLET::::- Sera Sera Jim\n\nBULLET::::- Catch That on the Corner\n\nBULLET::::- The Dozens\n\nBULLET::::- Funky Girl on Motherless Broadway\n\nBULLET::::- Tenth and Greenwich\n\nBULLET::::- Heh Heh (Chuckle) Good Mornin' Sunshine\n\nBULLET::::- You Ain't No Astronaut\n\nBULLET::::- Three Boxes of Longs Please\n\nBULLET::::- Lilly Done The Zampoughi Every Time I Pulled Her Coattail\n", "BULLET::::- Moderus Beta MF 01, MF 13, MF 14 AC BD, MF 18 (reconstruction with low-floor middle article)\n\nBULLET::::- Moderus Beta MF 02 AC, MF 15 AC, MF 16 AC BD, MF 19 AC (reconstruction with low-floor middle article)\n\nBULLET::::- PESA\n\nBULLET::::- 120N \"Tramicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- 120Na \"Swing\"\n\nBULLET::::- 121N \"Tramicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- 121Na \"Swing\"\n\nBULLET::::- 122N \"Tramicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- 122Na \"Swing\"\n\nBULLET::::- 128N \"Jazz\"\n\nBULLET::::- 128NG \"Jazz\"\n\nBULLET::::- 134N \"Jazz\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2010N \"Twist\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2012N \"Twist Step\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2014N \"Twist Krakowiak\"\n\nBULLET::::- 71-414 \"Twist Fokstrot\"\n\nBULLET::::- Protram\n\nBULLET::::- Protram 204 WrAs\n\nBULLET::::- Protram 205 WrAs\n", "BULLET::::- On December 10, 2006 in the 2006 Mercy Air helicopter accident three were killed in a crash a Cajon Pass, California.\n", "Inductees to the Croquet Hall of Fame, by year:\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1979\n\nBULLET::::- 1980\n\nBULLET::::- 1981\n\nBULLET::::- 1982\n\nBULLET::::- 1983\n\nBULLET::::- 1984\n\nBULLET::::- 1985\n\nBULLET::::- 1986\n\nBULLET::::- 1987\n\nBULLET::::- 1988\n\nBULLET::::- 1989\n\nBULLET::::- 1990\n\nBULLET::::- 1991\n\nBULLET::::- 1992\n\nBULLET::::- 1993\n\nBULLET::::- 1994\n\nBULLET::::- 1995\n\nBULLET::::- 1996\n\nBULLET::::- 1997\n\nBULLET::::- 1998\n\nBULLET::::- 1999\n\nBULLET::::- 2000\n\nBULLET::::- 2001\n\nBULLET::::- 2002\n\nBULLET::::- 2003\n\nBULLET::::- 2004\n\nBULLET::::- 2005\n\nBULLET::::- 2006\n\nBULLET::::- 2007\n\nBULLET::::- 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 2009\n\nBULLET::::- 2010\n\nBULLET::::- 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- 2014\n\nBULLET::::- 2015\n\nBULLET::::- 2016\n\nBULLET::::- 2017\n\nBULLET::::- 2018\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- United States Croquet Association\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "He died on 22 June 1987.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fall survivors\n\nBULLET::::- Ivan Chisov, Soviet Airforce lieutenant who survived falling from his aircraft in 1942\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Magee, American World War II airman who survived a fall from his damaged B-17 in 1943\n\nBULLET::::- In April 1944 two crew members of an RAF Lancaster were blown out of their aircraft by an explosion and fell—without a parachute—no less than into soft and deep snow in the Swiss Alps.\n\nBULLET::::- Juliane Koepcke German teenager who survived a fall after her flight broke up over the Peruvian Amazon in 1971\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- For an orbit outside the Solar System, the plane through the primary perpendicular to a line through the observer and the primary (called the \"plane of the sky\").\n\nSection::::Node distinction.\n", "In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet). This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away. Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the satellites of Mars and the inner satellites of the giant planets. Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's Moon and the outer satellites of the giant planets. Some satellites, such as Saturn's Iapetus, are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit. \n", "BULLET::::- a planet might yet have some shred of sect dignity if it is in the hemisphere of the chart corresponding to its inherent sect--for example, if Jupiter is in the same hemisphere as the Sun, whether or not the Sun is above the horizon, or if Venus is in the hemisphere opposite the Sun, whether or not the Sun is below the horizon.\n\nPlanets satisfying all three of these sect conditions were said to be \"Hayz\", but it is not clear how Hayz strength compares to strength from essential dignities.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "So the varying positions of the Laplace plane at varying distances from the primary planet can be pictured as putting together a warped or non-planar surface, which may be pictured as a series of concentric rings whose orientation in space is variable: the innermost rings are near the equatorial plane of rotation and oblateness of the planet, and the outermost rings near its solar orbital plane. Also, in some cases, larger satellites of a planet (such as Neptune's Triton) can affect the Laplace planes of smaller satellites orbiting the same planet.\n\nSection::::The work of Laplace.\n", "Section::::Trans-Neptunian region.:Scattered disc.\n", "In hierarchical systems the planets are arranged so that the system can be gravitationally considered as a nested system of two-bodies, e.g. in a star with a close-in hot jupiter with another gas giant much further out, the star and hot jupiter form a pair that appears as a single object to another planet that is far enough out.\n\nThe generalized regions of stability where planets can exist in binary and hierarchical triple star systems have been empirically mapped.\n\nBULLET::::- Stability of planets in triple star systems, F. Busetti, H. Beust, C. Harley, November 20, 2018\n", "Section::::Galactic context.:Neighbourhood.\n", "Interplanetary dust clouds have been studied in the Solar System and analogs are believed to be present in other planetary systems. Exozodiacal dust, an exoplanetary analog of zodiacal dust, the 1–100 micrometre-sized grains of amorphous carbon and silicate dust that fill the plane of the Solar System has been detected around the 51 Ophiuchi, Fomalhaut, Tau Ceti, and Vega systems.\n\nSection::::System architectures.:Components.:Comets.\n", "In contrast to the Kuiper belt, the scattered-disc population can be disturbed by Neptune. Scattered-disc objects come within gravitational range of Neptune at their closest approaches (~30 AU) but their farthest distances reach many times that. Ongoing research suggests that the centaurs, a class of icy planetoids that orbit between Jupiter and Neptune, may simply be SDOs thrown into the inner reaches of the Solar System by Neptune, making them \"cis-Neptunian\" rather than trans-Neptunian scattered objects. Some objects, like (29981) 1999 TD, blur the distinction and the Minor Planet Center (MPC), which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, now lists centaurs and SDOs together.\n", "their interaction with the planet is strong enough that a deviation from Kepler's laws is noticeable after just one orbit.\n\nSection::::System characteristics.:Co-planarity.\n", "Gurdjieff's classification of Higher Bodies can be better represented on this scale. Physical body has the properties of the \"Earth\" level (that is, it has a density of 48 and it is subject to 48 laws). In comparison, a higher plane body would have a lighter density and it would be subject to a lesser number of laws (the amount varies on the level that the body falls under).\n\nIn the book \"Gnosis I\", author Boris Mouravieff explains the names given to the notes of the solfege:\n\nBULLET::::- \"DO\"minus (God)\n\nBULLET::::- \"SI\"dereus orbis (Starry sky/Ensemble of all Worlds)\n", "The Sun, Moon, Mars and Venus were in exact alignment, astrologically called a conjunction at the first degree of Virgo in Tropical Astrology. Mercury was in the fourth degree of Virgo which most astrologers count as part of the same conjunction being within the \"orb\" of influence. Jupiter was in Aries, and Saturn and Uranus in Sagittarius completing the grand trine. However some believe that this is an Earth grand trine with Sun/Moon/Mars/Venus/Mercury in the initial degrees of Virgo, Neptune at 5 degrees of Capricorn, and Jupiter in the last degree of Aries (anaretic degree), on the cusp of Taurus. Uranus, and especially Saturn are on the edge of this trine.\n", "So although moving from the one plane to the other, planes being two dimensional, one moves through all planes and thus through all dimensions during the scale as a whole, following an organic body-organization to stay balanced. Especially the sensation of being led by and leading oneself through all these different spatial directions, adding dimensions and leaving them out again, can give the feeling one flies through space, being pulled back and taking off again.\n\nSection::::Scales.:Trefoil knot.