Datasets:

tasksource

/

CREPE

like 2

Follow

tasksource 14

[ "Fingerprint matching has an enormous computational burden. Some larger AFIS vendors deploy custom hardware while others use software to attain matching speed and throughput. In general, it is desirable to have, at the least, a two-stage search. The first stage will generally make use of global fingerprint characteristics while the second stage is the minutia matcher.\n", "Section::::Consumer electronics login authentication.\n\nSince 2000 electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced as consumer electronics security applications. Fingerprint sensors could be used for login authentication and the identification of computer users. However, some less sophisticated sensors have been discovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in gels. In 2006, fingerprint sensors gained popularity in the laptop market. Built-in sensors in laptops, such as ThinkPads, VAIO, HP Pavilion and EliteBook laptops, and others also double as motion detectors for document scrolling, like the scroll wheel.\n", "This may allow a remote application to detect and prevent online identity theft and credit card fraud, but also to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing histories even when they're attempting to avoid tracking, raising a major concern for internet privacy advocates. \n\nSome computer security experts consider the ease of bulk parameter extraction offered by web browsers to be a security hole.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "To match a print, a fingerprint technician scans in the print in question, and computer algorithms are utilized to mark all minutia points, cores, and deltas detected on the print. In some systems, the technician is allowed to perform a review of the points that the software has detected, and submits the feature set to a one-to-many (1:N) search. The better commercial systems provide fully automated processing and searching (\"lights-out\") of print features. The fingerprint image processor will generally assign a \"quality measure\" that indicates if the print is acceptable for searching.\n\nSection::::Speed.\n", "By 2017 Hewlett Packard, Asus, Huawei, Lenovo and Apple were using fingerprint readers in their laptops. Synaptics says the SecurePad sensor is now available for OEMs to start building into their laptops. In the newest smartphones, the fingerprint reader is being integrated into the whole touchscreen display instead of as a separate sensor.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nSection::::Other uses.:Welfare claimants.\n\nIt has been alleged that taking the fingerprints of welfare recipients as identification serves as a social stigma that evokes cultural images associated with the processing of criminals.\n\nSection::::Absence or mutilation of fingerprints.\n", "Two of the first smartphone manufacturers to integrate fingerprint recognition into their phones were Motorola with the Atrix 4G in 2011, and Apple with the iPhone 5S on September 10, 2013. One month after, HTC launched the One Max, which also included fingerprint recognition. In April 2014, Samsung released the Galaxy S5, which integrated a fingerprint sensor on the home button.\n", "The first smartphone with a fingerprint reader was the Motorola Atrix 4G in 2011. In September 2013, the iPhone 5S was unveiled as the first smartphone on a major U.S. carrier since the Atrix to feature this technology.\n", "It has been part of all iPhones since 2013's iPhone 5S up until 2017's iPhone 8 and 8 Plus; it has been on all iPads since the iPad Air 2. In 2015, Apple introduced a faster second-generation Touch ID in the iPhone 6S; a year later, it made its laptop debut in the MacBook Pro and the 2018 MacBook Air.\n\nFingerprint information is stored locally in a secure enclave on the Apple A7 and later chips, not in the cloud, a design choice intended to make it impossible for users to externally access the fingerprint information.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Tools.\n\nEarly investigations consisted of live manual analysis of mobile devices; with examiners photographing or writing down useful material for use as evidence. Without forensic photography equipment such as Fernico ZRT, EDEC Eclipse, or Project-a-Phone, this had the disadvantage of risking the modification of the device content, as well as leaving many parts of the proprietary operating system inaccessible.\n", "A separate issue is that a single device may have multiple web clients installed or even multiple virtual operating systems. As each distinct client and operating system has distinct internal parameters, one may change the device fingerprint by simply running a different browser on the same machine, unless a new crossbrowser fingerprinting technique is used.\n\nFurthermore, sandboxed devices like the iPhone will exhibit so little uniqueness that most fingerprinting techniques involving technical information about the device, the browser, and the font list will not be sufficient to create a unique fingerprint.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Canvas fingerprinting\n\nBULLET::::- Evercookie\n", "A pending court case defined failures of even 1% to be \"high risk\" if it results in denials of government benefits.\n\nSection::::USA DOJ report.\n\nA 56-page report titled \"Contactless Fingerprint Technologies Assessment\" was funded in 2010, and version 2 of the report was \"made ... available\" in 2014 online even though it \"has not been published.\"\n\nAfter describing 13 R&D projects in various stages of incompleteness, it identifies four \"contactless fingerprint existing products.\" \n\nBULLET::::- The first company's product attaches to a PC via USB and \"is designed for indoor use only.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In the TV show \"Dexter\" Season 7 episode 1 Dexter uses IAFIS to test the prints of the female in the trunk of the car.\n\nBULLET::::- In the TV show \"Person of Interest\" in Season 1 episode 18 Donnelly uses IAFIS to match John's fingerprints to previous crimes in New York.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Combined DNA Index System—U.S. DNA system\n\nBULLET::::- Eurodac—the European fingerprint database for identifying asylum seekers and irregular border-crossers\n\nBULLET::::- National Automated Fingerprint Identification System—Australian system\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Bureau of Investigation - CJIS Division - Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System\n", "It is difficult to surf the web without being tracked by device fingerprinting today. However, for people who do not want device fingerprinting, there are ways to attempt to block fingerprinting. The only ways to stop device fingerprinting cause web browsing to be very slow and websites to display information incorrectly. “There are not convenient options for privacy when it comes to device fingerprinting” said Peter Eckersely a staff scientist at the Electronic Frontier Foundation and privacy-advocacy group. Trying to avoid device fingerprinting is mostly just impractical and inconvenient. Fingerprints are tough to avoid because they are taken from data that are routinely passed from computers to websites automatically. Even if someone changes something slightly, the fingerprinters can still recognize the machine. There is one way to figure out that a device is being fingerprinted. The software JavaScript can be used to collect fingerprinting data. If it asks a browser for specific information, that could be a clue that a fingerprinter is working. Companies that are most known for conducting fingerprinting are advertisers.\n", "Microsoft Fingerprint Reader\n\nMicrosoft Fingerprint Reader was a device sold by Microsoft, primarily for homes and small businesses. The underlying software providing the biometrics was developed by Digital Persona. \n\nFingerprint readers are more secure, reliable and convenient than a normal traditional password, although they have been subject to spoofing. A fingerprint recognition system is more tightly linked to a specific user than, e.g., an access card, which can be stolen. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Fingerprint image acquisition is considered to be the most critical step in an automated fingerprint authentication system, as it determines the final fingerprint image quality, which has a drastic effect on the overall system performance. There are different types of fingerprint readers on the market, but the basic idea behind each is to measure the physical difference between ridges and valleys.\n", "Passive fingerprinting refers to techniques which do not involve the obvious querying of the client machine. These methods rely upon precise classification of such factors as the client's TCP/IP configuration, OS fingerprint, IEEE 802.11 (wireless) settings, and hardware clock skew.\n", "BULLET::::3. Ultrasound fingerprint scanners use high frequency sound waves to penetrate the epidermal (outer) layer of the skin.\n\nBULLET::::4. Thermal scanners sense the temperature differences on the contact surface, in between fingerprint ridges and valleys.\n\nSection::::Construction forms.\n\nThere are two construction forms: the stagnant and the moving fingerprint scanner.\n\nBULLET::::- Stagnant: The finger must be dragged over the small scanning area. This is cheaper and less reliable than the moving form. The image is not very good when the finger is not regularly dragged over the scanning area.\n", "In 2010, Electronic Frontier Foundation launched a website where visitors can test their browser fingerprint. After collecting a sample of 470161 fingerprints, they measured at least 18.1 bits of entropy possible from browser fingerprinting, but that was before the advancements of canvas fingerprinting, which claims to add another 5.7 bits.\n\nFirefox provides a feature to protect against browser fingerprinting since 2015 (version 41), but as of July 2018 it is still experimental and disabled by default.\n", "BULLET::::- Stability requires that fingerprints remain the same over time. However, by definition browser configuration preferences are not tamper proof. For example, if one measured attribute is whether the browser has cookies on or off, then a simple change of that setting is sufficient to change the fingerprint. One remedy is to reduce the number of parameters collected to only those that are very unlikely to change; however, this is likely to reduce diversity, as fewer parameters are being measured.\n\nSection::::Active vs passive collection.\n\nFingerprinting methods range from passive to active.\n", "Active fingerprinting assumes the client will tolerate some degree of invasive querying. The most active method is installation of executable code directly on the client machine. Such code may have access to attributes not typically available by other means, such as the MAC address, or other unique serial numbers assigned to the machine hardware. Such data is useful for fingerprinting by programs that employ digital rights management.\n\nSection::::OSI model fingerprints.\n\nPassive collection of device attributes below the web-browser layer may occur at several OSI model layers.\n", "Contactless fingerprinting\n\nContactless fingerprinting technology (CFP) was described in a government-funded report as an attempt to gather and add fingerprints to those gathered via wet-ink process and then, in a \"touchless\" scan, verify claimed identify and, a bigger challenge, identify their owners without additional clues.\n\nAlthough an early source of this technology, which worked with phone cameras (and not needing additional hardware), opened in 2003 and closed in 2011, others in this space are still, several years later, using the words \"one of the first.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The fourth product is the most advanced of the group, and while it is not touchless, there is no contact with the scanner, just with an \"optical scanning area.\"\n\nA list of nine \"contactless fingerprint technologies that are worth noting\" is part of the report. Of the\n\ntop three, the first closed in 2011. Next come a pair from an inventor with 2 entries; one had 800 employees worldwide when, for reasons of mismanagement, it went bankrupt and was absorbed by another firm.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nAside from border, airport and access control, contactless fingerprint technologies \n\nhave provided benefits in:\n", "In 2012, Apple acquired AuthenTec, a company focused on fingerprint reading and identification management software, for $356 million. The acquisition led commentators to expect a fingerprint reading feature. Following leaks and speculation in early September, the iPhone 5S was unveiled on September 10, 2013, was the first phone on a major US carrier to feature the technology. Apple's Vice President of Marketing, Phil Schiller, announced the feature at Apple's iPhone media event and spent several minutes (the major portion of the conference) discussing the feature.\n", "Although there are hundreds of reported techniques for fingerprint detection, many of these are only of academic interest and there are only around 20 really effective methods which are currently in use in the more advanced fingerprint laboratories around the world.\n", "Moreover, he notes that the feature is one of the few that distinguish the iPhone 5S from the 5C. Roose also stated the feature is intended to deter theft. However, Brent Kennedy, a vulnerability analyst at the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team, expressed concern that Touch ID could be hacked and suggested that people not rely on it right away. \"Forbes\" noted a history of fingerprints being spoofed in the past, and cautioned that the fingerprints on a stolen iPhone might be used to gain unauthorized access. However, the article did say that biometrics technology had improved since tests on spoofing fingerprint readers had been conducted.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Since 2006, a Canadian citizen Nathalie Morin is stuck in Saudi Arabia with an abusive husband, fighting to go back to Canada along with her four children. With the on-going escalated tensions between Saudi Arabia and Canada, the future of Morin remains unclear. According to Morin’s mother Johanne Durocher, Morin is cut off from the world, locked in an apartment in Dammam, victim of physical, psychological and sexual violence from her spouse. Durocher has not had any contact with her daughter or grandchildren since August 2018.\n", "According to the \"Global News\", Saudi Arabia's state-owned television spread fake news about Canada. In August 2018, Canada's \"Global News\" reported that state-owned television \"Al Arabiya\", \"has suggested that Canada is the worst country in the world for women, that it has the highest suicide rate and that it treats its Indigenous people the way Myanmar treats the Rohingya – a Muslim minority massacred and driven out of Myanmar en masse last year.\"\n\nIn October 2018, Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi rhetoric about the disappearance of Saudi opposition journalist Jamal Khashoggi.\n", "Crime has risen inside the workers’ accommodations and company premises. Company cars were overturned, housing units burned to the ground, and pickets have continued.\n\nThe reason why workers cannot leave the country is because they need to have a valid exit clearance to be able to leave, which only the management can provide. Most workers have already resigned from their jobs and filed for their exit clearances. However, the company could not provide airplane tickets, end of service benefits, and most importantly salaries which have resulted in their dire situation as stranded workers.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official website\n", "About 1200 people fled Saudi Arabia and sought asylum in other countries in 2017, including many women fleeing forced marriages or abusive male family members. The Saudi government has frozen bank accounts, arrested family members, and revoked official documents in an attempt to get fleeing citizens to return to the country or to a Saudi embassy. Students studying abroad have been threatened with termination of scholarships in response to criticism of the Saudi government on social media, and in 2018 some studying in Canada were de-funded after the Canadian government criticized human rights in Saudi Arabia. Women who have successfully gained asylum in Western countries report fearing for their personal safety after being harassed by Saudi government agents on social media, and sometimes in person, warning them that they will be sorry for their actions or be punished. Occasionally they are asked to go to Saudi embassies for no stated reason. One woman, unlike most, reported going to the embassy to try to end harassment of a firm she had left to her business partners, but she said authorities attempted to get her to return, threatened her, and said the business would continue to have problems as long as she remained in Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- September 20 – The MV \"Nyerere\" capsizes on Lake Victoria, killing at least 228 passengers.\n\nBULLET::::- September 22 – An attack at a military parade kills 30 people (including 5 attackers) and injures 70 more in Ahvaz, Iran.\n\nBULLET::::- September 28 – A magnitude 7.5 earthquake hits Sulawesi, Indonesia, causing a tsunami that kills at least 4,340 people and injures more than 10,679 others.\n\nSection::::Events.:October.\n\nBULLET::::- October 2 – \"Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi is murdered inside the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, triggering a diplomatic crisis for Saudi Arabia.\n", "BULLET::::- Twenty-year Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict formally ends.\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow vests movement becomes France's largest sustained period of civil unrest since 1968.\n\nBULLET::::- Sunda strait tsunami kills 426 and injures 14,000.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami kills 4,340 and injures 10,700.\n\nBULLET::::- Exiled \"Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi is murdered inside the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, triggering a diplomatic crisis for Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- Kerch Strait incident triggers martial law in Ukraine.\n\nBULLET::::- Macedonia and Greece reach a historic agreement in the Macedonia naming dispute, in which the former is renamed in 2019 to the 'Republic of North Macedonia'.\n", "BULLET::::- February 5 – American electronics retail store franchise RadioShack files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection after 11 consecutive quarterly losses.\n\nBULLET::::- February 10\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. officials announce that, in light of the Houthi takeover of the Yemeni capital city of Sana'a and the resignation of Yemeni President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, that the United States will be closing its embassy in Yemen. All American diplomats working in Yemen are advised to evacuate.\n", "In October 2018, Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi journalist and a critic of the crown prince went missing after entering the Saudi consulate in Istanbul. Turkish officials reportedly believe that Khashoggi was murdered at the consulate, claiming to have specific video and audio recordings proving that Khashoggi was first tortured and then murdered, and that a medical forensics expert was part of the 15-man Saudi team seen entering and leaving the consulate at the time of the journalist's disappearance. Saudi Arabia denied the accusations and Salman invited Turkish authorities to search the building as they \"have nothing to hide\". Saudi officials said they are \"working to search for him\". The \"Washington Post\" reported that the Crown Prince had earlier sought to lure Khashoggi back to Saudi Arabia and detain him.\n", "The pressure on Saudi to reveal the insights about Khashoggi’s disappearance from the US and other European countries has increased. Saudi-US relations took an ugly turn on 14 October 2018, when Trump promised “severe punishment” if the royal court was responsible for Khashoggis’ death. The Saudi Foreign Ministry retaliated with an equal statement saying, “it will respond with greater action,” indicating the kingdom’s “influential and vital role in the global economy.” A joint statement was issued by Britain, France and Germany also demanding a “credible investigation to establish the truth about what happened, and — if relevant — to identify those bearing responsibility for the disappearance of Jamal Khashoggi, and ensure that they are held to account.”\n", "BULLET::::- Xi Jinping, President and General Secretary of the Communist Party, China\n\nNine leaders and ten groups were dropped from the list of predators in 2016 and 2017:\n\nBULLET::::- Abdallah Ibn Al-Saud, King, Saudi Arabia\n\nBULLET::::- Baloch armed groups, Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- \"Black Eagles\", Paramilitary group, Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Boko Haram, Islamist group, Nigeria\n\nBULLET::::- Choummaly Sayasone, President, Laos\n\nBULLET::::- Islam Karimov, President, Uzbekistan\n\nBULLET::::- Israel Defense Forces, Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Italian organized crime\n\nBULLET::::- Jabhat Al-Nosra, Syrian jihadi group\n\nBULLET::::- Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, President, Iran\n\nBULLET::::- Maldives' Islamists\n\nBULLET::::- Miguel Facussé Barjum, Businessman and landowner, Honduras\n\nBULLET::::- Mswati III, King, Swaziland\n", "BULLET::::- King Salman officially ended its diplomatic trip in Bogor and Jakarta and began his vacation trip in Bali\n\nBULLET::::- The first ever Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) Leaders' Summit was held in Indonesia's capital city of Jakarta\n\nBULLET::::- 6 March – Hundreds of homes were destroyed after a massive landslipe swept through a village in West Sumatra. 6 people, including one infant, were killed in the disaster.\n\nBULLET::::- 8 March\n", "According to the legal assistance group, Thai Lawyers for Human Rights, at least 86 Thais left Thailand seeking asylum abroad following the military takeover in May 2014. Among them are the four members of the Thai band Fai Yen. Their music is their crime, as some of their songs mock the monarchy, a serious offense in Thailand. The band, whose name means 'cool fire', announced on social media that its members feared for their lives after \"many trusted people told us that the Thai military will come to kill us.\" All of those who disappeared in late-2018 and early-2019 were accused by Thai authorities of anti-monarchical activity.\n", "According to \"Newsweek\", Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that \"producing rumors or fake news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that would affect the public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technical means\" is punishable \"by five years and a fine of 3 million riyals\".\n\nIranian-backed Twitter accounts spread sensational fake news and rumours about Saudi Arabia.\n\nSection::::Fake news by country.:Singapore.\n", "This image has been undermined by disappearance and apparent Saudi state-sanctioned murder of \"Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi. Following these allegations, US Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo said, \"We call on the government of Saudi Arabia to support a thorough investigation of Mr Khashoggi's disappearance and to be transparent about the results of that investigation\" and a UK Foreign Office spokesman said, \"These are extremely serious allegations. We are aware of the latest reports and are working urgently to establish the facts, including with the government of Saudi Arabia.\" France also sought an explanation as to how an \"accomplished and esteemed\" journalist such as Khashoggi vanished.\n", "Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that \"producing rumors or fake news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that would affect the public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technical means\" is punishable \"by five years and a fine of 3 million riyals\". Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi tweets about the disappearance of Khashoggi.\n", "The Ethiopian Foreign Ministry said it would airlift its citizens out of Yemen if they requested to be evacuated. There were reportedly more than 50,000 Ethiopian nationals living and working in Yemen at the outbreak of hostilities.\n\nMalaysia also planned to evacuate its 879 citizens from Yemen, according to its Foreign Minister, Anifah Aman, but it was unclear whether they would be moved out by air or land.\n\nSection::::Timeline of events.\n", "The Indian government responded by deploying ships and planes to Yemen to evacuate stranded Indians. India began evacuating its citizens on 2 April by sea. An air evacuation of Indian nationals from Sanaʽa to Djibouti started on 3 April, after the Indian government obtained permission to land two Airbus A320s at the airport. The Indian Armed Forces carried out rescue operation codenamed \"Operation Raahat\" and evacuated more than 4640 overseas Indians in Yemen along with 960 foreign nationals of 41 countries. The air evacuation ended on 9 April 2015 while the evacuation by sea ended on 11 April 2015. The United States has assets in the region, but through its Yemen diplomatic mission website, instructed its citizens to evacuate using Indian assistance.\n", "In January 2019, the Saudi authorities were, according to \"The Washington Post\", refusing to confirm the whereabouts of al-Qahtani. There were concerns that he could be influencing the investigation itself. Khalil Jahshan, executive director of the Arab Centre of Washington DC, stated in an interview with Al Jazeera, that al-Qahtani's \"disappearance\" was a \"natural progression of [Saudi Arabia's] investigation\" and is likely used as a strategy to keep crown prince Mohammed bin Salman protected from accusations regarding Khashoggi's murder: \"They have sheltered some of the key players accused of being involved [in the murder] whether by Turkey or by the international community. The intention of the Saudi campaign right now is to keep the crown prince clear of any accusations with regards to the murder of Khashoggi.\"\n", "Zaid al-Sharabi, an Emirates News Agency journalist, was killed by a Houthi set bomb which was hidden inside a motocycle and placed near a restaurant in Mokha on 29 January 2019. The bomb killed a total of 6 people and wounded another Emirates News Agency journalist, Faisal Al Thubhani.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure damage and humanitarian situation.\n", "And also, With the exception of a group of owners who would not give up anything, four types of abandonment were found, with uncertainty of the order of 27.36% of the total samples, 19.92% of the actualist, 13.24% of the self-absorbed type and 8.70% of the suspended type.\n\nSection::::Similar issues in other countries.\n", "Departure (TV series)\n\nDeparture is an upcoming Canadian-British TV series set to air on Global in 2019. NBCUniversal pre-bought the upcoming drama series to air on the Universal TV channel in the United Kingdom and Germany and 13th Street in France and Spain, as well as on Universal TV in Africa and 13th Street in Poland.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nThe conspiracy series follows the mystery of a passenger plane that vanishes over the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Panjabi\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Plummer\n\nBULLET::::- Kris Holden-Ried\n\nBULLET::::- Claire Forlani\n\nBULLET::::- Rebecca Liddiard\n\nBULLET::::- Shazad Latif\n\nBULLET::::- Tamara Duarte\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Mensah\n", "Marc Owen Jones, an assistant professor at Hamad Bin Khalifa University in Doha who researched Arab propaganda and has monitored Saudi Twitter bots for two years, said he has seen a massive surge in pro-regime Twitter activity, and in the creation of troll accounts, since Khashoggi went missing: \"There was such a huge spike in October in bot accounts and the use of the hashtags praising the crown prince, it's absurd\".\n\nAfter Khashoggi's assassination, the Saudi cyber-operations were the focus of global scrutiny. The Government of Canada started an investigation in to those malicious cyberattacks.\n", "As Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for \"Saudization\" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country. Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons. In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the Kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticised Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue. Over 500,000 undocumented migrant workers — mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen — have been detained and deported since 2013.\n", "Saudi Arabia halted new trade and investment dealings with Canada and suspended diplomatic ties in a dramatic escalation of a dispute over the kingdom’s arrest of a women's rights activist on 6 August 2018.\n", "On 2 October 2018, Khashoggi went missing after he entered the Saudi Consulate in Istanbul. Saudi officials claimed that they were not responsible for Khashoggi's death but were not able to provide evidence of what happened. Meanwhile Turkish officials stated that Saudi agents killed and dismembered him. Saudi officials later reported that Khashoggi died in a fight with people he met in the consulate.\"\" After several weeks of contradictory claims from the Saudi government, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency concluded that Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman ordered the assassination of Khashoggi, although the matter of who directed the assassination is still in question by some parties.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Aside from performed vitamin A, vitamin B and vitamin D, all vitamins found in animal source foods may also be found in plant-derived foods. Examples are tofu to replace meat (both contain protein in sufficient amounts), and certain seaweeds and vegetables as respectively kombu and kale to replace dairy foods as milk (both contain calcium in sufficient amounts). There are some nutrients which are rare to find in sufficient density in plant based foods. One example would be zinc, the exception would be pumpkin seeds that have been soaked for improved digestion. The increased fiber in these foods can also make absorption difficult. Deficiencies are very possible in these nutrients if vegetarians are not very careful and willing to eat sufficient quantities of these exceptional plant based foods. A good way to find these foods would be to search for them on one of the online, nutrient analyzing databases. An example would be nutritiondata.com.\n", "UNICEF specifications for RUTFs say that the vitamin and mineral premix must be sourced from one of the following vendors authorized by the World Food Program: DSM Nutrition/Fortitech, Nicholas Piramal Healthcare Ltd (now Piramal Group), Hexagon Nutrition, BASF (SternVitamin), and the GAIN premix facility.\n\nRUTFs are used by UNICEF Kid Power malnutrition program, which uses celebrities to go on \"global missions\" to help save impoverished areas in Africa.\n\nSection::::Ready-to-use therapeutic food.:Dietary method.\n", "Section::::Food sources.\n\nSection::::Food sources.:Vitamin K.\n\nVitamin K is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and \"Brassica\" vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils. Some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, also contain vitamin K. Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the recommended amounts.\n", "Vitamin Cottage Natural Grocers\n\nVitamin Cottage Natural Food Markets, Inc () (commonly referred to as \"Vitamin Cottage\" or \"Natural Grocers\") is a Colorado based health food chain.\n", "While plant foods are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on the variety of the plant, soil condition, climate where it grew, length of time since it was picked, storage conditions, and method of preparation. The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different raw plant sources. As some plants were analyzed fresh while others were dried (thus, artificially increasing concentration of individual constituents like vitamin C), the data are subject to potential variation and difficulties for comparison. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable:\n", "Sunlight, fortified foods and supplements are the main sources of vitamin D for humans. Unlike plant-foods, some animal products naturally contain small amounts of vitamin D, such as salmon and other oily fish, egg yolks, some dairy products, and various organ meats. Furthermore, vitamin D3 used in some supplements and fortified foods, which has longer lasting effects than vitamin D2, is commonly animal-derived. Vitamin D2 is obtained from fungi, such as mushrooms exposed to sun or industrial ultraviolet light, offering a vegan choice for dietary or supplemental vitamin D.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetarian nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Raw veganism\n", "BULLET::::- Research: Enriching plants with vitamins and minerals through selection and breeding, known as bio-fortification, is a focus of research institutions worldwide. For example, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is working on breeding of vitamin A rich cassava roots. iCheck test kits are used to carry out the monitoring by decreasing cost and saving time. Research institutes and labs use the test kits as high-throughput analysis equipment to assess data on nutrients within a short period of time.\n\nSection::::Public Private Partnerships.\n", "Leaf vegetables contain many typical plant nutrients, but since they are photosynthetic tissues, their vitamin K levels are particularly notable. Phylloquinone, the most common form of the vitamin, is directly involved in photosynthesis. This causes leaf vegetables to be the primary food class that interacts significantly with the anticoagulant warfarin.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n\nLeaf vegetables are typically low in calories and fat, and high in protein per calorie, dietary fiber, vitamin C, pro-vitamin A carotenoids, folate, manganese and vitamin K.\n", "The vitamin K content of leaf vegetables is particularly high, since these are photosynthetic tissues and phylloquinone is involved in photosynthesis. Accordingly, users of vitamin K antagonist medications, such as warfarin, must take special care to limit consumption of leaf vegetables.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Prenatal vitamins\n\nPrenatal vitamins, also known as prenatal supplements, are vitamin and mineral supplements intended to be taken before and during pregnancy and during postnatal lactation. Although not intended to replace a healthy diet, prenatal vitamins provide women of childbearing age with nutrients recognized by the various health organizations including the American Dietetic Association as helpful for a healthy pregnancy outcome. It may be appropriate to start taking prenatal vitamins once the female enters childbearing age.\n\nPrenatal vitamins are similar to other multivitamins but do contain different amounts of specific nutrients to better suit the needs of an expecting mother.\n", "For the most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength of ultraviolet light present in sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume: for example, vitamin A is synthesized from beta carotene; and niacin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. The Food Fortification Initiative lists countries which have mandatory fortification programs for vitamins folic acid, niacin, vitamin A and vitamins B1, B2 and B12.\n", "Most humans eat an omnivorous diet (comprising animal source foods and plant source foods) though some civilisations have eaten only animal foods. Although a healthy diet containing all essential macro and micronutrients may be possible by only consuming a plant based diet (with vitamin B obtained from supplements if no animal sourced foods are consumed), some populations are unable to consume an adequate quantity or variety of these plant based items to obtain appropriate amounts of nutrients, particularly those that are found in high concentrations in ASF. Frequently, the most vulnerable populations to these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant women, infants, and children in developing countries. In the 1980s the Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (NCRSP) found that six micronutrients were low in the mostly vegetarian diets of children in malnourished areas of Egypt, Mexico, and Kenya. These six micronutrients are vitamin A, vitamin B, riboflavin, calcium, iron and zinc. ASF are the only food source of Vitamin B. ASF also provide high biological value protein, energy, fat compared with plant food sources.\n", "Researchers at the USDA Agricultural Research Service have published, as of early 2014, several studies that identify the nutritional make-up and the shelf life of microgreens. Twenty-five varieties were tested, key nutrients measured were ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tocopherols (vitamin E), phylloquinone (vitamin K), and beta-carotene (a vitamin A precursor), plus other related carotenoids in the cotyledons.\n", "Section::::General overview of vitamins and minerals.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Food fortification.\n\nFood fortification is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food as a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population. Staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients due to the soil of the region or from inherent inadequacy of a normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in these cases.\n", "Section::::Intake.:Effects of cooking.\n\nThe USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more \"bio-available\" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.\n", "The Food Fortification Initiative lists all countries in the world that conduct fortification programs, and within each country, what nutrients are added to which foods, and whether those programs are voluntary or mandatory. Vitamin fortification programs exist in one or more countries for folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin B, vitamin D and vitamin E. Mineral fortification programs include calcium, fluoride, iodine, iron, selenium and zinc. As of December 21, 2018, 81 countries required food fortification with one or more vitamins. The most commonly fortified vitamin – as used in 62 countries – is folate; the most commonly fortified food is wheat flour. Examples of foods and beverages that have been fortified:\n", "Ascorbic acid and some of its salts and esters are common additives added to various foods, mostly to retard oxidation. The relevant European food additive E numbers are:\n\nBULLET::::1. E300 ascorbic acid (approved for use as a food additive in the EU, U.S. and Australia and New Zealand)\n\nBULLET::::2. E301 sodium ascorbate (approved for use as a food additive in the EU, U.S. and Australia and New Zealand)\n\nBULLET::::3. E302 calcium ascorbate (approved for use as a food additive in the EU, U.S. and Australia and New Zealand)\n", "Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure. Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.\n", "Vitamin B, a bacterial product, cannot be obtained from fruits. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health \"natural food sources of vitamin B are limited to foods that come from animals.\" Like raw vegans who do not consume B-fortified foods (certain plant milks and some breakfast cereals, for example), fruitarians may need to include a B supplement in their diet or risk vitamin B deficiency.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Growth and development issues.\n", "Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.\n\nSection::::Supplementation.:Governmental regulation.\n", "The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat, and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B; provitamins; dietary minerals; and carbohydrates.\n", "Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and juice drinks. Tablet and capsule content ranges from 25 mg to 1500 mg per serving. The most commonly used supplement compounds are ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate. Vitamin C molecules can also be bound to the fatty acid palmitate, creating ascorbyl palmitate, or else incorporated into liposomes.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Food fortification.\n", "As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to \"the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e., vitamins and minerals in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health\", whereas enrichment is defined as \"synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing\". The Food Fortification Initiative lists all countries in the world that conduct fortification programs, and within each country, what nutrients are added to which foods. Vitamin fortification programs exist in one or more countries for folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin B, vitamin D and vitamin E. As of December 21, 2018, 81 countries required food fortification with one or more vitamins. The most commonly fortified vitamin – as used in 62 countries – is folate; the most commonly fortified food is wheat flour.\n", "In 2014, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency evaluated the effect of fortification of foods with ascorbate in the guidance document, \"Foods to Which Vitamins, Mineral Nutrients and Amino Acids May or Must be Added\". Voluntary and mandatory fortification was described for various classes of foods. Among foods classified for mandatory fortification with vitamin C were fruit-flavored drinks, mixes, and concentrates, foods for a low-energy diet, meal replacement products, and evaporated milk.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Food additives.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The primary treatment is removal from exposure. Contaminated clothing should be removed and placed in airtight bags to prevent secondary exposure.\n", "The World Health Organization says care should be taken in the preparation and storage of salsas and any other types of sauces, since many raw-served varieties can act as growth media for potentially dangerous bacteria, especially when unrefrigerated.\n\nIn 2002 a study by the University of Texas–Houston, found sauces contaminated with \"E. coli\" in:\n\nBULLET::::- 66% of the sauces from restaurants tested in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 40% of those from restaurants tested in Houston, Texas\n", "As of 2007 there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical studies had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevents subject compliance. A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials that had been run, found weak, uneven evidence suggesting that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food that people eat and might drive food choice toward carbohydrates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n", "A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. However, with newly developed radiation sterilization methods, the risk of Salmonella contamination is now lower.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:\n\nBULLET::::- Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.\n\nBULLET::::- Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.\n\nBULLET::::- Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.\n\nBULLET::::- Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.\n\nBULLET::::- Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chiles.\n", "Pique sauce\n\nPique is a Puerto Rican hot sauce commonly found at restaurants and roadside stands. Homemade versions of this type of sauce are made by steeping hot peppers in vinegar, with seasonings and fresh herbs. One popular variant is habanero peppers with pineapple and fresh recao leaves. The longer it sits, the hotter it gets.\n\nDifferent types of Island ajíes picantes (hot peppers) will have varying amounts of heat, the hottest of all is the ají caballero.\n\nSection::::Pique criollo.\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n", "In addition, Capsiate Capsicum extract is obtained from Tap de Cortí, which contains spicy substances (capsinoids), with the ability to increase the metabolism, thus increasing energy consumption and diminishing accumulation of fat in the body.\n\nSection::::Conservation and care.\n\nTo get the best yield, the paprika Tap de Cortí should be consumed within the first two years of life. During this period the aroma, taste and colour reflect the highest quality, after this time lose its properties.\n", "BULLET::::- Allicin, the active piquant flavor chemical in uncooked garlic, and to a lesser extent onions (see those articles for discussion of other chemicals in them relating to pungency, and eye irritation)\n\nBULLET::::- Allyl isothiocyanate (also allyl mercaptan), the active piquant chemical in mustard, radishes, horseradish, and wasabi\n\nBULLET::::- Capsazepine, capsaicin antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerol and shogaol, the active piquant flavor chemicals in ginger\n\nBULLET::::- Iodoresiniferatoxin, an ultrapotent capsaicin antagonist found in \"Euphorbia resinifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- List of investigational analgesics\n\nBULLET::::- Naga Viper pepper, Bhut Jolokia Pepper, Carolina Reaper, Trinidad Moruga Scorpion; some of the world's most capsaicin-rich fruits\n", "Pique criollo, also known as Pique boricua de botella or Puerto Rican Tabasco is a hot condiment used in Puerto Rican cooking. It is made of Cubanelle peppers, caballero hot peppers and/or habanero peppers, pineapple (skin or small pieces), vinegar, oregano, peppercorns, garlic and/or onions. Some people also add pineapple juice, citrus fruit, cilantro, culantro, sugar, cumin, rum or chocolate.\n", "Ways of reducing the fishy odor may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Avoiding foods such as egg yolks, legumes, red meats, fish, beans and other foods that contain choline, carnitine, nitrogen, sulfur and lecithin\n\nBULLET::::- Taking low doses of antibiotics such as neomycin and metronidazole in order to reduce the amount of bacteria in the gut\n\nBULLET::::- Using slightly acidic detergent with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5\n", "The pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Sofrito - small piquins (\"bird peppers\") with annatto seeds, coriander leaves, onions, garlic, and tomatoes Pique sauce is a Puerto Rican hot sauce made by steeping hot peppers in vinegar. Don Ricardo Original Pique Sauce, which is made with pineapple, is a Puerto Rican staple. Don Ricardo originated in Utuado (Spanish pronunciation: [uˈtwaðo]) a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the central mountainous region of the island known as La Cordillera Central.\n\nSection::::Styles.:North America.:West Indies.:Jamaica.\n\nScotch bonnets are the most popular peppers used on Jamaica. Pickapeppa sauce is a Jamaican sauce.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Asia.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Asia.:Thailand.\n", "BULLET::::- Garlic\n\nBULLET::::- Green chilli\n\nBULLET::::- Lime juice\n\nBULLET::::- Shallot\n\nBULLET::::- Coriander leaves\n\nBULLET::::- Mint leaves\n\nBULLET::::- Tomato\n\nBULLET::::- Ghee\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogenated vegetable oil (vanaspati)\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut oil\n\nBULLET::::- Edible Rose water\n\nBULLET::::- Curd or yoghurt\n\nBULLET::::- Table salt\n", "Beginning in 2009, a new type of product known as became a trend in 2010. This variety is known for reduced spiciness, and in addition to the usual oil, chunks of food are included such as fried garlic and fried onion.\n\nSection::::Italy.\n\nThe Italian variety of chili oil (olio di peperoncino) originates from the southern region of Calabria. This variety of chili oil uses olive oil as a base, and has a unique brine flavor. \n\nSection::::Portugal.\n", "When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n", "Traditional Panamanian hot sauce is usually made with \"Aji Chombo\", Scotch Bonnet peppers. Picante Chombo D'Elidas is a popular brand in Panama, with three major sauces. The yellow sauce, made with habanero and mustard, is the most distinctive. They also produce red and green varieties which are heavier on vinegar content and without mustard. Although the majority of Panamanian cuisine lacks in spice, D'Elidas is seen as an authentic Panamanian hot sauce usually serviced with Rice with Chicken or soups.\n\nSection::::Styles.:North America.:Mexico.\n", "For high risk community-acquired infections in adults, the agents recommended for empiric regimens are: meropenem, imipenem-cilastatin, doripenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin in combination with metronidazole, or ceftazidime or cefepime in combination with metronidazole. Quinolones should not be used unless hospital surveys indicate 90% susceptibility of \"E. coli\" to quinolones.\n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Papaitan\" — Filipino goat or beef tripe and offal soup flavored with bile\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patsás\" (Greek: πατσάς) — Greek, tripe stew seasoned with red wine vinegar and garlic (\"skordostoubi\") or thickened with \"avgolemono\", widely believed to be a hangover remedy\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Pepper Pot soup — American (Pennsylvania) tripe soup with peppercorns\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phở\" — Vietnamese noodle soup with many regional variations, some of which include tripe\n\nBULLET::::- Pickled tripe — pickled white honeycomb tripe once common in the Northeastern United States\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pieds paquets\", Provençal dish, consists of stuffed sheep's offal and sheep's feet stewed together\n", "Another hypothesis concerning the mechanism of action of praziquantel has been recently reported. The drug seems to interfere with adenosine uptake in cultured worms. This effect may have therapeutical relevance given that the schistosome, as the \"Taenia\" and the \"Echinococcus\" (other praziquantel-sensitive parasites), is unable to synthesize purines such as adenosine \"de novo\".\n", "Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n", "\"Helicobacter pylori\" was identified in 1982 by two Australian scientists, Robin Warren and Barry J. Marshall as a causative factor for ulcers. In their original paper, Warren and Marshall contended that most gastric ulcers and gastritis were caused by colonization with this bacterium, not by stress or spicy food as had been assumed before.\n" ]

[ "Eating spicy food could potentially destroy beneficial bacteria in one's colon." ]

[ "Some spicy foods actually benefit the colon rather than destroy, so it's unlikely spicy foods destroy the colon's bacteria." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Eating spicy food could potentially destroy beneficial bacteria in one's colon.", "Eating spicy food could potentially destroy beneficial bacteria in one's colon." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Some spicy foods actually benefit the colon rather than destroy, so it's unlikely spicy foods destroy the colon's bacteria.", "Some spicy foods actually benefit the colon rather than destroy, so it's unlikely spicy foods destroy the colon's bacteria." ]

[ "Section::::Important considerations for particle-beam storage.:Particle injection and timing.\n\nInjection of particles into a storage ring may be accomplished in a number of ways, depending on the application of the storage ring. The simplest method uses one or more pulsed deflecting dipole magnets (injection kicker magnets) to steer an incoming train of particles onto the stored beam path; the kicker magnets are turned off before the stored train returns to the injection point, thus resulting in a stored beam. This method is sometimes called single-turn injection.\n", "More complex modern synchrotrons such as the Tevatron, LEP, and LHC may deliver the particle bunches into storage rings of magnets with a constant magnetic field, where they can continue to orbit for long periods for experimentation or further acceleration. The highest-energy machines such as the Tevatron and LHC are actually accelerator complexes, with a cascade of specialized elements in series, including linear accelerators for initial beam creation, one or more low energy synchrotrons to reach intermediate energy, storage rings where beams can be accumulated or \"cooled\" (reducing the magnet aperture required and permitting tighter focusing; see beam cooling), and a last large ring for final acceleration and experimentation.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nThe most common type of particles used in single particle tracking are based either on scatterers, such as polystyrene beads or gold nanoparticles that can be tracked using bright field illumination, or fluorescent particles. For fluorescent tags, there are many different options with their own advantages and disadvantages, including quantum dots, fluorescent proteins, organic fluorophores, and cyanine dyes.\n\nOn a fundamental level, once the images are obtained, single-particle tracking is a two step process. First the particles are detected and then the localized different particles are connected in order to obtain individual trajectories.\n", "Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the polarity is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of \"bunches\" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.\n", "Those particles that were not deflected into EPA when coming from LIL, were directed straight into a \"dump line\". There, in the middle of the EPA ring, the LIL Experimental Area (LEA) was set up. The electrons coming there were used for many different applications throughout LIL's operation, testing and preparing LEP's and later LHC's detectors. Most famously, the optical fibres for one of CMS's calorimeters were tested here in 2001 during the preparation time of the LHC.\n", "BULLET::::- A target \"(not shown)\" with which the particles collide, located at the end of the accelerating electrodes. If electrons are accelerated to produce X-rays then a water cooled tungsten target is used. Various target materials are used when protons or other nuclei are accelerated, depending upon the specific investigation. Behind the target are various detectors to detect the particles resulting from the collision of the incoming particles with the atoms of the target. Many linacs serve as the initial accelerator stage for larger particle accelerators such as synchrotrons and storage rings, and in this case after leaving the electrodes the accelerated particles enter the next stage of the accelerator.\n", "Section::::The method.\n", "See animated diagram. A linear particle accelerator consists of the following parts:\n", "This is usually a fixed target, such as the phosphor coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of uranium in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from a fixed point as for a linear accelerator.\n", "When a nucleus in the target is hit by an electron from the beam, an \"interaction\", or \"event\", occurs, scattering particles into the hall. Each hall contains an array of particle detectors that track the physical properties of the particles produced by the event. The detectors generate electrical pulses that are converted into digital values by analog to digital converters (ADCs), time to digital converters (TDCs) and pulse counters (scalers).\n", "BULLET::::- Quit the application of a magnetic field\n\nBULLET::::- Discharging the liquid (such as washing buffer) from pipette tip to vessel (in the condition of magnetic force generated by the magnet body is cut off.).\n\nSection::::Automated instruments.:Tajima pipette.:Operations.\n\nAn example of the operations of the nucleic acid extraction apparatus which incorporates\n\nTajima pipette are typically as shown in Fig. 1.\n\nSection::::Automated instruments.:Other methods.\n\nExamples of other type of method of the magnetic particle capturing device are as follows.\n\nBULLET::::- Pen type capture\n\nBULLET::::- Tube type capture\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chaotropic agent\n\nBULLET::::- DNA extraction\n\nBULLET::::- DNA separation by silica adsorption\n", "Generally, track reconstruction is divided into two stages. First, track finding needs to be performed where a cluster of detector hits believed to originate from the same track are grouped together. Second, a track fitting is performed. Track fitting is the procedure of mathematically fitting a curve to the found hits and from this fit the momentum is obtained.\n", "A historic method of secondary particle detection still used for demonstration purposes involves the use of cloud chambers to detect the secondary muons created when a pion decays. Cloud chambers in particular can be built from widely available materials and can be constructed even in a high-school laboratory. A fifth method, involving bubble chambers, can be used to detect cosmic ray particles.\n", "Often data sets of tens of thousands of particle images are used, and to reach an optimal solution an iterative procedure of alignment and classification is used, whereby strong image averages produced by classification are used as reference images for a subsequent alignment of the whole data set.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Image filtering.\n", "Tracking (particle physics)\n\nIn particle physics, tracking is the process of reconstructing the trajectory (or track) of electrically charged particles in a particle detector known as a tracker. The particles entering such a tracker leave a precise record of their passage through the device, by interaction with suitably constructed components and materials. The presence of a calibrated magnetic field, in all or part of the tracker, allows the local momentum of the charged particle to be directly determined from the reconstructed local curvature of the trajectory for known (or assumed) electric charge of the particle. \n", "There are two basic types of showers. \"Electromagnetic showers\" are produced by a particle that interacts primarily or exclusively via the electromagnetic force, usually a photon or electron. \"Hadronic showers\" are produced by hadrons (i.e. nucleons and other particles made of quarks), and proceed mostly via the strong nuclear force.\n\nSection::::Types.:Electromagnetic showers.\n", "In DONUT, protons accelerated by the Tevatron were used to produce tau neutrinos via decay of charmed mesons. After eliminating as many unwanted background particles as possible by a system of magnets and bulk matter (mostly iron and concrete), the beam passed through several sheets of nuclear emulsion. In very rare cases one of the neutrinos would interact in the detector, producing electrically charged particles which left visible tracks in the emulsion and could be electronically registered by a system of scintillators and drift chambers.\n", "BULLET::::- A straight hollow pipe vacuum chamber which contains the other components. It is evacuated with a vacuum pump so that the accelerated particles will not collide with air molecules. The length will vary with the application. If the device is used for the production of X-rays for inspection or therapy the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters long. If the device is to be an injector for a synchrotron it may be about ten meters long. If the device is used as the primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it may be several thousand meters long.\n", "Particle shower\n\nIn particle physics, a shower is a cascade of secondary particles produced as the result of a high-energy particle interacting with dense matter. The incoming particle interacts, producing multiple new particles with lesser energy; each of these then interacts, in the same way, a process that continues until many thousands, millions, or even billions of low-energy particles are produced. These are then stopped in the matter and absorbed.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- Additionally, galactic cosmic rays include these particles, but many are from unknown mechanisms\n\nCharged particles (electrons, mesons, protons, alpha particles, heavier HZE ions, etc.) can be produced by particle accelerators. Ion irradiation is widely used in the semiconductor industry to introduce dopants into\n\nmaterials, a method known as ion implantation.\n\nParticle accelerators can also produce neutrino beams. Neutron beams are mostly produced by nuclear reactors. For the production of electromagnetic radiation, there are many methods, depending upon the wave length (see electromagnetic spectrum).\n\nSection::::Passage through matter.\n", "Section::::Experimental Apparatus.:Beam telescope.\n\nThe timing and the position of the incident particles are determined with cold silicon strip detectors and scintillating fibre detectors. These informations are crucial to determine the interaction point inside the target material. Depending on the beam type, modifications in the beam telescope are done:\n\nBULLET::::- For the muon beam, the momentum is measured using beam momentum stations,\n\nBULLET::::- To distinguish between the different particle types in the hadron beam, a Cherenkov detector is used.\n\nSection::::Experimental Apparatus.:Target.\n\nAccording to the physics goal, a suitable target is needed.\n", "The Neutrino Factory will create a fairly focused beam of neutrinos at one site on the Earth and fire it downwards, probably in two beams emitted in different directions from a racetrack shaped underground muon storage ring, until the beams resurface at other points. One example could be a complex in the UK sending beams to Japan (see Super-Kamiokande) and Italy (LNGS). The properties of the neutrinos will be examined at the remote sites to determine how neutrinos evolve over time. This will provide information about their masses and weak interaction properties.\n", "In particle physics one gains knowledge about elementary particles by accelerating particles to very high kinetic energy and letting them impact on other particles. For sufficiently high energy, a reaction occurs that transforms the particles into other particles. Detecting these products gives insight into the physics involved.\n\nTo do such experiments there are two possible setups:\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed target setup: A beam of particles (the \"projectiles\") is accelerated with a particle accelerator, and as collision partner, one puts a stationary target into the path of the beam.\n", "In particle physics there have been many devices used for tracking. These include cloud chambers (1920–1950), nuclear emulsion plates (1937–), bubble chambers (1952–) , spark chambers (1954-), multi wire proportional chambers (1968–) and drift chambers (1971–), including time projection chambers (1974–). With the advent of semiconductors plus modern photolithography, solid state trackers, also called silicon trackers (1980–), are used in experiments requiring compact, high-precision, fast-readout tracking; for example, close to the primary interaction point in a collider like the LHC.\n", "Each particle-target collision is called an \"event\". An elaborate data acquisition system records each event measured by the particle detectors, up to several thousand events per second on average. This data is then transferred to a \"farm\" of computing processors. Teams of physicists analyze the events, looking for new kinds of particles or information related to the underlying structure of the proton.\n\nSection::::Detector Description.\n" ]

[ "Subatomic particles are caught.", "Subatomic particles are caught. " ]

[ "Most of the time subatomic particles are not caught, they are generated, studied, and then lost.", "Subatomic particles are not caught, but subatomic particles are generated in a collision and studied. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Subatomic particles are caught.", "Subatomic particles are caught. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Most of the time subatomic particles are not caught, they are generated, studied, and then lost.", "Subatomic particles are not caught, but subatomic particles are generated in a collision and studied. " ]

[ "This rule is ensured by a simple restriction: a candidate can't win an election unless its log contains all committed entries. In order to be elected, a candidate has to contact a majority of the cluster, and given the rules for logs to be committed, it means that every committed entry is going to be present on at least one of the servers the candidates contact.\n", "At this point the voter can either audit or cast the ballot. Auditing the ballot allows the voter to verify that the ciphertext is correct. Once the audit is complete, the ballot must be sealed again. When the voter is ready to cast their ballot, they must verify their login information. Helios authenticates the voter's identity and the ballot is cast. All votes are posted to a public online bulletin board which displays either a voter name or a voter ID number with the encrypted vote. \n", "When voters turn out to vote, they may be challenged and required to cast a provisional ballot. If investigation of the provisional ballot demonstrates that the voter has just moved or there is an error in the address and the voter is legally registered, the vote should be counted as well as vice versa.\n\nSection::::United States.\n\nSection::::United States.:Legality.\n\nSection 8 of the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA) has been interpreted to prohibit voter caging:\n", "As unpublished rolls are not made available at polling booths, voters on the unpublished roll must cast a special vote.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.\n\nA person who qualifies to register to vote can be registered anonymously if they can satisfy the electoral registration officer that their safety or that of any other person living in the same household would be at risk if their name and address were printed in the electoral register. \n", "\"Pursuant to the NVRA, a voter may not be removed from the voters list unless (1) the voter has requested removal; (2) state law requires removal by reason of criminal conviction or mental capacity; (3) the voter has confirmed in writing that he has moved outside the jurisdiction maintaining the specific voter list, or (4) the voter both (a) has failed to respond to a cancellation notice issued pursuant to the NVRA and (b) has not voted or appeared to vote in the two federal general elections following the date of notice.\"\n", "The voter's ballot receipt does not indicate which candidate the voter cast their ballot for, and therefore it is not secret information. After an election, the election authority will post an image of each receipt online. The voter can look up her ballot by typing in the serial number and she can check that information held by the election authority matches her ballot. This way, the voter can be confident that her ballot was \"cast as intended\".\n", "The right of political parties to have observers at polling places is long-standing. One of the established roles for such observers is to act as challengers, in the event that someone attempts to vote at the polling place who is not eligible to vote.\n\nBefore the implementation of provisional ballots, some state laws allowed a voter whose eligibility was challenged to cast a \"challenged ballot\". After the polls closed, the canvassing board was then charged with examining the challenged ballots and determining whether the challenge was to be upheld or not.\n", "Section::::United States.:Examples.:2016: No new violation established.\n\n\"On October 26, 2016, the DNC filed a motion asking that the court find the RNC had violated the decree. On November 5, after abbreviated discovery, the district court denied the DNC’s request, ruling that the DNC had not provided sufficient evidence of coordination between the Trump campaign and the RNC on ballot-security operations, but will allow the DNC to offer further evidence after the election,\" according to the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law. \n\n2016: Indiana voter purges\n", "In the \"strict\" states, a voter cannot cast a valid ballot without first presenting ID. Voters who are unable to show ID at the polls are given a provisional ballot. Those provisional ballots are kept separate from the regular ballots. If the voter returns to election officials within a short period of time after the election (generally a few days) and presents acceptable ID, the provisional ballot is counted. If the voter does not come back to show ID, that provisional ballot is never counted.\n", "In an experiment in Northern Ireland using personal identifiers, such as National Insurance numbers and signatures, the number of registered electors fell by some ten thousand. It was also understood that the new process may have resulted in fictitious voters being dropped from rolls.\n", "Provisional ballots are for would-be voters who assert that they are registered but whose names cannot be found in the list available at the polling place. The voter completes a written ballot, which is placed in a sealed envelope. The ballot is opened and counted only if the voter is subsequently found to be registered.\n", "Alternatively, assertions regarding ballot stuffing can be externally verified by comparing the number of votes cast with the number of registered voters who voted, and by auditing other aspects of the registration and ballot delivery system.\n\nSupport for E2E auditability, based on prior experience using it with in-person elections, is also seen as a requirement for remote voting over the Internet by many experts.\n\nSection::::Use in elections.\n\nThe city of Takoma Park, Maryland used Scantegrity II for its 2009 and 2011 city elections.\n", "In the 2018 midterm elections, both valid and invalid provisional ballots were mixed together in Florida after the initial vote count, which provided no way to be separated for the recount.\n\nComputer scientist and election official Douglas W. Jones has criticized the offer of a provisional ballot as \"a way to brush off troublesome voters by letting them think they have voted.\" He expressed the concern that, under some states' laws, casting a provisional ballot at the wrong precinct would disenfranchise voters who could have cast valid ballots had they been redirected to the proper precinct.\n\nSection::::Rates of acceptance.\n", "A voter could cast their vote at a polling station of their choice within their own district. At the casting their vote, they could identify themselves with an identity document which is considered valid even if it has expired within the last five years.\n\nSection::::Background.:Voting and election organisation.:Numbering of the candidates list.\n", "Once the anonymous elector application has been accepted by the electoral registration officer, the applicant's entry in the Electoral Register appears as an elector number and the letter N, rather than their name and address. Only the returning officer, the jury service in England and Wales, the security services and police forces have access to the name and address of anonymous electors. A 'certificate of anonymous registration' is then issued to the anonymous elector in case they need to prove their identity and address in order to obtain credit or to donate money or loan money to a political party/candidate (but as this involves handing over name and address details to a third party, the anonymous elector should only do this if they are absolutely confident that the other party will keep the information secure). The anonymous elector application lasts twelve months, after which it must be renewed.\n", "Registered persons may need to re-register or update their registration if they change residence or other relevant information. In some jurisdictions, when a person registers a change of residence with a government agency, say, for a driver's license, the government agency may forward the information to the electoral agency to automatically update the voter registration information.\n", "Regulation 23 of the Representation of the People Regulations 2001 states that the electoral registration officer has the power to require information needed for the purpose of maintaining the electoral register. Any person that fails to give information is liable on summary conviction to a fine.\n\nA person can register anonymously if their safety (or the safety of someone in their household) would be at risk if their name and address appeared on the electoral register. Documentary evidence of a court order or an attestation from an authorised person is required.\n\nSection::::Current procedure.:Individual Electoral Registration.\n", "Anonymous elector\n\nAn anonymous elector is generally a registered voter whose safety would be at risk if their details were available on a public electoral register.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nIn Australia, a voter anonymously registered is known as a silent elector. To be a silent elector, a voter must satisfy the Divisional Returning Officer that their safety or that of any other person living in the same household would be at risk if their name and address were printed in the electoral register. Silent elector registration forms must be returned by post, not by fax or by e-mail.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n", "Provision of false information to a registration officer is an offence under section 13D of the 1983 Act. While no specific allegation of false registration was particularised on the election petition, evidences were heard by the court as part of the case on personation and other voting offences. A schedule containing multiple false registrations were submitted to and accepted by the court where all entries were shown to have voted for Rahman.\n", "Section::::Additional security.:Commitments.\n\nPrior to an election, the election authority prints the ballots and creates the database(s). Part of this creation process involves committing to the unique information contained on each ballot and in the databases. This is accomplished by applying a cryptographic one-way function to the information. Though the result of this function, the commitment, is made public, the actual information being committed to remains sealed. Because the function is one-way, it is computationally infeasible to determine the information on the sealed ballot given only its publicly posted commitment.\n\nSection::::Additional security.:Ballot inspection.\n", "To cast a proxy vote, the user appoints someone as their \"proxy\", by authorizing them to cast or secure their vote in their stead. The proxy must be trusted by the voter, as in a secret ballot there is no way of verifying that they voted for the correct candidate. In an attempt to solve this, it is not uncommon for people to nominate an official of their chosen party as their proxy.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Internet voting.\n", "Proxy voting is particularly vulnerable to election fraud, due to the amount of trust placed in the person who casts the vote. In several countries, there have been allegations of retirement home residents being asked to fill out 'absentee voter' forms. When the forms are signed and gathered, they are secretly rewritten as applications for proxy votes, naming party activists or their friends and relatives as the proxies. These people, unknown to the voter, cast the vote for the party of their choice. In the United Kingdom, this is known as 'granny farming.'\n\nSection::::Specific methods.:Destruction or invalidation of ballots.\n", "After the petition is submitted, visitors may track the petitions progress through the parliament or local council, for example via a “progress in parliament” button.\n\nSection::::The system.:Signing the petition.\n\nSignatories’ names are displayed for transparency, but addresses are stored privately, ensuring that the system complies with data protection laws.\n", "In Raft, the request from a candidate to a voter includes information about the candidate's log. If its own log is more up-to-date than the candidate's log, the voter denies its vote to the candidate. This implementation ensures the State Machine Safety rule.\n\nSection::::Basics.:Safety.:Follower crashes.\n", "However, anonymous online speech is not without limits. It is clearly demonstrated in a case from 2008, one in which the defendant stated on a law-school discussion board that two women should be raped, an anonymous poster’s comments may extend beyond free speech protections. In the case, a Connecticut federal court must apply a standard to decide whether the poster’s identity should be revealed. There are several tests, however, that the court could apply when considering this issue.\n\nSection::::Legal protection of anonymity.:European Union.\n" ]

[ "Provisional ballots are visible to election staff." ]

[ "Provisional ballots are in a sealed envelope which is put inside another envelope, they are not visible to election staff." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Provisional ballots are visible to election staff.", "Provisional ballots are visible to election staff." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Provisional ballots are in a sealed envelope which is put inside another envelope, they are not visible to election staff.", "Provisional ballots are in a sealed envelope which is put inside another envelope, they are not visible to election staff." ]

[ "Section::::History.\n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, Buffett frequently sang the song in concert with one of the choruses replaced with \"why don't we get stoned and screw.\" This can be heard on the 1978 live album release \"You Had to Be There\", where Buffett declares \"I just bought some Colombian herb and we'll smoke it all, me and you.\"\n", "BULLET::::- F10.0 alcohol intoxication (drunk)\n\nBULLET::::- F11.0 opioid intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F12.0 cannabinoid intoxication (high)\n\nBULLET::::- F13.0 sedative and hypnotic intoxication (see benzodiazepine overdose and barbiturate overdose)\n\nBULLET::::- F14.0 cocaine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F15.0 caffeine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F16.0 hallucinogen intoxication (See for example Lysergic acid diethylamide effects)\n\nBULLET::::- F17.0 tobacco intoxication (See for example Nicotine Poisoning)\n\nSection::::Classification.:Contact high.\n\nThe term contact high is sometimes used to describe intoxication without direct administration, either by second-hand smoke (as with cannabis), or by placebo in the presence of others who are intoxicated.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The Differentiator Model is based on the widely accepted notion that alcohol's effects are biphasic. That is, the stimulating effects of alcohol (i.e., euphoria, sociality, energy) are more prevalent as BAC rises (i.e., ascending limb), while alcohol's sedative effects (i.e., relaxation, nausea, headaches) are experienced most strongly as BAC falls (i.e., descending limb). The Differentiator Model proposes that individuals at greatest risk for developing alcohol use disorder (or those who already meet criteria for alcohol use disorder) are more sensitive to the stimulating effects of alcohol on the ascending limb of intoxication and less sensitive to the sedative effects on the descending limb. Additionally, the combination of heightened rewards and diminished consequences over the course of a drinking episode increases motivation to consume alcohol, leading to longer and more frequent drinking episodes. Repeated engagement in these risky drinking occasions may ultimately contribute to the development of alcohol use disorder.\n", "The role of cannabis use in regard to alcohol use and Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is not fully understood. Some studies suggest better alcohol treatment completion for those who use cannabis while other studies find the opposite. A recent review of 39 studies which examined the relation between cannabis use and alcohol use found that 16 studies support the idea that cannabis and alcohol are substitutes for each other, 10 studies found that they are complements, 12 found that they are neither complementary nor substitutes, and one found that they are both.\n", "Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?\n\n\"Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?\" is a song by English indie rock band Arctic Monkeys. It was released as the third single from their fifth studio album \"AM\" on 11 August 2013. It was written by the group's lead vocalist Alex Turner while its production was handled by James Ford. Upon its release, many critics compared the composition of \"Why'd You Only Call Me When You're High?\" with works by different artists.\n", "Alcohol can intensify the sedation caused by other central nervous system depressants such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opioids, nonbenzodiazepines/Z-drugs (such as zolpidem and zopiclone), antipsychotics, sedative antihistamines, and certain antidepressants. It interacts with cocaine \"in vivo\" to produce cocaethylene, another psychoactive substance. Ethanol enhances the bioavailability of methylphenidate (elevated plasma dexmethylphenidate). In combination with cannabis, ethanol increases plasma tetrahydrocannabinol levels, which suggests that ethanol may increase the absorption of tetrahydrocannabinol.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Disulfiram-like drugs.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Disulfiram-like drugs.:Disulfiram.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "The difference in volatility between water and ethanol has traditionally been used in the refinement of drinking alcohol. In order to increase the concentration of ethanol in the product, alcohol makers would heat the initial alcohol mixture to a temperature where most of the ethanol vaporizes while most of the water remains liquid. The ethanol vapor is then collected and condensed in a separate container, resulting in a much more concentrated product.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Perfume.\n", "Support for the Differentiator Model is mixed, perhaps reflecting the paucity of studies designed to test the model itself or record SR over both limbs of intoxication. Both oral and intravenous alcohol administration studies reported that FH+ subjects experienced elevated sensitivity to stimulating effects of alcohol along rising BAC, without the corresponding attenuation of sedative effects as BAC fell. A study using an intravenous alcohol clamping method (participants were titrated to a BAC of .06 g/dl whereupon alcohol was infused to maintain a stable BAC for the duration of the study) reported that FH+ subjects experienced heightened stimulation on the ascending limb of intoxication, consistent with the Differentiator Model. However, FH+ subjects reported decreased stimulation during clamping, indicative of acute tolerance.\n", "According to DSST, alcohol provides a reduction in performance and caffeine has a significant improvement in performance. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects produced by caffeine are affected, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, when additional caffeine is added, the drug effect produced by alcohol is not reduced. However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol is consumed. Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control. Caffeine antagonizes the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as this may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury.\n", "1. While under the influence of intoxicating liquor, any drug, a vapor releasing substance containing a toxic substance or any combination of liquor, drugs or vapor releasing substances if the person is impaired to the slightest degree. \"\n", "Section::::Single release.\n", "A stimulus that is present when a drug is administered or consumed may eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of the drug. This is sometimes the case with caffeine; habitual coffee drinkers may find that the smell of coffee gives them a feeling of alertness. In other cases, the conditioned response is a compensatory reaction that tends to offset the effects of the drug. For example, if a drug causes the body to become less sensitive to pain, the compensatory conditioned reaction may be one that makes the user more sensitive to pain. This compensatory reaction may contribute to drug tolerance. If so, a drug user may increase the amount of drug consumed in order to feel its effects, and end up taking very large amounts of the drug. In this case a dangerous overdose reaction may occur if the CS happens to be absent, so that the conditioned compensatory effect fails to occur. For example, if the drug has always been administered in the same room, the stimuli provided by that room may produce a conditioned compensatory effect; then an overdose reaction may happen if the drug is administered in a different location where the conditioned stimuli are absent.\n", "A bit of Texas tradition is captured in \"Sangria Wine,\" a recollection of nights passed in the company of friends, Mexican food, and the titular potent potable. \"Get It Out\" and \"Wheel\", which both make their lone showings in Walker's recorded output here, are twin sides of the same coin: the first a declaration of defiant living, the second a meditation on the fragile and transitory nature of life.\n", "In the US state of Colorado, the state government indicates that \"[a]ny amount of marijuana consumption puts you at risk of driving impaired.\" Colorado law states that \"drivers with five nanograms of active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in their whole blood can be prosecuted for driving under the influence (DUI). However, no matter the level of THC, law enforcement officers base arrests on observed impairment.\" In Colorado, if consumption of marijuana is impairing your ability to drive, \"it is illegal for you to be driving, even if that substance is prescribed [by a doctor] or legally acquired.\" \n\nSection::::Other drugs.:Prescription medications.\n", "Section::::United States.\n\nAccording to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Drug Evaluation and Classification program (DEC), a drug is “any substance that, when taken into the human body, can impair the ability of the person to operate a vehicle safely.\" Under this definition, alcohol would be classified as a drug. For the purposes of this article, drug impaired driving is the use of drugs other than alcohol and the effect on driving.\n\nSection::::United States.:Detection.\n", "However, in \"Powell v. Texas\", , the Court upheld a statute barring public intoxication by distinguishing \"Robinson\" on the basis that \"Powell\" dealt with a person who was drunk \"in public\", not merely for being addicted to alcohol.\n", "Absorption of alcohol continues for anywhere from 20 minutes (on an empty stomach) to two-and-one-half hours (on a full stomach) after the last consumption. Peak absorption generally occurs within an hour. During the initial absorptive phase, the distribution of alcohol throughout the body is not uniform. Uniformity of distribution, called equilibrium, occurs just as absorption completes. In other words, some parts of the body will have a higher blood alcohol content (BAC) than others. One aspect of the non-uniformity before absorption is complete is that the BAC in arterial blood will be higher than in venous blood. \n", "Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\n", "Some states allow for conviction for impaired driving based upon a measurement of THC, through blood test or urine testing. For example, in Colorado and Washington, driving with a blood level of THC in excess of 5 nanograms can result in a DUI conviction. In Nevada, the legal THC limit is 2 nanograms. It is also possible for a driver to be convicted of impaired driving based upon the officer's observations of impairment, even if the driver is under the legal limit. In states that have not yet established a THC blood level that triggers a presumption of impaired driving, a driver may similarly be convicted of impaired driving based upon the officer's observations and performance on other sobriety tests.\n", "Intoxication in English law is a circumstance which may alter the capacity of a defendant to form mens rea, where a charge is one of specific intent, or may entirely negate mens rea where the intoxication is involuntary. The fact that a defendant is intoxicated in the commission of a crime — whether voluntarily or not — has never been regarded as a full defence to criminal proceedings (unlike statutory defences such as self defence). Its development at common law has been shaped by the acceptance that intoxicated individuals do not think or act as rationally as they would otherwise, but also by a public policy necessity to punish individuals who commit crimes.\n", "Nonetheless, policymakers in the United States have generally dealt with cannabis-and-driving criminalization by importing the alcohol DUI regime into the cannabis context. This has led to complications down the road when cannabis-driving cases land in criminal court because cannabis detection science differs vastly from alcohol detection science. For example, blood alcohol content (BAC) has similar rates of absorption, distribution, and elimination across all humans, and there is also a fairly good correlation between BAC and level of impairment (in other words, impairment increases when BAC increases, and impairment decreases when BAC decreases). This has allowed law enforcement to use tools like breathalyzers and blood tests in criminal court because alcohol concentration is a relatively reliable indicator of how recently and how much alcohol was consumed. In contrast, THC levels can vary widely depending on the means of ingestion, THC is metabolized at an exponentially declining rate (as opposed to the steady metabolization rate for alcohol), and there is very poor correlation of THC blood levels with impairment. As stated in a report to Congress produced by the U.S. Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, \"[I]n contrast to the situation with alcohol, someone can show little or no impairment at a THC level at which someone else may show a greater degree of impairment.\" The report also noted that, in some studies, THC was detectable as late as 30 days after ingestion--even though the acute psychoactive effects of cannabis last only for a few hours.\n", "Section::::Miley Cyrus version.\n", "Research on alcohol’s effects on cortisol dates back to the 1950s. Many studies showed a relation between the two, however they were limited to short-term alcohol ingestion. The first human study to assess the long-term effects of alcohol ingestion on cortisol was conducted in 1966 (Mendelson et al.). They found heightened cortisol levels in both alcoholics and non-alcoholics while actively drinking. Cortisol was overall higher in alcoholics than non-alcoholics, indicating that alcohol has long-term effects on the endocrine system. Also, alcoholics had the highest cortisol levels after drinking stopped, demonstrating symptoms of withdrawal (a hormonal marker of alcohol addiction).\n", "Some literature has attributed the \"Grand Rapids Effect\" to erroneous data or asserted (without support) that it was possibly due to drivers exerting extra caution at low BAC levels or to \"experience\" in drinking. Other explanations are that this effect is at least in part the blocking effect of ethanol excitotoxicity and the effect of alcohol in essential tremor and other movement disorders, but this remains speculative.\n" ]

[ "Getting intoxicated from alcohol is never called getting stoned and being high." ]

[ "The slang getting stoned and being high used to refer to being drunk on alcohol, but the meaning of these slang phrases has changed over time." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Getting intoxicated from alcohol is never called getting stoned and being high.", "Getting intoxicated from alcohol is never called \"getting stoned\" and being \"high.\"" ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The slang getting stoned and being high used to refer to being drunk on alcohol, but the meaning of these slang phrases has changed over time.", "The slang \"getting stoned\" and being \"high\" used to refer to being drunk on alcohol, but the meaning of these slang phrases has changed over time." ]