\n", "Stars and planetary systems tend to be born in star clusters rather than forming in isolation. Protoplanetary disks can collide with or steal material from molecular clouds within the cluster and this can lead to disks and their resulting planets having inclined or retrograde orbits around their stars. Retrograde motion may also result from gravitational interactions with other celestial bodies in the same system (See Kozai mechanism) or a near-collision with another planet, or it may be that the star itself flipped over early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.\n", "With a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearer object to the Sun. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury, whereas Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances (for example, the Titius–Bode law), but no such theory has been accepted. The images at the beginning of this section show the orbits of the various constituents of the Solar System on different scales.\n", "Section::::Alternative hypotheses.:Inclination instability in a massive disk.\n", "In the 18th century the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the \"General Scholium\" that concludes his \"Principia\". Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote \"And if the fixed stars are the centers of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of \"One\".\"\n", "Plane of reference\n\nIn celestial mechanics, the plane of reference (or reference plane) is the plane used to define orbital elements (positions). The two main orbital elements that are measured with respect to the plane of reference are the inclination and the longitude of the ascending node.\n\nDepending on the type of body being described, there are four different kinds of reference planes that are typically used:\n\nBULLET::::- The ecliptic or invariable plane for planets, asteroids, comets, etc. within the Solar System, as these bodies generally have orbits that lie close to the ecliptic.\n", "Most multiple-star systems are organized in what is called a \"hierarchical system\": the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's center of mass. Each of these smaller groups must also be hierarchical, which means that they must be divided into smaller subgroups which themselves are hierarchical, and so on. Each level of the hierarchy can be treated as a \"two-body problem\" by considering close pairs as if they were a single star. In these systems there is little interaction between the orbits and the stars' motion will continue to approximate stable Keplerian orbits around the system's center of mass, unlike the unstable trapezia systems or the even more complex dynamics of the large number of stars in star clusters and galaxies.\n", "BULLET::::- The Kepler Dichotomy among the M Dwarfs: Half of Systems Contain Five or More Coplanar Planets, Sarah Ballard, John Asher Johnson, October 15, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Exoplanet Predictions Based on the Generalised Titius-Bode Relation, Timothy Bovaird, Charles H. Lineweaver, August 1, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- The Solar System and the Exoplanet Orbital Eccentricity - Multiplicity Relation, Mary Anne Limbach, Edwin L. Turner, April 9, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- The period ratio distribution of Kepler's candidate multiplanet systems, Jason H. Steffen, Jason A. Hwang, September 11, 2014\n", "Klemperer does indeed mention this configuration at the start of his article, but only as an already known set of equilibrium systems before introducing the actual rosettes.\n\nIn Larry Niven's novel \"Ringworld\", the Puppeteers' \"Fleet of Worlds\" is arranged in such a configuration (5 planets spaced at the points of a pentagon) which Niven calls a \"Kemplerer rosette\"; this (possibly intentional) misspelling (and misuse) is one possible source of this confusion. It is notable that these fictional planets were maintained in position by large engines in addition to gravitational force. \n", "In the case of a geocentric conjunction of two of our solar system's planets, since our solar system's planets appear to travel \"along the same line\" (the ecliptic), the two planets appear to an Earthbound observer as being near one another in the sky around the time of the conjunction.\n\nThe list below presents instances during the period 2005-2020 in which two of our solar system's planets are in conjunction according to the equatorial coordinate system (in which the celestial longitude is termed right ascension).\n", "Laban developed many scales within the Icosahedron, some of them with Transverse Movement, like the Axis and A- and B-Scales, others with Peripheral Movement, like the Girdle and Primary Scales.\n\nIn the scales with Transverse Movement, one moves from a Direction in one plane through the second plane towards a Direction in the third plane, following the natural Spatial Pull of the missing Dimension.\n", "The concept may be found in religious and esoteric teachings—\"e.g.\" Vedanta (Advaita Vedanta), Ayyavazhi, shamanism, Hermeticism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Kashmir Shaivism, Sant Mat/Surat Shabd Yoga, Sufism, Druze, Kabbalah, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, Rosicrucianism (Esoteric Christian), Eckankar, Ascended Master Teachings, etc.—which propound the idea of a whole series of subtle planes or worlds or dimensions which, from a center, interpenetrate themselves and the physical planet in which we live, the solar systems, and all the physical structures of the universe. This interpenetration of planes culminates in the universe itself as a physical structured, dynamic and evolutive expression emanated through a series of steadily denser stages, becoming progressively more material and embodied.\n", "Section::::Solar System features.:Scattered disc and Oort cloud.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Soon after birth, the gastrointestinal tract is colonized with bacteria, which, on the basis of models with animals raised in a germ-free environment, have beneficial effects on function of the gastrointestinal tract. There are 500-1000 different species of bacteria that reside in the bowel. However, if the flora of the small bowel is altered, inflammation or altered digestion can occur, leading to symptoms. Many patients with chronic diarrhea have bacterial overgrowth as a cause or a contributor to their symptoms.\n", "The gut flora community plays a direct role in defending against pathogens by fully colonizing the space, making use of all available nutrients, and by secreting compounds that kill or inhibit unwelcome organisms that would compete for nutrients with it. Disruption of the gut flora allows competing organisms like \"Clostridium difficile\" to become established that otherwise are kept in abeyance.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Development of enteric protection and immune system.\n", "Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. As a result of the symbiotic relationship between commensals and the immune system, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an \"overgrowth\" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections.\n", "Induction of secretion by external cues other than contact with host cells also takes place \"in vivo\", in infected organisms. The bacteria sense such cues as temperature, pH, osmolarity and oxygen levels, and use them to \"decide\" whether to activate their T3SS. For instance, \"Salmonella\" can replicate and invade better in the ileum rather than in the cecum of animal intestine. The bacteria are able to know where they are thanks to the different ions present in these regions; the ileum contains formate and acetate, while the cecum does not. The bacteria sense these molecules, determine that they are at the ileum and activate their secretion machinery. Molecules present in the cecum, such as propionate and butyrate, provide a negative cue to the bacteria and inhibit secretion. Cholesterol, a lipid found in most eukaryotic cell membranes, is able to induce secretion in \"Shigella\".\n", "Diagnosis may be simple in cases where the patient's signs and symptoms are idiopathic to a specific cause. However this is generally not the case, considering that many pathogens which cause enteritis may exhibit the similar symptoms, especially early in the disease. In particular, \"campylobacter, shigella, salmonella\" and many other bacteria induce acute self-limited colitis, an inflammation of the lining of the colon which appears similar under the microscope.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"E. coli\" AcrAB efflux system, which has a physiologic role of pumping out bile acids and fatty acids to lower their toxicity.\n\nBULLET::::- The MFS family Ptr pump in \"Streptomyces pristinaespiralis\" appears to be an autoimmunity pump for this organism when it turns on production of pristinamycins I and II.\n\nBULLET::::- The AcrAB–TolC system in \"E. coli\" is suspected to have a role in the transport of the calcium-channel components in the \"E. coli\" membrane.\n\nBULLET::::- The MtrCDE system plays a protective role by providing resistance to faecal lipids in rectal isolates of \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\".