[ "An attorney filing documents with the court, including pleadings, must sign the documents. The attorney thereby certifies that he has read them, that they are grounded in fact or law as determined by a good-faith investigation, and that they are not being filed for the purposes of harassment or delay. An attorney who violates these rules can be held liable for the costs and attorney's fees incurred by the other party in responding to the document. A document that is \"not\" signed by the attorney may be stricken. Where a party is not represented by counsel, the party must sign the documents himself, and thereby make the foregoing certifications.\n", "The case law standard for determining what comments cross the line is generally \"the application of law to facts specific to an individual seeking legal advice\". Attorneys may use a disclaimer to reduce confusion, and \"I am not your lawyer\" is part of a typical disclaimer. There are \"weighty obligations\" that go along with the creation of a lawyer–client relationship, particularly if an \"online exchange includes legal advice relating to the client's specific facts\". Courts have held that (in the case of 900 numbers) boilerplate disclaimers without clear actions to indicate assent may not avoid the creation of a lawyer–client relationship.\n", "The pleadings consist of ‘‘printed or written statements’’. Except where a party is appearing in person, he or she does not draft or sign the pleadings; this is done by the legal representative. \n", "BULLET::::- \"The parties intend that this Agreement, together with all attachments, schedules, exhibits, and other documents that both are referenced in this Agreement and refer to this Agreement, represent the final expression of the parties' intent relating to the subject matter of this Agreement, contain all the terms the parties agreed to relating to the subject matter, and replace all of the parties' previous discussions, understandings, negotiations, representations and agreements relating to the subject matter of this Agreement regardless whether written or oral.\"\n", "What follows is a series of documentary exchanges, called pleadings, between the parties akin to a conversation on paper. Each party's legal representative sets out the material facts of their complaint or defence, as the case may be, in summary form. This effectively means that conclusions of fact are pleaded. Because pleadings consist of simple statements and do not disclose evidence, they are not affirmed under oath. The procedure is strictly regulated by the rules of court, not least with respect to the time limits that have to be observed. Failure to comply with the rules of court can be fatal for a case.\n", "In addition, the hold must include precise, clear language that informs all custodians of their responsibilities to preserve evidence. Once the organization issues the litigation hold, the lawyer’s responsibilities toward this data do not end; rather, they must regularly prompt custodians to continue preserving evidence by sending out reminder notices.\n", "BULLET::::- The communication must have been made in confidence. If you shout out the information at top of your voice to your lawyer, such that everyone hears it, you cannot realistically claim privilege. Much the same applies if a police officer is present during the communication between lawyer and client.\n\nBULLET::::- The communication must have been made either for the purpose of obtaining professional legal advice, or for the purpose of pending litigation.\n\nPayment or non-payment of fees to legal counsel is not automatically decisive. The situation appears to cover communications to salaried legal advisers.\n", "Attorneys for the deposing litigant are often present, although this is not required in all jurisdictions. The attorney who has ordered the deposition begins questioning of the deponent (this is referred to as \"direct examination\" or \"direct\" for short). Since nods and gestures cannot be recorded, the witness is instructed to answer all questions aloud. After the direct examination, other attorneys in attendance have an opportunity to cross-examine the witness. The first attorney may ask more questions at the end, in \"re-direct\", which may be followed by \"re-cross\".\n", "Even if an exception to the work-product doctrine is made, the court would still protect privileged actions by an attorney, by redacting the privileged part of the document. \"Memoranda, briefs, communications ... other writings prepared by counsel for his/her own use in prosecuting the client's case ... mental impressions, conclusions, opinions, or legal theories\" are never discoverable by an opposing party.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "To familiarize oneself with the matter, it is absolutely necessary that the lawyer obtains all witness statements and documents to be relied on and peruses them carefully. Should there be a loophole in the evidence, he should raise it with the prosecution for redress. To achieve this, it is imperative that the lawyer develops a cordial relationship with the prosecutor so that the information flowing to him (prosecutor) will appear as persuasive suggestions as opposed to orders which are more often likely to be ignored since the lawyer has no control over the prosecutor in his line of duty. Further, in Kenya, apart from introducing himself, the lawyer watching brief has no right of audience before the court and so the prosecutor becomes his mouthpiece.\n", "BULLET::::3. extrinsic evidence regarding previous negotiations and correspondence between the parties, as well as their subsequent conduct, \"showing the sense in which they acted on the document, save direct evidence of their own intentions.\" This is necessary when the language of the document is on the face of it ambiguous.\n", "For “common interest” or “joint defense” doctrine to apply, to permit parties with common interest in actual or potential litigation to share privileged information without waiving their right to assert privilege, parties' common interest must be identical and not merely similar, and must be legal and not solely commercial. Furthermore, the protection of the privilege “extends only to communications and not to facts.” While a client may refuse to answer questions regarding what it said or wrote to its attorney, it may not refuse to disclose relevant facts “merely because [it] incorporated a statement of such fact into [its] communication to [its] attorney.” The joint defense privilege, like the attorney–client privilege, does not protect “underlying facts embodied in a communication between attorney and client.”\n", "The conveyancing process in the United States varies from state to state depending on local legal requirements and historical practice. In rare situations, the parties will engage in a formal \"closing.\" In a formal closing three attorneys will be involved in the process: one each to represent the buyer, seller, and mortgage holder; frequently all three will sit around a table with the buyer and seller and literally \"pass papers\" to effect the transaction.\n", "Section::::Case conference.\n\nIn many courts in the common law system, a case conference may be used to settle a case.\n\nIn some courts, the rules require that before certain types of motions or petitions will be heard by the judge, the lawyers must \"meet and confer\" to try to resolve the matter.\n\nSection::::Foreclosure Pre-foreclosure Settlement Conferences.\n", "Most South African writers and cases treat this as one branch of privilege. Zeffertt \"et al.\", in Chapter 17 of their book, treat it as two separate branches. This article treats it as one branch with different rules for different situations.\n\nLegal professional privilege applies to both criminal and civil cases.\n\nThe basic rule is that communications between a lawyer and a client may not be disclosed without the client’s consent. The communications “belong” to the client, not to the lawyer. It is the client’s choice to consent to or refuse their disclosure.\n", "Such exchanges are not technically part of the pleading process, and parties are not encouraged to take points on any discrepancy between pre-action correspondence and the formal statements of case. Their function is to facilitate out-of-court approaches to resolving the dispute, or identifying the issues that divide the parties. The courts consider the genuineness of attempts to resolve the case by dialogue, when considering how costs will be bourne by the parties.\n\nSection::::Pleading in court.\n", "A corollary to the attorney-client privilege is the joint defense privilege, which is also called the common interest rule. The common interest rule \"serves to protect the confidentiality of communications passing from one party to another party where a joint defense or strategy has been decided upon and undertaken by the parties and their respective counsel.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Badgering\": counsel is antagonizing the witness in order to provoke a response, either by asking questions without giving the witness an opportunity to answer or by openly mocking the witness.\n", "In the United States, as a general rule, courts do not have self-executing powers. In other words, in order for the court to rule on a contested issue in a case before it, one of the parties or a third party must raise an appropriate motion asking for a particular order. Some motions may be made in the form of an oral request in open court, which is then either summarily granted or denied orally by the court. Today, however, most motions (especially on important or dispositive issues that could decide the entire case) are decided after oral argument preceded by the filing and service of legal papers. That is, the movant is usually required to serve advance written notice along with some kind of written legal argument justifying the motion. The legal argument may come in the form of a memorandum of points and authorities supported by affidavits or declarations. Some northeastern U.S. states have a tradition in which the legal argument comes in the form of an affidavit from the attorney, speaking personally as himself on behalf of his client. In contrast, in most U.S. states, the memorandum is written impersonally or as if the client were speaking directly to the court, and the attorney reserves declarations of his own personal knowledge to a separate declaration or affidavit (which are then cited to in the memorandum). One U.S. state, Missouri, uses the term \"suggestions\" for the memorandum of points and authorities.\n", "A defendant using ambiguity in the courtroom may present issues and be deemed unacceptable. Specifically, when a victim is invoking their right to a lawyer, there are directions stating that the request may not come off as ambiguous. In fact, if the request is not stated in a way that the officer deems to be clear, the victim may not receive their request for counsel at all. Refer to the following link to explore an example through the \"Louisiana vs. Demesme\" case.\n", "The Rules and their Practice Directions (principally CPR 16 and its related Practice Direction 16) also set out various items which must be included in or served with statements of case in particular circumstances. Examples include: - \n\nSection::::Pleading in court.:Statements of case.\n\nStatements of case may refer to points of law and include names of witnesses whom it is proposed to call. A party may also attach to or serve with a statement of case any document which is considered necessary to the claim or defence, but which is not required to be attached or served.\n", "The Second Circuit court in 2011 ruled that it was not improper for an attorney to ghostwrite legal pleadings on behalf of a self-represented litigant.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Lawyers employs specific tactics for both themselves and their witnesses to come off as more or less truthful to the jury and the people of the courtroom. For example, the lawyer may refer to the witness by their first name or a nickname to humanize the witness, or they may speak using slang in order to create less social distance between himself and the courtroom. The lawyer may also avoid using slang, and instead use complicated law terminology to set himself apart from the courtroom and define his status (Olsson, Luchjenborers, 2013).\n", "Lawyers and legal professionals regularly share documents with opposing counsel. As the documents constructed in this business vertical may be binding on either side's clients, it is essential that the risks associated with changes are completely mitigated. If opposing counsel makes a change that is not detected by the lawyer, such a change could negatively affect the lawyer's client and the lawyer could be liable for the damages.\n\nSection::::Business Relevance.:Document comparison in banking, finance and accounting.\n", "During direct examination, if the examining attorney who called the witness finds that their testimony is antagonistic or contrary to the legal position of their client, the attorney may request that the judge declare the witness hostile. If the request is granted, the attorney may proceed to ask the witness leading questions. Leading questions either suggest the answer (\"You saw my client sign the contract, correct?\") or challenge (impeach) the witness's testimony. As a rule, leading questions are generally only allowed during cross-examination, but a hostile witness is an exception to this rule.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Lawyer's are unaware of the other lawyer's statements in court." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Generally though there are no surprises in court, both sets of attorneys have lists of the witnesses and evidence the other side intends to present" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Identifying attackers is difficult, as they are often in a different jurisdiction to the systems they attempt to breach, and operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back tracing difficult and are often located in yet another jurisdiction. If they successfully breach security, they are often able to delete logs to cover their tracks.\n", "A common example might be following unauthorized network intrusion. A specialist forensic examination into the nature and extent of the attack is performed as a damage limitation exercise. Both to establish the extent of any intrusion and in an attempt to identify the attacker. Such attacks were commonly conducted over phone lines during the 1980s, but in the modern era are usually propagated over the Internet.\n", "The concept of CyberHumint allows cyber experts and human intelligence specialists to use real-life human sources, both in the gt and within many public or secret online social networks and operating systems.\n\nBy investigating authentic human sources, intelligence experts and cyber experts can explore the various possible aims of potential attackers and their abilities, by monitoring their electronic activities. Outcomes usually leave much to be desired. Attackers are only identified after the attack has started. In just a handful of cases did companies manage to alert their clients against a pending attack.\n", "In 2011, Andress and Winterfeld drew the attention to the fact that while cyber security experts can deliver extensive reports on Internet risks, most of the alerts are still general, unspecific and do not actually meet the expectations of the specific organization. In addition, cyber security companies locate hackers or cyber attackers only when the attack is already in progress or worse - after a given system has already been damaged or compromised.\n", "Today, an important role is played by a Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT), due to the rise of internet crime, and is a common example of incident faced by companies in developed nations all across the world. For example, if an organization discovers that an intruder has gained unauthorized access to a computer system, the CSIRT would analyze the situation, determine the breadth of the compromise, and take corrective action. Computer forensics is one task included in this process. Currently, over half of the world’s hacking attempts on Trans National Corporations (TNCs) take place in North America (57%). 23% of attempts take place in Europe. Having a well-rounded Computer Security Incident Response team is integral to providing a secure environment for any organization, and is becoming a critical part of the overall design of many modern networking teams.\n", "The robot's tunnel system is extensive but unmarked, so getting around is initially an exercise in trial and error. Throughout the globe, there are several cities where the robot can surface and interact with people, primarily the spies who want to bargain for their piece of the evidence.\n", "Frank's most recent research deals with people’s behaviors in security settings. This includes such things as law enforcement, the legal system and counter-terrorism. The work he contributes to deals with deception clues and how people are good at spotting these clues, and whether or not they can train people to detect the clues as best as they can. Also they try to increase the ability of the automated systems that might assist the recognition of individuals who convey to commit these types of acts.\n\nSection::::Media appearances.\n", "Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities, such as open ports, insecure software configurations, and susceptibility to malware infections. They may also be identified by consulting public sources, such as NVD, or subscribing to a commercial vulnerability alerting service such as Symantec's DeepSight Vulnerability Datafeed or Accenture's Vulnerability Intelligence Service. Unknown vulnerabilities, such as a zero-day, may be found with fuzz testing, which can identify certain kinds of vulnerabilities, such as a buffer overflow with relevant test cases. Such analysis can be facilitated by test automation. In addition, antivirus software capable of heuristic analysis may discover undocumented malware if it finds software behaving suspiciously (such as attempting to overwrite a system file).\n", "As cybercrime has proliferated, a professional ecosystem has evolved to support individuals and groups seeking to profit from cybercriminal activities. The ecosystem has become quite specialized, including malware developers, botnet operators, professional cybercrime groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen content, and so forth. A few of the leading cybersecurity companies have the skills, resources and visibility to follow the activities of these individuals and group. A wide variety of information is available from these sources which can be used for defensive purposes, including technical indicators such as hashes of infected files or malicious IPs/URLs, as well as strategic information profiling the goals, techniques and campaigns of the profiled groups. Some of it is freely published, but consistent, on-going access typically requires subscribing to an adversary intelligence subscription service. At the level of an individual threat actor, threat intelligence is often referred to that actor's \"TTP\", or \"tactics, techniques, and procedures,\" as the infrastructure, tools, and other technical indicators are often trivial for attackers to change. Corporate sectors are considering crucial role of artificial intelligence cybersecurity.\n", "Common functionality of cyber-collection systems include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Data scan\": local and network storage are scanned to find and copy files of interest, these are often documents, spreadsheets, design files such as Autocad files and system files such as the passwd file.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capture location\": GPS, WiFi, network information and other attached sensors are used to determine the location and movement of the infiltrated device\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bug\": the device microphone can be activated in order to record audio. Likewise, audio streams intended for the local speakers can be intercepted at the device level and recorded.\n", "Ethical hackers are employed by organizations to penetrate networks and computer systems with the purpose of finding and fixing security vulnerabilities. The EC-Council offers another certification, known as Certified Network Defense Architect (CNDA). This certification is designed for United States Government agencies and is available only to members of selected agencies including some private government contractors, primarily in compliance to DOD Directive 8570.01-M. It is also ANSI accredited and is recognized as a GCHQ Certified Training (GCT).\n\nSection::::EC-Council’s VAPT Certification Track.\n", "The majority of cyber security defenders currently use automatic network scans as a routine measure. A human analyst becomes involved only at the final stage of data-gathering, which means the bulk of the available data will not be analyzed in real time.\n\nSection::::Hackers and CyberHumint.\n\nThe majority of cyber security companies has no access to human operators within the Dark Web. Hence, they do not benefit from the key input of informants and agents provocateurs. These companies do not apply the methods of agent recruitment and agent management, which various national intelligence organizations have developed and used effectively for years.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Combination Rules\": Some agents are very complex and are able to combine the above features in order to provide very targeted intelligence collection capabilities. For example, the use of GPS bounding boxes and microphone activity can be used to turn a smart phone into a smart bug that intercepts conversations only within the office of a target.\n", "Existing defense-in-depth cyber technologies have struggled against the increasing wave of sophisticated and persistent human attackers. These technologies seek primarily to defend a perimeter, but both firewalls and end-point security cannot defend a perimeter with 100% certainty. Cyber-attackers can penetrate these networks and move unimpeded for months, stealing data and intellectual property. Heuristics may find an attacker within the network, but often generate so many alerts that critical alerts are missed. Since 2014 attacks have accelerated and there is evidence that cyber-attackers are penetrating traditional defenses at a rapidly increasing rate.\n", "Finding machines that are exploitable and worth attacking is done using analytic databases such as XKeyscore. A specific method of finding vulnerable machines is interception of Windows Error Reporting traffic, which is logged into XKeyscore.\n", "AIDE takes a \"snapshot\" of the state of the system, register hashes, modification times, and other data regarding the files defined by the administrator. This \"snapshot\" is used to build a database that is saved and may be stored on an external device for safekeeping.\n", "• Sending a set of test patterns to the node suspected of being compromised. The test pattern matrix consists of a set of known intrusion vectors, as well as a set of non-intrusion patterns. Upon formation of the initial group, and every time that membership in the Trusted Domain changes, the matrix is reconstituted and distributed among all members. The matrix is distributed in such a way that no single member group of members colluding (as long as k, k N-1)/ 2; where k is number of colluding members), has complete knowledge of all test patterns\n", "Section::::Specialized applications.\n\nInternet of things (IoT) devices are not usually scanned by legacy defense in depth cyber defense and remain prime targets for attackers within the network. Deception technology can identify attackers moving laterally into the network from within these devices.\n", "Another option they have is an intrusion detection system. This system alerts when there are possible intrusions. Some companies set up traps or \"hot spots\" to attract people and are then able to know when someone is trying to hack into that area.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Security solutions.:Encryption.\n", ", Goggans is an internationally recognized expert on information security. He has performed network security assessments for some of the world's largest corporations, including all facets of critical infrastructure, with work spanning 22 countries across four continents. Chris has worked with US Federal law-enforcement agencies on some of America's most notorious computer crime cases. His work has been referenced in publications such as \"Time\", \"Newsweek\" and \"Computerworld\", and on networks such as CNN and CNBC.\n", "BULLET::::- Kevin Mitnick and William L. Simon, \"Ghost in the Wires: My Adventures as the World's Most Wanted Hacker\", 2011, Hardback\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Mitnick and William L. Simon, \"The Art Of Intrusion: The Real Stories Behind The Exploits Of Hackers, Intruders, And Deceivers\", 2005, Hardback\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Mitnick, \"The Art of Deception: Controlling the Human Element of Security\", 2002, Paperback\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Goodell, \"The Cyberthief and the Samurai: The True Story of Kevin Mitnick-And the Man Who Hunted Him Down\", 1996,\n", "An October 2010 article entitled \"Cyber Crime Made Easy\" explained the level to which hackers are using malicious software. As Gunter Ollmann,\n", "In 2011, Dutch hackers Jobert Abma and Michiel Prins attempted to find security vulnerabilities in 100 prominent high-tech companies. They discovered flaws in all of the companies, including Facebook, Google, Apple, Microsoft, and Twitter. Dubbing their efforts the \"Hack 100\", Abma and Prins contacted the at-risk firms. While many firms ignored their disclosure attempts, the COO of Facebook, Sheryl Sandberg, gave the warning to their head of product security, Alex Rice. Rice, Abma and Prins connected, and together with Merijn Terheggen founded HackerOne in 2012. In November 2015, Terheggen stepped down from his role as CEO and was replaced by Marten Mickos.\n", "Hackers are individuals or organizations that collect PII data illegally. They are driven mostly by financial interests, but sometimes political, such as the hacking of Sony by North Korean hackers. Hackers from North Korea targeted Sony Pictures in retaliation for the planned release of “The Interview,” a movie about the fictional assassination of North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un. The incident resulted in the release of Social Security numbers, salary information, and medical records of Sony employees. Hackers use spyware, viruses, backdoors, social engineering or other methods to steal and collect PII data from individuals, companies, governments, and other organization. For example, Equifax, one of the largest credit company in the world, its security was compromised by hackers and PII for millions of Americans was stolen.\n", "\"Information Week\" pointed out that at these security levels, the users themselves need to be monitored. One of the ways A-Space will maintain its security will be through observing traffic patterns, the department doing things like looking out for suspiciously anomalous searches. \"Let's not be Pollyanna-ish about this,\" Wertheimer said. \"This is a counter-intelligence nightmare. You've got to ask yourself, if there's one bad apple here, how much can that bad apple learn?\"\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "During the 1996 Utah Centennial celebration, an activity book for children was distributed, within which one of the activities was for a child to write their own name in the alphabet. The book says that a child who does this will be \"the first kid in 100 years to write [their] name in the Deseret alphabet!\"\n", "The anglicisation of a personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in East Asian countries (except for Japan, which no longer has large-scale emigration). However, unless the spelling is changed, European immigrants put up with (and in due course accept) an anglicised pronunciation: \"Lewinsky\" will be so pronounced, unless the \"w\" becomes a \"v\", as in \"Levi\". \"Głowacki\" will be pronounced \"Glowacki\", even though in Polish pronunciation it is \"Gwovatski\". \"Weinstein\" is usually pronounced with different values for the two \"-ein-\" parts, (.\n", "It may effect a change in original spelling, type, or (most commonly) priority.\n\nBULLET::::- Conserved spelling (orthographia conservanda, orth. cons.) allows spelling usage to be preserved even if the name was published with another spelling: \"Euonymus\" (not \"Evonymus\"), \"Guaiacum\" (not \"Guajacum\"), etc. (see orthographical variant).\n", "BULLET::::- In Dutch the combination IJ (representing IJ) was formerly to be collated as Y (or sometimes, as a separate letter Y < IJ < Z), but is currently mostly collated as 2 letters (II < IJ < IK). Exceptions are phone directories; IJ is always collated as Y here because in many Dutch family names Y is used where modern spelling would require IJ. Note that a word starting with ij that is written with a capital I is also written with a capital J, for example, the town IJmuiden, the river IJssel and the country IJsland (Iceland).\n", "Section::::Surnames.:Marriage.\n\nTraditionally, the wife adopts her husband's \"Nachname\" on marriage and drops her own. However, due to the legal equality of sexes, the opposite is possible as well, though rare.\n\nA few examples of the practice under German law, if \"Herr Schmidt\" and \"Frau Meyer\" marry:\n\nBULLET::::1. They can keep their former \"Nachnamen\". (Herr Schmidt and Frau Meyer). In the 1990s, the law was thus changed. They can later change to variant 2, though the inverse is not possible.\n", "Such anglicisation was once more common. In the late 19th century, however, use of non-English place names in English began to become more common. When dealing with languages that use the same Latin alphabet as English, names are now more usually written in English as in their local language, sometimes even with diacritical marks that do not normally appear in English. With languages that use non-Latin alphabets, such as the Arabic, Cyrillic, Greek, Korean Hangul, and other alphabets, a direct transliteration is typically used, which is then often pronounced according to English rules. Non-Latin based languages may use standard romanisation systems, such as Japanese Rōmaji or Chinese Pīnyīn. The Japanese and Chinese names in English follow these spellings with some common exceptions, usually without Chinese tone marks and without Japanese macrons for long vowels: Chóngqìng to Chongqing (重慶, 重庆), Shíjiāzhuāng to Shijiazhuang (石家莊, 石家庄), both in China; Kyōto to Kyoto (京都) in Japan.\n", "Many unofficial spelling alphabets are in use that are not based on a standard, but are based on words the transmitter can remember easily, including first names, states, or cities. The LAPD phonetic alphabet has many first names. The German spelling alphabet (\"Deutsches Funkalphabet\" (literally \"German Radio Alphabet\")) also uses first names. Also, during the Vietnam war, soldiers used 'Cain' instead of 'Charlie' because 'Charlie' meant Viet Cong (Charlie being short for Victor Charlie, the International alphabet spelling of the initials VC).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- NATO phonetic alphabet\n\nBULLET::::- Allied Military Phonetic Spelling Alphabet\n\nBULLET::::- APCO radiotelephony spelling alphabet\n", "Likewise many other languages of the world including Arabic, Greek, Hebrew and Chinese, the alphabets are not named after their respective phoneme values. Similar practice holds good for Standard Mising Language too. The names of the alphabets are thus read as is done in the country today. Names and order of the Roman Script have been recognized worldwide, and also by our country for reading and writing English and also transliteration of national terminologies; so Standard Mising Language has retained them likewise without variations, neither in name nor in order. Names and order of alphabets have no partisan values. Rather, changing alphabetical order and inserting additional letter in the matrix of literal characters cause hardware problems in the computer technology. We being a small community hugely constrained by limited man-power, missionary and monitory resources; things cannot be done so easily. Even once done too, it will not be commercially viable in terms of its utility – just waste of time and energy.\n", "In the Finnish language, both the root of the surname and the first name can be modified by consonant gradation regularly when inflected to a case.\n\nSection::::Scandinavia.:Iceland.\n\nIn Iceland, most people have no family name; a person's last name is most commonly a patronymic, i.e. derived from the father's first name. For example, when a man called \"Karl\" has a daughter called \"Anna\" and a son called \"Magnús\", their full names will typically be \"Anna Karlsdóttir\" (\"Karl's daughter\") and \"Magnús Karlsson\" (\"Karl's son\"). The name is not changed upon marriage.\n\nSection::::Slavic world.\n", "BULLET::::2. They can declare one name as a \"marriage name\" (\"Ehename\"). In doing so, they can either both adopt the husband's name, or both adopt the wife's name as an \"Ehename\". (Herr Meyer and Frau Meyer; Herr Schmidt and Frau Schmidt)\n", "In this method, the letters of a recent version of the Latin alphabet (with \"U\" and \"V\" considered to be separate letters, and \"I\" and \"J\" also considered distinct, which was not common until the 18th century), are assigned numerical values 1-9 as follows:\n\nBased on these values, the value for a person's name is calculated. If the result is greater than 9, the values of the digits in the number are added up until it is reduced to a single-digit number.\n", "Traditionally common Christian given names could be substituted: such as James for the etymologically connected Jacques. Alternatively phonetical similarities, such as Joe for Giò (Giovanni or Giorgio); or abbreviation, Harry for Harilaos.\n\nThe anglicisation of a personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in, or descending from those who emigrated from, East Asian countries.\n\nSection::::Anglicisation of personal names.:Immigration to English-speaking countries.:French surnames.\n", "It is this aspect of writing that appeals to Owen Brademas. He is seeking a language that has been \"subdued and codified\", simplified into parallel structures. But writing can also be a recovery or articulation of \"ancient things, secret, reshapable.\" In this second type of writing, the mystery of the world is retained. In \"The Names\" it is a child, the narrator's son Tap, who most purely practices this type of writing. Unlike Owen, for whom \"correctness\" in speech is very important, Tap's writing is full of lively misspellings, prompting his father to look at objects in a new way.\n", "BULLET::::1. On marriage: the couple can choose the name of either partner, they can both keep their original names, or (provided the original family name of neither partner contains a hyphen), one partner can modify their own name, appending the partner's family name to their own, creating a hyphenated name (\"Mr. Schmid and Ms. Meier-Schmid\" or \"Mr. Schmid-Meier and Ms. Meier\").\n\nBULLET::::2. Correction of a name: if the state has made an error with the name and this can be proven, the original name can be restored. Example: \"Maſs\" became \"Mahs\" and is corrected to \"Mass\".\n", "Section::::Naming laws.:Names with accents and/or non-English letters.\n\nOne naming law that some find restrictive is California's ban on diacritical marks, such as in \"José\", a common Spanish name. The Office of Vital Records in California requires that names contain only the 26 alphabetical characters of the English language.\n\nSome states (for example, Alaska, Hawaii, Kansas, North Carolina, Oregon) allow accents and some (not always all) non-English letters in birth certificates and other documents. There can be problems for persons with such names when moving to a state where such characters are banned and they have to renew their documents.\n", "Some names are spelled with a capital letter in the middle (LeVar Burton, LaToya Jackson, Richard McMillan). In the machine-readable zone of a passport, the name is spelled only in capitals (LEVAR, LATOYA, MCMILLAN). In some computer systems, the users are asked to enter the name with the middle capital replaced by a minuscule (LeVar → Levar) or as two words (LaToya → La Toya).\n\nSection::::African-American names.\n", "In cases where \"Nachname\" and \"Hofname\" are not identical (usually because there was no male heir at some point in the family history) they are joined in official documents by \"genannt\" (abbr. \"gen.\"), e.g. \"Amann gen. Behmann\". In Austria the term \"vulgo\" (abbr. \"vlg.\") is used instead of \"genannt\".\n\nSection::::Name changes.\n\nThere are only a few circumstances in which one is allowed to change one's name:\n", "The written Tetragrammaton, as well as six other names of God, must be treated with special sanctity. They cannot be disposed of regularly, lest they be desecrated, but are usually put in long term storage or buried in Jewish cemeteries in order to retire them from use. Similarly, writing the Tetragrammaton (or these other names) unnecessarily is prohibited, so as to avoid having them treated disrespectfully, an action that is forbidden. To guard the sanctity of the Name, sometimes a letter is substituted by a different letter in writing (e.g. יקוק), or the letters are separated by one or more hyphens, a practice applied also to the English name \"God\", which Jews commonly write as \"G-d\". Most Jewish authorities say that this practice is not obligatory for the English name.\n", "BULLET::::- Latin names can also be adopted unchanged, or modified; in particular, the inflected element can be dropped, as often happens in borrowings from Latin to English. Examples: Laura, Victoria, Marcus, Justin (Latin \"Justinus\"), Paul (Lat. \"Paulus\"), Julius, Cecilia, Felix, Vivian, Julia, Pascal (not a traditional-type Latin name, but the adjective-turned-name \"paschalis\", meaning 'of Easter' (\"Pascha\")).\n", "Section::::Personal names.\n\nSection::::Personal names.:Historic names.\n\nIn the past, the names of people from other language areas were anglicised to a higher extent than today. This was the general rule for names of Latin or (classical) Greek origin. Today, the anglicised name forms are often retained for the more well-known persons, like Aristotle for Aristoteles, and Adrian (or later Hadrian) for Hadrianus. However, less well-known persons from antiquity are now often given their full original-language name (in the nominative case, regardless of its case in the English sentence).\n", "Anglicisation of names\n\nThe anglicisation of personal names is the change of non-English-language personal names to spellings nearer English sounds, or substitution of equivalent or similar English personal names in the place of non-English personal names.\n\nSection::::Anglicisation of personal names.\n\nSection::::Anglicisation of personal names.:Classical, medieval and Renaissance figures.\n", "BULLET::::- Capitalize surnames and enter spaces within surnames as they appear in the document cited on the assumption that the author approved the form used. For example: Van Der Horn or van der Horn; De Wolf or de Wolf or DeWolf.\n\nBULLET::::- Convert given (first) names and middle names to initials, for a maximum of two initials following each surname\n\nBULLET::::- Give all authors, regardless of the number\n\nBULLET::::- Separate author names from each other by a comma and a space\n\nBULLET::::- End author information with a period\n", "The story concerns Marshall Zebatinsky, a Polish-American nuclear physicist. He is concerned that his career has stalled, and in desperation consults a numerologist for advice on restarting it. The numerologist advises him to change the first letter of his name to \"S\": Sebatinsky. \n", "Latinisation of names\n\nLatinisation of names (\"Latinization of names\"), also known as onomastic Latinisation (\"onomastic Latinization\"), is the practice of rendering a \"non\"-Latin name in a Latin style. It is commonly found with historical proper names, including personal names, and toponyms, and in the standard binomial nomenclature of the life sciences. It goes further than romanisation, which is the transliteration of a word to the Latin alphabet from another script (e.g. Cyrillic).\n\nThis was often done in the classical to emulate Latin authors, or to present a more impressive image.\n", "Each of the I.T.A. letters has a name, the pronunciation of which includes the sound that the character stands for. For example, the name of the backwards \"z\" letter is \"zess\".\n" ]

[ "People can translate their name into a different alphabet. " ]

[ "Names aren't ever really officially transliterated, also transliterated is the correct term for converting a name to another alphabet, the correct term for converting the alphabetical characters in a name is transliterated and not translated. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "People can translate their name into a different alphabet. ", "People can translate their name into a different alphabet. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Names aren't ever really officially transliterated, also transliterated is the correct term for converting a name to another alphabet, the correct term for converting the alphabetical characters in a name is transliterated and not translated. ", "Names aren't ever really officially transliterated, also transliterated is the correct term for converting a name to another alphabet, the correct term for converting the alphabetical characters in a name is transliterated and not translated. " ]

[ "Normally, a series of cardiac, vascular, neurologic, muscular, and neurohumoral responses occur quickly so the blood pressure does not fall very much. One response is a vasoconstriction (baroreceptor reflex), pressing the blood up into the body again. (Often, this mechanism is exaggerated and is why diastolic blood pressure is a bit higher when a person is standing up, compared to a person in the horizontal position.) Therefore, some factor that inhibits one of these responses and causes a greater than normal fall in blood pressure is required. Such factors include low blood volume, diseases, and medications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Normally, the body compensates, but in the presence of other factors, e.g. hypovolemia, diseases and medications, this response may not be sufficient.\n\nThere are medications to treat hypotension. In addition, there are many lifestyle advices. Many of them, however, are specific for a certain cause of orthostatic hypotension, e.g. maintaining a proper fluid intake in dehydration.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypercoagulability.\n", "Although standing per se is not dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n\nOrthostatic hypotension is characterized by an unusually low blood pressure when the patient is standing up.\n\nIt can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n", "For many people, excessively low blood pressure can cause dizziness and fainting or indicate serious heart, endocrine or neurological disorders.\n\nTreatment of hypotension may include the use of intravenous fluids or vasopressors. When using vasopressors, trying to achieve a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 70 mm Hg does not appear to result in better outcomes than trying to achieve a MAP of greater than 65 mm Hg in adults.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe primary symptoms of hypotension are lightheadedness or dizziness.\n\nIf the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting may occur.\n", "Orthostatic hypotension happens when gravity causes blood to pool in the lower extremities, which in turn compromises venous return, resulting in decreased cardiac output and subsequent lowering of arterial pressure. For example, changing from a lying position to standing loses about 700 ml of blood from the thorax, with a decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressures. The overall effect is an insufficient blood perfusion in the upper part of the body.\n", "Blood pressure that is too low is known as hypotension. This is a medical concern if it causes signs or symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases, circulatory shock.\n\nCauses of low arterial pressure include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis\n\nBULLET::::- Hemorrhage – blood loss\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiogenic shock\n\nBULLET::::- Neurally mediated hypotension (or reflex syncope)\n\nBULLET::::- Toxins including toxic doses of blood pressure medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Hormonal abnormalities, such as Addison's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa and bulimia\n\nSection::::Disorders of blood pressure.:Low blood pressure.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n", "Orthostatic hypertension\n\nOrthostatic hypertension, is a medical condition consisting of a sudden and abrupt increase in blood pressure when a person stands up. Orthostatic hypertension is diagnosed by a rise in systolic blood pressure of 20 mmHg or more when standing. \"Orthostatic diastolic hypertension\" is a condition in which the diastolic raises to 98 mmHg or over in response to standing; however, this definition currently lacks clear medical consensus and is thus subject to change. Orthostatic hypertension involving the systolic is known as \"systolic orthostatic hypertension\".\n", "Orthostatic intolerance occurs in humans because standing upright is a fundamental stressor and requires rapid and effective circulatory and neurologic compensations to maintain blood pressure, cerebral blood flow, and consciousness. When a human stands, approximately 750 mL of thoracic blood is abruptly translocated downward. People who suffer from OI lack the basic mechanisms to compensate for this deficit. Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and cerebral blood flow that produce OI may be caused by abnormalities in the interactions between blood volume control, the cardiovascular system, the nervous system and circulation control system.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.\n", "Apart from addressing the underlying cause, orthostatic hypotension may be treated with a recommendation to increase salt and water intake (to increase the blood volume), wearing compression stockings, and sometimes medication (fludrocortisone, midodrine or others). Salt loading (dramatic increases in salt intake) must be supervised by a doctor, as this can cause severe neurological problems if done too aggressively.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Apparently healthy individuals may experience minor symptoms (\"lightheadedness\", \"greying-out\") as they stand up if blood pressure is slow to respond to the stress of upright posture. If the blood pressure is not adequately maintained during standing, faints may develop. However, the resulting \"transient orthostatic hypotension\" does not necessarily signal any serious underlying disease.\n", "This phenomenon can be a sign of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy or of many other types of heart disease (see list below). Other causes include digitalis toxicity, induction of anesthesia, placement of surgical instrumentation into the thorax or as a benign, temporary phenomenon.\n", "When standing, gravity pulls the blood downwards to the lower part of the body. Body mechanisms, such as vasoconstriction and valves of the veins, assist in pumping blood upwards. As blood is pumped through the body, the valves within the veins prevent the blood from flowing backwards. After extensive, prolonged standing, these valves can become weak and eventually fail. When this happens, blood is no longer being prevented from flowing backward. Gravity will pull the blood back into an individuals legs, ankles and feet. This forces the veins to expand or \"balloon\" to accommodate this extra blood.\n", "arrhythmia, fainting, and dizziness.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Prolonged still standing significantly activates the coagulation cascade, called orthostatic hypercoagulability. Overall, it causes an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume crosses into the extravascular compartment. This plasma shift causes an increase in the concentration of coagulation factors and other proteins of coagulation, in turn causing hypercoagulability.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic tremor.\n", "Some heart conditions can lead to low blood pressure, including extremely low heart rate (bradycardia), heart valve problems, heart attack and heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent the body from being able to circulate enough blood.\n", "In the past the variation was attributed to random effects. A more recent interpretation is that sway has a fractal structure. A fractal pattern consists of a motif repeated at varying levels of magnification. The levels are related by a ratio called the fractal dimension. It is believed that the fractal pattern offers a range of fine and gross control tuning. Fractal dimension is altered in some motor dysfunctions. In other words, the body cannot compensate well enough for imbalances.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "Orthostatic hypotension and syncope are associated with the body's poor ability to control blood pressure without active alpha-adrenergic receptors. Patients on prazosin should be told to rise to stand up slowly, since their poor baroreflex may cause them to faint if their blood pressure is not adequately maintained during standing. The nasal congestion is due to dilation of vessels in the nasal mucosa.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "In adults the primary symptom is an increase in heart rate of more than 30 beats per minute within ten minutes of standing up. The resulting heart rate is typically more than 120 beats per minute. For people aged between 12 and 19, the minimum increase for diagnosis is 40 beats per minute. This symptom is known as orthostatic (upright) tachycardia (fast heart rate). It occurs without any coinciding drop in blood pressure, as that would indicate orthostatic hypotension. Certain medications to treat POTS may cause orthostatic hypotension. It is accompanied by other features of orthostatic intolerance—symptoms which develop in an upright position and are relieved by reclining. These orthostatic symptoms include palpitations, light-headedness, chest discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, weakness or \"heaviness\" in the lower legs, blurred vision and cognitive difficulties. Symptoms may be exacerbated with prolonged sitting, prolonged standing, alcohol, heat, exercise, or eating a large meal.\n", "Besides the definitive threshold, an abrupt fall in systolic blood pressure around 30 mmHg from one's \"typical average systolic pressure\" can also be diagnosed with hypotension.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Presyncope describes lightheadedness or feeling faint; the name relates to syncope, which is actually fainting.\n\nBULLET::::- Disequilibrium is the sensation of being off balance and is most often characterized by frequent falls in a specific direction. This condition is not often associated with nausea or vomiting.\n\nBULLET::::- Non-specific dizziness may be psychiatric in origin. It is a diagnosis of exclusion and can sometimes be brought about by hyperventilation.\n\nSection::::Mechanism and causes.\n", "In up to one third of people with POTS, fainting occurs in response to postural changes or exercise. Migraine-like headaches are common, sometimes with symptoms worsening in an upright position (orthostatic headache). Some people with POTS develop acrocyanosis, or blotchy, red/blue skin upon standing, especially over the feet (indicative of blood pooling). 48% of people with POTS report chronic fatigue and 32% report sleep disturbances. Others exhibit only the cardinal symptom of orthostatic tachycardia.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Many conditions cause dizziness because multiple parts of the body are required for maintaining balance including the inner ear, eyes, muscles, skeleton, and the nervous system. Thus dizziness can be caused by a variety of problems, and may reflect a focal process (such as one affecting balance or coordination) or a diffuse one (such as a toxic exposure or low perfusion state).\n\nCommon physiological causes of dizziness include:\n\nBULLET::::- inadequate blood supply to the brain due to:\n\nBULLET::::- a sudden fall in blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- heart problems or artery blockages\n\nBULLET::::- loss or distortion of vision or visual cues\n", "Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.\n\nBaroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Delayed orthostatic hypotension is frequently characterized a sustained systolic blood pressure decrease of ≥20 mm Hg or a sustained diastolic blood pressure decrease ≥10 mm Hg beyond 3 minutes of standing or upright tilt table testing.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Lifestyle changes.\n\nApart from treating underlying reversible causes (e.g., stopping or reducing certain medications, treating autoimmune causes), there are a number of measures that can improve the symptoms of orthostatic hypotension and prevent episodes of syncope. Even small increases in the blood pressure may be sufficient to maintain blood flow to the brain on standing.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Over-the-counter and prescription medications are readily available, such as dimenhydrinate commonly known as dramamine, scopolamine, meclizine, promethazine, cyclizine, and cinnarizine. Several of these are antihistamines, with mild sedation being a common side effect. Cinnarizine is not available in the United States, as it is not approved by the FDA. As these medications often have side effects, anyone involved in high-risk activities while at sea (such as SCUBA divers) must evaluate the risks versus the benefits. Promethazine is especially known to cause drowsiness, which is often counteracted by ephedrine in a combination known as \"the Coast Guard cocktail\". There are special considerations to be aware of when the common anti-motion sickness medications are used in the military setting where performance must be maintained at a high level.\n", "Scopolamine is effective and is sometimes used in the form of transdermal patches (1.5 mg) or as a newer tablet form (0.4 mg). The selection of a transdermal patch or scopolamine tablet is determined by a doctor after consideration of the patient's age, weight, and length of treatment time required.\n", "Vomiting is caused when impulses from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CRTZ) in the brain are sent to the vomiting center in the medulla. Motion sickness specifically occurs when signals to the CRTZ originate from the inner ear: motion is sensed by the fluid of the semicircular canals, which causes overstimulation. The signal travels to the brain's vestibular nuclei, then to the CRTZ, and finally to the vomiting center. \n", "When prescribed for balance problems and vertigo, cinnarizine is typically taken two or three times daily depending on the amount of each dose and when used to treat motion sickness, the pill is taken at least two hours before travelling and then again every four hours during travel. However, a recent 2012 study comparing the effects of cinnarizine to transdermal scopolamine for the treatment of seasickness, concluded that scopolamine was reported as significantly more effective and as having fewer adverse side effects than cinnarizine. This led to the conclusion that transdermal scopolamine is likely a better option for the treatment of motion sickness in naval crew and other sea travelers.\n", "Section::::Episode 42 – \"Steel Toe-Cap Amputation\".:Bottle Rocket Blast-Off.\n\nThe Build team attempt to recreate this\n\nwater bottle jetpack from a Japanese game show.\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: November 16, 2005\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Seasickness – Kill or Cure?\n\nBecause Adam and Grant are very susceptible to motion sickness, they test non-pharmaceutical remedies for seasickness by...\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Tailgate Up vs. Tailgate Down.\n\nThis was revisited in \"More Myths Revisited\".\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Finger in a Barrel.\n", "Section::::Types.:Motion that is seen and felt but whose visual and bodily perception is incongruous.\n\nWhen moving within a rotating reference frame such as in a centrifuge or environment where gravity is simulated with centrifugal force, the coriolis effect causes a sense of motion in the vestibular system that does not match the motion that is seen.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nMany cures and preventatives for motion sickness have been proposed.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Devices.\n", "Inducing vection can also induce motion sickness in susceptible individuals.\n\nSection::::Sea legs, dock rock, or stillness illness.\n", "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Pharmacologic therapy.\n", "A head-worn, computer device with a transparent display can be used to mitigate the effects of motion sickness (and spatial disorientation) if visual indicators of the wearer’s head position are shown. Such a device functions by providing the wearer with digital reference lines in their field of vision that indicate the horizon’s position relative to the user’s head. This is accomplished by combining readings from accelerometers and gyroscopes mounted in the device (US Patent 5,966,680). This technology has been implemented in both standalone devices and Google Glass. In two NIH-backed studies, greater than 90% of patients experienced a reduction in the symptoms of motion sickness while using this technology.\n", "BULLET::::- William Paul Fife\n\nBULLET::::- John Scott Haldane\n\nBULLET::::- Robert William Hamilton, Jr.\n\nBULLET::::- Leonard Erskine Hill\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Andrew Hills\n\nBULLET::::- F.J. Keays\n\nBULLET::::- Christian J. Lambertsen\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph B. MacInnis\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Mitchell\n\nBULLET::::- Richard E. Moon\n\nBULLET::::- František Novomeský\n\nBULLET::::- John Rawlins (Royal Navy officer)\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Wesley Shilling\n\nBULLET::::- Edward D. Thalmann\n\nBULLET::::- Richard D. Vann\n\nBULLET::::- James Vorosmarti\n\nBULLET::::- R.M. Wong\n\nBULLET::::- Robert D. Workman\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Scubadoc's Diving Medicine Online\n\nBULLET::::- Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)\n\nBULLET::::- Rubicon Research Repository Diving Medical Literature\n\nBULLET::::- SCUBA Diving and Asthma\n\nBULLET::::- infos scuba diving restrictions\n", "For many years, traditional Western pharmacognosy focused on the investigation and identification of medically important plants and animals in the terrestrial environment, although many marine organisms were used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. With the development of the open-circuit self-contained underwater breathing apparatus or SCUBA in the 1940s, some chemists turned to more pioneering work looking for new medicines in the marine environment. In the United States, the road has been long for the first FDA approval of a drug directly from the sea, but in 2004, the approval of ziconotide isolated from a marine cone snail has paved the way for other marine-derived compounds moving through clinical trials.\n", "Section::::Treatments.:Drugs and vaccines.:Organophosphates.\n\nOrganophosphates are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and cause excitatory paralysis leading to death of sea lice when given as a bath treatment. Dichlorvos was used for many years in Europe and later replaced by azamethiphos, the active ingredient in Salmosan, which is safer for operators to handle. Azamethiphos is water-soluble and broken down relatively quickly in the environment. Resistance to organophosphates began to develop in Norway in the mid 1990s, apparently due to acetylcholinesterases being altered due to mutation. Use has declined considerably with the introduction of SLICE, emamectin benzoate.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Drugs and vaccines.:Pyrethroids.\n", "In a study conducted by the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences in a report published May 1995 titled \"Technical Report 1027 - Simulator Sickness in Virtual Environments\", out of 742 pilot exposures from 11 military flight simulators, \"approximately half of the pilots (334) reported post-effects of some kind: 250 (34%) reported that symptoms dissipated in less than one hour, 44 (6%) reported that symptoms lasted longer than four hours, and 28 (4%) reported that symptoms lasted longer than six hours. There were also four (1%) reported cases of spontaneously occurring flashbacks.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Akathisia (oral, up to 10% ; IM, 4% to 11%)\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness (oral, 4% to 16% ; IM, 3% to 11%)\n\nBULLET::::- Dyspnoea\n\nBULLET::::- Asthenia\n\nBULLET::::- Agitation\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary incontinence\n\nBULLET::::- Arthralgia\n\nBULLET::::- Myalgia\n\nBULLET::::- Epistaxis\n\nBULLET::::- Somnolence (oral, adult, 3% to 6%; pediatric, 8% to 29% )\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep disturbances\n\nBULLET::::- Self harm and suicidal thoughts\n", "Research suggests that this is the body's natural way of adjusting to these systems. The bodies of experienced pilots have adapted to different types of motion experienced during actual flight conditions. When placed into a flight simulator, visual and other stimuli cause their bodies to expect the same motions associated with actual flight conditions. But their bodies instead experience the imperfect motion of the simulator, resulting in sickness.\n", "It has been shown to occur in excursions of as little as 30 minutes though it has been unclear how long it takes for symptoms to occur. The most commonly reported inciting event was a prolonged ocean cruise (~45%); however, shorter boating excursions (~22%), aircraft travel (~15%), and automobile travel (~8%) have all been described.\n\nMal de Débarquement syndrome has been noted as far back to the times of Erasmus Darwin in 1796, and Irwin J A (1881) \"The pathology of seasickness\".\n", "Many pharmacological treatments which are effective for nausea and vomiting in some medical conditions may not be effective for motion sickness. For example, metoclopramide and prochlorperazine, although widely used for nausea, are ineffective for motion-sickness prevention and treatment. This is due to the physiology of the CNS vomiting centre and its inputs from the chemoreceptor trigger zone versus the inner ear. Sedating anti-histamine medications such as promethazine work quite well for motion sickness, although they can cause significant drowsiness.\n\nGinger root is commonly thought to be an effective anti-emetic, but it is ineffective in treating motion sickness.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Electronic.\n", "A motion blocking eyewear device was patented (US patent 6,275,998) to prevent carsickness-related terrestrial motion sickness. Visual cues are an important contributor to land-based vehicular travel in addition to vestibular (inner ear) input. The eyewear device limits what the wearer sees outside the moving vehicle by use of an opaque shield. By removing visual cues outside the vehicle, the device normalizes the visual input dimension involved in sensory conflict, a leading theory behind motion sickness. No evidence exists that motion blocking eyewear alters or eliminates vestibular input or that of other bodily receptors. Carsickness is the most common type of motion sickness given the number of travelers traveling over land versus those traveling by air or sea.\n", "Section::::Range and scope of diving medicine.\n", "BULLET::::- Tablet form of scopolamine, by prescription\n\nBULLET::::- Malaria\n\nBULLET::::- Mefloquine\n\nBULLET::::- Doxycycline\n\nBULLET::::- Malarone (a combination of atovaquone and proguanil)\n\nBULLET::::- Chloroquine\n\nBULLET::::- Hydroxychloroquine sulfate\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrimethamine\n\nBULLET::::- Fansidar (sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine)\n\nBULLET::::- No interactions between antimalarial drugs and diving have been established, and complications are not generally expected, but the use of Mefloquine is not accepted by all diving medicine specialists.\n\nBULLET::::- Antimalarial drug prophylaxis recommendations depend on specific regions and may change over time. Current recommendations should be checked.\n\nBULLET::::- All of these drugs may have side-effects, and there are known interactions with other drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- Decongestants\n", "In giant-breed dogs and sighthounds, the sedative effects of acepromazine may last for 12–24 hours, which is much longer than the usual 3–4 hours.\n\nSection::::Veterinary use.:Canine and feline.:Dogs with a mutation in the \"ABCB1\" (\"MDR1\") gene.\n", "Avermectins belong to the family of macrocyclic lactones and are the major drugs used as in-feed treatments to kill sea lice. The first avermectin used was ivermectin at doses close to the therapeutic level and was not submitted for legal approval for use on fish by its manufacturer. Ivermectin was toxic to some fish, causing sedation and central nervous system depression due to the drug’s ability to cross the blood–brain barrier. Emamectin benzoate, which is the active agent in the formulation SLICE, has been used since 1999 and has a greater safety margin on fish. It is administered at 50 µg/kg/day for 7 days and is effective for two months, killing both chalimus and mobile stages. Withdrawal times vary with jurisdiction from 68 days in Canada to 175 degree days in Norway. Avermectins act by opening glutamate-gated chloride channels in arthropod neuromuscular tissues, causing hyperpolarization and flaccid paralysis leading to death. Resistance has been noted in \"Chalimus rogercresseyi\" in Chile and \"L. salmonis\" on North Atlantic fish farms. The resistance is likely due to prolonged use of the drug leading to up-regulation of P-glycoprotein, similar to what has been seen in nematode resistance to macrocyclic lactones.\n", "Section::::Diagnostics.:High pressure nervous syndrome.\n", "Section::::Diagnostics.:Decompression sickness.\n", "Higher doses of these medications can be used for later stages of spasmodic torticollis; however, the frequency and severity of side effects associated with the medications are usually not tolerated. Side effects include dry mouth, cognitive disturbance, drowsiness, diplopia, glaucoma and urinary retention.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Botulinum toxin.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. In addition to the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon there are small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapor. Water vapor and CO allow the earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays—which are often incorrectly thought to be deflected by the magnetic field. The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. As the earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.\n", "The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about 21%), argon (about 0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.04%) and other gases in trace amounts. Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration; nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids; and carbon dioxide is used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis. The atmosphere helps to protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays. The current composition of the Earth's atmosphere is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.\n", "Atmosphere of Earth\n\nThe atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).\n\nBy volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. \n", "Thomas compares the Earth to a living cell, one with its own membrane that allows it to keep out disorder. He shows how the evolution of cells was closely tied to the “breath” of the Earth, the cycling of oxygen concentration in the atmosphere. The atmosphere is “for sheer size and perfection of function, it is far and away the grandest product of collaboration in all of nature.” It gives us the oxygen we need, protection from UV light, and protection from the millions of meteorites.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Interactions with other systems.\n\nAtmospheric carbon is exchanged quickly between the oceans and the terrestrial biosphere. This means that at times the atmosphere acts as a sink, and at other times as a source of carbon. The following section introduces exchanges between the atmospheric and other components of the global carbon cycle.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other systems.:Terrestrial biosphere.\n", "Section::::Relevant gases.:Carbon dioxide.\n\nCarbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. Although individual CO molecules have a short residence time in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.\n", "Chemical elements, vital for life, are also constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. In the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using photosynthesis; this is re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures. Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle. Over very long (geological) time periods, they release carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other geological carbon dioxide sinks.\n", "Atmospheric composition affects and is affected by the biological mechanisms active on the Earth's surface. Organisms effect the amount of oxygen vs. carbon dioxide through respiration and photosynthesis. They also affect the levels of nitrogen through fixation, nitrification, and denitrification. The ocean is capable of absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but this varies based on the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus present in the water. Humans have also played a role in changing the atmospheric composition of the Earth through industrial byproducts, deforestation, and motor vehicles.\n", "Section::::Earth.\n\nA number of different types of chemical cycles geochemical cycles occur on Earth. Biogeochemical cycles play an important role in sustaining the biosphere.\n\nNotable active chemical cycles on Earth include:\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon cycle – consisting of an atmospheric carbon cycle (and carbon dioxide cycle), terrestrial biological carbon cycle, oceanic carbon cycle and geological carbon cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Nitrogen cycle – which converts nitrogen between its forms through fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification\n\nBULLET::::- Oxygen cycle and Ozone–oxygen cycle – a biogeochemical cycle of circulating oxygen between the atmosphere, biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere\n", "The atmosphere is one of the Earth's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle, holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon. Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect. The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide (). Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere (approximately 0.04% on a molar basis), it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect. Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons (the latter is entirely anthropogenic). Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.\n", "The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.\n\nSection::::Atmosphere, climate and weather.:Layers of the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Atmosphere, climate and weather.:Layers of the atmosphere.:Principal layers.\n\nEarth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are:\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Weather and climate.\n\nEarth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.\n", "Section::::Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle.:Atmospheric carbon dioxide and photosynthesis.\n", "The atmosphere envelops the earth and stretches out hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (1%). The trace gases in the atmosphere, water vapour and carbon dioxide are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are greenhouse gases which allow visible light from the Sun to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the infra-red radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise. The hydrological cycle is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of precipitation, it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.\n", "The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about .\n\nSection::::Stratification.\n", "The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.\n", "Section::::Evolution of Earth's atmosphere.:Air pollution.\n\n\"Air pollution\" is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances.\n\nThe scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.\n\nSection::::Images from space.\n", "\"Emission\" is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their \"black body\" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately , its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately , so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.\n", "The carbon cycle is another major contributor to climate change primarily from anthropogenic metabolism. A few examples of how humans contribute to the carbon in the atmosphere is by burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. By taking a close look at the carbon cycle Peng, Thomas and Tian have discovered that, \"It is recognized that human activities, such as fossil fuel burning, land-use change, and forest harvesting at a large scale, have resulted in the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere since the onset of the industrial revolution. The increasing amounts of greenhouse gases, particularly CO2 in the atmosphere, is believed to have induced climate change and global warming.\n", "Carbon dioxide () is an important trace gas in Earth's atmosphere. It is an integral part of the carbon cycle, a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth's oceans, soil, rocks and the biosphere. Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds. absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 µm (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode) and consequently is a greenhouse gas that plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.\n", "Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.\n", "The composition and chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, but primarily because of the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles from corona. It has also been changed by human activity and some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems which have been addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases and global warming. Atmospheric chemists seek to understand the causes of these problems, and by obtaining a theoretical understanding of them, allow possible solutions to be tested and the effects of changes in government policy evaluated.\n", "The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, already mentioned, other noble gases, neon, helium, krypton, and xenon are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.\n", "There has been much evidence to show a significant connection between the carbon cycle and climate change. Most greenhouse gases are primarily composed of carbon and they produce an effect where warmer air that is heated by the sun is kept from leaving the atmosphere by forming a barrier in the troposphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, greenhouse gasses produced by human activity have been noted as the most significant cause of global climate change since the 1950s. Without human interaction, carbon is removed from and reintroduced to soil through a variety of ecosystem processes known as the carbon cycle. Humans have been significantly influencing the global carbon cycle since the Industrial Revolution through various means, such as transportation and agriculture. Through these actions, most of this carbon has moved in one direction, from the lithosphere and biospheres to the atmosphere. By means of oil, gas and irresponsible farming, much of the natural carbon in the earth's pedosphere has been released into the atmosphere, contributing to greenhouse gasses.\n", "An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and escape into space, leaving O in the atmosphere: \n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Biological consumption.\n\nThe main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Abiotic consumption.\n\nThe lithosphere also consumes atmospheric free oxygen by chemical weathering and surface reactions. An example of surface weathering chemistry is formation of iron oxides (rust): \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Direct strike casualties could be much higher than reported numbers.\n\nSection::::Effect on nature.\n\nSection::::Effect on nature.:Impact on vegetation.\n\nTrees are frequent conductors of lightning to the ground. Since sap is a relatively poor conductor, its electrical resistance causes it to be heated explosively into steam, which blows off the bark outside the lightning's path. In following seasons trees overgrow the damaged area and may cover it completely, leaving only a vertical scar. If the damage is severe, the tree may not be able to recover, and decay sets in, eventually killing the tree.\n", "Any of these damage sources and the natural ageing of trees may result in trees or parts of them failing prematurely. The term \"hazard trees\" is commonly used by arborists/arboriculturists, and industry groups such as power line operators, for trees that, due to disease or other factors, are more susceptible to falling in windstorms, or having parts of the tree fall. Damage may also disfigure amenity trees, create unacceptable risks to people, reduce the safe useful life of trees or reduce the value of commercial timber.\n\nSection::::Sources of tree damage.:Decay studies.\n", "Section::::Types of electrical trees.\n\nElectrical trees can be further categorized depending on the different tree patterns. These include dendrites, branch type, bush type, spikes, strings, bow-ties and vented trees. The two most commonly found tree types are bow-tie trees and vented trees.\n", "BULLET::::- Vented trees: Vented trees are trees which initiate at an electrode insulation interface and grow towards the opposite electrode. Having access to free air is a very important factor for the growth of the vented trees. These trees are able to grow continuously until they are long enough to bridge the electrodes, therefore causing failure in the insulation.\n\nSection::::Detection and location of electrical trees.\n\nElectrical trees can be detected and located by means of partial discharge measurement.\n", "At a microclimate scale, lower trees hidden below the canopy exist in a lower temperature and moister environment, and as a result, these young trees are more susceptible to \"Cronartium ribicola\" than the older, taller trees that create the canopy, which consequently have more access to the warm, dry sun. This collection of environmental characteristics are common in the Northern Hemisphere, causing many areas in the United States to be labeled at hazard zones for the genus \"Pinus\".\n\nSection::::Disease management.\n", "Section::::Other occurrences and causes.:Water trees and electrical trees.\n", "Section::::Fire ecology.\n\nSection::::Fire ecology.:History.\n", "Trees can explode when struck by lightning. The strong electric current is carried mostly by the water-conducting sapwood below the bark, heating it up and boiling the water. The pressure of the steam can make the trunk burst. This happens especially with trees whose trunks are already dying or rotting. The more usual result of lightning striking a tree, however, is a lightning scar, running down the bark, or simply root damage, whose only visible sign above ground is branches that were fed by the root dying back.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Fire.\n", "In suitable environments, such as the Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, or the mixed podocarp and broadleaf forest of Ulva Island, New Zealand, forest is the more-or-less stable climatic climax community at the end of a plant succession, where open areas such as grassland are colonised by taller plants, which in turn give way to trees that eventually form a forest canopy.\n", "To the Sioux of The Dakotas and the Cree, the first new moon of the new year is known, in various dialects, as the \"Moon of the Cold-Exploding Trees\".\n\nTree sap is a supercooled liquid in cold temperatures. John Hunter observed, in his \"Treatise on the Blood\", that tree sap within a tree freezes some 17 degrees Fahrenheit below its nominal freezing point.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Lightning.\n", "Excessive wildfire prevention disrupts the fire ecology. The stands are usually so densely populated that the trees self-thin, or out-compete each other, leaving dead trees standing. These become a dry ladder fuel that can accelerate the fire to the crown of living trees. When the fire reaches the crowns of the trees, it can jump from tree to tree and becomes relatively unstoppable.\n", "BULLET::::- Bow-tie trees: Bow-tie trees are trees which start to grow from within the dielectric insulation and grow symmetrically outwards toward the electrodes. As the trees start within the insulation, they have no free supply of air which will enable continuous support of partial discharges. Thus, these trees have discontinuous growth, which is why the bow-tie trees usually do not grow long enough to fully bridge the entire insulation between the electrodes, therefore causing no failure in the insulation.\n", "BULLET::::- The Clothespin tree: Countless fires throughout the decades nearly severed this tree's trunk, creating a space in it large enough for a pick-up truck to drive through.\n", "Section::::The mystery of the trees.\n\nResearchers from the University of Patras, in Greece, have studied the structure and have the following comments:\n", "Tree health\n\nTrees can live for a long time but eventually die, either from natural causes or killed by man. Ill-health of trees can be diagnosed, and early treatment, pruning or felling to prevent the spread may result in timber stocks and amenity trees being saved. Arborists/arboriculturists need to be aware of the risk posed by hazardous trees. Construction projects sometimes avoidably damage trees.\n\nSection::::Sources of tree damage.\n\nThe causes of tree damage and abnormalities can conveniently be divided into either biotic (from living sources) or abiotic (from non-living sources).\n", "External stresses on plants have the ability to change the structure and composition of forest ecosystems. Common external stress that \"Pinaceae\" experience are herbivore and pathogen attack which often leads to tree death. In order to combat these stresses, trees need to adapt or evolve defenses against these stresses. \"Pinaceae\" have evolved a myriad of mechanical and chemical defenses, or a combination of the two, in order to protect themselves against antagonists. \"Pinaceae\" have the ability to up-regulate a combination of constitutive mechanical and chemical strategies to further their defenses.\n", "One of the most common naturally occurring hazard within large trees is the union between trunk and branch. 'V'-shaped unions may create weakness and increase failure risk; this can be reduced by tree cabling, which reduces how far the union can flex in strong winds or other loads.. However, there are many types of defect, some of which cannot be remedied and for which the risk cannot be reduced to an acceptable level without major pruning or felling. It is important that tree inspections are carried out by a competent person and that their recommendations are implemented\n", "Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds, which have bases that are typically 1–2 km (0.6–1.25 miles) above the ground and tops up to in height.\n", "Exploding trees also occur during forest fires and are a risk to smokejumpers. In Australia, the native eucalyptus trees are also known to explode during bush fires due to the high flammability of vaporised eucalyptus oil produced by the tree naturally.\n\nSection::::April fools' hoax.\n", "As a large tree, \"F. aurea\" can be an important host for epiphytes. In Costa Rican cloud forests, where \"F. aurea\" is \"the most conspicuous component\" of intact forest, trees in forest patches supported richer communities of epiphytic bryophytes, while isolated trees supported greater lichen cover.\n", "Old growth forests, or virgin stands, are protected in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Other protected areas with known virgin forests, as confirmed by the Eastern Native Tree Society, include Algonquin Provincial Park, Quetico Provincial Park, and Algoma Highlands in Ontario, Canada; Estivant Pines, Huron Mountains, Porcupine Mountains State Park, and Sylvania Wilderness Area in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, United States; Hartwick Pines State Park in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan; Menominee Indian Reservation in Wisconsin; Lost 40 Scientific and Natural Area (SNA) and Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness in Minnesota; White Pines State Park, Illinois; Cook Forest State Park, Hearts Content Scenic Area, and Anders Run Natural Area in Pennsylvania; and the Linville Gorge Wilderness in North Carolina, United States.\n", "BULLET::::- In the fictional universe of the film \"Avatar\", the Pandoran biosphere habitates trees, which are of fundamental importance for the Na'vi people, like the Hometrees, the Tree of Souls and the Tree of Voices as well as Woodsprites.\n\nBULLET::::- In the TV series \"Teen Wolf\", an element of the plot is the Nemeton, a sacred tree from which druids draw power through human sacrifices, and which later acts as a beacon, drawing supernatural entities to the nearby town of Beacon Hills.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Axis mundi\n\nBULLET::::- Celtic sacred trees\n\nBULLET::::- Ceremonial pole\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas tree\n\nBULLET::::- Donar's Oak\n", "\"Pinaceae\" defenses are prevalent in the bark of the trees. This part of the tree contributes a complex defensive boundary against external antagonists. Constitutive and induced defenses are both found in the bark.\n\nSection::::Defense mechanisms.:Constitutive defenses.\n", "In the Amazon rainforests of South America, the timing of leaf production and abscission has been linked to rhythms in gross primary production at several sites. Early in their lifespan, leaves reach a peak in their capacity for photosynthesis, and in tropical evergreen forests of some regions of the Amazon basin (particularly regions with long dry seasons), many trees produce more young leaves in the dry season, seasonally increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the forest.\n\nSection::::Airborne sensors.\n", "The economic benefits of trees and various other plants have been understood for a long time. Recently, more of these benefits are becoming quantified. Quantification of the economic benefits of trees helps justify public and private expenditures to maintain them. One of the most obvious examples of economic utility is the example of the deciduous tree planted on the south and west of a building (in the Northern Hemisphere), or north and east (in the Southern Hemisphere). The shade shelters and cools the building during the summer, but allows the sun to warm it in the winter after the leaves fall.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The depth that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as the \"apparent depth\". This is an important consideration for spearfishing from the surface because it will make the target fish appear to be in a different place, and the fisher must aim lower to catch the fish. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher \"apparent height\" when viewed from below the water. The opposite correction must be made by an archer fish.\n", "Fig.7, for example, is a photograph taken near the bottom of the shallow end of a swimming pool. What looks like a broad horizontal stripe on the right-hand wall consists of the lower edges of a row of orange tiles, and their reflections; this marks the water level, which can then be traced across the other wall. The swimmer has disturbed the surface above her, scrambling the lower half of her reflection, and distorting the reflection of the ladder (to the right). But most of the surface is still calm, giving a clear reflection of the tiled bottom of the pool. The space above the water is not visible except at the top of the frame, where the handles of the ladder are just discernible above the edge of Snell's window.\n", "For very shallow clear water there is a good chance the bottom may be seen. For example, in the Bahamas, the water is quite clear and only a few metres deep, resulting in an apparent high turbidity because the bottom reflects a lot of the band 1 light. For areas with consistently high turbidity signals, particularly areas with relatively clear water, part of the signal may be due to bottom reflection. Normally this will not be a problem with a post-hurricane turbidity image since the storm easily resuspends enough sediment such that bottom reflection is negligible.\n", "BULLET::::- Haloclines, or strong, vertical salinity gradients. For instance where fresh water enters the sea, the fresh water floats over the denser saline water and may not mix immediately. Sometimes visual effects, such as shimmering and reflection, occur at the boundary between the layers, because the refractive indices differ.\n", "The medium with the higher refractive index is commonly described as optically \"denser\", and the one with the lower refractive index as optically \"rarer\". Hence it is said that total internal reflection is possible for \"dense-to-rare\" incidence, but not for \"rare-to-dense\" incidence.\n\nSection::::Everyday examples.\n\nWhen standing beside an aquarium with one's eyes below the water level, one is likely to see fish or submerged objects reflected in the water-air surface (Fig.1). The brightness of the reflected image — just as bright as the \"direct\" view — can be startling.\n", "In the simple case of a horizontal reflector, it can be assumed that the reflection is located vertically below the source/receiver point (see diagram).\n\nThe situation is more complex in the case of a dipping reflector, as the first reflection originates from further up the direction of dip (see diagram) and therefore the travel-time plot will show a reduced dip that is defined the “migrator’s equation” :\n\nwhere is the \"apparent dip\" and is the \"true dip\".\n", "Refraction occurs when light goes through a water surface since water has a refractive index of 1.33 and air has a refractive index of about 1. Looking at a straight object, such as a pencil in the figure here, which is placed at a slant, partially in the water, the object appears to bend at the water's surface. This is due to the bending of light rays as they move from the water to the air. Once the rays reach the eye, the eye traces them back as straight lines (lines of sight). The lines of sight (shown as dashed lines) intersect at a higher position than where the actual rays originated. This causes the pencil to appear higher and the water to appear shallower than it really is.\n", "Most real objects have some mixture of diffuse and specular reflective properties.\n\nSection::::Water reflectance.\n\nReflection occurs when light moves from a medium with one index of refraction into a second medium with a different index of refraction.\n\nSpecular reflection from a body of water is calculated by the Fresnel equations. Fresnel reflection is directional and therefore does not contribute significantly to albedo which primarily diffuses reflection.\n\nA real water surface may be wavy. Reflectance, which assumes a flat surface as given by the Fresnel equations, can be adjusted to account for waviness.\n\nSection::::Grating efficiency.\n", "BULLET::::3. Let be a lattice point on a branch , and assume so that it is on the higher branch. By applying Vieta's Formulas, is a lattice point on the lower branch of . Then, by reflection is a lattice point on the original branch. This new point has smaller -coordinate, and thus is below the original point. Since this point is on the upper branch, it is still above .\n", "To check the accuracy of a carpenter's type level, a perfectly horizontal surface is not needed. The level is placed on a flat and \"roughly\" level surface and the reading on the bubble tube is noted. This reading indicates to what extent the surface is parallel to the horizontal plane, according to the level, which at this stage is of unknown accuracy. The spirit level is then rotated through 180 degrees in the horizontal plane, and another reading is noted. If the level is accurate, it will indicate the same orientation with respect to the horizontal plane. A difference implies that the level is inaccurate.\n", "The aureole effect or water aureole is an optical phenomenon similar to Heiligenschein, creating sparkling light and dark rays radiating from the shadow of the viewer's head. This effect is seen only over a rippling water surface. The waves act as lenses to focus and defocus sunlight: focused sunlight produces the lighter rays, while defocused sunlight produces the darker rays. Suspended particles in the water help make the aureole effect more pronounced. The effect extends a greater angular distance from the viewer's shadow when the viewer is higher above the water, and can sometimes be seen from a plane.\n", "For small angles of incidence (measured from the normal, when sin θ is approximately the same as tan θ), the ratio of apparent to real depth is the ratio of the refractive indexes of air to that of water. But, as the angle of incidence approaches 90, the apparent depth approaches zero, albeit reflection increases, which limits observation at high angles of incidence. Conversely, the apparent height approaches infinity as the angle of incidence (from below) increases, but even earlier, as the angle of total internal reflection is approached, albeit the image also fades from view as this limit is approached.\n", "Specular reflection\n\nSpecular reflection, also known as regular reflection, is the mirror-like reflection of waves, such as light, from a surface. In this process, each incident ray is reflected at the same angle to the surface normal as the incident ray, but on the opposing side of the surface normal in the plane formed by incident and reflected rays. The result is that an image reflected by the surface is reproduced in mirror-like (\"specular\") fashion.\n", "In his 1907 text, \"Naval Architecture\", Cecil Peabody described this phenomenon:\n\nSection::::Related phenomena.\n\nTrue clapotis is very rare, because the depth of the water or the precipitousness of the shore are unlikely to completely satisfy the idealized requirements. In the more realistic case of partial clapotis, where some of the incoming wave energy is dissipated at the shore,\n\nthe incident wave is less than 100% reflected, and only a partial standing wave is formed where the water particle motions are elliptical.\n", "In general, most hydrometeors have a larger axis in the horizontal (for example, drops of rain become oblates when falling because of the resistance of the air). Because of this, the dipolar axis of the water molecules therefore tends to align in the horizontal and, as such, the radar beam will generally be horizontally polarized to take advantage of maximum return properties. If we send at the same time a pulse with vertical polarization and another with horizontal polarization, we can note a difference of several characteristics between these returns:\n\nSection::::Description.:Differential Reflectivity (formula_1).\n", "A similar effect can be observed by opening one's eyes while swimming just below the water's surface. If the water is calm, the surface outside the critical angle (measured from the vertical) appears mirror-like, reflecting objects below. The region above the water cannot be seen except overhead, where the hemispherical field of view is compressed into a conical field known as \"Snell's window\", whose angular diameter is twice the critical angle (cf. Fig.6). The field of view above the water is theoretically 180° across, but seems less because as we look closer to the horizon, the vertical dimension is more strongly compressed by the refraction; e.g., by Eq.(), for air-to-water incident angles of 90°, 80°, and 70°, the corresponding angles of refraction are 48.6° (\"θ\" in Fig.6), 47.6°, and 44.8°, indicating that the image of a point 20° above the horizon is 3.8° from the edge of Snell's window while the image of a point 10° above the horizon is only 1° from the edge.\n", "Reflection (physics)\n\nReflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves. The \"law of reflection\" says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular reflection.\n", "Section::::Measurements.:Reflection coefficient.\n\nThe reflection coefficient, ρ, is the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave. In general it is a complex number. The magnitude of the reflection coeffient can be calculated from the VSWR measurement by,\n", "The range of underwater vision is usually limited by turbidity. In very clear water visibility may extend as far as about 80m, and a record Secchi depth of 79 m has been reported from a coastal polynya of the Eastern Weddell Sea, Antarctica. In other sea waters, Secchi depths in the 50 to 70 m range have occasionally been recorded, including a 1985 record of 53 m in the Eastern and up to 62 m in the tropical Pacific Ocean. This level of visibility is seldom found in surface freshwater. Crater Lake, Oregon, is often cited for clarity, but the maximum recorded Secchi depth using a 2 m disc is 44 m. The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica and Silfra in Iceland have also been reported as exceptionally clear.\n", "For incidence from water to air, or common glass to air, is not much different from . But is larger at smaller angles of incidence (Fig.12), and the amplitude may still be significant at distances of several times ; for example, because is just greater than 0.01, the evanescent wave amplitude within a distance of the interface is at least 1% of its value at the interface. Hence, speaking loosely, we tend to say that the evanescent wave amplitude is significant within \"a few wavelengths\" of the interface.\n\nSection::::Related phenomena.:Phase shifts.\n", "In the idealized case of \"full clapotis\" where a purely monotonic incoming wave is completely reflected normal to a solid vertical wall,\n\nthe standing wave height is twice the height of the incoming waves at a distance of one half wavelength from the wall.\n\nIn this case, the circular orbits of the water particles in the deep-water wave are converted to purely linear motion, with vertical velocities at the antinodes, and horizontal velocities at the nodes.\n\nThe standing waves alternately rise and fall in a mirror image pattern, as kinetic energy is converted to potential energy, and vice versa.\n", "However, in most circumstances a mapped reflection is only an approximation of the real reflection. Environment mapping relies on two assumptions that are seldom satisfied:\n\n1) All radiance incident upon the object being shaded comes from an infinite distance. When this is not the case the reflection of nearby geometry appears in the wrong place on the reflected object. When this is the case, no parallax is seen in the reflection.\n", "The reversal of images by a plane mirror is perceived differently depending on the circumstances. In many cases, the image in a mirror appears to be reversed from left to right. If a flat mirror is mounted on the ceiling it can appear to reverse \"up\" and \"down\" if a person stands under it and looks up at it. Similarly a car turning \"left\" will still appear to be turning \"left\" in the rear view mirror for the driver of a car in front of it. The reversal of directions, or lack thereof, depends on how the directions are defined. More specifically a mirror changes the handedness of the coordinate system, one axis of the coordinate system appears to be reversed, and the chirality of the image may change. For example, the image of a right shoe will look like a left shoe.\n", "Visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be discerned. The theoretical black body visibility of pure water based on the values for the optical properties of water for light of 550 nm has been estimated at 74 m.\n\nThe standard measurement for underwater visibility is the distance at which a Secchi disc can be seen.\n", "Only a small fraction of the light incident on the ocean will be reflected and received by the satellite. The probability for a photon to reflect and exit the ocean decreases exponentially with length of its path through the water because the ocean is an absorbing medium. The more ocean a photon must travel through, the greater its chances of being absorbed by something. After absorption, it will eventually become part of the ocean's heat reservoir. The absorption and scattering characteristics of a water body determine the rate of vertical light attenuation and set a limit to the depths contributing to a satellite signal. A reasonable rule of thumb is that 90 percent of the signal coming from the water that is seen by the satellite is from the first attenuation length. How deep this is depends on the absorption and scattering properties of both the water itself and other constituents in the water. For wavelengths in the near infrared and longer, the penetration depth varies from a metre to a few micrometres. For band 1, the penetration depth will usually be between 1 and 10 metres. If the water has a large turbidity spike below 10 metres, the spike is unlikely to be seen by a satellite.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Scientists from the experimental arm of the United States Department of Defense began creating artificial blood for use in remote areas and transfuse blood to wounded soldiers more quickly in 2010. The blood is made from the hematopoietic stem cells removed from umbilical cord between the mother and fetus of humans after birth using a method called blood pharming. Pharming has been used in the past on animals and plants to create medical substances in large quantities. Each cord can produce approximately 20 units of blood. The blood is being produced for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency by Arteriocyte. The Food and Drug Administration has examined and approved the safety of this blood from previously submitted O-negative blood. Using this particular artificial blood will reduce the costs per unit of blood from $5,000 to equal or less than $1,000. This blood will also serve as a blood donor to all common blood types. Pharmed blood may be used in human trials in 2013.\n", "Efforts to develop blood substitutes have been driven by a desire to replace blood transfusion in emergency situations, in places where infectious disease is endemic and the risk of contaminated blood products is high, where refrigeration to preserve blood may be lacking, and where it might not be possible or convenient to find blood type matches.\n\nSection::::Approaches.\n\nEfforts have focused on molecules that can carry oxygen, and most work has focused on recombinant hemoglobin, which normally carries oxygen, and perfluorocarbons (PFC), chemical compounds which can carry and release oxygen.\n", "Research interest in the use of artificial cells for blood arose after the AIDS scare of the 1980s. Besides bypassing the potential for disease transmission, artificial red blood cells are desired because they eliminate drawbacks associated with allogenic blood transfusions such as blood typing, immune reactions and its short storage life of 42 days. A hemoglobin substitute may be stored at room temperature and not under refrigeration for more than a year. Attempts have been made to develop a complete working red blood cell which comprises carbonic not only an oxygen carrier but also the enzymes associated with the cell. The first attempt was made in 1957 by replacing the red blood cell membrane by an ultrathin polymeric membrane which was followed by encapsulation through a lipid membrane and more recently a biodegradable polymeric membrane.\n", "Similarly, Hemospan was developed by Sangart, and was a pegylated haemoglobin provided in a powdered form. While early trials were promising Sangart ran out of funding and closed down.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Stem cells.\n\nStem cells offer a possible means of producing transfusable blood. A study performed by Giarratana et al. describes a large-scale ex-vivo production of mature human blood cells using hematopoietic stem cells. The cultured cells possessed the same haemoglobin content and morphology as native red blood cells. The authors contend that the cells had a near-normal lifespan, when compared to natural red blood cells.\n", "Section::::Clinical relevance.:Artificial blood cell.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.:Artificial blood cell.:Oxygen carriers.\n\nNano sized oxygen carriers are used as a type of red blood cell substitutes, although they lack other components of red blood cells. They are composed of a synthetic polymersome or an artificial membrane surrounding purified animal, human or recombinant hemoglobin.\n\nOverall, hemoglobin delivery continues to be a challenge because it is highly toxic when delivered without any modifications. In some clinical trials, vasopressor effects have been observed.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.:Artificial blood cell.:Red blood cells.\n", "PolyHeme was developed over 20 years by Northfield Laboratories and began as a military project following the Vietnam War. It is human haemoglobin, extracted from red blood cells, then polymerized, then incorporated into an electrolyte solution. In April 2009, the FDA rejected Northfield's Biologic License Application and in June 2009, Northfield filed for bankruptcy.\n\nDextran-Haemoglobin was developed by Dextro-Sang Corp as a veterinary product, and was a conjugate of the polymer dextran with human haemoglobin.\n\nHemotech was developed by HemoBiotech and was a chemically modified haemoglobin.\n", "The plasma from whole blood can be used to make plasma for transfusions or it can also be processed into other medications using a process called fractionation. This was a development of the dried plasma used to treat the wounded during World War II and variants on the process are still used to make a variety of other medications.\n\nSection::::Obtaining the blood.:Apheresis.\n", "A number of blood substitutes have been explored (and still are), but thus far they all suffer from many challenges. Most attempts to find a suitable alternative to blood thus far have concentrated on cell-free hemoglobin solutions. Blood substitutes could make transfusions more readily available in emergency medicine and in pre-hospital EMS care. If successful, such a blood substitute could save many lives, particularly in trauma where massive blood loss results. Hemopure, a hemoglobin-based therapy, is approved for use in South Africa.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n", "Thus far, there are no available \"oxygen-carrying\" blood substitutes, which is the typical objective of a blood (RBC) transfusion; however, there are widely available non-blood \"volume expanders\" for cases where only volume restoration is required. These are helping doctors and surgeons avoid the risks of disease transmission and immune suppression, address the chronic blood donor shortage, and address the concerns of Jehovah's Witnesses and others who have religious objections to receiving transfused blood.\n", "Dr. Blumberg, the lead author of the meta-analysis covering 3093 patients, stated in the press that the cost savings due to universal leukoreduction exceeds the cost of performing the leukoreduction. The cost of leukoreduction is an increase of approximately US$30 per unit of blood product.\n\nSection::::History of availability.\n\nUniversal leukoreduction is currently not practiced in all countries.\n", "In 1992, the FDA approved Factor VIII produced using transgenic Chinese hamster ovary cells, the first such blood clotting factor produced using recombinant DNA technology to be approved.\n\nSection::::Transgenic farm animals.\n\nRecombinant DNA techniques have also been employed to create transgenic farm animals that can produce pharmaceutical products for use in humans. For instance, pigs that produce human hemoglobin have been created. While blood from such pigs could not be employed directly for transfusion to humans, the hemoglobin could be refined and employed to manufacture a blood substitute. \n\nSection::::Paclitaxel (Taxol).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe Blood Products Laboratory was established in 1954 as part of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine by the Medical Research Council. Lister purchased the Elstree site in 1902 and operated on the site until 1978.\n\nDuring this time, Professor R. A.Kekwick, working at the Lister Institute undertook experimental and production work with A.S. McFarlane. The two scientists devised a process to clarify outdated blood plasma to render it suitable for transfusion. Laboratory testing was undertaken in the historic Queensbury Lodge, the site of Joseph Lister's laboratory.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Blood substitutes.\n\nBiochemical and biotechnological development has allowed novel approaches to this issue, in the form of engineered O carriers, widely known as \"blood substitutes\". The blood substitutes currently available are chiefly polymerized haemoglobin solutions or haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).\n\nSection::::Methods.:Blood substitutes.:Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs).\n", "The first approved oxygen-carrying blood substitute was a perfluorocarbon-based product called Fluosol-DA-20, manufactured by Green Cross of Japan. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1989. Because of limited success, complexity of use and side effects, it was withdrawn in 1994. However, Fluosol-DA remains the only oxygen therapeutic ever fully approved by the FDA. As of 2017 no haemoglobin-based product had been approved.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Perfluorocarbon based.\n", "A blood substitute (also called artificial blood or blood surrogate) is a substance used to mimic and fulfill some functions of biological blood. It aims to provide an alternative to blood transfusion, which is transferring blood or blood-based products from one person into another. Thus far, there are no well-accepted \"oxygen-carrying\" blood substitutes, which is the typical objective of a red blood cell transfusion; however, there are widely available non-blood volume expanders for cases where only volume restoration is required. These are helping doctors and surgeons avoid the risks of disease transmission and immune suppression, address the chronic blood donor shortage, and address the concerns of Jehovah's Witnesses and others who have religious objections to receiving transfused blood.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nOne application is to engineer red blood cells into drug-delivery vehicles. Mature red cells carry no genetic material, potentially presenting fewer safety risks than other gene and cell therapies. Human red blood cells circulate for as long as four months, meaning they could potentially form the basis of long-term therapies. The cells move throughout body via the bloodstream and are unnoticed by the immune system.\n", "Red blood cells (RBC), the most frequently used component, have a shelf life of 35–42 days at refrigerated temperatures. For (relatively rare) long-term storage applications, this can be extended by freezing the blood with a mixture of glycerol, but this process is expensive and requires an extremely cold freezer for storage.\n\nPlasma can be stored frozen for an extended period of time and is typically given an expiration date of one year and maintaining a supply is less of a problem.\n\nSection::::Storage, supply and demand.:Demand for blood.\n", "HBOC's such as Polyheme and Hemepure have been discontinued due to severe adverse reactions including death. South Africa was the only country where they were legally authorized as standard treatment but they are no longer available.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Despite measures that are in place in the developed world to ensure the safety of blood products for transfusion, a risk of disease transmission still exists. Consequently, the development of pathogen inactivation/reduction technologies for blood products has been an ongoing effort in the field of transfusion medicine. A new procedure for the treatment of individual units of single-donor (apheresis) or whole blood–derived, pooled, platelets has recently been introduced. This technology uses riboflavin and light for the treatment of platelets and plasma.\n\nSection::::Method.\n", "During the 1940s, Brinkhous and McFarlane discovered that transfusions using whole blood or plasma provided a means of FVIII replacement. Applications using this early discover were limited due to naturally low concentrations of this anti-haemophilic factor in blood and plasma and volume constraints in the circulatory system.\n", "Although a pint of donated blood contains about two trillion red blood cells and over 107 million blood donations are collected globally, there is still a critical need for blood for transfusion. In 2014, type O red blood cells were synthesized at the Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service from iPSC. The cells were induced to become a mesoderm and then blood cells and then red blood cells. The final step was to make them eject their nuclei and mature properly. Type O can be transfused into all patients. Human clinical trials were not expected to begin before 2016.\n", "Milk is presently the most mature system to produce recombinant proteins from transgenic organisms. Blood, egg white, seminal plasma, and urine are other theoretically possible systems, but all have drawbacks. Blood, for instance, as of 2012 cannot store high levels of stable recombinant proteins, and biologically active proteins in blood may alter the health of the animals. Expression in the milk of a mammal, such as a cow, sheep, or goat, is a common application, as milk production is plentiful and purification from milk is relatively easy. Hamsters and rabbits have also been used in preliminary studies because of their faster breeding.\n", "Many labs around the world are creating small amounts of hPL to suit their laboratory needs. The disadvantages of this process are: cost and consistency. When creating small batches of hPL (single or few donors pooled), the lot-to-lot consistency of the hPL becomes variable. Large-scale manufacturing by pooling many platelet donors is a necessity to mitigate the donor-to-donor variability. Consistency is a top priority for experimental designs to provide reproducible results.\n\nPlatelet lysate is commonly used for supplementation of basal media in mesenchymal stem cells culture. Prior the use, the pathogen inactivation process is recommended to prevent pathogen transmission.\n", "The \"Blood for Britain\" program during the early 1940s was quite successful (and popular in the United States) based on Charles Drew's contribution. A large project began in August 1940 to collect blood in New York City hospitals for the export of plasma to Britain. Drew was appointed medical supervisor of the \"Plasma for Britain\" project. His notable contribution at this time was to transform the test tube methods of many blood researchers into the first successful mass production techniques.\n", "Providing safe blood for transfusion remains a challenge despite advances in preventing transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), AIDS/HIV, HTLV-I/II, West Nile virus (WNV), syphilis, Chagas disease, Zika virus and transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection. Human errors such as misidentifying patients and drawing blood samples from the wrong person (ie, wrong blood in tube or WBIT) is more of a risk than transmissible diseases in many developed nations.\n" ]

[ "Blood should be able to be manufactured in a lab. " ]

[ "Blood contains millions of living cells, which only grow in bone marrow, which cannot be obtained elsewhere. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Blood should be able to be manufactured in a lab. ", "Blood should be able to be manufactured in a lab. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Blood contains millions of living cells, which only grow in bone marrow, which cannot be obtained elsewhere. ", "Blood contains millions of living cells, which only grow in bone marrow, which cannot be obtained elsewhere. " ]