\n", "In humans, the gut microbiota has the largest numbers of bacteria and the greatest number of species compared to other areas of the body. In humans, the gut flora is established at one to two years after birth, by which time the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes have co-developed in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, the gut flora and that also provides a barrier to pathogenic organisms.\n", "When the gut flora first started to be studied, it was thought to have three key roles: directly defending against pathogens, fortifying host defense by its role in developing and maintaining the intestinal epithelium and inducing antibody production there, and metabolizing otherwise indigestible compounds in food; subsequent work discovered its role in training the developing immune system, and yet further work focused on its role in the gut-brain axis.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Direct inhibition of pathogens.\n", "There are additional factors contributing to protection from pathogen invasion. For example, low pH (ranging from 1 to 4) of the stomach is fatal for many microorganisms that enter it. Similarly, mucus (containing IgA antibodies) neutralizes many pathogenic microorganisms. Other factors in the GI tract contribution to immune function include enzymes secreted in the saliva and bile.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Immune function.:Immune system homeostasis.\n", "Section::::In the gastrointestinal tract.:Protection against pathogens.:Fortification fucose.\n\nThe intestinal epithelium in humans is reinforced with carbohydrates like fucose expressed on the apical surface of epithelial cells. \"B. thetaiotaomicron,\" a bacterial species in the ileum and colon, stimulates the gene encoding fucose, Fut2, in intestinal epithelial cells. In this mutualistic interaction, the intestinal epithelial barrier is fortified and humans are protected against invasion of destructive microbes, and the microbe benefits because fucose is nutritious and regulates the expression of bacterial genes.\n\nSection::::On the epidermis.\n", "Interactions between xenobiotics and the host microbiome have primarily been assessed through the use of \"in vivo\" animal models, as it is difficult to model the natural human gut. In general, the pattern of bacterial colonization is the same in different animals, with both pH and the number of microorganisms gradually increasing from the small intestine towards the ileo-caecal junction of the large intestine. Germ-free rats colonized with human faecal matter are generally regarded as the gold standard in animal modeling of gut microbial environment. However, enzyme activity can vary greatly between organisms.\n\nSection::::Methods to elucidate microbiome composition.:\"In vitro\" models.\n", "An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium \"Salmonella\" and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (\"Plasmodium falciparum\") and leishmaniasis (\"Leishmania spp.\"). Other bacteria, such as \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\", live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, e.g., the chronic \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Burkholderia cenocepacia\" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include \"Streptococcus\" (protein G), \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (protein A), and \"Peptostreptococcus magnus\" (protein L).\n", "The gastrointestinal tract contains trillions of microbes, with some 4,000 different strains of bacteria having diverse roles in maintenance of immune health and metabolism. Cells of the GI tract release hormones to help regulate the digestive process. These digestive hormones, including gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and ghrelin, are mediated through either intracrine or autocrine mechanisms, indicating that the cells releasing these hormones are conserved structures throughout evolution.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Structure.\n", "The immune system can also be altered due to the gut bacteria's ability to produce metabolites that can affect cells in the immune system. For example short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) can be produced by some gut bacteria through fermentation. SCFAs stimulate a rapid increase in the production of innate immune cells like neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils. These cells are part of the innate immune system that try to limit the spread of infection.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Metabolism.\n", "Bowel infections are a potential colonoscopy risk, although very rare. The colon is not a sterile environment; many bacteria that normally live in the colon ensure the well-functioning of the bowel, and the risk of infections is very low. Infections can occur during biopsies when too much tissue is removed and bacteria protrude in areas they do not belong to, or in cases when the lining of the colon is perforated and the bacteria get into the abdominal cavity. Infection may also be transmitted between patients if the colonoscope is not cleaned and sterilized properly between tests.\n", "Section::::Bacteria.:Examples.:\"Escherichia coli\".\n", "The first step that can be followed to obtain fibrolytic bacteria from gastrointestinal cavities in ruminants is the culture of the target communities inside the rumen of a cow by introducing a nylon bag containing a forage with a high cellulose content (for example, Panicum virgatum).\n\nAn orifice is surgically done to the spine making rumen available from the outside through a tampon which avoids the closing of the fistula. The nylon bag is incubated in the rumen 72 hours.\n", "In humans, a gut flora similar to an adult's is formed within one to two years of birth. As the gut flora gets established, the lining of the intestines – the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes – develop as well, in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, commensalistic microorganisms to a certain extent and also provides a barrier to pathogenic ones. Specifically, goblet cells that produce the mucosa proliferate, and the mucosa layer thickens, providing an outside mucosal layer in which \"friendly\" microorganisms can anchor and feed, and an inner layer that even these organisms cannot penetrate. Additionally, the development of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), which forms part of the intestinal epithelium and which detects and reacts to pathogens, appears and develops during the time that the gut flora develops and established. The GALT that develops is tolerant to gut flora species, but not to other microorganisms. GALT also normally becomes tolerant to food to which the infant is exposed, as well as digestive products of food, and gut flora's metabolites (molecules formed from metabolism) produced from food.\n", "Health-enhancing intestinal bacteria of the gut flora serve to prevent the overgrowth of potentially harmful bacteria in the gut. These two types of bacteria compete for space and \"food,\" as there are limited resources within the intestinal tract. A ratio of 80-85% beneficial to 15–20% potentially harmful bacteria generally is considered normal within the intestines.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Detoxification and drug metabolism.\n\nEnzymes such as CYP3A4, along with the antiporter activities, are also instrumental in the intestine's role of drug metabolism in the detoxification of antigens and xenobiotics.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Diseases.\n", "The human immune system’s primary home is in the gut; so gastrointestinal microbiota has a direct effect on the human body’s immune responses. The immune system is a host defense system consisting of anatomical barriers and physiological and cellular responses, which protect the host against harmful parasites while limiting inflammation by tolerating harmless symbionts. The immune system must strike a balance between protecting the host without inducing excessive inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. However, without a regular microbiota, the body is more susceptible to infectious and non-infectious diseases.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.:Regulation of immune responses.\n", "Intestinal bacterial populations entrenched in the appendix may support quick re-establishment of the flora of the large intestine after an illness, poisoning, or after an antibiotic treatment depletes or otherwise causes harmful changes to the bacterial population of the colon.\n", "In older adults, small bowel bacterial overgrowth is associated with a higher frequency of diarrhea, a lower body mass index, and a significantly lower serum albumin concentration.