[ "BULLET::::- Accumulation of waste:\n\nBULLET::::- A buildup of waste products in cells presumably interferes with metabolism. For example, a waste product called lipofuscin is formed by a complex reaction in cells that binds fat to proteins. This waste accumulates in the cells as small granules, which increase in size as a person ages.\n\nBULLET::::- The hallmark of ageing yeast cells appears to be overproduction of certain proteins.\n", "BULLET::::- stem cell exhaustion (in the authors' view caused by damage factors such as those listed above)\n\nBULLET::::- altered intercellular communication (encompassing especially inflammation but possibly also other intercellular interactions)\n\nThere are three main metabolic pathways which can influence the rate of ageing, discussed below:\n\nBULLET::::- the FOXO3/Sirtuin pathway, probably responsive to caloric restriction\n\nBULLET::::- the Growth hormone/Insulin-like growth factor 1 signalling pathway\n\nBULLET::::- the activity levels of the electron transport chain in mitochondria and (in plants) in chloroplasts.\n\nIt is likely that most of these pathways affect ageing separately, because targeting them simultaneously leads to additive increases in lifespan.\n", "The causes of ageing are uncertain; current theories are assigned to the damage concept, whereby the accumulation of damage (such as DNA oxidation) may cause biological systems to fail, or to the programmed ageing concept, whereby internal processes (such as DNA methylation) may cause ageing. Programmed ageing should not be confused with programmed cell death (apoptosis).\n\nIn 1934, it was discovered that calorie restriction can extend lifespan by 50% in rats and this has motivated research into delaying and preventing ageing .\n\nSection::::Ageing versus immortality.\n", "BULLET::::- Senescent cells: most of the cells with DNA damages that can't be fixed do apoptosis but some cells don't. Those cells are related to many diseases such as kidney failure and diabetes. In 2016, in a study, the removal of those cells in mice has extended their lifespans by 20% to 30%. Another study shows that this issue is related to the p16 and β-galactosidase. Significant results have been obtained by some companies to extend mouse lifespan focusing on senescent cells.\n", "Cells accumulate damage over time, but this may be counterbalanced by natural selection to remove damaged cells. In particular DNA damage, e.g. due to reactive oxygen species, leads to the accumulation of harmful somatic mutations.\n", "Section::::Cancer versus cellular senescence tradeoff theory of aging.\n\nSenescent cells within a multicellular organism can be purged by competition between cells, but this increases the risk of cancer. This leads to an inescapable dilemma between two possibilities—the accumulation of physiologically useless senescent cells, and cancer—both of which lead to increasing rates of mortality with age.\n\nSection::::Chemical damage.\n\nOne of the earliest aging theories was the \"Rate of Living Hypothesis\" described by Raymond Pearl in 1928 (based on earlier work by Max Rubner), which states that fast basal metabolic rate corresponds to short maximum life span.\n", "BULLET::::- deregulated nutrient sensing (relating to the Growth hormone/Insulin-like growth factor 1 signalling pathway, which is the most conserved ageing-controlling pathway in evolution and among its targets are the FOXO3/Sirtuin transcription factors and the mTOR complexes, probably responsive to caloric restriction)\n\nBULLET::::- mitochondrial dysfunction (the authors point out however that a causal link between ageing and increased mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species is no longer supported by recent research)\n\nBULLET::::- cellular senescence (accumulation of no longer dividing cells in certain tissues, a process induced especially by p16INK4a/Rb and p19ARF/p53 to stop cancerous cells from proliferating)\n", "Section::::Age-associated accumulation of DNA damage and decline in gene expression.:Kidney.\n\nIn kidney, changes with age include reduction in both renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate, and impairment in the ability to concentrate urine and to conserve sodium and water. DNA damages, particularly oxidative DNA damages, increase with age (at least 8 studies). For instance Hashimoto et al. showed that 8-OHdG accumulates in rat kidney DNA with age.\n\nSection::::Age-associated accumulation of DNA damage and decline in gene expression.:Long-lived stem cells.\n", "Some of the cells in our bodies cannot be replaced, or can be only replaced very slowly—more slowly than they die. This decrease in cell number affects some of the most important tissues of the body. Muscle cells are lost in skeletal muscles and the heart, causing them to become frailer with age. Loss of neurons in the substantia nigra causes Parkinson's disease, while loss of immune cells impairs the immune system.\n", "BULLET::::- What are the endogenous ligands of orphan receptors?\n\nBULLET::::- What substance is endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor?\n\nSection::::General biology.:Other.\n\nBULLET::::- Why does biological aging occur? There are a number of hypotheses why senescence occurs including those that it is programmed by gene expression changes and that it is the accumulative damage of biological processes.\n\nBULLET::::- Consistency of movement. How can we move so controllably, even though the motor nerve impulses seem haphazard and unpredictable?\n", "Section::::Types of damage.:Sub-lethal (reversible).:Cellular swelling.\n\nCellular swelling (or cloudy swelling) may occur due to cellular hypoxia, which damages the sodium-potassium membrane pump; it is reversible when the cause is eliminated.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Aging.\n\nStem cell function becomes impaired with age, and this contributes to progressive deterioration of tissue maintenance and repair. A likely important cause of increasing stem cell dysfunction is age-dependent accumulation of DNA damage in both stem cells and the cells that comprise the stem cell environment. (See also DNA damage theory of aging.)\n", "Section::::Pathologic implication.\n\nLoss of telomeric DNA through repeated cycles of cell division is associated with senescence or somatic cell aging. In contrast, germ line and cancer cells possess an enzyme, telomerase, which prevents telomere degradation and maintains telomere integrity, causing these types of cells to be very long-lived.\n", "The DNA damage response (DDR) arrests cell cycle progression until damages, such as double-strand breaks (DSBs), are repaired. Senescent cells display persistent DDR foci that appear to be resistant to endogenous DNA repair activities. Such senescent cells in culture and tissues from aged mammals retain true DSBs associated with DDR markers. It has been proposed that retained DSBs are major drivers of the aging process (see DNA damage theory of aging).\n\nSection::::Cellular mechanisms.:Role of telomeres.\n", "BULLET::::3. Proteins- Protein-protein exchanges either cease to exist or the connections between them become weaker due to energy loss and injury to the protein itself. This then leads to the protein being displaced in the cell.\n\nBULLET::::4. Cells- Connections within the cell begin to either tighten or loosen up eventually leading to weakened connections. There is a high price associated with these connections, especially within the brain.\n", "Section::::Biological basis.:Programmed factors.\n", "The rise of blood pressure is correlated to ageing. The arterial compliance - the amount of tension produced per stretch of arteries, decreases with age, and the stiffness of arteries increases with age. The structural change in blood vessels causes the elderly to be more susceptible to hypertension, which leads to complications in arteries, the heart and even the brain.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Obesity.\n", "With respect to specific types of chemical damage caused by metabolism, it is suggested that damage to long-lived biopolymers, such as structural proteins or DNA, caused by ubiquitous chemical agents in the body such as oxygen and sugars, are in part responsible for aging. The damage can include breakage of biopolymer chains, cross-linking of biopolymers, or chemical attachment of unnatural substituents (haptens) to biopolymers.\n", "Another study in a mouse model shows that stem cells do age and their aging can lead to heart failure. Findings of the study indicate that diabetes leads to premature myocyte senescence and death and together they result in the development of cardiomyopathy due to decreased muscle mass.\n\nBehrens et al. have reviewed evidence that age-dependent accumulation of DNA damage in both stem cells and cells that comprise the stem cell microenvironment is responsible, at least in part, for stem cell dysfunction with aging.\n\nSection::::Hematopoietic stem cell aging.\n", "Section::::Cause of aging.\n", "BULLET::::- Some evidence is provided by oxygen-deprived bacterial cultures.\n\nBULLET::::- The theory would explain why the autosomal dominant disease, Huntington's disease, can persist even though it is inexorably lethal. Also, it has been suggested that some of the genetic variants that increase fertility in the young increase cancer risk in the old. Such variants occur in genes p53 and BRCA1.\n", "Telomere shortening is associated with aging, mortality and aging-related diseases. Normal aging is associated with telomere shortening in both humans and mice, and studies on genetically modified animal models suggest causal links between telomere erosion and aging. However, it is not known whether short telomeres are just a sign of cellular age or actually contribute to the aging process themselves.\n", "The rate of DNA repair is dependent on many factors, including the cell type, the age of the cell, and the extracellular environment. A cell that has accumulated a large amount of DNA damage, or one that no longer effectively repairs damage incurred to its DNA, can enter one of three possible states:\n\nBULLET::::1. an irreversible state of dormancy, known as senescence\n\nBULLET::::2. cell suicide, also known as apoptosis or programmed cell death\n\nBULLET::::3. unregulated cell division, which can lead to the formation of a tumor that is cancerous\n", "Another component of aging is the gradual shortening of telomeres located at the end of chromosomes. Telomeres are repetitive sequences located at the end of chromosomes whose purpose are to slow the process of shortening and cell damage which occurs after every cell division as well as stabilize the ends of DNA. Aging and age-related diseases are associated with the significant shortening of these sequences. The shrinking of telomeres occurs in somatic cells where telomerase, the enzyme in control of telomere lengthening, is not expressed.\n", "The DNA damage theory of aging postulates that DNA damage is ubiquitous in the biological world and is the primary cause of ageing. The theory is based off the idea that ageing occurs over time due to the damage of the DNA. As an example, studies of mammalian brain and muscle have shown that DNA repair capability is relatively high during early development when cells are dividing mitotically, but declines substantially as cells enter the post-mitotic state. The effect of reducing expression of DNA repair capability is increased accumulation of DNA damage. This impairs gene transcription and causes the progressive loss of cellular and tissue functions that define aging.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "In early theoretical work, blood was treated as a non-Newtonian viscous fluid. Initial studies had evaluated blood during steady flow and later, using oscillating flow. Professor George B. Thurston, of the University of Texas, first presented the idea of blood being viscoelastic in 1972. The previous studies that looked at blood in steady flow showed negligible elastic properties because the elastic regime is stored in the blood during flow initiation and so its presence is hidden when a flow reaches steady state. The early studies used the properties found in steady flow to derive properties for unsteady flow situations. Advancements in medical procedures and devices required a better understanding of the mechanical properties of blood.\n", "Viscoelasticity is a property of human blood that is primarily due to the elastic energy that is stored in the deformation of red blood cells as the heart pumps the blood through the body. The energy transferred to the blood by the heart is partially stored in the elastic structure, another part is dissipated by viscosity, and the remaining energy is stored in the kinetic motion of the blood. When the pulsation of the heart is taken into account, an elastic regime becomes clearly evident. It has been shown that the previous concept of blood as a purely viscous fluid was inadequate since blood is not an ordinary fluid. Blood can more accurately be described as a fluidized suspension of elastic cells (or a sol).\n", "Section::::Blood viscosity.\n\nBlood viscosity is a measure of the resistance of blood to flow. It can also be described as the thickness and stickiness of blood. This biophysical property makes it a critical determinant of friction against the vessel walls, the rate of venous return, the work required for the heart to pump blood, and how much oxygen is transported to tissues and organs. These functions of the cardiovascular system are directly related to vascular resistance, preload, afterload, and perfusion, respectively.\n", "BULLET::::- Newtonian fluid model where has a constant viscosity at all shear rates. This approach is valid for high shear rates (formula_47) where the vessel diameter is much bigger than the blood cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Bingham fluid model takes into account the aggregation of red blood cells at low shear rates. Therefore, it acts as an elastic solid under threshold level of shear stress, known as yield stress.\n", "This has also led the way for developing a blood analog in order to study and test prosthetic devices. The classic analog of glycerin and water provides a good representation of viscosity and inertial effects but lacks the elastic properties of real blood. One such blood analog is an aqueous solution of Xanthan gum and glycerin developed to match both the viscous and elastic components of the complex viscosity of blood.\n", "Physiology includes the study of many bodily fluids that have complex structure and composition, and thus exhibit a wide range of viscoelastic flow characteristics. In particular there is a specialist study of blood flow called hemorheology. This is the study of flow properties of blood and its elements (plasma and formed elements, including red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets). Blood viscosity is determined by plasma viscosity, hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood cell, which constitute 99.9% of the cellular elements) and mechanical behaviour of red blood cells. Therefore, red blood cell mechanics is the major determinant of flow properties of blood.\n", "Coagulation or blood clotting relies on, in addition to the production of fibrin, interactions between platelets. When the endothelium or the lining of a blood vessel is damaged, connective tissue including collagen fibers is locally exposed. Initially, platelets stick to the exposed connective tissue through specific cell-surface receptors. This is followed by platelet activation and aggregation in which platelets become firmly attached and release chemicals that recruit neighboring platelets to the site of vascular injury. A meshwork of fibrin then forms around this aggregation of platelets to increase the strength of the clot.\n\nSection::::Transient interactions.:Cell interactions between bacteria.\n", "If the blood viscosity increases (gets thicker), the result is an increase in arterial pressure. Certain medical conditions can change the viscosity of the blood. For instance, anemia (low red blood cell concentration), reduces viscosity, whereas increased red blood cell concentration increases viscosity. It had been thought that aspirin and related \"blood thinner\" drugs decreased the viscosity of blood, but instead studies found that they act by reducing the tendency of the blood to clot.\n\nSection::::Blood vessels.:Wall tension.\n", "BULLET::::- In addition, in some cases hydrogen peroxide has been suggested to function as an EDHF in some vascular beds; although the validity of this observation is debated because it may have an inhibitory action on K+ channels, at least, in \"some\" vascular beds.\n", "Section::::Forensic procedure.:Finding and documenting blood residue.\n\nFreshly dried bloodstains are a glossy reddish-brown in color. Under the influence of sunlight, the weather or removal attempts, the color eventually disappears and the stain turns gray. The surface on which it is found may also influence the stain's color.\n", "The general structure of albumin is characterized by several long α helices allowing it to maintain a relatively static shape, which is essential for regulating blood pressure.\n\nSerum albumin contains eleven distinct binding domains for hydrophobic compounds. One hemin and six long-chain fatty acids can bind to serum albumin at the same time.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSerum albumin is widely distributed in mammals. \n\nBULLET::::- The human version is human serum albumin.\n", "Ferric subsulfate (also known as Monsel's solution) is often used by Jewish burial societies (chevra kadisha) to stop post-mortem bleeding. Since Jewish burial does not allow any external skin adhesives such as bandages, tape, glue or resin, ferric subsulfate is an effective way to stop post-mortem bleeding. Most post-mortem bleeding stems from surgery, emergency room situations, autopsies or blood which may result when removing IV lines during Jewish burial preparation. A piece of cotton, or Q-tip, soaked with this solution is pressed against the open wound and held for a few seconds. This is usually enough time for the seal to take effect. For more severe cases, such as arterial lines, if the line is still inside, the solution can be inserted directly into the IV line.\n", "Inside the bathroom, a character in the mirror begins talking to Boxer . He keeps asking Boxer: ‘Do You Bleed?...Not Like we Do Future-Man’. Boxer asks who the Indian is. The man says that the Indian is a natural bleeder and that it took long to make contact, he took a shot of Fluid Karma (The name of the substance inside the syringes), The Indian is a natural bleeder (he sees forward in time) and the man in the mirror and Boxer are Chemical Bleeders (they see back in time) but when Chemical Bleeders take Fluid Karma too much, they begin to see both ways...this is why the man in the mirror is seeing into the future-at Boxer. He is 6 months behind in January 2008.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Abrasion:\" A scraping or scratching. Generally quite superficial, and affecting only the surface layers of the epidermis. No internal organs, nerves, or blood vessels other than capillaries, are affected. This may be the result of a fall, or of sliding (friction) against rough surfaces. The \"road rash\" often suffered by falling motorcyclists is an example of this type of wound.\n", "One of the characteristics of blood that affects the work required to cause the blood to flow through the arteries is the viscosity of blood. The viscosity of blood is in the range of 3 to 6 cP, or 0.003 to 0.006 Ns/m2. Blood is a non-Newtonian fluid, which means that the viscosity of blood is not a constant with respect to the rate of shearing strain. In addition to the rate of shearing strain, the viscosity of blood is also dependent on temperature and on the volume percentage of blood that consists of red blood cells. If blood is made stationary for several seconds then clotting begins in the blood, as a result of which the viscosity of the blood increases. When the stationary state is disturbed with increasing shear rate, the clot formation is destroyed and the viscosity decreases. Moreover, the orientation of red blood cells present in the blood also affects the viscosity of blood. Thus, we can say that blood is a shear thinning fluid, i.e., viscosity decreases with increase in shear rate. Beyond a shear rate of about 100s^-1, the viscosity is nearly constant and the blood behaves like a Newtonian fluid. Blood is a viscoelastic material, i.e., viscous and elastic because the effective viscosity of blood not only depends on the shear rate but also on the history of shear rate.It is also important to note that the normal blood flows much more easily compared to rigid particles, for the same particle volume fraction. This is due to the fact that red blood cells can accommodate by deforming in order to pass by one another.\n", "Coagulation\n\nCoagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion and aggregation of platelets, as well as deposition and maturation of fibrin.\n", "BULLET::::- Fibers. Not all types of CT are fibrous. Examples of non-fibrous CT include adipose tissue and blood. Adipose tissue gives \"mechanical cushioning\" to the body, among other functions. Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue, groups of adipose cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place (for example, the sole of the foot). The matrix of blood is plasma.\n\nBULLET::::- Both the ground substance and proteins (fibers) create the matrix for CT. Connective tissues are derived from the mesenchyme.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Hemorheology, also spelled haemorheology (from the Greek \"‘αἷμα, haima\" \"blood\" and rheology [from Greek ῥέω rhéō, \"flow\" and -λoγία, -logia, \"study of\"]), or blood rheology, is the study of flow properties of blood and its elements of plasma and cells. Proper tissue perfusion can occur only when blood's rheological properties are within certain levels. Alterations of these properties play significant roles in disease processes. Blood viscosity is determined by plasma viscosity, hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood cell, which constitute 99.9% of the cellular elements) and mechanical properties of red blood cells. Red blood cells have unique mechanical behavior, which can be discussed under the terms erythrocyte deformability and erythrocyte aggregation. Because of that, blood behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid. As such, the viscosity of blood varies with shear rate. Blood becomes less viscous at high shear rates like those experienced with increased flow such as during exercise or in peak-systole. Therefore, blood is a shear-thinning fluid. Contrarily, blood viscosity increases when shear rate goes down with increased vessel diameters or with low flow, such as downstream from an obstruction or in diastole. Blood viscosity also increases with increases in red cell aggregability (see below).\n", "Section::::Blood viscoelasticity.:Maxwell model.\n", "Section::::Elements of Blood and Blood Rheology.\n\nThe fluids associated with the human body include air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, solvents, solutions, suspensions, serum, lymph, and blood. The major body fluid which acts as the lifeline of the living organisms is \"Blood\". Blood is an extremely complex biological fluid. It consists of blood cells suspended in plasma and other different types of cells which include white blood cells, platelets etc. The blood flow in arteries and veins are closely linked to the blood vessel properties.\n", "The restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris.\n\nAnother example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Invertebrates.\n", "In large vessels with low hematocrit, viscosity dramatically drops and red cells take in a lot of energy. While in smaller vessels at the micro-circulation scale, viscosity is very high. With the increase in shear stress at the wall, a lot of energy is used to move cells.\n\nSection::::Shear rate relations.\n", "The imperfect chemistry of his time was sufficient to lead Austin to one accurate conclusion, the variety of composition of hard concretions found throughout the body; and he also points out correctly that the hard matter found in the arteries of old people is calcareous, while the white substance covering the surface of gouty joints is not so.\n\nSection::::Later life.\n", "BULLET::::6. Fibrinoid necrosis is a special form of necrosis usually caused by immune-mediated vascular damage. It is marked by complexes of antigen and antibodies, sometimes referred to as \"immune complexes\" deposited within arterial walls together with fibrin.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Other clinical classifications of necrosis.\n\nBULLET::::1. There are also very specific forms of necrosis such as gangrene (term used in clinical practices for limbs which have suffered severe hypoxia), gummatous necrosis (due to spirochaetal infections) and hemorrhagic necrosis (due to the blockage of venous drainage of an organ or tissue).\n", "When the red cells are at rest or at very small shear rates, they tend to aggregate and stack together in an energetically favorable manner. The attraction is attributed to charged groups on the surface of cells and to the presence of fibrinogen and globulins. This aggregated configuration is an arrangement of cells with the least amount of deformation. With very low shear rates, the viscoelastic property of blood is dominated by the aggregation and cell deformability is relatively insignificant. As the shear rate increases the size of the aggregates begins to decrease. With a further increase in shear rate, the cells will rearrange and orient to provide channels for the plasma to pass through and for the cells to slide. In this low to medium shear rate range, the cells wiggle with respect to the neighboring cells allowing flow. The influence of aggregation properties on the viscoelasticity diminish and the influence of red cell deformability begins to increase. As shear rates become large, red blood cells will stretch or deform and align with the flow. Cell layers are formed, separated by plasma, and flow is now attributed to layers of cells sliding on layers of plasma. The cell layer allows for easier flow of blood and as such there is a reduced viscosity and reduced elasticity. The viscoelasticity of the blood is dominated by the deformability of the red blood cells.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Countershading, the use of different colors on upper and lower surfaces in graduating tones from a light belly to a darker back, is common in the sea and on land. It is sometimes called Thayer's law, after the American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer, who published a paper on the form in 1896 that explained that countershading paints out shadows to make solid objects appear flat, reversing the way that artists use paint to make flat paintings contain solid objects. Where the background is brighter than is possible even with white pigment, counter-illumination in marine animals, such as squid, can use light to match the background.\n", "If there are any particles suspended in the water, they will increase the scattering of light. In coastal areas, runoff from rivers, resuspension of sand and silt from the bottom by tides, waves, and storms and a number of other substances can change the color of the near-shore waters. Some types of particles can also contain substances that absorb certain wavelengths of light, which alters its characteristics. For example, microscopic marine algae, called phytoplankton, have the capacity to absorb light in the blue and red region of the spectrum owing to specific pigments like chlorophyll. Accordingly, as the concentration of phytoplankton increases in the water, the color of the water shifts toward the green part of the spectrum. Fine mineral particles like sediment absorb light in the blue part of the spectrum, causing the water to turn brownish if there is a massive sediment load.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "A. For murky, turbid water of low visibility (rivers, harbors, etc.)\n\nB. For moderately turbid water (sounds, bays, coastal water).\n\nC. For clear water (southern water, deep water offshore, etc.).\n\nThe most difficult colors at the limits of visibility with a water background are dark colors such as gray or black.\n\nSection::::Color vision.:Physiological variations.\n", "BULLET::::- Color spectrum and water\n\nLight is absorbed and reflected in water. Visible white light is made up of a spectrum of colors from the rainbow, ranging from red to violet. As the light travels through the water, the waves of light from the red end of the spectrum dissipate (i.e. are absorbed), while those from the blue end, become more prominent.\n\nSection::::RMS \"Titanic\".\n", "There are other substances that may be found dissolved in the water that can also absorb light. Since the substances are usually composed of organic carbon, researchers generally refer to them as colored dissolved organic matter.\n\nSection::::Ocean color radiometry.\n", "Although variations in CDOM are primarily the result of natural processes including changes in the amount and frequency of precipitation, human activities such as logging, agriculture, effluent discharge, and wetland drainage can affect CDOM levels in fresh water and estuarine systems.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "The most important light-absorbing substance in the oceans is chlorophyll, which phytoplankton use to produce carbon by photosynthesis. Chlorophyll, a green pigment, makes phytoplankton preferentially absorb the red and blue portions of the light spectrum and reflect green light. Ocean regions with high concentrations of phytoplankton have shades of blue-green depending upon the type and density of the phytoplankton population there. The basic principle behind the remote sensing of ocean color from space is that the more phytoplankton is in the water, the greener it is.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Counter-illumination.\n", "Section::::Color vision.\n\nWater attenuates light due to absorption which varies as a function of frequency. In other words, as light passes through a greater distance of water color is selectively absorbed by the water. Color absorption is also affected by turbidity of the water and dissolved material.\n", "Section::::Colorimetric purity.\n", "HABs from cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can appear as a foam, scum, or mat on or just below the surface of water and can take on various colors depending on their pigments. Cyanobacteria blooms in freshwater lakes or rivers may appear bright green, often with surface streaks which looks like floating paint. Similarly, red tides made up of dinoflagellates, also contain photosynthetic pigments that vary in color from green to brown to red.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Countershading.\n\nTop/bottom countershading is common in fish including sharks, marlin, and mackerel, and animals in other groups such as dolphins, turtles and penguins. These animals have dark upper sides to match the ocean depths, and light undersides to avoid appearing dark against the bright sea surface.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Mimesis.\n", "BULLET::::- white - this sector is in the middle of the safe channel\n\nBULLET::::- red - indicates the port edge of the channel for vessels approaching the light source\n\nBULLET::::- green - indicates the starboard edge of the channel for vessels approaching the light source.\n\nA ship that is sailing in safe water and then sees the red (or green) color of the light has to make an alteration in course.\n", "BULLET::::- Particles and solutes can absorb light, as in tea or coffee. Green algae in rivers and streams often lend a blue-green color. The Red Sea has occasional blooms of red \"Trichodesmium erythraeum\" algae.\n", "Many American marine canvas fabricators use an Acrylic fabric as well as those listed above. The lighter color materials reflect heat and sunlight and provides more cooling as any darker materials does the opposite and will produce a hotter environment but a darker shade. \n", "BULLET::::- Particles in water can scatter light. The Colorado River is often muddy red because of suspended reddish silt in the water. Some mountain lakes and streams with finely ground rock, such as glacial flour, are turquoise. Light scattering by suspended matter is required in order that the blue light produced by water's absorption can return to the surface and be observed. Such scattering can also shift the spectrum of the emerging photons toward the green, a color often seen when water laden with suspended particles is observed.\n\nSection::::Color names.\n", "BULLET::::- Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)\n\nBULLET::::- MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS)\n\nBULLET::::- POLarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances (POLDER)\n\nBULLET::::- Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)\n\nBULLET::::- Oceansat-2\n\nBULLET::::- National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)\n\nBULLET::::- NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP)\n\nBULLET::::- Sentinel 3\n\nBULLET::::- Marine Optical Buoy (MOBY)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group\n\nBULLET::::- NASA's Ocean Color Home Page\n\nBULLET::::- ESA MERIS Ocean Colour\n\nBULLET::::- Global Climate Observing System\n\nBULLET::::- Group on Earth Observations\n\nBULLET::::- GlobColour\n\nBULLET::::- Joint Research Centre Ocean Colour Portal\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Coastwatch\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Coastal Remote Sensing program\n", "In centuries past, a ship's rigging was typically fashioned from rope. In the 19th century this was commonly referred to as Manilla, a reference to the origin of much good quality rope. Traditionally the running rigging was easily recognized since, for flexibility, it was not coated with tar and therefore of a lighter color than the standing rigging which was tarred for protection from weather and therefore darker or even black in color. On modern vessels, running rigging is likely to be made from synthetic fibers, while the standing rigging is most often fashioned from stainless steel \"wire rope\". Since the 1990s, several new synthetic fibers have become common, particularly on racing and other high-performance sailing boats. These fibers include Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) (also known as Spectra or Dynema), Vectran, and Technora.\n", "Camouflage in large bodies of water differs markedly from camouflage on land. The environment is essentially the same on all sides. Light always falls from above, and there is generally no variable background to compare with trees and bushes. Three main camouflage methods predominate in water: transparency, reflection, and counter-illumination. Transparency and reflectivity are most important in the top 100 metres of the ocean; counter-illumination is the main method from 100 metres down to 1000 metres; while camouflage becomes less important in the dark waters below 1000 metres.\n", "Later lightships, for purposes of visibility, normally had bright red hulls which displayed the name of the station in white, upper-case letters; relief light vessels displayed the word RELIEF, instead. A few ships had differently coloured hulls. For example, the Huron Lightship was painted black since she was assigned the black buoy side of the entrance to the Lake Huron Cut. The lightvessel that operated at Minots Ledge, Cohasset, Mass. from 1854 until 1860 had a light yellow hull to make it visible against the blue-green seas and the green hills behind it.\n\nSection::::Lightvessel service.\n\nSection::::Lightvessel service.:British lightships.\n", "The clip is of the professor talking about how water is an object always in motion so to capture it on canvas is a hard task. Guitarist Vadim Taver said in an interview with http://silentstagnation.de/ \"This was a good analogy to our music because it's hard to capture the energy, power, and emotion of music on recordings. Sometimes people pull it off, but overall it's not the same as seeing a band perform live, and that was the meaning behind the quote.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Haloclines, or strong, vertical salinity gradients. For instance where fresh water enters the sea, the fresh water floats over the denser saline water and may not mix immediately. Sometimes visual effects, such as shimmering and reflection, occur at the boundary between the layers, because the refractive indices differ.\n", "Section::::Fluorescence in nature.:Aquatic biofluorescence.:Photic zone.\n\nSection::::Fluorescence in nature.:Aquatic biofluorescence.:Photic zone.:Fish.\n\nBony fishes living in shallow water generally have good color vision due to their living in a colorful environment. Thus, in shallow-water fishes, red, orange, and green fluorescence most likely serves as a means of communication with conspecifics, especially given the great phenotypic variance of the phenomenon.\n", "Section::::Principles.:Principle of iridescence.\n" ]

[ "Water behind a boat or other watercraft becomes lighter in color." ]

[ "Water churned by a boat or other watercraft produces air bubbles, which make the water appear a lighter color." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Water behind a boat or other watercraft becomes lighter in color.", "The water behind a boat or other watercraft becomes lighter in colour." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Water churned by a boat or other watercraft produces air bubbles, which make the water appear a lighter color.", "When water is churned by a boat or other watercraft, it appears lighter in colour as it is full of air bubbles." ]

[ "On February 12, 2019, four founding members of the project were awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering with the chair of the awarding board stating \"Engineering is the foundation of civilisation; there is no other foundation; it makes things happen. And that's exactly what today's Laureates have done - they've made things happen. They've re-written, in a major way, the infrastructure of our world.\" \n\nSection::::Basic concept of GPS.\n\nSection::::Basic concept of GPS.:Fundamentals.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Far from being simply of theoretical interest, relativitistic effects are important practical engineering concerns. Satellite-based measurement needs to take into account relativistic effects, as each satellite is in motion relative to an Earth-bound user and is thus in a different frame of reference under the theory of relativity. Global positioning systems such as GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo, must account for all of the relativistic effects, such as the consequences of Earth's gravitational field, in order to work with precision. This is also the case in the high-precision measurement of time. Instruments ranging from electron microscopes to particle accelerators would not work if relativistic considerations were omitted.\n", "When the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1957, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) decided to monitor its radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required.\n", "Section::::GPS studies.\n", "BULLET::::- Arthur H. Bulbulian – pioneer in the field of facial prosthetics\n\nBULLET::::- Roger L. Easton 1943 – principal inventor and designer of GPS; recipient of the National Medal of Technology and Innovation\n\nBULLET::::- Stanley Fields 1976 – biologist and HHMI investigator known for pioneering two-hybrid screening for discovering protein–protein interactions\n\nBULLET::::- Edwin James 1816 – botanist, scholar of Algonquian languages, translator and nature writer on the Long Expedition, U.S. Army surgeon, and first Euro-American settler on record to summit Pikes Peak\n\nBULLET::::- Walter D. Knight 1941 – physicist, known for the discovery of Knight shift\n", "To build a three-dimensional measuring network, geodesy needs exactly defined target points, more so than a precise time. This precision is easily reached by having two tracking stations record the same series of flashes from one satellite.\n\nFlash technology was already mature in 1965 when the small electronic satellite Geos (later named Geos 1) was launched; along with its companion Geos 2, it brought about a remarkable increase in precision.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Global positioning system.\n\nThe analysis of errors computed using the global positioning system is important for understanding how GPS works, and for knowing what magnitude errors should be expected. The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was created by the United States Department of Defense (DOD) in the 1970s. It has come to be widely used for navigation both by the U.S. military and the general public.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Molecular dynamics simulation.\n", "A more promising technique, although still in the laboratory, is quantum gradiometry, which is an extension of atomic clock techniques, much like those in GPS. Off-the-shelf atomic clocks measure changes in atomic waves over time rather than the spatial changes measured in a quantum gravity gradiometer. One advantage of using GRACE in satellites is that measurements can be made from a number of points over time, with a resulting improvement as seen in synthetic aperture radar and sonar. Still, finding deeply buried structures of human scale is a tougher problem than the initial goals of finding mineral deposits and ocean currents.\n", "Since first being created in the 1950s, magnetotelluric sensors, receivers and data processing techniques have followed the general trends in electronics, becoming less expensive and more capable with each generation. Major advances in MT instrumentation and technique include the shift from analog to digital hardware, the advent of remote referencing, GPS time-based synchronization, and 3D data acquisition and processing.\n\nSection::::Commercial applications.\n\nSection::::Commercial applications.:Hydrocarbon exploration.\n", "Section::::Historical uses.\n\nAstrocompasses only became useful following the invention of the marine chronometer, without which it is almost useless for navigation. Even then, they saw only limited use, with first magnetic compasses and then gyrocompasses being preferred in almost all cases. Polar exploration was one of the fields in which the astrocompass saw the most use, for the reasons described above. They have also been used throughout history in other climes to check the accuracy of other forms of compasses. They saw use, for example, in the North African Campaign of World War 2.\n", "The history of earth science and the history of astrophysics were also closely tied to military purposes and funding throughout the Cold War. American geodesy, oceanography, and seismology grew from small sub-disciplines in into full-fledged independent disciplines as for several decades, virtually all funding in these fields came from the Department of Defense. A central goal that tied these disciplines together (even while providing the means for intellectual independence) was the figure of the Earth, the model of the earth's geography and gravitation that was essential for accurate ballistic missiles. In the 1960s, geodesy was the superficial goal of the satellite program CORONA, while military reconnaissance was in fact a driving force. Even for geodetic data, new secrecy guidelines worked to restrict collaboration in a field that had formerly been fundamentally international; the Figure of the Earth had geopolitical significance beyond questions of pure geoscience. Still, geodesists were able to retain enough autonomy and subvert secrecy limitations enough to make use of the findings of their military research to overturn some of the fundamental theories of geodesy. Like geodesy and satellite photography research, the advent of radio astronomy had a military purpose hidden beneath official astrophysical research agenda. Quantum electronics permitted both revolutionary new methods of analyzing the universe and—using the same equipment and technology—the monitoring of Soviet electronic signals.\n", "The coordinates and position as well as atomic time obtained by a terrestrial GPS receiver from GPS satellites orbiting Earth interact together to provide the digital mapping programming with points of origin in addition to the destination points needed to calculate distance. This information is then analyzed and compiled to create a map that provides the easiest and most efficient way to reach a destination.\n\nBULLET::::1. GPS receivers collect data from at least four GPS satellites orbiting the Earth, calculating position in three dimensions.\n", "BULLET::::3. the innovations used scientific effects outside the field in which they were developed\n\nTRIZ practitioners apply all these findings in order to create and to improve products, services, and systems.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nTRIZ in its classical form was developed by the Soviet inventor and science fiction writer Genrich Altshuller and his associates.\n", "The Transit satellite system was used extensively for Doppler surveying, navigation, and positioning. Observations of satellites in the 1970s by worldwide triangulation networks allowed for the establishment of the World Geodetic System. The development of GPS by the United States in the 1980s allowed for precise navigation and positioning and soon became a standard tool in surveying. In the 1980s and 1990s satellite geodesy began to be used for monitoring of geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, Earth rotation, and polar motion.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern Era (1990-present).\n", "In a 1955 paper Winterberg proposed a test of general relativity using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit in artificial satellites. At that time atomic clocks were not yet of the required accuracy and artificial satellites did not exist. Werner Heisenberg wrote a letter to Winterberg in 1957 in which he said the idea sounded \"very interesting\". This idea was later experimentally verified by Hafele and Keating in 1971 by flying atomic clocks on commercial jets. The theoretical approach was the same as that used by Winterberg. Today atomic clocks and relativistic corrections are used in GPS and it is said GPS could not function without them.\n", "However, as Spilker pointed out, that zero-Doppler analysis does not apply to GPS with its rapidly moving satellites, and does not reveal the worst case limits of performance. Therefore, critical to the success of GPS is the use of relatively short CDMA codes. Spilker and his team analyzed the worst-case cross-correlation between codes for the L band GPS signals with their +/- 5 KHz Doppler offsets and clearly show that the codes with Doppler offset indeed were the worst case, and he recommended the 1023-period codes even though with no Doppler they were no better than the 511-period codes. Those 1023-period codes are the C/A codes now supporting more than 2 billion users.\n", "When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a solution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution. A case has been made that iterative methods, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm approach for solving over-determined non-linear least squares (NLLS) problems, generally provide more accurate solutions.\n\nLeick et al. (2015) states that \"Bancroft's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed-form solution.\"\n\nOther closed-form solutions were published afterwards, although their adoption in practice is unclear.\n\nSection::::Error sources and analysis.\n", "The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system that provides reliable, three-dimensional positioning, navigation, and timing services to worldwide users on a continuous basis in all weather, day and night, anywhere on or near the Earth. 24 satellites orbit around the Earth twice a day, transmitting signaled information to GPS receivers that take this information and use triangulation to calculate the user's exact location. Ultimately, the GPS is the descendant of the United States Navy's \"Timation\" satellite program and the United States Air Force's \"621-B\" satellite program. The invention of GPS was a collaborative and team effort. The basic architecture of GPS was devised in less than a month in 1972 by Colonel Bradford Parkinson, , Bob Rennard, and Jim Spilker. However, Richard Easton, a son of Roger Easton who was the head of the U.S. Navy's \"Timation\" program, claims that his father invented GPS and filed U.S. patent #3,789,409 in 1974. Other names listed by Richard Easton are James Buisson, Thomas McCaskill, Don Lynch, Charles Bartholomew, Randolph Zwirn and, \"an important outsider,\" Robert Kern. Ivan Getting, while working at Raytheon, envisioned a satellite system similar to MOSAIC, a railroad mobile ballistic missile guidance system, but working more like LORAN. The GPS program was approved in December 1973, the first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and by August 1993, 24 GPS satellites were in orbit. Initial operational capability was established in December of that same year while in February 1994, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) declared GPS ready for use.\n", "Section::::Precise monitoring.\n\nThe accuracy of a calculation can also be improved through precise monitoring and measuring of the existing GPS signals in additional or alternate ways.\n", "The replacement of analogue computer facilities by digital technologies three years after in 1960 was embodied in the\n\nidea of using high-speed computers to solve directional finding problems, initially to locate earthquake epicenter. B. A. Bolt\n\nwas one of the first who implemented this idea in practice, he has developed a program for IBM 704 for seismic direction finding based on the method of least squares. Almost simultaneously a similar approach was used by Flinn, research fellow of the Australian National University.\n", "While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant civilian applications as well.\n\nGPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off switching.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Civilian.\n\nMany civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.\n", "Astronomer T. J. Cornwell writes, \"The impact of CLEAN on radio astronomy has been immense\", both directly in enabling greater speed and efficiency in observations, and indirectly by encouraging \"a wave of innovation in synthesis processing that continues to this day.\" It has also been applied in other areas of astronomy and many other fields of science.\n\nThe CLEAN algorithm and its variations are still extensively used in radio astronomy, for example in the first imaging of the M87 central supermassive black hole.\n", "BULLET::::- Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and an engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (\"Lo\"ng-range \"R\"adio \"A\"id to \"N\"avigation).\n\nBULLET::::- Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University, conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel.\n", "With the advent of and the accompanying mobile technology, GPS has become a ubiquitous and life-changing technology to all sectors, critical even. For example, current cell phones include GPS receivers, and when used in conjunction with GIS like Google Maps, accurate and real-time directions can be used by pedestrian and civilian traffic alike. Indeed, with GPS, airplanes are now capable of landing on autopilot, and doing so with better precision and safety than human pilots. Outside of military and standard civilian use, seismologists are testing GPS for use in earthquake detection and measurement. The timing systems—atomic clocks—made popular by GPS, are vital to the functionality of incalculable amounts of Internet services, including the banking and stock markets.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Engines that are even-firing will sound more smooth and steady, while engines that are odd, or uneven firing will have a \"burble\" or a \"throaty\", \"growling\" sound in the engine note, and, depending on the crankshaft design, will often have more vibrations due to the unevenness of power delivery. Most racing engines such as those in Formula One often have even firing intervals in all or the most part (e.g. within each bank of a V-engine) of their firing order, mostly for easier packaging of performance exhaust systems. Engines that employ some variation on the Big-bang firing order theme will often have an uneven firing order, because the torque pulses arising from the second order kinetic imbalance of a traditional inline four have a worse effect on rear wheel traction than uneven power delivery as RPM increases.\n", "It is this phenomenon that enables the so-called “ram tuning” to occur, and it is what is being “tuned” by tuned intake and exhaust systems. The principle is the same as in the water hammer effect so well known to plumbers. The speed that the signal can travel is the speed of sound within the runner.\n", "Although mainly produced for the Japanese domestic market, VFR400s have been popular as grey imports in other markets (especially so for the NC30 in the United Kingdom, and also for racing purposes in the United States) in the \"mini\" superbike segment.\n\nVFR400 engines produce a noticeable whine when the engine is running, due to the cams being driven by straight cut gears, rather than chains or belts.\n\nSection::::Model history.\n", "In motorsports, V8s are common and have been a popular engine choice in purpose-designed engines for race-cars in many different types and classes of automotive racing, with use for example in the Formula-1 or the American NASCAR-racing league. They usually have flat-plane crankshafts, since a crossplane crankshaft results in uneven firing into the exhaust manifolds which interferes with engine tuning, and the crossplane's heavy crankshaft counterweights can prevent the engine from accelerating rapidly. However, due to the inherent vibration that's found in flat plane V8s, most large displacement V8s, even in motorsports, are cross-plane, including those found in NASCAR and Top Fuel.\n", "While the design can be noisy, it is typically masked by wind noise and other engine components such as intake and exhaust noise. Though stated above the noise is \"uncomfortably loud in engines with four or more cylinders\", if true, this is limited (in terms of Ducati) to the MotoGP, MotoGP Race Replica bikes, and the 2018 Ducati Panigale V4, which are the only current production desmodromic engines that feature four cylinders. (Note that exhaust noise levels can exceed 110 dB on full race systems.)\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "BULLET::::- Lagonda Taraf\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini 350GT\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini 400GT\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Islero\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Miura\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Espada\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Jarama\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Countach\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini LM002\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Diablo\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Murciélago\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Reventón\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Aventador\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Veneno\n\nBULLET::::- Lamborghini Centenario\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln Continental\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln H-Series\n\nBULLET::::- Lister Storm\n\nBULLET::::- Lotec Sirius\n\nBULLET::::- Maserati MC12\n\nBULLET::::- Maybach 57 and 62\n\nBULLET::::- McLaren F1\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz CL600 / CL65 AMG\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz S600 / S65 AMG\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz SL600 / SL65 AMG / SL70 AMG / SL73 AMG\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz CLK GTR AMG\n", "FWM was then developed into automotive engine as FWMA of 742 cc with larger 2.45\" bore and 2.4\" stroke in 1959. Several versions of FWMD diesel utility engines, including a marine version, followed, and then a chain-driven DOHC 2 valves per cylinder crossflow cylinder head was developed and became the FWMC, succeeding FWC as the all-out racing engine for the 750cc class. FWMC became known for the unusually loud and high-pitched exhaust note when installed in a specially made super-light version of Lotus Elite ran by UDT Laystall at 1961 Le Mans 24 Hours.\n", "BULLET::::- 460 V8\n\nBULLET::::- 514 V8\n\nSection::::Taunus/Cologne pattern.\n\nNamed afer the 1962 Ford Taunus V-4 built in Cologne, Germany.\n\nBULLET::::- 1.2/1.3/1.5/1.7L were mostly in European Cars.\n", "BULLET::::- Ferrari 365 GTB/4 & 365 GTS/4 \"Daytona\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 365 GTC/4\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 365 GT4 2+2\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 400 / 400i / 412\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 456 / 456M\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari F50\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 550 Maranello / Barchetta Pininfarina\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 575M Maranello / 575M Superamerica\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari Enzo\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 612 Scaglietti\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 599 GTB Fiorano / 599 GTO\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari FF\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari F12berlinetta / F12tdf\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari LaFerrari\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari GTC4Lusso\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 812 Superfast\n\nBULLET::::- Hongqi HQE/L7/L9\n\nBULLET::::- Hongqi L5\n\nBULLET::::- Jaguar E-Type V12\n\nBULLET::::- Jaguar XJ-S\n\nBULLET::::- Jaguar XJ12 & XJ12C\n\nBULLET::::- Jaguar XJR15\n", "Applications:\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Buick Century Estate\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1978 Buick Riviera\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Buick Electra\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Buick Estate Wagon\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Buick LeSabre\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Oldsmobile Cutlass\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Oldsmobile 4-4-2\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1978 Oldsmobile Delta 88\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1978 Oldsmobile Toronado\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Oldsmobile 98\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Pontiac Bonneville\n\nBULLET::::- 1977-1979 Pontiac Catalina Safari\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Pontiac Trans Am\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1979 Pontiac Firebird Formula 6.6L\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Pontiac Grand Prix available with California Emissions Only\n\nBULLET::::- 1977–1978 GMC Motorhome\n\nSection::::Generation II.:260.\n", "List of GM bellhousing patterns\n\nThe following is a list of GM bellhousing patterns. Though General Motors has manufactured many different engines, it has kept variance in the bell housing patterns to a relative minimum.\n\nSection::::Chevrolet V8 pattern.\n\nThis was so named because it began with Chevrolet's V8 engines.\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet big-block V8s\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet small-block V8s\n\nBULLET::::- GM Vortec 4300 90° V6\n\nBULLET::::- GM Iron Duke RWD inline 4 (early RWD Variants, later versions may use a FWD pattern, and have two possible starter locations)\n", "Section::::Applications.:Felday-Daimler hillclimbing special.\n\nPeter Westbury, an engineer from Surrey, England, competed in hillclimbing events in cars powered by Daimler V8 engines. Between the end of the 1962 RAC Hillclimb Championship season, in which he finished seventh in a V8-powered Cooper, and the beginning of the 1963 season, Westbury built a new hillclimbing special called the Felday-Daimler powered by a 2.5-litre Daimler V8 with a SU carburettor and a Roots supercharger. Westbury won the 1963 RAC Hillclimb Championship in the Felday-Daimler, setting course records at Craigantlet in Ulster and Dyrham Park in Gloucestershire.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Glacier Grenade drag racing special.\n", "Section::::History.:Automobiles.:Increasing power.\n\nIn the first half of the 20th century, a trend of increasing engine power occurred, particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the rate at which the engine produces work. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements.\n\nSection::::History.:Automobiles.:Combustion efficiency.\n", "Like other Hondas with gear-driven camshafts, the RVF's engine makes a loud whine when operating. The exhaust note of the V4 engine is also different from that of a more conventional inline four. The 400 cc VFR and RVF models share a unique exhaust note with their larger siblings—the VFR750R RC30 and the RVF750R RC45—because of their 360° or big-bang firing order.\n\nSection::::VFR400 to RVF400 changes.\n\nSection::::VFR400 to RVF400 changes.:Engine.\n", "BULLET::::- 1992–1999 Nissan Gloria/Nissan Cedric\n\nBULLET::::- 1993–1998 Nissan Quest/Mercury Villager (modified to become a non-interference design)\n\nSection::::VG30ET.\n", "The 1.5 L Formula One era of 1961–1965 included V8 engines from Ferrari, Coventry Climax, BRM, and ATS. Ferrari, BRM and ATS used their engines in their cars, while Coventry Climax and BRM sold engines to constructors. Apart from Phil Hill's 1961 World Drivers' Championship, which he won in a V6-powered Ferrari, all the other World Drivers' Champions (Graham Hill in 1962, Jim Clark in 1963, John Surtees in 1964, and Clark again in 1965) drove V8-powered cars to their victories. Also, from 1962 to 1965, the top three manufacturers in each season's Manufacturer's Championship all predominantly used V8 engines in their cars.\n", "This process can be applied to a standard racing engine to optimize its power output as well as to a production engine to turn it into a racing engine, to enhance its power output for daily use or to alter its power output characteristics to suit a particular application.\n", "BULLET::::- BMW 750i / 750iL (E32 & E38) / 760i / 760Li (E65 & F01)\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 850i / Ci / CSi\n\nBULLET::::- Bugatti EB110\n\nBULLET::::- Bugatti EB112\n\nBULLET::::- Daimler Double Six\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 125\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 166\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 195\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 212\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 340 / 342 / 375 / 375 America\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 250\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 250 GT Lusso\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 410 / 400 Superamerica\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 275\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 330\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 500 Superfast\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 365 California\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 365 GT 2+2\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrari 365 GTC & GTS\n", "This is a list of V12-engined production road cars produced since 1945, sorted alphabetically by make (and sub-sorted by year of introduction):\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin DB7 Vantage\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin Vanquish\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin DB AR1\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin DB9\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin DBS (2008–12)\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin V12 Vantage / V12 Vantage S\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin One-77\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin Rapide\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin Virage (2011–12)\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin V12 Zagato\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin DB11\n\nBULLET::::- Aston Martin Valkyrie\n\nBULLET::::- Audi Q7 V12 TDI\n\nBULLET::::- B Engineering Edonis\n", "BULLET::::- Generation III V8s with modifications. These modifications include an additional bolt hole at the top of the pattern, and attachment points for cast oil pans to lower bellhousing extensions, to reduce NVH.\n\nSection::::GM metric pattern.\n", "Applications:\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1985 Oldsmobile 88\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1984 Oldsmobile 98\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1985 Oldsmobile Toronado\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1990 Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1985 Buick Lesabre\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1984 Buick Electra\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1985 Buick Riviera\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1990 Buick Estate Wagon\n\nBULLET::::- 1986–1987 Buick Regal\n\nBULLET::::- 1986–1990 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon\n\nBULLET::::- 1986–1987 Cadillac Brougham VIN \"9\" (Includes Early Model 1988 Broughams made in 1987)\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 Pontiac Bonneville\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 Pontiac Parisienne The 307 was fitted in some late model 1986 Parisienne's while others had the Chevy 305\n\nSection::::Generation II.:307.:LV2.\n", "Many racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As an example of development, the Chrysler 277\" polyspheric V8, first introduced in 1956, was gradually increased in size by bore and stroke to 326\" by 1959, then received a drastic make-over in 1964 to conventional \"wedge\" combustion chambers, then modified again for stud-mounted rocker arms, and finally underwent an even greater re-design to become the modern 5.7 liter hemi. All of these engines retain the original 4.460\" bore pitch distance set down in 1956.\n\nSection::::Hybrid heads.\n", "BULLET::::- Cobra-Jet and Super Cobra-Jet 4V, 10.6:1 — at 5200 rpm and at 3400 rpm\n\nBULLET::::- 1969–1970 Ford Mustang\n\nBULLET::::- 1969–1970 Mercury Cougar\n\nBULLET::::- 1969 Ford Fairlane\n\nBULLET::::- 1969 Ford Torino\n\nBULLET::::- 1969 Mercury Cyclone\n\nBULLET::::- 2x4V, 10.5:1 — at 5400 rpm and at 3200 rpm\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 Shelby GT500\n\nSection::::Generation 2.:428.:428 Super Cobra Jet.\n", "In an intake runner at room temperature the sonic speed is about and traverses a port/runner in 0.9 milliseconds. The engine using this system, running at 8500 rpm, takes a very considerable \"46 crank degrees\" before any signal from the cylinder can reach the runner end (assuming no movement of the air in the runner). 46 degrees, during which nothing but the volume of the port/runner supplies the demands of the cylinder. This not only applies to the initial signal but to any and every change in the pressure or vacuum developed in the cylinder.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Smooth channel lightning is an informal term referring to a type of cloud-to-ground lightning strike that has no visible branching and appears like a line with smooth curves as opposed to the jagged appearance of most lightning channels. They are a form of positive lightning generally observed in or near the convective regions of severe thunderstorms in the north central United States. It is theorized that severe thunderstorms in this region obtain an \"inverted tripole\" charge structure in which the main positive charge region is located below the main negative charge region instead of above it, and as a result these thunderstorms generate predominantly positive cloud-to-ground lightning. The term \"smooth channel lightning\" is also sometimes attributed to upward ground-to-cloud lightning flashes, which are generally negative flashes initiated by upward positive leaders from tall structures.\n", "About 90% of ionic channel lengths between \"pools\" are approximately in length. The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of milliseconds) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The electric current needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of amperes, is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.\n", "Section::::Flashes and strikes.:Discharge.:Return stroke.\n\nOnce a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at a fraction of the speed of light. This is the 'return stroke' and it is the most luminous and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.\n", "BULLET::::- Cosmic ray visual phenomena\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sprites & Blue Jets\" – a digital capture of the VHS video distributed in 1994 by the University of Alaska Fairbanks that popularized the terms\n\nBULLET::::- – webpage by University of Alaska Fairbanks\n\nBULLET::::- Ground and Balloon-Borne Observations of Sprites and Jets\n\nBULLET::::- Darwin Sprites '97 Space Physics Group, University of Otago\n\nBULLET::::- Sprites, jets and TLE pictures and articles\n\nBULLET::::- Sprites in Europe: European contributors blog\n\nBULLET::::- Short professional bio of Dr 'Geoff' McHarg\n", "The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects, and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects. This principle is exploited in the lightning conductor, the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning stroke to develop there, rather than to the building it serves to protect\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Electric potential.\n", "and these systems use amplitude to estimate distance. Because the strokes have different amplitudes, these detectors provide a line of dots on the display like spokes on a wheel extending out radially from the hub in the general direction of the lightning source. The dots are at different distances along the line because the strokes have different intensities. These characteristic lines of dots in such sensor displays are called “radial spread”.\n", "The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive upwards within the cloud and negative towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader \"pools\" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward, often speeding up as it get closer to the Earth's surface.\n", "BULLET::::- Sheet lightning is cloud-to-cloud lightning that exhibits a diffuse brightening of the surface of a cloud, caused by the actual discharge path being hidden or too far away. The lightning itself cannot be seen by the spectator, so it appears as only a flash, or a sheet of light. The lightning may be too far away to discern individual flashes.\n", "An average bolt of lightning carries a negative electric current of 40 kiloamperes (kA) (although some bolts can be up to 120 kA), and transfers a charge of five coulombs and energy of 500 MJ, or enough energy to power a 100-watt lightbulb for just under two months. The voltage depends on the length of the bolt, with the dielectric breakdown of air being three million volts per meter, and lightning bolts often being several hundred meters long. However, lightning leader development is not a simple matter of dielectric breakdown, and the ambient electric fields required for lightning leader propagation can be a few orders of magnitude less than dielectric breakdown strength. Further, the potential gradient inside a well-developed return-stroke channel is on the order of hundreds of volts per meter or less due to intense channel ionization, resulting in a true power output on the order of megawatts per meter for a vigorous return-stroke current of 100 kA .\n", "A modeling system based on a better understanding of the termination targeting of lightning, called the Rolling Sphere Method, was developed by Dr Tibor Horváth. It has become the standard by which traditional Franklin Rod systems are installed. To understand this requires knowledge of how lightning 'moves'. As the step leader of a lightning bolt jumps toward the ground, it steps toward the grounded objects nearest its path. The maximum distance that each step may travel is called the \"critical distance\" and is proportional to the electric current. Objects are likely to be struck if they are nearer to the leader than this critical distance. It is standard practice to approximate the sphere's radius as 46 m near the ground.\n", "BULLET::::- Lightning appears in \"DC Super Hero Girls\" as a cameo, voiced by Kimberly Brooks.\n", "Distribution of lightning\n\nThe distribution of lightning, or the incidence of individual strikes, in any particular place is highly variable, but lightning does have an underlying spatial distribution. High quality lightning data has only recently become available, but the data indicates that lightning occurs on average 44 (± 5) times every second over the entire Earth, making a total of about 1.4 billion flashes per year.\n\nSection::::Ratios of lightning types.\n", "BULLET::::- They are generally spherical or pear-shaped with fuzzy edges\n\nBULLET::::- Their diameters range from , most commonly .\n\nBULLET::::- Their brightness corresponds to roughly that of a domestic lamp, so they can be seen clearly in daylight\n\nBULLET::::- A wide range of colours has been observed, red, orange, and yellow being the most common.\n\nBULLET::::- The lifetime of each event is from 1 second to over a minute with the brightness remaining fairly constant during that time\n", "The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as \"negative CG\" lightning. In some cases, a ground to cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s.\n", "Although the electrical breakdown mechanisms of air and PMMA plastic are considerably different, the branching discharges turn out to be related. So, it should not be surprising that the branching forms taken by natural lightning also have fractal characteristics.\n\nSection::::Natural occurrences.\n\nLichtenberg figures are fern-like patterns that may appear on the skin of lightning strike victims that disappear in 24 hours.\n", "BULLET::::- Ribbon lightning occurs in thunderstorms with high cross winds and multiple return strokes. The wind will blow each successive return stroke slightly to one side of the previous return stroke, causing a ribbon effect.\n\nBULLET::::- Rocket lightning is a form of cloud discharge, generally horizontal and at cloud base, with a luminous channel appearing to advance through the air with visually resolvable speed, often intermittently.\n", "In an open space, the vortex fades and finally disappears. If the vortex's expansion is obstructed, and symmetry is broken, the vortex breaks into cyclical form. Still invisible, and due to the central and surface tension-forces, it shrinks to an intermediate state of a cylinder, and finally into a ball. The resulting transformation subsequently becomes visible once the energy is concentrated into the final spherical stage.\n", "A large electric current flows along the plasma channel from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials, they are responsible for more injuries and deaths than the strike itself. Electricity takes every path available to it.\n", "As a result of their greater power, as well as lack of warning, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous. Due to the aforementioned tendency for positive ground flashes to produce both high peak currents and long continuing current, they are capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited.\n", "BULLET::::- Anvil crawler lightning, sometimes called Spider lightning is created when leaders propagate through horizontally-extensive charge regions in mature thunderstorms, usually the stratiform regions of mesoscale convective systems. These discharges usually begin as intracloud discharges originating within the convective region; the negative leader end then propagates well into the aforementioned charge regions in the stratiform area. If the leader becomes too long, it may separate into multiple bidirectional leaders. When this happens, the positive end of the separated leader may strike the ground as a positive CG flash or crawl on the underside of the cloud, creating a spectacular display of lightning crawling across the sky. Ground flashes produced in this manner tend to transfer high amounts of charge, and this can trigger upward lightning flashes and upper-atmospheric lightning.\n", "BULLET::::- Bead lightning is the decaying stage of a lightning channel in which the luminosity of the channel breaks up into segments. Nearly every lightning discharge will exhibit \"beading\" as the channel cools immediately after a return stroke, sometimes referred to as the lightning's 'bead-out' stage. 'Bead lightning' is more properly a stage of a normal lightning discharge rather than a type of lightning in itself. Beading of a lightning channel is usually a small-scale feature, and therefore is often only apparent when the observer/camera is close to the lightning.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar in nature and originating from their respective charge region.\n", "Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a typical lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, latitude, prevailing wind currents, relative humidity, proximity to warm and cold bodies of water, etc. To a certain degree, the ratio between IC (in-cloud or intracloud), CC (cloud-to-cloud) and CG (cloud-to-ground) lightning may also vary by season in middle latitudes.\n", "Joseph R. Dwyer (born 1963) is an American physicist known for his lightning research. He is a Professor of Physics at the University of New Hampshire. Dwyer received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Chicago in 1994 and worked on cosmic-ray physics and gamma-ray astronomy as a research scientist at Columbia University and the University of Maryland before joining the faculty at the Florida Institute of Technology in 2000. After moving to Melbourne, Florida, Dwyer became interested in lightning physics and his research now focuses on high-energy radiation production from thunderstorms and lightning. In 2002, Dwyer and collaborators discovered that rocket-triggered lightning produced large quantities of x-rays, allowing for first the time detailed studies of an atmospheric phenomenon known as runaway breakdown. In 2014, Dwyer left the Florida Institute of Technology and joined the University of New Hampshire.\n", "The force between two conducting lines is given by formula_1, (Ampère's force law). Here F is the force, formula_2 the permeability, formula_3 the electric currents, formula_4 the length of the lines and formula_5 their distance. To exert over a distance of in air (formula_6 ≈ 1) ground formula_7 ≈ 280 x 10A is needed if levitated formula_8 ≈ 14 x 10A. For comparison, in lightning the maximal current is about 10A, c.f. properties of lightning, though resistive power dissipation involved in a current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the voltage drop, high for a lightning discharge of millions of volts in air but ideally zero for a zero-resistance superconductor.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The historical record indicates that when one culture is significantly more technologically advanced than the other, this side will be favored by the disruptive nature of conflict, often with dire consequences for the other society. However the introduction of disease plays a critical role in this process. More isolated peoples who lived across broader territories in low density succumbed to the illnesses brought from the comparatively higher density of Europe. The Indigenous populations simply had not had the time to develop immunity to the multiple foreign diseases, all introduced at once, for which the more urbanised European populations had had many years to develop some population immunity to. Furthermore, this process was enhanced via the colonisers' intentional spread of disease as a biological weapon, one notable example of this being in North America with the colonisers giving Native American tribes smallpox-laden blankets as gifts.\n", "The newcomers, the specialists, are of a differing tribe, and as a result the people cannot deal with them. Ofelia, being a Nest Guardian for both the people and the Humans, is able to negotiate on behalf of both sides. The specialists have a hard time believing this, let alone coming to terms with it and working with it. As a result, an altercation between the natives and a member of the investigating team takes place. One member of the team attacks one of the young natives, and attempts to strangle it, and is killed by the hunters in the group, an act that is seen by the rest of the group, both human and native, as \"justified lethal force\". As the deceased member of the human team was the one who most strongly resisted granting the natives rights, the remaining team members recognise the intelligence of the natives of the planet, and decide that conflict is best avoided.\n", "Encounters between explorers and indigenous populations in the rest of the world often introduced new infectious diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America and Australia.\n\nThe Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians and linguists.\n\nSection::::Population and distribution.\n", "Those most dramatically affected were the groups who had most contact with European settlers. Spending longer times in the same camping places also made them susceptible to respiratory diseases and gastric illnesses. When several Dja Dja Wurrung died on the reserve at Franklinford in 1841, many of them temporarily abandoned the place. A number of deaths and illnesses among the whites working at Franklinford in 1847-48 also caused many Dja Dja Wurrung to leave on the belief that the ground at Franklinford was \"malignant\". By December 1852 the population of Dja Dja Wurrung was estimated at 142 people, whereas they had numbered between one and two thousand just 15 years previously at time of first contact.\n", "While there were cases of smallpox in Macassar during 1789, there are no reports of it occurring prior to that period. However, smallpox had long been present in island South East Asia – possibly as early the 4th century according to Frank Fenner. There were outbreaks of smallpox in Indonesia throughout the 18th century. These included, for example, major epidemics in the Sultanate of Tidore (in the Moluccas) during the 1720s, the Sultanate of Banjar (South Kalimantan), in 1734, 1750–51, 1764–65 and 1778–79; and in southern Sumatra during the 1750s, the 1770s, and in 1786. Macassans had contact with these areas both directly and indirectly (through foreign traders and invaders).\n", "The fact that all members of an immunologically naive population are exposed to a new disease simultaneously increases the fatalities. In populations where the disease is endemic, generations of individuals acquired immunity; most adults had exposure to the disease at a young age. Because they were resistant to reinfection, they are able to care for individuals who caught the disease for the first time, including the next generation of children. With proper care, many of these \"childhood diseases\" are often survivable. In a naive population, all age groups are affected at once, leaving few or no healthy caregivers to nurse the sick. With no resistant individuals healthy enough to tend to the ill, a disease may have higher fatalities.\n", "Some time later the natives disclose to Ofelia the reason for their attack on the new colony. The landing ships picked a breeding site to land on (in Human terms, they landed on a combination of maternity ward and crèche), many nests were destroyed, Nest Guardians and young were killed. All the tribes of 'the people' (the natives name for themselves) in that area united against the attack on their nests, as nests and Nest Guardians are sacred. They viewed the attackers (the colony landing ships) as nothing more than mindless animals to be exterminated without quarter. After all, any intelligent creature would have seen and recognised the markers that designated the area as a breeding site, safe from attack.\n", "One of the natives gives birth, and Ofelia takes up the position expected of her as \"Nest Guardian\" to the 3 newborns.\n\nThen the FTL ships arrive (an unspecified length of time later) carrying Specialists in Xeno contact. They scan the planet surface, and see what the previous assay of the planet missed- Cities along several coastlines & large groups of nomadic hunters on the plains.\n", "For many diseases, the African and Eurasian population were able to have already acquired immunity- being able to resist an infection- due to prior exposure as children in which they were less likely to receive the same illness again. Upon arrival, these diseases were transmitted to the Native populations who did not have immunity due to no prior exposure having been from climates in which these germs, and pathogens surrounding these diseases were not common. Having been exposed to the illness as an adult, some effects would prove to be more enhanced than if they were to be at an adolescent age.\n", "When a population has not had contact with a particular pathogen, individuals in that population have not built up any immunity to that organism, and have not received immunity passed from mother to child. Epidemiologist Francis Black has suggested that some isolated populations may not have mixed enough to become as genetically heterogeneous as their colonizers, which would also have affected their natural immunity. This can also happen when a considerable amount of time has passed between disease outbreaks, that no one in a particular community has ever experienced the disease to gain immunity. Consequently when a previously unknown disease is introduced to such a population, there is an increase in the morbidity and mortality rates; historically this increase has often been devastating, and always noticeable.\n", "Disease evolution and host pathogen interactions should be considered in Native American disease history. Disease evolution is the result of the interaction of the following parameters: hosts, parasites, and setting. Such an example of disease evolution is the direct biological effects of crowding that directly influences a host's susceptibility to disease. Research by Power et al. (1998) demonstrated that, at low doses of micro-bacterial pathogens, hosts were able to make an appropriate immune response and avoid tuberculosis; higher doses resulted in a less efficient form of a vaccination. The crowding that was a result of widespread relocation and concentration of native groups by the expanding America greatly impacted the susceptibility native people initially had to the foreign diseases.\n", "Another major problem for the Indians was the introduction of infectious diseases, principally smallpox, influenza and measles as well as typhus, cholera, tuberculosis, mumps, yellow fever and pertussis. This arose right from their first contact with Europeans onwards, was further boosted by the arrival of African slaves, and climaxed from the mid-17th to the mid-18th centuries. Epidemic outbreaks occurred throughout the Indian population and the death rate is estimated to have been 90%. \n", "In 2013 Warren reviewed the issue and argued that smallpox did not spread across Australia before 1824 and showed that there was no smallpox at Macassar that could have caused the outbreak at Sydney. Warren, however, did not address the issue of persons who joined the Macassan fleet from other islands and from parts of Sulawesi other than the port of Macassar. Warren concluded that the British were \"the most likely candidates to have released smallpox\" near Sydney Cove in 1789. Warren proposed that the British had no choice as they were confronted with dire circumstances when, among other factors, they ran out of ammunition for their muskets. Warren also uses native oral tradition and the archaeology of native graves to analyse the cause and effect of the spread of smallpox in 1789.\n", "In the later context of the European colonization of the Americas, 95% of the indigenous populations are believed to have been killed off by diseases brought by the Europeans. Many were killed by infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles. Similar circumstances were observed in Australia and South Africa. Aboriginal Australians and the Khoikhoi population were decimated by smallpox, measles, influenza and other diseases.\n", "Among the earliest visitors were sealers, attracted by the promise of high-quality oil, and fur for hats (often sold in China in return for tea). As early as 1792, whalers came to the northern end of the country, also as temporary visitors. Also missionaries arrived in New Zealand. By 1839 the total non-Māori population was about 2,000. \n", "During the 18th century, there were many major outbreaks of smallpox, driven possibly by increasing contact with European colonists and traders. There were epidemics, for instance, in the Sultanate of Banjar (South Kalimantan), in 1734, 1750–51, 1764–65 and 1778–79; in the Sultanate of Tidore (Moluccas ) during the 1720s, and in southern Sumatra during the 1750s, the 1770s and in 1786.\n\nSection::::Pacific epidemics.:Australia.\n", "Viral and bacterial diseases that kill victims before the illnesses spread to others tend to flare up and then die out. A more resilient disease would establish an equilibrium; if its victims lived beyond infection, the disease would spread further. The evolutionary process selects against quick lethality, with the most immediately fatal diseases being the most short-lived. A similar evolutionary pressure acts upon victim populations, as those lacking genetic resistance to common diseases die and do not leave descendants, whereas those who are resistant procreate and pass resistant genes to their offspring. For example, in the first fifty years of the sixteenth century, an unusually strong strain of syphilis killed a high proportion of infected Europeans within a few months; over time, however, the disease has become much less virulent.\n", "When Francisco Coronado and the Spaniards first explored the Rio Grande Valley in 1540, in modern New Mexico, some of the chieftains complained of new diseases that affected their tribes. Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in Texas, \"half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us.\" When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Incan empire, a large portion of the population had already died in a smallpox epidemic. The first epidemic was recorded in 1529 and killed the emperor Huayna Capac, the father of Atahualpa. Further epidemics of smallpox broke out in 1533, 1535, 1558 and 1565, as well as typhus in 1546, influenza in 1558, diphtheria in 1614 and measles in 1618.\n", "Thus both infectious diseases and populations tend to evolve towards an equilibrium in which the common diseases are non-symptomatic, mild or manageably chronic. When a population that has been relatively isolated is exposed to new diseases, it has no resistance to the new diseases (the population is \"biologically naive\"). These people die at a much higher rate, resulting in what is known as a \"virgin soil\" epidemic. Before the European arrival, the Americas had been isolated from the Eurasian-African landmass. The peoples of the Old World had had thousands of years for their populations to accommodate to their common diseases.\n", "Section::::Consequences.\n", "The Native American population was devastated after contact with the Old World by introduction of many fatal diseases. In a well documented case of germ warfare involving British commander Jeffery Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, their correspondence included a proposal and agreement to give smallpox-infected blankets to Indians in order to \"Extirpate this Execrable Race\". During the siege of Fort Pitt late in the French and Indian War, as recorded in his journal by sundries trader and militia Captain, William Trent, on June 24, 1763, dignitaries from the Delaware tribe met with Fort Pitt officials, warned them of \"great numbers of Indians\" coming to attack the fort, and pleaded with them to leave the fort while there was still time. The commander of the fort refused to abandon the fort. Instead, the British gave as gifts two blankets, one silk handkerchief and one linen from the smallpox hospital to two Delaware Indian dignitaries. A devastating smallpox epidemic plagued Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes area through 1763 and 1764, but the effectiveness of individual instances of biological warfare remains unknown. After extensive review of surviving documentary evidence, historian Francis Jennings concluded the attempt at biological warfare was \"unquestionably effective at Fort Pitt\"; Smallpox after Pontiac's Rebellion killed 400,000–500,000 (possibly even up to 1.5 million) Native Americans.\n", "In the centuries that followed, accusations and discussions of biological warfare were common. Well-documented accounts of incidents involving both threats and acts of deliberate infection are very rare, but may have occurred more frequently than scholars have previously acknowledged. Many of the instances likely went unreported, and it is possible that documents relating to such acts were deliberately destroyed, or sanitized. By the middle of the 18th century, colonists had the knowledge and technology to attempt biological warfare with the smallpox virus. They well understood the concept of quarantine, and that contact with the sick could infect the healthy with smallpox, and those who survived the illness would not be infected again. Whether the threats were carried out, or how effective individual attempts were, is uncertain.\n", "Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.\n", "Contact of missionaries with isolated tribes has been asserted as a contributory factor in the extinction of some tribes, such as extinction from infections and even simple diseases such as flu. Documented cases of European contact with isolated tribes has shown rapid health deterioration, but this is not specifically linked to missionaries. The Indian government has been criticised for opening up previously secluded islands to tourism and missionaries.\n\nMissionary thinkers have recognised complicity between colonialism and missions during the colonial period, with roots in 'colonial paternalism'.\n", "The Sentinelese generally received the post-tsunami expeditions in a friendly manner. They approached the visiting parties, which carried no arms or shields as they had in earlier expeditions, unarmed.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 11.\n\nIn the operation of a healthy eye, three kinds of division of retinal activity often occur at once. (1) The quantitative intensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in a loss of color energy and a deviation toward paleness or darkness; (2) After being excited by an external stimulant, the quantitative extensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in the retina being covered by many various juxtaposed spots of color sensation; (3) When the stimulation ceases, an afterimage (physiological spectrum) appears on each retinal spot.\n\nSection::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 12.\n", "The eye's reaction to external stimulus is an activity, not a passive response. It is the activity of the retina. When the eye's retina receives a full impression of light, or when whiteness appears, it is fully active. When light is absent, or when blackness appears, the retina is inactive.\n\nSection::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 3.\n", "In very low light levels, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic: light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect.\n", "This can be seen when the eyes are closed and looking at the back of the eyelids. In a bright room, a dark red can be seen, owing to a small amount of light penetrating the eyelids and taking on the color of the blood it has passed through. In a dark room, blackness can be seen or the object can be more colourful. But in either case it is not a flat unchanging redness/blackness. Instead, if actively observed for a few minutes, one becomes aware of an apparent disorganized motion, a random field of lightness/darkness that overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\n", "Section::::Mood.\n", "Section::::Physiology of color perception.:Cone cells in the human eye.\n\nA range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.\n", "Section::::Physiological basis.\n", "Saturation is also one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. However, in the HSL color space saturation exists independently of lightness. I.e. both a very light color \"and\" a very dark color can be heavily saturated in HSL; whereas in the previous definitions—as well as in the HSV color space—colors approaching white all feature low saturation.\n\nSection::::Excitation purity.\n", "The most saturated colors are located at the outer rim of the region, with brighter colors farther removed from the origin. As far as the responses of the receptors in the eye are concerned, there is no such thing as \"brown\" or \"gray\" light. The latter color names refer to orange and white light respectively, with an intensity that is lower than the light from surrounding areas. One can observe this by watching the screen of an overhead projector during a meeting: one sees black lettering on a white background, even though the \"black\" has in fact not become darker than the white screen on which it is projected before the projector was turned on. The \"black\" areas have not actually become darker but appear \"black\" relative to the higher intensity \"white\" projected onto the screen around it. See also color constancy.\n", "The most common cause of nyctalopia is retinitis pigmentosa, a disorder in which the rod cells in the retina gradually lose their ability to respond to the light. Patients suffering from this genetic condition have progressive nyctalopia and eventually their daytime vision may also be affected. In X-linked congenital stationary night blindness, from birth the rods either do not work at all, or work very little, but the condition doesn't get worse.\n\nAnother cause of night blindness is a deficiency of retinol, or vitamin A, found in fish oils, liver and dairy products.\n", "BULLET::::- Saturation is the \"colorfulness of an area judged in proportion to its brightness\", which in effect is the perceived freedom from whitishness of the light coming from the area. An object with a given spectral reflectance exhibits approximately constant saturation for all levels of illumination, unless the brightness is very high.\n", "When properly relaxed it is possible to cause regions of intense black, bright white or even colors such as yellow, green, or pink to appear in the noise. These regions can span the entire visual field, but seem to be fleeting in nature.\n\nSection::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 3: Patterns, motion, and color.\n", "Section::::Perception.:Nonstandard color perception.:Synesthesia.\n\nIn certain forms of [[synesthesia]]/[[ideasthesia]], perceiving letters and numbers ([[grapheme-color synesthesia|grapheme–color synesthesia]]) or hearing musical sounds (music–color synesthesia) will lead to the unusual additional experiences of seeing colors. Behavioral and [[functional neuroimaging]] experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in behavioral tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus demonstrating their reality, and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-standard route.\n\nSection::::Perception.:Afterimages.\n", "Section::::Chroma.\n\nThe naïve definition of saturation does not specify its response function. In the CIE XYZ and RGB color spaces, the saturation is defined in terms of additive color mixing, and has the property of being proportional to any scaling centered at white or the white point illuminant. However, both color spaces are nonlinear in terms of psychovisually perceived color differences. It is also possible—and sometimes desirable—to define a saturation-like quantity that is linearized in term of the psychovisual perception.\n", "Section::::Object illuminance.\n\nThe phenomenon of color constancy occurs when the source of illumination is not directly known. It is for this reason that color constancy takes a greater effect on days with sun and clear sky as opposed to days that are overcast. Even when the sun is visible, color constancy may affect color perception. This is due to an ignorance of all possible sources of illumination. Although an object may reflect multiple sources of light into the eye, color constancy causes objective identities to remain constant.\n", "BULLET::::- The inner-ear condition Ménière's disease can be aggravated by flicker. Sufferers of vertigo are recommended to not use fluorescent lights.\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphous light eruption is a condition affecting the skin thought to be caused by an adverse reaction to ultraviolet light. Its prevalence across Europe is 10-20% of the population. Artificial light sources may provoke the condition, and compact fluorescent light have been shown to produce an eruption.\n", "Patients who suffer from nutritional optic neuropathy may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.\n", "Perceptual constancy gives evidence that high-level constructive processes occur during perception. As lighting conditions change, the color of objects, such as bananas or cherries, appear to remain constant. Even when there is not enough light to even stimulate cone cells and give the sensation of color, bananas and cherries are still perceived as yellow and red, respectively.\n", "Names given to the most vivid colors often include the word \"neon\", alluding to the bright glow of neon lighting. Dyes and inks producing these colors are often fluorescent, producing a luminous glow when viewed under a black light, and such pigments appear significantly brighter in mid-day overcast conditions due to a greater proportion of ultraviolet light.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of colors\n\nBULLET::::- Color wheel\n\nBULLET::::- Lazarus Geiger\n\nBULLET::::- How the Himba see green and blue\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Colour of Words - Article on Color Names\n\nBULLET::::- Coloria.net: Color names\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese Color Names Cheat Sheet\n", "Joanne Harris, author of \"Chocolat\", is a synesthete who says she experiences colors as scents. Her novel \"Blueeyedboy\" features various aspects of synesthesia.\n\nRamin Djawadi, a composer best known for his work on composing the theme songs and scores for such TV series as \"Game of Thrones\", \"Westworld\" and for the \"Iron Man\" movie, also has synesthesia. He says he tends to \"associate colors with music, or music with colors.\"\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Literature.\n", "\"One of the important messages of Dream Yoga and the Practice of Natural Light is the distinction between the Dzogchen awareness referred to as Rigpa which arises from the practice of natural light, and the more relative but still important experience of lucidity.\n", "BULLET::::- Approximately one third of people with CVI have some photophobia. It can take longer than usual to adjust to large changes in light level, and flash photography can be painful. On the other hand, CVI can also in some cases cause a desire to gaze compulsively at light sources, including such things as candle flames and fluorescent overhead lights. The use of good task lighting (especially low-temperature lamps which can be placed at very close range) is often beneficial.\n", "Section::::Homologs.\n\nThe neuropeptide VIP is a homolog of PDF instrumental for cellular and behavioral 24-hour rhythms in mammals. It is expressed in 10 percent of neurons in the SCN. In a study of VIP and VIP receptor 2 (VIPR2) knockout mice, both mutants displayed entrained activity rhythms in light-dark cycle. However, in constant darkness both models displayed poor rhythmicity (very short period), and half of the animals tested were arrhythmic.\n", "Where light sources use an electric discharge through low pressure gas, the light spectrum may be quite discontinuous, with some wavelengths of light missing or at very low amplitude. Such light sources have a strong tint, such as low pressure sodium lamps, or neon lamps. These lamps are used more for their color effects than for general illumination. Some scientific instruments use discharge tubes to produce light that has only a few wavelengths in it, a so-called \"line spectrum\". A laser is a single-wavelength source, which would produce light of a very pure color.\n", "The most common forms of synesthesia are those that trigger colors, and the most prevalent of all is day-color. Also relatively common is grapheme-color synesthesia. We can think of \"prevalence\" both in terms of how common is synesthesia (or different forms of synesthesia) within the population, or how common are different forms of synesthesia within synesthetes. So within synesthetes, forms of synesthesia that trigger color also appear to be the most common forms of synesthesia with a prevalence rate of 86% within synesthetes. In another study, music-color is also prevalent at 18–41%. Some of the rarest are reported to be auditory-tactile, mirror-touch, and lexical-gustatory.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Shampooing of artificial hair integrations can be as easy as shampooing real hair, with some considerations. For instance, many manufacturers suggest using a mild shampoo, or even a wig shampoo.\n\nDirections included with the integrations may indicate what type of shampoo to use; the methods of brushing, combing and drying that are most advisable; and what heat setting to use when drying the hair, or if it is even advisable to do so.\n", "Shower gels for men may contain the ingredient menthol, which gives a cooling and stimulating sensation on the skin, and some men's shower gels are also designed specifically for use on hair and body. Shower gels contain milder surfactant bases than shampoos, and some also contain gentle conditioning agents in the formula. This means that shower gels can also double as an effective and perfectly acceptable substitute to shampoo, even if they are not labelled as a hair and body wash. Washing hair with shower gel should give approximately the same result as using a moisturising shampoo.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n", "Conditioners are available in a wide range of forms including viscous liquids, gels and creams as well as thinner lotions and sprays. Hair conditioner is usually used after the hair has been washed with shampoo. It is applied and worked into the hair and may either be washed out a short time later or left in. For short hair, 2-3 tablespoons is the recommended amount. For long hair, up to 8 tablespoons may be used.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Cleaning methods.:Aqueous-based.:Jet spray vs. power wash processes.\n", "BULLET::::- Real Volume Shampoo – to add volume to fine or limp hair, with Australian Hops.\n\nBULLET::::- Dual Personality Root Cleanser + Tip Mender Shampoo – for greasy, frizzy hair.\n\nSection::::Products.:Conditioners.\n\nBULLET::::- Mega Conditioner – everyday conditioning formula Moist Conditioner – for dry hair, with Australian guava\n\nBULLET::::- Real Volume Conditioner – to add volume to fine or limp hair, with Australian Hops\n\nBULLET::::- Dual Personality Root Cleanser + Tip Mender Conditioner – pH balancing conditioner for greasy roots and dry ends.\n\nSection::::Products.:Hair treatments.\n", "BULLET::::1. dilution, in case the product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution\n\nBULLET::::2. adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap\n\nBULLET::::3. use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos (e.g. Sodium lauroamphoacetate)\n", "The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Animal.\n", "BULLET::::- Continuous Processor\n\nBULLET::::- Cone Screw Blender\n\nBULLET::::- Screw Blender\n\nBULLET::::- Double Cone Blender\n\nBULLET::::- Double Planetary\n\nBULLET::::- High Viscosity Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Counter-rotating\n\nBULLET::::- Double & Triple Shaft\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- High Shear Rotor Stator\n\nBULLET::::- Impinging mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Dispersion Mixers\n\nBULLET::::- Paddle\n\nBULLET::::- Jet Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile Mixers\n\nBULLET::::- Drum Blenders\n\nBULLET::::- Intermix mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Hot/Cold mixing combination\n\nBULLET::::- Vertical mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Turbomixer\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary mixer\n\nBULLET::::- A \"planetary mixer\" is a device used to mix round products including adhesives, pharmaceuticals, foods (including dough), chemicals, electronics, plastics and pigments.\n", "BULLET::::- adjusting pH to that of \"non-stress tears\", approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap\n\nBULLET::::- use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos\n\nBULLET::::- use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and/or polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates\n", "In 2002, Lil-lets launch \"Mixed Packs\", with a range of absorbencies in each pack, allowing consumers to buy one pack in order to use a different absorbency for the differing flow rates within a period (often lighter at the start and finish of the period). Solutions, a range of intimate care products is also launched, featuring wipes, a cleansing mousse and a heat soother patch to warm the tummy to help with period pain.\n\nIn 2005, Lil-lets launched pantyliners.\n", "Section::::Solid–solid mixing.\n", "The first LaserWash vehicle wash system, branded LaserWash 4000, was manufactured and sold in 1989. This was the sole in-bay automatic product line for PDQ until a second system was released in 2000, the LaserWash G5, later superseded by the \"LaserWash G5-S\". In 2005, the LaserWash M5 was released to be the eventual replacement for the LaserWash 4000. PDQ continues to use the LaserWash trademark worldwide today and manufactures the 7th-generation LaserWash 360 Plus and LaserWash AutoXpress. \n\nSection::::LaserWash Trademark.\n", "Pet shampoos which include fragrances, deodorants or colors may harm the skin of the pet by causing inflammations or irritation. Shampoos that do not contain any unnatural additives are known as hypoallergenic shampoos and are increasing in popularity.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Solid.\n\nSolid shampoos or shampoo bars use as their surfactants soaps or other surfactants formulated as solids. They have the advantage of being spill-proof. They are easy to apply; one may simply rub the bar over wet hair, and work the soaped hair into a low lather.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Jelly and gel.\n", "Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water to form a thick, viscous liquid. Other essential ingredients include salt (sodium chloride), which is used to adjust the viscosity, a preservative and fragrance. Other ingredients are generally included in shampoo formulations to maximize the following qualities:\n\nBULLET::::- pleasing foam\n\nBULLET::::- ease of rinsing\n\nBULLET::::- minimal skin and eye irritation\n\nBULLET::::- thick or creamy feeling\n\nBULLET::::- pleasant fragrance\n\nBULLET::::- low toxicity\n\nBULLET::::- good biodegradability\n\nBULLET::::- slight acidity (pH less than 7)\n", "BULLET::::- This mixer is ideal for mixing and kneading viscous pastes (up to 6 million centipoise) under atmospheric or vacuum conditions. Capacities range from through . Many options including jacketing for heating or cooling, vacuum or pressure, vari speed drives, etc. are available.\n\nBULLET::::- The blades each rotate on their own axes, and at the same time on a common axis, thereby providing complete mixing in a very short timeframe.\n\nBULLET::::- Banbury mixer\n", "Section::::Liquid–solid mixing.:Solid deagglomeration.\n", "In this case, it's impossible for Louis Ferguson to refuse to offer Vacuum Cleaners made by ACME (assuming ACME makes Vacuum Cleaners) if he sells anything else made by Acme (Lava Lamp) and he also sells Vacuum Cleaners made by any other brand (Robusto).\n", "The distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount the controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or the use of the products so formulated.\n\nThe considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency and/or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the more popular brand baby shampoos.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Dial (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Dove (toiletries)\n\nBULLET::::- Faso soap\n\nBULLET::::- Fels-Naptha\n\nBULLET::::- Fenjal\n\nBULLET::::- Godrej Consumer Products Limited\n\nBULLET::::- Hamam (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Imperial Leather\n\nBULLET::::- Irish Spring\n\nBULLET::::- Ivory (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Joy (dishwashing liquid)\n\nBULLET::::- Kerala Soaps\n\nBULLET::::- L'Amande\n\nBULLET::::- Lano (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Lava (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Lever 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Lifebuoy (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Liril\n\nBULLET::::- Lux (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Margo (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Medimix (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Mysore Sandal Soap\n\nBULLET::::- Nivea\n\nBULLET::::- Old Spice\n\nBULLET::::- Palmolive (brand)\n\nBULLET::::- Pears (soap)\n\nBULLET::::- Proraso\n\nBULLET::::- Rozalex\n\nBULLET::::- Sapolio\n\nBULLET::::- Sebamed\n\nBULLET::::- Shower Shock\n\nBULLET::::- Simple Skincare\n\nBULLET::::- Sunlight (cleaning product)\n\nBULLET::::- Swan Soap\n\nBULLET::::- Swarfega\n", "A variety of performers have performed or been interviewed on this show. They include:\n\nBULLET::::- Aphex Twin\n\nBULLET::::- Cicala Mvta\n\nBULLET::::- Leafcutter John\n\nBULLET::::- Seb Rochford\n\nBULLET::::- Maja Ratkjo\n\nBULLET::::- Madlib\n\nBULLET::::- Yo La Tengo\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Eno\n\nBULLET::::- The Fall\n\nBULLET::::- The Magnificents\n\nBULLET::::- Stephin Merritt\n\nBULLET::::- Radiohead\n\nBULLET::::- cLOUDDEAD\n\nBULLET::::- Bollywood Brass Band\n\nBULLET::::- Zoviet*France\n\nBULLET::::- Wevie Stonder\n\nBULLET::::- An Pierle\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Blechdom\n\nBULLET::::- Regina Spektor\n\nBULLET::::- Matmos\n\nBULLET::::- Max Tundra\n\nBULLET::::- Samanda\n\nBULLET::::- PJ Harvey\n\nBULLET::::- Deerhoof\n\nBULLET::::- Björk\n\nBULLET::::- Vicki Bennett\n\nBULLET::::- Rechenzentrum\n\nBULLET::::- A Hawk and A Hacksaw\n\nBULLET::::- Tanya Tagaq\n\nBULLET::::- Paddy McAloon\n", "Section::::History.:2013–2014: \"Salute\" and \"Word Up!\".\n", "The typical reason of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up of sebum in the hair without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water.\n", "Note: The PLUS extension mentioned here is not part of the ICPC-2 standard. The World Organization of Family Doctors (WONCA) and the WONCA International Classification Committee (WICC) have no control over it although they do have control over the ICPC classification which the PLUS extension makes use of. It is similar to the difference between a car and fuel.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Tom Moulton mixes.\n", "Mixing is the process of applying mechanical work to the ingredients in order to blend them into a homogeneous substance. Internal mixers are often equipped with two counter-rotating rotors in a large housing that shear the rubber charge along with the additives. The mixing is done in three or four stages to incorporate the ingredients in the desired order. The shearing action generates considerable heat, so both rotors and housing are water-cooled to maintain a temperature low enough to assure that vulcanization does not begin.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "and for fixed formula_10 and formula_7 this translates into a single integer multiplication and right-shift making it one of the fastest hash functions to compute. Furthermore, if formula_3 is a uniformly random \"odd\" integer in formula_13 then this hash function is nearly universal in the sense that, for any formula_14, formula_15.\n\nIn many applications, such as hash tables, collisions make the system a little slower but are otherwise harmless.\n", "Moving forward, there is research being done to find ways to improve the way information can be hashed. Some methods to prevent against hashing collisions would include the shuffling of bits, the usage of compression algorithms, application of T-Functions, and LFSR. These methods can can be applied to the data in the preprocessing stage before using the hashing function. This process could be applied multiple times to further increase the variance in the hashing process.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Birthday attack\n\nBULLET::::- Collision attack (cryptographic hash functions)\n\nBULLET::::- Collision resolution (hash tables)\n", "Many applications of cryptographic hash functions do not rely on collision resistance, thus collision attacks do not affect their security. For example, HMACs are not vulnerable. For the attack to be useful, the attacker must be in control of the input to the hash function.\n\nSection::::Attack scenarios.:Digital signatures.\n\nBecause digital signature algorithms cannot sign a large amount of data efficiently, most implementations use a hash function to reduce (\"compress\") the amount of data that needs to be signed down to a constant size. Digital signature schemes are often vulnerable to hash collisions, unless using techniques like randomized hashing.\n", "When a second hash function \"ξ\" is used to determine the sign of a feature's value, the expected mean of each column in the output array becomes zero because \"ξ\" causes some collisions to cancel out. E.g., suppose an input contains two symbolic features \"f\"₁ and \"f\"₂ that collide with each other, but not with any other features in the same input; then there are four possibilities which, if we make no assumptions about \"ξ\", have equal probability, as listed in the table on the right.\n", "In this approach, we base the security of hash function on some hard mathematical problem and we prove that finding collisions of the hash functions is as hard as breaking the underlying problem. This gives much stronger security than just relying on complex mixing of bits as in the classical approach.\n\nA cryptographic hash function has provable security against collision attacks if finding collisions is provably polynomial-time reducible from problem P which is supposed to be unsolvable in polynomial time. The function is then called provably secure, or just provable.\n", "An unkeyed hash function such as SHA is only collision-resistant if the entire output is used. If used to generate a \"small\" output, such as an index into a hash table of practical size, then no algorithm can prevent collisions; an attacker need only make as many attempts as there are possible outputs.\n", "A hash function must be able to process an arbitrary-length message into a fixed-length output. This can be achieved by breaking the input up into a series of equal-sized blocks, and operating on them in sequence using a one-way compression function. The compression function can either be specially designed for hashing or be built from a block cipher. A hash function built with the Merkle–Damgård construction is as resistant to collisions as is its compression function; any collision for the full hash function can be traced back to a collision in the compression function.\n", "Every hash function with more inputs than outputs will necessarily have collisions. Consider a hash function such as SHA-256 that produces 256 bits of output from a large input (≤ 2-1 bits). Since it must generate one of 2 outputs for each member of a much larger set of inputs, the pigeonhole principle guarantees that some inputs will hash to the same output. Collision resistance does not mean that no collisions exist; simply that they are hard to find.\n", "A family of functions {\"h\" : {0, 1} → {0, 1}} generated by some algorithm \"G\" is a family of collision resistant hash functions, if |\"m\"(\"k\")| |\"l\"(\"k\")| for any \"k\", i.e., \"h\" compresses the input string, and every \"h\" can be computed within polynomial time given \"k\", but for any probabilistic polynomial algorithm \"A\", we have\n\nwhere negl(·) denotes some negligible function, and \"n\" is the security parameter.\n\nSection::::Rationale.\n\nCollision resistance is desirable for several reasons.\n", "The original construction of uses a two-level scheme to map a set of elements to a range of indices, and then map each index to a range of hash values. The first level of their construction chooses a large prime (larger than the size of the universe from which is drawn), and a parameter , and maps each element of to the index\n\nIf is chosen randomly, this step is likely to have collisions, but the number of elements that are simultaneously mapped to the same index is likely to be small.\n", "Collision resistance\n\nCollision resistance is a property of cryptographic hash functions: a hash function \"H\" is collision resistant if it is hard to find two inputs that hash to the same output; that is, two inputs \"a\" and \"b\" such that \"H\"(\"a\") = \"H\"(\"b\"), and \"a\" ≠ \"b\".\n", "BULLET::::- Collision resistance: it should be \"hard\" to find two different messages formula_4 and formula_5 such that formula_7. Such a pair is called a (cryptographic) hash collision. This property is sometimes referred to as strong collision resistance. It requires a hash value at least twice as long as what is required for pre-image resistance, otherwise collisions may be found by a birthday attack.\n\nSection::::Types of security of hash functions.:The meaning of \"hard\".\n", "Collision (computer science)\n\nIn computer science, a collision or clash is a situation that occurs when two distinct pieces of data have the same hash value, checksum, fingerprint, or cryptographic digest.\n\nDue to the possible applications of hash functions in data management and computer security (in particular, cryptographic hash functions), collision avoidance has become a fundamental topic in computer science.\n\nCollisions are unavoidable whenever members of a very large set (such as all possible person names, or all possible computer files) are mapped to a relatively short bit string. This is merely an instance of the pigeonhole principle.\n", "In such systems, it is often better to use hash functions based on multiplication—such as MurmurHash and the SBoxHash—or even simpler hash functions such as CRC32—and tolerate more collisions; rather than use a more complex hash function that avoids many of those collisions but takes longer to compute. Multiplicative hashing is susceptible to a \"common mistake\" that leads to poor diffusion—higher-value input bits do not affect lower-value output bits.\n\nSection::::Hash function algorithms.:Hashing with cryptographic hash functions.\n", "Cryptographic hash functions are usually designed to be collision resistant. But many hash functions that were once thought to be collision resistant were later broken. MD5 and SHA-1 in particular both have published techniques more efficient than brute force for finding collisions. However, some hash functions have a proof that finding collisions is at least as difficult as some hard mathematical problem (such as integer factorization or discrete logarithm). Those functions are called provably secure.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "BULLET::::- Constructing a hash function with provable security is much more difficult than using a classical approach where we just hope that the complex mixing of bits in the hashing algorithm is strong enough to prevent adversary from finding collisions.\n", "A good hash function should map the expected inputs as evenly as possible over its output range. That is, every hash value in the output range should be generated with roughly the same probability. The reason for this last requirement is that the cost of hashing-based methods goes up sharply as the number of \"collisions\"—pairs of inputs that are mapped to the same hash value—increases. If some hash values are more likely to occur than others, a larger fraction of the lookup operations will have to search through a larger set of colliding table entries.\n", "The risk of accidental hash collision in a 160-bit hash is very small, even for exabytes of data. Historically, however, many hash functions become increasingly vulnerable to malicious hash collisions due to both cryptographic and computational advances. \n", "BULLET::::1. Break the input into 256 4-bit blocks, and map each through one of two 4-bit S-boxes, the choice being made by a 256-bit round-dependent key schedule. Equivalently, combine each input block with a key bit, and map the result through a 5→4 bit S-box.\n\nBULLET::::2. Mix adjacent 4-bit blocks using a maximum distance separable code over GF(2).\n\nBULLET::::3. Permute 4-bit blocks so that they will be adjacent to different blocks in following rounds.\n\nBULLET::::3. XOR the input block into the right half of the state.\n", "In February 2005, an attack on SHA-1 was reported that would find collision in about 2 hashing operations, rather than the 2 expected for a 160-bit hash function. In August 2005, another attack on SHA-1 was reported that would find collisions in 2 operations. Other theoretical weaknesses of SHA-1 have been known: and in February 2017 Google announced a collision in SHA-1. Security researchers recommend that new applications can avoid these problems by using later members of the SHA family, such as SHA-2, or using techniques such as randomized hashing that do not require collision resistance.\n", "One interesting variation on double-hashing collision resolution is Robin Hood hashing. The idea is that a new key may displace a key already inserted, if its probe count is larger than that of the key at the current position. The net effect of this is that it reduces worst case search times in the table. This is similar to ordered hash tables except that the criterion for bumping a key does not depend on a direct relationship between the keys. Since both the worst case and the variation in the number of probes is reduced dramatically, an interesting variation is to probe the table starting at the expected successful probe value and then expand from that position in both directions.\n", "Although hashing is generally pretty quick and efficient to do, there exists some limitations that can cause problems when it comes to computer security. Although there are some prevention methods being discovered to protect against hashing collisions, hashing is still not a perfect operation.\n", "Section::::Classical collision attack.\n\nMathematically stated, a collision attack finds two different messages \"m1\" and \"m2\", such that \"hash(m1)\" = \"hash(m2)\". In a classical collision attack, the attacker has no control over the content of either message, but they are arbitrarily chosen by the algorithm.\n\nMuch like symmetric-key ciphers are vulnerable to brute force attacks, every cryptographic hash function is inherently vulnerable to collisions using a birthday attack. Due to the birthday problem, these attacks are much faster than a brute force would be. A hash of \"n\" bits can be broken in 2 time (evaluations of the hash function).\n", "The provable security of FSB means that finding collisions is NP-complete. But the proof is a reduction to a problem with asymptotically hard worst-case complexity. This offers only limited security assurance as there still can be an algorithm that easily solves the problem for a subset of the problem space. For example, there exists a linearization method that can be used to produce collisions of in a matter of seconds on a desktop PC for early variants of FSB with claimed 2^128 security. It is shown that the hash function offers minimal pre-image or collision resistance when the message space is chosen in a specific way.\n", "By definition, an ideal hash function is such that the fastest way to compute a first or second preimage is through a brute-force attack. For an \"n\"-bit hash, this attack has a time complexity 2, which is considered too high for a typical output size of \"n\" = 128 bits. If such complexity is the best that can be achieved by an adversary, then the hash function is considered preimage-resistant. However, there is a general result that quantum computers perform a structured preimage attack in = 2, which also implies second preimage and thus a collision attack.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "hasing function avoid collisions." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Hashing functions do not avoid collision, it happens and has to be dealt with. " ]