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nCertain people are more predisposed to the development of bacterial overgrowth because of certain risk factors. These factors can be grouped into three categories: (1) disordered motility or movement of the small bowel or anatomical changes that lead to stasis, (2) disorders in the immune system and (3) conditions that cause more bacteria from the colon to enter the small bowel.\n", "\"S. aureus\" is particularly common, and asymptomatically colonizes about 30% of the human population; attempts to decolonize carriers have met with limited success and generally involve mupirocin nasally and chlorhexidine washing, potentially along with vancomycin and cotrimoxazole to address intestinal and urinary tract infections.\n\nSection::::In built environment and human interaction.:Antimicrobials.\n", "Bacteria in the digestive tract can contribute to and be affected by disease in various ways. The presence or overabundance of some kinds of bacteria may contribute to inflammatory disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease. Additionally, metabolites from certain members of the gut flora may influence host signalling pathways, contributing to disorders such as obesity and colon cancer. Alternatively, in the event of a breakdown of the gut epithelium, the intrusion of gut flora components into other host compartments can lead to sepsis.\n\nSection::::Role in disease.:Ulcers.\n", "\"E. coli\" and \"Salmonella enterica\" do not produce AHL signals commonly found in other Gram-negative bacteria. However, they have a receptor that detects AHLs from other bacteria and change their gene expression in accordance with the presence of other \"quorate\" populations of Gram-negative bacteria.\n\nSection::::Bacteria.:Examples.:\"Salmonella enterica\".\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "On average in this study, infants learned to crawl and cruise before learning to ascend stairs independently. Infants were able to climb up the stairs before they could walk, but walking tended to come before independent stair descent. While most of the infants had prior stair experience, the presence or absence of stairs in the home did not influence the onsets of crawling, cruising or stair descent. However, lack of exposure to stairs resulted in a significant time-lag between first learning to ascend and to descend. Differences in housing types created a so-called 'suburban advantage' (i.e. houses with stairs versus flats/apartments without).\n", "Sliding backwards feet first is the safest approach to descending stairs due to the fact that the midline of the body is closer to the staircase providing an even weight distribution on all four limbs . This might explain why it is exceptionally difficult for older people to descend stairs, because their midline is so far way due to longer arms and legs.\n", "BULLET::::- The total rise of the stairs is the height between floors (or landings) that the flight of stairs is spanning. If there are \"N\" steps, the total rise equals \"N\" times the rise of each step.\n", "Other research suggests that infants’ descent strategies may be related to their cognitive abilities. This is why most parents teach their children to back down stairs, even though it’s the safest it is also the most cognitively difficult descent strategy.\n\nSection::::Records.\n\nBULLET::::- On 28 September 2014, Christian Riedl climbed Tower 185 in Frankfurt, Germany 71 times in 12 hours for a total of 43,128 ft (13.14 km).\n\nBULLET::::- From 5–6 October 2007, Kurt Hess climbed Esterli Tower in Switzerland 413 times in less than 24 hours for a total of 60,974 ft (18.585 km).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tower Running\n\nBULLET::::- Stair climbing sport\n", "However, a basic straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings or winders. Although the rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place, many stairs will require landings or winders to comply with safety standards in the Building Regulations.\n", "In one study based on mean oxygen uptake and heart rate, researchers estimated that ascending a 15 cm (5.9 inches) step expends 0.46 kJ (0.11 kcal) for the average person, and descending a step expends 0.21 kJ (0.05 kcal). The study concluded that stair-climbing met the minimum requirements for cardiorespiratory benefits, and considered stair-climbing suitable for promotion of physical activity.\n\nSection::::Competitive sport.\n", "BULLET::::- The rise height or rise of each step is measured from the top of one tread to the next. It is not the physical height of the riser; the latter excludes the thickness of the tread. A person using the stairs would move this distance vertically for each step taken.\n\nBULLET::::- The tread depth of a step is measured from the edge of the nosing to the vertical riser; if the steps have no nosing, it is the same as the going; otherwise it is the going plus the extent of one nosing.\n", "Stair climbing\n\nStair climbing is the climbing of a flight of stairs. It is often described as a \"low-impact\" exercise, often for people who have recently started trying to get in shape. \n\nA common exhortation in health pop culture is \"Take the stairs, not the elevator\".\n\nSection::::Energy expenditure.\n", "One study looked at the typical age onset for stair ascent and descent, and compared them to other developmental milestones. It also looked at the stair climbing strategies that infants use. Consisting of 732 infants, and including parental assessment and documentation of motor skill achievements, along with in-depth interviews parents about the strategies involved and child assessment using laboratory stair apparatus. The results showed that children younger than 9 months of age were unable to go up or down stairs at all, or were only able to go up. By around 13 months, most infants could go upstairs and about half could ascend and descend stairs. Infants typically learned to descend stairs after they have already learned to ascend, with only about 12% achieved both stair-climbing skills at the same time.\n", "Level, unobstructed landings should be provided at the top and bottom of every flight. The width and length being at least that of the width of the stairs and can include part of the floor. A door may swing across the landing at the bottom of the flight but must leave a clear space of at least across the whole landing\n\nTapered steps – \n\nThere are special rules for stairs with tapered steps as shown in the image Example of Winder Stairs above\n\nAlternate tread stairs can be provide in space saving situations\n\nGuarding – \n", "An annual competition, 'Girnar Arohan Spardha', is held in Junagadh, India, and involves a race to climb and descend the steps of the Girnar mountain.\n\nSection::::Infants and safe stair descent.\n\nFalling down a flight of stairs or just a couple of steps is very common during infants’ first exposure to stair descent. Infants are more likely to fall down stairs than any other age group. In the United States, approximately 73,000 children between the ages of 6 months and 2 years have reported injury on stairs or steps in 2009.\n", "Nicolas-François Blondel in the last volume of his \"Cours d'architecture\" (1675–1683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length.\n\nIt is estimated that a noticeable mis-step occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs once in 63,000 uses. Stairs can be a hazardous obstacle for some, so some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from injury.\n", "BULLET::::- By rotating its two sets of powered wheels about each other, the iBOT can \"walk\" up and down stairs, much like a cog railway or a rack and pinion with the two wheels as the \"teeth\" of the gear. The wheels can roll slightly at each step to compensate for a wide range of stair dimensions. When stair-climbing without assistance, the user requires a sturdy handrail and a strong grip. With an assistant, neither a handrail nor a strong grip is required.\n", "The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than two if for construction reasons there are narrow \"unused\" steps.\n\nThere is often (here also) glide plane symmetry: the mirror image with respect to the vertical center plane corresponds to a shift by one step.\n\nAlternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888.\n\nSection::::Ergonomics and building code requirements.\n\nErgonomically and for safety reasons, stairs must have certain measurements so that people can comfortably use them. Building codes typically specify certain measurements so that the stairs are not too steep or narrow.\n", "In a real building, there are complicated factors such as: the tendency of elevators to be frequently required on the ground or first floor, and to return there when idle; lopsided demand where everyone wants to go down at the end of the day; people on the lower floors being more willing to take the stairs; or the way full elevators ignore external floor-level calls. These factors tend to shift the frequency of observed arrivals, but do not eliminate the paradox entirely. In particular, a user very near the top floor will perceive the paradox even more strongly, as elevators are infrequently present or required above their floor.\n", "Stair descent involves perceptual, cognitive and motor abilities. It relies heavily on visual information to enable balance and accuracy. Seeing obstacles ahead helps stair descent, but for infants the action of keeping their heavy head balanced enough to look down at their feet and the objective together, make the process very difficult. (Hurlke, 1998). Not seeing the task ahead causes confusion and disrupts concentration.\n\nInfants tend to adopt one of several strategies closely associated with stair descent:\n\nBULLET::::- Scooting: where the infant sits on the step and thrusts forward using their bottom to land on the next step.\n", "BULLET::::- Stairs with inadequate handrails, or too steep, encouraging trips and falls. The steps should be spaced widely with low risers, and surfaces should be slip-resistant. Softer surfaces can help limit impact injuries by cushioning loads.\n\nBULLET::::- Doorways with adequate headroom so that the user's head does not hit the lintel. Doorways of low headroom (less than about 2 metres) are common in old houses and cottages for example.\n\nBULLET::::- Rugs/floor surfaces with low friction, causing poor traction and individual instability. All surfaces should have a high friction coefficient with shoe soles.\n", "BULLET::::- The upstairs is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, which can provide more privacy for the upper floor.\n\nBULLET::::- A fall can be halted at the landing point, reducing the distance someone would fall to reduce risks.\n\nBULLET::::- Though the landings consume total floor space, there is no requirement for a large single dimension, allowing more flexible floorplan designs.\n\nBULLET::::- For larger stairs, particularly in exterior applications, a landing can provide a place to rest the legs.\n", "BULLET::::- The wider the spiral, the more steps can be accommodated per spiral. Therefore, if the spiral is large in diameter, via having a central support column that is strong (invariably large in diameter) and a special handrail that helps distributes the load, each step may be longer and therefore the rise between each step may be smaller (equal to that of regular steps). Otherwise, the circumference of the circle at the walk line will be so small that it will be impossible to maintain a normal tread depth and a normal rise height without compromising headroom before reaching the upper floor.\n", "BULLET::::- Slope: A value for the rise-to-tread ratio of 17/29 ˜ 0.59 is considered optimal; this corresponds to a pitch angle of about 30°.\n", "Spiral stairs have the disadvantage of being very steep - only if they are tight or are otherwise not supported by a center column. This is because of two reasons:\n", "Step and cruise climbs are not normally applicable to lower-flying aircraft propelled by conventional piston engines with propellers or turboprops, since their performance characteristics may be very different from those of turbofan or jet engined aircraft. In fact, the most efficient altitude for a small general aviation aircraft may be only a few thousand feet above the ground, and increasing altitude may diminish efficiency rather than improve it (propellers tend to lose efficiency in thinner air, and many small general aviation aircraft lack supercharging, effectively decreasing the engine's compression pressure, and therefore efficiency, as the aircraft climbs into more rarified atmosphere).\n", "BULLET::::- a straight flight requires enough space for the entire run of the stairs.\n\nAnother form of straight staircase is the space saver staircase, also known as paddle stairs or alternating tread staircases, that can be used for a steeper rise, but these can only be used in certain circumstances and must comply with regulations.\n", "BULLET::::- The slope or pitch of the stairs is the ratio between the rise and the going (not the tread depth, due to the nosing). It is sometimes called the rake of the stairs. The pitch line is the imaginary line along the tip of the nosing of the treads. In the UK, stair pitch is the angle the pitch line makes with the horizontal, measured in degrees. The value of the slope, as a ratio, is then the tangent of the pitch angle.\n\nBULLET::::- Headroom is the height above the nosing of a tread to the ceiling above it.\n", "BULLET::::- To maintain headroom some spiral stairs have very high rises to support a very short diameter. These are typically cases where the stairwell must be a small diameter by design or must not have any center support by design or may not have any perimeter support.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Dutch – The Dutch language version broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Nick. Jr, It is presented in Dutch-English. The voice actors are Lottie Hellingman as Dora and Dieter Jansen as Boots.\n\nBULLET::::- French – The French language version, \"Dora l'exploratrice\", broadcasts on TF1 in France and Télé-Québec in Canada. It is presented in French-English, with Dora and Boots (called Babouche) speaking French and other protagonists speaking and answering in English.\n", "The show was developed out of Nickelodeon's desire to \"come up with the next big hit\" similar to the network's other hit preschool shows at the time \"Little Bear\" and \"Blue's Clues\". The creators sought to combine both shows format, with the narrative focus of \"Little Bear\" combined with the interactivity of \"Blue's Clues\". The creators further developed the concept by observing preschoolers with the creators coming to the conclusion that \" they are little explorers\"\n", "The characters are all bilingual and speak Spanish in addition to English. However, the Spanish curriculum on \"Dora and Friends\" has been expanded to using simple phrases and commands as opposed to solely the single Spanish words used on \"Dora the Explorer.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Korean – The Korean language version broadcasts on Nick Jr in Korea. The title is \"Hi Dora\" and is introduced by a real person whose name is Dami – she introduces key English vocabulary for each episode. The episode is primarily in Korean with some English.\n\nBULLET::::- Macedonian – The Macedonian language version broadcasts on MRT 1 in Macedonia. The title is \"\"Дора истражува\"\" (or \"Dora the Explorer\"). The bilingualism is Macedonian-English.\n", "Preschool-oriented programming is generally more overtly educational. In a number of cases, such shows are produced in consultation with educators and child psychologists in an effort to teach age-appropriate lessons (the series \"Sesame Street\" pioneered this approach when it debuted in 1969). Adaptations of illustrated children's book series are one subgenre of shows targeted at younger children. A format that has increased in popularity since the 1990s (see, for example, \"Blue's Clues\", \"Dora the Explorer\" and \"Mickey Mouse Clubhouse\") is the \"pseudo-interactive\" program, in which the action of the show stops and breaks the fourth wall to give a young viewer the opportunity to answer a question or dilemma put forth on the show, with the action continuing as if the viewer answered correctly.\n", "BULLET::::- Turkish – In the Turkish language version \"Dora\" the characters speak mainly Turkish, Spanish, and English but there are commands and expressions in Turkish. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and CNBC-e.\n\nAs shown by the list above, the usual second language is English, but Spanish is used in the original American version in English (broadcast also for Malay speakers), in the Irish, Serbian, and the trilingual Turkish versions.\n\nSection::::Stage adaptations.\n", "Section::::Rounds.\n\nThe show consists of three rounds designed to unravel what goes on in kids minds.\n\nRound 1 The teams choose a child on the screen who will describe someone or something via a pre-recorded film. It is up to the teams to work out what is being described, although the audience is made aware of what is being described due to a caption at the bottom of the screen.\n", "Several Nick Jr. shows such as \"Blue's Clues\", \"Team Umizoomi\", and \"Dora the Explorer\" as well as a few non-Nick Jr. cartoons had characters talking to the child watching the show and encouraging them to participate in the story, some shows used a child viewer voice calling the answer while some shows didn't use a voice at all, some of their shows though, such as the shows they distribute from Nelvana Limited, don't use the fourth wall breaks.\n", "BULLET::::- Smart as You (1997): In this PSA aimed at children, an anthropomorphic television talks about programs children can see on TV, and that they are smarter than it (meaning that children make the choices about what they can do). Some footage from an old YTV programming block, \"ReBoot\" and \"It's Alive!\" are shown. AGENCY: FCB Canada Ltd.