[ "The extent of the reduction in bone density in most studies is 10–20%. The clinical manifestations on bone differ depending on the age of the patient. Postmenopausal woman are most sensitive to accelerated bone loss from thyrotoxicosis. Accelerated bone growth in growing children can increase ossification in the short term, but generally results in short-stature adults compared with the predicted heights.\n", "Chronic osteomyelitis may be due to the presence of intracellular bacteria (inside bone cells). Also, once intracellular, the bacteria are able to escape and invade other bone cells. At this point, the bacteria may be resistant to some antibiotics. These combined facts may explain the chronicity and difficult eradication of this disease, resulting in significant costs and disability, potentially leading to amputation. Intracellular existence of bacteria in osteomyelitis is likely an unrecognized contributing factor to its chronic form.\n", "In osteomyelitis involving the vertebral bodies, about half the cases are due to \"S. aureus\", and the other half are due to tuberculosis (spread hematogenously from the lungs). Tubercular osteomyelitis of the spine was so common before the initiation of effective antitubercular therapy, it acquired a special name, Pott's disease.\n\nThe \"Burkholderia cepacia\" complex has been implicated in vertebral osteomyelitis in intravenous drug users.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nIn general, microorganisms may infect bone through one or more of three basic methods\n\nBULLET::::- Via the bloodstream (\"haematogeneously\") - the most common method\n\nBULLET::::- From nearby areas of infection (as in cellulitis), or\n", "A staphylococcus infection or staph infection is an infection caused by members of the Staphylococcus genus of bacteria. These bacteria commonly inhabit the skin and nose where they are innocuous, but may enter the body through cuts or abrasions which may be nearly invisible. Once inside the body, the bacterium may spread to a number of body systems and organs, including the heart, where the toxins produced by the bacterium may cause cardiac arrest. Once the bacterium has been identified as the cause of the illness, treatment is often in the form of antibiotics and, where possible, drainage of the infected area. However, many strains of this bacterium have become antibiotic resistant; for those suffering these kinds of infection, the body's own immune system is the only defense against the disease. If that system is weakened or compromised, the disease may progress rapidly.\n", "MRSA involves a strain of \"Staphylococcus aureus\" bacteria that normally lives on the skin and sometimes in the nasal passages of healthy people. In addition, these particular strains of S. aureus do not respond to some of the antibiotics used to treat staph infections. The bacteria can cause infection when they enter the body through a cut, sore, catheter, or breathing tube. Once infected, the case can be minor and local, or more serious, involving complications with the major tissues within the patient, specifically heart, lungs, blood, and bone. Serious staph infections are more common in people with weak immune systems, particularly patients in hospitals and long-term healthcare facilities and those who are healthy, but otherwise in close contact with many individuals through shared use of equipment and personal items, like athletes and children in daycare.\n", "Some unicameral bone cysts may spontaneously resolve without medical intervention. Specific treatments are determined based on size of the cyst, strength of the bone, medical history, extent of the disease, activity level, symptoms an individual is experiencing, and tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies. The types of methods used to treat this type of cyst are curettage and bone grafting, aspiration, steroid injections, and bone marrow injections. Watchful waiting and activity modifications are the most common nonsurgical treatments that will help resolve and help prevent unicameral bone cysts from occurring and reoccurring.\n\nAneurysmal Bone Cyst \n", "Risk of permanent impairment of the joint varies greatly. This usually depends on how quickly treatment is started after symptoms occur as longer lasting infections cause more destruction to the joint. The involved organism, age, preexisting arthritis, and other comorbidities can also increase this risk. Gonococcal arthritis generally does not cause long term impairment. For those with \"Staphylococcus aureus\" septic arthritis, 46 to 50% of the joint function returns after completing antibiotic treatment. In pneumococcal septic arthritis, 95% of the joint function will return if the person survives. One-third of people are at risk of functional impairment (due to amputation, arthrodesis, prosthetic surgery, and deteriorating joint function) if they have an underlying joint disease or a synthetic joint implant. Mortality rates generally range from 10-20%. These rates increase depending on the offending organism, advanced age, and comorbidities such as rheumatoid arthritis.\n", "Serious staph infections are quite difficult to treat, due to increasing numbers of antibiotic-resistant strains of \"S. aureus\" in the population. If left untreated, serious staph infections can result in organ failure and death.\n", "However, if the thyrotoxicosis is treated early, bone loss can be minimized. The level of calcium in the blood can be determined by a simple blood test, and a bone density scan can document the amount of bone loss. There are many medications that can help to rebuild bone mass and to prevent further bone loss. Risedronate treatment has been demonstrated to help restore bone mass in osteopenia/osteoporosis associated with Graves' disease. Nevertheless, weight-bearing exercises, a balanced diet, calcium intake of about 1500 mg a day and enough vitamin D, are of course elementary foundations.\n\nSection::::Eye symptoms.\n", "There is a high rate of anaerobic cocci colonization which accounts for the organisms significance in these infections. Anaerboci gram-positive cocci and micraerophilic streptococci are often recovered in these infections. They have been recovered in 15% of patients with chronic mastoiditis. When Peptostreptococci and other anaerobes predominate, aggressive treatment of acute infection can prevent chronic infection. When the risk of anaerobic infection is high, as with intra-abdominal and post-surgical infections, proper antimicrobial prophylaxis may reduce the risk\n", "Ulceration episodes usually occur about 3–6 times per year. However, severe disease is characterized by virtually constant ulceration (new lesions developing before old ones have healed) and may cause debilitating chronic pain and interfere with comfortable eating. In severe cases, this prevents adequate nutrient intake leading to malnutrition and weight loss.\n", "Osteomyelitis is a secondary complication in 1–3% of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. In this case, the bacteria, in general, spread to the bone through the circulatory system, first infecting the synovium (due to its higher oxygen concentration) before spreading to the adjacent bone. In tubercular osteomyelitis, the long bones and vertebrae are the ones that tend to be affected.\n\n\"Staphylococcus aureus\" is the organism most commonly isolated from all forms of osteomyelitis.\n", "Disseminated disease occurs when the fungus spreads throughout the body. Found only in immunocompromised patients, it is a very severe condition. When infection becomes disseminated, \"S. schencki\" can afflict joints, the brain, and the spine. Patients with this condition must be treated aggressively with antifungals and may remain on prophylactic antifungal drugs for life to prevent recurrence or reinfection.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic tests.\n", "A minimum number of individuals for the work carried out during the 2008 - 2011 seasons, on tombs 1-44 from Necropolis 6, has been determined as two hundred and fifty, apart from the vast number of disarticulated bones and teeth.\n", "Periodontal disease is commonly caused by a build up of plaque on the teeth which contain specific pathological bacteria. They produce an inflammatory response that has a negative effect on the bone and supporting tissues that hold your teeth in place. One of the effects of periodontal disease is that it causes bone resorption and damage to the supportive tissues. This then results in a loss of structures to hold the teeth firmly in place and they then become mobile. Treatment for periodontal disease can stop the progressive loss of supportive structures but it can not regrow to bone to make teeth stable again.\n", "\"S. hominis\" cells are Gram-positive cocci, usually 1.2 to 1.4 μm in diameter. They appear normally in tetrads and sometimes in pairs.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Resistance.\n\nBased on a total of 240 strains, all were resistant to lysozyme, some were slightly resistant to lysostaphin, 77% were susceptible to penicillin G, 97% to streptomycin, 93% to erythromycin, 64% to tetracycline, and 99% to novobiocin.\n\nMulti drug resistant strains of s. hominis have been isolated from blood and wound cultures in humans.\n\nSection::::Culturing.\n", "Alveolar bone loss is closely associated with periodontal disease. Periodontal disease is the inflammation of the gums. Studies in osteoimmunology have proposed 2 models for alveolar bone loss. One model states that inflammation is triggered by a periodontal pathogen and which activates the acquired immune system to inhibit bone coupling by limiting new bone formation after resorption. Another model states that cytokinesis that may inhibit the differentiation of osteoblasts from their precursors therefore limiting bone formation. This results in a net loss of alveolar bone.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Developmental disturbances.\n", "A notable aspect of the disease is found in its ability to start anywhere in the body and spread to other regions through the bloodstream. A number of bacterial strains can enter the body in this manner, making the origin of the infection hard to trace; thus, for many patients with the infection, this characteristic can delay an accurate diagnosis and prolong suffering. The most common microorganism associated with vertebral osteomyelitis is the bacteria \"staphylococcus aureus\". Another strain of \"staphylococcus aureus\", commonly known as \"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus\" (MRSA), is a particularly harmful microorganism that is more difficult to treat than other related strains. \"Streptococcus equisimilis\" may also be responsible for the onset of vertebral osteomyelitis, though it is thought to be less virulent than \"staphylococcus aureus\".\n", "Section::::High-risk categories.\n\nIn addition to those at higher risk of developing complications from \"C. canimorsus\" due to greater contact with felines and canines, certain pre-existing conditions place individuals in a critically high-risk category. Among these are those who have undergone a splenectomy, alcoholics, and individuals with immunosuppression due to the use of steroids such as glucocorticoids. Individuals with β-thalassemia and smokers are also listed as high-risk. These individuals, like asplenics and alcoholics, have increased levels of alimentary iron in their bloodstream. \"C. canimorsus\" requires large amounts of iron to grow, so these conditions are optimal for the bacillus.\n\nSection::::High-risk categories.:Asplenia.\n", "Strangles has an 8.1% mortality rate. Mortality is lower in cases without complications than it is in cases of bastard strangles. The disease is very contagious and morbidity is high. Precautions to limit the spread of the illness are necessary and those affected are normally isolated. An isolation period of 4–6 weeks is usually necessary to ensure that the disease is not still incubating before ending the quarantine.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Septic arthritis due to anaerobic bacteria is frequently associated with contiguous or hematogenous infection spread, prosthetic joints and trauma. Most septic arthritis cases caused by anaerobic bacteria are monomicrobial. The predominant anaerobic bacteria isolated are Peptostreptococcus spp. and \"P. acnes\" (frequently found in prosthetic joint infection),\" B. fragilis\" and \"Fusobacterium\" spp. (frequently found in infections of hematogenic origin), and \"Clostridium\" spp. (frequently found in infections after trauma).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Bacteremia.\n", "Anaerobic gram-positive cocci are frequently isolated from anaerobically infected bones and joints., they accounted for 40% of anaerobic isolates of osteomyelitis caused by anaerobic bacteria and 20% of anaerobic isolates of arthritis caused by anaerobic bacteria. P magnus and P prevotii are the predominant bone and joint isolates. Management of these infections requires prolonged courses of antimicrobials and is enhanced by removal of the foreign material.\n\nPeptostreptococcus species are part of the microbiota of the lower reproductive tract of women.\n\nSection::::Infections.:Causes of infection.\n\nInfections with anaerobic gram-positive cocci and microaerophilic streptococci are often caused by:\n\nBULLET::::- Trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Immunodeficiency\n", "Symptoms do not occur until the disease is advanced, and there are 1 kg or 1,000,000,000,000 leukemic cells in the body.\n\nThe initial five weeks of treatment kill most leukaemic cells, and the marrow begins to recover. Immature white blood cells may be present in the patient, although they are not necessarily malignant cells. In most cases, a few leukemic cells (approximately 0.001%) survive this treatment, and persist in the marrow for months or years. Cancerous cells can be identified by DNA-based or immunological tests, but they can not be identified as cancerous when viewed under a microscope.\n", "\"S. aureus\" can lay dormant in the body for years undetected. Once symptoms begin to show, the host is contagious for another two weeks, and the overall illness lasts a few weeks. If untreated, though, the disease can be deadly. Deeply penetrating \"S. aureus\" infections can be severe.\n\nSection::::Role in disease.:Skin infections.\n\nSkin infections are the most common form of \"S. aureus\" infection. This can manifest in various ways, including small benign boils, folliculitis, impetigo, cellulitis, and more severe, invasive soft-tissue infections.\n", "Prognosis is related to disease severity. AS can range from mild to progressively debilitating and from medically controlled to refractory. Some cases may have times of active inflammation followed by times of remission resulting in minimal disability while others never have times of remission and have acute inflammation and pain, leading to significant disability. As the disease progresses, it can cause the vertebrae and the lumbosacral joint to ossify, resulting in the fusion of the spine. This places the spine in a vulnerable state because it becomes one bone, which causes it to lose its range of motion as well as putting it at risk for spinal fractures. This not only limits mobility but reduces the affected person's quality of life. Complete fusion of the spine can lead to a reduced range of motion and increased pain, as well as total joint destruction which could lead to a joint replacement.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Earth's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics. Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth's interior is actually only 0.03% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation. The insolation that eventually, after reflection, reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle. This renders solar radiation minimally relevant for internal processes.\n\nSection::::Heat and early estimate of Earth's age.\n", "On Earth, a significant portion of the heat output from the interior of the planet, estimated at a third to half of the total, is caused by the slow collapse of planetary materials to a smaller size, generating heat.\n\nSection::::History of energy transformation.:Release of energy from radioactive potential.\n", "Section::::Resources.\n\nThe Earth's heat content is about . This heat naturally flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 TW and is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW. These power rates are more than double humanity's current energy consumption from primary sources, but most of this power is too diffuse (approximately 0.1 W/m on average) to be recoverable. The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) to release the heat underneath.\n", "Section::::Primordial heat.\n\nPrimordial heat is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its original formation, and this is in contrast to its still actively-produced radiogenic heat. The Earth core's heat flow—heat leaving the core and flowing into the overlying mantle—is thought to be due to primordial heat, and is estimated at 5–15 TW. Estimates of mantle primordial heat loss range between 7 and 15 TW, which is calculated as the remainder of heat after removal of core heat flow and bulk-Earth radiogenic heat production from the observed surface heat flow.\n", "Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n", "The Earth's internal thermal energy flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 terawatts (TW), and is replenished by radioactive decay of minerals at a rate of 30 TW. These power rates are more than double humanity's current energy consumption from all primary sources, but most of this energy flow is not recoverable. In addition to the internal heat flows, the top layer of the surface to a depth of is heated by solar energy during the summer, and releases that energy and cools during the winter.\n", "However, Earth's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors, such as atmospheric composition (mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases), the albedo (reflectivity) of surface properties, cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns.\n\nChanges in surface temperature due to Earth's energy budget do not occur instantaneously, due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response.\n\nSection::::Energy budget.\n", "The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is estimated to be 47 terawatts and split approximately equally between radiogenic heat and heat leftover from the Earth's formation. This comes to 0.087 watt/square metre, which represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation.\n\nHuman production of energy is even lower, at an estimated 18 TW.\n", "Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/convection processes. Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave infrared radiation back into space.\n\nRecent satellite observations indicate additional precipitation, which is sustained by increased energy leaving the surface through evaporation (the latent heat flux), offsetting increases in longwave flux to the surface.\n\nSection::::Earth's energy imbalance.\n", "The Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion, heat produced through radioactive decay, latent heat from core crystallization, and possibly heat from other sources. The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232. At the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (3.6 million atm). Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. Heat production was twice that of present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago, resulting in larger temperature gradients within the Earth, larger rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are no longer formed.\n", "Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n", "While the total internal Earth heat flow to the surface is well constrained, the relative contribution of the two main sources of Earth's heat, radiogenic and primordial heat, are highly uncertain because their direct measurement is difficult. Chemical and physical models give estimated ranges of 15–41 TW and 12–30 TW for radiogenic heat and primordial heat, respectively.\n", "The \"New Core Paradox\" posits that the new upward revisions to the empirically measured thermal conductivity of iron at the pressure and temperature conditions of Earth's core imply that the dynamo is thermally stratified at present, driven solely by compositional convection associated with the solidification of the inner core. However, wide spread paleomagnetic evidence for a geodynamo older than the likely age of the inner core (~1 Gyr) creates a paradox as to what powered the geodynamo prior to inner core nucleation. Recently it has been proposed that a higher core cooling rate and lower mantle cooling rate can resolve the paradox in part. However, the paradox remains unresolved.\n", "Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see kamLAND) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the radioactive decay of K, uranium and thorium. This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from gravitational potential energy, as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (i.e., a type of prolonged falling and settling).\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The mean heat loss from Earth is , for a global heat loss of . A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.\n", "BULLET::::- Heat may be generated by tidal forces on the Earth as it rotates. The resulting earth tides dissipate energy in Earth's interior as heat.\n\nBULLET::::- There is no reputable science to suggest that any significant heat may be created by the Earth's magnetic field, as suggested by some contemporary folk theories.\n", "In order to maintain the magnetic field against ohmic decay (which would occur for the dipole field in 20,000 years), the outer core must be convecting. The convection is likely some combination of thermal and compositional convection. The mantle controls the rate at which heat is extracted from the core. Heat sources include gravitational energy released by the compression of the core, gravitational energy released by the rejection of light elements (probably sulfur, oxygen, or silicon) at the inner core boundary as it grows, latent heat of crystallization at the inner core boundary, and radioactivity of potassium, uranium and thorium.\n", "Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%). The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232. At the center, the temperature may be up to , and the pressure could reach . Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately , twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today.\n", "BULLET::::- Much of the heat is created by decay of naturally radioactive elements. An estimated 45 to 90 percent of the heat escaping from the Earth originates from radioactive decay of elements mainly located in the mantle.\n\nBULLET::::- Gravitational potential energy released during the accretion of the Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat released during differentiation, as abundant heavy metals (iron, nickel, copper) descended to the Earth's core.\n\nBULLET::::- Latent heat released as the liquid outer core crystallizes at the inner core boundary.\n", "Geothermal power is considered to be renewable because any projected heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content. The Earth has an internal heat content of 10 joules (3·10 TW·hr), approximately 100 billion times the 2010 worldwide annual energy consumption. About 20% of this is residual heat from planetary accretion, and the remainder is attributed to higher radioactive decay rates that existed in the past. Natural heat flows are not in equilibrium, and the planet is slowly cooling down on geologic timescales. Human extraction taps a minute fraction of the natural outflow, often without accelerating it.\n", "Earth heat transport occurs by conduction, mantle convection, hydrothermal convection, and volcanic advection. Earth's internal heat flow to the surface is thought to be 80% due to mantle convection, with the remaining heat mostly originating in the Earth's crust, with about 1% due to volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. Thus, about 99% of Earth's internal heat loss at the surface is by conduction through the crust, and mantle convection is the dominant control on heat transport from deep within the Earth. Most of the heat flow from the thicker continental crust is attributed to internal radiogenic sources, in contrast the thinner oceanic crust has only 2% internal radiogenic heat. The remaining heat flow at the surface would be due to basal heating of the crust from mantle convection. Heat fluxes are negatively correlated with rock age, with the highest heat fluxes from the youngest rock at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers (zones of mantle upwelling), as observed in the .\n", "Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface. Total heat loss from the Earth is estimated at 44.2 TW (). Mean heat flow is 65 mW/m over continental crust and 101 mW/m over oceanic crust. This is 0.087 watt/square meter on average (0.03 percent of solar power absorbed by the Earth ), but is much more concentrated in areas where the lithosphere is thin, such as along mid-ocean ridges (where new oceanic lithosphere is created) and near mantle plumes.\n", "Some confusion exists with regard to the terminology of heat pumps and the use of the term \"\"geothermal\"\". \"\"Geothermal\"\" derives from the Greek and means \"\"Earth heat\"\" – which geologists and many laymen understand as describing hot rocks, volcanic activity or heat derived from deep within the earth. Though some confusion arises when the term \"\"geothermal\"\" is also used to apply to temperatures within the first 100 metres of the surface, this is \"\"Earth heat\"\" all the same, though it is largely influenced by stored energy from the sun.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Planets.\n\nSection::::Planets.:Terrestrial planets.\n\nThe internal heating within terrestrial planets powers tectonic and volcanic activities. Of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System, Earth has the most internal heating because it is the most massive. Mercury and Mars have no ongoing visible surface effects of internal heating because they are only 5 and 11% the mass of Earth respectively; they are nearly \"geologically dead\" (however, see Mercury's magnetic field and Geological history of Mars). Earth, being more massive, has a great enough ratio of mass to surface area for its internal heating to drive plate tectonics and volcanism.\n\nSection::::Planets.:Gas giants.\n", "The heat of the Earth is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW. The global geothermal flow rates are more than twice the rate of human energy consumption from all primary sources.\n\nSection::::Direct application.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Pressure buildup violates conservation of energy." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Energy used to create earth is the energy in the gravity that causes pressure buildup. It still follows conservation of momentum. " ]

[ "Osteonecrosis, or localized death of bone tissue, of the jaws is a rare potential complication in cancer patients receiving treatments including radiation, chemotherapy, or in patients with tumors or infectious embolic events. In 2003, reports surfaced of the increased risk of osteonecrosis in patients receiving these therapies concomitant with intravenous bisphosphonate. Matrix metalloproteinase 2 may be a candidate gene for bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaws, since it is the only gene known to be associated with both bone abnormalities and atrial fibrillation, another side effect of bisphosphonates.\n", "Rarely, OM of the jaws may be a complication of trigeminal herpes zoster.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nRegular dental and periodontal assessment and care.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nCulture and sensitivity of the wound site determines the choice of antibiotic. Repeated culture and sensitivity testing is often carried out in OM since the treatment is prolonged and antibiotic resistance may occur, when a change in the drug may be required.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nPathologic fracture of the mandible is a possible complication of OM where the bone has been weakened significantly.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "ONJ is not a new disease: Around 1850 forms of \"chemical osteomyelitis\" resulting from environmental pollutants, such as lead and the white phosphorus used in early (non-safety) matches (Phossy jaw), as well as from popular medications containing mercury, arsenic or bismuth, were reported in the literature.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Research findings.\n\n‘The risk of MRONJ after dental extraction was significantly higher in patients treated with ARD (antiresorptive drugs) for oncological reasons (3.2%) than in those treated with ARD for OP (osteoporosis) (0.15%) (\"p\" 0.0001). Dental extraction performed with adjusted extraction protocols decreased significantly MRONJ development. Potential risk indicators such as concomitant medications and pre-existing osteomyelitis were identified.’\n", "Section::::Management.:Initial management.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Management.\n", "Unlike acute OM in the long bones, acute OM in the jaws gives only a moderate systemic reaction and the person remains surprisingly well. Acute OM of the jaws may give a similar appearance to a typical odontogenic infection, but cellulitis does not tend to spread from the periosteal envelope of the involved bone. If the infection is not controlled, the process becomes chronic and systemic symptoms are usually present, including draining fistulas, loosening of teeth and sequestra formation. Untreated chronic osteomyelitis tends to feature occasional acute exacerbations.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Osteonecrosis can affect any bone, but the hips, knees and jaws are most often involved. Pain can often be severe, especially if teeth and/or a branch of the trigeminal nerve is involved, but many patients do not experience pain, at least in the earlier stages. When severe facial pain is purported to be caused by osteonecrosis, the term NICO, for neuralgia-inducing cavitational osteonecrosis, is sometimes used, but this is controversial and far from completely understood.\n", "In response to the growing base of literature on this association, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a broad drug class warning of this complication for all bisphosphonates in 2005.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nLesions and areas of necrotic bone may remain asymptomatic for weeks, months, or even years, and most commonly become symptomatic with inflammation of surrounding tissues. Clinical signs and symptoms associated with but not limited to BONJ include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Jaw pain and neuropathy\n\nBULLET::::- Loose teeth\n\nBULLET::::- Mucosal swelling\n\nBULLET::::- Erythema\n\nBULLET::::- Suppuration\n\nBULLET::::- Soft tissue ulceration persisting for more than 8 weeks\n", "List of MeSH codes (C07)\n\nThe following is a list of the \"C\" codes for MeSH. It is a product of the United States National Library of Medicine.\n\nSource for content is here. (File \"2006 MeSH Trees\".)\n\nSection::::--- stomatognathic diseases.\n\nSection::::--- stomatognathic diseases.:--- jaw diseases.\n\nSection::::--- stomatognathic diseases.:--- jaw diseases.:--- jaw abnormalities.\n\nBULLET::::- --- cleft palate\n\nBULLET::::- --- micrognathism\n\nBULLET::::- --- pierre robin syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- --- prognathism\n\nBULLET::::- --- retrognathism\n\nSection::::--- stomatognathic diseases.:--- jaw diseases.:--- jaw cysts.\n\nBULLET::::- --- nonodontogenic cysts\n\nBULLET::::- --- odontogenic cysts\n\nBULLET::::- --- basal cell nevus syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- --- dentigerous cyst\n\nBULLET::::- --- odontogenic cyst, calcifying\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Effects of persistent ischaemia on bone cells.\n", "BULLET::::- Penetrating trauma, including iatrogenic causes such as joint replacements or internal fixation of fractures or secondary periapical periodontitis in teeth.\n", "This condition is defined as exposed bone or bone that can be probed through an intraoral or extraoral fistula, in the maxillofacial region that has persisted for more than eight weeks in patients with a history of treatment with anti-resorptive or anti-angiogenic drugs, and without a history of radiation therapy to the jaw or no obvious metastatic disease to the jaws.\n", "Orofacial pain is common problem. For example, in the United States, one report estimated that 22% of the general population had suffered from some form of facial pain at some point in the 6-month period before questioning, of which 12% was toothache. In the United Kingdom, 7% of the general population reported having some degree of chronic orofacial pain. Other reports indicate a prevalence of 10–15% for TMD in the general population.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Jaw claudication\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BMJ Infographic - Identification and initial management of chronic orofacial pain\n", "In a systematic review of cases of bisphosphonate-associated ONJ up to 2006, it was concluded that the mandible is more commonly affected than the maxilla (2:1 ratio), and 60% of cases are preceded by a dental surgical procedure. According to Woo, Hellstein and Kalmar, oversuppression of bone turnover is probably the primary mechanism for the development of this form of ONJ, although there may be contributing co-morbid factors (as discussed elsewhere in this article). It is recommended that all sites of potential jaw infection should be eliminated before bisphosphonate therapy is initiated in these patients to reduce the necessity of subsequent dentoalveolar surgery. The degree of risk for osteonecrosis in patients taking oral bisphosphonates, such as alendronate (Fosamax), for osteoporosis is uncertain and warrants careful monitoring. Patients taking dexamethasone and other glucocorticoids are at increased risk.\n", "OM of the jaws usually occurs in the presence of one or more predisposing factors. These factors are related to compromised vascular perfusion locally, regionally or systemically, causes of immunocompromise and poor wound healing. Specific examples include familial hypercoagulation, diabetes, autoimmune diseases, Agranulocytosis, leukemia, severe anemia, syphilis, chemotherapy, corticosteroid therapy, sickle cell disease, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, old age, malnutrition, smoking and alcohol consumption, radiotherapy, osteoporosis, Paget's disease of bone, fibrous dysplasia, bone malignancy and causes of bone necrosis such as Bismuth, Mercury or arsenic. Poor compliance or access to health care is also a risk factor.\n", "A related condition, bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw (BON), has been described as a side-effect of amino-bisphosphonates, a class of phosphorus-based drugs that inhibit bone resorption and are used widely for treating osteoporosis, bone disease in cancer and some other conditions. BON, sometimes called \"bis-phossy jaw\", is primarily associated with the use of intravenous bisphosphonates in the treatment of cancer. The percentage incidence of BON from this use is approximately 1000 times higher than the incidence of BON caused by the use of oral bisphosphonates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Osteonecrosis of the jaw\n\nBULLET::::- Bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw\n", "Particular medications can result in MRONJ, a serious but uncommon side effect in certain individuals. Such medications are frequently used to treat diseases that cause bone resorption such as osteoporosis, or to treat cancer. The main groups of drugs involved are anti-resorptive drugs, and anti-angiogenic drugs.\n", "BULLET::::- Mechanism of action: The drug binds to receptor activator nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL), preventing the interaction with RANK.\n\nBULLET::::- It does not bind to bone and its effect on bone diminishes in 9 months.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Anti-angiogenic drugs.\n\nOsteonecrosis of the jaw has been identified as one of the possible complications after taking anti-angiogenic drugs, the association the disease and medication is known as MRONJ. This have been stated in the Drug Safety Updates by MHRA.\n", "Owing to prolonged embedding of bisphosphonate drugs in the bone tissues, the risk for MRONJ is high even after stopping the administration of the medication for several years.\n\nPatients who stopped taking anti-angiogenic drugs are exposed to the same risk as patients who have never taken the drugs because anti-angiogenic drugs are not normally supposed to remain in the body for long period of time.\n\nRisk factors include:\n\nBULLET::::- Dental treatment (e.g. dentoalveolar surgery/procedure that impacts bone) – it is possible for MRONJ to occur spontaneously without any recent invasive dental treatment\n", "BULLET::::- Dentofacial anomalies, including malocclusion\n\nBULLET::::- Major anomalies of jaw size\n\nBULLET::::- Major anomalies of jaw size maxillary hypoplasia\n\nBULLET::::- Anomalies of relationship of jaw to cranial base\n\nBULLET::::- Anomalies of dental arch relationship\n\nBULLET::::- Anomalies of tooth position of fully erupted teeth\n\nBULLET::::- Malocclusion unspecified\n\nBULLET::::- Dentofacial functional abnormalities\n\nBULLET::::- Temporomandibular joint disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Dental alveolar anomalies\n\nBULLET::::- Other specified dentofacial anomalies\n\nBULLET::::- Other diseases and conditions of the teeth and supporting structures\n\nBULLET::::- Diseases of the jaws\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental odontogenic cysts\n\nBULLET::::- Fissural cysts of jaw\n\nBULLET::::- Other cysts of jaws\n\nBULLET::::- Central giant cell (reparative) granuloma\n", "BULLET::::- () Malocclusion, unspecified\n\nBULLET::::- () Dentofacial functional abnormalities\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal jaw closure\n\nBULLET::::- Malocclusion due to abnormal swallowing\n\nBULLET::::- Malocclusion due tomouth breathing\n\nBULLET::::- Malocclusion due tongue, lip or finger habits\n\nBULLET::::- () Temporomandibular joint disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Costen's complex or syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Derangement of temporomandibular joint\n\nBULLET::::- Snapping jaw\n\nBULLET::::- Temporomandibular joint-pain-dysfunction syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- () Other dentofacial anomalies\n\nBULLET::::- () Dentofacial anomaly, unspecified\n\nBULLET::::- () Other disorders of teeth and supporting structures\n\nBULLET::::- () Exfoliation of teeth due to systemic causes\n\nBULLET::::- () Loss of teeth due to accident, extraction or local periodontal disease\n", "BULLET::::- Hyperbaric oxygen therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Ultrasonic therapy\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nThe likelihood of this condition developing varies widely from less than 1/10,000 to 1/100, as many other factors need to be considered, such as the type, dose and frequency of intake of drug, how long it has been taken for, and why it has been taken.\n\nIn patients taking drugs for cancer, the likelihood of MRONJ development varies from 0 - 12%. This again, varies with the type of cancer, although prostate cancer and multiple myeloma are reported to be at a higher risk.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatments included topical antimicrobials, conservative debridement of sequestra and surgery. Surgical removal of the afflicted jaw bones could save the patient; otherwise, death from organ failure would follow. The disease was extremely painful and disfiguring to the patient, with dying bone tissue rotting away accompanied by a foul-smelling discharge. However, removal of the jaw bone had serious effects on patients' ability to eat, leading to further health concerns including malnutrition.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic imaging.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Diffusion of adatoms may occur by a variety of mechanisms. The manner in which they diffuse is important as it may dictate the kinetics of movement, temperature dependence, and overall mobility of surface species, among other parameters. The following is a summary of the most important of these processes:\n", "Consider, for instance, particles suspended in a viscous fluid in a gravitational field. Gravity tends to make the particles settle, whereas diffusion acts to homogenize them, driving them into regions of smaller concentration. Under the action of gravity, a particle acquires a downward speed of \"v\" = \"μmg\", where \"m\" is the mass of the particle, \"g\" is the acceleration due to gravity, and \"μ\" is the particle's mobility in the fluid. George Stokes had shown that the mobility for a spherical particle with radius \"r\" is formula_16, where \"η\" is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. In a state of dynamic equilibrium, and under the hypothesis of isothermal fluid, the particles are distributed according to the barometric distribution\n", "BULLET::::- Mass transfer diffusion takes place in the case where adparticle sources and traps such as kinks, steps, and vacancies are present. Instead of being dependent only on the jump potential barrier E, diffusion in this regime is now also dependent on the formation energy of mobile adparticles. The exact nature of the diffusion environment therefore plays a role in dictating the diffusion rate, since the formation energy of an adparticle is different for each type of surface feature as is described in the Terrace Ledge Kink model.\n\nSection::::Anisotropy.\n", "\"Bulk flow\" is the movement/flow of an entire body due to a pressure gradient (eg water coming out of a tap). \"Diffusion\" is the gradual movement/dispersion of concentration within a body, due to a concentration gradient, with no net movement of matter. An example of a process where both bulk motion and diffusion occur is human breathing.\n", "In plasma physics, ambipolar diffusion is closely related to the concept of quasineutrality. In most plasmas, the forces acting on the ions are different from those acting on the electrons, so naively one would expect one species to be transported faster than the other, whether by diffusion or convection or some other process. If such differential transport has a divergence, then it results in a change of the charge density. The latter will in turn create an electric field that can alter the transport of one or both species in such a way that they become equal.\n", "BULLET::::- Cross-channel diffusion can occur in the case of channeled surfaces. Typically in-channel diffusion dominates due to the lower energy barrier for diffusion of this process. In certain cases cross-channel has been shown to occur, taking place in a manner similar to that shown in figure 8. The intermediate \"dumbbell\" position may lead to a variety of final adatom and surface atom displacements.\n", "BULLET::::- Forced diffusion occurs because of the action of some external force\n\nBULLET::::- Diffusion can be caused by temperature gradients (thermal diffusion)\n\nBULLET::::- Diffusion can be caused by differences in chemical potential\n\nThis can be compared to Fick's Law of Diffusion, for a species A in a binary mixture consisting of A and B:\n\nwhere D is the diffusivity constant.\n\nSection::::Energy transfer.\n", "In astrophysics, \"ambipolar diffusion\" refers specifically to the decoupling of neutral particles from plasma, for example in the initial stage of star formation. The neutral particles in this case are mostly hydrogen molecules in a cloud that would undergo gravitational collapse if they were not collisionally coupled to the plasma. The plasma is composed of ions (mostly protons) and electrons, which are tied to the interstellar magnetic field and therefore resist collapse. In a molecular cloud where the fractional ionization is very low (one part per million or less), neutral particles only rarely encounter charged particles, and so are not entirely hindered in their collapse (note that now is dynamical collapse, not free fall) into a star.\n", "Momentum diffusion\n\nMomentum diffusion most commonly refers to the diffusion, or spread of momentum between particles (atoms or molecules) of matter, often in the fluid state.\n\nThis transport of momentum can occur in any direction of the fluid flow. Momentum diffusion can be attributed to either external pressure or shear stress or both.\n\nSection::::Diffusion due to pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- Chemical diffusion describes the process at higher level of coverage where the effects of attraction or repulsion between adatoms becomes important. These interactions serve to alter the mobility of adatoms. In a crude way, figure 3 serves to show how adatoms may interact at higher coverage levels. The adatoms have no \"choice\" but to move to the right at first, and adjacent adatoms may block adsorption sites from one another.\n", "BULLET::::- Size-dependence: the rate of cluster diffusion has a strong dependence on the size of the cluster, with larger cluster size generally corresponding to slower diffusion. This is not, however, a universal trend and it has been shown in some systems that the diffusion rate takes on a periodic tendency wherein some larger clusters diffuse faster than those smaller than them.\n\nSection::::Surface diffusion and heterogeneous catalysis.\n", "When a system contains two or more components whose concentration vary from point to point, there is a natural tendency for mass to be transferred, minimizing any concentration difference within the system. Mass Transfer in a system is governed by Fick's First Law: 'Diffusion flux from higher concentration to lower concentration is proportional to the gradient of the concentration of the substance and the diffusivity of the substance in the medium.' Mass transfer can take place due to different driving forces. Some of them are:\n\nBULLET::::- Mass can be transferred by the action of a pressure gradient (pressure diffusion)\n", "Dispersive mass transfer\n\nDispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, is the spreading of mass from highly concentrated areas to less concentrated areas. It is one form of mass transfer.\n\nDispersive mass flux is analogous to diffusion, and it can also be described using Fick's first law:\n", "Recent theoretical work as well as experimental work performed since the late 1970s has brought to light a remarkable variety of surface diffusion phenomena both with regard to kinetics as well as to mechanisms. Following is a summary of some of the more notable phenomena:\n", "From the diffusion equation it can be shown that the distance a diffusing particle moves in a medium is proportional to the root of the time the system has been diffusing for, where the proportionality constant is the root of the diffusion constant. The above relation, although cosmetically different reveals similar physics, where \"N\" is simply the number of steps moved (is loosely connected with time) and \"b\" is the characteristic step length. As a consequence we can consider diffusion as a random walk process.\n\nSection::::Example model (simple random-walk, freely jointed).:Random walks in space.\n", "A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it depends on particle random walk, and results in mixing or mass transport without requiring directed bulk motion. Bulk motion, or bulk flow, is the characteristic of advection.\n\nThe term convection is used to describe the combination of both transport phenomena.\n\nSection::::Diffusion vs. bulk flow.\n", "The concept of diffusion is widely used in: physics (particle diffusion), chemistry, biology, sociology, economics, and finance (diffusion of people, ideas and of price values). However, in each case, the object (e.g., atom, idea, etc.) that is undergoing diffusion is “spreading out” from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that object.\n\nThere are two ways to introduce the notion of \"diffusion\": either a phenomenological approach starting with Fick's laws of diffusion and their mathematical consequences, or a physical and atomistic one, by considering the \"random walk of the diffusing particles\".\n", "Under normal conditions, molecular diffusion dominates only on length scales between nanometer and millimeter. On larger length scales, transport in liquids and gases is normally due to another transport phenomenon, convection, and to study diffusion on the larger scale, special efforts are needed.\n", "From the \"atomistic point of view\", diffusion is considered as a result of the random walk of the diffusing particles. In molecular diffusion, the moving molecules are self-propelled by thermal energy. Random walk of small particles in suspension in a fluid was discovered in 1827 by Robert Brown. The theory of the Brownian motion and the atomistic backgrounds of diffusion were developed by Albert Einstein.\n\nThe concept of diffusion is typically applied to any subject matter involving random walks in ensembles of individuals.\n", "There are three different types of diffusion: molecular, Brownian and turbulent. Molecular diffusion occurs in gases, liquids, and solids. Diffusion is a result of thermal motion of molecules. Usually, convection occurs as a result of the diffusion process. The rate at which diffusion occurs depends on the state of the molecules: it occurs at a high rate in gases, a slower rate in liquids, and an even slower rate in solids. In gases, molecular diffusion is dependent on pressure and temperature. The higher the pressure, the slower the diffusion takes place, and the higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion takes place. In liquids, an increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion. However, since liquids are incompressible, the rate of diffusion is not affected by the pressure. The rate of diffusion in solids is also increased by temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- Long-range atomic exchange is a process involving an adatom inserting into the surface as in the normal atomic exchange mechanism, but instead of a nearest-neighbor atom it is an atom some distance further from the initial adatom that emerges. Shown in figure 9, this process has only been observed in molecular dynamics simulations and has yet to be confirmed experimentally. In spite of this long range atomic exchange, as well as a variety of other exotic diffusion mechanisms, are anticipated to contribute substantially at temperatures currently too high for direct observation.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Cluster diffusion.\n", "Cluster diffusion involves motion of atomic clusters ranging in size from dimers to islands containing hundreds of atoms. Motion of the cluster may occur via the displacement of individual atoms, sections of the cluster, or the entire cluster moving at once. All of these processes involve a change in the cluster’s center of mass.\n\nBULLET::::- Individual mechanisms are those that involve movement of one atom at a time.\n\nBULLET::::- Edge diffusion involves movement of adatoms or vacancies at edge or kink sites. As shown in figure 10, the mobile atom maintains its proximity to the cluster throughout the process.\n", "BULLET::::- Intrinsic diffusion occurs on a uniform surface (e.g. lacking steps or vacancies) such as a single terrace, where no adatom traps or sources are present. This regime is often studied using field ion microscopy, wherein the terrace is a sharp sample tip on which an adparticle diffuses. Even in the case of a clean terrace the process may be influenced by non-uniformity near the edges of the terrace.\n", "The thermodynamic forces for the transport processes were introduced by Onsager as the space gradients of the derivatives of the entropy density \"s\" (he used the term \"force\" in quotation marks or \"driving force\"):\n\nwhere formula_27 are the \"thermodynamic coordinates\".\n\nFor the heat and mass transfer one can take formula_28 (the density of internal energy) and formula_27 is the concentration of the \"i\"th component. The corresponding driving forces are the space vectors\n", "The low-frequency fluctuating electric fields can cause particles to execute the ExB drift. Due to the long range nature of Coulomb interaction, the electric field coherence time is long enough to allow virtually free streaming of particles across the field lines. Thus, when no other decoherence mechanism exists, the transport would be the only mechanism to limit the run of its own course and to result in the Bohm diffusion of 1/B scaling in a 2D like plasma.\n" ]

[ "Gravity keeps all particles together. " ]

[ "Gravity is too weak to keep all particles together. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Gravity keeps all particles together. ", "Gravity keeps all particles together. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Gravity is too weak to keep all particles together. ", "Gravity is too weak to keep all particles together. " ]

[ "The life cycle of HIV can be as short as about 1.5 days from viral entry into a cell, through replication, assembly, and release of additional viruses, to infection of other cells. HIV lacks \"proofreading\" enzymes to correct errors made when it converts its RNA into DNA via reverse transcription. Its short life-cycle and high error rate cause the virus to mutate very rapidly, resulting in a high genetic variability of HIV. Most of the mutations either are inferior to the parent virus (often lacking the ability to reproduce at all) or convey no advantage, but some of them have a natural selection superiority to their parent and can enable them to slip past defenses such as the human immune system and antiretroviral drugs. The more active copies of the virus, the greater the possibility that one resistant to antiretroviral drugs will be made.\n", "Resistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. One source of resistance is that many current HIV drugs, including NRTIs and NNRTIs, target reverse transcriptase; however, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase is highly error prone and thus mutations conferring resistance arise rapidly. Resistant strains of the HIV virus emerge rapidly if only one antiviral drug is used. Using three or more drugs together, termed combination therapy, has helped to control this problem, but new drugs are needed because of the continuing emergence of drug-resistant HIV strains.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms and organisms.:Fungi.\n", "Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection (HIV) is treated by using a combination of medications to fight against the HIV infection in the body. This is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART is not a cure, but it can control the virus so that a person can live a longer, healthier life and reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to others around him. ART involves taking a combination of HIV medicines (called an HIV regimen) every day, exactly as prescribed by the doctor. These HIV medicines prevent HIV Virus from multiplying (making copies of itself in the body), which reduces the amount of HIV in the body. Having less HIV in the body gives the immune system a chance to recover and fight off infections and cancers. Even though there is still some HIV in the body, the immune system is strong enough to fight off infections and cancers. By reducing the amount of HIV in the body, HIV medicines also reduce the risk of transmitting the virus to others. ART is recommended for all people with HIV, regardless of how long they’ve had the virus or how healthy they are. If left untreated, HIV will attack the immune system and eventually progress to AIDS.\n", "Even with all latent virus deactivated, it is thought that a vigorous immune response will need to be induced to clear all the remaining infected cells. Current strategies include using cytokines to restore CD4+ cell counts as well as therapeutic vaccines to prime immune responses. One such candidate vaccine is Tat Oyi, developed by Biosantech. This vaccine is based on the HIV protein tat. A brief report of their phase I/II clinical trial reported it was safe and well tolerated in 48 HIV-positive patients. Animal models have shown the generation of neutralizing antibodies and lower levels of HIV viremia.\n", "The failure of vaccine candidates to protect against HIV infection and progression to AIDS has led to a renewed focus on the biological mechanisms responsible for HIV latency. A limited period of therapy combining anti-retrovirals with drugs targeting the latent reservoir may one day allow for total eradication of HIV infection. Researchers have discovered an abzyme that can destroy the protein gp120 CD4 binding site. This protein is common to all HIV variants as it is the attachment point for B lymphocytes and subsequent compromising of the immune system.\n\nSection::::New developments.\n", "More than 30 different drugs exist for treating HIV patients. Antiretroviral drugs can disrupt the virus’s replication process causing its numbers to decrease dramatically. While the virus cannot be eradicated completely, in small numbers it is harmless. Usually a patient is given a combination of three or four drugs, a treatment known as highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART. The main reason such a treatment might fail is the development of mutated strands of the virus, resistant to one or more of the prescribed drugs.\n", "Section::::Stem cell based gene therapy.\n\nIn the past 7 years, scientists have been using different approaches of stem cell based gene therapy in an attempt to develop a cure as well as to propose an alternative to the conventional antiretroviral therapy (ART). Specifically, advances had been made with a cure to HIV.\n", "Section::::Contemporary treatment issues.:Future steps to control HIV resistance.\n", "In rare cases, individuals may have a mutation in the CCR5 delta gene which results in a nonfunctional CCR5 co-receptor and in turn, a means of resistance or slow progression of the disease. However, as mentioned previously, this can be overcome if an HIV variant that targets CXCR4 becomes dominant. To prevent fusion of the virus with the host membrane, enfuvirtide can be used. Enfuvirtide is a peptide drug that must be injected and acts by interacting with the N-terminal heptad repeat of gp41 of HIV to form an inactive hetero six-helix bundle, therefore preventing infection of host cells.\n", "The main obstacle to conventional antiretroviral therapy eliminating HIV infection is that HIV is able to integrate itself into the DNA of host cells and rest in a latent state, while antiretrovirals only attack actively replicating HIV. The cells in which HIV lies dormant are called the viral reservoir, and one of the main sources is thought to be central memory and transitional memory CD4+ T cells. Recent reports of the cure of HIV in two infants are presumably due to the fact that treatment was initiated within hours of infection, preventing HIV from establishing a deep reservoir. Currently there is work being done to try to activate reservoir cells into replication so that the virus is forced out of latency and can be attacked by antiretrovirals and the host immune system. Targets include histone deacetylase (HDAC) which represses transcription and if inhibited can lead to increased cell activation. The HDAC inhibitors valproic acid and vorinostat have been used in human trials with only preliminary results so far.\n", "A turning point for HIV research occurred in 2007, following the bone marrow transplant of HIV sufferer Timothy Ray Brown. Brown underwent the procedure after he developed leukaemia and the donor of the bone marrow possessed a rare genetic mutation that caused Brown's cells to become resistant to HIV. Brown attained the title of the \"Berlin Patient\" in the HIV research field and is the first man to have been cured of the virus. As of April 2013, two primary approaches are being pursued in the search for a HIV cure: The first is gene therapy that aims to develop a HIV-resistant immune system for patients, and the second is being led by Danish scientists, who are conducting clinical trials to strip the HIV from human DNA and have it destroyed permanently by the immune system.\n", "There is currently no cure or effective HIV vaccine. Treatment consists of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) which slows progression of the disease. more than 6.6 million people were taking them in low and middle income countries. Treatment also includes preventive and active treatment of opportunistic infections.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Antiviral therapy.\n", "The HIV-1 virus has proved to be tenacious, inserting its genome permanently into victims' DNA, forcing patients to take a lifelong drug regimen to control the virus and prevent a fresh attack. Now, a team of Temple University School of Medicine researchers have designed a way to \"snip out\" the integrated HIV-1 genes for good.\n\nThis is one important step on the path toward a permanent cure for AIDS. This is the first successful attempt to eliminate latent HIV-1 virus from human cells.\n", "When the HIV virus infects someone, it copies its DNA and inserts into the DNA of white blood cells, making the virus part of its host. Even if these genes could be silenced with drugs, (later) stopping the drugs sets the viral DNA free to attack the patient.\n\nHT-TALENs binds to that sequence and cuts the HIV DNA, but not human DNA. When that cut gets fixed by the cell's DNA repair system, it makes a scar that leaves the virus unable to return and make HIV DNA cells. 60% of the cells making the protein damage the viral DNA.\n", "Other theoretical cures to HIV-1 have been proposed. One supposed cure to HIV-1 involves the creation of a disease-resistant immune system through transplantation of autologous, gene-modified (HIV-1-resistant) hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells (GM-HSPC). Though this study does involve several early stage clinical trials that have demonstrated the safety and feasibility of this technique only for HIV-1, none have resulted in improvement of the disease state itself. Therefore, this strategy is intended to go alongside already existing treatment techniques such as drugs and vaccines. However, future technology regarding this approach of single treatment cell therapy could potentially replace current therapy altogether as a functional or sterilizing cure to HIV-1.\n", "Worldwide, the most effective treatment for HIV are antiretroviral drugs, which in internationally accepted clinical trials have been the only proven way to keep patients alive, often for years. The drugs work by directly attacking and reducing the amount of HIV in the body, keeping the patient from developing Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a complete immune system failure that leads to death. The drugs, offered in cocktails of three or four at a time, are often changed as the virus becomes resistant.\n", "HIV is an acronym for human immunodeficiency virus, which is the virus that causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Contracting HIV can lead to the development of AIDS or stage 3 HIV, which causes serious damage to the immune system. While this virus is the underlying cause of AIDS, not all HIV-positive individuals have AIDS, as HIV can remain in a latent state for many years. If undiagnosed or left untreated, HIV usually progresses to AIDS, defined as possessing a CD4+ lymphocyte count under 200 cells/μl or HIV infection plus co-infection with an AIDS-defining opportunistic infection. HIV cannot be cured, but it can be treated, and its transmission can be halted. Treating HIV can prevent new infections, which is the key to ultimately defeating AIDS.\n", "Due to its high mutation rate and systematic elimination of key immune system cells, HIV is a very difficult virus for which to make a vaccine.In some trials, groups given experimental HIV vaccines have actually had higher incidence of HIV infection than groups given a placebo. As vaccination, the traditional method of fighting viral diseases, is largely unavailable, chemotherapy becomes a better option. Unfortunately, the extraordinarily high mutation rate of HIV allows it to evolve in order to evade both the human immune system and the effect of anti-viral drugs. For this reason, new antiviral HIV-1 drugs are necessary to continue the fight against HIV. The method of inactivation which integrasone uses shows promise for halting the spread of HIV in its host, though it will not eliminate the virus entirely.\n", "Section::::Difficulties in developing an HIV vaccine.\n\nIn 1984, after the confirmation of the etiological agent of AIDS by scientists at the U.S. National Institutes of Health and the Pasteur Institute, the United States Health and Human Services Secretary Margaret Heckler declared that a vaccine would be available within two years. However, the classical vaccination approach that is successful in the control of other viral diseases - priming the adaptive immunity to recognize the viral envelope proteins - have failed to work against HIV. Many factors make the development of an HIV vaccine different to other classic vaccines:\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Cure.\n\nHighly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) in many cases allows the stabilization of the patient's symptoms, partial recovery of CD4+ T-cell levels, and reduction in viremia (the level of virus in the blood) to low or near-undetectable levels. Disease-specific drugs can also alleviate symptoms of AIDS and even cure specific AIDS-defining conditions in some cases. Medical treatment can reduce HIV infection in many cases to a survivable chronic condition. However, these advances do not constitute a cure, since current treatment regimens cannot eradicate latent HIV from the body.\n", "Even with anti-retroviral treatment, over the long term HIV-infected people may experience neurocognitive disorders, osteoporosis, neuropathy, cancers, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease. Some conditions, such as lipodystrophy, may be caused both by HIV and its treatment.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nHIV/AIDS is a global pandemic. , approximately 36.7 million people have HIV worldwide with the number of new infections that year being about 1.8 million. This is down from 3.1 million new infections in 2001. Slightly over half the infected population are women and 2.1 million are children. It resulted in about 1 million deaths in 2016, down from a peak of 1.9 million in 2005.\n", "HIV activists also protested the immigration policies banning HIV positive people from immigrating to the United States as being discriminatory and homophobic.\n\nWhen existing drugs proved ineffective as treatment for HIV, TAG lobbied for more research into the HIV virus. In 1996, Protease inhibitors were released. These consist of a combination of drugs which lower the HIV viral load in patients more than any drug had before. It was considered a breakthrough in HIV and AIDS research and continues to be used as a treatment for HIV and AIDS.\n", "Nonetheless, treatment failures occur as a result of the development of resistance and/or noncompliance with complicated and often toxic regimens. Moreover, damage to the immune system is incompletely reversed. Thus, there is an ongoing, urgent need for new therapeutic agents and new ways to boost the immunity and rebuild and replace immunity lost to HIV infection. In addition, strategies to address critical questions regarding the long-term effects of antiretroviral therapy and the best approaches to medical management are being developed.\n\nSection::::Scientific areas of focus.:Vaccine and prevention research.\n", "Treatment has been so successful that in many parts of the world, HIV has become a chronic condition in which progression to AIDS is increasingly rare. Anthony Fauci, head of the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, has written, \"With collective and resolute action now and a steadfast commitment for years to come, an AIDS-free generation is indeed within reach.\" In the same paper, he noted that an estimated 700,000 lives were saved in 2010 alone by antiretroviral therapy. As another commentary in \"The Lancet\" noted, \"Rather than dealing with acute and potentially life-threatening complications, clinicians are now confronted with managing a chronic disease that in the absence of a cure will persist for many decades.\"\n", "HIV is a member of the genus \"Lentivirus\", part of the family \"Retroviridae\". Lentiviruses have many morphologies and biological properties in common. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, reverse transcriptase, that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, integrase, and host co-factors. Once integrated, the virus may become latent, allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system, for an indeterminate amount of time. The HIV virus can remain dormant in the human body for up to ten years after primary infection; during this period the virus does not cause symptoms. Alternatively, the integrated viral DNA may be transcribed, producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins, using host cell resources, that are packaged and released from the cell as new virus particles that will begin the replication cycle anew.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Lagrange points.:point.\n\nThe point lies on the line through the two large masses, beyond the smaller of the two. Here, the gravitational forces of the two large masses balance the centrifugal effect on a body at .\n\nBULLET::::- Explanation :On the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, the orbital period of an object would normally be greater than that of Earth. The extra pull of Earth's gravity decreases the orbital period of the object, and at the point that orbital period becomes equal to Earth's. Like L, L is about 1.5 million kilometers or 0.01 au from Earth.\n\nSection::::Lagrange points.:point.\n", "BULLET::::- November 2003 – April 2004: WIND, then it returned to Earth orbit before going to L where it still remains\n\nBULLET::::- July 2009 – 29 April 2013: Herschel Space Telescope\n\nBULLET::::- 3 July 2009 – 21 October 2013: Planck Space Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- 25 August 2011 – April 2012: Chang'e 2, from where it travelled to 4179 Toutatis and then into deep space\n\nBULLET::::- January 2014 – 2018: Gaia Space Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: Spektr-RG X-Ray Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- 2020: Euclid Space Telescope\n\nBULLET::::- 2021: James Webb Space Telescope will use a halo orbit\n", "The only two stable Lagrange points are and . Langrange points are stable if the mass of the larger body is at least 25 times the mass of the secondary body.. The Earth is over 81 times the mass of the Moon. The L5 Society was founded to promote settlement by building space stations at these points in the Earth Moon system.\n", "Section::::Lagrange points.:and points.\n\nThe and points lie at the third corners of the two equilateral triangles in the plane of orbit whose common base is the line between the centers of the two masses, such that the point lies behind () or ahead () of the smaller mass with regard to its orbit around the larger mass.\n", "where \"r\" is the distance of the L point from the smaller object, \"R\" is the distance between the two main objects, and \"M\" and \"M\" are the masses of the large and small object, respectively. Solving this for \"r\" involves solving a quintic function, but if the mass of the smaller object (\"M\") is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (\"M\") then and are at approximately equal distances \"r\" from the smaller object, equal to the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:\n", "The location of L is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:\n", "BULLET::::- The NASA Terrestrial Planet Finder mission (may be placed in an Earth-trailing orbit instead)\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L3.\n\n is the Sun–Earth Lagrangian point located on the side of the Sun opposite Earth, slightly outside the Earth's orbit.\n\nBULLET::::- There are no known objects in this orbital location.\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L4.\n\n is the Sun–Earth Lagrangian point located close to the Earth's orbit 60° ahead of Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- Asteroid is the first discovered \"tadpole\" orbit companion to Earth, orbiting with a mean distance of about one astronomical unit.\n", "The point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the larger of the two.\n\nBULLET::::- Explanation : Within the Sun–Earth system, the point exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little outside Earth's orbit and slightly further from the Sun than Earth is. This placement occurs because the Sun is also affected by Earth's gravity and so orbits around the two bodies' barycenter, which is well inside the body of the Sun. At the point, the combined pull of Earth and Sun cause the object to orbit with the same period as Earth.\n", "In 1772, Lagrange published an \"Essay on the three-body problem\". In the first chapter he considered the general three-body problem. From that, in the second chapter, he demonstrated two special constant-pattern solutions, the collinear and the equilateral, for any three masses, with circular orbits.\n\nSection::::Lagrange points.\n\nThe five Lagrangian points are labeled and defined as follows:\n\nSection::::Lagrange points.:point.\n\nThe point lies on the line defined by the two large masses \"M\" and \"M\", and between them. It is the most intuitively understood of the Lagrangian points: the one where the gravitational attraction of \"M\" partially cancels \"M\"'s gravitational attraction.\n", "The location of L is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:\n\nwith parameters \"M\" and \"R\" defined as for the L and L cases, and \"r\" now indicates the distance of L from the \"antipodal position\" of the smaller object. If the mass of the smaller object (\"M\") is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (\"M\") then:\n\nSection::::Mathematical details.:and.\n", "BULLET::::- At the end of its mission ESA's \"Planck\" spacecraft was put into a heliocentric orbit and passivated to prevent it from endangering any future missions.\n\nBULLET::::- CNSA's Chang'e 2 from August 2011 to April 2012. Chang'e 2 was then placed onto a heliocentric orbit that took it past the near-Earth asteroid 4179 Toutatis.\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L2.:Present probes.\n\nBULLET::::- The ESA Gaia probe\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L2.:Planned probes.\n\nBULLET::::- The joint Russian-German high-energy astrophysics observatory Spektr-RG\n\nBULLET::::- The ESA Euclid mission, to better understand dark energy and dark matter by accurately measuring the acceleration of the universe.\n", "There are five such points, labeled L to L, all in the orbital plane of the two large bodies, for each given combination of two orbital bodies. For instance, there are five Lagrangian points L to L for the Sun–Earth system, and in a similar way there are five \"different\" Lagrangian points for the Earth–Moon system. L, L, and L are on the line through the centers of the two large bodies. L and L each form an equilateral triangle with the centers of the large bodies. L and L are stable, which implies that objects can orbit around them in a rotating coordinate system tied to the two large bodies.\n", "Several planets have trojan satellites near their L and L points with respect to the Sun. Jupiter has more than a million of these trojans. Artificial satellites have been placed at L and L with respect to the Sun and Earth, and with respect to the Earth and the Moon. The Lagrangian points have been proposed for uses in space exploration.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe three collinear Lagrange points (L, L, L) were discovered by Leonhard Euler a few years before Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovered the remaining two.\n", "In 1772, the Italian–French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange obtained two constant-pattern solutions (collinear and equilateral) of the general three-body problem. In the restricted three-body problem, with one mass negligible (which Lagrange did not consider), the five possible positions of that mass are now termed Lagrangian points.\n", "BULLET::::- List of objects at Lagrangian points\n\nBULLET::::- Lunar space elevator\n\nBULLET::::- Oberth effect\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph-Louis, Comte Lagrange, from Oeuvres Tome 6, \"Essai sur le Problème des Trois Corps\"—Essai (PDF); source Tome 6 (Viewer)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Essay on the Three-Body Problem\" by J-L Lagrange, translated from the above, in http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/essai-3c.htm.\n\nBULLET::::- Considerationes de motu corporum coelestium—Leonhard Euler—transcription and translation at http://www.merlyn.demon.co.uk/euler304.htm.\n\nBULLET::::- What are Lagrange points?—European Space Agency page, with good animations\n\nBULLET::::- Explanation of Lagrange points—Prof. Neil J. Cornish\n\nBULLET::::- A NASA explanation—also attributed to Neil J. Cornish\n\nBULLET::::- Explanation of Lagrange points—Prof. John Baez\n", "BULLET::::- Explanation : An object that orbits the Sun more closely than Earth would normally have a shorter orbital period than Earth, but that ignores the effect of Earth's own gravitational pull. If the object is directly between Earth and the Sun, then Earth's gravity counteracts some of the Sun's pull on the object, and therefore increases the orbital period of the object. The closer to Earth the object is, the greater this effect is. At the point, the orbital period of the object becomes exactly equal to Earth's orbital period. is about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth, or 0.01 au, 1/100th the distance to the Sun.\n", "The triangular points ( and ) are stable equilibria, provided that the ratio of is greater than 24.96. This is the case for the Sun–Earth system, the Sun–Jupiter system, and, by a smaller margin, the Earth–Moon system. When a body at these points is perturbed, it moves away from the point, but the factor opposite of that which is increased or decreased by the perturbation (either gravity or angular momentum-induced speed) will also increase or decrease, bending the object's path into a stable, kidney bean-shaped orbit around the point (as seen in the corotating frame of reference).\n", "We draw lines from the point within the triangle to its vertices and call them X, Y and Z. Also, let the lengths of these lines be x, y, and z, respectively. Let the angle between X and Y be α, Y and Z be β. Then the angle between X and Z is (2π − α − β). Using the method of Lagrange multipliers we have to find the minimum of the Lagrangian \"L\", which is expressed as:\n\nwhere \"a\", \"b\" and \"c\" are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.\n", "List of objects at Lagrangian points\n\nThis is a list of known objects which occupy, have occupied, or are planned to occupy any of the five Lagrangian points of two-body systems in space.\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L1.\n\n is the Lagrangian point located approximately 1.5 million km from Earth towards the Sun.\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L1.:Past probes.\n\nBULLET::::- International Cometary Explorer, formerly the International Sun–Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3), diverted out of in 1983 for a comet rendezvous mission. Currently in heliocentric orbit.\n", "This distance can be described as being such that the orbital period, corresponding to a circular orbit with this distance as radius around \"M\" in the absence of \"M\", is that of \"M\" around \"M\", divided by ≈ 1.73:\n\nThe location of L is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:\n\nwith parameters defined as for the L case. Again, if the mass of the smaller object (\"M\") is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (\"M\") then L is at approximately the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:\n\nSection::::Mathematical details.:L.\n", "BULLET::::- future location of TDRS-style communication satellites to support satellite\n\nSection::::Earth–Moon Lagrangian points.:L4 and L5.:Past probes.\n\nBULLET::::- Hiten was the first spacecraft to demonstrate a low energy trajectory, passing by and to achieve lunar orbit at a very low fuel expense, compared to usual orbital techniques. Hiten did not find any conclusive increase in dust density at Lagrange points.\n\nSection::::Earth–Moon Lagrangian points.:Proposed objects.\n\nBULLET::::- Exploration Gateway Platform\n", "In contrast to and , where stable equilibrium exists, the points , , and are positions of unstable equilibrium. Any object orbiting at , , or will tend to fall out of orbit; it is therefore rare to find natural objects there, and spacecraft inhabiting these areas must employ station keeping in order to maintain their position.\n\nSection::::Natural objects at Lagrangian points.\n", " is the Lagrangian point located approximately 1.5 million km from Earth in the direction opposite the Sun.\n\nSection::::Sun–Earth Lagrangian points.:L2.:Past probes.\n\nBULLET::::- NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observed the cosmic microwave background from 2001 until 2010. It was moved to a heliocentric orbit to avoid posing a hazard to future missions.\n\nBULLET::::- NASA's WIND from November 2003 to April 2004. The spacecraft then went to Earth orbit, before heading to .\n\nBULLET::::- The ESA Herschel Space Observatory exhausted its supply of liquid helium and was moved from the Lagrangian point in June 2013.\n", "Section::::Solar System values.\n", "Section::::Spaceflight applications.\n\nSection::::Spaceflight applications.:Sun–Earth.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Other surgical treatments include the injection of dermal fillers, silicone gel, or PMMA. Dermal fillers are also not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the penis.\n", "Medical doctors do treat micropenis with surgical procedures. In such cases, surgery can improve urinary or sexual function.\n\nSection::::Supplements.\n\nPenis-enlargement pills, patches, and ointments are sold online. Such products are generally considered ineffective.\n\nSection::::Physical techniques.\n\nPhysical techniques involve extension devices, hanging weights, and vacuum pressure. There is also significant overlap between techniques intended to enlarge the penis and techniques intended to achieve other, related objectives, such as reversing impotence, extending the duration of erections, or enhancing sexual climax.\n\nSection::::Physical techniques.:Pumping.\n", "Surgical penis enlargement methods include penile augmentation and suspensory ligament release. Penile augmentation involves injecting fat cells into the penis or grafting fat cells onto the penis. Injecting fat cells into the penis can cause swelling and deformity; in some instances, removal of the penis may be necessary. Grafting fat cells onto the penis can be effective; however, the increase in size may disappear over time. Suspensory ligament release increases flaccid penis length, but does not increase the length of an erect penis and can create problems with sexual function.\n", "Surgical penis enlargement methods can be effective; however, such methods carry risks of complications and are not medically indicated except in cases involving a micropenis. Noninvasive methods have received little scientific study, and most lack scientific evidence of effectiveness. However, limited scientific evidence supports some elongation by prolonged traction. Some quack products may improve penis erection, mistaken by consumers for penis enlargement.\n\nSection::::Surgical methods.\n\nThere are several surgical penis enlargement treatments, most of which carry a risk of significant complications. Procedures by unlicensed surgeons can lead to serious complications. \n", "Testosterone treatment is resumed in adolescence only for boys with hypogonadism. Penile growth is completed at the end of puberty, similar to the completion of height growth, and provision of extra testosterone to post-pubertal adults produces little or no further growth.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n\nBecause hormone treatment rarely achieves average size, several surgical techniques similar to phalloplasty for penis enlargement have been devised and performed; but they are not generally considered successful enough to be widely adopted and are rarely performed in childhood.\n", "This chapter explains how Dr. Arnold H. Kegel started training women to exercise their pubococcygeus muscle in order to curb postpartum incontinence. It was discovered that a side effect of this exercise was to improve women's ability to experience orgasm. The authors recommend an exercise regimen for women seeking to improve their sexual response.\n\nSection::::Chapter summaries.:Chapter 11: The Impotent Man.\n\nThis chapter gives nineteen reasons why husbands may experience inability to maintain an erection or ejaculate and gives suggestions on how to overcome those problems.\n\nBULLET::::1. The onset of age: they will lose vital energy as they get older.\n", "On March 18, 2013, it was announced that Andrew Wardle, a British man born without a penis, was going to receive a pioneering surgery to create a penis for him. The surgeons hope to \"fold a large flap of skin from his arm — complete with its blood vessels and nerves — into a tube to graft onto his pubic area.\" If the surgery goes well, the odds of starting a family are very good.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Raising agenetics as females.\n", "The American Urological Association (AUA) and the Urology Care Foundation \"consider subcutaneous fat injection for increasing penile girth to be a procedure which has not been shown to be safe or efficacious. The AUA also considers the division of the suspensory ligament of the penis for increasing penile length in adults to be a procedure which has not been shown to be safe or efficacious.\" Complications from penis enlargement procedures include scarring that may lead, ultimately, to penis shrinkage or erectile dysfunction. \n", "Few men possess sufficient flexibility and penis length to safely perform the necessary frontbend. However, increased flexibility achieved via gravity-assisted positions, and physical training such as gymnastics, contortion, or yoga may make it possible for some. American biologists Craig Bartle and Alfred Charles Kinsey reported that fewer than 1% of males can successfully orally contact their own penis and that only 2 or 3 men in a thousand could perform a full autofellatio. Previously, autofellatio was considered by behavioristic science a problem rather than as a variety in sexual practice.\n\nSection::::References in culture.\n", "A similar exercise was developed in the 1950s by gynecologist Arnold Kegel, who in 1952 \"developed\" some exercises for women who had a problem with urinary incontinence. With the research he discovered that the pubococcygeus muscle was out of shape and not working properly. By exercising these muscles, the medical problem was solved and the potential for genital sensations and orgasm increased. In part this was due to blood flow increasing in exercised muscles, and the increase in blood flow is related to the ease of arousal and orgasm. When the strength of a muscle increases, the blood supply increases, with the side effect being an increase of blood flow to the pelvis resulting in higher levels of arousal and more intense orgasms.\n", "In addition, males can—and do—adjust their ejaculates in response to sperm competition and according to the likely cost-benefits of mating with a particular female. Research has focused primarily on two fundamental ways in which males go about achieving this: adjusting ejaculate size and adjusting ejaculate quality.\n\nSection::::Evolved adaptations.:Ejaculate adjustment.:Size.\n", "It is especially from the 1980s that the scientific studies on exercise with reduced breathing frequency began to be published. While the method advocated by Counsilman attracted a following in some runners and athletics coaches, the results of the studies contradicted the hypotheses put forward by the World of Sport. They showed that this training method did not decrease body O concentrations and provoked only a hypercapnic effect, i.e. an increase in CO concentrations. Both the effectiveness and legitimacy of hypoventilation training were strongly challenged.\n", "Wong, in her memoir, describes another negative side effect. In the early 1990s, she reported on China's leading penis-enlargement surgeon. Many of his patients were men who, as children on farms, suffered serious injury to their organs when they squatted in their open-crotch pants in areas where dogs or pigs ate their own feces and the animals bit the boys' penises in the confusion. Some had never married because of the injury. \"China desperately needed a Pampers factory, or at least a dog-food industry,\" she wrote.\n", "Penile augmentation surgery is surgery intended to enlarge a small penis. Early attempts in the 1950s and 1960s involved constructing a tube of non-erectile flesh extending a small penis but the penis did not function. In recent years a small number of urologists have been offering an augmentation procedure that involves moving outward some of the buried components of the corpora so that the penis protrudes more. The girth is augmented with transplantation of the patient's fat. This procedure is designed to preserve erectile and sexual function without surgically altering the urethra. This type of surgery is not performed on children and primarily produces a small increase in the size of a normal penis, but would be less likely to produce a major functional change in a severe micropenis. Potential surgical problems: Reabsorption of the fat is common. Scarring resulting in interference with erectile function is less likely but more damaging. Issues with physical sensation.\n", "There are severe reproductive costs as a result of the female spotted hyena's pseudo-penis. Nearly all female spotted hyena’s first-born cubs are stillborn, as the placenta is not long enough for the extended penile birth canal. In addition, the first birthing process is time consuming, as it requires the meatus of the pseudo-penis to tear, allowing the fetus to pass through; as a result, the first-born often die of anoxia.\n", "The length of the flaccid penis does not necessarily correspond to the length of the penis when it becomes erect; some smaller flaccid penises grow much longer, while some larger flaccid penises grow comparatively less.\n\nGenerally, the size of an erect penis is fixed throughout post-pubescent life. Its size may be increased by surgery, although penile enlargement is controversial, and a majority of men were \"not satisfied\" with the results, according to one study.\n", "The average stretched penile length at birth is about , and 90% of newborn boys will be between . Limited growth of the penis occurs between birth and 5 years of age, but very little occurs between 5 years and the onset of puberty. The average size at the beginning of puberty is with adult size reached about 5 years later. W.A. Schonfeld published a penis growth curve in 1943.\n\nSection::::Studies.:Size with ageing.\n", "Non-surgical techniques are essentially limited to cases in which the masseter is enlarged. While a masseter muscle can be large due to congenital reasons, it can commonly be an acquired deformity. Like any muscle it increases in size with exercise. Behaviors such as repeated gum chewing, teeth clenching, or bruxism can contribute to enlargement of the muscle.\n", "In males, transdermal estradiol replacement enable epiphyseal plates closure, increases bone density, promote skeletal maturation, lower FSH and LH level to normal and decrease insulin blood concentration. In a young man with high stature due to unfused epiphysis, estrogen patch treatment daily possibly for life resolved the issue with further growth and osteoporosis. \n", "At the beginning of the 1970s, American swim coach James Counsilman used a new training technique which involved taking a limited number of inhalations while swimming laps in a pool. The effect of this kind of training was determined to decrease the body’s O content and simulate altitude training. Due to the method's efficacy, hypoventilation became a common training method for many swimmers.\n", "Because of great risk and uncertainty, medical professionals are generally skeptical of penile enlargement and avoid attempting it. A 2019 study in \"Sexual Medicine Reviews\" found that surgical methods of penis enlargement are typically ineffective and can be damaging to both physical and mental health. The authors found that such treatments are \"'supported by scant, low-quality evidence... Injectables and surgery should remain a last option, considered unethical outside of clinical trials'\". According to the study, \"'overall treatment outcomes were poor, with low satisfaction rates and significant risk of major complications, including penile deformity, shortening, and erectile dysfunction'\". \n", "BULLET::::- Jelqing - penis enlargement with physical exercises by using a milking motion, to enhance girth mainly over a period of two to three months\n\nBULLET::::- Non-surgical elongation of organs by prolonged stretching using weights or spacing devices. Some cultural traditions prescribe for or encourage members of one sex (or both) to have one organ stretched till permanent re-dimensioning has occurred, such as:\n", "Section::::Development.:Growth in puberty.\n\nOn entering puberty, the penis, scrotum and testicles will enlarge toward maturity. During the process, pubic hair grows above and around the penis. A large-scale study assessing penis size in thousands of 17- to 19-year-old males found no difference in average penis size between 17-year-olds and 19-year-olds. From this, it can be concluded that penile growth is typically complete not later than age 17, and possibly earlier.\n\nSection::::Physiological functions.\n\nSection::::Physiological functions.:Urination.\n", "To some extent, it is possible to change testicular size. Short of direct injury or subjecting them to adverse conditions, e.g., higher temperature than they are normally accustomed to, they can be shrunk by competing against their intrinsic hormonal function through the use of externally administered steroidal hormones. Steroids taken for muscle enhancement (especially anabolic steroids) often have the undesired side effect of testicular shrinkage.\n\nSimilarly, stimulation of testicular functions via gonadotropic-like hormones may enlarge their size. Testes may shrink or atrophy during hormone replacement therapy or through chemical castration.\n", "In adolescent ewes (i.e. ewe hoggets), overfeeding during pregnancy can also cause intrauterine growth restriction, by altering nutrient partitioning between dam and conceptus. Fetal growth restriction in adolescent ewes overnourished during early to mid pregnancy is not avoided by switching to lower nutrient intake after day 90 of gestation; whereas such switching at day 50 does result in greater placental growth and enhanced pregnancy outcome. Practical implications include the importance of estimating a threshold for \"overnutrition\" in management of pregnant ewe hoggets. In a study of Romney and Coopworth ewe hoggets bred to Perendale rams, feeding to approximate a conceptus-free live mass gain of 0.15 kg/day (i.e. in addition to conceptus mass), commencing 13 days after the midpoint of a synchronized breeding period, yielded no reduction in lamb birth mass, where compared with feeding treatments yielding conceptus-free live mass gains of about 0 and 0.075 kg/day.\n" ]

[ "You can increase the size of body parts by working out." ]

[ "You can only increase the size of muscles by working out." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "You can increase the size of body parts by working out." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "You can only increase the size of muscles by working out." ]

[ "Section::::Sound modality.\n\nSection::::Sound modality.:Description.\n\nThe stimulus modality for hearing is sound. Sound is created through changes in the pressure of the air. As an object vibrates, it compresses the surrounding molecules of air as it moves towards a given point and expands the molecules as it moves away from the point. Periodicity in sound waves is measured in hertz. Humans, on average, are able to detect sounds as pitched when they contain periodic or quasi-periodic variations that fall between the range of 30 to 20000 hertz.\n\nSection::::Sound modality.:Perception.\n", "It has been successfully used to simulate various low-frequency collective motions in protein and DNA molecules, such as accordion-like motion, pulsation or breathing motion, as reflected by the fact that the low-frequency wave numbers thus derived were quite close to the experimental observations.\n\nSection::::Application to biological functions and medical treatments.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stellate cells\" (aka multipolar cells), have longer dendrites that lie parallel to fascicles of auditory nerve fibers. They are also called chopper cells, in reference to their ability to fire a regularly spaced train of action potentials for the duration of a tonal or noise stimulus. The chopping pattern is intrinsic to the electrical excitability of the stellate cell, and the firing rate depends on the strength of the auditory input more than on the frequency. Each stellate cell is narrowly tuned and has inhibitory sidebands, enabling the population of stellate cells to encode the spectrum of sounds, enhancing spectral peaks and valleys. These neurons provide acoustic input to the DCN.\n", "Giant oscillator strength\n\nGiant oscillator strength is inherent in excitons that are weakly bound to impurities or defects in crystals.\n", "These frequency shifts in response to environmental stimuli have been shown to improve performance in perceptual behavior tasks in adult mice that were tone-reared during auditory critical period. Adult learning and critical period sensory manipulations induce comparable shifts in cortical topographies, and by definition adult learning results in increased perceptual abilities. The tonotopic development of A1 in mouse pups is therefore an important factor in understanding the neurological basis of auditory learning.\n", "Research in 2013 by Jon Hagstrum of the US Geological Survey suggests that homing pigeons use low-frequency infrasound to navigate.\n\nSection::::Human reactions.\n\n20 Hz is considered the normal low-frequency limit of human hearing. When pure sine waves are reproduced under ideal conditions and at very high volume, a human listener will be able to identify tones as low as 12 Hz. Below 10 Hz it is possible to perceive the single cycles of the sound, along with a sensation of pressure at the eardrums.\n", "Pioneered by Georg von Békésy, a method to observe the basilar membrane in action came about in the mid 1900s. Békésy isolated the cochlea from human and animal cadavers and labeled the basilar membrane with silver flakes. This allowed strobe imaging to capture the movement of the membrane as sounds stimulated the hair cells. This led to the solidification of the idea that high frequencies excite the basal end of the cochlea and provided new information that low frequencies excite a large area of the cochlea. This new finding suggested that specialized properties are occurring for high frequency hearing and that low frequencies involve mechanisms explained in the frequency theory.\n", "A practical example can be observed in Edinburgh when the \"One o' Clock Gun\" is fired at the eastern end of Edinburgh Castle. Standing at the base of the western end of the Castle Rock, the sound of the Gun can be heard through the rock, slightly before it arrives by the air route, partly delayed by the slightly longer route. It is particularly effective if a multi-gun salute such as for \"The Queen's Birthday\" is being fired.\n\nSection::::Basic concepts.:Compression and shear waves.\n", "Section::::Animal sounds.\n", "Typically, pressure waves travel faster in materials than do shear waves, and in earthquakes this is the reason that the onset of an earthquake is often preceded by a quick upward-downward shock, before arrival of waves that produce a side-to-side motion. For example, for a typical steel alloy, , and , yielding a compressional speed \"c\" of . This is in reasonable agreement with \"c\" measured experimentally at for a (possibly different) type of steel. The shear speed \"c\" is estimated at using the same numbers.\n\nSection::::Non-gaseous media.:Speed of sound in solids.:One-dimensional solids.\n", "Experiments using implant recipients (who had previously had normal hearing) showed that, at stimulation rates below about 500 Hz, ratings on a pitch scale were proportional to the log of stimulation rate, but also decreased with distance from the round window. At higher rates, the effect of rate became weaker, but the effect of place was still strong.\n", "Section::::Application.\n\nSection::::Application.:Sirens.\n\nA siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus:\n", "Section::::Bound molecular excitons.\n", "Temporal Theory posits that the cause is from looking at the phase locking to tell what the pitch is. This theory has a hard time explaining diplacusis. There are some examples of pitch which don’t have an \"edge\" on the basilar membrane, which this would account for—i.e. white noise, clicks, etc. (need a reference)\n", "Some radio monitoring hobbyists record ELF signals using antennas ranging in size from eighteen inch active antennas up to several thousand feet in length taking advantage of fences, highway guard rails, and even decommissioned railroad tracks, and play them back at higher speeds to more easily observe natural low frequency fluctuations in the Earth's electromagnetic field. Increasing the playback speed increases the pitch, so that it can be brought into the audio frequency range for audibility.\n\nSection::::Natural sources.\n", "Section::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:Practical application to air.\n\nBy far the most important factor influencing the speed of sound in air is temperature. The speed is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, giving an increase of about per degree Celsius. For this reason, the pitch of a musical wind instrument increases as its temperature increases.\n", "Historically, there have been many models of pitch perception. (Terhardt, 1974; Goldstein, 1973; Wightman, 1973). Many consisted of a peripheral spectral-analysis stage and a central periodicity-analysis stage. In his model, Terhardt claims that the spectral-analysis output of complex sounds, specifically low frequency ones, is a learned entity which eventually allows easy identification of the virtual pitch. The volley principle is predominantly seen during the pitch perception of lower frequencies where sounds are often resolved. Goldstein proposed that through phase-locking and temporal frequencies encoded in neuron firing rates, the brain has the itemization of frequencies that can then be used to estimate pitch.\n", "Temporal theory (hearing)\n\nThe temporal theory of hearing states that human perception of sound depends on temporal patterns with which neurons respond to sound in the cochlea. Therefore, in this theory, the pitch of a pure tone is determined by the period of neuron firing patterns—either of single neurons, or groups as described by the volley theory. Temporal or timing theory competes with the place theory of hearing, which instead states that pitch is signaled according to the locations of vibrations along the basilar membrane.\n\nTemporal theory was first suggested by August Seebeck.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::Bound excitons in semiconductors: Theory.\n", "On September 2, 2013, Italy became the world's first country to introduce a tax specifically targeted at HFT, charging a levy of 0.02% on equity transactions lasting less than 0.5 seconds.\n\nSection::::History.:Market growth.\n", "BULLET::::- \"f\" = fundamental frequency\n\nBULLET::::- \"v\" = the speed of sound\n\nBULLET::::- \"l\" = the length of the pipe\n", "Neurons have a maximum firing frequency within the range of frequencies we can hear. To be complete, rate theory must somehow explain how we distinguish pitches above this maximum firing rate. The volley theory, in which groups of neurons cooperate to code the temporal pattern, is an attempt to make the temporal theory more complete, but some frequencies are too high to see any synchrony in the cochlear nerve firings.\n\nSection::::High frequencies.:The random firing solution.\n", "Section::::Echo.\n\nClapping hands or snapping one’s fingers whilst standing next to perpendicular sheets of corrugated iron (for example, in a fence) will produce a high-pitched echo with a rapidly falling pitch. This is due to a sequence of echoes from adjacent corrugations. \n", "The equation above indicated 146 Hz and the Nielsen equation indicated 138 Hz. Clearly, the whistle was being driven by a cavity resonance. This is an example of a whistle being driven in edge tone fashion but the result is a monopole sound field.\n\nSection::::Monopole-dipole whistles.:Deep cavity tone.\n", "The frequencies an ear can hear are limited to a specific range of frequencies. The audible frequency range for humans is typically given as being between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), though the high frequency limit usually reduces with age. Other species have different hearing ranges. For example, some dog breeds can perceive vibrations up to 60,000 Hz.\n\nIn many media, such as air, the speed of sound is approximately independent of frequency, so the wavelength of the sound waves (distance between repetitions) is approximately inversely proportional to frequency.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Line current.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "The greater the distance in the atmosphere through which the sunlight travels, the greater this effect, which is why the sun looks orange or red at dawn and sundown when the sunlight is travelling very obliquely through the atmosphere — progressively more of the blues and greens are removed from the direct rays, giving an orange or red appearance to the sun; and the sky appears pink — because the blues and greens are scattered over such long paths that they are highly attenuated before arriving at the observer, resulting in characteristic pink skies at dawn and sunset.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "Section::::Other media.\n", "Generating accurate true-color images of Mars's surface is surprisingly complicated. There is much variation in the color of the sky as reproduced in published images; many of those images, however, are using filters to maximize the science value and are not trying to show true color. Nevertheless, for many years, the sky on Mars was thought to be more pinkish than it now is believed to be.\n\nSection::::Astronomical phenomena.\n\nSection::::Astronomical phenomena.:Earth and Moon.\n", "Some of the most varied colors at sunset can be found in the opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results.\n\nSection::::Names of compass points.\n", "Cirrocumulus clouds tend to reflect the red and yellow colours during a sunset and sunrise, and thus they have been referred to as \"one of the most beautiful clouds\". This occurs because they reflect the unscattered rays of light from the early morning or evening sun, and those rays are yellow, orange, red, and sometimes purple\n\nSection::::Forecasting.\n", "In optics, the word \"pink\" can refer to any of the pale shades of colors between bluish red to red in hue, of medium to high lightness, and of low to moderate saturation. Although pink is generally considered a tint of red, the hues of most shades of pink are slightly bluish, and lie between red and magenta. A few variations of pink, such as salmon color, lean toward orange.\n\nSection::::Science and nature.:Sunrises and sunsets.\n", "Most of Reddish would be equivalent to Usda Zone 8B/9A in recent years and with the influence of global warming, with typical annual minimum lows of around -5/-6C.\n\nSummer High temperatures average around 20-21C and peak at around 28C in any given year, occasionally to around 32C.\n\nWith overnight lows, averaging around 12-14C typically.\n\nWinter High temperatures average around 6-9C. Winter overnight lows, typically average around 3C.\n", "Displayed at right is the color sky magenta. The color \"sky magenta\" is a representation of the color of the sky near the sun during the brief period during twilight when the pink of sunset transitions into the blue of early evening. This color was one of the colors in the set of \"Venus Paradise\" colored pencils, a popular brand of colored pencils in the 1950s. \n\nThis color is also called \"medium lavender pink\".\n\nA photograph of the sky displaying the color \"sky magenta\" in its natural context by photographer Dave Horne is displayed here: \n", "Section::::Accuracy.\n", "Section::::Plot.:\"Blue Lily, Lily Blue\".\n", "The Belt of Venus can be observed as having a stronger and more clearly color of pink during the winter months, as opposed to during the summer months, when it appears faded and dim below the orange-yellowish color of the horizon.\n", "At sunrise and sunset, the light is passing through the atmosphere at a lower angle, and traveling a greater distance through a larger volume of air. Much of the green and blue is scattered away, and more red light comes to the eye, creating the colors of the sunrise and sunset and making the mountains look purple.\n\nA Crayola crayon called Purple Mountains' Majesty (or Purple Mountain Majesty) is named after this natural phenomenon. It was first formulated in 1993.\n\nSection::::Mythology.\n", "Colour state\n\nColour states is a system used for quickly showing meteorological conditions.\n\nMeteorological colour states are determined by the relevant worst condition from the visibility and significant cloud height. In the US and parts of Europe the lowest significant cloud layer is five or more oktas; in the United Kingdom, Belgium, France and the Netherlands it is three oktas or more. If visibility or cloud height measurements fall on a boundary (e.g. 5000 m visibility or 1500 ft cloud height) the colour state assumes the higher value in this case WHT.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Science and nature.:Sonics.\n\nBULLET::::- Pink noise (), also known as 1/f noise, in audio engineering is a signal or process with a frequency spectrum such that the power spectral density is proportional to the reciprocal of the frequency.\n\nSection::::Science and nature.:Lighting.\n\nBULLET::::- Grow lights often use a combination of red and blue wavelengths, which generally appear pink to the human eye.\n", "The stunning colours seen in the Chinook arch are quite common. Typically, the colours will change throughout the day, starting with yellow, orange, red and pink shades in the morning as the sun comes up, grey shades at midday changing to pink / red colours, and then orange / yellow hues just before the sun sets.\n\nSection::::Cause of occurrence.\n", "BULLET::::- Yellow and pink are a mix of red and green or blue. Other shades of red, as well as orange, may be seen on rare occasions; yellow-green is moderately common. As red, green, and blue are the primary colors of additive synthesis of colors, in theory, practically any color might be possible, but the ones mentioned in this article comprise a virtually exhaustive list.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Other auroral radiation.\n", "On 30 October 2004, the colours were later changed the day's listings for Tuesday in lavender, Wednesday in mint leaf, Friday in navy blue, and from 10 April 2010, the colours changed once again were Sunday in navy blue, Monday in yellow, Tuesday in glaucous, Thursday in mauve and Friday in indigo.\n\nSection::::Digitisation.\n", "Formerly daylilies were only available in yellow, pink, fulvous (bronzed), and rosy-fulvous colors, now they come in an assortment of many more color shades and tints thanks to intensive hybridization. They can now be found in nearly every color except pure blue and pure white. Those with yellow, pink, and other pastel flowers may require full sun to bring out all of their colors; darker varieties, including many of those with red and purple flowers are not colorfast in bright sun.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Cultivars.:Awards.\n", "Generating accurate true-color images from Mars's surface is surprisingly complicated. To give but one aspect to consider, there is the Purkinje effect: the human eye's response to color depends on the level of ambient light; red objects appear to darken faster than blue objects as the level of illumination goes down. There is much variation in the color of the sky as reproduced in published images, since many of those images have used filters to maximize their scientific value and are not trying to show true color. For many years, the sky on Mars was thought to be more pinkish than it is now believed to be.\n", "Section::::Day lighting.\n\nAs the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "This is one of the colors in the RAL color matching system, a color system widely used in Europe. The RAL color list first originated in 1927, and it reached its present form in 1961. \n\nSection::::Additional variations of magenta.:Sky magenta.\n", "Occasionally a shower may happen at sunrise or sunset, where the shorter wavelengths like blue and green have been scattered and essentially removed from the spectrum. Further scattering may occur due to the rain, and the result can be the rare and dramatic monochrome or red rainbow.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Higher-order rainbows.\n", "A Monochrome or Red Rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon and a rare variation of the more commonly seen multicolored rainbow. Its formation process is identical to that of a normal rainbow (namely the reflection/refraction of light in water droplets), the difference being that a monochrome rainbow requires the sun to be close to the horizon; i.e., near sunrise or sunset. The low angle of the sun results in a longer distance for its light to travel through the atmosphere, causing shorter wavelengths of light, such as blue, green and yellow, to be scattered and leaving primarily red.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Although ultimately such structures are either biogenic (i.e., fossil) or abiogenic (i.e., pseudofossil), the information available at the time of study is insufficient to make an unambiguous determination. They belong to the dubiofossil category temporarily, awaiting additional evidence that will allow them to be removed from this category and attributed to the fossils or the pseudofossils. For example, see ALH84001.\n\nPhysical and chemical processes can produce structures that look indistinguishable from some that are formed by biologic activity, presenting a hurdle in their interpretation.\n", "On most natural cobbles or nodules of source material, a weathered outer rind called a cortex covers the unweathered inner material. Flakes are often differentiated by the amount of cortex present on their dorsal surfaces, because the amount of cortex indicates when in the sequence of reduction the flake came from. Primary flakes are those whose dorsal surfaces are entirely covered with cortex; secondary flakes have at least a trace of cortex on the dorsal surface; and tertiary (interior) flakes lack cortex, having derived entirely from the interior of the core. Primary flakes and secondary flakes are usually associated with the initial stages of lithic reduction, while tertiary flakes are more likely to be associated with retouching and bifacial reduction activities.\n", "Microfossils are a common feature of the geological record, from the Precambrian to the Holocene. They are most common in deposits of marine environments, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial sedimentary deposits. While every kingdom of life is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are protist skeletons or cysts from the Chrysophyta, Pyrrhophyta, Sarcodina, acritarchs and chitinozoans, together with pollen and spores from the vascular plants.\n", "Good crystals of augite and olivine are also to be obtained in the ash beds of Vesuvius and of many other volcanoes, ancient and modern. Blocks of these crystalline minerals (anorthite, olivine, augite, and hornblende) are common objects in the tuffs of many of the West Indian volcanoes. Where crystals are very abundant, the ashes are called \"crystal tuffs\". In St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902, much of the dust was composed of minute crystals enclosed in thin films of glass because the lava at the moment of eruption had very nearly solidified as a crystalline mass. Some basaltic volcanoes, though, have ejected great quantities of black glassy scoria, which, after consolidation, weather to a red soft rock known as palagonite; tuffs of this kind occur in Iceland and Sicily.\n", "Physical development of fingerprints using powders is just one of a selection of methods used to develop fingerprints. Fingerprints often leave residues of oils in the shape of the friction ridges, but the friction ridge skin itself does not secrete oils, and so some fingerprints will only leave a residue of amino acids and other compounds which the powder does not adhere to well. For this reason, 'dusting' is used as part of an array of techniques to develop fingerprints, but is often used on larger areas in a crime scene which cannot be removed for analysis, or cannot be subject to more rigorous analysis for other reasons. \n", "A pioneer in the use of tephra layers as marker horizons to establish chronology was Sigurdur Thorarinsson, who began by studying the layers he found in his native Iceland. Since the late 1990s, techniques developed by Chris S. M. Turney (QUB, Belfast; now University of Exeter) and others for extracting tephra horizons invisible to the naked eye (\"cryptotephra\") have revolutionised the application of tephrochronology. This technique relies upon the difference between the specific gravity of the microtephra shards and the host sediment matrix. It has led to the first discovery of the Vedde ash on the mainland of Britain, in Sweden, in the Netherlands, in the Swiss Lake Soppensee and in two sites on the Karelian Isthmus of Baltic Russia.\n", "Flakes (film)\n\nFlakes is a 2007 American comedy film, directed by Michael Lehmann and starring Aaron Stanford and Zooey Deschanel. This film was written by Chris Poche & Karey Kirkpatrick.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "The thallus branches are similar to those of the related \"Niebla homalea\" in their linear shape and in the margins twisting 90° at frequent intervals, and by transverse cracks occurring at frequent but irregular intervals, and in the texture of the cortex, which is slightly thinner in \"N. disrupta\", 75–110 µm thick, compared to 75–150 µm thick in \"N. homalea\". Black dot-like pycnidia are common along branch margins—at least to the mid region, and often to near base, and mostly absent between margins.\n", "Syncytium is also known as cell fusion and polykaryon formation. With this CPE, the plasma membranes of four or more host cells fuse and produce an enlarged cell with at least four nuclei. Although large cell fusions are sometimes visible without staining, this type of CPE is typically detected after host cell fixation and staining. Herpesviruses characteristically produce cell fusion as well as other forms of CPE. Some paramyxoviruses may be identified through the formation of cell fusion as they exclusively produce this CPE.\n\nSection::::Common types.:Inclusion bodies.\n", "Keratinophyton durum\n\nKeratinophyton durum is a keratinophilic fungus, that grows on keratin found in decomposing or shed animal hair and bird feathers. Various studies conducted in Canada, Japan, India, Spain, Poland, Ivory Coast and Iraq have isolated this fungus from decomposing animal hair and bird feathers using SDA and hair-bait technique. Presence of fungus in soil sediments and their ability to decompose hairs make them a potential human pathogen.\n\nSection::::History and taxonomy.\n", "Section::::Models.\n\nA number of different models exist to predict the distribution of microfacets. Most assume that the microfacet normals are distributed evenly around the normal; these models are called isotropic. If microfacets are distributed with a preference for a certain direction along the surface, the distribution is anisotropic.\n\nNOTE: In most equations, when it says formula_1 it means formula_2\n\nSection::::Models.:Phong distribution.\n\nIn the Phong reflection model, the intensity of the specular highlight is calculated as:\n\nWhere \"R\" is the mirror reflection of the light vector off the surface, and \"V\" is the viewpoint vector.\n", "Apart from adventitious material, such as fragments of the older rocks, pieces of trees, etc., the contents of an ash deposit may be described as consisting of more or less crystalline igneous rocks. If the lava within the crater has been at such a temperature that solidification has commenced, crystals are usually present. They may be of considerable size like the grey, rounded leucite crystals found on the sides of Vesuvius. Many of these are very perfect and rich in faces because they grew in a medium that was liquid and not very viscous. \n", "BULLET::::2. Viral infection\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nOral LP is considered to be a T-cell mediated chronic inflammatory tissue reaction that results in a cytotoxic reaction against epithelial basal cells. The inflammatory infiltrate in oral LP is primarily composed of CD8+ T cells. A potential pathway for CD8+ T cell-mediated cytotoxicity in oral LP is described as follows:\n\nAntigens presented on MHC 1 molecules activates CD8+ T cells on keratinocytes or by encounters with activated CD4+ helper T cells or cytokines produced by activated CD4+ helper T cells\n", "Subfossils are also often found in depositionary environments, such as lake sediments, oceanic sediments, and soils. Once deposited, physical and chemical weathering may alter the state of preservation, and small subfossils can also be ingested by living organisms. Subfossil remains that date from the Mesozoic are exceptionally rare, are usually in an advanced state of decay, and are consequently much disputed. The vast bulk of subfossil material comes from Quaternary sediments, including many subfossilized chironomid head capsules, ostracod carapaces, diatoms, and foraminifera.\n", "Uniface\n\nIn archeology, a uniface is a specific type of stone tool that has been flaked on one surface only. There are two general classes of uniface tools: modified flakes—and formalized tools, which display deliberate, systematic modification of the marginal edges, evidently formed for a specific purpose. \n\nSection::::Modified flakes.\n", "Living systems are capable of metabolism, reproduction, mutation, and propagation of the mutations. Lines of evidence for biogenicity, called biosignatures, come in various forms and appear at various scales, ranging from the atomic to the planetary dimension.\n\nMolecule-building, cell division, colony formation, respiration, excretion, active motility are amongst the biologic processes that effect changes in the environment and can leave distinctive morphologic features or signature chemical by-products in the geologic record.\n", "The soft tissues are not present in the form of imprints but as three-dimensional petrifications, having been replaced by calcium phosphate in amazing detail, even to the subcellular level; or as transformed remains of the original biomolecular components.\n\nSection::::Description.:Soft tissues.:Bone tissue.\n", "\"Pseudofossils\" are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as dendrites, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and moss agates, which look like moss or plant leaves. Concretions, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be dinosaur eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.\n\nSection::::History of the study of fossils.\n", "Whole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin. Henna will not stain skin until the lawsone molecules are made available (released) from the henna leaves. However, dried henna leaves will stain the skin if they are mashed into a paste. The lawsone will gradually migrate from the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin and bind to the proteins in it, creating a stain.\n", "Phytoliths may be extracted from residue on many sources: dental calculus (buildup on teeth); food preparation tools like rocks, grinders, and scrapers; cooking or storage containers; ritual offerings; and garden areas.\n\nSection::::Archaeology.:Sampling strategies.\n", "BULLET::::- A single layer of epidermis between, which becomes stretched and shrivels off at maturity\n\nBULLET::::- A single layer of endothecium. The cells of endothecium have fibrous thickenings.\n\nBULLET::::- One to three middle layers. Cells of these layers generally disintegrate in the mature anther\n\nBULLET::::- A single layer of tapetum. The tapetal cells may be uni-, bi- or multinucleate and possess dense cytoplasm. The cells of the primary sporogenous layer divide further and give rise to diploid sporogenous tissue.\n", "Proteins that are normally produced in very low quantities but whose production is dramatically increased in tumor cells, trigger an immune response. An example of such a protein is the enzyme tyrosinase, which is required for melanin production. Normally tyrosinase is produced in minute quantities but its levels are very much elevated in melanoma cells.\n", "Under cross polarized microscopy, skin lipids and MLE show the similar cross-like structure, termed as Maltese cross structure, and under electron microscopy, lamellar structures are observed. Stratum corneum, as the outermost layer of skin, is responsible for the various barrier function of skin and protects our body from external harmful things.\n", "Section::::Application of micropaleontology.\n\nMicrofossils are specially noteworthy for their importance in biostratigraphy. Since microfossils are often extremely abundant, widespread, and quick to appear and disappear from the stratigraphic record, they constitute ideal index fossils from a biostratigraphic perspective. Also, the planktonic and nektonic habits of some microfossils give them the bonus of appearing across a wide range of facies or paleoenvironments, as well as having near-global distribution, making biostratigraphic correlation even more powerful and effective.\n", "The carbon isn't preserved in its original state, which is often chitin or collagen. Rather, it is kerogenized. This process seems to involve the incorporation of aliphatic lipid molecules.\n\nSection::::Elemental distribution.\n\nElemental distribution is unevenly spread through the organic remains, allowing the original nature of the remnant film to be predicted. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- Silicon is more abundant in cuticular material\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium and potassium are higher in the eyes\n\nBULLET::::- Calcium and phosphorus are generally associated with mid-gut glands, and aluminium is higher in the alimentary canal.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Core temperature, also called core body temperature, is the operating temperature of an organism, specifically in deep structures of the body such as the liver, in comparison to temperatures of peripheral tissues. Core temperature is normally maintained within a narrow range so that essential enzymatic reactions can occur. Significant core temperature elevation (hyperthermia) or depression (hypothermia) over more than a brief period of time is incompatible with human life.\n", "As noted above, Newton's law behavior when stated in terms of \"temperature change\" in the body, also requires that internal heat conduction within the object be large in comparison to the loss/gain of heat by surface transfer (conduction and/or convection), which is the condition where the Biot number is less than about 0.1. This allows the presumption of a single \"temperature\" inside the body (as a function of time) to make sense, as otherwise the body would have many different temperatures inside it, at any one time. This single temperature will generally change exponentially, as time progresses (see below).\n", "98.6\n\n98.6 may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Human body temperature, sometimes quoted as 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit when healthy (although this is, in fact, an average rather than a universal rule)\n\nBULLET::::- \"98.6\" (song), a song by Keith\n\nBULLET::::- \"98.6\", a novel by Ronald Sukenick\n\nBULLET::::- 98.6 ZHFM, a Classic Hits FM radio station in New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- DRG Class 98.6, a steam locomotive which has been renamed as Bavarian D VIII\n\nBULLET::::- \"98.6 Degrees: The Art of Keeping Your Ass Alive\", a survival book by Cody Lundin\n", "The normal human body temperature is often stated as . In adults a review of the literature has found a wider range of for normal temperatures, depending on the gender and location measured.\n", "Human body temperature\n\nNormal human body temperature, also known as normothermia or euthermia, is the typical temperature range found in humans. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as .\n\nIndividual body temperature depends upon the age, exertion, infection, sex, and reproductive status of the subject, the time of day, the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the subject's state of consciousness (waking, sleeping or sedated), activity level, and emotional state. It is typically maintained within this range by thermoregulation.\n\nSection::::Methods of measurement.\n", "The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body in order to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body. The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature at a healthy level.\n", "Many outside factors affect the measured temperature as well. \"Normal\" values are generally given for an otherwise healthy, non-fasting adult, dressed comfortably, indoors, in a room that is kept at a normal room temperature, , during the morning, but not shortly after arising from sleep. Furthermore, for oral temperatures, the subject must not have eaten, drunk, or smoked anything in at least the previous fifteen to twenty minutes, as the temperature of the food, drink, or smoke can dramatically affect the reading.\n", "Endotherms control body temperature by internal homeostatic mechanisms. In mammals, two separate homeostatic mechanisms are involved in thermoregulation—one mechanism increases body temperature, while the other decreases it. The presence of two separate mechanisms provides a very high degree of control. This is important because the core temperature of mammals can be controlled to be as close as possible to the optimum temperature for enzyme activity.\n", "In addition to varying throughout the day, normal body temperature may also differ as much as from one day to the next, so that the highest or lowest temperatures on one day will not always exactly match the highest or lowest temperatures on the next day.\n\nNormal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is (). This means that any oral temperature between is likely to be normal.\n", "If pregnancy does not occur, the disintegration of the corpus luteum causes a drop in BBTs that roughly coincides with the onset of the next menstruation. If pregnancy does occur, the corpus luteum continues to function (and maintain high BBTs) for the first trimester of the pregnancy. After the first trimester, the woman's body temperature drops to her pre-ovulatory normal as the placenta takes over functions previously performed by the corpus luteum.\n", "Temperature is increased after eating or drinking anything with calories. Caloric restriction, as for a weight-loss diet, decreases overall body temperature. Drinking alcohol decreases the amount of daily change, slightly lowering daytime temperatures and noticeably raising nighttime temperatures.\n\nExercise raises body temperatures. In adults, a noticeable increase usually requires strenuous exercise or exercise sustained over a significant time. Children develop higher temperatures with milder activities, like playing.\n\nPsychological factors also influence body temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.\n", "Section::::Biology.\n\nMammals attempt to maintain a comfortable body temperature under various conditions by thermoregulation, part of mammalian homeostasis. The lowest normal temperature of a mammal, the basal body temperature, is achieved during sleep. In women, it is affected by ovulation, causing a biphasic pattern which may be used as a component of fertility awareness.\n\nIn humans, the hypothalamus regulates metabolism, and hence the basal metabolic rate. Amongst its functions is the regulation of body temperature. The core body temperature is also one of the classic phase markers for measuring the timing of an individual's Circadian rhythm.\n", "The human body requires evaporative cooling to prevent overheating. Wet-bulb temperature, and Wet Bulb Globe Temperature are used to determine the ability of a body to eliminate excess heat. A sustained wet-bulb temperature of about can be fatal to healthy people; at this temperature our bodies switch from shedding heat to the environment, to gaining heat from it.\n\nThus a wet bulb temperature of is the threshold beyond which the body is no longer able to adequately cool itself.\n\nSection::::Table of values.\n", "It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television rays that are not related to temperature. Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. People are constantly radiating their body heat, but at different rates. From these values, the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer, which explains the “chill” we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same.\n", "In the 19th century, most books quoted \"blood heat\" as 98 °F, until a study published the mean (but not the variance) of a large sample as . Subsequently that mean was widely quoted as \"37 °C or 98.4 °F\" until editors realised 37 °C is closer to 98.6 °F than 98.4 °F. The 37 °C value was set by German physician Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich in his 1868 book, which put temperature charts into widespread clinical use. Dictionaries and other sources that quoted these averages did add the word \"about\" to show that there is some variance, but generally did not state how wide the variance is.\n", "BULLET::::- Tachymetabolism, maintaining a high metabolic rate, particularly when at rest. This requires a fairly high and stable body temperature because of the Q effect: biochemical processes run about half as fast if an animal's temperature drops by 10 °C.\n", "Until recently, direct measurement of core body temperature required surgical insertion of a probe, so a variety of indirect methods have commonly been used. The rectal or vaginal temperature is generally considered to give the most accurate assessment of core body temperature, particularly in hypothermia. In the early 2000s, ingestible thermistors in capsule form were produced, allowing the temperature inside the digestive tract to be transmitted to an external receiver; one study found that these were comparable in accuracy to rectal temperature measurement.\n\nSection::::Temperature variation.\n\nSection::::Temperature variation.:Hot.\n", "Temperature control (thermoregulation) is part of a homeostatic mechanism that keeps the organism at optimum operating temperature, as the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions. In humans, the average internal temperature is , though it varies among individuals. However, no person always has exactly the same temperature at every moment of the day. Temperatures cycle regularly up and down through the day, as controlled by the person's circadian rhythm. The lowest temperature occurs about two hours before the person normally wakes up. Additionally, temperatures change according to activities and external factors.\n", "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Conversion of units of temperature\n\nThis is a collection of temperature conversion formulas and comparisons among eight different temperature scales, several of which have long been obsolete.\n\nSection::::Comparison of temperature scales.\n\n* Normal human body temperature is 36.8 °C ±0.7 °C, or 98.2 °F ±1.3 °F. The commonly given value 98.6 °F is simply the exact conversion of the nineteenth-century German standard of 37 °C. Since it does not list an acceptable range, it could therefore be said to have excess (invalid) precision.\n\nSome numbers in this table have been rounded.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Degrees of frost\n\nBULLET::::- Conversion of units\n\nBULLET::::- Gas Mark\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Radiogenic heat.\n", "Section::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Warm-bloodedness.\n\n\"Warm-bloodedness\" is a complex and rather ambiguous term, because it includes some or all of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Endothermy, the ability to generate heat internally rather than via behaviors such as basking or muscular activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Homeothermy, maintaining a fairly constant body temperature. Most enzymes have an optimum operating temperature; efficiency drops rapidly outside the preferred range. A homeothermic organism needs only to possess enzymes that function well in a small range of temperatures.\n", "Section::::Basic theory.:Bodies not in a steady state.\n\nWhen a body is not in a steady state, then the notion of temperature becomes even less safe than for a body in a steady state not in thermodynamic equilibrium. This is also a matter for study in non-equilibrium thermodynamics.\n\nSection::::Basic theory.:Thermodynamic equilibrium axiomatics.\n", "The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n", "The environment can have major influences on human physiology. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in thermoregulation in the body due to outside stresses. This is necessary because in order for enzymes to function, blood to flow, and for various body organs to operate, temperature must remain at consistent, balanced levels.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Humans.:Thermoregulation.\n\nTo achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat transfer to the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of evaporation\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of heat production\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- \"Downfall\" (2004) – A film depicting Adolf Hitler (portrayed in this film by Swiss actor Bruno Ganz) during his final days of his life. Multiple scenes in which Hitler rants in German have been parodied innumerable times on the Internet, including when Hitler finds out that Felix Steiner has failed to carry out his orders, and when Hitler orders Otto Günsche to find \"SS-Gruppenführer\" Hermann Fegelein. This scene often has its English subtitles replaced by mock subtitles to give the appearance that Hitler is ranting about modern, often trivial topics, and sometimes even breaks the fourth wall by referencing the Internet meme itself. While the clips are frequently removed for copyright violations, the film's director, Oliver Hirschbiegel, has stated that he enjoys them, and claimed to have seen about 145 of them.\n", "Section::::Background.:Development.\n", "Section::::Purported examples of the concept.\n", "Donald Trump supporters on /r/The Donald generally agree that white genocide is occurring. Participants there describe \"meme magic\" as the idea that the internet memes they create can be willed into existence. For months leading up to the Charlottesville \"Unite the Right\" riot, The_Donald participants shared memes with the slogan \"All Lives Splatter\" captioning cartoons of protesters being run over. The real-life Charlottesville car attack, which claimed one life and injured dozens, brought those memes to life.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:2018.\n\nIn March 2018, it was revealed that Reddit's CEO, Steve Huffman, had hidden Russian troll activity from users.\n", "Every submission to the website usually followed the same formula, depicting a man or woman's social networking website profile thumbnail (such as their Facebook or Twitter profile), then showing images of them clothed, before revealing images of their genitalia. In some cases, images showed people engaging in sexual acts such as masturbation. Each submission line then ended with a \"reaction image\", usually showing a still or animated gif file of a popular scene or Internet meme as a satirical \"reaction\" to the images shown.\n", "Other research has specifically linked anonymity with greater disinhibited, mob-like behavior on the message board 4chan, while at the same time crediting this disinhibition for some of the more creative meme-generation there.\n\nSection::::Possible consequences.\n", "Section::::Appearances.\n", "An effect of deepfakes is that it can no longer be distinguished whether content is targeted (e.g. satire) or genuine. AI researcher Alex Champandard has said everyone should know how fast things can be corrupted today with this technology, and that the problem is not a technical one, but rather one to be solved by trust in information and journalism. The primary pitfall is that humanity could fall into an age in which it can no longer be determined whether a medium's content corresponds to the truth.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.:Internet reaction.\n", "This channel is hosted by Jake Roper. Vsauce3 is a channel that is dedicated to fictional worlds and video games. There are currently four recurring segments: \"HeadShot\", \"Game LÜT\", \"9bit\", and \"Fact Surgery\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shrek\" – A DreamWorks franchise that had an internet fandom who ironically liked the series. The viral video, \"Shrek is Love, Shrek is Life\", was based on a homoerotic story on 4chan depicting the titular ogre engaging in anal sex with a (presumably young) boy.\n", "BULLET::::- Figwit (abbreviated from \"Frodo is great...who is that?\") – a background elf character with only seconds of screen time and one line of dialog from \"The Lord of the Rings\" film trilogy played by Flight of the Conchords member Bret McKenzie, which became a fascination with a large number of fans. This ultimately led to McKenzie being brought back to play an elf in \"\".\n", "In her \"Encyclopedia of American Folklore\", academic Linda Watts says that \"folklore concerning unreal animals or beings, sometimes called monsters, is a popular field of inquiry\" and describes cryptozoology as an example of \"American narrative traditions\" that \"feature many monsters\".\n\nIn his analysis of cryptozoology, folklorist Peter Dendle says that \"cryptozoology devotees consciously position themselves in defiance of mainstream science\" and that:\n", "Vsauce2 has created three April Fools joke segments. \"PAB\" (\"People Are Boring\") was released in 2013. For these segments, Kevin treated normal everyday events like they were unusual. \"Noggin' Blow\" was uploaded in 2014, parodying the \"Mind Blow\" segment by showcasing items popularized in the 1940s and 1950s. In a parody of \"BiDiPi\" titled \"BiDiPiGiFiTiWiPiBiCiMiFiDiFiTi\" and released in 2015, Kevin shared a mixture of parodic nonsense and actual scientific studies and phenomena.\n\nSection::::Channels.:Vsauce2.:The Create Unknown.\n", "Because of the decentralized nature and structure of the Internet, writers can easily publish content without being required to subject it to peer review, prove their qualifications, or provide backup documentation. Whereas a book found in a library generally has been reviewed and edited by a second person, Internet sources cannot be assumed to be vetted by anyone other than their authors. They may be produced and posted as soon as the writing is finished. In addition, the presence of trolls and bots used to spread willful misinformation has been a problem for social media platforms. As many as 60 million trolls could be spreading misinformation on Facebook.\n", "On November 4, 2017, \"The New York Times\" published an article about the \"startling\" videos slipping past YouTube's filters and disturbing children, \"either by mistake or because bad actors have found ways to fool the YouTube Kids algorithms\". On November 6, author James Bridle published on Medium a piece titled \"Something is wrong on the internet\", in which he commented about the \"thousands and thousands of these videos\": \"Someone or something or some combination of people and things is using YouTube to systematically frighten, traumatize, and abuse children, automatically and at scale\". Bridle also observed that the confusing content of many videos seemed to result from the constant \"overlaying and intermixing\" of various popular tropes, characters, or keywords. As a result, even videos with actual humans started resembling automated content, while \"obvious parodies and even the shadier knock-offs\" interacted with \"the legions of algorithmic content producers\" until it became \"completely impossible to know what is going on\". On November 17, Internet commentator Philip DeFranco posted a video addressing \"the insane YouTube Kids problem\".\n", "Voyeurism is part of human nature: We are fascinated by other people, and the web has given us the unchecked ability to spy on others without censure. The HBO Voyeur advertising campaign plays on this shared guilty pleasure. Created by BBDO to demonstrate the evolution of the HBO brand across multiple platforms, the campaign consisted of a four-minute film projected onto the side of an apartment block in New York and original content distributed across the social web. All held together by a highly sophisticated website developed by Big Spaceship, this master class in multichannel storytelling was the final nail in the coffin for the stand-alone 30-second ad. Built in Flash CS3.\n", "BULLET::::- Eastwooding – After Clint Eastwood's speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention, in which he spoke to an empty chair representing President Barack Obama, photos were posted by users on the Internet of people talking to empty chairs, with various captions referring to the chair as either Obama or Eastwood.\n\nBULLET::::- Forest raking—After U.S. President's Donald Trump's comments that Finland spent \"a lot of time on raking and cleaning its forest floor\", Finnish people began circulating satirical images of themselves raking the forests to stop wildfires.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Take This Lollipop\" (2011) is an interactive horror short film and Facebook app, written and directed by Jason Zada to personalize and underscore the dangers inherent in posting too much personal information about oneself on the Internet. Information gathered from a viewer's Facebook profile by the film's app, used once and then deleted, makes the film different for each viewer.\n", "Not all reception has been positive. Emily VanDerWerff wrote for \"Vox\" that, \"Quite a few of the items basically invite participants to pester—or even harass—the famous and semi-famous on Twitter, Tumblr, and Facebook.\" A 2014 challenge asked hunters to convince published science fiction authors to write a 140-character story for them and some, such as John Scalzi and Lauren DeStefano, complained that the task encouraged participants to harass them on social networks.\n", "Chacon later told Brent Bambury of CBC Radio One program \"Day 6\" that he was so shocked at readers' ignorance he felt it was like an episode from \"The Twilight Zone\". In an interview with ABC News, Chacon defended his site, saying it was an over-the-top parody of fake sites to teach his friends how ridiculous they were. The Daily Beast reported on the popularity of Chacon's fictions being reported as if it were factual and noted pro-Trump message boards and YouTube videos routinely believed them. In a follow-up piece Chacon wrote as a contributor for The Daily Beast after the 2016 U.S. election, he concluded those most susceptible to fake news were consumers who limited themselves to partisan media outlets.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Three Bears\" (1939) is an animated short film made by Terrytoons based on the story Goldilocks and the Three Bears. One of the scenes from the short depicting Papa Bear saying \"Somebody toucha my spaghet!\" in a stereotypical thick Italian accent became an internet meme in December 2017.\n\nSection::::Gaming.\n\nBULLET::::- \"All your base are belong to us\" – Badly translated English from the opening cutscene of the European Mega Drive version of the 1989 arcade game \"Zero Wing\", which has become a catchphrase, inspiring videos and other derivative works.\n", "Section::::Observations.\n", "BULLET::::- McKayla is not impressed – A tumblr blog that went viral after taking an image of McKayla Maroney, the American gymnast who won the silver medal in the vault at the 2012 Summer Olympics, on the medal podium with a disappointed look on her face, and photoshopping it into various \"impressive\" places and situations, e.g. on top of the Great Wall of China and standing next to Usain Bolt.\n\nBULLET::::- Nimoy Sunset Pie – A tumblr blog that posted mashups combining American actor Leonard Nimoy, sunsets, and pie.\n", "Skeptical researchers such as Karen Stollznow of the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) have criticized the investigating competence of the \"Fact or Faked\" team, such as the Civil War cemetery ghost case from episode 6 in particular. The examined footage involves an alleged orb and mist captured on a few frames of video, and when the \"FoF\" team fail to recreate it, they conclude it to be paranormal. Stollznow claimed that by slowing the video down frame-by-frame, something that the \"FoF\" team did not do (at least on camera), the orb and mist are supposedly revealed to be a spider on a web.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Babadook\" (2014) – An Australian-Canadian psychological horror film that started trending on Twitter on June 2017 when the title character became the unofficial mascot for the LGBT community. Prior of that, rumors of the Babadook's sexuality began on October 2016 when some Netflix users reported seeing the film categorized as an LGBT movie on Netflix.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "BULLET::::- The increase in alkalinity coagulates proteins in the juice.\n\nBULLET::::- Calcium carbonate absorbs colourants\n\nBULLET::::- Alkalinity destroys some monosaccharide sugars, mostly glucose and fructose\n", "BULLET::::- The solubility is given for \"pure water\", i.e., water which contain only CO. This water is going to be acidic. For example, at 25 °C the pH of 3.9 is expected (see carbonic acid). At less acidic pH values, the solubility will increase because of the pH-dependent speciation of CO.\n\nSection::::Vapor pressure of solid and liquid.\n", "Because chemoresponsive nerve fibers are present in all types of skin, chemesthetic sensations can be aroused from anywhere on the body's surface as well as from mucosal surfaces in the nose, mouth, eyes, etc. Mucus membranes are generally more sensitive to chemesthetic stimuli because they lack the barrier function of cornified skin.\n\nMuch of the chemesthetic flavor sensations are mediated by the trigeminal nerves, which are relatively large and important nerves. Flavors that stimulate the trigeminal nerves are therefore important - for example, carbon dioxide is the trigeminal stimulant in carbonated beverages.\n", "Members of the T2R family encode alpha subunits of G-protein-coupled receptors, which are involved in intracellular taste transduction, not only on the taste buds but also in the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. The mechanism of transduction is shown by exposure of the endocrine and gastrointestinal cells containing the receptors to bitter compounds, most famously phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). Exposure to PTC causes an intracellular cascade as evidenced by a large and rapid increase in intracellular calcium ions.\n\nSection::::Toxins as the primary selective force.\n", "BULLET::::- Bubbles of carbon dioxide \"nucleate\" shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid.\n", "Saliva acts as a buffer, regulating the pH when acidic drinks are ingested. Drinks vary in their resistance to the buffering effect of saliva. Studies show that fruit juices are the most resistant to saliva's buffering effect, followed by, in order: fruit-based carbonated drinks and flavoured mineral waters, non-fruit-based carbonated drinks, sparkling mineral waters; Mineral water being the least resistant. Because of this, fruit juices in particular, may prolong the drop in pH levels.\n", "BULLET::::- In the case of a weak monoacid (here we take acetic acid with p\"K\" = 4.76) with decreasing total acid concentration , we obtain:\n\nBULLET::::- The calculation in the case of phosphoric acid (which is the most widely used for domestic applications) is more complicated since the concentrations of the four dissociation states corresponding to this acid must be calculated together with [], [], [Ca], [H] and [OH]. The system may be reduced to a seventh degree equation for [H] the numerical solution of which gives\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cuttlebone\n\nBULLET::::- Cuttlefish\n\nBULLET::::- Gesso\n\nBULLET::::- Limescale\n\nBULLET::::- Marble\n", "BULLET::::- in the alkalization of cocoa powder to produce Dutch process chocolate by balancing the pH (i.e., reduce the acidity) of natural cocoa beans; it also enhances aroma. The process of adding potassium carbonate to cocoa powder is usually called \"Dutching\" (and the products referred to as Dutch-processed cocoa powder), as the process was first developed in 1828 by Coenrad Johannes van Houten, a Dutchman.\n\nBULLET::::- as a buffering agent in the production of mead or wine.\n\nBULLET::::- in antique documents, it is reported to have been used to soften hard water.\n", "BULLET::::- Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction (formation of ions). Note also that the visible bubbles in carbonated water are not the dissolved gas, but only an effervescence of carbon dioxide that has come out of solution; the dissolved gas itself is not visible since it is dissolved on a molecular level.\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid in liquid:\n\nBULLET::::- The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant. (Homogenization of solutions)\n\nBULLET::::- Alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water.\n", "BULLET::::- Some champagne stirrers operate by providing many nucleation sites via high surface-area and sharp corners, speeding the release of bubbles and removing carbonation from the wine.\n\nBULLET::::- The Diet Coke and Mentos eruption offers another example. The surface of Mentos candy provides nucleation sites for the formation of carbon-dioxide bubbles from carbonated soda.\n\nBULLET::::- Both the bubble chamber and the cloud chamber rely on nucleation, of bubbles and droplets, respectively.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Examples of the nucleation of crystals.\n", "BULLET::::- In the total range of pressure, the pH is always much lower than p\"K\" (= 10.3) so that the CO concentration is always negligible with respect to HCO concentration. In fact, CO plays no quantitative role in the present calculation (see remark below).\n\nBULLET::::- For vanishing formula_4, the pH is close to the one of pure water (pH = 7), and the dissolved carbon is essentially in the HCO form.\n\nBULLET::::- For normal atmospheric conditions (formula_15 atm), we get a slightly acidic solution (pH = 5.7), and the dissolved carbon is now essentially in the CO and HCO forms.\n", "Section::::Reaction details and energetics.\n", "Section::::Basic tastes.:Sourness.\n\nSourness is the taste that detects acidity. The sourness of substances is rated relative to dilute hydrochloric acid, which has a sourness index of 1. By comparison, tartaric acid has a sourness index of 0.7, citric acid an index of 0.46, and carbonic acid an index of 0.06.\n", "However, ionic components of carbon dioxide are far less dangerous to corrosion than the ions of the saline components, e.g. Cl. In order to obtain a selective conductivity value for these saline-containing ions (with the maximum potential for corrosion), all remaining carbon dioxide must be removed from the sample in order to accurately determine the presence of corrosive ions. \n", "The characteristic deep blue colour of the tetraammine complex is found in brass and copper alloys where attack from ammonia has occurred leading to cracking. The problem was first found in ammunition cartridge cases when they were stored near animal waste, which produced trace amounts of ammonia. This type of corrosion is known as season cracking.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nAs already mentioned the closely related Schweizer's reagent is used for the production of cuprammonium rayon.\n", "The equilibrium of CO also moves to the right towards gaseous CO when the water temperature rises. When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed, CO leaves the water as gas, causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right, increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate. As the concentration of carbonate increases, calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt: Ca + CO ⇋ CaCO.\n\nAs new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated, the process continues: CO gas is again removed, carbonate concentration increases, and more calcium carbonate precipitates.\n\nSection::::Related materials.\n\nSection::::Related materials.:Soap scum.\n", "Antibubbles usually pop when they touch the bottom or the side of the vessel containing the liquid. This can be prevented by tipping a few teaspoons of sugar into the soapy water and giving it some time to dissolve (but without stirring it). This will produce a denser layer of sugary water at the bottom of the container. Antibubbles made from sugar solution will then sink through the water and rest on top of the denser layer at the bottom. Antibubbles made this way can last for several minutes.\n", "Because bicarbonate is itself a recycling substrate and the kinetics of cyanase include a rapid and random equilibrium, bicarbonate can also act as an enzyme inhibitor. At low concentrations, bicarbonate shows uncompetitive inhibition, where it binds to the one of enzyme's anionic binding sites, and inhibit cyanate binding, or bicarbonate can bind once more so that the enzyme complex is bound to two bicarbonates in its double anion active site. At higher concentrations, the trend moves toward non-competitive inhibition, where the incorrect, dead-end complex must decompose to the initial separated units before the binding action can begin again.\n", "Fleet’s Phospho-soda products have been linked to kidney damage since the 1990s.\n", "The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n", "In 2013, the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore recalled tapioca balls from bubble tea shops after 11 kinds of Taiwanese starch additives that contained maleic acid were discovered. Maleic acid, when ingested, is known to induce kidney damage. An experiment done on dogs and rats also found kidney and liver damage when they were given daily doses of maleic acid for two years. \n", "Some marine calcifying organisms (including coral reefs) have been singled out by major research agencies, including NOAA, OSPAR commission, NANOOS and the IPCC, because their most current research shows that ocean acidification should be expected to impact them negatively.\n\nCarbon dioxide is also introduced into the oceans through hydrothermal vents. The \"Champagne\" hydrothermal vent, found at the Northwest Eifuku volcano in the Marianas Trench, produces almost pure liquid carbon dioxide, one of only two known sites in the world as of 2004, the other being in the Okinawa Trough.\n", "BULLET::::- As ambient CO partial pressure increases to levels above atmospheric, pH drops, and much of the carbonate ion is converted to bicarbonate ion, which results in higher solubility of Ca.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "While spray bottles existed long before the middle of the 20th century, they used a rubber bulb which was squeezed to produce the spray; the quickly-moving air siphoned fluid from the bottle. The rapid improvement in plastics after World War II increased the range of fluids that could be dispensed, and reduced the cost of the sprayers because assembly could be fully automated.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Corrosion.\n\nChlorine releasing products may also cause corrosion of many materials and unintended bleaching of colored products.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Neutralization.\n\nSodium thiosulfate is an effective chlorine neutralizer. Rinsing with a 5 mg/L solution, followed by washing with soap and water, will remove chlorine odor from the hands.\n\nSection::::Main compounds.\n\nSpecific compounds in this family include:\n", "There is still some debate over the long-term effectiveness of this technique. Some have discovered the yellowing reappears, and there is discussion of factors that may result in this happening. There are also some concerns that the process weakens the plastic.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nRetr0bright consists of hydrogen peroxide, a small amount of the \"active oxygen\" laundry booster TAED as a catalyst, and a UV lamp.\n\nThe optimum mixture and conditions for reversing yellowing of plastics:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen peroxide solution. 12% or 6% work the same, and even 3% has been used with success.\n", "Spray bottle\n\nA spray bottle is a bottle that can squirt, spray or mist fluids. A common use for spray bottles is dispensing cool cleaners, cosmetics, and chemical specialties. Another wide use of spray bottles is mixing down concentrates such as pine oil with water.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "THF is used as a solvent in 3D printing when using PLA plastics. It can be used to clean clogged 3D printer parts, as well as when finishing prints to remove extruder lines and add a shine to the finished product.\n\nSection::::Applications.:As a solvent.:Laboratory use.\n", "BULLET::::- Kodak formerly offered a kit (\"Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit\") for reversal processing of its now-discontinued Panatomic X film, which doubled the effective film speed from 32 to 64. The bleaching bath used potassium dichromate and sodium bisulfate; the redeveloper was a fogging developer, and so unstable that its shelf-life after mixing was only slightly longer than the amount of time needed to process a single roll. This was replaced with a \"T-Max Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit\", which uses potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid in the bleach. In this kit, the fogging redeveloper is stable, but the bleach is not, with a shelf-life, once mixed, of no more than two weeks.\n", "BULLET::::- The spray is made up of a diluted mixture of the first and second solutions.\n\nWhen applied to the TLC plate, compounds containing phosphate ester show up immediately as blue spots.\n\nSection::::Isopoly molybdenum blues.\n", "Chlorine-based bleaches are found in many household \"bleach\" products, as well as in specialized products for hospitals, public health, water chlorination, and industrial processes. \n\nThe grade of chlorine-based bleaches is often expressed as percent active chlorine. One gram of a 100% active chlorine bleach has the same bleaching power as one gram of elemental chlorine. \n\nThe most common chlorine-based bleaches are:\n", "BULLET::::- In 1963, a dioxin cloud escaped after an explosion in a Philips-Duphar plant (now Solvay Group) near Amsterdam. The plant was so polluted with dioxin after the accident that it had to be dismantled, embedded in concrete, and dumped into the ocean.\n", "After receiving his bachelor's degree from the University of Missouri in 1954, Al McQuinn, the founder of Ag-Chem Equipment Co., served in the Army until 1957. Upon his departure from the armed forces, he went to work for Federal Chemical Company which sold row crop sprayers. These sprayers and others like it didn't do a very good job of applying product. The solubles in the product would often settle in the solution which led to inconsistent, watered-down applications and unhappy customers.\n", "BULLET::::- Colour developer. This developed the rest of the film, and at the same time activated the dye couplers.\n\nBULLET::::- Stop bath\n\nBULLET::::- Bleach, to remove all the black-and-white image\n\nBULLET::::- Clear, to remove pink stains left by the colour developer\n\nBULLET::::- Stop bath\n\nFilms designed for E-2 and E-3 are prone to fading because of the instability of the color dyes. The processes were phased out in 1974 in favor of E-4, and two years later E-6 was introduced which remains in use to this day.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Kodak specifications for hand mixing of chemistry\n", "The consumption of bleach activators in 2002 was approximately 105,000 tonnes. Consumption, however, is stagnant or declining due to cost pressures on detergents and the advance of liquid detergent formulations (which contain no bleach and bleach activators). The relatively high cost of conventional bleaching systems restrict their spread in emerging markets, where cold water is used for washing and photobleaching by sunlight is widespread or the use of sodium hypochlorite solution (as in the US).\n", "BULLET::::- Dip-drain coating. Dipping the part into the coating material and drawing it out in a set manner enables the inside and outside of, for example, pipes to be coated in a single process. The parts should, however, have sufficient openings that the material can drain away again, otherwise flawless coating is not possible, as the accumulations of the material cause air bubbles to form.\n", "The presence of other organic matter in the place of application can make these disinfectants less effective, by consuming some of the released chlorine.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Whitening agents.\n\nChlorine-based bleaches have been used since the late 18th century to whiten cotton and linen clothes, removing either the natural fiber color or stains of sweat or other organic residues. They are still used in households for laundry and to remove organic stains (such as mildew) on surfaces.\n", "Until recently testing for BFR has been cumbersome. Cycle time, cost and level of expertise required for the test engineer has precluded the implementation of any screening of plastic components in a manufacturing or in a product qualification/validation environment.\n", "BULLET::::2. Certain materials e.g. aluminum, zinc and other base metals may react with water to evolve hydrogen. This is potentially explosive and special precautions are necessary in fume extraction equipment.\n\nBULLET::::3. Fumes of certain materials, notably zinc and copper alloys, have a disagreeable odour and may cause a fever-type reaction in certain individuals (known as metal fume fever). This may occur some time after spraying and usually subsides rapidly. If it does not, medical advice must be sought.\n", "Example of using anion exchange chromatography to purify albumin (Uppsala):\n\nBULLET::::- 2% of the endotoxin \"does not\" bind to the column. However, this 2% washes out before the albumin peak, and can thus be removed simply by starting collection after this 2% has washed out.\n\nBULLET::::- 10% of the endotoxin that \"does\" bind to the column (9.8% of the original total) will eventually wash out after the albumin peak. This can be prevented from entering the final product by stopping collection before this happens.\n", "In contrast to paints where the risk of sub-surface corrosion creep exists, this phenomenon is avoided through the sacrificial effect of the zinc. In salt spray test­s zinc flake coatings demonstrate better protection against corrosion than a typical galvanic zinc coating, which in the tests (generally run in accordance with ISO 9227) often achieve only 96 to 200 hours.\n\nSection::::Coating technique.\n", "Nitrogen trichloride, trademarked as Agene, was at one time used to bleach flour, but this practice was banned in the United States in 1949 due to safety concerns.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Prolonged skin contact with the liquid can result in the removal of fats from the skin, resulting in chronic skin irritation. Studies on laboratory animals have shown that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not retained in the body for long periods of time. However, chronic exposure has been linked to abnormalities in the liver, kidneys, and heart. Pregnant women should avoid exposure, as the compound has been linked to birth defects in laboratory animals (see teratogenesis).\n", "Section::::Other hazards.\n\nLiquid \"n\"-butanol, as is common with most organic solvents, is extremely irritating to the eyes; repeated contact with the skin can also cause irritation. This is believed to be a generic effect of \"defatting\". No skin sensitization has been observed. Irritation of the respiratory pathways occurs only at very high concentrations (2,400 ppm).\n", "The Drackett company, manufacturers of Windex glass cleaner, was a leader in promoting spray bottles. Roger Drackett raised soybeans, converted the soybeans to plastic using technology purchased from Henry Ford, and was an investor in the Seaquist company, an early manufacturer of sprayers and closures. Initially, the brittle nature of early plastics required that sprayers be packaged in a cardboard box, and the sprayer inserted in the glass Windex bottle by the consumer. The cost in the manufacturing sprayers was also a factor; consumers would reuse the sprayers with bottle after bottle of glass cleaner. As plastics improved and the cost of sprayers dropped, manufacturers were able to ship products with the sprayer already in the bottle. \n", "It is useful as a high-temperature solvent, e.g. for GPC of polyolefines such as PE or PP which are otherwise insoluble.\n\nAside from its use as a solvent, this compound is a useful precursor to dye and pesticides.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nThe LD50 (oral, rats) is 756 mg/kg. Animal studies have shown that 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene affects the liver and kidney, and is possibly a teratogen. There is no regulated occupational exposure limit for chemical exposure, but the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends no greater exposure than 5 ppm, over an 8-hour workday.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorobenzene\n\nBULLET::::- Dichlorobenzene\n\nBULLET::::- Pentachlorobenzene\n", "In the case of nitric acid, the acid itself () was unstable, and corroded most metals, making it difficult to store. The addition of a modest amount of nitrogen tetroxide, , turned the mixture red and kept it from changing composition, but left the problem that nitric acid corrodes containers it is placed in, releasing gases that can build up pressure in the process. \n", "Sulfuric acid must be stored carefully in containers made of nonreactive material (such as glass). Solutions equal to or stronger than 1.5 M are labeled \"CORROSIVE\", while solutions greater than 0.5 M but less than 1.5 M are labeled \"IRRITANT\". However, even the normal laboratory \"dilute\" grade (approximately 1 M, 10%) will char paper if left in contact for a sufficient time.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Experts expect that the short and rigid deletion periods and the high threat of fines would lead the networks to prefer to remove contributions in case of doubt, even if the freedom of expression guaranteed by fundamental rights would require a context-related consideration, for example in the differentiation between prohibited insult and permitted satire. In April 2017, an alliance of business associations, network politicians, civil rights activists, scientists and lawyers joined forces to protest against the law. In a manifesto they warned of \"catastrophic consequences for freedom of expression\".\n", "Several European websites, including the European versions of Wikipedia, Twitch.tv, and Reddit, disabled some or many of the features on their websites on 21 March 2019 as a means to protest and raise awareness of the pending vote and encourage users to contact their appropriate national body to affect the vote. This was similar to action taken on 18 January 2012 by numerous websites to protest similar laws proposed in the United States.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Lobbying.\n", "On 2015-07-09 the European Parliament approved a non-binding resolution (Reda Report) asking a review of the levy in the European Union, building on previous resolutions and studies.\n\nSection::::Questions on fairness.\n", "As of 21 March 2019, 100 MEPs have signed in support of the directive, while 126 have agreed to vote against it. On 20 March 2019 74 MEPs asked for Article 13 to be deleted from the directive. In the end, 348 voted for and 274 voted against.\n", "The European Parliament gave its consent on 4 July 2018 and the Act was adopted by the Council on 13 July 2018. However, not all member states ratified the Act prior to the 2019 elections and therefore this election took place in line with the previous rules.\n\nSection::::Political groups and candidates.\n", "Lobbying in favour of the proposed directive was directed toward the EU itself and was much less visible to the public. The large media groups and publishers have had much greater contact between their lobbyists and MEPs than the technology industry. Stunts pulled by those lobbying in favour include sending MEPs pamphlets with condoms attached with the phrase “We love tech giants, we love protection too”.\n", "Under the law of United Kingdom, a copyright is an intangible property right subsisting in certain qualifying subject-matter. Copyright law is governed by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (the 1988 Act), as amended from time to time. As a result of increasing legal integration and harmonisation throughout the European Union a complete picture of the law can only be acquired through recourse to EU jurisprudence, although this is likely to change if the UK leaves the European Union. Controversial new copyright rules which would require commercial online content sharing services such as YouTube to agree licences with and pay a fair fee to the rights holders of material on their sites for online material will be discussed by the European Parliament in September 2018 after MEPs voted in July 2018 to alter the legislative process. On 12 September 2018 new copyright rules were agreed by the European Parliament to help secure the rights of writers and musicians.\n", "Members of the European Parliament voted on 5 July 2018 not to proceed to the negotiation stage, but instead to reopen the directive for debate in September 2018. There were 318 votes to re-open the debate, 278 to proceed, and 31 abstentions.\n", "The BBC cited expert opinions that the petition was unlikely to have been adversely affected by bots, as prior petitions had been. A Channel 4 report stated that it was possible to sign the petition using a false identity, but concluded that such manipulation would be reasonably obvious if it were being done on a large scale. It found no evidence of people boasting about hacking this petition in online forums, unlike another Brexit-related petition from 2016. \n\nSection::::Support.:Heat map.\n", "Before the vote on the directive, a vote was held on whether to consider amendments, which would have allowed the possibility of separating Articles 11 and 13 into separate votes. The proposal fell short by 5 votes. It was reported after the fact that 13 MEPs had requested that their votes be changed, since they voted incorrectly due to alleged confusion over the order of voting. The revised results added 10 votes in favour of amendments. However, these corrections are strictly for parliamentary records only, and do not change the result of the vote.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Bomb threat.\n", "Some commentators stated years of intense lobbying served to \"crowd out other voices and successfully distort the public debate\", and that \"toxic\" discussions were harming \"healthy dialogue\". Those in support of the directive, however, carried out negotiations without public oversight. And when the general public became involved in discussing the directive online the EU commission referred to them as a \"mob\".\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Voting issues.\n", "Smaller prior EU-wide events occurred in August 2018 and January 2019. Organisers did not release their own figures, but supporters of the proposals based on photos from the August events estimated that there had been at most 800 participants across the continent, with an average of 30 per location.\n", "It has been rumoured that during the European Council's private vote to approve its negotiating position in March 2018 the ambassadors of Germany, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Belgium and Hungary either abstained from voting or voted against the proposal. However, MEPs of each of those countries' governing parties went on to largely or wholly support the directive in parliament.\n", "Conservative Agriculture Spokesman Anthea McIntyre MEP and colleague Daniel Dalton MEP were appointed to the European Parliament's special committee on pesticides on the 16th of March 2018. Sitting for nine months, the committee will examine the scientific evaluation of glyphosate, the world's most commonly used weed killer which was relicensed for five years by the EU in December after months of uncertainty. They will also consider wider issues around the authorisation of pesticides.\n\nSection::::Procedure of active substance approval.\n", "On the effective date, some international websites began to block EU users entirely (including Instapaper, Unroll.me, and Tribune Publishing-owned newspapers, such as the \"Chicago Tribune\" and the \"Los Angeles Times\") or redirect them to stripped-down versions of their services (in the case of National Public Radio and \"USA Today\") with limited functionality and/or no advertising, in order to remove their liabilities. Some companies, such as Klout, and several online video games, ceased operations entirely to coincide with its implementation, citing the GDPR as a burden on their continued operations, especially due to the business model of the former. Sales volume of online behavioural advertising placements in Europe fell 25–40% on 25 May 2018.\n", "The European Parliament claimed that \"MEPs have rarely or even never been subject to a similar degree of lobbying\", and that there have been prior \"lobbying campaigns predicting catastrophic outcomes, which have never come true\". \"The Times\" reported that \"Google is helping to fund a website that encourages people to spam politicians and newspapers with automated messages backing its policy goals\". MEP Sven Schulze stated that he believed Google to be behind the email campaign because many of the emails came from Gmail addresses.\n", "On 29 March 2018, as a consequence of the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, it was announced that \"as of the withdrawal date, undertakings and organisations that are established in the United Kingdom but not in the EU, and natural persons who reside in the United Kingdom will no longer be eligible to register .eu domain names or, if they are .eu registrants, to renew .eu domain names registered before the withdrawal date\". The Commission announced on 27 April 2018 that it would like to open registration to all EU and EEA citizens, including those living outside the EU. The Parliament, the Council, and the Commission reached an agreement on this in December 2018, and the corresponding regulation passed the Parliament on 31 January 2019.\n", "BULLET::::- Voting results in the European Parliament without corrections on 26 March 2019 by political groups\n\n(In favour/against copyright directive)\n\nThe Directive was approved by the Council of the European Union on 15 April 2019. 19 member states (representing 71% of the EU population in the countries that cast a vote) voted in favour of the Directive with six opposing and three abstaining.\n\nThe Directive will enter into force on June 7, 2019. Member states will then have until June 7, 2021 to introduce laws within their own countries to support the Directive.\n\nSection::::Content.\n", "Initial trilogue meetings overseen by Romania were scheduled to start on 21 January 2019, however, on 19 January 2019, Romania cancelled these meetings following the rejection of Romania's proposed compromise text by eleven countries: Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland, Slovenia, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Croatia, Luxembourg and Portugal. With the exclusion of Portugal and Croatia, the other nine countries rejected the compromised text for Articles 11 and/or 13 stating that the measures did not do enough to do to protect their citizens' copyright protections. Romania had the opportunity to revise their text to gain a majority vote, delaying the vote.\n", "In 2017, Human Rights Watch and Reporters Without Borders were among the signatories of an open letter opposing Article 13. 145organisations from the areas of human and digital rights, media freedom, publishing, libraries, educational institutions, software developers, and Internet service providers signed a letter opposing the proposed legislation on 26 April 2018. Some of those opposed include the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Creative Commons, European Digital Rights, the Max Planck Society, GitHub, various Wikimedia chapters, and the Wikimedia Foundation (the parent organisation of Wikipedia).\n", "The act has been significantly amended from its original form, incorporating the changes wrought by the Single European Act, the Maastricht Treaty, the Amsterdam Treaty, the Nice Treaty, and the Treaty of Lisbon.\n\nOn 13 July 2017, the then Brexit Secretary, David Davis, introduced what became the European Union (Withdrawal) Act to Parliament which makes provision for repealing the 1972 Act on \"exit day\", when enacted defined as 29 March 2019 at 11 p.m.(London time, GMT), but later postponed by EU decision first to either 22 May 2019 or 12 April 2019, and later to 31 October 2019.\n", "Critical accounts of the proposal were published in the summer of 2018 by major newspapers in Austria, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Spain, and Slovakia.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Content creators.\n\nThe International Federation of Journalists, a union, complained about late amendments which made remuneration of journalists dependent on \"contractual arrangements\" and \"laws on ownership\". While describing the proposals as \"an achievement for authors overall\" and \"good news for the industry and for authors in some sectors\", they described the amendments as \"bad for journalism and bad for Europe\" and called on the EU to \"decide wisely and reject any discriminatory provisions\".\n", "The Italian Wikipedia, later followed by others including the Spanish, Estonian, Latvian, Polish, French, and Portuguese editions, \"blacked-out\" its pages for readers on 3–5 July 2018, while the English Wikipedia added a banner asking readers in Europe to contact their representatives in the European Parliament. The Wikimedia Foundation reiterated its concerns in February 2019. Four editions of Wikipedia—German, Danish, Czech and Slovak—were blacked-out for 24 hours on 21 March 2019 to further protest the directive. Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales raised concerns regarding the costs and effectiveness of upload filters and possible negative effects upon free speech online.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Technology companies.\n", "In 2018, while campaigning against the proposed Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, Google encouraged members of the Initiative's working group to lobby their regional MEPs. The private request was revealed by the Financial Times, itself a recipient of grants from the Initiative, and was also published in full by German group Netzpolitik. It begins:One of the actions from our DNI WG meeting in Lisbon was about more information about the proposed Copyright Directive. Apologies for the delay on my side and the timing is urgent as there is a vote in the Juri committee [linked] of the European Parliament on June 20th on the Copyright directive.\n", "A group of ninemajor European press publishers including Agence France-Presse, the Press Association, and the European Alliance of News Agencies issued a letter supporting the proposal, describing it as \"key for the media industry, the consumer’s future access to news, and ultimately a healthy democracy\". In the letter, they cite existing state support for struggling news media and argue that it should instead be provided by the \"internet giants\" which have been \"siphoning off\" advertising revenue.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "The EU already passed an amendment to ban memes." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "There is still an upcoming vote and the amendment to ban memes has not been finalized." ]