\n", "Many children's television series are educational, ranging from dedicated learning programs to those that indirectly teach the viewers. Some series are written to have a specific moral behind every episode, often explained at the end by the character that learned the lesson.\n", "BULLET::::- Arabic – The Arabic language version is broadcast on the \"Nickelodeon on MBC3\" block of MBC3, and is presented in Arabic-English.\n\nBULLET::::- Cantonese – The Cantonese language version () is sold in Hong Kong. It is presented in Cantonese-English.\n\nBULLET::::- Danish – The Danish language version is called \"Dora – udforskeren\" and there are commands and expressions in English. It is broadcast on the national public children's channel, DR Ramasjang, and also on Nick Jr. through various pay TV providers.\n", "There are a few recurring animal friends that are normally rescued by Diego in their first appearance but appear later to return the favor and help Diego out. The most common of these is Linda the Llama (voiced by Laura Abreu), who has appeared prominently in four episodes and made a cameo appearance in \"Three Little Condors.\" Just like Dora the Explorer, the show teaches preschool-age children the Spanish language. However, the show takes a lesser approach to this and focuses more on the teaching of various animals.\n", "The series takes place in a neighborhood inhabited by hand puppets with human qualities, and is shown from the perspective of a four-year-old named Oobi. The puppets frequently communicate with the audience and encourage participatory viewing. The characters' dialogue is made up of basic vocabulary, and they speak in simplified sentences resembling the speech structure of a child just beginning to talk. For example, \"Uma, school, first day\" is said in place of \"It is my first day of school.\" Prepositions and conjunctions are rarely used. The show is intended to help preschool-aged viewers develop social skills, early literacy, and logical thinking.\n", "On numerous occasions, television specials have been aired for the series in which the usual events of regular episodes are altered, threatened, or replaced. Usually said specials will present Dora with a bigger, more whimsical adventure than usual or with a magical task that must be fulfilled, or perhaps even offer a series of different adventures for Boots and Dora to travel through. They might be presented with an unusual, difficult task (such as assisting Swiper in his attempts to be erased from Santa Claus's Naughty List) that normally is not featured in average episodes, or challenge Dora with a goal that must be achieved (such as the emancipation of a trapped mermaid). Sometimes, the specials have involved the debut of new characters, such as the birth of Dora's superpowered twin baby siblings and the introduction of the enchanted anthropomorphic stars that accompany Dora on many of her quests.\n", "BULLET::::- Malay – The Malay language version broadcasts on TV9. The bilingualism is Malay-English. Dora speaks primarily in Malay, and the secondary language is English. The original English-Spanish version, however, is also available on Nickelodeon South East Asia via the Nick Jr. programming slot to subscribers of the ASTRO satellite TV service.\n\nBULLET::::- Malayalam – The Malayalam language version is called \"Dorayude Prayanam\" (ഡോറയുടെ പ്രയാണം) and broadcasts on a local kids programming channel Kochu TV, which is the Malayalam dubbed version of Chutti TV.\n", "Dè a-nis?\n\nDè a-nis? (pronounced: Jaay a-neash) is a Scottish Gaelic-language children's program produced by BBC Gàidhlig. It is broadcast on BBC Alba on Wednesday nights at 6:00pm \"Dè a-nis\" is Gaelic for \"What Now?\"\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The series centers around Dora, a seven-year-old Latina girl, with a love of embarking on quests related to an activity that she wants to partake of or a place that she wants to go to, accompanied by her talking purple backpack and anthropomorphic monkey companion named Boots (named for his beloved pair of red boots). Each episode is based around a series of cyclical events that occur along the way during Dora's travels, along with obstacles that she and Boots are forced to overcome or puzzles that they have to solve (with \"assistance\" from the viewing audience) relating to riddles, the Spanish language, or counting. Common rituals may involve Dora's encounters with Swiper, a bipedal, anthropomorphic masked thieving fox whose theft of the possessions of others must be prevented through fourth wall-breaking interaction with the viewer. To stop Swiper, Dora must say \"Swiper no swiping\" three times. However, on occasions where Swiper steals the belongings of other people, the viewer is presented with the challenge of helping Boots and Dora locate the stolen items. Another obstacle involves encounters with another one of the program's antagonists; the \"Grumpy Old Troll\" dwelling beneath a bridge that Dora and Boots must cross, who challenges them with a riddle before permitting them the past that needs to be solved with the viewer's help. Known for the constant breaking of the fourth-wall depicted in every episode, the audience is usually presented to two primary landmarks that must be passed before Dora can reach her destination, normally being challenged with games or puzzles along the way. The episode always ends with Dora successfully reaching the locale, singing the \"We Did It!\" song with Boots in triumph.\n", "BULLET::::- Hebrew – The Hebrew language version broadcasts on HOP channel. The bilingualism is Hebrew-English. The series is called \"מגלים עם דורה\" (or \"Megalim Im Dora\"—English: \"Discovering with Dora\").\n\nBULLET::::- Hindi – In the Hindi language version, Dora and the other characters speak Hindi. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. Dora teaches the viewers English words and numbers.\n\nBULLET::::- Hungarian – In the Hungarian language version, Dora and the other characters speak Hungarian with some English words or phrases. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon (Hungary). The series is called Dóra a felfedező.\n", "Every episode began with a silent comedy vignette, with a cast member in voiceover giving the \"Secret Word\", which was usually key to that episode's plot. At the end of each episode, another silent vignette would appear in which a \"Caper Code\" would be given in voice over; a series of letters and numbers such as \"P3 E8 R19 C2\" (TIME). This was presumably code for the next week's secret word.\n", "BULLET::::- Alphabet Song – Wally and his friends sing the alphabet.\n\nBULLET::::- And Now A Few Words From Bobgoblin – Bobgoblin tries to demonstrate words from a certain word family \"example: -eg family\" but his efforts end in failure or backfire.\n\nBULLET::::- Giant Words with Gina Giant – Gina demonstrates giant words she likes and shows them in a funny way.\n\nBULLET::::- Howl Like The Vowel – Wally and Norville demonstrate one of the five vowels through sentences.\n\nBULLET::::- A Light Sprite Can Write – Libby Lightsprite demonstrates the viewer how to trace simple letters or words\n", "BULLET::::- \"Find Out Why!\", in which Timon and Pumbaa from \"The Lion King\" answer a scientific question.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Monkey Boys\", played by comic duo Buddy & Hodge-Podge are two mute men who humorously play out a different job, much to the annoyance of everyone else around in every episode.\n\nBULLET::::- \"What's Up with That?\" in which Professor Chris Williams tells a scientific or geographic fact while being viewed on a TV monitor by two aliens.\n", "BULLET::::- Indonesian – The Indonesian language version broadcasts on Global TV. The bilingualism is Indonesian-English.\n\nBULLET::::- Irish – The Irish language version broadcasts on the Irish station TG4. The bilingualism is Irish-Spanish with Dora and Boots speaking in Irish and some other characters speaking Spanish as in the original American version.\n\nBULLET::::- Italian – The Italian language version broadcasts on Cartoonito and on Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is Italian-English. The series is called \"Dora l'esploratrice\" (\"Dora the Explorer\"). Most characters speak Italian, but some characters and especially Dora's parents and backpack speak English along with Italian.\n", "17 episodes of \"Kids' Writes\" were produced from 1981 to 1983. During this period, the closing of each show included a voiceover from Mairs, requesting unique and original stories be contributed by the viewers. The request was removed when \"Kids' Writes\" ceased production in 1983; reruns were aired on Nickelodeon until 1987.