[ "For example, say the word \"shoe\" slowly, but keep making the \"sh\" throughout the entire word instead of just the beginning. Also try making the \"sh\" sound, but with a smile expression, and then continue \"sh\" while changing to a puckered or kissing expression.\n\nSection::::Examples.:An electronic example.\n\nThe following is an example of subtractive synthesis as it might occur in an electronic instrument. It was created with a personal computer program designed to emulate an analogue subtractive synthesizer. This example will attempt to imitate the sound of a plucked string.\n", "If eSpeakNG is used for generation of prosody data only, then prosody data can be used as input for MBROLA diphone voices.\n\nSection::::Synthesis method.:2. step — sound synthesis from prosody data.\n\nThe eSpeakNG provides two different types of formant speech synthesis using its two different approaches. With its own eSpeakNG synthesizer and a \"Klatt synthesizer\":\n", "BULLET::::1. The eSpeakNG synthesizer creates voiced speech sounds such as vowels and sonorant consonants by additive synthesis adding together sine waves to make the total sound. Unvoiced consonants e.g. s are made by playing recorded sounds., because they are rich in harmonics, which makes additive synthesis less effective. Voiced consonants such as /z/ are made by mixing a synthesized voiced sound with a recorded sample of unvoiced sound.\n", "BULLET::::- mftrah [2011–2013] Text to speech and singing (TTSS) synthesis – 4 female, 3 male, 2 children voices with pseudo environments mimicking (TTSS)- created with the use of Computer-assisted processing and modelling.[biomechanical study:9]\n\nBULLET::::- Onirophoreas \"(Phase 1.1 - 1.6)\" [ 2018 - 2019 ] (text to speech) Artificial speech, singing synthesis with environments / natural voices with environments / African hand drum, bells, shakers, rain stick / computer-assisted processing\n\nSection::::Compositions.:Installation.\n\nSection::::Compositions.:Installation.:\"a] Designed space for performance\".\n", "Also a vocal synthesizer, Vocaloid have been implemented on the basis of additive analysis/resynthesis: its spectral voice model called Excitation plus Resonances (EpR) model is extended based on Spectral Modeling Synthesis (SMS),\n\nand its diphone concatenative synthesis is processed using\n", "The following implementations of scanned synthesis are freely available:\n\nBULLET::::- Csound features the \"scanu\" and \"scans\" opcodes developed by Paris Smaragdis. This was the first publicly available implementation of scanned synthesis.\n\nBULLET::::- Pure Data features the 'pdp_scan~' and 'pdp_scanxy~' objects of the PDP extension.\n\nBULLET::::- Common Lisp Music in circular-scanned.clm\n\nBULLET::::- Scanned Synth VST from Humanoid Sound Systems was the first VST implementation of scanned synthesis, first released in March 2006 and still being actively developed. It is available from the Humanoid Sound Systems web site.\n", "Devine first started using computers for composition around 1993. Don Hassler, an instructor at the Atlanta College of Art, got him interested in computer synthesis, introducing Devine to Csound and other powerful computer-based applications. Devine coded his own FFT applications in SuperCollider, an environment and programming language for real-time audio synthesis. “It’s interesting, because you’re doing things to sound that just aren’t physically possible.”\n", "Additive analysis/resynthesis has been employed in a number of techniques including Sinusoidal Modelling, Spectral Modelling Synthesis (SMS), and the Reassigned Bandwidth-Enhanced Additive Sound Model. Software that implements additive analysis/resynthesis includes: SPEAR, LEMUR, LORIS, SMSTools, ARSS.\n\nSection::::Additive analysis/resynthesis.:Products.\n\nNew England Digital Synclavier had a resynthesis feature where samples could be analyzed and converted into ”timbre frames” which were part of its additive synthesis engine. Technos acxel, launched in 1987, utilized the additive analysis/resynthesis model, in an FFT implementation.\n", "Section::::Synthesizer technologies.:Formant synthesis.\n\nFormant synthesis does not use human speech samples at runtime. Instead, the synthesized speech output is created using additive synthesis and an acoustic model (physical modelling synthesis). Parameters such as fundamental frequency, voicing, and noise levels are varied over time to create a waveform of artificial speech. This method is sometimes called \"rules-based synthesis\"; however, many concatenative systems also have rules-based components.\n", "Within Tektronix, Brian Reich, was the main proponent of the acquisition, and he became the general manager responsible for the successful business and technical integration of SyntheSys Research into the high-performance oscilloscopes division of Tektronix. Other hands-on roles were fulfilled by Dan Morgan, Joy Conley, John Calvin, and Jit-loke Lim. During the transition, SyntheSys Research product manufacturing was moved to Oregon, and engineering and sales were moved into a newly opened Tektronix Silicon Valley design center in Santa Clara, California.\n", "Process development is typically performed after genetic modification of the source organism, and involves the modification of the culture medium and growth conditions. In many cases, process development aims to reduce mRNA hydrolysis and proteolysis.\n\nSection::::\"Enzymes as a desired product\".:Upstream.:Large Scale production.\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 - Digital Sound Factory releases E-MU Systems' original Proteus trilogy (directly from the Protozoa ROM expansions from Proteus 2000) and Emulator SoundFont libraries\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 - Digital Sound Factory releases E-MU Cakewalk Proteus Pack (Proteus 2000, Mo’ Phatt, Virtuoso, Planet Earth, Xtreme Lead-1, & PX-7 Drums)\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 - Digital Sound Factory releases Propellerhead Reason Refills\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 - Digital Sound Factory releases Yamaha Motif World XSpedition, XStrings, Vocal XSpressions, & Steinway Grand libraries\n", "Section::::Notable trachea surgeries.:Christopher Lyles.\n\nChristopher Lyles lived in the US; he had tracheal cancer which was treated with radiation and surgery. He heard about Beyene's treatment and through his doctor asked Macchiarini to do the same for him, and Macchiarini obliged, creating a fully synthetic trachea seeded with stem cells from Lyles and implanting it at Karolinska in November 2011. Lyles died suddenly in 2012 after he had returned home; no autopsy was performed.\n\nSection::::Notable trachea surgeries.:Yulia Tuulik.\n", "There is no reference anywhere to be found on the worldwide web at the current time to a Promator having been sold or being in use anywhere in the world yet. The technical proof of concept referred to above is not published anywhere. There is no data supplied by Promessa / Susanne Wiigh Masak as to the amount of force needed for the \"short mechanical vibration\" to reduce a human corpse frozen in liquid nitrogen to -196C to dust. It would most likely be considerable and prolonged if one takes a look at this: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6giz8Kjf3gk . \n", "Meyer Sound has consistently involved itself with advanced research beyond that connected to immediate product development, sometimes in conjunction with arms of the University of California, Berkeley. Some of this research has resulted in unusual products such as their parabolic sound beam and sound field synthesis loudspeakers. Other projects, such as the spherical loudspeaker research underway by Meyer Sound and CNMAT (Center for New Music and Audio Technologies) at UC Berkeley are still in the stage of pure research.\n", "BULLET::::2. The Klatt synthesizer mostly uses the same formant data as the eSpeakNG synthesizer. But, it also produces sounds by subtractive synthesis by starting with generated noise, which is rich in harmonics, and then applying digital filters and enveloping to filter out necessary frequency spectrum and sound envelope for particular consonant (s, t, k) or sonorant (l, m, n) sound.\n", "The synthesized sound produced by this method is given by two processes, here called as: Reproduction and Selection. Reproduction uses the genetic operators: crossover and mutation to create new individuals by transforming its predecessor’s genotype and Selection uses Hausdorff distance as the fitness evaluation methodology to select the best individuals, as well as eliminating the ones too distant from the Target set.\n", "If the speaker does not shorten an already existing word for the concept, but coins a new one, s/he can select from several types of processes. These coinages may be based on a model from the speaker's own idiom, on a model from a foreign idiom, or, in the case of root creations, on no model at all. In sum, we get the following catalog of formal processes of word-coining (cf. Koch 2002):\n\nBULLET::::- adoption of either\n\nBULLET::::1. an already existing word of speaker's own language (semantic change) or (b)\n\nBULLET::::2. a word from a foreign language (loanword)\n", "After his move to New York City in 1992, Leitch came off the road with FEAR in 1993 and began learning Sonic Solutions and Pro Tools. By 2000, Tim was writing jingles for Bang Music, engineering, producing, licensing, teaching Logic Pro software privately, and demonstrating for software and digital audio hardware manufacturers at trade shows.\n", "BULLET::::- Metathesis: Two sounds switch places. Example: Old English \"thridda\" became Middle English \"third\". Most such changes are sporadic, but occasionally a sound law is involved, as Romance *\"tl\" Spanish \"ld\", thus *\"kapitlu, *titlu\" \"chapter (of a cathedral)\", \"tittle\" Spanish \"cabildo, tilde\". Metathesis can take place between non-contiguous segments, as Greek \"amélgō\" \"I milk\" Modern Greek \"armégō.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lenition, softening of a consonant, e.g. stop consonant to affricate or fricative; and its antonym fortition, hardening of a consonant.\n\nBULLET::::- Tonogenesis: Syllables come to have distinctive pitch contours.\n", "Section::::Synthesizer technologies.:Concatenation synthesis.:Diphone synthesis.\n", "Promessa and Susanne Wiigh Masak have applied for several patents for the kind of processes described above but none of them were ever granted. The applications are on Google patents and the reference numbers are CA2393368A1, US20060154356A1 and US20030008017A1. One granted patent can be found in the name of Promessa and / or Susanne Wiigh Masak but it is not for the methods described in this article and it is not clear that it would work or be practicable on a human corpse - \"Method and device for treating organic matter\" EP20000983635. \n", "BULLET::::4. The combined wave is passed through a voltage-controlled amplifier connected to an ADSR envelope. In other words, its volume is changed according to a pre-set pattern. This is an attempt to emulate the envelope of a plucked string:\n\nBULLET::::5. Then pass the sound through a shallow low-pass filter:\n\nBULLET::::6. In this case, to better emulate the sound of a plucked string, the filter cutoff frequency should start in the mid-range and to low. The effect is similar to an electric guitar's wah pedal.\n", "Phyre and Phyre2 are the successors to the 3D-PSSM protein structure prediction system which has over 1400 citations to date. 3D-PSSM was designed and developed by Lawrence Kelley and Bob MacCallum in the Biomolecular modelling Lab at the Cancer Research UK. Phyre and Phyre2 were Lawrence Kelley in the Structural bioinformatics group, Imperial College London. Components of the Phyre and Phyre2 systems were developed by Benjamin Jefferys, Alex Herbert, and Riccardo Bennett-Lovsey. Research and development of both servers was supervised by Michael Sternberg.\n", "StarRC from Synopsys (previously from Avanti) is a universal parasitics extractor tool applicable for a full range of electronic designs.\n\nSection::::Tools and vendors.:Quantus.\n\nQuantus from Cadence is a parasitic extractor tool for both digital and analog designs and parasitics extraction check have to be carried out to prepare the design for postlayout verification.\n\nSection::::Tools and vendors.:QuickCap.\n\nQuickCap NX from Synopsys is a parasitic extractor tool for both digital and analog designs. It was based on QuickCap developed by Ralph Iverson of Random Logic Corporation, which was acquired by Magma and Synopsys.\n\nSection::::Tools and vendors.:Calibre xACT3D.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Ice can be used to decrease inflammation of sore or injured muscles. Heat can also aid in relieving sore muscles by improving blood circulation to them. While the whole arm generally feels painful in TOS, some relief can be seen when ice or heat is intermittently applied to the thoracic region (collar bone, armpit, or shoulder blades).\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.\n", "BULLET::::- Ice: Ice should be applied immediately to the sprain to reduce swelling and pain. It can be applied for 10–15 minutes at a time, 3-4 times a day. Ice can be combined with a wrapping to minimize swelling and provide support. Ice to numb the pain is effective, but only for a short period of time (no more than twenty minutes.) Longer than 20 minutes can reduce the blood flow to the injured area and slow the healing process.\n", "When cold, the body attempts to capture heat in the blood by constricting the smooth muscle cells around the microvasculature. The muscle cells are constricted by an increase in calcium. The decreased cross-sectional area for flow increases the vascular resistance and lowers the flow to extremities. This mechanism allows the body to concentrate the heat around the vital organs for survival.\n\nThe formula for calculating the systemic vascular resistance is:\n\nformula_3\n\nBULLET::::- SVR as the systemic vascular resistance\n\nBULLET::::- MAP as the mean arterial pressure\n\nBULLET::::- MRAP as the mean right arterial pressure\n", "It is possible to suffer from a cold-stimulus headache in both hot and cold weather, because the effect relies upon the temperature of the food being consumed rather than that of the environment. Other causes that may mimic the sensation of cold-stimulus headache include that produced when high speed drilling is performed through the inner table of the skull in people undergoing such a procedure in an awake or sedated state.\n\nSection::::Cause and frequency.:Anterior cerebral artery theory.\n", "A new method of treating herniated discs is the direct cause of any root is termonukleoplastic, the treatment consisting in introducing into the annulus fibrous of a special catheter tip heating. Warming up for a few minutes end to 65 °C results in the destruction of pain-sensitive nerve endings within the fibrous ring, reducing the volume of disk space and alleviate inflammation associated chronic irritation.\n", "Another theory into the cause of cold-stimulus headaches is explained by increased blood flow to the brain through the anterior cerebral artery, which supplies oxygenated blood to most medial portions of the frontal lobes and superior medial parietal lobes. This increase in blood volume and resulting increase in size in this artery is thought to bring on the pain associated with a cold-stimulus headache.\n\nWhen the anterior cerebral artery constricts, reining in the response to this increased blood volume, the pain disappears. The dilation, then quick constriction, of this blood vessel may be a type of self-defense for the brain.\n", "This inflow of blood cannot be cleared as quickly as it is coming in during the cold-stimulus headache, so the blood flow could raise the pressure inside the skull and induce pain that way. As the intracranial pressure and temperature in the brain rise the blood vessel contracts, and the pressure in the brain is reduced before reaching dangerous levels.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Although thresholds for touch-position perception are relatively easy to measure, those for pain-temperature perception are difficult to define and measure. \"Touch\" is an objective sensation, but \"pain\" is an individualized sensation which varies among different people and is conditioned by memory and emotion. Anatomical differences between the pathways for touch-position perception and pain-temperature sensation help explain why pain, especially chronic pain, is difficult to manage.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.\n", "Cats and other animals have been observed experiencing a similar reaction when presented with a similar stimulus.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n\nThe term \"ice-cream headache\" has been in use since at least January 31, 1937, contained in a journal entry by Rebecca Timbres published in the 1939 book \"We Didn't Ask Utopia: A Quaker Family in Soviet Russia\". The first published use of the term \"brain freeze\", in the sense of a cold-stimulus headache, was in 1991.\n\nSection::::Cause and frequency.\n", "The fact that the use of cold in small doses can be beneficial for human health has been believed for thousands of years. Cold was used as a therapy in the Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The therapy is mentioned in the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna and other physicians and scientists.\n\nDuring wars, ice and snow were used as a medium of immediate relief for the wounded and helped to decrease the painful spasms of injured muscles by producing a numbing effect on nerves. Cold constricts local blood vessels, which results in a decrease of bleeding and swelling.\n", "BULLET::::- Glycerol injection- deposition of a corrosive liquid called glycerol at this point causes damage to the nerve to hinder pain signals.\n\nBULLET::::- Radiofrequency thermocoagulation rhizotomy - application of a heated needle to damage the nerve at this point.\n\nBULLET::::- Stereotactic radiosurgery is a form of radiation therapy that focuses high-power energy on a small area of the body\n\nSection::::Management.:Support.\n", "The fear-avoidance model (or FA model) is a psychiatric model that describes how individuals develop and maintain chronic musculoskeletal pain as a result of attentional processes and avoidant behavior based on pain-related fear. Introduced by Lethem et al. in 1983, this model helped explain how these individuals experience pain despite the absence of pathology. If an individual experiences acute discomfort and delays the situation by using avoidant behavior, a lack of pain increase reinforces this behavior. Increased vulnerability provides positive feedback to the perceived level of pain and rewards avoidant behavior for removing unwanted stimuli. If the individual perceives the pain as nonthreatening or temporary, he or she feels less anxious and confronts the pain-related situation.\n", "The process of frostbite differs from the process of non-freezing cold injury (NFCI). In NFCI, temperature in the tissue decreases gradually. This slower temperature decrease allows the body to try to compensate through alternating cycles of closing and opening blood vessels (vasoconstriction and vasodilation). If this process continues, inflammatory mast cells act in the area. Small clots (microthrombi) form and can cut off blood to the affected area (known as ischemia) and damage nerve fibers. Rewarming causes a series of inflammatory chemicals such as prostaglandins to increase localized clotting.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Pathophysiology.\n", "A cold-stimulus headache, colloquially known as an ice-cream headache or brain freeze, is a form of brief pain or headache commonly associated with consumption (particularly quick consumption) of cold beverages or foods such as ice cream and ice pops. It is caused by having something cold touch the roof of the mouth, and is believed to result from a nerve response causing rapid constriction and swelling of blood vessels or a \"referring\" of pain from the roof of the mouth to the head. The rate of intake for cold foods has been studied as a contributing factor. A cold-stimulus headache is distinct from dentin hypersensitivity, a type of dental pain that can occur under similar circumstances.\n", "In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain vasoconstrictors (namely, nicotine and caffeine), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of his or her autonomic nervous system's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.\n", "In recent years several different chemicals have been used to induce referred pain including bradykinin, substance P, capsaicin, and serotonin. However, before any of these substances became widespread in their use a solution of hypertonic saline was used instead. Through various experiments it was determined that there were multiple factors that correlated with saline administration such as infusion rate, saline concentration, pressure, and amount of saline used. The mechanism by which the saline induces a local and referred pain pair is unknown. Some researchers have commented that it could be due to osmotic differences, however that is not verified.\n", "BULLET::::- Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border.\n\nBULLET::::- In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Second degree.\n\nBULLET::::- In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear blisters early on, and the skin's surface hardens.\n\nBULLET::::- In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels.\n\nBULLET::::- At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Third degree.\n", "BULLET::::- Insula judges the intensity of the pain and provides the ability to imagine pain.\n\nBULLET::::- Cingulate cortex is presumed to be the memory hub for pain.\n\nSection::::In non-mammalian animals.\n\nNociception has been documented in non-mammalian animals, including fish and a wide range of invertebrates, including leeches, nematode worms, sea slugs, and fruit flies. As in mammals, nociceptive neurons in these species are typically characterized by responding preferentially to high temperature (40° Celsius or more), low pH, capsaicin, and tissue damage.\n\nSection::::History of term.\n", "Hot-cold empathy gap is also dependent on the person's memory of visceral experience. As such, it is very common to underestimate visceral state due to restrictive memory. In general, people are more likely to underestimate the effect of pain in a cold state as compared to those in the hot state.\n\nSection::::Memory.:The experiment.\n\nNordgren, van der Pligt and van Harreveld (2006) assessed the impact of pain on the subjects performance on a memory test. In the assessment process, participants were questioned how pain and other factors affected their performance.\n\nSection::::Memory.:The result of experiment.\n", "Applying ice, or even cool water, to a tissue injury has an anti-inflammatory effect and is often suggested as an injury treatment and pain management technique for athletes. One common approach is rest, ice, compression and elevation. Cool temperatures inhibit local blood circulation, which reduces swelling in the injured tissue.\n\nSection::::Health supplements.\n", "Patients are frequently classified into two groups based upon temperature: \"warm\" or \"hot\" CRPS in one group and \"cold\" CRPS in the other group. The majority of patients (approximately 70%) have the \"hot\" type, which is said to be an acute form of CRPS. Cold CRPS is said to be indicative of a more chronic CRPS and is associated with poorer McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ) scores, increased central nervous system involvement, and a higher prevalence of dystonia. Prognosis is not favourable for cold CRPS patients; longitudinal studies suggest these patients have \"poorer clinical pain outcomes and show persistent signs of central sensitisation correlating with disease progression\".\n", "Studies have shown that the body activates the hunting reaction after only 10 minutes of cryotherapy, at temperatures less than 49 °F (9.5 °C). The hunting response is a cycle of vasoconstriction (decreased blood flow), then vasodilation (increased blood flow) that increases the delivery of oxygen and nutrient rich blood to the tissue. Increased blood flow can slow cell death, limit tissue damage and aid in the removal of cellular debris and waste products. Under normal circumstances the hunting reaction would be essential to tissue health but only serves to increase pain, inflammation and cell death as excess blood is forced into the area.\n", "Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex.\n\nSection::::Function.:Summary.\n\nThe complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward processing of touch-position information) reflects a phylogenetically older, more primitive sensory system. The detailed information received from peripheral touch-position receptors is superimposed on a background of awareness, memory and emotions partially set by peripheral pain-temperature receptors.\n", "In the palate, this dilation is sensed by nearby pain receptors, which then send signals back to the brain via the trigeminal nerve, one of the major nerves of the facial area. This nerve also senses facial pain, so as the neural signals are conducted the brain interprets the pain as coming from the forehead—the same \"referred pain\" phenomenon seen in heart attacks. Brain-freeze pain may last from a few seconds to a few minutes. Research suggests that the same vascular mechanism and nerve implicated in \"brain freeze\" cause the aura (sensory disturbance) and pulsatile (throbbing pain) phases of migraines.\n", "\"Wrath of the Villains: A Dead Man Feels No Cold\" received critical acclaim from critics. The episode received a rating of 90% with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus stating: \"'Dead Men Feel No Cold' proves a satisfying, if melancholy, outing for Mr. Freeze as \"Gotham\" continues its descent into mayhem at the hands of Hugo Strange\".\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Treatments.:Device closure.:Surgically.\n\nThis procedure is done through open heart surgery (sternotomy or thoracotomy) using an ECC where the heart is stopped to allow a system of special cannulas to be placed. The hole is closed by a direct suture (sewing) if the hole is small enough or if the hole is larger, suturing (sewing) a small patch of pericardium (heart tissue or skin) or fabric to close the hole.\n", "Since the later 1990s, most angioplasties also involve a stent over the angioplasty balloon; the balloon is hydraulically expanded, typically at 6–25 atmospheres of internal pressure, then deflated and removed while the stent remains behind to mechanically support the lumen remaining in the new, more open shape as created by the hydraulically expanded balloon.\n", "They may be classified as \"open\" or \"closed\". In an open pneumothorax there is a passage from the external environment into the pleural space through the chest wall. When air is drawn into the pleural space through this passageway it is known as a sucking chest wound. A closed pneumothorax is when the chest wall remains intact.\n", "Section::::Procedure.:Left Ventricle Connector Installation.\n\nThe surgeon next opens the pericardium and exposes the apex of the heart. The surgeon closely examines the surface of the heart and chooses and marks an insertion site near the apex. A ring of sutures reinforced with pledgets is installed around the insertion site. The free ends of the sutures are looped through a sewing ring on the left ventricle connector. At this point, CPB is typically initiated, although a few surgeons are able to complete the left ventricle installation off-pump (without CPB).\n", "Some scarring occurs after surgery. After median sternotomy, the patient will have a vertical scar on their chest above their breastbone. If the heart is accessed from under the left breast there will be a smaller scar in this location.\n", "g) Once the repair is complete, the heart is extensively deaired by venting blood through the aortic cardioplegia site, and by infusing Carbon Dioxide into the operative field to displace air.\n\nh) Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography is used to confirm secure closure of the VSD, normal function of the aortic and tricuspid valves, good ventricular function, and the elimination of all air from the left side of the heart.\n\ni) The sternum, fascia and skin are closed, with potential placement of a local anesthetic infusion catheter under the fascia, to enhance postoperative pain control.\n", "BULLET::::- The Ashrafian or Aztec thoracotomy was devised to give rapid access to the heart and pericardium through an incision that consists of an anterior thoracic incision followed in a vertical direction along the costo-chondral (rib-cartilage) junction.\n\nUpon completion of the surgical procedure, the chest is closed. One or more chest tubes—with one end inside the opened pleural cavity and the other submerged under saline solution inside a sealed container, forming an airtight drainage system—are necessary to remove air and fluid from the pleural cavity, preventing the development of pneumothorax or hemothorax.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "The tissues in the mediastinum will slowly resorb the air in the cavity so most pneumomediastinums are treated conservatively. Breathing high flow oxygen will increase the absorption of the air.\n\nIf the air is under pressure and compressing the heart, a needle may be inserted into the cavity, releasing the air.\n\nSurgery may be needed to repair the hole in the trachea, esophagus or bowel.\n\nIf there is lung collapse, it is imperative the affected individual lies on the side of the collapse. Although painful, this allows full inflation of the unaffected lung.\n", "After an anesthetic (local or general, depending on whether or not it is the only surgery to be performed) is administered to the patient, a small, horizontal incision is made on the bottom of the Adam's apple. The muscles in the throat are then held apart with forceps, and the protruding cartilage is shaved down with a scalpel, thus making the throat appear smoother and less angular. The incision is then closed with sutures, and a red line will mark the incision for about six weeks. Little scarring occurs in most cases because the surgeon will usually make the incision in one of the minuscule folds of skin that cover the Adam's apple.\n", "Once suitable donor organs are present, the surgeon makes an incision starting above and finishing below the sternum, cutting all the way to the bone. The skin edges are retracted to expose the sternum. Using a bone saw, the sternum is cut down the middle. Rib spreaders are inserted in the cut, and spread the ribs to give access to the heart and lungs of the patient.\n", "In traumatic pneumothorax, chest tubes are usually inserted. If mechanical ventilation is required, the risk of tension pneumothorax is greatly increased and the insertion of a chest tube is mandatory. Any open chest wound should be covered with an airtight seal, as it carries a high risk of leading to tension pneumothorax. Ideally, a dressing called the \"Asherman seal\" should be utilized, as it appears to be more effective than a standard \"three-sided\" dressing. The Asherman seal is a specially designed device that adheres to the chest wall and, through a valve-like mechanism, allows air to escape but not to enter the chest.\n", "If the chest wall, and thus the pleural space, is punctured, blood, air or both can enter the pleural space. Air and/or blood rushes into the space in order to equalise the pressure with that of the atmosphere. As a result, the fluid is disrupted and the two membranes no longer adhere to each other. When the rib cage moves out, it no longer pulls the lungs with it. Thus the lungs cannot expand, the pressure in the lungs never drops and no air is pulled into the bronchi. Respiration is not possible. The affected lung, which has a great deal of elastic tissue, shrivels in what is referred to as a collapsed lung.\n", "BULLET::::9. The heart is restarted by removing the aortic cross clamp; or in \"off-pump\" surgery, the stabilizing devices are removed. In cases where the aorta is partially occluded by a C-shaped clamp, the heart is restarted and suturing of the grafts to the aorta is done in this partially occluded section of the aorta while the heart is beating.\n\nBULLET::::10. Once the grafts are completed distally and proximally, the patient is rewarmed to a normal temperature and the heart and other pressures are normal to support coming off the bypass machine, weaning off the bypass machine begins.\n", "The surgery is performed under general anesthesia and takes about an hour. The surgeon makes an incision of approximately seven centimetres, prepares the customised space in the chest, inserts the implant deep beneath the muscle, then closes the incision. Post-operative hospitalization is typically around three days.\n", "Secondary pneumothoraces are only treated conservatively if the size is very small (1 cm or less air rim) and there are limited symptoms. Admission to the hospital is usually recommended. Oxygen given at a high flow rate may accelerate resorption as much as fourfold.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Aspiration.\n", "Blood in the cavity can be removed by inserting a drain (chest tube) in a procedure called a tube thoracostomy. This procedure is indicated for most causes of haemothorax, but should be avoided in aortic rupture which should be managed with immediate surgery. The thoracostomy tube is usually placed between the ribs in the sixth or seventh intercostal space at the mid-axillary line. It is important to avoid a chest tube becoming obstructed by clotted blood as obstruction prevents adequate drainage of the pleural space. Clotting occurs as the clotting cascade is activated when the blood leaves the blood vessels and comes into contact with the pleural surface, injured lung or chest wall, or the thoracostomy tube. Inadequate drainage may lead to a retained hemothorax, increasing the risk of infection within the pleural space (empyema) or the formation of scar tissue (fibrothorax). Thoracostomy tubes with a diameter of 24–36 F (large-bore tubes) should be used, as these reduce the risk of blood clots obstructing the tube. Manual manipulation of chest tubes (also referred to as milking, stripping, or tapping) is commonly performed to maintain an open tube, but no conclusive evidence has demonstrated that this improves drainage. If a chest tube does become obstructed, the tube can be cleared using open or closed techniques. Tubes should be removed as soon as drainage has stopped, as prolonged tube placement increases the risk of empyema.\n", "Section::::Method.:Final stages.\n\nThe patient is fitted with chest tubes, temporary pacemaker leads, and ventilated before weaning from the HLM is begun.\n\nBULLET::::- inotrope, to assist the heart in contracting adequately\n\nThe rib cage is relaxed and the external surgical wound is bandaged, but the sternum and chest incision are left open to provide extra room in the pleural cavity, allowing the heart room to swell and preventing pressure caused by pleural effusion.\n\nSection::::Method.:Post-operative.\n", "If after 2–4 days there is still evidence of an air leak, various options are available. Negative pressure suction (at low pressures of –10 to –20 cmHO) at a high flow rate may be attempted, particularly in PSP; it is thought that this may accelerate the healing of the leak. Failing this, surgery may be required, especially in SSP.\n", "Recovery from open-heart surgery begins with about 48 hours in an intensive care unit, where heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels are closely monitored. Chest tubes are inserted to drain blood around the heart and lungs. After discharge from the hospital, compression socks may be recommended in order to regulate blood flow.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n\nThe advancement of cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass techniques has greatly reduced the mortality rates of these procedures. For instance, repairs of congenital heart defects are currently estimated to have 4–6% mortality rates.\n", "To begin a basic remodeling, the surgeon makes an incision at the center of the depressed area on the LV wall and removes blood clots and endocardial scar tissue. To restore the heart to its elliptical shape, an endoventricular suture is put in place and a longitudinal tuck is made to return the cardiac apex from the posterior to the front. The suture also serves as guidance for the patch location. The surgeon then inserts a balloon into the ventricular cavity to ensure correct size and sutures a Dacron patch, deflating the balloon and removing it before complete closure. The non-viable fibrous tissue is pulled over the patch, and surgical glue is occasionally used to complete the closure. \n", "Chest tubes are required in PSPs that have not responded to needle aspiration, in large SSPs (50%), and in cases of tension pneumothorax. They are connected to a one-way valve system that allows air to escape, but not to re-enter, the chest. This may include a bottle with water that functions like a water seal, or a Heimlich valve. They are not normally connected to a negative pressure circuit, as this would result in rapid re-expansion of the lung and a risk of pulmonary edema (\"re-expansion pulmonary edema\"). The tube is left in place until no air is seen to escape from it for a period of time, and X-rays confirm re-expansion of the lung.\n", "Small spontaneous pneumothoraces do not always require treatment, as they are unlikely to proceed to respiratory failure or tension pneumothorax, and generally resolve spontaneously. This approach is most appropriate if the estimated size of the pneumothorax is small (defined as <50% of the volume of the hemithorax), there is no breathlessness, and there is no underlying lung disease. It may be appropriate to treat a larger PSP conservatively if the symptoms are limited. Admission to hospital is often not required, as long as clear instructions are given to return to hospital if there are worsening symptoms. Further investigations may be performed as an outpatient, at which time X-rays are repeated to confirm improvement, and advice given with regard to preventing recurrence (see below). Estimated rates of resorption are between 1.25% and 2.2% the volume of the cavity per day. This would mean that even a complete pneumothorax would spontaneously resolve over a period of about 6 weeks. There is, however, no high quality evidence comparing conservative to non conservative management.\n", "There is much disagreement among ETS surgeons about the best surgical method, optimal location for nerve dissection, and the nature and extent of the consequent primary effects and side effects. When performed endoscopically as is usually the case, the surgeon penetrates the chest cavity making multiple incisions about the diameter of a straw between ribs. This allows the surgeon to insert the video camera (endoscope) in one hole and a surgical instrument in another. The operation is accomplished by dissecting the nerve tissue of the main sympathetic chain.\n", "If a chest tube is already in place, various agents may be instilled through the tube to achieve chemical pleurodesis, such as talc, tetracycline, minocycline or doxycycline. Results of chemical pleurodesis tend to be worse than when using surgical approaches, but talc pleurodesis has been found to have few negative long-term consequences in younger people.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Aftercare.\n", "Tension pneumothorax is usually treated with urgent needle decompression. This may be required before transport to the hospital, and can be performed by an emergency medical technician or other trained professional. The needle or cannula is left in place until a chest tube can be inserted. If tension pneumothorax leads to cardiac arrest, needle decompression is performed as part of resuscitation as it may restore cardiac output.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Conservative.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Health departments discourage listing old age as the cause of death because doing so does not benefit public health or medical research. Old age is not a scientifically recognized cause of death; there is always a more direct cause, although it may be unknown in certain cases and could be one of a number of aging-associated diseases. As an indirect or non-determinative factor, biological aging is the biggest contributor to deaths worldwide. It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.\n", "Before the surge in the over-65 population, accidents and disease claimed many people before they could attain old age, and health problems in those over 65 meant a quick death in most cases. If a person lived to an advanced age, it was due to genetic factors and/or a relatively easy lifestyle, since diseases of old age could not be treated before the 20th century.\n", "In the United States, the 85+ age group is the fastest growing, a group that is almost sure to face the \"inevitable decrepitude\" of survivors. (Frailty and decrepitude are synonyms.)\n\nSection::::Frailty.:Markers.\n\nThree unique markers of frailty have been proposed: (a) loss of any notion of invincibility, (b) loss of ability to do things essential to one's care, and (c) loss of possibility for a subsequent life stage.\n", "A distinction can be made between \"proximal ageing\" (age-based effects that come about because of factors in the recent past) and \"distal ageing\" (age-based differences that can be traced to a cause in person's early life, such as childhood poliomyelitis).\n\nAgeing is among the greatest known risk factors for most human diseases. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die from age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is higher, reaching 90%.\n\nSection::::Biological basis.\n", "About half of older adults suffer multimorbidity, that is, they have three or more chronic conditions. Medical advances have made it possible to \"postpone death,\" but in many cases this postponement adds \"prolonged sickness, dependence, pain, and suffering,\" a time that is costly in social, psychological, and economic terms.\n", "A natural death trajectory is typically a long, steady decline due to old age. In these cases, the death trajectory is based on how the mind and body degenerate, including the speed of organ failure. In these cases, it is much easier to anticipate a person's death.\n\nSection::::Medical care.\n", "The longitudinal interviews of 150 age 85+ people summarized in \"Life Beyond 85 Years\" found \"progressive terminal decline\" in the year prior to death: constant fatigue, much sleep, detachment from people, things, and activities, simplified lives. Most of the interviewees did not fear death; some would welcome it. One person said, \"Living this long is pure hell.\"\n\nHowever, nearly everyone feared a long process of dying. Some wanted to die in their sleep; others wanted to die \"on their feet\".\n", "The year is 2101 and thirty three years have passed since the first successful brain tissue remodulation and body reanimation of a human being. \"Vitals\", ordinary living human beings, share their lives with \"Expireds\", an underclass of once dead people who have been restored to life to perform a variety of specialist but unwanted tasks. Apart from the pallor of their skin and the putrid chemical \"unction\" which they are forced to consume as a food-substitute, the dead are otherwise indistinguishable from ordinary functioning human beings.\n", "Mr Morton of Milnewood, a Presbyterian\n\nHenry Morton, his nephew\n\nAlison Wilson, his housekeeper\n\nLady Margaret Bellenden of Tillietudlem\n\nEdith, her grand-daughter\n\nMajor Bellenden, her brother-in-law\n\nGudyill, her butler\n\nGoose Gibbie, her half-witted servant \n\nJenny Dennison, Edith's maid\n\nMause Headrigg\n\nCuddie, her son\n\nLord Evandale\n\nLady Emily Hamilton, his sister\n\nNiel Blane, a publican\n\nJenny, his daughter\n\nJohn Grahame of Claverhouse\n\nFrancis Stuart, Earl of Bothwell, his sergeant\n\nCornet Richard Grahame, his nephew\n\nTam Halliday, Bothwell's comrade\n\nGabriel Kettledrummle, Peter Poundtext, Ephraim Macbriar, and Habbakuk Mucklewraith, Covenanting preachers\n\nJohn Balfour or Burley, a Covenanter\n\nThe Duke of Monmouth\n", "BULLET::::- Feliberto Carrasco: this 81-year-old Chilean man woke up in his coffin at his own wake in January 2008. His family had found his body lying limp and cold, and assumed he must have died. While he was lying in his coffin, dressed in a suit and surrounded by relatives, his nephew saw him wake up, though did not believe it at first. Carrasco said he was not in any pain, and asked for a glass of water. His death had been announced on a local radio station, which issued a correction.\n", "Writing at the age of 87, Mary C. Morrison describes the heroism required by old age: to live through the disintegration of one's own body or that of someone you love. Morrison concludes, \"old age is not for the fainthearted.\" In the book \"Life Beyond 85 Years\", the 150 interviewees had to cope with physical and mental debilitation and with losses of loved ones. One interviewee described living in old age as \"pure hell\".\n\nSection::::Perspectives.:Societal.\n", "It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90 percent. Thus, albeit indirectly, biological aging (senescence) is by far the leading cause of death. Whether senescence as a biological process itself can be slowed down, halted, or even reversed is a subject of current scientific speculation and research.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:2001 figures.\n", "BULLET::::- Christopher Hitchens: From the British atheism advocate's real-life obituary, after he had died in December 2011: \"Hitchens had quotable ideas about posterity, clarified years ago when he saw himself referred to as 'the late' Christopher Hitchens in print.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cockie Hoogterp, the second wife of Baron Blixen, was declared dead in a 1936 Daily Telegraph obituary after the Baron's third wife died in an auto accident. Mrs. Hoogterp sent all her bills back marked \"Deceased\" and ordered the Telegraph to print that \"Mrs. Hoogterp wishes it to be known that she has not yet been screwed in her coffin.\"\n", "Almost 20% of the people wanted to use whatever treatment that might postpone death. About the same number said that, given a terminal illness, they would choose assisted suicide. Roughly half chose doing nothing except live day by day until death comes naturally without medical or other intervention designed to prolong life. This choice was coupled with a desire to receive palliative care if needed.\n", "BULLET::::- Jhulri Devi was officially declared dead in 1974 and chased off her farm by relatives in order to steal her land in Uttar Pradesh, India. After many years of legal delays, her 'death' was only annulled in 1999, by when she had reached the age of 85, after intervention by the Association of the Dead, an organisation that protests such cases. (See also Lal Bihari.)\n", "BULLET::::- Walter Williams: On February 26, 2014, this 78-year-old Mississippi man was declared dead by a hospice nurse. This was confirmed by the county coroner, and Williams' body was placed in a body bag and brought to a funeral home for embalming. However, funeral home workers noticed movement in the bag. They called for an ambulance, and paramedics confirmed that Williams had a pulse and was breathing. He was transported to a hospital where he began to recover, much to the delight of all involved. Williams actually died of natural causes just over two weeks later, on March 13.\n", "Section::::Illness and death.\n", "Gods and goddesses were considered eternal in many ancient mythologies, and were endowed with eternal youth. In Greek mythology, agelessness was achieved by the gods' eating ambrosia (immortality was derived from their blood, ichor); in Norse mythology, by the gods eating golden apples provided by Iðunn; and in Chinese mythology, by the gods consuming the Peaches of Immortality.\n\nSection::::Media and fiction.\n\nSection::::Media and fiction.:Comics and cartoons.\n", "Old age is not a definite biological stage, as the chronological age denoted as \"old age\" varies culturally and historically.\n\nIn 2011, the United Nations proposed a human rights convention that would specifically protect older persons.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nDefinitions of old age include official definitions, sub-group definitions, and four dimensions as follows.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Official definitions.\n", "Section::::Old age and death.\n", "Research on the morbidity of supercentenarians has found that they remain free of major age-related diseases (e.g., stroke, cardiovascular disease, dementia, cancer, Parkinson's disease, and diabetes) until the very end of life when they die of exhaustion of organ reserve, which is the ability to return organ function to homeostasis. About 10% of supercentenarians survive until the last 3 months of life without major age-related diseases, as compared to only 4% of semisupercentenarians and 3% of centenarians.\n", "BULLET::::- Cookie Gilchrist: Gilchrist, a former fullback in the Canadian Football League and American Football League, was presumed dead by his hospice worker on January 8, 2011, and reported the news to his nephew, Thomas Gilchrist. However, upon laying him down, Cookie was revived. Gilchrist died two days later.\n", "In July 2010, Sogen Kato, a centenarian listed as the oldest living male in Tokyo, registered to be aged 111, was found to have died some 30 years before; his body was found mummified in his bed, resulting in a police investigation into centenarians listed over the age of 105. Soon after the discovery, the Japanese police found that at least 234,354 other Japanese centenarians were \"missing\", and began a nationwide search in early August 2010.\n\nSection::::Epigenetic studies.\n", "Section::::By country.\n\nHere is a table of YPLL for all causes (ages 0–69, per 100,000) with the most recent available data from the OECD:\n\nSection::::By country.:Australia.\n\nThe report of the NSW Chief Medical Officer in 2002 indicates that cardiovascular disease (32.7% (of total Males Years of Life Lost due to premature mortality) and 36.6% of females YLL) and malignant neoplasms (27.5% of Males YLL and 31.2% of Females YLL) are the main causes of lost years \n", "BULLET::::- Jerry Maren, American actor best known as one of the Munchkins in the 1939 film version of \"The Wizard of Oz\". Several news outlets, including the Examiner, cited social media reports that Maren, the last surviving Munchkin from the film, had died on February 29, 2016, but Maren appeared on social media (in what would be his last appearance) to disprove the reports. Maren died on May 24, 2018 from a combination of old age-related diseases.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Different methods used for measuring temperature produce different results. The temperature reading depends on which part of the body is being measured. The typical daytime temperatures among healthy adults are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal), vagina, or in the ear (otic) is about\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the mouth (oral) is about\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature under the arm (axillary) is about\n\nGenerally, oral, rectal, gut, and core body temperatures, although slightly different, are well-correlated.\n", "The temperature can be measured in various locations on the body which maintain a fairly stable temperature (mainly sub-lingual, axillary, rectal, vaginal, forehead, or temporal artery). The normal temperature varies slightly with the location; an oral reading of 37 °C does not correspond to rectal, temporal, etc. readings of the same value. When a temperature is quoted the location should also be specified. If a temperature is stated without qualification (e.g., typical body temperature) it is usually assumed to be sub-lingual. The differences between core temperature and measurements at different locations, known as \"clinical bias\", is discussed in the article on normal human body temperature. Measurements are subject to both site-dependent clinical bias and variability between a series of measurements (standard deviations of the differences). For example, one study found that the clinical bias of rectal temperatures was greater than for ear temperature measured by a selection of thermometers under test, but variability was less.\n", "In the 19th century, most books quoted \"blood heat\" as 98 °F, until a study published the mean (but not the variance) of a large sample as . Subsequently that mean was widely quoted as \"37 °C or 98.4 °F\" until editors realised 37 °C is closer to 98.6 °F than 98.4 °F. The 37 °C value was set by German physician Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich in his 1868 book, which put temperature charts into widespread clinical use. Dictionaries and other sources that quoted these averages did add the word \"about\" to show that there is some variance, but generally did not state how wide the variance is.\n", "Core temperature, also called core body temperature, is the operating temperature of an organism, specifically in deep structures of the body such as the liver, in comparison to temperatures of peripheral tissues. Core temperature is normally maintained within a narrow range so that essential enzymatic reactions can occur. Significant core temperature elevation (hyperthermia) or depression (hypothermia) over more than a brief period of time is incompatible with human life.\n", "In healthy adults, the range of normal, healthy temperatures for oral temperature is , for rectal it is , for tympanic membrane (the ear drum) it is , and for axillary (the armpit) it is . Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine defines a fever as a morning oral temperature of 37.2 °C (98.9 °F) or an afternoon oral temperature of 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) while the normal daily temperature variation is typically 0.5 °C (0.9 °F).\n", "Reported values vary depending on how it is measured: oral (under the tongue): (), internal (rectal, vaginal): . A rectal or vaginal measurement taken directly inside the body cavity is typically slightly higher than oral measurement, and oral measurement is somewhat higher than skin measurement. Other places, such as under the arm or in the ear, produce different typical temperatures. While some people think of these averages as representing normal or ideal measurements, a wide range of temperatures has been found in healthy people. The body temperature of a healthy person varies during the day by about with lower temperatures in the morning and higher temperatures in the late afternoon and evening, as the body's needs and activities change. Other circumstances also affect the body's temperature. The core body temperature of an individual tends to have the lowest value in the second half of the sleep cycle; the lowest point, called the nadir, is one of the primary markers for circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold.\n", "The skin temperature is thus independent of the absorptivity/emissivity of the skin layer.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "ASHRAE 55-2010 defines SET as \"the temperature of an imaginary environment at 50% relative humidity, average air speed, and mean radiant temperature equal to average air temperature, in which total heat loss from the skin of an imaginary occupant with an activity level of 1.0 met and a clothing level of 0.6 clo is the same as that from a person in the actual environment, with actual clothing and activity level.\"\"\"\n", "When the star's or planet's net emissivity in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity (less than that of a black body), the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature. The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties, including greenhouse effect.\n\nSection::::Star.\n", "55 Cancri e receives more radiation than Gliese 436 b. The side of the planet facing its star has temperatures more than 2,000 kelvin (approximately 1,700 degrees Celsius or 3,100 Fahrenheit), hot enough to melt iron. Infrared mapping with the Spitzer Space Telescope indicated an average front side temperature of and an average back side temperature of around .\n", "In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).\n\nSection::::Derating at high altitude.\n\nWhen operating in an environment with lower air pressure like high altitude or airplane cabins, the cooling capacity has to be derated compared to that of sea level.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nA location which combines an average temperature of 19 degrees Celsius, 60% average humidity and a temperature range of about 10 degrees Celsius around the average temperature (yearly temperature variation) is considered ideal in terms of comfort for the human species. Most of the places with these characteristics are located in the transition between temperate and tropical climates, approximately around the tropics, particularly in the Southern hemisphere (the tropic of Capricorn).\n\nSection::::Lifted minimum temperature.\n", "Section::::Concepts.:Thermal comfort.:Thermal neutrality.\n\nThermal Neutrality (Thermal Neutral Zone) is the temperature range where it is neither comfortable or uncomfortable. The human body's metabolism is burning calories at the same rate as the temperature around. This would be around 24 °C (room temperature), and people have no opinion about the temperature. Thermal Neutrality is often also used in animal raising.For example, Farmers maintain the neutral temperature for cattle to prevent Cold Stress.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Thermal comfort.:Everyday uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Floor Surface Temperature - too hot or too cold floors cause discomfort, people wear light shoes or have heated floors.\n", "Eta Carinae A is likely to have appeared as an early B hypergiant with a temperature of between 20,000 K and 25,000 K at the time of its discovery by Halley. An effective temperature determined for the surface of a spherical optically thick wind at would be 9,400–15,000 K, while the temperature of a theoretical hydrostatic \"core\" at optical depth 150 would be 35,200 K. The effective temperature of the visible outer edge of the opaque primary wind is generally treated as being 15,000 K–25,000 K on the basis of visual and ultraviolet spectral features assumed to be directly from the wind or reflected via the Weigelt Blobs. During the great eruption, Eta Carninae A was much cooler at around 5,000 K.\n", "The effective temperatures of the stars can be calculated directly by modelling the atmospheres of both stars to reproduce the observed spectrum in detail. This method results in a temperature of 141,000 K for the WR component and 45,000 K for the O companion. The effective temperature is useful for modelling the atmosphere and comparison between stars, but a typical \"observed\" temperature at optical depth 2/3 can be significantly different for stars with a dense stellar wind. In the case of the WR primary star, the optical depth temperature is 115,000 K.\n", "What thermal comfort humans, animals and plants experience is related to more than temperature shown on a glass thermometer. Relative humidity levels in ambient air can induce more or less evaporative cooling. Measurement of the wet-bulb temperature normalizes this humidity effect. Mean radiant temperature also can affect thermal comfort. The wind chill factor makes the weather feel colder under windy conditions than calm conditions even though a glass thermometer shows the same temperature. Airflow increases the rate of heat transfer from or to the body, resulting in a larger change in body temperature for the same ambient temperature.\n", "The effective temperature for Jupiter from this calculation is 88 K and 51 Pegasi b (Bellerophon) is 1,258 K. A better estimate of effective temperature for some planets, such as Jupiter, would need to include the internal heating as a power input. The actual temperature depends on albedo and atmosphere effects. The actual temperature from spectroscopic analysis for HD 209458 b (Osiris) is 1,130 K, but the effective temperature is 1,359 K. The internal heating within Jupiter raises the effective temperature to about 152 K.\n\nSection::::Planet.:Surface temperature of a planet.\n", "For electrical devices, the operating temperature may be the junction temperature (T) of the semiconductor in the device. The junction temperature is affected by the ambient temperature, and for integrated circuits, is given by the equation:\n\nin which T is the junction temperature in °C, T is the ambient temperature in °C, P is the power dissipation of the integrated circuit in W, and R is the junction to ambient thermal resistance in °C/W.\n\nSection::::Aerospace and military.\n\nElectrical and mechanical devices used in military and aerospace applications may need to endure greater environmental variability, including temperature range.\n", "Psychological adaptation is subtly different in the static and adaptive models. Laboratory tests of the static model can identify and quantify non-heat transfer (psychological) factors that affect reported comfort. The adaptive model is limited to reporting differences (called psychological) between modeled and reported comfort.\n", "Taking a person's temperature is an initial part of a full clinical examination. There are various types of medical thermometers, as well as sites used for measurement, including:\n\nBULLET::::- In the rectum (rectal temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the mouth (oral temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- Under the arm (axillary temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the ear (tympanic temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- in the nose\n\nBULLET::::- In the vagina (vaginal temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the bladder\n\nBULLET::::- On the skin of the forehead over the temporal artery\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Because of the greenhouse effect, wherein long wave radiation emitted by the planet is absorbed and re-emitted to the surface by certain gases in the atmosphere, planets with substantial greenhouse atmospheres will have surface temperatures higher than the equilibrium temperature. For example, Venus has an equilibrium temperature of approximately 227 K, but a surface temperature of 740 K. Similarly, Earth has an equilibrium temperature of 255 K, but a surface temperature of about 288 K due to the greenhouse effect in our lower atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Caveats.:Airless bodies.\n", "Section::::Stars.\n", "Atmospheric temperature\n\nAtmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth's atmosphere. It is governed by many factors, including incoming solar radiation, humidity and altitude. When discussing surface air temperature, the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome, as measured by the Köppen climate classification.\n\nSection::::Temperature versus height.\n", "Section::::Two varieties of thermal equilibrium.:Internal thermal equilibrium of an isolated body.\n", "On airless bodies, the lack of any significant greenhouse effect allows equilibrium temperatures to approach mean surface temperatures, as on Mars, where the equilibrium temperature is 210 K and the mean surface temperature of emission is 215 K. There are large variations in surface temperature over space and time on airless or near-airless bodies like Mars, which has daily surface temperature variations of 50-60 K. Because of a relative lack of air to transport or retain heat, significant variations in temperature develop. Assuming the planet radiates as a blackbody (i.e. according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law), temperature variations propagate into emission variations, this time to the power of 4. This is significant because our understanding of planetary temperatures comes not from direct measurement of the temperatures, but from measurements of the fluxes. Consequently, in order to derive a meaningful mean surface temperature on an airless body (to compare with an equilibrium temperature), a global average surface emission flux is considered, and then an 'effective temperature of emission' that would produce such a flux is calculated. The same process would be necessary when considering the surface temperature of the Moon, which has a equilibrium temperature of 271 K, but can have temperatures of 373 K in the daytime and 100 K at night. Again, these temperature variations result from poor heat transport and retention in the absence of an atmosphere.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "Peripheral injuries trigger complex changes in the central nociceptive system which can lead to central sensitization that enhances the sensitivity and responsiveness of the brain regions involved in sensory processing. In some cases, these physiological responses progress to neuropathic centralized pain.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n", "Formed in 2008, the holder of the Office of the Commissioner is also the Superintendent of the Rhode Island State Police. The Inaugural Commissioner of the Department of Public Safety was Colonel Brendan Doherty. The Current Commissioner of the Department of Public Safety is Lieutenant Colonel Kevin M. Barry, of the Rhode Island State Police.\n", "Recently this idea has regained some credibility under a new term, central sensitization. Central sensitization occurs when neurons in the spinal cord's dorsal horn or brainstem become more responsive after repeated stimulation by peripheral neurons, so that weaker signals can trigger them. The delay in appearance of referred pain shown in laboratory experiments can be explained due to the time required to create the central sensitization.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Axon-reflex.\n", "It is widely believed that regular exposure to painful stimuli will increase pain tolerance, increasing the ability of the individual to handle pain by becoming more conditioned to it. However, in some cases, there is evidence to support the theory that greater exposure to pain will result in more painful future exposures. Repeated exposure bombards pain synapses with repetitive input, increasing their responsiveness to later stimuli, through a process similar to learning. Therefore, although the individual may learn cognitive methods of coping with pain, such methods may not be sufficient to cope with the boosted response to future painful stimuli. \"An intense barrage of painful stimuli potentiates the cells responsive to pain so that they respond more vigorously to minor stimulation in the future.\"\n", "Since this initial work, Sneddon and her co-workers have shown that rainbow trout, common carp and zebrafish experiencing a noxious stimulation exhibit rapid changes in physiology and behavior that persist for up to 6 hours and thus are not simple reflexes.\n\nFive-day old zebrafish larvae show a concentration dependent increase in locomotor activity in response to different concentrations of diluted acetic acid. This increase in locomotor activity is accompanied by an increase in cox-2 mRNA, demonstrating that nociceptive pathways are also activated.\n", "While large mechanosensory neurons such as type I/group Aß display adaptation, smaller type IV/group C nociceptive neurons do not. As a result, pain does not usually subside rapidly but persists for long periods of time; in contrast, other sensory information is quickly adapted to, if surroundings remain constant.\n\nSection::::Somatosensory.:Weight training.\n", "The nerves of young babies respond more readily to noxious stimuli, with a lower threshold to stimulation, than those of adults. A baby's threshold for sensitization is also substantially decreased, whilst the process involves a much larger area of sensitization with each trauma. The neural pathways that descend from the brain to the spinal cord are not well developed in the newborn, resulting in the ability of the central nervous system to inhibit nociception being more limited than in the adult.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"central sensitization,\" nociceptive neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord become sensitized by peripheral tissue damage or inflammation. This type of sensitization has been suggested as a possible causal mechanism for chronic pain conditions. The changes of central sensitization occur after repeated trials to pain. Research from animals has consistently shown that when a trial is repeatedly exposed to a painful stimulus, the animal’s pain threshold will change and result in a stronger pain response. Researchers believe that there are parallels that can be drawn between these animal trials and persistent pain in people. For example, after a back surgery that removed a herniated disc from causing a pinched nerve, the patient may still continue to “feel” pain. Also, newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia have shown tendencies to react more greatly to future injections, vaccinations, and other similar procedures. The responses of these children are an increase in crying and a greater hemodynamic response (tachycardia and tachypnea).\n", "A painful experience may change the motivation for normal behavioural responses. American bullfrogs learn to inhibit their high-priority, biologically adaptive righting reflex to avoid electric shock. After repeated exposure, they remain passively on their backs rather than exhibiting the normal, short-latency, righting response, thereby showing a trade-off in motivation.\n\nSection::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.\n\nIt has been argued that although a high cognitive capacity may indicate a greater likelihood of experiencing pain, it also gives these animals a greater ability to deal with this, leaving animals with a lower cognitive ability a greater problem in coping with pain.\n", "Another functional assessment research was done by Iwata in 1982 worked with children with developmental disabilities showing self injurious behaviors. The research could not conclude what was maintaining their behavior but believed it either adult attention, escape from demands or sensory stimulation from the injuries. For each of the hypothesis, they created a condition that would fit into the category. For adult attention hypothesis, they created an environment where an adult is in the room with the child but pays no attention to him/her until after the behavior occurs. For the escape from demands hypothesis, they had an adult make a normal demand towards the child, but terminate it if the self injurious behavior occurs. For the sensory stimulation hypothesis, the child is left alone without the presence of anyone or any stimulating activities. Iwata compared the levels of self injurious behaviors across the three conditions and demonstrated that the function of the problem behavior for each child was different. Some wanted attention, others escape while some were maintained by automatic reinforcement. As shown here, it is very important to conduct a functional assessment to determine what exactly is maintaining the behavior before any function interventions are taken.\n", "One study involved showing juvenile psychopaths video clips of strangers experiencing painful stimuli. The results of the study showed that the juvenile psychopaths had atypical processing of these pain empathy eliciting stimuli in comparison with the normal juvenile controls. The central late positive potential (LPP), a late cognitive evaluative component of pain, was decreased in subjects with low CU traits. Subjects with high CU traits had both a decrease in central LPP and in frontal N120, an early affective arousal component of pain. There were also differences in the pain thresholds between normal test subjects, subjects with low CU traits, and subjects with high CU traits. The subjects with CU traits had higher pain thresholds than the controls, which suggests they were less sensitive to noxious pain. The results of the study show the CU trait juvenile’s lack of pain empathy was due to a lack of arousal due to another person’s distress rather than a lack of understanding of the other’s emotional state.\n", "The use of fMRI to study brain activity confirms the link between visual perception and pain perception. It has been found that the brain regions that convey the perception of pain are the same regions that encode the size of visual inputs. One specific area, the magnitude-related insula of the insular cortex, functions to perceive the size of a visual stimulation and integrate the concept of that size across various sensory systems, including the perception of pain. This area also overlaps with the nociceptive-specific insula, part of the insula that selectively processes nociception, leading to the conclusion that there is an interaction and interface between the two areas. This interaction tells the individual how much relative pain they are experiencing, leading to the subjective perception of pain based on the current visual stimulus.\n", "The stimulus modality for vision is light; the human eye is able to access only a limited section of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 380 and 760 nanometres. Specific inhibitory responses that take place in the visual cortex help create a visual focus on a specific point rather than the entire surrounding.\n\nSection::::Light modality.:Perception.\n", "For people with this disorder, cognition and sensation are otherwise normal; for instance, patients can still feel discriminative touch (though not always temperature), and there are generally no detectable physical abnormalities.\n\nBecause children with the disorder cannot feel pain, they may not respond to problems, thus being at a higher risk of more severe diseases. Children with this condition often sustain oral cavity damage both in and around the oral cavity (such as having bitten off the tip of their tongue) or fractures to bones. Unnoticed infections and corneal damage due to foreign objects in the eye are also seen.\n", "The absence of proprioception or two-point tactile discrimination on one side of the body suggests injury to the contralateral side of the primary somatosensory cortex. However, depending on the extent of the injury, damage can range in loss of proprioception of an individual limb or the entire body. A deficit known as cortical astereognosis of the receptive type describes an inability to make use of tactile sensory information for identifying objects placed in the hand. For example, if this type of injury effects the hand region in the primary somatosensory cortex for one cerebral hemisphere, a patient with closed eyes cannot perceive the position of the fingers on the contralateral hand and will not be able to identify objects such as keys or a cell phone if they are placed into that hand.\n", "Section::::Learned avoidance.\n\nLearning to avoid a noxious stimulus indicates that prior experience of the stimulus is remembered by the animal and appropriate action taken in the future to avoid or reduce potential damage. This type of response is therefore not the fixed, reflexive action of nociceptive avoidance.\n\nSection::::Learned avoidance.:Habituation and sensitization.\n", "The two basic types of sensation are touch-position and pain-temperature. Touch-position input comes to attention immediately, but pain-temperature input reaches the level of consciousness after a delay; when a person steps on a pin, the awareness of stepping on something is immediate but the pain associated with it is delayed.\n", "Additional research has shown that the experience of pain is shaped by a plethora of contextual factors, including vision. Researchers have found that when a subject views the area of their body that is being stimulated, the subject will report a lowered amount of perceived pain. For example, one research study used a heat stimulation on their subjects' hands. When the subject was directed to look at their hand when the painful heat stimulus was applied, the subject experienced an analgesic effect and reported a higher temperature pain threshold. Additionally, when the view of their hand was increased, the analgesic effect also increased and vice versa. This research demonstrated how the perception of pain relies on visual input.\n", "Section::::Detection methods.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.:Magnetoencephalography.\n\nfMRI studies were not able to detect activity in the somatosensory cortex during pain empathy. Neuromagnetic oscillatory activity was recorded from the primary somatosensory cortex in order to determine if it is involved in pain empathy. When the left medial nerve was stimulated, post-stimulus rebounds of 10 Hz of somatosensory oscillations were quantified. These baseline somatosensory oscillations were suppressed when the subject observed a painful stimulus to a stranger. These results show that the somatosensory cortex is involved in the pain empathy response even though the activity could not be detected using fMRI techniques.\n", "Individuals who suffer from chronic pain experience prolonged pain at sites that may have been previously injured, yet are otherwise currently healthy. This phenomenon is related to neuroplasticity due to a maladaptive reorganization of the nervous system, both peripherally and centrally. During the period of tissue damage, noxious stimuli and inflammation cause an elevation of nociceptive input from the periphery to the central nervous system. Prolonged nociception from the periphery then elicits a neuroplastic response at the cortical level to change its somatotopic organization for the painful site, inducing central sensitization. For instance, individuals experiencing complex regional pain syndrome demonstrate a diminished cortical somatotopic representation of the hand contralaterally as well as a decreased spacing between the hand and the mouth. Additionally, chronic pain has been reported to significantly reduce the volume of grey matter in the brain globally, and more specifically at the prefrontal cortex and right thalamus. However, following treatment, these abnormalities in cortical reorganization and grey matter volume are resolved, as well as their symptoms. Similar results have been reported for phantom limb pain, chronic low back pain and carpal tunnel syndrome.\n", "Section::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Social learning.\n\nWood frog (\"Rana sylvatica\") tadpoles use social learning to acquire information about predators; the ratio of tutors to observers, but not group size, influences the intensity of learned predator recognition. Wood frog tadpoles also exhibit local enhancement in their social learning, however, spotted salamander larvae do not; this difference in social learning could be largely due to differences in aquatic ecology between tadpoles and salamander larvae.\n\nSection::::Criteria for pain perception.\n", "For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.\n", "A critical period is a timeframe during the early life of an animal during which the development of some property or skill is rapid and is most susceptible to alteration. During a critical period, a skill or characteristic is most readily acquired. During this time, the plasticity is most dependent on experiences or environmental influences. Two examples of a critical period are the development of binocular vision linguistic skills in children. The critical periods neuromyth is an overextension of certain neuroscience research findings (see above) primarily from research into the visual system, rather than cognition and learning. Although sensory deprivation during certain time periods can clearly impede the development of visual skills, these periods are sensitive rather than critical, and the opportunity for learning is not necessarily lost forever, as the term \"critical\" implies. While children may benefit from certain types of environmental input, for example, being taught a second language during the sensitive period for language acquisition, this does not mean that adults are unable to acquire foreign language skills later in life.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Processing in the cerebral cortex.\n\nThe primary taste perception areas in the cerebral cortex are located in the insula and regions of the somatosensory cortex; the nucleus of the solitary tract located in the brainstem also plays a major role in taste perception. These regions were identified when human subjects were exposed to a taste stimulus and their cerebral blood flow measured with magnetic resonance imaging. Although these regions have been identified as the primary zones for taste processing in the brain, other cortical areas are also activated during eating, as other sensory inputs are being signaled to the cortex.\n", "BULLET::::1. Chemicals in food interact with receptors on the taste receptor cells located on the tongue and the roof of the mouth. These interactions can be affected by temporal and spatial factors like the time of receptor activation or the particular taste receptors that are activated (sweet, salty, bitter, etc.).\n\nBULLET::::2. The chorda tympani (cranial nerve VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX), and the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) carry information from the taste receptors to the brain for cortical processing.\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "Section::::In humans.:Function.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Function.:Taste.\n\nChemicals that stimulate taste receptor cells are known as tastants. Once a tastant is dissolved in saliva, it can make contact with the plasma membrane of the gustatory hairs, which are the sites of taste transduction.\n", "I have experienced a strange syndrome whenever I have eaten out in a Chinese restaurant, especially one that served northern Chinese food. The syndrome, which usually begins 15 to 20 minutes after I have eaten the first dish, lasts for about two hours, without hangover effect. The most prominent symptoms are numbness at the back of the neck, gradually radiating to both arms and the back, general weakness and palpitations...\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "Taste receptor\n\nA taste receptor is a type of receptor which facilitates the sensation of taste. These receptors are of four types. When food or other substances enter the mouth, molecules interact with saliva and are bound to taste receptors in the oral cavity and other locations. Molecules which give a sensation of taste are considered \"sapid\".\n\nTaste receptors are divided into two families:\n\nBULLET::::- Type 1, sweet, first characterized in 2001: –\n", "The trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) provides information concerning the general texture of food as well as the taste-related sensations of peppery or hot (from spices).\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Pungency (also spiciness or hotness).\n", "Sensory-specific satiety is a sensory hedonic phenomenon that refers to the declining satisfaction generated by the consumption of a certain type of food, and the consequent renewal in appetite resulting from the exposure to a new flavor or food. The phenomenon was first described in 1956 by the French physiologist Jacques Le Magnen. The term has been coined in 1981 by Barbara J. Rolls and Edmund T. Rolls. Its concept illustrates the role of physical stimuli in generating appetite and, more specifically, explains the significance of taste in relation to hunger. Besides conditioned satiety and alimentary alliesthesia, it is one of the three major phenomena of satiation.\n", "The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system. In humans, the sense of taste is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. The facial nerve (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch of the vagus nerve (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity.\n", "Section::::Interactions with other senses.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other senses.:Olfaction and flavor.\n\nFlavor perception is an aggregation of auditory, taste, haptic, and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During the process of mastication, the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation. The olfaction of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication.\n", "Out of all the sensory modalities, olfaction contributes most to the sensation and perception of flavor processing. Olfaction has two sensory modalities, orthonasal smell, the detection of odor molecules originating outside the body, and retronasal smell, the detection of odor molecules originating during mastication. It is retronasal smell, whose sensation is felt in the mouth, that contributes to flavor perception. Anthropologically, over human evolution, the shortening of the nasopharynx and other shifts in bone structure suggest a constant improvement of flavor perception capabilities.\n", "Section::::Taste modality.:Description.\n\nSection::::Taste modality.:Description.:Taste modality in mammals.\n\nIn mammals, taste stimuli are encountered by axonless receptor cells located in taste buds on the tongue and\n\npharynx. Receptor cells disseminate onto different neurons and convey the message of a particular taste in a single medullar nucleus. This pheromone detection system deals with taste stimuli. The pheromone detection system is distinct from the normal taste system, and is designed like the olfactory system.\n\nSection::::Taste modality.:Description.:Taste modality in flies and mammals.\n", "Section::::Distinguishing aftertaste and flavor.\n\nFlavor is an emergent property that is the combination of multiple sensory systems including olfaction, taste, and somatosensation. How the flavor of a food is perceived, whether it is unpleasant or satisfying, is stored as a memory so that the next time the same (or a similar) food is encountered, the previous experience can be recalled and a decision made to consume that food. This process of multisensory inputs to the brain during eating, followed by learning from eating experiences is the central idea of flavor processing.\n", "Lower motor neuron lesions can result in a CNVII palsy (Bell's palsy is the idiopathic form of facial nerve palsy), manifested as both upper and lower facial weakness on the same side of the lesion.\n\nTaste can be tested on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue. This can be tested with a swab dipped in a flavoured solution, or with electronic stimulation (similar to putting your tongue on a battery).\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Calcium.\n\nThe distinctive taste of chalk has been identified as the calcium component of that substance. In 2008, geneticists discovered a CaSR calcium receptor on the tongues of mice. The CaSR receptor is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and brain. Along with the \"sweet\" T1R3 receptor, the CaSR receptor can detect calcium as a taste. Whether closely related genes in mice and humans means the phenomenon exists in humans as well is unknown.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Fat taste.\n", "Some people with HSAN2 experience a diminished sense of taste due to the loss of a type of taste bud on the tip of the tongue called lingual fungiform papillae.\n", "Section::::Taste.\n\nTaste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.\n", "There are many forms of lexical-gustatory synesthesia and the various taste sensations linked to the neurological condition vary widely from synesthete to synesthete. Examples of many well known synesthetic taste experiences are recorded in case studies with singular participants that demonstrate the variability of the condition. In one case, PS is a patient that has taste experiences that happen in her head and not her mouth. Her tastes usually have both texture and temperature associated with the sensation. Some forms of lexical-gustatory synesthesia are triggered by thinking of the word's meaning, rather than its sound or spelling. Others are triggered by hearing or reading an inducer word. In many forms, more well known words and words used with a higher frequency are more likely to have a strong taste association The phonological roots associated with this form of synesthesia drive the current research on lexical-gustatory synesthesia to determine which parts of the brain are active in synesthetes causing the neurological cross-talk condition and how the findings may relate to neurologically normal persons.\n", "Section::::Taste receptor dynamics.\n\nBecause a lingering taste sensation is intrinsic to aftertaste, the molecular mechanisms that underlie aftertaste are presumed to be linked to either the continued or delayed activation of receptors and signaling pathways in the mouth that are involved in taste processing. The current understanding of how a food's taste is communicated to the brain is as follows:\n", "Section::::Other concepts.:Aftertaste.\n\nAftertastes arise after food has been swallowed. An aftertaste can differ from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as aspartame (artificial sweetener).\n\nSection::::Other concepts.:Acquired taste.\n\nAn acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Visual, olfactive, “sapictive” (the perception of tastes), trigeminal (hot, cool), mechanical, all contribute to the perception of \"taste\". Of these, transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) vanilloid receptors are responsible for the perception of heat from some molecules such as capsaicin, and a CMR1 receptor is responsible for the perception of cold from molecules such as menthol, eucalyptol, and icilin.\n\nSection::::Tissue distribution.\n", "Neurogastronomy\n\nNeurogastronomy is the study of flavor perception and the ways it affects cognition and memory. This interdisciplinary field is influenced by the psychology and neuroscience of sensation, learning, satiety, and decision making. Areas of interest include how olfaction contributes to flavor, food addiction and obesity, taste preferences, and the linguistics of communicating and identifying flavor. The term neurogastronomy was coined by neuroscientist Gordon M. Shepherd.\n\nSection::::Olfaction and flavor.\n", "Section::::Coherence and interaction of neurons during tasting.\n\nGC neurons cohere and interact during tasting. GC neurons interact across milliseconds, and these interactions are taste specific and define distinct but overlapping neural assemblies that respond to the presence of each tastant by undergoing coupled changes in firing rate. These couplings are used to discriminate between tastants. Coupled changes in firing rate are the underlying source of GC interactions. Subsets of neurons in GC become coupled after presentation of particular tastants and the responses of neurons in that ensemble change in concert with those of others.\n\nSection::::Taste familiarity.\n", "Taste receptors (i.e., taste buds or papillae) are activated by the presence of food or another object on the tongue. Four basic tastes include sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. There is some debate on whether umami, or meatiness, is a fifth basic flavor. Aging is associated with loss of intensity in taste. Complete inability to taste is called ageusia.\n\nSection::::Types of sensations.:Olfactory.\n\nSmells in the external world activate hair receptors in nostrils. These receptors then send signals to the olfactory bulb, which is located at the base of the brain. Anosmia is the inability to smell.\n\nSection::::Types of sensations.:Somatosensory.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "On December 6, 2011, while conducting the \"Cannonball Chemistry\" experiment, the MythBusters crew accidentally sent a cannonball through the side of a house and into a minivan in a Dublin, California, neighborhood. Although the experiment was being carried out at the Alameda County Sheriff's Bomb Range under the supervision of the Alameda County Sheriff's Office, the errant projectile went over its intended target of water barrels and instead skipped up a hill that was intended as a secondary safety target, and soared into a neighboring community, striking a house and leaving a hole, before striking the roof of another house and smashing through a window of a parked minivan. No one was hurt by the rogue cannonball.\n", "The first human cannonball, launched in 1877 at the Royal Aquarium in London, was a 14-year-old girl called \"Zazel\", whose real name was Rossa Matilda Richter. She was launched by a spring-style cannon invented by Canadian William Leonard Hunt (\"The Great Farini\"). She later toured with the P.T. Barnum Circus. Farini's cannon used rubber springs to launch a person from the cannon, limiting the distance he or she could be launched. Richter's career as a human cannonball ended when a launch went awry and she broke her back.\n", "The Human Cannonball appeared as part of the \"Circus of Crime\" entry in \"The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Deluxe Edition\" #2.\n\nSection::::Fictional character biography.\n", "In 1784, while a lieutenant in the Royal Artillery, he perfected, with his own resources, an invention of what he called \"spherical case\" ammunition: a hollow cannonball filled with lead shot that burst in mid-air. He successfully demonstrated this in 1787 at Gibraltar. He intended the device as an anti-personnel weapon. \n", "On December 6, 2011, while conducting an experiment on the effectiveness of various projectiles when fired out of a cannon, a \"MythBusters\" television crew sent a cannonball through the side of a house and into a minivan in a nearby Dublin, California neighborhood. The projectile had missed its intended target and instead soared , striking a house and leaving a hole, before striking the roof of another house and smashing through a window of a parked minivan.\n\nSection::::Cultural references.\n", "On December 6, 2011, while taping for the \"Cannonball Chemistry\" story, a home-made cannon test sent a cannonball through a residential neighborhood in Dublin, California. No one was injured, but the cannonball did considerable property damage, crashing through the walls of a family's house and landing in a car.\n\nSection::::Episode overview.\n\nonlyinclude\n\n/onlyinclude\n\nSection::::Episode 179 – \"Duct Tape Island\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: March 25, 2012\n\nThe Build Team does not appear in this episode.\n\nSection::::Episode 179 – \"Duct Tape Island\".:Duct Tape Island Survival.\n", "In this episode, the MythBusters test several myths based on scenes from the film \"\" and other pirate movies.\n\nSection::::Episode 92 – \"Pirates 2\".:Cannonball Chaos.\n\nAdam and Jamie tested several cannonball myths involving improvised cannon ammunition and whether they are lethal or not. Using a Civil War-era cannon nicknamed \"Old Moses\" that had been used to help test \"Cannonball vs. Shrapnel\" on the first Pirate Special, the MythBusters fired various improvised materials that would be found on a period pirate ship at dead pigs to test their lethality. Some of these improvised cannonballs include...\n", "This fictional columbiad is made of cast iron six feet (1830 mm) thick, is 900 feet (274 m) long, and has a bore with a diameter of nine feet (2750 mm). It weighs more than 68,000 short tons (61,700 metric tons or 60,700 long tons) and is therefore cast directly in the ground, rather than being mounted on rails. The cannon is then loaded with 400,000 pounds (180,000 kg) of \"pyroxyle\" (gun cotton) to give the projectile sufficient velocity to leave Earth's atmosphere and reach the Moon.\n", "The Human Cannonball wears padded steel armor to protect his head, shoulders, wrists and feet from the effects of his attack. The armor also offers some protection from physical attacks. He usually uses a trailer mounted air cannon to fire himself at opponents or onto buildings. He sometimes carries a mace to hit opponents as he flies by them.\n\nSection::::In other media.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.\n\nBULLET::::- Human Cannonball appears in \"The Incredible Hulk\" portion of \"The Marvel Super Heroes\".\n\nBULLET::::- Human Cannonball appears in the \"Spider-Man\" episode \"Carnival of Crime.\"\n", "Human Cannonball (Marvel Comics)\n\nThe Human Cannonball is a fictional character, a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.\n\nSection::::Publication history.\n\nThe Human Cannonball first appeared in \"Incredible Hulk\" #3 (September 1962), and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby.\n\nThe character subsequently appears in \"The Amazing Spider-Man\" #16 (September 1964), #22 (March 1965), \"The Avengers\" #22 (November 1965), \"The Amazing Spider-Man Annual\" #2 (1965), \"Thor\" #145-147 (October–December 1967), \"Marvel Spectacular\" #15-17 (July–September 1975), \"Super-Villain Team-Up\" #8 (October 1976), \"Ghost Rider\" #72-73 (September–October 1982), and \"X-Men and Power Pack\" #3 (February 2006).\n", "The throw was performed as follows: the ordinary security was removed from the spool, then the bucket of the automatic safety detached from the bomb, by gravity or under the action of a spring; the cross bar, dragged from the headphone weight was then slipped from its housing. This was true between the first 3–5 m. of the trajectory, after which the fuze, as capsule and percussor were kept spaced only by the spring, was run under conditions of impact against any resistant object and consequently of causing the deflagration of an extra charge contained in the sphere.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Human cannonball\n\nThe human cannonball act is a performance in which a person who acts as the \"cannonball\" is ejected from a specially designed \"cannon\". The human cannonball lands on a horizontal net or inflated bag placed at the landing point, as predicted by physics. Outdoor performances may aim at a body of water.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the world's first mail bombs is mentioned in the 18th century diary of Danish official and historian Bolle Willum Luxdorph. His diary mainly consists of concise references to news from Denmark and abroad. In the entry for January 19, 1764 he writes the following: \"Colonel Poulsen residing at Børglum Abbey was sent by mail a box. When he opens it, therein is to be found gunpowder and a firelock which sets fire unto it, so he became very injured.\" The entry for February 15 same year says: \"Colonel Poulsen receives a letter in German, [saying] that soon the dose will be increased.\" It is referring to the dose of gunpowder in the box. The perpetrator was never found. In a later reference Luxdorph has found a mention of a similar bomb being used, also in 1764, but in Savona in Italy.\n", "The Build Team investigated the possibility of surviving a bomb explosion by placing the device in a container and diving out of the way. They first set up a charge of C-4 at the bomb range and detonated it as a control test, with rupture discs placed at distances of up to . These discs were calibrated to burst at , the threshold of shock wave injuries; the disc at was the farthest one that burst.\n", "In Jules Verne's novel \"From the Earth to the Moon\", a giant columbiad space gun is constructed in Tampa, Florida after the American Civil War, with the purpose of striking the Moon. Although the cannon is originally designed to fire a hollow aluminum ball, a bullet-shaped projectile is later designed with the purpose of carrying people. \n", "The shrapnel shell was developed in 1784, by Major General Henry Shrapnel of the Royal Artillery. Canister shot was already in widespread use at the time; a tin or canvas container filled with small iron or lead balls burst open when fired, giving the effect of an oversized shotgun shell. Shrapnel's innovation was to combine the multi-projectile shotgun effect of canister shot, with a time fuze to open the canister and disperse the bullets it contained at some distance along the canister's trajectory from the gun. His shell was a hollow cast-iron sphere filled with a mixture of balls and powder, with a crude time fuze. If the fuze was set correctly then the shell would break open, either in front or above the intended target, releasing its contents (of musket balls). The shrapnel balls would carry on with the \"remaining velocity\" of the shell. In addition to a denser pattern of musket balls, the retained velocity could be higher as well, since the shrapnel shell as a whole would likely have a higher ballistic coefficient than the individual musket balls (see external ballistics).\n", "BULLET::::- Canister shot : An anti-personnel projectile which included many small iron round shot or lead musket balls in a metal can, which broke up when fired, scattering the shot throughout the enemy personnel, like a large shotgun.\n", "More than 30 human cannonballs have died during the performance of this stunt. Among the latest was that which occurred in Kent, United Kingdom on April 25, 2011, where a human cannonball died as a result of the failure of the safety net. Landing is considered to be the most dangerous aspect of the act.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Frank \"Cannonball\" Richards\n\nBULLET::::- William Leonard Hunt\n\nBULLET::::- Ildebrando Zacchini\n\nBULLET::::- Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Shane Peacock. \"The Great Farini: The High-Wire Life of William Hunt\" (1995), .\n", "It was the use of ship-launched Congreve rockets by the British in the bombardment of Fort McHenry in the US in 1814 that inspired the fifth line of the first verse of the United States' National Anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\": \"and the rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting in air\". fired the rockets from a 32-pound rocket battery installed below the main deck, which fired through portholes or scuttles pierced in the ship's side.\n", "The hard rock band AC/DC also used cannon in their song \"For Those About to Rock (We Salute You)\", and in live shows replica Napoleonic cannon and pyrotechnics were used to perform the piece.\n\nSection::::Restoration.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Rogue's team.\n", "Cannonball Blitz\n\nCannonball Blitz is a game by Olaf Lubeck for the Apple II and released by Sierra On-Line (then known as \"On-Line Systems\") in 1982. It was ported to the VIC-20, and TI-99/4A computers. The game is a \"Donkey Kong\" clone, with cannonballs and cannons replacing barrels, and a soldier replacing the large ape. On the first level, the player character catches a flag instead of rescuing a girl.\n", "To effect the simultaneous initiation of motion for the two cannonballs, one cannonball was fastened to a rope hanging through the muzzle opening of the cannon. When the cannon fired, the projected cannonball broke the suspension rope of the other, and the two cannonballs commenced their motion simultaneously. Due to experimental errors, the results, although close to Galileo's prediction, were deemed inconclusive by the academics.\n", "There is a claim that the current world record for the longest human cannonball flight is , established by David \"The Bullet\" Smith Jr. on the set of \"Lo Show dei Record\", in Milan, Italy, on March 10, 2011. The distance was measured from the mouth of the cannon to the farthest point reached on the net. David was launched by an 8 m (26' 3\") long cannon. It was estimated that he traveled at a speed of 120 km/h (74.6 mph), reaching a maximum altitude of 23 m (75' 6\").\n", "Catapult (disambiguation)\n\nA catapult is a device used to throw or hurl a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices.\n\nCatapult(s) or Catapulte may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Computing.\n\nBULLET::::- Catapult C, a high-level synthesis tool\n\nBULLET::::- Catapult, codename for Microsoft Proxy Server version 1.0, precursor of Microsoft Forefront Threat Management Gateway\n\nBULLET::::- Catapult, a GUI for openMSX, an open source emulator for the MSX home computer architecture\n\nSection::::Media and entertainment.\n\nSection::::Media and entertainment.:Film.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staten Island Catapult\", a documentary by Gregorio Smith\n\nBULLET::::- \"Catapult\", a 2009 film set in Berlin\n\nSection::::Media and entertainment.:Music.\n\nSection::::Media and entertainment.:Music.:Artists.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Another example in humans and some other animals is after an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack). Collateral circulation in the heart tissue will sometimes bypass the blockage in the main artery and supply enough oxygenated blood to enable the cardiac tissue to survive and recover.\n\nSection::::Eye.\n\nAfter central retinal vein occlusion, neovascularization may restore some blood flow to the retina, but the new vessels' bulk also presents a risk of causing acute glaucoma by blocking the drainage of aqueous humour.\n\nSection::::Truncal venous system.\n", "Ocular neovascularization (NV) is the abnormal formation of new capillaries from already existing blood vessels in the eye, and this is a characteristics for ocular diseases such as diabetic retinopathy (DR), retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and (wet form) age-related macular degeneration (AMD). One of the main players in these diseases is VEGF (Vascular endothelial growth factor) which is known to induce vessel leakage and which is also known to be angiogenic. In normal tissues VEGF stimulates endothelial cell proliferation in a dose dependent manner, but such activity is lost with other angiogenic factors.\n", "Many patients who suffer with spider veins seek the assistance of physicians who specialize in vein care or peripheral vascular disease. These physicians are called vascular surgeons or phlebologists. More recently, interventional radiologists have started treating venous problems.\n\nSome telangiectasias are due to developmental abnormalities that can closely mimic the behaviour of benign vascular neoplasms. They may be composed of abnormal aggregations of arterioles, capillaries or venules. Because telangiectasias are vascular lesions, they blanch when tested with diascopy.\n", "The portions of the veins above the upper ring become interrupted by the developing liver and broken up by it into a plexus of small capillary-like vessels termed sinusoids.\n\nSection::::Derivatives.\n\nThe vitelline veins give rise to\n\nBULLET::::- Hepatic veins\n\nBULLET::::- Inferior portion of Inferior vena cava\n\nBULLET::::- Portal vein\n\nBULLET::::- Superior mesenteric vein\n\nInferior mesenteric vein, \n\nCiliac trunk\n", "Vorticose veins also drain into the superior ophthalmic vein.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.\n\nThe medial angle of the eye, nose and lips (known as the danger triangle of the face) usually drain through the facial vein, via the ophthalmic vein through the cavernous sinus. As a result, an infection of the face may spread to the cavernous sinus and pterygoid venous plexus. This can lead to damage of the nerves running through the cavernous sinus.\n", "In general, BRVO has a good prognosis: after 1 year 50–60% of eyes have been reported to have a final VA of 20/40 or better even without any treatment. With time the dramatic picture of an acute BRVO becomes more subtle, hemorrhages fade so that the retina can look almost normal. Collateral vessels develop to help drain the affected area.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nBULLET::::- BRVO is 4 times more common than CRVO.\n\nBULLET::::- Usual age of onset is 60–70 years.\n\nBULLET::::- An analysis of population from several countries estimates that approximately 16 million people worldwide may have retinal vein occlusion.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "It is usually associated with disease processes in the retina, which involve the retina becoming starved of oxygen (ischaemic). The ischemic retina releases a variety of factors, the most important of which is VEGF. These factors stimulate the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). Unfortunately, these new vessels do not have the same characteristics as the blood vessels originally formed in the eye. In addition, new blood vessels can form in areas that do not have them. Specifically, new blood vessels can be observed on the iris. In addition to the blood vessels in the iris, they can grow into the angle of the eye. These blood vessels eventually go through a process called fibrosis which closes the normal physiologic anatomy of the angle. The closing of the angle prevents fluid from leaving the eye resulting in an increase in intraocular pressure. This is called neovascular glaucoma.\n", "Section::::Future directions.\n\nSection::::Future directions.:Transarterial PVE.\n", "The decision to treat deep vein thrombosis depends on its size, a person's symptoms, and their risk factors. It generally involves anticoagulation to prevents clots or to reduce the size of the clot.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Diseases.:Portal hypertension.\n\nThe portal veins are found within the abdomen and carry blood through to the liver. Portal hypertension is associated with cirrhosis or disease of the liver, or other conditions such as an obstructing clot (Budd Chiari syndrome) or compression from tumours or tuberculosis lesions. When the pressure increases in the portal veins, a collateral circulation develops, causing visible veins such as oesophageal varices.\n", "BULLET::::- The second indication of laser treatment is in case of neovascularization. Retinal photocoagulation is applied to the involved retina to cover the entire involved segment, extending from the arcade out to the periphery. Ischemia alone is not an indication for treatment provided that follow-up could be maintained.\n", "Vorticose veins\n\nThe vorticose veins, referred to clinically as the vortex veins, drain the ocular choroid. The number of vortex veins is known to vary from 4 to 8 with about 65% of the normal population having 4 or 5. In most cases, there is at least one vortex vein in each quadrant. Typically, the entrances to the vortex veins in the outer layer of the choroid (lamina vasculosa) can be observed funduscopically and provide an important clinical landmarks identifying the ocular equator. However, the veins run posteriorly in the sclera exiting the eye well posterior to the equator.\n", "Retinal neovascularization occurs in 20% of cases within the first 6–12 months of occlusion and depends on the area of retinal nonperfusion. Neovascularization is more likely to occur if more than five disc diameters of nonperfusion are present and vitreous hemorrhage can ensue.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nStudies have identified the following abnormalities as risk factors for the development of BRVO:\n\nBULLET::::- hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- cardiovascular disease\n\nBULLET::::- obesity\n\nBULLET::::- glaucoma\n\nDiabetes mellitus was not a major independent risk factor.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of BRVO is made clinically by finding retinal hemorrhages in the distribution of an obstructed retinal vein.\n", "The astronauts afflicted with long term visual changes and prolonged intracranial hypertension have all been male, and SOS may explain this because in men, the sternocleidomastoid muscle is typically thicker than in women and may contribute to more compression. The reason that SOS does not occur in all individuals may be related to anatomic variations in the internal jugular vein. Ultrasound study has shown that in some individuals, the internal jugular vein is located in a more lateral position to Zone I compression, and therefore not as much compression will occur, allowing continued blood flow.\n\nSection::::Current ICP and IOP measurement.\n", "Normally, maturation of the retina proceeds in-utero, and at term, the medial portion (Nasal retina) of the retina is fully vascularized, while the lateral portion (Temporal retina) is only incompletely vascularized. The normal growth of the blood vessels is directed to relatively low-oxygen areas of the retina, but the vessels remain in the plane of the retina and do not grow into the vitreous humor. If excess oxygen is given, normal blood vessels degrade and cease to develop. When the excess oxygen environment is removed, the blood vessels rapidly begin forming again and grow into the vitreous humor of the eye from the retina.\n", "The risk for CNV is elevated in certain instances for patients following penetrating keratoplasty without active inflammation or epithelial defects. CNV is more likely to occur in those with active blepharitis, those who receive sutured knots in their host stromas, and those with a large recipient area.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nThe in-growth of new blood vessels is mediated by the upregulation of angiogenic cytokines. The enzyme metalloproteinase degrades the cornea's basement membrane and extracellular matrix, while proteolytic enzymes allow vascular epithelial cells to enter the stromal layer of the cornea.\n", "Telangiectasias, also known as spider veins, are small dilated blood vessels that can occur near the surface of the skin or mucous membranes, measuring between 0.5 and 1 millimeter in diameter. These dilated blood vessels can develop anywhere on the body but are commonly seen on the face around the nose, cheeks and chin. Dilated blood vessels can also develop on the legs, although when they occur on the legs, they often have underlying venous reflux or \"hidden varicose veins\" (see \"venous hypertension\" section below). When found on the legs, they are found specifically on the upper thigh, below the knee joint and around the ankles.\n", "BULLET::::- Iris\n\nBULLET::::- Ciliary body\n\nBULLET::::- Choroid\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nThe prime functions of the uveal tract as a unit are:\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition and gas exchange: uveal vessels directly perfuse the ciliary body and iris, to support their metabolic needs, and indirectly supply diffusible nutrients to the outer retina, sclera, and lens, which lack any intrinsic blood supply. (The cornea has no adjacent blood vessels and is oxygenated by direct gas exchange with the environment.)\n", "BULLET::::- Surgery is employed occasionally for longstanding vitreous hemorrhage and other serious complications such as epiretinal membrane and retinal detachment.\n\nBULLET::::- Arteriovenous sheathotomy has been reported in small, uncontrolled series of patients with BRVO. BRVO typically occurs at arteriovenous crossings, where the artery and vein share a common adventitial sheath. In arteriovenous sheathotomy an incision is made in the adventitial sheath adjacent to the arteriovenous crossing and is extended along the membrane that holds the blood vessels in position to the point where they cross, the overlying artery is then separated from the vein.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Central retinal vein\n\nThe central retinal vein (retinal vein) is a short vein that runs through the optic nerve, leaves the optic nerve 10 mm from the eyeball and drains blood from the capillaries of the retina into either superior ophthalmic vein or into the cavernous sinus directly. The anatomy of the veins of the orbit of the eye varies between individuals, and in some the central retinal vein drains into the superior ophthalmic vein, and in some it drains directly into the cavernous sinus.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "BULLET::::- Pregnancy: Pregnancy is a key factor contributing to the formation of varicose and spider veins. The most important factor is circulating hormones that weaken vein walls. There's also a significant increase in the blood volume during pregnancy, which tends to distend veins, causing valve dysfunction which leads to blood pooling in the veins. Moreover, later in pregnancy, the enlarged uterus can compress veins, causing higher vein pressure leading to dilated veins. Varicose veins that form during pregnancy may spontaneously improve or even disappear a few months after delivery.\n", "Central retinal vein occlusion\n\nThe central retinal vein is the venous equivalent of the central retinal artery and, like that blood vessel, it can suffer from occlusion (central retinal vein occlusion, also CRVO), similar to that seen in ocular ischemic syndrome. Since the central retinal artery and vein are the sole source of blood supply and drainage for the retina, such occlusion can lead to severe damage to the retina and blindness, due to ischemia (restriction in blood supply) and edema (swelling).\n\nIt can also cause glaucoma.\n", "In 2009, the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society added \"central retinal artery occlusion\" to their list of approved indications for hyperbaric oxygen (HBO). When used as an adjunctive therapy, the edema reducing properties of HBO, along with down regulation of inflammatory cytokines may contribute to the improvement in vision. Prevention of vision loss requires that certain conditions be met: the treatment be started before irreversible damage has occurred (over 24 hours), the occlusion must not also occur at the ophthalmic artery, and treatment must continue until the inner layers of the retina are again oxygenated by the retinal arteries.\n", "The large hepatic veins arise from smaller veins found within the liver, and ultimately from numerous central veins of the liver lobules. None of the hepatic veins have valves.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe hepatic veins are divided into an upper and a lower group. The upper three drain the central veins from the right, middle, and left regions of the liver and are larger than the lower group of veins.\n", "In 1G on earth, the main outflow of blood from the head is due to gravity, rather than a pumping or vacuum mechanism. In a standing position, the main outflow from the head is through the vertebral venous system because the internal jugular veins, located primarily between the carotid artery and the sternocleidomastoid muscle are partially or completely occluded due to the pressure from these structures, and in a supine position, the main outflow is through the internal jugular veins as they have fallen laterally due to the weight of the contained blood, are no longer compressed and have greatly expanded in diameter, but the smaller vertebral system has lost the gravitational force for blood outflow. In microgravity, there is no gravity to pull the internal jugular veins out from the zone of compression (Wiener classification Zone I), and there is also no gravitational force to pull blood through the vertebral venous system. In microgravity, the cranial venous system has been put into minimal outflow and maximal obstruction. This then causes a cascade of cranial venous hypertension, which decreases CSF resorption from the arachnoid granulations, leading to intracranial hypertension and papilledema. The venous hypertension also contributes to the head swelling seen in photos of astronauts and the nasal and sinus congestion along with headache noted by many. There is also subsequent venous hypertension in the venous system of the eye which may contribute to the findings noted on ophthalmic exam and contributing to the visual disturbances noted.\n", "Section::::Future directions.:Reversible PVE.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Countervailing duties in the U.S. are assessed by the International Trade Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce which determines whether imports in question are being subsidized and, if so, by how much. If there is a determination that there is material injury to the competing domestic industry, the Department of Commerce will instruct U.S. Customs and Border Protection to levy duties in the amount equivalent to subsidy margins. \n", "An almost identical analysis of this tariff from the perspective of a net producing country yields parallel results. From that country's perspective, the tariff leaves producers worse off and consumers better off, but the net loss to producers is larger than the benefit to consumers (there is no tax revenue in this case because the country being analyzed is not collecting the tariff). Under similar analysis, export tariffs, import quotas and export quotas all yield nearly identical results.\n", "On September 1, 2018, the National Taxpayers Union Foundation, the research arm of the conservative tax advocacy group National Taxpayers Union, published analysis showing that the Trump \"trade taxes\" implemented to date would exceed all the taxes in Obama's Affordable Care Act in 2019. The analysis also found that if proposed additional tariffs were implemented, the total tariffs would offset nearly half the 2019 benefits of Trump's 2017 tax cut.\n\nSection::::Trade.:Tariffs.:Congressional action.\n", "All three forms of contingent protection have played a part disproportionate to the importance of the duty collected. As top-up measures available virtually on demand, they have helped to maintain heavily protected producers whose existence was vulnerable to import competition.\n\nSection::::Non-tariff assistance.\n\nAlthough tariffs have been the dominant form of industry assistance for most of the past two hundred years, non-tariff forms of assistance - such as import quotas, content plans and subsidies - have benefitted particular industries or product groups.\n", "Duty collected from contingent protection duties is recorded in statistics of total duty collected and therefore enters into the calculation of average tariff rates. As a component of total duty collected these duties are quite small. However, they have been applied most of the time to industries which already have above-average levels of (nominal and effective) protection, and the implicit ad valorem rates of contingent duty are generally high. For example, in the recent period 2014-15, 60 per cent of dumping and countervailing measures were imposed on steel products and the average dumping duty over the period 2009-2015 was 17 per cent. As a second example, The IAC estimated that these temporary quotas on TCF products were equivalent to an ad valorem tax of 40 per cent.\n", "In some societies, tariffs also could be imposed by local authorities on the movement of goods between regions (or via specific internal gateways). A notable example is the \"likin\", which became an important revenue source for local governments in the late Qing China.\n\nSection::::Types.:Other.\n\nSection::::Types.:Other.:License fees.\n\nOccupational taxes or license fees may be imposed on businesses or individuals engaged in certain businesses. Many jurisdictions impose a tax on vehicles.\n\nSection::::Types.:Other.:Poll.\n", "The framers of the United States Constitution gave the federal government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to \"\"... lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States.\"\" and also \"\"To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes.\"\" Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U.S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax-free.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Economic impact.\n\nBetween President Trump's 2017 inauguration and 2019, the U.S.'s trade deficit had grown by $119 billion. In March 2019, the U.S. Department of Commerce stated that in 2018 the trade deficit reached $621 billion, the highest it had been since 2008.\n", "Analysis conducted by CNBC in May 2019 found that Trump \"enacted tariffs equivalent to one of the largest tax increases in decades,\" while Tax Foundation and Tax Policy Center analyses found the tariffs could offset the benefits of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 for many households. The Tax Foundation found that if all existing and proposed tariffs were fully implemented, the benefits of the Trump tax cut would be completely eliminated for all taxpayers through the 90th percentile in earnings.\n", "The Tariff often aims at incompatible ends; the duties are sometimes meant to be both productive of revenue and for protective objects, which are frequently inconsistent with each other; hence they sometimes operate to the complete exclusion of foreign produce, and in so far no revenue can of course be received; and sometimes, when the duty is inordinately high, the amount of revenue becomes gradually trifling.\n\nThe historian Norman Gash has claimed that the Report \"had been based on singularly slender and biased evidence, and bore all the marks of a doctrinaire thesis\".\n", "Section::::Types.:Tariff.\n", "Section::::Impact of Tariffs.:Different economic sectors.\n\nThe pattern of tariffs and industry protection in Australia has favored manufacturers over the other two sectors producing tradeable goods: agriculture and mining. This pattern was established in the last quarter of the 19th century and it has persisted since then. The Brigden Committee Report regarded tariffs as a tax on exporters whose prices are fixed on world markets. “We may say, therefore, that the cost of tariff protection, falling ultimately on the export primary industries, falls chiefly on the owners of land, as such.”.\n", "A May 2019 analysis conducted by CNBC found Trump's tariffs are equivalent to one of the largest tax increases in the U.S. in decades.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "The goods can be utilized for purposes other than for the authorized operations or if the Unit or Developer fails to account for the goods as provided under these rules, duty shall be chargeable on such goods as if these goods have been cleared for home consumption. \n", "Traditionally the federal government has left property taxes and sales taxes to the states and local governments for their revenue. Tariffs or customs duties on imported goods are essentially the only property taxes imposed by the U.S. federal government. Tariffs can be set only by the federal government, not by any state or local jurisdiction. For U.S. constitutional law purposes, a customs duty or tariff is nominally in a separate category from an excise tax. Excise taxes can be (and are) set by federal, state and local jurisdictions.\n", "Presently only about 30% of all import goods are subject to tariffs in the United States, the rest are on the free list. The \"average\" tariffs now charged by the United States are at a historic low. The list of negotiated tariffs are listed on the Harmonized Tariff Schedule as put out by the United States International Trade Commission.\n\nSection::::1913 to present.:Post World War II.\n", "The United States imposes tariffs or customs duties on the import of many types of goods from many jurisdictions. These tariffs or duties must be paid before the goods can be legally imported. Rates of duty vary from 0% to more than 20%, based on the particular goods and country of origin.\n", "Consider a 7% import tax applied equally to all imports (oil, autos, hula hoops, and brake rotors; steel, grain, everything) and a direct refund of every penny of collected revenue in the form of a direct egalitarian \"Citizen's Dividend\" to every person who files Income Tax returns. The import tax (tariff) will increase prices of goods for all domestic consumers, compared to the world price. This increase in the price of goods will result in two types of dead-weight loss: one attributable to domestic producers being incentivized to produce goods that would be more efficiently produced internationally, and the other attributable to domestic consumers being forced out of the market for goods that they would have bought, had the price not been artificially inflated by the tariff (import tax). The actual cost of the tax will be borne by whichever party (producers or consumers) has the more inelastic demand (see earlier section on relative elasticities), regardless of whether consumers buy domestic or foreign goods, and regardless of where the producers make their goods. \n", "All governments within the United States provide tax exemption for some income, property, or persons. These exemptions have their roots both in tax theory, federal and state legislative history, and the United States Constitution.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Internal Revenue Service\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by tax rates\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP\n\nBULLET::::- Tariffs in United States history\n\nBULLET::::- Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017\n\nBULLET::::- Tax resistance in the United States\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nGovernment sources:\n\nBULLET::::- IRS Publication 17, Your Federal Income Tax\n", "Australia passed legislation allowing for the application of antidumping duties in the Australian Industries Preservation Act of 1906. It was one of the first countries to do so and since then the scope of provisions permitting contingent protection have been widened from time to time. Provision was made for the application of countervailing duties in 1961 and, after the removal of comprehensive import licensing as a protective measure in Australia, provision was made for the application of temporary duties in 1960. Temporary duties have been permitted under GATT/WTO rules as a safeguard measure. Throughout the whole of period of the GATT/WTO world trade rules, Australia has been one of the most frequent users of contingent protection.\n", "The combined nomenclature, together with the rates of duty and other relevant charges, and the tariff measures included in the Taric or in other Community arrangements shall constitute the common customs tariff referred to in Article 9 of the Treaty, which shall be applied on the importation of goods into the Community\n\nMember States may insert subdivisions after the CN subheadings for national statistical purposes, and after the Taric subheadings for other national purposes.\n\nThe Commission shall be assisted by a Committee on Tariff and Statistical Nomenclature, called the 'Nomenclature Committee'.\n", "According to economic experts canvassed by PolitiFact, the tariffs could help create new manufacturing jobs and lead to some concessions from the U.S.'s foreign trading partners, but consumer costs and production costs would almost certainly rise, the stock market would fall, interest rates could rise, and trade wars could occur. PolitiFact noted that lower-income consumers in the United States would be hurt the most.\n", "Tariffs are more inefficient than consumption taxes.\n\nSection::::Economic analysis.:Optimal tariff.\n\nFor economic efficiency, \"free trade\" is often the best policy, however levying a tariff is sometimes \"second best\".\n", "Section::::Customs duties.:Origin.\n\nRates of tax on transaction values vary by country of origin. Goods must be individually labeled to indicate country of origin, with exceptions for specific types of goods. Goods are considered to originate in the country with the highest rate of duties for the particular goods unless the goods meet certain minimum content requirements. Extensive modifications to normal duties and classifications apply to goods originating in Canada or Mexico under the North American Free Trade Agreement.\n\nSection::::Customs duties.:Classification.\n", "By the tariff system, the whole revenue is paid by the consumers of foreign goods… the burthen of revenue falls almost entirely on the wealthy and luxurious few, while the substantial and laboring many who live at home, and upon home products, go entirely free.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- 1988–9 – \"The Trials of Life\". Wildlife sequences filmed over three years for David Attenborough's award-winning 13-part BBC TV series; consultations with BBC on Australian subjects researched and filmed by Mantis.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eagle: The Master of the Skies\" uses aerial photography to capture dramatic scenes of the birds, including footage of them dropping tortoises from a great height to smash their shells open. Fifteen of the world's sixty species of eagle were filmed for this programme.\n\nBULLET::::- A specially constructed, remote-controlled airship was used to capture aerial footage of humpback whales as they breached, scooping thousands of fish into their mouths, for \"Humpback Whale: The Giant of the Oceans\".\n", "Dannaldson, a biologist formerly associated with the University of Southern California, became an actor for \"Jacaré\", who goes up the Amazon to catch specimens. The other leading members of the cast were a 22-foot anaconda, many caymans (Amazonian alligators), jaguars, water buffalo, anteaters, tapirs and capybaras.\n", "Gear for wildlife photography is very specialized and uses different lenses and equipment than most other disciplines. Most wildlife lenses have a very long focal length between 150mm and 600mm., allowing the photographer to get a tighter image filling the frame with their chosen subject. Some other specialized gear includes camera traps, hides, and flash extenders. While the majority of wildlife is shot with a long, telephoto lens, when a wide angle lens is used, it can be very striking.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- BeetleCam\n\nBULLET::::- Digiscoping\n\nBULLET::::- Escape distance of animals\n\nBULLET::::- High-speed photography\n\nBULLET::::- National Wildlife Magazine\n", "In the late 1950's, I interviewed a Canadian commercial diver, Jock MacLean of Prince Rupert, B.C. He reported capturing an immense creature weighing 600 pounds [] and measuring 32 feet [] from arm tip to top. MacLean's photographs, unfortunately, were of poor quality. Smaller animals, to 400 pounds [], were occasionally taken in his commercial octopus fishing endeavor.\n", "In \"Venom Hunter\", Discovery Channel TV, 2008, he travelled South America aiming to find out as much as possible about venom, including taking part in the bullet ant ritual where he was stung hundreds of times by the world's most painful stinging insect.\n\nIn \"Swimming with Monsters\", Discovery TV 2013, he swam with large animals, including anaconda, hippopotamus, Humboldt Squid, and great white sharks without the safety of a cage.\n\nSection::::Career.:Television.:Sky TV.\n\nIn 2006 he filmed \"Inside the King Cobra\" for Sky One.\n\nSection::::Career.:Television.:Channel 5.\n", "As of 2012, three series in the Deadly 60 format have been produced each with 26 episodes.\n\nEach series shows Backshall and his camera crew travelling the world in an attempt to find another 60 of the \"most deadly\" animals in the world. In each episode, Backshall tracks several animals in its habitat, and giving details of what makes the animal notable, with particular emphasis on its impact on the wider ecosystem and the manner of its predatory behaviour; thus, why it is \"deadly\". \n", "BULLET::::- 2005 \"Mad Cowboy\", Writer, Director, Executive Producer, Hosted by Howard Lyman of Voice for a Viable Future, KQED/PBS.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 \"No Vacancy\", Writer, Director, Directory of Photography, Producer, Executive Producer, Hosted by Bob Gillespie of Population Communication, public broadcasting service.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 \"Hotspots\", Writer, Director, Producer, Co-Director of Cinematography, Executive Producer, Hosted by Dr. Russell Mittermeier of Conservation International, Two-Hour Feature Documentary, KQED/PBS.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 \"The Grand And Otago Skinks: Conservation of Two of New Zealand’s Rarest Reptiles\", Writer, Director, Producer. Short Subject Documentary, Dancing Star Foundation.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Nature documentary\n\nBULLET::::- \"BBC Atlas of the Natural World\", a 2006-07 DVD compilation series for North America\n\nSection::::References.\n\nThe material for this article has largely been drawn from the following sources:\n\nBULLET::::- Parsons, C. (1982) \"True to Nature: 25 Years of Wildlife Filming with the BBC Natural History Unit\". Patrick Stephens Limited.\n\nBULLET::::- BBC/2entertain \"Great Wildlife Moments\" DVD (2003). Bonus Feature: NHU Filmography\n\nBULLET::::- BBC TV programmes website, searchable by title or category\n\nBULLET::::- BBC Science & Nature: TV & Radio Follow-up (not updated since 2008)\n", "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – \"To Be a Butterfly\" (Gold Camera Award, USA). Conceived, written and directed by Densey Clyne and filmed by Jim Frazier in Australia, a one-hour documentary about the lives of tropical butterflies, produced by Oxford Scientific Films for Anglia TV.\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – \"Sounds Like Australia\". Produced by Film Australia, directed by Jamie Robertson, a documentary about two musicians inspired to compose music by the sounds of nature. Wildlife sequences filmed, and sound recorded, by Mantis. (Won Golden Tripod Award)\n", "Although the animals featured in the specials are frequent documentary subjects, the \"Wildlife Specials\" incorporate the latest filming techniques and scientific research to present the creatures in a new light, as described in the examples below:\n\nBULLET::::- During the production of \"Polar Bear: The Arctic Warrior\", the producer and cameraman were trapped on an ice floe for 20 hours, but managed to capture the first scenes of newborn cubs in the den.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Leopard: The Agent of Darkness\", infrared cameras are used to reveal the cats' previously unseen nocturnal hunting of baboons.\n", "BULLET::::- A complete foot of \"M. didinus\" found in a cave on Mount Owen near Nelson in the 1980s (currently held by the Museum of New Zealand)\n\nBULLET::::- A skeleton of \"Anomalopteryx didiformis\" with muscle, skin, and feather bases collected from a cave near Te Anau in 1980.\n", "BULLET::::- Plankton Chronicles – Short documentary films and photos\n\nBULLET::::- COPEPOD: The Global Plankton Database – Global coverage database of zooplankton biomass and abundance data\n\nBULLET::::- Plankton*Net – Taxonomic database of images of plankton species\n\nBULLET::::- Guide to the marine zooplankton of south eastern Australia – Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science – Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder Project – Integrated Marine Observing System\n\nBULLET::::- Sea Drifters – BBC Audio slideshow\n\nBULLET::::- – Images of planktonic microorganisms\n\nBULLET::::- Plankton, planktic, planktonic – Essays on nomenclature\n", "SEGMENT 1: Spear Hunting Jaguars. Charles Collingwood, narrator of the Adventure series, interviews Sasha Siemel, a professional hunter for 35 years who makes his living spear hunting jaguars for cattle ranchers in South America. Siemel, who has lectured at the AMNH, shows films of various forms of wildlife around his home in Matto Grosso, Brazil, and also lets the viewers see his hunting activities: capturing a cub in the jungle and spearing a jaguar. (Jaguars are the largest cats in the New World.) Siemel has killed over 300 jaguars, but only 31 by spear. Siemel demonstrates in the studio the movements of a spear hunter and shows some of his own hand-made spears to the studio while discussing their construction techniques.\n", "Meanwhile, a bivouac of army ants in Panama was able to be filmed internally with the aid of a medical endoscope. Furthermore, a new type of camera lens enabled tree ants to be filmed in enlarged close-up just in front of Attenborough — with both subjects in sharp focus. This gave the illusion that the insects were much larger than their actual size.\n", "BULLET::::- Groundbreaking high-speed photography, x-ray imaging and miniature cameras attached to the heads of snakes captured footage of new and revealing behaviour in \"Serpent: Through the Eyes of the Snake\".\n\nBULLET::::- For the two-part special \"Trek: Spy on the Wildebeest\", cameras disguised as tortoises and crocodiles, and an aerial camera christened \"Dragonfly Cam\", were developed.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Tiger: Spy in the Jungle\", trained elephants carried and deployed the \"Trunk Cam\" and \"Tusk Cam\", whilst the \"Log Cam\" gathered unique footage of India's jungle wildlife.\n\nSection::::Programmes.\n\nA list of programme titles with original broadcast date:\n", "The second season of \"River Monsters\" began airing on 24 April 2010, although the first episode, titled \"Demon Fish\" first appeared on Discovery Channel on 28 March 2010. This season consisted of 7 episodes and took viewers to the River Congo and other distant locations. In the episode, \"Death Ray\", Wade caught a pregnant giant freshwater stingray, the largest fish he ever landed. She later gave birth to two pups while being examined by Wade and a team of biologists. This season featured the white sturgeon, Wade's second largest catch.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Super Cats: A Nature Mini-series\" PBS (2018) - 3 Episodes\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Survival\" (1961)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Suzuki on Science\" (1971)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Weird Nature\" (2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Africa\" (2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild About Animals\" (1995-)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Caribbean\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Down Under\" (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Kingdom\" (1963-1988)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Russia\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yellowstone\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zoo Quest\" (1954-1964)\n\nSection::::Current production.\n", "In 2016, Galante and his photographer were among the first to ever swim with crocodiles, wearing special suits that mimic the crocodile's scaly skin and block the body's electrical current, allowing them to capture the reptile's natural behavior. The duo came within inches of the crocodiles, filming them in their authentic habitat for their film, “Dancing with Dragons.”\n", "Will Burrard-Lucas and his brother, Matt, returned to Africa in 2011 with two improved BeetleCams, with the aim of focusing on lions. During this project they created a set of pictures of feeding lions and playful cubs. This series was first released in 2012 in an article called \"BeetleCam vs the Lions of the Masai Mara\". BeetleCam Mark II used a Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III.\n\nIn 2012, Burrard-Lucas moved to Zambia and used a new version of the BeetleCam to photograph leopards and other animals, primarily in South Luangwa National Park.\n", "BULLET::::- A man is stabbed in the head with a large knife, but eventually makes a full recovery / A crocodile expert routinely has the animals swallow a device that monitors their health; while they are tranquilized, he sticks his arm down their throats to retrieve the device after some time has passed / Willie McQueen, who lost his legs in a train accident and later became a football player / After experiencing a false pregnancy, a dog behaves as if cordless telephones are her puppies / Carey Hart successfully performs a 360-degree backflip on a motorcycle / Clothing made from latex that is painted onto the skin and allowed to dry.\n", "The second \"Survival\" was filmed in the heart of East Anglia and featured one of Britain's rarest birds, the avocet. The series went international when Willock was despatched to Uganda to supervise the filming of a story about white rhino being captured and re-located to protect them from poachers.\n", "BULLET::::- Kelly – She arrived on 13 December 1974, died on 11 September 2008. Early findings indicate cause of death may be due to stomach cancer. His death triggered the closure of Marineland\n\nBULLET::::- Shona – Arrived on 13 December 1974, died on 7 April 2006 due to old age.\n\nBULLET::::- California sea lion: Where housed in pools totalling over 600,000 litres. They are used in daily shows along with the dolphins.\n\nBULLET::::- Rosey – She was born at Marineland in 1984 and is a fully mature breeding female. Has now died.\n", "While wildlife photographs can be taken using basic equipment, successful photography of some types of wildlife requires specialist equipment, such as macro lenses for insects, long focal length lenses for birds and underwater cameras for marine life. However, a great wildlife photograph can also be the result of being in the right place at the right time and often involves a good understanding of animal behavior in order to anticipate interesting situations to capture in photography.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "If it is found that the meme has made use of a copyrighted work, such as the movie still or photograph without due permission from the original owner, it would amount to copyright infringement. Rage comics and memes created for the sole purpose of becoming memes would normally be original works of the creator and therefore, the question of infringing other copyright work does not arise. This does not mean that all memes made from movie still or photographs are infringing copyright. There are defences available for such use in various jurisdictions which could exempt the meme from attracting liability for the infringement.\n", "For the meme to successfully claim protection, it would have to show that it is original work of the author and has a modest amount of creativity, since the United States has a low threshold for what constitutes creativity. Memes are comments about the popular culture or social ideas and therefore the use of the text would have some amount of creativity.\n", "The court claimed in \"Anderson v. City of Hermosa Beach\" that tattoos, tattooing, and the business of tattooing are considered pure speech. In creating a tattoo, the court held that both the tattoo artist and client are participating in expressive activity. Both parties collaborate and contribute to the artistic vision of the final product.\n", "The distinction between (legitimate) original and (illegitimate) copy developed in Western Europe. It goes back to philosophical concepts that Plato and Aristotle created. In particular, Boon sees at work the nominalism of Plato, who introduced the idea of an unchanging and unattainable original in Western philosophy. The distinction between original and copy is in its modern incarnation represented by copyright but is actually a consequence of industrial capitalism. This distinction is threatening to undermine the culture of the world and thus to marginalize other systems of reproduction. Boon uses examples from non-European cultures and especially from Buddhism to question the existence of the original in itself.\n", "The amount and substantiality of the portion used tests not only the quantity of the work copied but the quality that is copied as well. Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises clarified this position. For cinematograph still, only a small portion of the entire film is copied whereas for rage comics and personal photographs, the entire portion has been used to create the meme. Despite this, all categories of memes would be considered to be falling under fair use because the text that is added to those images adds value, without which it would just be picture. Moreover, the heart of the work is not affected because the still/picture is taken out of context and portrays something entirely different from what the image originally wanted to depict.\n", "The legal status of tattoos is still developing. In recent years, various lawsuits have arisen in the United States regarding the status of tattoos as a copyrightable art form. However, these cases have either been settled out of court or are currently being disputed, and therefore no legal precedent exists directly on point. The process of tattooing was held to be a purely expressive activity protected by the First Amendment by the Ninth Circuit in 2010.\n\nSection::::Militaries from around the world.\n", "Under Section 2(c) of the Indian Copyright Act, 1957, a meme could be classified as an 'artistic work' which states that an artistic work includes painting, sculpture, drawing (including a diagram, map, chart or plan), an engraving or a photograph, whether or not any such work possesses artistic quality. The section uses the phrase \"\"whether or not possessing artistic quality\"\", the memes that are rage comics or those such as Keyboard Cat would enjoy protection as they are original creations in the form a painting, drawing, photograph or short video clip, despite not having artistic quality. Memes that made from cinematograph still or photographs, the original image in the background for the meme would also be protected as the picture or the still from the series/movie is an 'artistic work'. These meme are a modification of that already existing artistic work with some little amount of creativity and therefore, they would also enjoy copyright protection.\n", "The court found that tattooing is similar to writing or painting. Writing and painting are considered pure speech. Therefore, the process of tattooing should be considered pure speech rather than conduct that can contain expressive elements. With activities such as writing, painting, and tattooing, the court notes that the processes of creation are “inextricably intertwined” with the final products. Both the tattoo and the process of tattooing must be afforded First Amendment protection. The process of creation cannot be distinctly separated from the final product. The court notes that a tattoo cannot be created without the conduct of placing a needle beneath a client's skin just as the Declaration of Independence could not have been created without the process of placing a quill on paper. The court holds that the process of tattooing and the tattoo itself are so intertwined that the restriction of tattooing effectively restricts the ability to obtain a tattoo and display constitutionally protected expression.\n", "Because of these differences in the legal doctrines of trademark and copyright, trademark law is less likely to come into conflict with fanfiction.\n\nA brief note on non-U.S. perspectives: while other countries do not necessarily weigh the interests of trademark owners and other speakers in the same way, noncommercial and expressive uses may receive protection under other nations' laws as well. For example, in South Africa, a T-shirt company was able to sell T-shirts parodying Black Label beer.\n\nSection::::Right of publicity.\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, those countries that do not have private copying laws are in fact making many of their citizens criminals. A law which makes potentially more than 50% of the population criminals does not seem to be a fair business practice. Lawyers rather than artists may well be the greatest beneficiaries in non-private copying countries. This argument assumes that private copying can only be allowed with a levy.\n\nSection::::Legal effects.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2013, the Arthur Conan Doyle estate was accused of copyfraud by Leslie Klinger in a lawsuit in Illinois for demanding that Klinger pay a license fee for the use in his book of the character Sherlock Holmes and other characters and elements in Conan Doyle's works published before 1923. The US Supreme Court agreed with Klinger, ruling that these characters and elements are in the American public domain.\n", "Past court cases within the United States have addressed the issue of whether or not the process of tattooing is protected by the First Amendment. In 1980, in \"Yurkew v. Sinclair\" the court indicated that the process of tattooing was not sufficiently imbued with elements of communication. Therefore, the process of tattooing was not protected by the First Amendment. v Similarly, in the 2008 case of \"Hold Fast Tattoo, LLC v. City of North Chicago\", the court found that the process of tattooing was not protected under the First Amendment. v While the court held that the tattoo itself may be considered as protected speech, the physical process of tattooing was distinct and one step removed from the finished product. Past tattoo cases show that courts within the United States have traditionally found the process of tattooing to fall outside the protection of the First Amendment.\n", "\"A work can only be original if it is the result of independent creative effort. It will not be original if it has been copied from something that already exists. If it is similar to something that already exists but there has been no copying from the existing work either directly or indirectly, then it may be original.\n", "BULLET::::3. the amount and substantiality of the copied material in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole\n\nBULLET::::4. the effect of the use on the potential market for the copyrighted work\n", "Cory Doctorow, in a 2014 \"Boing Boing\" article, noted the \"widespread practice of putting restrictions on scanned copies of public domain books online\" and the many \"powerful entities who lobby online services for a shoot now/ask questions later approach to copyright takedowns, while the victims of the fraud have no powerful voice advocating for them.\" Professor Tanya Asim Cooper wrote that Corbis's claims to copyright in its digital reproductions of public domain art images are \"spurious ... abuses ... restricting access to art that belongs to the public by requiring payment of unnecessary fees and stifling the proliferation of new, creative expression, of 'Progress' that the Constitution guarantees. \n", "(f) in the case of any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, to communicate the work to the public by telecommunication,\n\n(g) to present at a public exhibition, for a purpose other than sale or hire, an artistic work created after June 7, 1988, other than a map, chart or plan,\n\n(h) in the case of a computer program that can be reproduced in the ordinary course of its use, other than by a reproduction during its execution in conjunction with a machine, device or computer, to rent out the computer program, and\n", "Section::::Cultural arguments.:Authorship and creativity.\n", "Section::::Copyright.\n\nSection::::Copyright.:United States.\n\nThe legal status of derivative fan made art in America may be tricky due to the vagaries of the United States Copyright Act. Generally, the right to reproduce and display pieces of artwork is controlled by the original author or artist under 17 U.S.C. § 106. Fan art using settings and characters from a previously created work could be considered a derivative work, which would place control of the copyright with the owner of that original work. Display and distribution of fan art that would be considered a derivative work would be unlawful.\n", "Art and photography: Publishers have often placed copyright notices and restrictions on their reproductions of public domain artwork and photos. However, there is no copyright for a reproduction, whether by photograph or even a painted reproduction, since there is no original creativity. One famous court case which explained that was \"Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.\" in 1999: The \"skill, labor or judgment merely in the process of copying cannot confer originality . . . .\" Despite the clear ruling of a U.S. federal court, however, Mazzone notes that the Bridgeman Art Library has been \"undeterred by its loss in court and continues to assert copyright in reproductions\" of countless public domain works by famous artists of previous centuries, such as Camille Pissarro.\n", "Furthermore, the clause only permits protection of the writings of authors and the discoveries of inventors. Hence, writings may only be protected to the extent that they are original, and \"inventions\" must be truly inventive and not merely obvious improvements on existing knowledge. The term \"writings of authors\" appears to exclude non-human authorship such as painting by chimpanzees and computer code written by programmed computers, but the issue has not been tested in litigation.\n", "The Court also held that the business of tattooing does not affect whether or not the process of tattooing is free expression. The sale of artwork does not remove the expressive content from being protected by the First Amendment. This protection does not become diminished as the artwork is sold. The Court noted that the sale of the tattoo is intertwined with the process of tattooing and the tattoo itself. The business of tattooing is therefore pure expressive activity that is entitled to full protection under the First Amendment.\n", "In the United States, the case of \"Lotus v. Borland\" allows programmers to clone the public functionality of a program without infringing its copyright. \n", "Infringement as seen in Section 41 of the Copyright Act is also elaborated in this case. Section 41 made it clear that nobody is permitted to perform acts contrary to the rights of an Author. The defendant in this case, by licensing the plaintiff's software to Rural Banks following the plaintiff's termination of his partnership with them without his permission amounted to acts contrary to the rights of the plaintiff and this therefore, constituted an infringement. This case therefore highlights a major way by which an author's copyright may be infringed.\n\nSection::::Significance.:Damages.\n", "Another critique comes from semiotic theorists such as Deacon and Kull. This view regards the concept of \"meme\" as a primitivized concept of \"sign\". The meme is thus described in memetics as a sign lacking a triadic nature. Semioticians can regard a meme as a \"degenerate\" sign, which includes only its ability of being copied. Accordingly, in the broadest sense, the objects of copying are memes, whereas the objects of translation and interpretation are signs.\n", "Lastly, the effect on the market offers court analysis on whether the meme would cause harm to the actual market of the original copyright work and also the harm it could cause to the potential market. The target audience for the original work and meme is entirely different as the latter is taken out of the context of the original and created for the use and dissemination on social media. Rage comics and memes created for the purpose of being memes are an exception to this because the target audience for both is the same and copied work could infringe on the potential market of the original. Warner Brothers was sued for infringing the Nyan Cat meme by using it its game Scribblenauts.\n" ]