\n", "Dora is a Latina. According to a Nickelodeon spokesman, \"she was developed to be pan-Latina to represent the diversity of Latino cultures\". Initially the character was not planned to be Latina although after an executive at Nickelodeon attended a conference about the lack of Latino representation, the creators were asked if they could include such elements. At first there was hesitancy, but eventually they realized that they had \"a great opportunity\" and the character was designed as such. Nickelodeon at first did not like the antagonist Swiper, at first with researchers stating that \"he was bad modeling and unsettling to kids\"; however, the creators felt strongly about the inclusion of a villainous character and he remained in the final show. There are many memes on Dora that she and her family are illegal immigrants and illegal explorers.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nDVS describers watch a program and write a script describing visual elements which are important in understanding what is occurring at the time and the plot as a whole. For example, in the opening credit sequence of the children's series \"Arthur\" on PBS, the description has been performed as follows:\n\n\"Arthur is an 8-year-old aardvark. He wears round glasses with thick frames over his big eyes. He has two round ears on top of his oval-shaped head. He wears red sneakers and blue jeans, with a yellow sweater over a white shirt.\"\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Metabolic acidosis is a cause of hyperkalemia because increase in hydrogen ions in the cells can displace potassium out of the cells, causing a rise of serum potassium levels. However, in organic acidosis such as lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, the effect on serum potassium levels are absent possibly because of the presence of organic ion-hydrogen ion co-transporter into the cells that minimises the displacement of potassium out of the cells. Meanwhile, in respiratory acidosis, the effect on serum potassium level is small through an unknown mechanism.\n", "Hyperkalemia\n\nHyperkalemia, also spelled hyperkalaemia, is an elevated level of potassium (K) in the blood serum. Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0mmol/L (3.5 and 5.0mEq/L) with levels above 5.5mmol/L defined as hyperkalemia. Typically this results in no symptoms. Occasionally when severe it results in palpitations, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or numbness. An abnormal heart rate can occur which can result in cardiac arrest and death.\n", "Also, electrocardiography (ECG) may be performed to determine if there is a significant risk of abnormal heart rhythms. Physicians taking a medical history may focus on kidney disease and medication use (e.g. potassium-sparing diuretics), both of which are known causes of hyperkalemia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definitions.\n\nNormal serum potassium levels are generally considered to be between 3.5 and 5.3 mmol/L. Levels above 5.5mmol/L generally indicate hyperkalemia, and those below 3.5mmol/L indicate hypokalemia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:ECG findings.\n", "The symptoms of an elevated potassium level are nonspecific, and generally include malaise, palpitations, shortness of breath, and muscle weakness. Hyperventilation may indicate a compensatory response to metabolic acidosis, which is one of the possible causes of hyperkalemia. Often, however, the problem is detected during screening blood tests for a medical disorder, or after hospitalisation for complications such as cardiac arrhythmia or sudden cardiac death. High levels of potassium ( 5.5mmol/L) have been associated with cardiovascular events.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Ineffective elimination.\n", "The serum potassium concentration at which electrocardiographic changes develop is somewhat variable. Although the factors influencing the effect of serum potassium levels on cardiac electrophysiology are not entirely understood, the concentrations of other electrolytes, as well as levels of catecholamines, play a major role.\n\nECG findings are not a reliable finding in hyperkalemia. In a retrospective review, blinded cardiologists documented peaked T-waves in only 3 of 90 ECGs with hyperkalemia. Sensitivity of peaked-Ts for hyperkalemia ranged from 0.18 to 0.52 depending on the criteria for peak-T waves.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Hyperkalemia develops when there is excessive production (oral intake, tissue breakdown) or ineffective elimination of potassium. Ineffective elimination can be hormonal (in aldosterone deficiency) or due to causes in the kidney parenchyma that impair excretion.\n", "With mild to moderate hyperkalemia, there is prolongation of the PR interval and development of peaked T waves. Severe hyperkalemia results in a widening of the QRS complex, and the ECG complex can evolve to a sinusoidal shape. There appears to be a direct effect of elevated potassium on some of the potassium channels that increases their activity and speeds membrane repolarisation. Also, (as noted above), hyperkalemia causes an overall membrane depolarisation that inactivates many sodium channels. The faster repolarisation of the cardiac action potential causes the tenting of the T waves, and the inactivation of sodium channels causes a sluggish conduction of the electrical wave around the heart, which leads to smaller P waves and widening of the QRS complex. Some of potassium currents are sensitive to extracellular potassium levels, for reasons that are not well understood. As the extracellular potassium levels increase, potassium conductance is increased so that more potassium leaves the myocyte in any given time period. To summarize, classic ECG changes associated with hyperkalemia are seen in the following progression: peaked T wave, shortened QT interval, lengthened PR interval, increased QRS duration, and eventually absence of the P wave with the QRS complex becoming a sine wave.\n", "Decreased kidney function is a major cause of hyperkalemia. This is especially pronounced in acute kidney injury where the glomerular filtration rate and tubular flow are markedly decreased, characterised by reduced urine output. This can be further intensified by active cellular breakdown which causes increase in serum potassium levels. In chronic kidney disease, hyperkalemia occurs as a result of reduced aldosterone responsiveness and reduced sodium and watery deliveries in distal tubules.\n", "Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis is an autosomal dominant clinical condition where there is a mutation in gene located at 17q23 that regulates the production of protein SCN4A. SCN4A is an important component of sodium channels in skeletal muscles. During exercise, sodium channels would open to allow influx of sodium into the muscle cells for depolarisation to occur. But in hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, sodium channels are slow to close after exercise, causing excessive influx of sodium and displacement of potassium out of the cells.\n", "A common presentation of hyperkalemia is in the patient with end-stage renal disease who has missed a dialysis appointment and presents with weakness, nausea, and broad QRS complexes on the electrocardiogram. (Note however that patients with chronic kidney disease are often more tolerant of high potassium levels as their body often adapts to it.) Several medications, for example the antibiotic trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or an ACE inhibitor, can also lead to the development of significant hyperkalemia. The electrocardiogram will show tall, peaked T waves (often larger than the R wave) or can degenerate into a sine wave as the QRS complex widens. Immediate initial therapy is the administration of calcium, either as calcium gluconate or calcium chloride. This stabilizes the electrochemical potential of cardiac myocytes, thereby preventing the development of fatal arrhythmias. This is, however, only a temporizing measure. Other temporizing measures may include nebulized salbutamol, intravenous insulin (usually given in combination with glucose), and sodium bicarbonate which all temporarily drive potassium into the interior of cells. Definitive treatment of hyperkalemia requires actual excretion of potassium, either through urine (which can be facilitated by administration of loop diuretics such as furosemide) or in the stool (which is accomplished by giving sodium polystyrene sulfonate enterally, where it will bind potassium in the GI tract.) Severe cases will require emergent hemodialysis.\n", "Pseudohyperkalemia occurs when the measured potassium levels is falsely elevated. This condition is usually suspected when patient is clinically well without any ECG changes. Mechanical trauma during blood drawing can cause potassium leakage out of the red blood cells due to haemolysed blood sample. Since exercise can cause elevated potassium levels, repeated fist clenching can cause transient rise in potassium levels. Prolonged length of blood storage can also increase serum potassium levels. Hyperkalemia may only become apparent when a person's platelet concentration is more than 500,000/microL in a clotted blood sample (serum blood sample). Potassium leaks out of platelets after clotting has occurred. On the other hand, processing of heparinised, unclot blood does not cause falsely elevated potassium. In addition to that, high white cell count (greater than 120,000/microL) in patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia increases red blood cells fragility, thus causing pseudohyperkalemia during blood processing. This problem can be avoided by processing serum samples, because formation of clot protect the cells from haemolysis during processing. A familial form of pseudohyperkalemia may also be present, and is characterised by increased serum potassium in whole blood stored at or below room temperature, without additional hematological abnormalities. This is due to increased potassium permeability in red blood cells.