[ "Tattoos using copy write content are not infringing on copywrite laws." ]

[ "They are infringing on copywrite laws, it just isn't worth going after them. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Tattoos using copy write content are not infringing on copywrite laws." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "They are infringing on copywrite laws, it just isn't worth going after them. " ]

[ "Section::::Controversies.\n", "The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (Lord Kelvin), who in the 1850s took the theory of heat as mechanical energy loss in nature (as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale.\n\nSection::::Origins of the idea.\n", "In the years to follow both Thomson's 1852 and the 1865 papers, Helmholtz and Rankine both credited Thomson with the idea, but read further into his papers by publishing views stating that Thomson argued that the universe will end in a \"\"heat death\"\" (Helmholtz) which will be the \"\"end of all physical phenomena\"\" (Rankine).\n\nSection::::Current status.\n", "The idea of heat death as a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics, however, was first proposed in loose terms beginning in 1851 by William Thomson, who theorized further on the mechanical energy loss views of Sadi Carnot (1824), James Joule (1843), and Rudolf Clausius (1850). Thomson's views were then elaborated on more definitively over the next decade by Hermann von Helmholtz and William Rankine.\n\nSection::::Origins of the idea.:History.\n", "The idea of heat death of the universe derives from discussion of the application of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851, William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical theory of heat: \"heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect.\"\n", "If a Big Rip does not happen long before that, the \"heat death\" situation could be avoided if there is a method or mechanism to regenerate hydrogen atoms from radiation, dark matter, dark energy, zero-point energy, or other sources so that star formation and heat transfer can continue to avoid a gradual running down of the universe due to the conversion of matter into energy and heavier elements in stellar processes and the absorption of matter by black holes and their subsequent evaporation as Hawking radiation.\n\nSection::::Time frame for heat death.\n", "If the topology of the universe is open or flat, or if dark energy is a positive cosmological constant (both of which are consistent with current data), the universe will continue expanding forever, and a heat death is expected to occur, with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.\n", "The result would inevitably be a state of universal rest and death, if the universe were finite and left to obey existing laws. But it is impossible to conceive a limit to the extent of matter in the universe; and therefore science points rather to an endless progress, through an endless space, of action involving the transformation of potential energy into palpable motion and hence into heat, than to a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock, and stopping for ever.\n", "Proposals about the final state of the universe depend on the assumptions made about its ultimate fate, and these assumptions have varied considerably over the late 20th century and early 21st century. In a hypothesized \"open\" or \"flat\" universe that continues expanding indefinitely, either a heat death or a Big Rip is expected to eventually occur. If the cosmological constant is zero, the universe will approach absolute zero temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is positive, as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further work is possible.\n", "Heat death of the universe\n\nThe heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze, is a conjecture on the ultimate fate of the universe, which suggests the universe would evolve to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase entropy. Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform work. In the language of physics, this is when the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy).\n", "From the Big Bang through the present day, matter and dark matter in the universe are thought to have been concentrated in stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters, and are presumed to continue to be so well into the future. Therefore, the universe is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, and objects can do physical work. The decay time for a supermassive black hole of roughly 1 galaxy mass (10 solar masses) due to Hawking radiation is on the order of 10 years, so entropy can be produced until at least that time. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10 years. After that time, the universe enters the so-called Dark Era and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of photons and leptons. With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state. It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death. Another universe could possibly be created by random quantum fluctuations or quantum tunneling in roughly formula_1 years. Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous entropy \"decrease\" would eventually occur via the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and fluctuation theorem. Such a scenario, however, has been described as \"highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable\". Sean M. Carroll, originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.\n", "The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the term to horse racing. Meets formerly had the same horses run several \"heats\" in a day, with victors being decided by the total number of wins. A heat which had no clear single winner was discounted from these tallies and was therefore \"dead\".\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "Section::::Input from physicists.\n\nIn 1984 physicist Paul Davies deduced a finite-time origin of the universe in a quite different way, from physical grounds: \"the universe will eventually die, wallowing, as it were, in its own entropy. This is known among physicists as the 'heat death' of the universe... The universe cannot have existed for ever, otherwise it would have reached its equilibrium end state an infinite time ago. Conclusion: the universe did not always exist.\"\n", "The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the second law of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object. If the universe was eternal, as claimed in the classical stationary model of the universe, it should already be cold.\n", "Any hot object transfers heat to its cooler surroundings, until everything is at the same temperature. For two objects at the same temperature as much heat flows from one body as flows from the other, and the net effect is no change. If the universe were infinitely old, there must have been enough time for the stars to cool and warm their surroundings. Everywhere should therefore be at the same temperature and there should either be no stars, or everything should be as hot as stars.\n", "A related scenario is heat death, which states that the universe goes to a state of maximum entropy in which everything is evenly distributed and there are no gradients—which are needed to sustain information processing, one form of which is life. The heat death scenario is compatible with any of the three spatial models, but requires that the universe reach an eventual temperature minimum.\n\nSection::::Theories about the end of the universe.:Big Rip.\n", "The conjecture that all bodies in the universe cool off, eventually becoming too cold to support life, seems to have been first put forward by the French astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly in 1777 in his writings on the history of astronomy and in the ensuing correspondence with Voltaire. In Bailly's view, all planets have an internal heat and are now at some particular stage of cooling. Jupiter, for instance, is still too hot for life to arise there for thousands of years, while the Moon is already too cold. The final state, in this view, is described as one of \"equilibrium\" in which all motion ceases.\n", "As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.\n\nSection::::Conservation of energy.\n", "Max Planck wrote that the phrase \"entropy of the universe\" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition. More recently, Grandy writes: \"It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence.\" According to Tisza: \"If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it.\" Buchdahl writes of \"the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system\". According to Gallavotti: \"... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state.\" Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: \"Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way.\" In Landsberg's opinion: \"The \"third\" misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book.\"\n", "Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death\n\nThis is the timeline of the Universe from Big Bang to Heat Death scenario. The different eras of the universe are shown. The heat death will occur in 10 years, if protons decay.\n", "Heat death paradox\n\nFormulated in 1862 by Lord Kelvin, Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine, the heat death paradox, also known as Clausius's paradox and thermodynamic paradox, is a \"reductio ad absurdum\" argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe.\n\nThis paradox is based upon the classical model of the universe in which the universe is eternal. Clausius's paradox is a paradox of paradigm. It was necessary to amend the fundamental ideas about the universe, which brought about the change of the paradigm. The paradox was solved when the paradigm was changed.\n", "It was a previously accepted concept that heat was absorbed through external sources, however the concept of vital heat was more or less stumbled upon by a physiological observation that associates cold with the dead and heat with the living. \"For the concept of vital heat we may--somewhat arbitrarily-- take our starting point in Parmenides. His correlation of dead with cold, alive with warm, may not have been primarily intended as a contribution to physiology, yet the physiological significance of this thought was perceived by his successors; witness Empedocles, who taught 'sleep comes about when the heat of the blood is cooled to the proper degree, death when it becomes altogether cold'\". Aristotle would eventually modify this doctrine stating that \"sleep is a temporary overpowering of the inner heat by other factors in the body, death its final extinction.\"\n", "It is not known exactly when the inflationary epoch ended, but it is thought to have been between 10 and 10 seconds after the Big Bang. The rapid expansion of space meant that elementary particles remaining from the grand unification epoch were now distributed very thinly across the universe. However, the huge potential energy of the inflation field was released at the end of the inflationary epoch, as the inflaton field decayed into other particles, known as \"reheating\". This heating effect led to the universe being repopulated with a dense, hot mixture of quarks, anti-quarks and gluons. In other models, reheating is often considered to mark the start of the electroweak epoch, and some theories, such as warm inflation, avoid a reheating phase entirely.\n", "The CMB gives a snapshot of the universe when, according to standard cosmology, the temperature dropped enough to allow electrons and protons to form hydrogen atoms, thereby making the universe nearly transparent to radiation because light was no longer being scattered off free electrons. When it originated some 380,000 years after the Big Bang—this time is generally known as the \"time of last scattering\" or the period of recombination or decoupling—the temperature of the universe was about 3000 K. This corresponds to an energy of about 0.26 eV, which is much less than the 13.6 eV ionization energy of hydrogen.\n", "The idea of heat death stems from the second law of thermodynamics, of which one version states that entropy tends to increase in an isolated system. From this, the hypothesis implies that if the universe lasts for a sufficient time, it will asymptotically approach a state where all energy is evenly distributed. In other words, according to this hypothesis, there is a tendency in nature to the dissipation (energy transformation) of mechanical energy (motion) into thermal energy; hence, by extrapolation, there exists the view that, in time, the mechanical movement of the universe will run down as work is converted to heat because of the second law.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In the United States, cable operators were not required to provide access to their facilities to other competing businesses. However, local telephone providers with physical infrastructure, or incumbent local exchange carriers, had such an obligation. This asymmetrical scheme of regulation became a problem when the two industries' businesses came to overlap and the boundary between them eroded. This transformation of industrial landscape, often called convergence, happened in the broadband Internet service provider market. To make matters worse, the cable operators were the leading camp although local telephone carriers were burdened by the open-access obligation.\n", "The new regulation framework that was shaped by the 1996 act eliminated the entry barrier for companies to expand their business into new markets. Local exchange carriers are allowed start business in the long distance market and even video and broadband market. On the other hand, because cable TV and video services are regulated as “information services,” cable companies are allowed entering the telecommunication market without applying for license and exempted from heavy regulation. Furthermore, telephone companies must interconnect their loops and network with cable companies when they need infrastructure support for telecommunication services.\n\nSection::::United States.:Market reform.\n", "Many cable systems operate as \"de facto\" monopolies in the United States. While exclusive franchises are currently prohibited by federal law, and relatively few franchises were ever expressly exclusive, frequently only one cable company offers cable service in a given community. Overbuilders in the U.S., other than telephone companies with existing infrastructure, have traditionally had severe difficulty in financial and market penetration numbers. Overbuilders have had some success in the MDU market, in which relationships are established with landlords, sometimes with contracts and exclusivity agreements for the buildings, sometimes to the anger of tenants. The rise of direct broadcast satellite systems providing the same type of programming using small satellite receivers, and of Verizon FiOS and other recent ventures by incumbent local exchange carriers such as U-verse, have also provided competition to incumbent cable television systems.\n", "In the 20th century, analog telephone and cable television networks were designed around the limitations of the prevailing technology. The copper-wired twisted pair telephone networks were not able to carry television programming, and copper-wired coaxial cable television networks were not able to carry voice telephony. Towards the end of the twentieth century, with the rise of packet switching—as used on the Internet—and IP-based fiber and wireless technologies, it became possible to design, build, and operate a single high performance network capable of delivering hundreds of services from multiple, competing providers.\n\nSection::::Two models.\n", "The result was that cable systems were permitted to carry as many new television channels as they liked, as well as providing a telephone service and interactive services of many kinds (as since made familiar by the Internet). To maintain the momentum of the perceived commercial interest in this new investment opportunity, in 1983, the Government itself granted eleven interim franchises for new broadband systems each covering a community of up to around 100,000 homes, but the competitive franchising process was otherwise left to the new regulatory body, the Cable Authority, which took on its powers from January 1, 1985.\n", "By 1996, prevailing opinion on the utilities in the United States had changed. Rather than granting one company the exclusive right to generate, transmit and distribute electricity in a specific geographic area, and fixing the rates for that service as one package, it was commonly held that consumers would benefit from opening as much service as possible to competition on an open market. At the federal level, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission had issued Order 888, opening access to the national transmission grids. Subsequent orders established an open energy marketplace and set rules for participation in it. However, it was left to the individual states to determine the best way to give their electricity customers access to the grid and the benefits of an open market.\n", "In March 2007 cable operators scored a major victory when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) overruled two state public service commissions by ruling that incumbent local exchange carriers must connect to VoIP services . Regulators in South Carolina and Nebraska had been allowing local telcos to block Time Warner Cable from offering local phone service in their states. In the other direction, also in March 2007, the FCC limited the powers of municipalities and states over telcos that want to compete with cable TV companies. Consumer groups expressed displeasure with this FCC ruling because they fear telcos will only offer service to the richest neighborhoods, which is a major point of contention between telcos wanting to offer television service and local governments is that local governments typically impose \"build-out\" and community access requirements so a cable provider is forced to wire the entire town within a specified period of time. All three Republican members of the FCC voted for this decision, while both Democratic members voted against it and one predicted either U.S. Congress or the courts would overturn it. In October 2007, The \"Hartford Courant\" reported that Connecticut regulators have ordered AT&T to stop signing up new customers for its IPTV service until they got a cable license; AT&T said they would fight this decision in court .\n", "Broadband high-speed internet has become a worldwide breakthrough for telecommunication services. The service has become crucial for businesses to be able to communicate with customers and is on the verge of being a standard public utility, rather than a luxury for residents. Although other services are still offered, like dial-up Internet access or satellite internet access, broadband internet is the most convenient and fastest mode of telecommunications. With broadband open access, the popularity of this service is in great demand. The debate of making incumbent cable operators obligated to allow competitors to wire into their infrastructure is comparable to the Bell Operating Company (BOC) issue that split into the Regional Bell Operating Companies. Leading cable operators can easily avoid competition due to reasons such as lack of funding for those competitors to build their own backbone network, or even the lack of space available.\n", "Hundreds of public-access television production facilities were launched in the 1970s after the Federal Communications Commission issued its \"Third Report and Order\" in 1972, which required all cable systems in the top 100 U.S. television markets to offer three access-channels, one each for public, educational, and local government use. The rule was amended in 1976 to require that cable systems in communities with 3,500 or more subscribers set aside up to 4 cable TV channels and provide access to equipment and studios for use by the public.\n\nSection::::History.:Midwest Video decisions.\n", "There are multiple and intense regulatory battles over triple-play services, as incumbent telcos and incumbent cable operators attempt to keep out new competitors; since both industries historically have been regulated monopolies, regulatory capture has long been as much a core competency for them as have been prices and terms of service. Cable providers want to compete with telcos for local voice service, but want to discourage telcos from competing with them for television service. Incumbent telcos want to deliver television service but want to block competition for voice service from cable operators. Both industries cloak their demands for favorable regulatory treatment in claims that their positions favor the public interests.\n", "The franchising process proceeded steadily, but the actual construction of new systems was slow, as doubts about an adequate payback from the substantial investment persisted. By the end of 1990 almost 15 million homes had been included in franchised areas, but only 828,000 of these had been passed by broadband cable and only 149,000 were actually subscribing. Thereafter, however, construction accelerated and take-up steadily improved.\n", "Middle-mile provision is a major issue in reducing the price of broadband Internet provision by non-incumbent operators. Internet bandwidth is relatively inexpensive to purchase in bulk at the major Internet peering points, and access to end-customer ports in the incumbent operator's local distribution plant (typically where local loop unbundling is mandated by a telecom regulator) are also relatively inexpensive relative to typical broadband subscription costs.\n", "Although cable providers argued that such regulation would impose an undue burden on their flexibility in selecting which services would be most appealing to their customers, the current \"must-carry\" rules were enacted by the United States Congress in 1992 (via the Cable Television Protection and Competition Act), and the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the rules in rejecting the arguments of the cable industry and programmers in the majority decision authored by Justice Anthony Kennedy. That decision also held that MSOs were functioning as a vertically integrated monopoly.\n", "Pricing for unbundled access is regulated by powers granted to a State commission. A just and reasonable rate is determined on a nondiscriminatory basis and is based on cost of providing the interconnection or unbundled network element. Provisions in the legislation also allow for these pricing structures to include a reasonable profit for the provider. The failure to determine a just and reasonable rate would mean that the incumbent LEC would be unable to recover and receive a reasonable return on its costs, effectively making the incumbent LEC's shareholders subsidize entering competitors.\n", "As part of the Commerce Clause power of the federal government, federal regulatory power overrides state power to regulate the internet. As a result, any state laws which would limit consumer choice of internet access provider to a single seller like Time Warner Cable or Verizon have been preempted by the Federal Communications Commission order taken on Thursday February 26, 2015. Thus municipal broadband is safe until another President who favors the Cable monopoly takes office because FCC orders can be reversed as Presidents change. In the end the United States Congress would have to exercise preemption when there is enough consensus for a bill which a sitting president can sign like the 1996 Telecom law signed by President Bill Clinton which allowed for such predatory high cable prices.\n", "By the end of 2012, only staff and a small number of customers on a single exchange had participated in limited trials and in April 2012 BE announced that it was unlikely to launch a fibre product in 2012 but hoped to do so on a limited basis at an unspecified future date.\n\nSection::::Closure.\n", "Cable companies saw this regulation as an unlawful intrusion by the federal government into their business practices, and immediately started challenging the legality of these new rules. Two important United States Supreme Court cases involved a company known as Midwest Video.\n\nIn \"United States v. Midwest Video Corp.\", 406 U.S. 649 (1972), the Supreme Court upheld the FCC's requirements for Local Origination facilities. However the public-access television requirement did not survive legal scrutiny seven years later.\n", "Cable and satellite television (Pay TV) have bundled TV channels since the inception of both. The progress towards complete cable, internet, and telephone packages gave subscribers many more options as well as offering hundreds of channels. The \"package\" price depends on the level of service a customer prefers within each bundle. The services range from low speed internet and minimum channels to high speed internet and the addition of many premium channels. In the US prices for pay TV have doubled in the last twenty years, averaging 6% per year, while wages have remained the same for nearly 20 years causing dissatisfaction and many cancellations. Costs have risen 53% since 2007 and Comcast and AT&T's Direct TV went up in January 2018. With the Digital television transition opportunities for competition to pay TV ushered in online video companies and forcing pay TV companies to examine à la carte cable company packages.\n", "Also, at that same time in New York City, Fred Friendly, head of the Cable TV and Communications Commission, made recommendations for a leased-access channel for public use. The rent for equipment usage and studio time was opposed and later dropped. This free-access requirement was the contractual beginnings of PEG.\n", "Elevated programming tiers commonly start with an expanded basic package, offering a selection of subscription channels intended for wide distribution (primarily those that launched between the 1970s and the 1990s); since the upspring of digital cable and satellite television during the mid- and late 1990s, additional channels with more limited distribution are offered as add-ons to the basic packages through separate tiers, which are commonly organized based on the programming format of the channels sold in the tier. A la carte subscription services in the U.S. are primarily limited to pay television (more commonly known as \"premium\") channels that are offered as add-ons to any programming package that a customer of a multichannel video programming distributor (also known as a cable or satellite \"system\" or \"provider\") can subscribe to for an additional monthly fee.\n", "BULLET::::- The fact that broadcast stations are carried by cable and satellite providers at all, not to mention simultaneous substitution privileges over U.S. stations, already provide a significant benefit to broadcasters (broadcasters argue that Canada is the only major English-speaking country to allow such wide distribution of the \"big four\" U.S. networks and hence that simsubs are necessary to protect their own broadcast rights).\n\nSection::::Positions of major media companies.:Quebecor.\n", "Before 2013, there was no regulation on the obligation to offer national network signals in pay TV companies. The scheme used consisted of allowing free negotiation between the operators of open television and restricted television. Open-TV companies (Televisa and TV Azteca) had been negotiating with pay-TV companies to offer their television signals on national networks. However, the national network channels were offered together, and without option, alongside restricted TV channels. In addition, regional and local channels were not broadcast on restricted TV companies except individual agreements. This caused that few companies had the same channels in all the cities where they operated. This mechanism was designed considering that, in the event of anti-competitive situations, the competent authority would intervene to correct and punish anticompetitive misconduct and conduct.\n", "The development of technology and government regulation turned the segmented telecom market into one converged market. Separate and static markets are becoming convergent and dynamic. Competition in the market has forced players to discover new markets and new business models. Deregulation, which has removed entry barriers, has given telecom carriers an opportunity to enter the market and to create a new market for bundling services. These internal and external forces drive telecom operators to search for a new breakthrough.\n\nSection::::United States.:Market reform.:Bundled service.\n", "Content providers are actors who have specific interest in gaining as much Internet traffic as possible, but they also have other competitors from other content providers. Advocacy groups argue that content providers need regulated fair access, while some content providers support this, others recommend a free-market system as suggested by Free Press. Those who can afford to bypass any Internet bottleneck will then have an advantage in network speeds, but will have to pay for it.\n", "Cable & Wireless Communications in 2010 had a global portfolio of telecoms operators in small and medium-sized markets. The company's Board determined that it would be difficult to generate the economies of scale needed in the telecoms industry from such a diverse portfolio and so determined to focus the business in the Pan-America region where it owns a number of businesses in the Caribbean and Panama.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "On the CDMA version of the phone there are four slits in the metal band. Two at the top (on the left and right) and two at the bottom. This divides the metal band into four different segments, which like the GSM version of the phone, serves as different antennas for connectivity. The top portion of the band (divided by the top left and right slits) is for connecting to the CDMA network. The left portion of the metal band is for Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS just like the GSM version. The right side is not an antenna, but serves to cosmetically mirror the left side and also to create a similar look to the GSM version of the phone.\n", "The older mobile phones of 90's (Black & white LCD Screen) had options to show telecom operator logo instead of the showing the name in plain text. Later various companies provided custom logo and designs to set as Operator logo. These logos can be shared by sms with other people.\n\nLater on when color mobiles came to market, Colorful logo option came to mobile devices.\n\nAn industry has sprung up around the use of these logos, and around ring tones, tailored towards phones, such as those made by Nokia, which can receive new logos in a text message. \n", "Cherry Mobile Flare S7 series' specifications and design were leaked ahead of their launch on October 12, 2018. Its design for the S7 Deluxe and Plus series were using the long notch from the iPhone XS\n\nIn 2016, Cherry Mobile established official presence in Europe. It started distributing its products in Germany.\n\nSection::::Cubix.\n", "BULLET::::- Nokia T7 is the first smartphone offered in the Tseries line, featuring a Nokia N8 shell with less specifications. Instead of a 12-megapixel shooter, the camera was modified to only 8 megapixels, but still offers high quality picture-taking and HD video recording. It is notable that the HDMI is now gone, and the network that the phone supports are TD-SCDMA and GSM.\n", "The iPhone 4 is structured around a stainless steel frame that wraps around the edge of the phone, acting both as the primary structure for the device and as the iPhone 4's antennas. This metal band features two slits on the GSM version of the phone, one at the lower left, and one at the top (and a fake slit along the lower right, to cosmetically mirror the one at the lower left) that divide the band into two antenna sections: the left section of the band serves as the Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS antenna, and the right and lower sections of the band act as the antenna for GSM and UMTS connectivity.\n", "Section::::Camera phone.:Orientation.\n", "As with other mid-range and top-range phones from Nokia, the Nokia 7 Plus features exclusive rear camera optics licensed from ZEISS.\n\nThe NFC-area on the back of the phone is both smaller and weaker than comparable phones. The NFC area can be found to the left of the camera housing.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "This technology was first introduced by Nokia in 2009 on the N86, and more widely adopted with its next generation AMOLED Symbian phones in 2010 (the Nokia N8, C7, C6-01 and E7). It became a standard feature on most Nokia Lumia Windows Phones in 2013, paired with the Nokia Glance Screen app. The feature has since become more widely available on Android handsets including Huawei (Mate 10 Pro, P20 Pro), Motorola (Moto X, Z, G), LG (G5, G6, G7, V30, V35, V40), Samsung (Galaxy A7(2017, 2018), S7, S8, S9, S10, Note 7/FE/8/9) and the Google Pixel 2, Pixel 3, Pixel 3a.\n", "Section::::Product.:International vs. US.\n\nIn addition to having specification differences, the Trophy and 7 Trophy have slight design differences as well. The 7 Trophy features a bright yellow battery compartment (typical of HTC Windows Mobile devices in the past), whereas the Trophy has a bright red battery compartment (to acknowledge the phone's Verizon ties). Press images of the Verizon device also appear to show a small circular cutout beneath the battery door, and above the Windows Phone logo. This circle is an external antenna port cover.\n\nSection::::Reported problems from 1st release.\n\nBULLET::::- Slow memory\n\nBULLET::::- Low quality screens\n", "BULLET::::- Nokia N71 is a phone in clamshell form factor, mostly recommended for consumers who search for enhanced ergonomics due to its button arrangement. It supports SMS, MMS, voice and video calling, Internet browsing, Bluetooth wireless technology, among many other features. Like the Nokia N70, it has a 2-megapixel camera. To connect with PC, it uses the proprietary Pop-Port medium.\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N72 is a stylish Nseries device that comes in two designs: gloss black and pearl pink. It only runs through the GSM network, and has no front-facing camera. The device takes from Nokia N70's design cues.\n", "The iPhone 4 uses a micro-SIM card on iPhone 4 devices running on a GSM network, which is positioned in an ejectable tray, located on the right side of the device. On a CDMA network, however, the phone connects to the network using an ESN. All prior models have used regular mini-SIM cards. Depending on the operator, micro-SIM cards may not be available for all networks globally. As a technical workaround it is possible to trim a mini-SIM card with a knife or scissors so that it fits into the micro-SIM tray.\n", "BULLET::::- Desk or wall use\n\nThe phone also required a handset cord which had a long straight section as the connector to the base was located on the bottom of the phone, and not facing outward on the side.\n", "In October 2013, Motorola Mobility announced Project Ara, a concept for a modular smartphone platform that would allow users to customize and upgrade their phones with add-on modules that attached magnetically to a frame. Ara was retained by Google following its sale of Motorola Mobility to Lenovo, but was shelved in 2016. That year, LG and Motorola both unveiled smartphones featuring a limited form of modularity for accessories; the LG G5 allowed accessories to be installed via the removal of its battery compartment, while the Moto Z utilizes accessories attached magnetically to the rear of the device.\n", "Section::::Specifications.:Accessories.\n\nHTC unveiled a \"Dot View Case\" for the device during its press conference. The cover of this flip case contains a grid of holes, allowing a clock, weather forecast, and notifications of messages and calls on the screen below it to be displayed through the holes in a style resembling a dot matrix display.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Google Play edition.\n", "In 2016, two manufacturers unveiled phone lines with modular accessory systems. LG Electronics unveiled its LG G5 smartphone, which allows add-on modules to be installed by removing its \"chin\" and battery, and attaching the battery to an accessory that is then re-inserted into the phone. LG unveiled camera grip and audio enhancement accessories as part of the launch of the device. Motorola later unveiled the Moto Z, which allows the installation of case-like accessories known as \"MotoMods\", mounted using magnets to the rear of the device and a pogo pin connector for communication.\n", "The Sprint, Cellular South, Cellcom, Bluegrass Cellular, Manitoba Telecom Services, NTelos, and Cox Wireless version of the HTC Hero is different from those that are sold in Asia, Canada and Europe. The outer body is significantly altered, with the controversial \"chin\" that is present on the Asian, Canadian (some providers) and European models being removed in favor of a smooth, beveled surface where all but two of the once raised buttons now lie flat. Also due to performance issues some of the clock animations were removed. Some carriers may market it as the HTC Android 6250.\n\nSection::::U.S. variants.:Droid Eris.\n", "The phone was originally released in four colors: Black, Vandyke Brown, Anodizing Silver, and Elegant Gold. This was later increased to ten colors including white, pink and purple. \n", "Section::::Design features.:Display.\n\nMost handsets utilized a monochrome LCD display capable of displaying 7 or 10 digits, with green or orange LED backlighting. The better featured handsets used a 7 digit alphanumeric display, and offered a color LCD display as an option.\n", "The MicroTAC body was also used as the base model for the Motorola TeleTAC and the Flare series. The TeleTAC and Flare phones used the same core body, antenna, screen, keypad, and batteries, but lacked the flip-lid cover. The MicroTAC 650E lost the flip and Memory Location keys and gained arrow keys to become the Profile 300E. This Profile 300e phone was also called Metro1, the model on the sticker was S7956A and featured a 2.5mm headset jack.\n\nSection::::Model history.:V.I.P. Models.\n", "The V557 is one of Motorola's midrange fliphones and was released in 2005. Its technical specifications are very similar to those of the V551, and the V557 looks almost exactly like the V551, except that it comes in black, not blue. It also comes with a software upgrade of a \"Live Ticker\"—the first Motorola product to do so. The \"Live Ticker\" automatically downloads news and information to the desktop of the phone at no cost to the user, making it an upgrade from the V551. It also comes with a rubber-like black outer edge instead of dark blue.\n", "In October 2018, Oppo announced a top of the line addition to the R15 Series named as the R15x. It features a water-drop notch and under-display fingerprint sensor. It ran on ColorOS 5.2.\n\nSection::::Oppo R Series.:R17 and R17 Pro.\n", "Cat B25\n\nThe Cat B25 is a mobile phone introduced in 2013 created by Bullitt Group with the license from Caterpillar Inc. as the first phone in the Cat phones line. The objective of the phone is to be a rugged and resilient option to be used with minimal damage.\n\nIt is a slight redesign of the JCB Sitemaster 2, another phone by Bullitt released in 2012 for their former licensee JCB, changing the color from yellow to grey, and modifying the rubber grip around the phone to the appearance to a continuous track.\n", "An interesting feature present in this phone is that the face plate system allows users to print out their own cut-out cover designs and use it in the phone. The official special released designs include \"Snowboard,\" \"Street life\" and \"Urban chic\". It was thus marketed as being \"fun and funky\" with a unique style.\n", "The design of the 6151, primarily based on its previous version the Nokia 6080, has conserved a classical appearance. Buttons and connectors are kept flush in order to maintain the phone's smooth appearance. The phone features a unique design which allows the phone an easy handling of the phone with only one hand. It is available in black, grey, lime green, orange and white.\n\nSection::::Nokia 6170.\n\nThe Nokia 6170 is one of the clamshell phone series from Nokia with a compact form and an integrated VGA camera (640x480 pixels).\n\nSection::::Nokia 6216 classic.\n", "The taco form factor was popularized by the Nokia N-Gage, released in 2003. It was widely known as the plastic taco for its taco-shape and the placement of microphones on the side of the device, which, when one talks into the microphone, gives the appearance of eating a taco. Other models include Nokia 3300 and Nokia 5510.\n\nSection::::With one non-movable section.:Wearables.\n\nSection::::With one non-movable section.:Wearables.:Watch phone.\n\nA smartphone in the form of a wristwatch is typically referred to as a watch phone.\n\nSection::::With movable sections.\n\nSection::::With movable sections.:Flip.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth. This is because the Earth is an oblate spheroid, not a perfect sphere; its radius is about smaller at the poles than at the equator. As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least closer to the Earth's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor.\n", "Section::::Boundaries of IBM Arc system.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Masterpiece Theatre\" (2009–2011).\n", "The movement of the Pacific and Mariana plates is also indirectly responsible for the formation of the Mariana Islands. These volcanic islands are caused by flux melting of the upper mantle due to release of water that is trapped in minerals of the subducted portion of the Pacific Plate.\n\nSection::::Research history.\n", "The dense oceanic plate has a high tendency to sink. As it sinks, it breaks along the oceanic plate and the welded crust above and a gap is created. The extra space created leads to the decompression melting of mantle wedge materials. The melts flow upward and fill the gap and intrude the oceanic plate and welded crust as mafic dykes intrusion. Eventually, the oceanic plate completely breaks apart from the welded crust as it continues to sink. \n\nSection::::Evolution of divergent double subduction system.:Final stage.\n", "Section::::Structural features.:Unconformity.\n\nWhen the two overriding plates collide and the ocean basin is closed, sedimentation ceases. Sinking of the oceanic plate drag down the welded crust to form a basin that allows continued sedimentation. After the oceanic plate completely detaches from the crust above, isostatic rebound occurs, leaving a significant unconformity in the sedimentary sections. \n\nSection::::Factors controlling the evolution of divergent double subduction system.\n", "It should be noted that the IBM arc is not experiencing trench ‘roll-back’, that is, the migration of the oceanic trench towards the ocean. The trench is moving towards Eurasia, although a strongly extensional regime is maintained in the IBM arc system because of rapid PH-EU convergence. The nearly vertical orientation of the subducted plate beneath southern IBM exerts a strong “sea-anchor” force that strongly resists its lateral motion. Back-arc basin spreading is thought to be due to the combined effects of the sea-anchor force and rapid PH-EU convergence . \n", "Section::::Tectonic Behavior.\n\nSection::::Tectonic Behavior.:Eastern Convergent Boundary.\n", "Everything on the Pacific plate that enters the IBM trench is subducted. The next section discusses some modifications of the lithosphere just prior to its descent and the age and composition of oceanic crust and sediments on the Pacific plate adjacent to the trench. In addition to subducted sediments and crust of the Pacific plate, there is also a very substantial volume of material from the overriding IBM forearc that is lost to the subduction zone by tectonic erosion .\n\nSection::::IBM Trench and outer trench swell.\n", "Section::::Geologic history of the IBM Arc system.\n", "Section::::Tectonic Behavior.:Western Divergent Boundary.\n\nThe Mariana Plate is also separating at a rate of 30 mm/yr from the Philippine Plate to the west. The Mariana Trough is located on the western side of the island arc along with the back arc basin. Around 3 Ma the basin began spreading at 4.7 cm/yr. Due to the back arc spreading in the Marian Trough the islands are moving east while the Philippine Sea plate is staying almost stationary. \n\nSection::::Future of Plate.\n", "Section::::Plate motions.\n", "Talus, marsh sediments and limestones such as the Mariana Limestone are common across the surface, resulting from deposition and mass-wasting during the Pleistocene and Holocene. \n\nSection::::Structural geology.\n", "The inner trench wall marks the edge of the overriding plate and the outermost forearc. The forearc consists of igneous and metamorphic crust, and this crust may act as buttress to a growing accretionary wedge (formed from sediments scraped off the top of the downgoing plate). If the flux of sediments is high, material transfers from the subducting plate to the overriding plate. In this case an accretionary prism grows and the location of the trench migrates progressively away from the volcanic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins with growing accretionary prisms are called accretionary margins and make up nearly half of all convergent margins. If the incoming sediment flux is low, material is scraped from the overriding plate by the subducting plate in a process called subduction erosion. This material is then carried down into the subduction zone. In this case, the location of the trench migrates towards the magmatic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins experiencing subduction erosion are called non-accretionary or erosive margins and comprise more than half of convergent plate boundaries. This is an oversimplification, because the same section of margin may experience both sediment accretion and subduction erosion throughout its active time span.\n", "The Mariana Trench is part of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system that forms the boundary between two tectonic plates. In this system, the western edge of one plate, the Pacific Plate, is subducted (i.e., thrust) beneath the smaller Mariana Plate that lies to the west. Crustal material at the western edge of the Pacific Plate is some of the oldest oceanic crust on earth (up to 170 million years old), and is therefore cooler and more dense; hence its great height difference relative to the higher-riding (and younger) Mariana Plate. The deepest area at the plate boundary is the Mariana Trench proper.\n", "The formation of the Intermontane Belt is complex. It began forming during the early Jurassic period when an island arc called the Intermontane Islands collided against a pre-existing continental margin. This island arc is believed to have formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Intermontane Plate about 245 million years ago by subduction of the former Insular Plate during the Triassic period. This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the Intermontane Trench under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the Slide Mountain Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual because very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the eastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Intermontane Plate drifted east to the ancient continental margin of western North America, the Slide Mountain Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. The subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the volcanic arc on the ancient continental margin of western North America and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming the Intermontane Belt. This collision crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern Washington State and British Columbia.\n", "Section::::Extension style.\n", "Geologic tension is also found in the tectonic regions of divergent boundaries. Here, a magma chamber forms underneath oceanic crust and causes sea-floor spreading in the creation of new oceanic crust. Some of the force that pushes the two plates apart is due to ridge push force of the magma chamber. Tension, however, accounts for most of the \"opposite directions\" pull on the plates. As the separating oceanic crust cools over time, it becomes more dense and sinks farther and farther away from the ridge axis. The cooling and sinking ocean crust causes a tensile stress that also helps drive the pulling apart of the plates at the ridge axis. \n", "In contrast to the persistence of continental crust, the size, shape, and number of continents are constantly changing through geologic time. Different tracts rift apart, collide and recoalesce as part of a grand supercontinent cycle.\n", "The Pacific Ocean is the only ocean which is almost totally bounded by subduction zones. Only the Antarctic and Australian coasts have no nearby subduction zones.\n\nSection::::Geology.:Geological history.\n\nThe Pacific Ocean was born 750 million years ago at the breakup of Rodinia, although it is generally called the Panthalassic Ocean until the breakup of Pangea, about 200 million years ago. The oldest Pacific Ocean floor is only around 180 Ma old, with older crust subducted by now.\n\nSection::::Geology.:Seamount chains.\n", "The movement of the island arcs towards the continent could be possible if, at some point, the ancient Benioff zones dipped toward the present ocean rather than toward the continent, as in most arcs today. This will have resulted in the loss of ocean floor between the arc and the continent, and consequently, in the migration of the arc during spreading episodes.\n", "The process begins as two continents (different bits of continental crust), separated across a tract of ocean (and oceanic crust), approach each other, while the oceanic crust is slowly consumed at a subduction zone. The subduction zone runs along the edge of one of the continents and dips under it, raising volcanic mountain chains at some distance behind it, such as the Andes of South America today. Subduction involves the whole lithosphere, the density of which is largely controlled by the nature of the crust it carries. Oceanic crust is thin (~6 km thick) and dense (about 3.3 g/cm³), consisting of basalt, gabbro, and peridotite. Consequently, most oceanic crust is subducted easily at an oceanic trench. In contrast, continental crust is thick (~45 km thick) and buoyant, composed mostly of granitic rocks (average density about 2.5 g/cm³). Continental crust is subducted with difficulty, but is subducted to depths of 90-150 km or more, as evidenced by ultra-high pressure (UHP) metamorphic suites. Normal subduction continues as long as the ocean exists, but the subduction system is disrupted as the continent carried by the downgoing plate enters the trench. Because it contains thick continental crust, this lithosphere is less dense than the underlying asthenospheric mantle and normal subduction is disrupted. The volcanic arc on the upper plate is slowly extinguished. Resisting subduction, the crust buckles up and under, raising mountains where a trench used to be. The position of the trench becomes a zone that marks the suture between the two continental terranes. Suture zones are often marked by fragments of the pre-existing oceanic crust and mantle rocks, known as ophiolites.\n", "Section::::Geological History.\n\nSubduction at the Mariana plate has been going on for over 50 million years. Some theories of the origin of this microplate is that when the Pacific plate began to subduct beneath the Philippine plate the volcanism and spreading ridge started to make an arc. This geological activity caused the section of the Philippine plate to break off and become the Mariana microplate. The Mariana Islands consist of volcanoes that are active and dormant and are made up of volcanic and sedimentary rocks from the Pleistocene.\n\nSection::::Defining Features.\n", "Modern geological knowledge rules out \"lost continents\" of any significant size. According to the theory of plate tectonics, which has been extensively confirmed since the 1970s, the Earth's crust consists of lighter \"sial\" rocks (continental crust rich in aluminium silicates) that float on heavier \"sima\" rocks (oceanic crust richer in magnesium silicates). The sial is generally absent in the ocean floor where the crust is a few kilometers thick, while the continents are huge solid blocks tens of kilometers thick. Since continents float on the sima much like icebergs float on water, a continent cannot simply \"sink\" under the ocean.\n", "Aside from the Juan Fernández Islands, this area has very few other islands that are affected by the earthquakes that are a result of complicated movements at these junctions.\n\nSection::::Geologic history.\n" ]