\n", "Emergency lowering of potassium levels is needed when new arrhythmias occur at any level of potassium in the blood, or when potassium levels exceed 6.5mmol/l. Several agents are used to transiently lower K levels. The choice depends on the degree and cause of the hyperkalemia, and other aspects of the person's condition.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Myocardial excitability.\n", "Alkalosis\n\nAlkalosis is the result of a process reducing hydrogen ion concentration of arterial blood plasma (alkalemia). In contrast to acidemia (serum pH 7.35 or lower), alkalemia occurs when the serum pH is higher than normal (7.45 or higher). Alkalosis is usually divided into the categories of respiratory alkalosis and metabolic alkalosis or a combined respiratory/metabolic alkalosis.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nMetabolic alkalosis is usually accompanied by low blood potassium concentration, causing, e.g., muscular weakness, muscle pain, and muscle cramps (from disturbed function of the skeletal muscles), and muscle spasms (from disturbed function of smooth muscles).\n", "Rare causes of hyperkalemia are discussed as follows. Acute digitalis overdose such as digoxin toxicity may cause hyperkalemia through the inhibition of sodium-potassium-ATPase pump. Massive blood transfusion can cause hyperkalemia in infants due to leakage of potassium out of the red blood cells during storage. Giving succinylcholine to people with conditions such as burns, trauma, infection, prolonged immobilisation can cause hyperkalemia due to widespread activation of acetylcholine receptors rather than a specific group of muscles. Arginine hydrochloride is used to treat refractory metabolic alkalosis. The arginine ions can enter cells and displace potassium out of the cells, causing hyperkalemia. Calcineurin inhibitors such as cyclosporine, tacrolimus, diazoxide, and minoxidil can cause hyperkalemia. Box jellyfish venom can also cause hyperkalemia.\n", "The earliest electrocardiographic (ECG) findings associated with hypokalemia is a decrease in T waves height. Then, ST depression and T inversion happens as serum potassium reduces further. Due to prolonged repolarization of ventricular Purkinje fibers, prominent U wave occurs (usually seen at V2 and V3 leads), frequently superimposed upon the T wave and therefore produces the appearance of a prolonged QT interval when serum potassium reduces to below 3 mEq/L.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Amount.\n\nThe amount of potassium deficit can be calculated using the following formula:br\n\nbr\n", "Preventing recurrence of hyperkalemia typically involves reduction of dietary potassium, removal of an offending medication, and/or the addition of a diuretic (such as furosemide or hydrochlorothiazide). Sodium polystyrene sulfonate and sorbitol (combined as Kayexalate) are occasionally used on an ongoing basis to maintain lower serum levels of potassium though the safety of long-term use of sodium polystyrene sulfonate for this purpose is not well understood.\n\nHigh dietary sources include vegetables such as avocados, tomatoes and potatoes, fruits such as bananas, oranges and nuts.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In the United States, hyperkalemia is induced by lethal injection in capital punishment cases. Potassium chloride is the last of the three drugs administered and actually causes death. Injecting potassium chloride into the heart muscle disrupts the signal that causes the heart to beat. This same amount of potassium chloride would do no harm if taken orally and not injected directly into the blood.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nSodium zirconium cyclosilicate (ZS-9) is an investigational selective oral sorbent that binds potassium in the gastrointestinal tract in exchange for sodium and hydrogen ions.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Some people with hyperkalemic periodic paralysis have increased levels of potassium in their blood (hyperkalemia) during attacks. In other cases, attacks are associated with normal blood potassium levels (normokalemia). Ingesting potassium can trigger attacks in affected individuals, even if blood potassium levels do not rise in response.\n\nIn contrast to HyperKPP, hypokalemic periodic paralysis (noted in humans) refers to loss-of-function mutations in channels that prevent muscle depolarisation and therefore are aggravated by low potassium ion concentrations.\n\nSection::::Genetics.\n", "BULLET::::- Certain medications can cause excess potassium loss in the urine. Blood pressure medications such as loop diuretics (e.g. furosemide) and thiazide diuretics (e.g. hydrochlorothiazide) commonly cause hypokalemia. Other medications such as the antifungal, amphotericin B, or the cancer drug, cisplatin, can also cause long-term hypokalemia.\n", "BULLET::::- Rare hereditary defects of renal salt transporters, such as Bartter syndrome or Gitelman syndrome, can cause hypokalemia, in a manner similar to that of diuretics. As opposed to disease states of primary excesses of aldosterone, blood pressure is either normal or low in Bartter's or Gitelman's.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Distribution away from extracellular fluid.\n\nBULLET::::- In addition to alkalosis, other factors can cause transient shifting of potassium into cells, presumably by stimulation of the Na/K pump. These hormones and medications include insulin, epinephrine, and other beta agonists (e.g. salbutamol or salmeterol), and xanthines (e.g. theophylline).\n", "BULLET::::- Pseudohypokalemia is a decrease in the amount of potassium that occurs due to excessive uptake of potassium by metabolically active cells in a blood sample after it has been drawn. It is a laboratory artifact that may occur when blood samples remain in warm conditions for several hours before processing.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n\nAbout 98% of the body's potassium is found inside cells, with the remainder in the extracellular fluid including the blood. This concentration gradient is maintained principally by the Na/K pump.\n", "The diagnosis of hypokalemia (not enough potassium) can be suspected when there is a history of diarrhoea or malnutrition. Loop diuretics may also contribute. The electrocardiogram may show flattening of T waves and prominent U waves. Hypokalemia is an important cause of acquired long QT syndrome, and may predispose the patient to torsades de pointes. Digitalis use may increase the risk that hypokalemia will produce life-threatening arrhythmias. Hypokalemia is especially dangerous in patients with ischemic heart disease.\n\nSection::::H's.:Hypothermia.\n", "Regulation of serum potassium is a function of intake, appropriate distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments, and effective bodily excretion. In healthy individuals, homeostasis is maintained when cellular uptake and kidney excretion naturally counterbalance a patient's dietary intake of potassium. When kidney function becomes compromised, the ability of the body to effectively regulate serum potassium via the kidney declines. To compensate for this deficit in function, the colon increases its potassium secretion as part of an adaptive response. However, serum potassium remains elevated as the colonic compensating mechanism reaches its limits.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Elevated potassium.\n", "Causes of hypokalemia include vomiting, diarrhea, medications like furosemide and steroids, dialysis, diabetes insipidus, hyperaldosteronism, hypomagnesemia, and not enough intake in the diet. Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/L (3.5 and 5.0 mEq/L) with levels below 3.5 mmol/L defined as hypokalemia. It is classified as severe when levels are less than 2.5 mmol/L. Low levels may also be suspected based on an electrocardiogram (ECG). Hyperkalemia refers to a high level of potassium in the blood serum.\n", "Patiromer is a selective sorbent that is taken by mouth and works by binding free potassium ions in the gastrointestinal tract and releasing calcium ions for exchange, thus lowering the amount of potassium available for absorption into the bloodstream and increasing the amount that is excreted via the feces. The net effect is a reduction of potassium levels in the blood serum.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]