[ "Mariana trench should move with tectonic plates." ]

[ "It does move however the movement is so miniscule that it is imperceptable. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Mariana trench should move with tectonic plates." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It does move however the movement is so miniscule that it is imperceptable. " ]

[ "In 2005, ACNielsen initiated their MVP (Media Voice Panel) program. Panel members carry an electronic monitor that detects the digital station and program identification codes hidden within the TV and radio broadcasts they are exposed to. At night, members place the monitor in a cradle that sends the collected data through the home's electrical wiring to a relay device that transmits it by phone, making it one of the first practical uses of electrical wiring as a home network. With an approximately one week notice to members, the MVP program ended on March 17, 2008.\n", "A similar term used by Nielsen Media Research is the Designated Market Area (DMA), and they control the trademark on it. DMAs are used by Nielsen Media Research to identify TV stations that best reach an area and attract the most viewers. There are 210 Nielsen DMAs in the United States, 70 of which are metered (in other words, viewership in these markets are estimated automatically instead of through the archaic diary system still in use in the smaller markets).\n", "In the 1980s, the company launched a new measurement device known as the \"people meter\". The device resembles a remote control with buttons for each individual family member and extras for guests. Viewers push a button to signify when they are in the room and push it again when they leave, even if the TV is still on. This form of measurement was intended to provide a more accurate picture of who was watching and when.\n", "Nielsen's formula for PUT is the number of persons viewing TV divided by the total persons universe i.e. the television rating divided by the total share of television in a particular demographic area.\n", "The numbers can show who is listening to a particular station, the most popular times of day for listeners in that group, and the percentage of the total listening audience that can be reached with a particular schedule of advertisements. The numbers also show exactly how many people are listening at each hour of the day. This allows an advertiser to select the strongest stations in the market with specificity and tells them what times of day will be the best times to run their ads.\n", "Nielsen Media Research. It is used by media planners and buyers, advertisers to appropriate the ratings of channels when individual viewership is calculated. This term is usually used in the US to represent average percentage of People using TV across all channels within predefined time period.\n", "There is no definitive list of every radio and television station in the world. The National Association of Broadcasters cites the estimate from the U.S. C.I.A. World Fact Book, which reports that \"as of January 2000, there are over 21,500 television stations and over 44,000 radio stations.\" (CIA World Fact Book references – Radio, TV)\n\nIn the United States the FCC provides a list of \"Licensed Broadcast Station Totals (Index) 1990 to Present,\" which may be found here. According to the FCC report –\n", "Each year, Nielsen processes approximately two million paper diaries from households across the country, for the months of November, February, May and July—also known as the \"sweeps\" rating periods. The term \"sweeps\" dates from 1954, when Nielsen collected diaries from households in the Eastern United States first; from there they would \"sweep\" west. Seven-day diaries (or eight-day diaries in homes with DVRs) are mailed to homes to keep a tally of what is watched on each television set and by whom. Over the course of a sweeps period, diaries are mailed to a new panel of homes each week. At the end of the month, all of the viewing data from the individual weeks is aggregated.\n", "BULLET::::- In Germany TV audience measurement is done by Gesellschaft für Konsumforschung (known as GfK).\n", "The Nielsen TV Ratings have been produced in the USA since the 1950-51 television season and statistically measure which programs are watched by different segments of the population. The most well-known portion is the \"diary\". During the four \"sweeps\" months of February, May, July and November, Nielsen interviewers in Oldsmar, Florida and Radcliff, Kentucky ask homes to participate in filling out a diary of the programs watched in their home for a one-week period.\n", "PUTs is calculated by considering the average audience figures gauged from the peopleometer, for all channels during a particular time period and adding them together to get the cumulative number. Put is used to calculate the demographic persons rating. Almost all media scales are technically based on person's ratings. It is observed that the percentage rating remains constant from year to year. If changes are observed, then they are slight in nature and only due to changes in viewing habits.\n\nSection::::PUT and PVT.\n", "Another version of the device is small, about the size of a beeper, that plugs into the wall below or near each TV set in household. It monitors anything that comes on the TV and relays the information with the small Portable People Meter to narrow down who is watching what and when. \n\nThe device, known as a 'frequency-based meter', was invented by a British company called Audits of Great Britain (AGB). The successor company to AGB is TNS, which is active in 34 countries around the globe.\n", "Section::::Active Position Detection.\n", "Section::::Premise.\n\nThe Nielsens (named after the Nielsen ratings) are a family of fictional characters from a 1950s' sitcom that has been canceled; they have been relocated to a real world New Jersey suburb in 1991, which is different from the world they know. They use a device called a Turnerizer (named after Ted Turner) to switch between color and black-and-white within their home. Mike Duff, the teenage son of the family next door, is the only real-world person who knows their secret.\n", "BULLET::::2. A more technologically sophisticated system uses Set Meters, which are small devices connected to televisions in selected homes. These devices gather the viewing habits of the home and transmit the information nightly to Nielsen through a \"Home Unit\" connected to a phone line. The technology-based home unit system is meant to allow market researchers to study television viewing habits on a minute to minute basis, recording the moment viewers change channels or turn off their television set. In addition to set meters, individual viewer reporting devices, such as people meters, have allowed the company to separate household viewing information into various demographic groups.\n", "Tallies of the number of requests (for specific items) are frequently kept as that is an indicator of what is popular or a set period of time. Many radio stations have published weekly surveys and based entire components of their programming on the statistics of the requests they receive. Since 2012, \"Billboard\" magazine has kept track of On-Demand Songs as one of three components of the \"Billboard\" Hot 100.\n", "During the 1980s, the Arbitron Company was developing the \"Portable People Meter\", or \"PPM\", technology to replace its self-administered, seven-day radio diary method to collect radio listening data from Arbitron survey participants. The radio diary had been the most generally accepted method of measuring radio listening since 1964. Rantel became an early evangelist for the new PPM method, because Rantel researchers had performed many audits of Arbitron radio diaries during its early years and were keenly aware of the weaknesses of the seven-day radio diary method.\n", "Section::::Local People Meter.\n\nAlong with changing their counting methods, Nielsen also started emphasizing their sample in 2003 in reaction to census shifts and requests from some industry sectors. Nielsen’s automated Local People Meter (LPM) technology was introduced in New York and Los Angeles. The LPM improved the method of measurement from active and diary-based to passive and meter-monitored. More importantly, the LPM provides accurate measurements to particular local markets, verse a nationwide sample from the People meter. While diary-based surveys concentrated on quarterly “sweeps” periods, the industry has been pushed towards year-round measurement, due to the automated LPM system.\n", "Section::::Calculation.\n\nIt is a term coined by Nielsen Media Research. It refers to the total number of people in a particular demographic area, that are watching television during a given time period. Nielsen defines “PUT as a percentage of the population or as a number that represents the thousands of persons viewing television.” The formula used to calculate PUT is similar to HUT [Houses Using Television]\n\nPUT = (Rating / Share) x 100\n", "BULLET::::- The Commission has announced the following totals for broadcast stations licensed as of March 31, 2004\n\nSection::::Worldwide media.\n\nThere is no definitive list of every radio and television station in the world. The National Association of Broadcasters cites the estimate from the U.S. C.I.A. World Fact Book, which reports that \"as of January 2000, there are over 21,500 television stations and over 44,000 radio stations.\" (CIA World Fact Book references – Radio, TV)\n", "Until the development of portable people meters, Arbitron (Nielsen's predecessor in the radio measurement business) did not have the capability to measure individual airings of a program the way Nielsen Ratings can for television, and as such, it only measures in three-month moving averages each month. Portable people meters are currently only available in the largest markets Arbitron serves. Thus, it is impossible under current survey techniques to determine the listenership of an individual event such as the Super Bowl.\n", "BULLET::::- In Malaysia, no single, official currency for measuring TV audiences and two competing companies provide data, using different methodologies, namely GfK Malaysia and Kantar Media; radio surveys are carried out by GfK Malaysia.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Netherlands Press, TV and radio measurements are handled by GfK.\n\nBULLET::::- In New Zealand GfK measures radio audiences, while ACB McNair measures TV audiences.\n", "The Nielsen sample included roughly 1,700 audiometer homes and rotating board of nearly 850 diary respondents, by the early 1980s. Nielsen launched its Nielsen Homevideo Index (NHI) in 1980 to measure cable, pay cable, and VCRs, and the NHI began offering daily cable ratings in 1982. Nielsen's continued to advance with steady changes into the mid 2000s (decade). Along with changing their counting methods, Nielsen also started emphasizing their sample in 2003 in reaction to census shifts and requests from some industry sectors. Nielsen's automated Local People Meter (LPM) technology was introduced in New York and Los Angeles. The LPM improved the method of measurement from active and diary-based to passive and meter-monitored. More importantly, the LPM provides accurate measurements to particular local markets, verse a nationwide sample from the People meter. While diary-based surveys concentrated on quarterly sweeps periods, the industry has been pushed toward year-round measurement, due to the automated LPM system.\n", "BULLET::::- In Turkey, TV measurement is done by TNS (Kantar Media), radio by Nielsen.\n\nBULLET::::- In the UK, television measurement is administered by the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board via a metered panel and radio by RAJAR, using a diary system. The NRS (National Readership Survey) measures newspaper and magazine readership.\n\nBULLET::::- In the United States, TV and radio measurement is carried out Nielsen Media Research (the radio component was formerly carried out by Arbitron), and digital signage by TruMedia and CognoVision. Stratacache uses audience measurement technology to build reports for digital signage.\n", "1986 saw the creation of an audience measurement mechanism for the radio based on a telephone survey in mainland France. Back then, it was called the “55,000” in reference to the size of the sample interviewed in one year (excluding the summer).\n\nIn the 1990s, the “55,000” became the “75,000 +”, before evolving into the “126,000” in 2005, as the sample size was expanded. For each year in radio between September and June, there are four waves of results covering 126,000 people. These individuals are asked about their listening habits in a landline or mobile telephone interview.\n\nSection::::History.:Internet.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "This system can be difficult to balance due to the supply line being a different length than the return; the further the heat transfer device is from the boiler, the more pronounced the pressure difference. Because of this, it is always recommended to: minimize the distribution piping pressure drops; use a pump with a , include balancing and flow-measuring devices at each terminal or branch circuit; and use control valves with a at the terminals.\n\nSection::::Two-pipe reverse return system.\n", "Section::::Design.:Basic OWC Components.:Power-Take-Off.:Hanna Turbine.\n", "However, as mentioned before, the pump only allows the lifting of water over a small height. This makes it unsuitable for water drainage or irrigation over larger height differences or many other pumping applications besides drainage and irrigation.\n\nSection::::Spiral pump.\n", "BULLET::::- The pump must be beneath the steam drum to take advantage of the pressure due to the height of the water. If the pump was not there; when it reaches the steam separator and water returns to the pump, the pressure may become low enough in the eye of the impeller to cause cavitation and subsequent damage.\n\nBULLET::::- Since there are two pumps, controlling them and having them work in sync and cooperation proves difficult.\n\nBULLET::::- The boiler is not able to produce super-critical pressures because the steam generation is not dependent on pressure differences\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Each channel is watered by three of the seven 680-horsepower pumps. Six pumps will water both channels simultaneously. The electricity cost of each pump is about US$45 per hour. When only one channel is used, an inflated barrier rises up from the bottom to prevent water from entering the unused channel. Since both channels have the same drop, , the extra length of the long channel gives it a gentler slope.\n", "Since the flow velocity is diminished, so is the centrifugal pressure. The pressure of the super-elevated column prevails, developing an unbalanced gradient that moves water back across the bottom from the outside to the inside. The flow is supplied by a counter-flow across the surface from the inside to the outside. This entire situation is very similar to the Tea leaf paradox. This secondary flow carries sediment from the outside of the bend to the inside making the river more meandering.\n", "Since this is essentially a water pumping system, standing column well design requires critical considerations to obtain peak operating efficiency. Should a standing column well design be misapplied, leaving out critical shut-off valves for example, the result could be an extreme loss in efficiency and thereby cause operational cost to be higher than anticipated.\n\nSection::::Building distribution.\n", "BULLET::::- Mechanical pumping may generate a pulsating flow which can be disadvantageous. Much work has been devoted to development of pumps with low pulsation. A continuous flow solution is electroosmotic flow (EOF).\n\nBULLET::::- Typically, reactions performing very well in a microreactor encounter many problems in vessels, especially when scaling up. Often, the high area to volume ratio and the uniform residence time cannot easily be scaled.\n", "It is possible to make columns equal height using the CSS codice_1 property. This requires nested container divisions that are set to codice_2 and codice_3, and columns that are set to codice_4. This is semantically correct, as only the display is affected. However, this method lacks the ability to control the order of the source code. It will also not work with some older, unsupported browsers, such as Internet Explorer 7.\n\nSection::::Known workarounds.:Faux columns.\n", "Figure 4 illustrates the different surface water profiles associated with a sluice gate on a mild reach (top) and a steep reach (bottom). Note, the sluice gate induces a choke in the system, causing a “backwater” profile just upstream of the gate. In the mild reach, the hydraulic jump occurs downstream of the gate, but in the steep reach, the hydraulic jump occurs upstream of the gate. It is important to note that the gradually varied flow equations and associated numerical methods (including the standard step method) cannot accurately model the dynamics of a hydraulic jump. See the Hydraulic jumps in rectangular channels page for more information. Below, an example problem will use conceptual models to build a surface water profile using the STM.\n", "To provide the correct power output heating or cooling devices require a certain flow known as the design flow. Theoretically it is possible to design plants that deliver the design flow at each terminal unit (heating or cooling device). In reality this is not possible because pipes and valves only come in certain sizes and accurately predicting the real flow in a system is too complex. Some circuits (typically those closest to the pump) will be favoured by higher than required flows at the expense of other circuits that will have underflows.\n", "Another case where two-phase flow can occur is in pump cavitation. Here a pump is operating close to the vapor pressure of the fluid being pumped. If pressure drops further, which can happen locally near the vanes for the pump, for example, then a phase change can occur and gas will be present in the pump. Similar effects can also occur on marine propellors; wherever it occurs, it is a serious problem for designers. When the vapor bubble collapses, it can produce very large pressure spikes, which over time will cause damage on the propellor or turbine.\n", "maximum column of water a person can physically lift of up to 15 m. Examples of direct action pumps include the canzee pump and the EMAS pump.\n\nSection::::Types.:Deep wells.\n\nDeep well hand pumps are used for high lifts of more than 15 m. The weight of the column of water is too great to be lifted directly and some form of mechanical advantage system such as a lever or flywheel is used.\n", "In 1985, MIM commissioned Jameson to undertake a project to improve the sparger design for flotation columns. Instead, he developed the concept of using a jet in a downcomer to create the bubbles and eliminate the need for a sparger in conventional flotation columns.\n", "Section::::Water megamasers.:Line characteristics and pumping mechanism.\n", "BULLET::::- Similar to air lift pumps, the multiphase flow can take the form not only of a mist, but a frothy mix of bubbles as envisioned by Earl Beck\n\nBULLET::::- Bubble laden multiphase flows tend to burst their bubbles as they rise, reducing performance of the pump. This effect can be reduced through use of a foaming agent such as a detergent as proposed by Zener and Fetkovich\n\nBULLET::::- The lift can be separated into two lift stages which theoretically can generate 800 kilowatts per cubic meter per second of cold water.\n\nDetails common in Ridgway designs\n", "An ideal voltage source (ideal battery) or ideal current source is a dynamic pump with feedback control. A pressure meter on both sides shows that regardless of the current being produced, this kind of pump produces constant pressure difference. If one terminal is kept fixed at ground, another analogy is a large body of water at a high elevation, sufficiently large that the drawn water does not affect the water level. To create the analog of an ideal current source, use a positive displacement pump: A current meter (little paddle wheel) shows that when this kind of pump is driven at a constant speed, it maintains a constant speed of the little paddle wheel.\n", "In this method, after the page is loaded, a script measures the height of each of the columns, and sets the height of each column to the greater value. This will not work in browsers that do not support JavaScript, or have JavaScript disabled.\n\nSection::::Known workarounds.:Fixed or absolute positioning.\n", "I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels necessary to raise the water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels, finally spurting out in Sans Souci. My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise a mouthful of water closer than fifty paces to the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of geometry!\n", "This equation is simply an application of Bernoulli's principle in the case where the inlet and outlet have the same diameter and same height. Observe that SPP is not a property of the pump alone, but is also dependent on the pressure drop of the circuit that the pump circulates fluid through. Thus, in order to minimize energy use for pump system, one must reduce the system pressure drop (e.g. use large diameter pipes and low flow rates) in addition to selecting pumps with good intrinsic efficiency (hydrodynamically efficient with an efficient motor).\n", "He investigated the American Hanley Hydro-Jet, a model which drew in water and fired it out through a steerable nozzle underneath the boat. Even when further adapted it did not work well. An employee suggested moving the nozzle to just above the waterline.\n", "The impeller of the seawater pump can suffer from wear and tear, especially when run dry for some period of time, in which case it has to be replaced to avoid loss in the flow of cooling seawater, a potential source of engine overheating.\n", "Step 7 :- Solve the continuity equation for the entire control volume. i.e. n,s,e,w nodes surrounding each node of the staggered grid, using the density terms.\n\nStep 8 :- Substitute the corrected velocity equations in the continuity equations and separate the term containing the correction pressure p'.\n\nThis represents the equation for pressure correction p'.\n\nStep 9 :- Solve the thus obtained equation to get the correction term and get the correct pressure. Use the new correct pressure to reiterate the entire process till a convergence is obtained.\n\nThe choice of α decides the cost effectiveness of the solution.\n", "Efficiency and common problems: With only one cylinder in plunger pumps, the fluid flow varies between maximum flow when the plunger moves through the middle positions, and zero flow when the plunger is at the end positions. A lot of energy is wasted when the fluid is accelerated in the piping system. Vibration and \"water hammer\" may be a serious problem. In general the problems are compensated for by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each other.\n\nSection::::Types.:Positive displacement pumps.:Positive displacement types.:Various positive-displacement pumps.:Triplex-style plunger pumps.\n", "Between 1988 and 1990, a variable stroke windpump was tested at the USDA-Agriculture Research Center-Texas, based on two patented designs (Don E. Avery Patent #4.392.785, 1983 and Elmo G. Harris Patent #617.877, 1899). Control systems of the variable stroke wind pumps were mechanical and hydraulic; however, those experiments did not attract the attention of any windpump manufacturer. After experiments with this variable stroke windpump, research focused on wind-electric water pumping systems; no commercial variable stroke windpump exists yet.\n\nSection::::Development of improved windpumps.:Fluttering windpumps.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Hot water that is comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. Bacteria grow much faster at body temperature (37 C). However, warm, soapy water is more effective than cold, soapy water at removing natural oils which hold soils and bacteria. Contrary to popular belief however, scientific studies have shown that using warm water has no effect on reducing the microbial load on hands.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n", "Water left stagnant in the pipes of showers can be contaminated with pathogens that become airborne when the shower is turned on. If a shower has not been used for some time, it should be left to run at a hot temperature for a few minutes before use.\n", "Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than , and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly \"Legionella\", in water that is not hot enough to kill them. Both risks are potentially life-threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to . The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires’ Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at and distributed so that a temperature of at least and preferably is achieved within one minute at points of use.\n", "During the Society of Environmental Journalists' 2008 annual meeting, the group was given a tour of Edwards's lab. He told them that the number one cause of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States is pathogens growing in home water heaters. Energy-conscious households may set their water heater's thermostat to , but that temperature encourages the growth of microbes such as mycobacteria. A setting of would kill such organisms. Edwards says that infections from inhaling steam from contaminated water in the shower, or contact with contaminated water in a hot tub, kill an estimated 3,000 to 12,000 Americans each year.\n", "Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens can grow include faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are \"high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles\". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Extreme temperatures destroy viruses and vegetative cells that are active and metabolising. Organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipid and nucleic acids, as well as cell walls and membranes, all of which play important roles in cell metabolism, are damaged by excessive heat. Food for human consumption is routinely heated by baking, boiling and frying to temperatures which destroy most pathogens. Thermal processes often cause undesirable changes in the texture, appearance and nutritional value of foods. Autoclaves generate steam at higher than boiling point and are used to sterilise laboratory glassware, surgical instruments, and, in a growing industry, medical waste. A danger inherent in using high temperatures to destroy microbes, is their incomplete destruction through inadequate procedures with a consequent risk of producing pathogens resistant to heat.\n", "Section::::Types of water bath.:Non-Circulating Water Baths.\n\nThis type of water bath relies primarily on convection instead of water being uniformly heated. Therefore, it is less accurate in terms of temperature control. In addition, there are add-ons that provide stirring to non-circulating water baths to create more uniform heat transfer.\n\nSection::::Types of water bath.:Shaking Water Baths.\n\nThis type of water bath has extra control for shaking, which moves liquids around. This shaking feature can be turned on or off. In microbiological practices, constant shaking allows liquid-grown cell cultures grown to constantly mix with the air.\n", "For autoclaving, cleaning is critical. Extraneous biological matter or grime may shield organisms from steam penetration. Proper cleaning can be achieved through physical scrubbing, sonication, ultrasound, or pulsed air.\n\nPressure cooking and canning is analogous to autoclaving, and when performed correctly renders food sterile.\n\nMoist heat causes the destruction of microorganisms by denaturation of macromolecules, primarily proteins. This method is a faster process than dry heat sterilization.\n\nSection::::Heat.:Dry heat.\n", "Of concern is recent data suggesting that, in reality, modern domestic washing machines do not reach the temperature specified on the machine controls.\n\nSection::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Medical hygiene at home.\n", "Techniques that help prevent food borne illness in the kitchen are hand washing, rinsing produce, preventing cross-contamination, proper storage, and maintaining cooking temperatures. In general, freezing or refrigerating prevents virtually all bacteria from growing, and heating food sufficiently kills parasites, viruses, and most bacteria. Bacteria grow most rapidly at the range of temperatures between , called the \"danger zone\". Storing food below or above the \"danger zone\" can effectively limit the production of toxins. For storing leftovers, the food must be put in shallow containers\n", "A thermophile is an organism — a type of extremophile — that thrives at high temperatures, between . Thermophiles are found in hot springs, as well as deep sea hydrothermal vents and decaying plant matter such as peat bogs and compost.\n\nSome hot springs microbiota are infectious to humans:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Naegleria fowleri\", an excavate amoeba, lives in warm unsalted waters worldwide and causes a fatal meningitis should the organisms enter the nose.\n\nBULLET::::- Acanthamoeba also can spread through hot springs, according to the US Centers for Disease Control - The organisms enter through the eyes or via an open wound.\n", "One must use soap and warm running water if possible and wash all the skin and nails thoroughly. However, ash can substitute for soap (see substances above) and cold water can also be used.\n", "To prevent the disease, it is necessary to ensure water is pathogen-free and that water hardening is completed effectively for eggs. Stress and damage to skin are two factors that are able to cause an increase in disease progression, so minimizing these two factors can prevent the bacteria from multiplying. In addition, removing the diseased fish from the area is important in reducing the chances of spreading the bacteria within the environment. In addition, producing UV light Iodophor disinfection of eggs just before hatching has been recorded as a sensible way of minimizing egg-associated transmission risks. The presence of the bacteria has been seen in fluid of the surrounding eggs in sexually mature salmonids. Using iodophor treatment is a way of reducing microbial contamination of the egg surface. \n", "Most residential dishwashing machines, for example, include an internal electric heating element for increasing the water temperature above that provided by a domestic water heater.\n\nSection::::Water heater safety.:Bacterial contamination.\n", "It is also possible to control Legionella risks by chemical treatment of the water. This technique allows lower water temperatures to be maintained in the pipework without the associated Legionella risk. The benefit of lower pipe temperatures is that the heat loss rate is reduced and thus the energy consumption is reduced.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aquastat\n\nBULLET::::- Architectural engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Condensing boiler\n\nBULLET::::- Electric water boiler\n\nBULLET::::- Energy conservation\n\nBULLET::::- Heat traps\n\nBULLET::::- Hot water heat recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Joule heating\n\nBULLET::::- List of home appliances\n\nBULLET::::- Solar hot water\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal immersion circulator\n\nBULLET::::- Heating Water With Outdoor Wood Furnace\n", "Both dry and moist heat are effective in eliminating microbial life. For example, jars used to store preserves such as jam can be sterilized by heating them in a conventional oven. Heat is also used in pasteurization, a method for slowing the spoilage of foods such as milk, cheese, juices, wines and vinegar. Such products are heated to a certain temperature for a set period of time, which greatly reduces the number of harmful microorganisms.\n\nSection::::Physical.:Radiation.\n", "Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The CDC still states \"liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable\".\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Antibacterial soap.\n", "In 2013 the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene (IFH) reviewed some 30 studies of the hygiene effectiveness of laundering at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 70 °C, under varying conditions. A key finding was the lack of standardisation and control within studies, and the variability in test conditions between studies such as wash cycle time, number of rinses, etc. The consequent variability in the data (i.e., the reduction in contamination on fabrics) obtained, in turn makes it extremely difficult to propose guidelines for laundering with any confidence, based on currently available data. As a result, there is significant variability in the recommendations for hygienic laundering of clothing etc. given by different agencies.\n", "Second-hand goods are considered to be quite safe. The South Australian Public Health Directorate says that the health risk of buying used clothing is very low. It explains that washing purchased items in hot water is just one of several ways to eliminate the risk of contracting infectious diseases.\n\nSection::::Sale of new goods.\n", "Water typically enters residences in the US at about , depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use. The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow rate is per minute. Sink and dishwasher usages range from per minute.\n", "Washing hands with soap and water eliminates microorganisms from the skin and hands. This provides some protection against transmission of VHF and other diseases. This requires at least cake soap cut into small pieces, soap dishes with openings that allow water to drain away, running water or a bucket kept full with clean water, a bucket for collecting rinse water and a ladle for dipping, if running water is not available, and one-use towels.\n", "The most reliable way to kill microbial pathogenic agents is to heat water to a rolling boil. Other techniques, such as varying forms of filtration, chemical disinfection, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been demonstrated in an array of randomized control trials to significantly reduce levels of waterborne disease among users in low-income countries.\n", "This bacterium was first reported in 1922 at the Fisheries Biological station in Fairport Iowa and it has undergone many taxonomic revisions since then. The primary site of transmission is via fish to fish contact, particularly within the gills and the fins. \"Flavobacterium psychrophilum\" is a bacterium that reproduces and multiples via horizontal gene transfer. Although horizontal gene transfer is the most common way for bacterial growth to occur, there is evidence that vertical gene transfer may also play a role in transmission.\n\nSection::::Prevention and Treatment.\n", "Low temperatures tend to reduce growth rates which has led to refrigeration being instrumental in food preservation. Depending on temperature, bacteria can be classified as: moetaz ahmed\n\nBULLET::::- Psychrophiles\n\nPsychrophiles are extremophilic cold-loving bacteria or archaea with an optimal temperature for growth at about 15 °C or lower (maximal temperature for growth at 20 °C, minimal temperature for growth at 0 °C or lower). Psychrophiles are typically found in Earth's extremely cold ecosystems, such as polar ice-cap regions, permafrost, polar surface, and deep oceans.\n\nBULLET::::- Mesophiles\n", "Dry heat was the first method of sterilization and is a longer process than moist heat sterilization. The destruction of microorganisms through the use of dry heat is a gradual phenomenon. With longer exposure to lethal temperatures, the number of killed microorganisms increases. Forced ventilation of hot air can be used to increase the rate at which heat is transferred to an organism and reduce the temperature and amount of time needed to achieve sterility. At higher temperatures, shorter exposure times are required to kill organisms. This can reduce heat-induced damage to food products.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Traditionally, several Native American groups planted sunflowers on the north edges of their gardens as a \"fourth sister\" to the better-known three sisters combination of corn, beans, and squash. Annual species are often planted for their allelopathic properties.\n\nHowever, for commercial farmers growing commodity crops other than sunflowers, the wild sunflower, like any other unwanted plant, is often considered a weed. Especially in the Midwestern US, wild (perennial) species are often found in corn and soybean fields and can decrease yields.\n", "Globally, sunflowers are the fourth most important oil crop. Most of the sunflower seed crop is crushed for oil, and most of the oil is consumed by humans. A major byproduct of crushing is protein-rich cake, an excellent feed for livestock. \n\nA tiny proportion of the global sunflower crop is directly eaten as “nuts” or kernels.\n\nSection::::Background.:Wild perennial relatives of sunflower.\n\nThere are 82 species of sunflowers (genus \"Helianthus\"), all native to North America. Of these, 38 are perennials. Sunflower breeders have crossed many of these species with the crop sunflower because they are a source of useful genes.\n", "In Brazil, a unique system of production called the soybean-sunflower system is used: sunflowers are planted first, and then soybean crops follow, reducing idle periods and increasing total sunflower production and profitability. Sunflowers are usually planted in the extreme southern or northern regions of the country. Frequently, in the southern regions, sunflowers are grown in the beginning of rainy seasons, and soybeans can then be planted in the summer. Researchers have concluded that the soybean-sunflower method of plantation could be further improved through changes in fertilizer use. The current method has been shown to have positive environmental impacts.\n\nSection::::Diversity.\n", "In today's market, most of the sunflower seeds provided or grown by farmers are hybrids. Hybrids or hybridized sunflowers are produced by crossbreeding different types and species of sunflower, for example crossbreeding cultivated sunflowers with wild species of sunflowers. By doing so, new genetic recombinations are obtained ultimately leading to the production of new hybrid species. These hybrid species generally have a higher fitness and carry properties or characteristics that farmers look for, such as resistance to pathogens.\n", "In the United States, maize ears along with tobacco leaves are carved into the capitals of columns in the United States Capitol building. Maize itself is sometimes used for temporary architectural detailing when the intent is to celebrate the fall season, local agricultural productivity and culture. Bundles of dried maize stalks are often displayed often along with pumpkins, gourds and straw in autumnal displays outside homes and businesses. A well-known example of architectural use is the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, which uses cobs and ears of colored maize to implement a mural design that is recycled annually. Another well known example is the \"Field of Corn\" sculpture in Dublin, Ohio, where hundreds of concrete ears of corn stand in a grassy field.\n", "BULLET::::- Sunflowers were also worshipped by the Incas because they viewed it as a symbol for the Sun.\n\nBULLET::::- The sunflower is the symbol behind the Sunflower Movement, a 2014 mass protest in Taiwan.\n\nSection::::Other species.\n\nThere are many species in the sunflower genus \"Helianthus\", and many species in other genera that may be called sunflowers.\n\nBULLET::::- The Maximillian sunflower (\"Helianthus maximiliani\") is one of 38 species of perennial sunflower native to North America. The Land Institute and other breeding programs are currently exploring the potential for these as a perennial seed crop.\n", "All or portions of seed corn fields may be surrounded by extra rows of male plants if it is likely that wind may carry foreign pollen into the seed corn field. These extra rows are called \"buffer\" or \"isolation\" rows depending on the area of the country. Another important aspect to keeping undesirable pollen out of seed corn fields is a process known as roguing, a process that removes plants that differ from the variety intentionally planted.\n", "Corn producers can reduce the chance of cross-contamination via pollen drift by separating fields by at least ; however, many identity preserved corn programs require that non-GMO fields be separated from GMO corn by a distance of at least . They may also utilize a technique called 'flooding' by surrounding their fields with a border of non-GMO corn, the theory being that these 'border rows' of corn will dilute any outside pollen, thus reducing the risk of cross-contamination. Producers can also alternate planting dates to prevent crops from releasing their pollen at similar times.\n", "Downy mildew is another disease to which sunflowers are susceptible. Its susceptibility to downy mildew is particular high due to the sunflower's way of growth and development. Sunflower seeds are generally planted only an inch deep in the ground. When such shallow planting is done in moist and soaked earth or soil, it increases the chances of diseases such as downy mildew.\n\nAnother major threat to sunflower crops is broomrape, a parasite that attacks the root of the sunflower and causes extensive damage to sunflower crops, as high as 100 percent.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of sunflower diseases\n", "Sunflowers can be used in phytoremediation to extract toxic ingredients from soil, such as lead, arsenic and uranium, and used in rhizofiltration to neutralize radionuclides and other toxic ingredients and harmful bacteria from water. They were used to remove caesium-137 and strontium-90 from a nearby pond after the Chernobyl disaster, and a similar campaign was mounted in response to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.\n\nSection::::Cultivation and uses.:Cultivars.\n", "An unusual use for maize is to create a \"corn maze\" (or \"maize maze\") as a tourist attraction. The idea of a maize maze was introduced by the American Maze Company who created a maze in Pennsylvania in 1993. Traditional mazes are most commonly grown using yew hedges, but these take several years to mature. The rapid growth of a field of maize allows a maze to be laid out using GPS at the start of a growing season and for the maize to grow tall enough to obstruct a visitor's line of sight by the start of the summer. In Canada and the US, these are popular in many farming communities.\n", "Perennial sunflower\n\nPerennial sunflower is a crop of sunflowers that are developed by crossing wild perennial and domestic annual sunflower species.\n\nAnnual sunflower is a major oilseed crop. Genes from wild perennial relatives may increase root depth and mass and extend the growing season. These upgrades means future varieties with higher yields and better soil conservation.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:Sunflower seed: current production and uses.\n", "In North America, fields are often planted in a two-crop rotation with a nitrogen-fixing crop, often alfalfa in cooler climates and soybeans in regions with longer summers. Sometimes a third crop, winter wheat, is added to the rotation. Fields are usually plowed each year, although no-till farming is increasing in use. Many of the maize varieties grown in the United States and Canada are hybrids. Over half of the corn area planted in the United States has been genetically modified using biotechnology to express agronomic traits such as pest resistance or herbicide resistance.\n", "Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used.\n\nCorncobs can be hollowed out and treated to make inexpensive smoking pipes, first manufactured in the United States in 1869.\n", "Some companion plants help prevent pest insects or pathogenic fungi from damaging the crop, through chemical means. For example, the smell of the foliage of marigolds is claimed to deter aphids from feeding on neighbouring plants. \n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Predator recruitment.\n", "Section::::Breeding perennial sunflower.:Combining genes from wild and crop species.\n\nMany sunflower species can be artificially hybridized but one group of wild perennial species cross, the hexaploids (six copies of all chromosomes instead of the usual two copies) are especially easy to cross. Scientists are using this group to make “bridging crosses” that will bring together the genes from the crop sunflower and several other perennial species.\n", "Native Americans domesticated the wild perennial sunflower \"Helianthus tuberosus\" by selecting individuals with larger tubers. This crop plant (now called by the misleading name Jerusalem artichoke) was grown for its tubers and not for its seed. The perennial sunflowers being developed as an oilseed crop by modern plant breeders may have tubers, but they will probably not be harvested. Digging tubers is probably ecologically sustainable on a small scale. On a large scale, annually disturbing the soil makes it vulnerable to soil erosion. Avoiding annual tillage is one of the main motivations for developing perennial grain crops.\n\nSection::::Breeding perennial sunflower.\n", "Companion plants that produce copious nectar or pollen in a vegetable garden (insectary plants) may help encourage higher populations of beneficial insects that control pests, as some beneficial predatory insects only consume pests in their larval form and are nectar or pollen feeders in their adult form. For instance, marigolds with simple flowers attract nectar-feeding adult hoverflies, the larvae of which are predators of aphids.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Protective shelter.\n", "Section::::Description.:Growth stages.\n\nThe growth of a sunflower strictly depends on its genetic makeup and background. Additionally, the season it is planted will have effects on its development. Sunflower development is classified by a series of vegetative stages and reproductive stages that can be determined by identifying the heads or main branch of a single head or branched head. \n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Fertilizer use.\n\nThe Journal of Environmental Management has analyzed the impact of various nitrogen-based fertilizers on the growth of sunflowers. Ammonium nitrate was found to produce better nitrogen absorption than urea, which performed better in low-temperature areas.\n\nSection::::Production.:Production in Brazil.\n", "BULLET::::- Crop rotation: this can reduce inoculum in the field (ipm). For example, rotating alfalfa every two years with corn, soybeans, or other small grains.\n\nBULLET::::- Sowing only certified seed produced in arid area.\n\nBULLET::::- Targeting weeds and insects to prevent the spread of the disease by these vectors.\n\nBULLET::::- Spring Burning when disease is severe.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "In the mid-1970s machines were developed to help reduce the large labor costs associated with manual detasseling and as a response to a shrinking rural teen labor force. In the 1980s male sterile varieties were reintroduced that were not susceptible to southern corn leaf blight, however the reliance on a single sterile variety seen in the 1960s has not been repeated. \n\nToday corn hybridization is accomplished by a combination of machine and manual detasseling as well as male-sterile genes.\n\nSection::::Seed corn fields.\n", "BULLET::::- It's efficient. You do not have to run grow lights for weeks at a time when starting seeds indoors.\n\nBULLET::::- You don't need to worry about having leggy seedlings because they are planted and grown outdoors.\n\nBULLET::::- There is no need to harden off the seedlings as they are already acclimated to outdoor conditions. They are ready to plant whenever the outside temperature has sufficiently warmed.\n\nBULLET::::- Saves space indoors for plants that need to be started prior to planting outside.\n", "Crops planted on refuge land includes alfalfa, wheat, rye grass, milo, millet, and sudan grass. With use restrictions on the use of certain pesticides on the refuge, infestations of white flies, and the booming prices of sudan grass, many cooperative farmers have switched from planting alfalfa to sudan grass over the years. Sudan grass grows like a weed in the Imperial Valley and requires little to no use of pesticides.\n\nSection::::Wildlife.\n", "BULLET::::2. Farmers must watch for stalk rot since it is one of the most frequently observed diseases. Key factors for stalk rot include improper fertilization, moisture stress, and disease development.\n\nBULLET::::3. Moderate plant population (about 20,000 plants per acre) would be considered ideal. If moderate plant population is not followed crop crowding can occur.\n", "In Los Angeles, the Rose Bowl Parade floats employ the flowers of plants in a similar collage or mosaic style.\n\nSection::::Crop circles.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Optimization goals.:Targets.:Performance per watt.\n\nSoCs are optimized to maximize power efficiency in performance per watt: maximize the performance of the SoC given a budget of power usage. Many applications such as edge computing, distributed processing and ambient intelligence require a certain level of computational performance, but power is limited in most SoC environments. The ARM architecture has greater performance per watt than x86 in embedded systems, so it is preferred over x86 for most SoC applications requiring an embedded processor.\n\nSection::::Optimization goals.:Targets.:Waste heat.\n", "Comparison of Intel processors\n\nSection::::Intel processors list.\n\nAs of 2016, the majority of personal computers and laptops sold are based on the x86 architecture (despite inroads from Chromebook-style ARM designs, the segment-leading Apple MacBook family remains exclusively x86), while other categories—especially high-volume mobile categories such as smartphones or tablets—are dominated by ARM; at the high end, x86 continues to dominate compute-intensive workstation and cloud computing segments.\n", "Windows applications recompiled for ARM and linked with Winelib from the Wine project can run on 32-bit or 64-bit ARM in Linux (or FreeBSD or other compatible enough operating systems). x86 binaries, e.g. when not specially compiled for ARM, have been demonstrated on ARM using QEMU with Wine (on Linux and more), but do not work at full speed or same capability as with Winelib.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple-designed processors\n\nBULLET::::- ARM big.LITTLE – ARM's heterogeneous computing architecture\n\nBULLET::::- ARM Accredited Engineer – certification program\n\nBULLET::::- ARMulator – an instruction set simulator\n", "Modern x86 is relatively uncommon in embedded systems, however, and small low power applications (using tiny batteries) as well as low-cost microprocessor markets, such as home appliances and toys, lack any significant x86 presence. Simple 8-bit and 16-bit based architectures are common here, although the x86-compatible VIA C7, VIA Nano, AMD's Geode, Athlon Neo and Intel Atom are examples of 32- and 64-bit designs used in some \"relatively\" low power and low cost segments.\n", "Embedded hypervisors, targeting embedded systems and certain real-time operating system (RTOS) environments, are designed with different requirements when compared to desktop and enterprise systems, including robustness, security and real-time capabilities. The resource-constrained nature of many embedded systems, especially battery-powered mobile systems, imposes a further requirement for small memory-size and low overhead. Finally, in contrast to the ubiquity of the x86 architecture in the PC world, the embedded world uses a wider variety of architectures and less standardized environments. Support for virtualization requires memory protection (in the form of a memory management unit or at least a memory protection unit) and a distinction between user mode and privileged mode, which rules out most microcontrollers. This still leaves x86, MIPS, ARM and PowerPC as widely deployed architectures on medium- to high-end embedded systems.\n", "Processors that have a RISC architecture typically require fewer transistors than those with a complex instruction set computing (CISC) architecture (such as the x86 processors found in most personal computers), which improves cost, power consumption, and heat dissipation. These characteristics are desirable for light, portable, battery-powered devicesincluding smartphones, laptops and tablet computers, and other embedded systems. For supercomputers, which consume large amounts of electricity, ARM could also be a power-efficient solution.\n", "According to Sophie Wilson, all the processors tested at that time performed about the same, with about a 4 Mbit/second bandwidth.\n\nAfter testing all available processors and finding them lacking, Acorn decided it needed a new architecture. Inspired by papers from the Berkeley RISC project, Acorn considered designing its own processor. A visit to the Western Design Center in Phoenix, where the 6502 was being updated by what was effectively a single-person company, showed Acorn engineers Steve Furber and Sophie Wilson they did not need massive resources and state-of-the-art research and development facilities.\n", "The latest processors also do the opposite when appropriate; they combine certain x86 sequences (such as a compare followed by a conditional jump) into a more complex micro-op which fits the execution model better and thus can be executed faster or with less machine resources involved.\n", "In March 2015, AMD explicitly revealed in the description of the patch for the GNU Binutils package that Zen, its third-generation x86-64 architecture in its first iteration (znver1 – Zen, version 1), will not support TBM, FMA4, XOP and LWP instructions developed specifically for the \"Bulldozer\" family of micro-architectures.\n\nSection::::Integer vector multiply–accumulate instructions.\n\nThese are integer version of the FMA instruction set. These are all four operand instructions similar to FMA4 and they all operate on signed integers.\n\nSection::::Integer vector horizontal addition.\n", "The first Intel mobile processor implementing Intel 64 is the Merom version of the Core 2 processor, which was released on July 27, 2006. None of Intel's earlier notebook CPUs (Core Duo, Pentium M, Celeron M, Mobile Pentium 4) implement Intel 64.\n\nSection::::Intel 64.:Implementations.\n", "Section::::Technical description.\n\nSection::::Technical description.:Two key capabilities.\n\nOpteron combines two important capabilities in a single processor:\n\nBULLET::::1. native execution of legacy x86 32-bit applications without speed penalties\n\nBULLET::::2. native execution of x86-64 64-bit applications\n", "In 1999, Intel introduced the Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) instruction set, following in 2000 with SSE2. The first addition allowed offloading of basic floating-point operations from the x87 stack and the second made MMX almost obsolete and allowed the instructions to be realistically targeted by conventional compilers. Introduced in 2004 along with the \"Prescott\" revision of the Pentium 4 processor, SSE3 added specific memory and thread-handling instructions to boost the performance of Intel's HyperThreading technology. AMD licensed the SSE3 instruction set and implemented most of the SSE3 instructions for its revision E and later Athlon 64 processors. The Athlon 64 does not support HyperThreading and lacks those SSE3 instructions used only for HyperThreading.\n", "As a result of AMD's 64-bit contribution to the x86 lineage and its subsequent acceptance by Intel, the 64-bit RISC architectures ceased to be a threat to the x86 ecosystem and almost disappeared from the workstation market. x86-64 began to be utilized in powerful supercomputers (in its AMD Opteron and Intel Xeon incarnations), a market which was previously the natural habitat for 64-bit RISC designs (such as the IBM POWER microprocessors or SPARC processors). The great leap toward 64-bit computing and the maintenance of backward compatibility with 32-bit and 16-bit software enabled the x86 architecture to become an extremely flexible platform today, with x86 chips being utilized from small low-power systems (for example, Intel Quark and Intel Atom) to fast gaming desktop computers (for example, Intel Core i7 and AMD FX/Ryzen), and even dominate large supercomputing clusters, effectively leaving only the ARM 32-bit and 64-bit RISC architecture as a competitor in the smartphone and tablet market.\n", "During the 6x86's development, the majority of applications (office software as well as games) performed almost entirely integer operations. The designers foresaw that future applications would most likely maintain this instruction focus. So, to optimize the chip's performance for what they believed to be the most likely application of the CPU, the integer execution resources received most of the transistor budget. This would later prove to be a strategic mistake, as the popularity of the P5 Pentium caused many software developers to hand-optimize code in assembly language, to take advantage of the P5 Pentium's tightly pipelined and lower latency FPU. For example, the highly anticipated first person shooter \"Quake\" used highly optimized assembly code designed almost entirely around the P5 Pentium's FPU. As a result, the P5 Pentium significantly outperformed other CPUs in the game. \n", "The performance of Intel's chipsets was a concern, along with the x86 architecture itself, and whether it would affect system performance and application quality. Other problems include endianness and reduced floating point performance in real world applications relative to equivalent or contemporary PowerPC processors.\n", "The Xcore86 (also known as the PMX 1000) is x586 based System on Chip (SoC) that offers a below average thermal envelope compared to the Atom.\n\nIn 2014, Kenton Williston of EE Times said that while Atom will not displace ARM from its current markets, the ability to apply the PC architecture into smaller, cheaper and lower power form factors will open up new markets for Intel.\n", "The only major competitor in the x86 processor market is Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), with which Intel has had full cross-licensing agreements since 1976: each partner can use the other's patented technological innovations without charge after a certain time. However, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover.\n", "There have been several attempts, including by Intel itself, to end the market dominance of the \"inelegant\" x86 architecture designed directly from the first simple 8-bit microprocessors. Examples of this are the iAPX 432 (a project originally named the \"Intel 8800\"), the Intel 960, Intel 860 and the Intel/Hewlett-Packard Itanium architecture. However, the continuous refinement of x86 microarchitectures, circuitry and semiconductor manufacturing would make it hard to replace x86 in many segments. AMD's 64-bit extension of x86 (which Intel eventually responded to with a compatible design) and the scalability of x86 chips such as the eight-core Intel Xeon and 12-core AMD Opteron is underlining x86 as an example of how continuous refinement of established industry standards can resist the competition from completely new architectures.\n", "In supercomputers tracked by TOP500, the appearance of 64-bit extensions for the x86 architecture enabled 64-bit x86 processors by AMD and Intel (light olive with circles, and red with circles on the diagram provided in this section, respectively) to replace most RISC processor architectures previously used in such systems (including PA-RISC, SPARC, Alpha and others), as well as 32-bit x86 (green with dots and purple with dots on the diagram), even though Intel itself initially tried unsuccessfully to replace x86 with a new incompatible 64-bit architecture in the Itanium processor.\n", "The term is not synonymous with IBM PC compatibility, as this implies a multitude of other computer hardware; embedded systems, as well as general-purpose computers, used x86 chips before the PC-compatible market started, some of them before the IBM PC (1981) itself.\n\nAs of 2018, the majority of personal computers and laptops sold are based on the x86 architecture, while other categories—especially high-volume mobile categories such as smartphones or tablets—are dominated by ARM; at the high end, x86 continues to dominate compute-intensive workstation and cloud computing segments.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "By the 2000s, 32-bit x86 processors' limitations in memory addressing were an obstacle to their utilization in high-performance computing clusters and powerful desktop workstations. The aged 32-bit x86 was competing with much more advanced 64-bit RISC architectures which could address much more memory. Intel and the whole x86 ecosystem needed 64-bit memory addressing if x86 was to survive the 64-bit computing era, as workstation and desktop software applications were soon to start hitting the limitations present in 32-bit memory addressing. However, Intel felt that it was the right time to make a bold step and use the transition to 64-bit desktop computers for a transition away from the x86 architecture in general, an experiment which ultimately failed.\n", "AMD introduced three quad-core Opterons on Socket AM2+ for single-CPU servers in 2007. These CPUs are produced on a 65 nm manufacturing process and are similar to the \"Agena\" Phenom X4 CPUs. The Socket AM2+ quad-core Opterons are code-named \"Budapest.\" The Socket AM2+ Opterons carry model numbers of 1352 (2.10 GHz), 1354 (2.20 GHz), and 1356 (2.30 GHz.)\n\nSection::::Technical description.:Socket AM3.\n", "In 1994, Acorn used the ARM610 as the main central processing unit (CPU) in their RiscPC computers. DEC licensed the ARMv4 architecture and produced the StrongARM. At 233 MHz, this CPU drew only one watt (newer versions draw far less). This work was later passed to Intel as part of a lawsuit settlement, and Intel took the opportunity to supplement their i960 line with the StrongARM. Intel later developed its own high performance implementation named XScale, which it has since sold to Marvell. Transistor count of the ARM core remained essentially the same throughout these changes; ARM2 had 30,000 transistors, while ARM6 grew only to 35,000.\n", "The \"6x86\" (codename M1) was released by Cyrix in 1996. The first generation of 6x86 had heat problems. This was primarily caused by their higher heat output than other x86 CPUs of the day and, as such, computer builders sometimes did not equip them with adequate cooling. The CPUs topped out at around 25 W heat output (like the AMD K6), whereas the P5 Pentium produced around 15 W of waste heat at its peak. However, both numbers would be a fraction of the heat generated by many high performance processors, some years later.\n\nSection::::Models.:6x86L.\n", "Bulldozer-based implementations built on 32nm SOI with HKMG arrived in October 2011 for both servers and desktops. The server segment included the dual chip (16-core) Opteron processor codenamed \"Interlagos\" (for Socket G34) and single chip (4, 6 or 8 cores) \"Valencia\" (for Socket C32), while the \"Zambezi\" (4, 6 and 8 cores) targeted desktops on Socket AM3+.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "It was noted that James Gordon Bennett was cross eyed for most of his life, an acquaintance once said that he was \"so terribly cross-eyed that when he looked at me with one eye, he looked out at the City Hall with the other.\"\n", "Section::::In religion.:Islam.\n", "It has long been recognized that full binocular vision, including stereopsis, is an important factor in the stabilization of post-surgical outcome of strabismus corrections. Many persons lacking stereopsis have (or have had) visible strabismus, which is known to have a potential socioeconomic impact on children and adults. In particular, both large-angle and small-angle strabismus can negatively affect self-esteem, as it interferes with normal eye contact, often causing embarrassment, anger, and feelings of awkwardness. For further details on this, see psychosocial effects of strabismus.\n", "In a study conducted by John Gottman, it was determined that eye-rolling is one of the #1 factors of predicting divorce, followed by criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling. The gesture shows the other party that what they are doing is so undesirable that it is not even worth looking at or giving a thought, which is why many relationships are destroyed by excessive use of the action.\n\nIn 2010, members of the city council of Elmhurst, Illinois, wished to make a law outlawing eye-rolling.\n", "There are two ways an autostereogram can be viewed: \"wall-eyed\" and \"cross-eyed\". Most autostereograms (including those in this article) are designed to be viewed in only one way, which is usually wall-eyed. Wall-eyed viewing requires that the two eyes adopt a relatively parallel angle, while cross-eyed viewing requires a relatively convergent angle. An image designed for wall-eyed viewing if viewed correctly will appear to pop out of the background, while if viewed cross-eyed it will instead appear as a cut-out behind the background and may be difficult to bring entirely into focus.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "To maintain stereopsis and singleness of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover-uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card. Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall-eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has esophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has exophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount of exophoria or esophoria; it is quite normal. If the uncovered eye also moved vertically, the person has hyperphoria (if the eye moved from down to up) or hypophoria (if the eye moved from up to down). Such vertical phorias are quite rare. It is also possible for the covered eye to rotate in its orbit. Such cyclophorias cannot be seen with the cover-uncover test; they are rarer than vertical phorias.\n", "There are three basic techniques, referred to as X-shaped, Y-shaped, and single strip support. In X-shaped and Y-shaped, the arms run the risk of the being pulled medially, which would press on the optic nerve and could result in optic nerve atrophy. In single strip support, the material covers the posterior pole vertically between the optic nerve and insertion of the inferior oblique muscle. Often, this method is preferred, since it is the easiest method for placement, provides the widest area of support, and reduces the risk of optic nerve interference.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "The approximate field of view of an individual human eye (measured from the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's gaze is directed) varies by facial anatomy, but is typically 30° superior (up, limited by the brow), 45° nasal (limited by the nose), 70° inferior (down), and 100° temporal (towards the temple). For both eyes combined (binocular) visual field is 135° vertical and 200° horizontal. It is an area of 4.17 steradians or 13700 square degrees for binocular vision. When viewed at large angles from the side, the iris and pupil may still be visible by the viewer, indicating the person has peripheral vision possible at that angle.\n", "Section::::In society.\n", "This crossing is an adaptive feature of frontally oriented eyes, found mostly in predatory animals requiring precise visual depth perception. (Prey animals, with laterally positioned eyes, have little binocular vision, so there is a more complete crossover of visual signals.) Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, the optic nerves become optic tracts. The signals are passed on to the lateral geniculate body, in turn giving them to the occipital cortex (the outer matter of the rear brain).\n\nSection::::Mammalian development.\n", "Section::::Corneal cross-linking.\n", "The Van Hare Effect may also be more readily apparent or magnified to those who have used the cross-eyed viewing technique in the past. If the viewer is accustomed to looking at stereoscopic image pairs without a viewer and by using the cross-eyed viewing technique, the viewer may have further trained their brain in a manner that enhances the Van Hare Effect. The knowledge of visual interpretation from the cross-eyed technique then is more readily applied when viewing identical image pairs instead of stereoscopic image pairs.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "The human eye is relatively rare for having an iris that is small enough for its position to be plainly visible against the sclera. This makes it easier for one individual to infer where another individual is looking, and the cooperative eye hypothesis suggests this has evolved as a method of nonverbal communication.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::On traditional drawing lessons.\n", "Section::::Difficulty.\n\nSome people find eye contact difficult with others. For example, those with autistic disorders or social anxieties may find eye contact to be particularly unsettling.\n\nStrabismus, especially esophoria or exophoria, interferes with normal eye contact: a person whose eyes are not aligned usually makes full eye contact with one eye only, while the orientation of the other eye deviates slightly or more.\n\nSection::::Difficulty.:Eye aversion and mental processing.\n", "Individuals who engage in triadic joint attention must understand both gaze and intention to establish common reference. Gaze refers to a child's understanding of the link between mental activity and the physical act of seeing. Intention refers to the child's ability to understand the goal of another person's mental processes.\n\nSection::::Humans.:Gaze.\n\nFor an individual to engage in joint attention they must establish reference. Following the gaze or directive actions (such as pointing) of others is a common way of establishing reference. For an individual to understand that following gaze establishes reference the individual must display:\n", "\"Cross-fixation congenital esotropia\", also called \"Cianci's syndrome\" is a particular type of large-angle infantile esotropia associated with tight medius rectus muscles. With the tight muscles, which hinder adduction, there is a constant inward eye turn. The patient cross-fixates, that is, to fixate objects on the left, the patient looks across the nose with the right eye, and vice versa. The patient tends to adopt a head turn, turning the head to the right to better see objects in the left visual field and turning the head to the left to see those in the right visual field. Binasal occlusion can be used to discourage cross-fixation. However, the management of cross-fixation congenital esotropia usually involves surgery.\n", "Having two eyes allows the brain to determine the depth and distance of an object, called stereovision, and gives the sense of three-dimensionality to the vision. Both eyes must point accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to stimulate stereovision; otherwise, double vision might occur. Some persons with congenitally crossed eyes tend to ignore one eye's vision, thus do not suffer double vision, and do not have stereovision. The movements of the eye are controlled by six muscles attached to each eye, and allow the eye to elevate, depress, converge, diverge and roll. These muscles are both controlled voluntarily and involuntarily to track objects and correct for simultaneous head movements.\n", "BULLET::::- Positioning: The person is laid in a comfortable position with the affected eye closest to the physician. Loupes can be used if available and the eye can be illuminated with a medical light or, alternatively, with an ophtalmoscope held in the non-dominant hand. The person is then asked to focus on a particular point on the ceiling so that the foreign body sits as centrally between the eyelids as possible. This accounts for a more sterile procedure by keeping the eyelashes as far as possible, and reduces the chance of eliciting a blink reflex. If necessary, the eyelids can be kept open using an eyelid speculum, the examiner’s fingertips, a cotton tip or an assistant.\n", "There are no long term studies about crosslinking effect on pregnancy and lactation. According to a manufacturer crosslinking should not be performed on pregnant women.\n\nSection::::Cautions.\n\nPeople undergoing crosslinking should not rub their eyes for the first five days after the procedure.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "Ocular dominance columns are also found in the striate cortex. These columns were found to prefer crossing iso-orientation lines perpendicularly. During microelectrode experiments, it is normal to see penetrations where eye dominance changes between the contralateral eye and ipsilateral eye but this does not interrupt the orientation sequence.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Preferred orientation.\n", "Accommodative esotropia is a form of strabismus caused by refractive error in one or both eyes. Due to the near triad, when a person engages accommodation to focus on a near object, an increase in the signal sent by cranial nerve III to the medial rectus muscles results, drawing the eyes inward; this is called the accommodation reflex. If the accommodation needed is more than the usual amount, such as with people with significant hyperopia, the extra convergence can cause the eyes to cross.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "A conceptually opposite technique of using hexagonal incisions in the periphery of the cornea is known has hexagonal keratotomy (HK, described by Antonio Mendez of Mexicali, Mexico), which was used to correct low degrees of hyperopia. The idea behind HK was to make six peripheral incisions forming a hexagon around the central cornea to steepen the hyperopic flat cornea and, thereby, focus the rays of light more precisely onto the retina. These incisions can be of two types, either connecting or non-connecting.\n", "Surgical intervention can result in the eyes being entirely aligned (orthophoria) or nearly so, or it can result in an over- or undercorrection that may necessitate further treatment or another surgical intervention. The likelihood that the eyes will stay aligned over the longer term is higher if the patient is able to achieve some degree of binocular fusion after surgery than if not. In a study on infantile esotropia patients who had either small-angle (8 diopters) esotropia or small-angle exotropia of the same size six months after the intervention, it was found that those who had the small-angle esotropia were more likely to have aligned eyes five years after the intervention than those with small-angle exotropia. There is tentative evidence that children with infantile esotropia patients achieve better binocular vision post-operatively if the surgical treatment is performed early (\"see:\" Infantile esotropia#Surgery).\n", "To reduce error in the stance, targets not directly in front of the shooter are engaged by turning the upper body at the hips, since turning the arm at the shoulder, elbow, or wrist will result in a loss of control and a miss, while turning at the waist keeps everything aligned correctly.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Types of interaction.:Voting and polling.\n\nAnother great hurdle in implementing e-democracy is the matter of ensuring security in internet-voting systems. Viruses and malware could block or redirect citizens' votes on matters of great importance; as long as that threat remains, e-democracy will not be able to diffuse throughout society. Kevin Curran and Eric Nichols of the Internet Technologies Research Group noted in 2005 that \"a secure Internet voting system is theoretically possible, but it would be the first secure networked application ever created in the history of computers\".\n", "All other candidates required 5,000 support clicks from each of 10 states to qualify for the primary ballot.\n", "Many countries have looked into Internet voting as a possible solution for low voter turnout. Some countries like France and Switzerland use Internet voting. However, it has only been used sparingly by a few states in the US. This is due largely to security concerns. For example, the US Department of Defense looked into making Internet voting secure, but cancelled the effort. The idea would be that voter turnout would increase because people could cast their vote from the comfort of their own homes, although the few experiments with Internet voting have produced mixed results.\n\nSection::::International differences.:Institutional factors.:Voter fatigue.\n", "LaPrimaire.org organizes open primaries to allow the French to choose the candidates they wish to run for public elections\n\nSection::::Civic technology in Europe.:Iceland.\n\nThe Icelandic constitutional reform, 2010–13 instituted a process for reviewing and redrafting their constitution after the 2008 financial crisis, using social media to gather feedback on twelve successive drafts.\n", "Other jurisdictions are now starting to experiment with vote by mail, or run pilot programs. 31 of 53 counties in North Dakota now vote by mail, as do over 1000 precincts in Minnesota (those with fewer than 400 registered voters). In 2018, pilot programs in Anchorage, Alaska exceeded previous turnout records and Garden County, Nebraska saw higher turnout versus the state average. Pilot programs in Rockville, MD in 2019 and Kauai County, HI in 2020 are planned. In 2018, Connecticut's Governor issued Executive Order 64, directing a study of a possible move to vote by mail. That report was released in January 2019.\n", "BULLET::::6. Don't you think that standardizing our voting practices will increase legitimacy, and possibly even voter turnout in our elections? What are you going to do to fix that? (Mellisa, San Luis Obispo, California)\n\nBULLET::::7. My question to the candidates: If you're elected to serve, would you be willing to do this service for the next four years and be paid the national minimum wage? (Cecilla Smith and Asanti Wilkins, Pennsylvania)\n\nBULLET::::8. My taxes put some kids in college I can't afford to send myself. Now, tell me, if you were elected president, what would you do to help?\n", "Online Direct Democracy does not have any policies. Instead it has pledged to conduct an online poll for every bill that passes before Parliament. Anyone on the Australian electoral roll would be allowed to register to vote in these polls and will be allowed one vote per bill. The MPs would then be required to vote in accordance with the clear majority (55%-70% and more than 100,000 votes). If there is no clear majority they will abstain from voting. A beta version of the system is operating and available for public use. This system has been designed to highlight the possibilities on online democracy.\n", "The third poll was related to the 2016 EU Referendum. This poll found that there would have been an extra 1.2 million young voters had there been an option to vote online in the referendum.\n\nSection::::Advisory Council.\n\nThe think tank has a 20 member Advisory Council consisting of experts from across the tech industry and civil society. Members include the television broadcasters Rick Edwards and Amy Lamé, technologists Emma Mulqueeny and Helen Milner, and the academics Dr Peter Kerr and Professor Mark Ryan.\n\nSection::::Political Ambassadors.\n", "In the European Parliament, decisions are usually made by show of hands. If the show of hands leads to a doubtful result, the vote is taken by standing and sitting. If this, too, leads to a doubtful result, the vote is taken by roll call. (A roll-call vote is also taken if any political group or any 21 members request). The president of the European Parliament may also decide to hold a vote using the Parliament's electronic voting system. Electronic voting systems are installed in each of the European Parliament's two locations: Strasbourg and Brussels.\n", "Generally, participation in online deliberation forums has been low. This is an issue because representativity is poor and can be swayed towards meeting the wishes of those that participate, consisting of those who are well-educated, and so forth. There is also the possibility that the issues wouldn't even be considered if turnout remains so low. Low levels of influence not only repel legislative bodies, but also potential participants. However, large participation levels present the chance that members are beginning to solely chat on topics, not fully read and evaluate others' inputs. If a forum is deliberate and goal-oriented, and those who participate are forced to have to go through processes to get their opinions out, those who wish to simply chatter will be filtered out, and the forums will be left only with those seriously interested and involved in finding a solution, as explored by Cyril Velikanov in his \"Mass Online Deliberation\" paper.\n", "BULLET::::- IGF X — João Pessoa, Brazil 2015: Approximately 50 remote hubs were organized around the world, with an estimated 2000 active participants online. Real time transcription was available. The entire meeting was web-cast and all web-casted videos were uploaded to YouTube after sessions ended allowing for additional public viewership. Flickr, Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr were all widely used.\n", "Elections in France utilized remote Internet voting for the first time in 2003 when French citizens living in the United States elected their representatives to the Assembly of French Citizens Abroad. Over 60% of voters chose to vote using the Internet rather than paper. The Forum des droits sur l'Internet (Internet rights forum), published a recommendation on the future of electronic voting in France, stating that French citizens abroad should be able to use Internet voting for Assembly of the French Citizens Abroad elections. This recommendation became reality in 2009, with 6000 French citizens choosing to make use of the system.\n", "Each voter may be viewed as a discrete information processor making a judgement on each issue based not only on their intellect but their experience, morals, values and how the vote will affect their futures. Compared to the few hundred people involved in decisions in a parliamentary democracy, the thousands or millions of voters in interactive democracy, each with a wide diversity of life experiences, process far more information and may make much better decisions.\n\nSecurity\n", "Furthermore, a Canadian study revealed that online voting platforms may not improve voter participation. The study found that those who did not already vote on paper ballots did not vote with digital devices. Instead, non-paper voting forms are simply more convenient for those who would have already decided to vote. With this data brought to light, the Independent Panel On Internet Voting did not recommend internet voting to the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia in 2012.\n\nSection::::Criticism and controversy.:Controversy.\n", "Machine voting uses voting machines, which may be manual (e.g. lever machines) or electronic. In Brazil, voters type in the number of the candidate they wish to vote for and then confirm their vote when the candidate's photo is displayed on screen.\n\nSection::::Voting methods.:Online voting.\n\nIn some countries people are allowed to vote online. Estonia was one of the first countries to use online voting: it was first used in the 2005 local elections.\n\nSection::::Voting methods.:Postal voting.\n\nMany countries allow postal voting, where voters are sent a ballot and return it by post.\n\nSection::::Voting methods.:Open ballot.\n", "Also proposed is the requirement for use of open public standards and specifications such as the Election Markup Language (EML) standard developed by OASIS and now under consideration by ISO (see documents and schemas). These can provide consistent processes and mechanisms for managing and performing elections using computer systems.\n\nSection::::United States of America.:Legislation.\n\nIn the summer of 2004, the Legislative Affairs Committee of the Association of Information Technology Professionals issued a nine-point proposal for national standards for electronic voting. In an accompanying article, the committee's chair, Charles Oriez, described some of the problems that had arisen around the country.\n", "On-line elections would also help break the candidate-centered myth. With that myth bygone, no longer would the electorate have to passively put up with the candidate's unidirectional brainwash. Thanks to on-line election system integrating with all sorts of citizenship participation schemes, for example, real time referendum, voting, recalling, interactive public forum and so oneveryone can voice his or her opinions as much as he or she like. \n", "Section::::Disadvantages.:Legitimacy.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Legitimacy.:Representativeness.\n\nCitizens’ assemblies requires those randomly sampled to gather at a single place to discuss the targeted issue(s). Those events are typically one to three days while online deliberations can take up to four to five weeks. Even though scientific random sampling are used and each person has an equal chance of being selected, not every selected individual will have the time and interest to join those events.\n", "The 2018 elections were also noted for a significant increase in the adoption of online voting. Across Ontario, over 150 municipalities conducted their elections primarily online, with physical polling stations either abandoned entirely or limited to only a few central polling stations for voters who could not or did not want to vote online.\n", "Deliberative polling requires those randomly sampled to gather at a single place to discuss the targeted issue(s). Those events are typically one to three days while online deliberations can take up to four to five weeks. Even though scientific random sampling are used and each person has an equal chance of being selected, not every selected individual will have the time and interest to join those events.\n", "Regarding elections and online polling, there is the potential for voters to make less informed decisions because of the ease of voting. Although many more voters will turn out, they may only be doing so because it is easy and may not be consciously making a decision based on their own synthesized opinion. It's suggested that if online voting becomes more common, so should constituent-led discussions regarding the issues or candidates being polled.\n\nSection::::Effects of civic technology.:Effects on socioeconomics.\n", "In 2013, Colorado began holding all elections by mail. A Pantheon Analytics study of the 2014 election showed a significant uptick in voter participation from what would have normally been \"low propensity\" voters. A PEW Charitable Trust study of the same election showed significant cost savings.\n", "The use of the Internet in elections is a fairly recent concept and as with any new technology it will undergo a certain amount of scrutiny until people can fully trust it and implement it into worldwide elections. Critics of online voting argued that online voting isn't secure enough and thus creates a large amount of skeptics who oppose the use of online voting, which in turn will result in a challenge to implement online voting as the primary method of casting votes. Another area that people are worried about is the process of authentication of votes. In other words, what process will voters have to go through to ensure that they are who they say they are?\n", "Follow-up events took place from May 2007. A policy debate at the European Policy Centre (EPC) officially launched the follow-up process at European level. A discussion about citizen participation took place at the ECAS headquarters in autumn 2007. Follow-up activities at the national level included 39 local debates in Belgium, 15 local citizen forums in Germany, debating cafés in Slovenia, a school competition in Ireland, and press conferences with EU Commissioners in Slovakia and the Czech Republic. \n", "BULLET::::- IGF XI — Jalisco, Mexico 2016: 45 remote hubs were organized around the world, with 2,000 stakeholders participating online. The largest number of online participants came from the following countries: United States, Mexico, Nigeria, Brazil, India, Cuba, United Kingdom, China, Japan, Tunisia and Argentina.\n\nBULLET::::- IGF XII — Geneva, Switzerland 2017: 32 remote hubs were organised around the world, with 1661 stakeholders participating online. The largest number of online participants came from the following countries: United States, Switzerland, Nigeria, China, India, Brazil, France, United Kingdom and Mexico.\n" ]

[ "Voting online is secure and able to be trusted. " ]

[ "Voting online would not be secure or able to be trusted. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Voting online is secure and able to be trusted. ", "Voting online is good." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Voting online would not be secure or able to be trusted. ", "There is no way to make it even close to secure enough." ]

[ "Micro-lenses in recent imaging chips have attained smaller and smaller sizes. The Samsung NX1 mirrorless system camera packs 28.2 million micro-lenses onto its CMOS imaging chip, one per photo-site, each with a side length of just 3.63 micrometer. For smartphones this process is miniaturized even further: The Samsung Galaxy S6 has a CMOS sensor with pixels only 1.12 micrometer each. These pixels are covered with micro-lenses of a equally small pitch.\n", "Small body means small lens and means small sensor, so to keep smartphones slim and light, the smartphone manufacturers use a tiny sensor usually less than the 1/2.3\" used in most Bridge cameras. At one time only Nokia 808 PureView used a 1/1.2\" sensor, almost three times the size of a 1/2.3\" sensor. Bigger sensors have the advantage of better image quality, but with improvements in sensor technology, smaller sensors can achieve the feats of earlier larger sensors. These improvements in sensor technology allow smartphone manufacturers to use image sensors as small as 1/4\" without sacrificing too much image quality compared to budget point & shoot cameras.\n", "The sensors of camera phones are typically much smaller than those of typical compact cameras, allowing greater miniaturization of the electrical and optical components. Sensor sizes of around 1/6\" are common in camera phones, webcams and digital camcorders. The Nokia N8's 1/1.83\" sensor was the largest in a phone in late 2011. The Nokia 808 surpasses compact cameras with its 41 million pixels, 1/1.2\" sensor.\n\nSection::::Common image sensor formats.:Medium-format digital sensors.\n", "In 2019, some advance camera phones have optical image stabilisation (OIS), larger sensors, bright lenses, and even optical zoom plus RAW images. HDR, \"Bokeh mode\" with multi lenses and multi-shot night modes are also familiar nowadays.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Camera.\n\nNearly all camera phones use CMOS image sensors, due to largely reduced power consumption compared to CCD type cameras, which are also used, but in few camera phones. Some of camera phones even use more expensive Backside Illuminated CMOS which uses less energy than CMOS, although more expensive than CMOS and CCD.\n", "In an inversion, some phone makers have introduced smartphones with cameras designed to resemble traditional digital cameras. Nokia released the 808 PureView and Lumia 1020 in 2012 and 2013; the two devices respectively run the Symbian and Windows Phone operating systems, and both include a 41-megapixel camera (along with a camera grip attachment for the latter). Similarly, Samsung introduced the Galaxy S4 Zoom, having a 16-megapixel camera and 10x optical zoom, combining traits from the Galaxy S4 Mini with the Galaxy Camera. Panasonic Lumix DMC-CM1 is an Android KitKat 4.4 smartphone with 20MP, 1\" sensor, the largest sensor for a smartphone ever, with Leica fixed lens equivalent of 28 mm at F2.8, can take RAW image and 4K video, has 21 mm thickness. Furthermore, in 2018 Huawei P20 Pro is an android Oreo 8.1 has triple Leica lenses in the back of the smartphone with 40MP 1/1.7\" RGB sensor as first lens, 20MP 1/2.7\" monochrome sensor as second lens and 8MP 1/4\" RGB sensor with 3x optical zoom as third lens. Combination of first lens and second lens will produce bokeh image with larger high dynamic range, whereas combination of mega pixel first lens and optical zoom will produce maximum 5x digital zoom without loss of quality by reducing the image size to 8MP.\n", "Section::::Manufacturers of light field cameras.:Other cameras.\n\n\"Pelican Imaging\" has thin multi-camera array systems intended for consumer electronics. Pelican's systems use from 4 to 16 closely spaced micro-cameras instead of a micro-lens array image sensor. Nokia has invested in Pelican Imaging to produce a plenoptic camera system with 16-lens array camera expected to be implemented in Nokia smartphones in 2014. More recently, Pelican has moved to designing supplementary cameras that add depth-sensing capabilities to a device's main camera, rather than stand-alone array cameras.\n", "Due to the constraints of powerful zoom objectives, most current bridge cameras have 1/2.3\" sensors, as small as those used in common more compact cameras. In 2011 the high-end Fuji XS-1 was equipped with a much larger 2/3\" sensor. In 2013–2014, both Sony (Cyber-shot DSC-RX10) and Panasonic (Lumix DMC-FZ1000) produced bridge cameras with 1\" sensors.\n", "Section::::Sensor size and aspect ratio.\n\nThe image sensor of Four Thirds and MFT measures 18 mm × 13.5 mm (22.5 mm diagonal), with an imaging area of 17.3 mm × 13.0 mm (21.6 mm diagonal), comparable to the frame size of 110 film. Its area, ca. 220 mm², is approximately 30% less than the quasi-APS-C sensors used in other manufacturers' DSLRs; it is around 9 times larger than the 1/2.3\" sensors typically used in compact digital cameras.\n", "For example, Sony Alpha SLT-A58 has 20.1 megapixels on an APS-C sensor having 6.2 MP/cm since a compact camera like Sony Cyber-shot DSC-HX50V has 20.4 megapixels on an 1/2.3\" sensor having 70 MP/cm. The professional camera has a lower PPI than a compact camera, because it has larger photodiodes due to having far larger sensors.\n\nSection::::Smartphones.\n", "Most superzoom compact cameras have between 30x and 60x optical zoom, although some have even further zoom and weigh less than 300 grams, much less than bridge cameras and DSLRs.\n\nMost of these compact cameras use small 1/2.3\" image sensors, but since 2008 a few non-interchangeable lens compact cameras use a larger sensor such as 1\" and even APS-C, such as the Fujifilm X100 series, or full frame format such as the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1 series.\n", "Higher resolution camera phones started to appear in 2010s. 12-megapixel camera phones have been produced by at least two companies. To highlight the capabilities of the Nokia N8 (Big CMOS Sensor) camera, Nokia created a short film, \"The Commuter\", in October 2010. The seven-minute film was shot entirely on the phone's 720p camera. A 14-megapixel smartphone with 3× optical zoom was announced in late 2010. In 2012, Nokia announced Nokia 808 PureView. It features a 41-megapixel 1/1.2-inch sensor and a high-resolution f/2.4 Zeiss all-aspherical one-group lens. It also features Nokia's PureView Pro technology, a pixel oversampling technique that reduces an image taken at full resolution into a lower resolution picture, thus achieving higher definition and light sensitivity, and enables lossless zoom. In mid-2013, Nokia announced the Nokia Lumia 1020. In Late 2017, Apple introduced the iPhone 7 Plus, one of the phones to popularize a dual camera setup. The iPhone 7 Plus included a main 12 MP camera along with a 12 MP telephoto camera which allowed for 2x optical zoom and Portrait Mode for the first time in a smartphone. In early 2018 Huawei released a new flagship phone, the Huawei P20 Pro, with one of the first triple camera lens setup. Making up its three sensors (co-engineered with Leica) are a 40 megapixel RGB lens, a 20 megapixel monochrome lens, and a 8 megapixel telephoto lens. Some features on the Huawei P20 Pro include 3x optical zoom, and 960 fps slow motion. In late 2018, Samsung released a new mid-range smartphone, the Galaxy A9 (2018) with the world's first quad camera setup. The quadruple camera setup features a primary 24MP f/1.7 sensor for normal photography, an ultra-wide 8MP f/2.4 sensor with a 120 degrees viewing angle, a telephoto 10MP f/2.4 with 2x optical zoom and a 5MP depth sensor for effects such as Bokeh. Nokia 9 PureView was released in 2019 featuring penta-lens camera system. \n", "BULLET::::- Different modulation frequencies: If the cameras modulate their light with different modulation frequencies, their light is collected in the other systems only as background illumination but does not disturb the distance measurement.\n", "The CMOS active pixel sensor \"camera-on-a-chip\" developed by Eric Fossum and his team in the early 1990s achieved the first step of realizing the modern camera phone as described in a March 1995 \"Business Week\" article. While the first camera phones (e.g. J-SH04), as successfully marketed by J-Phone in Japan, used charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors and not CMOS sensors, more than 90% of camera phones sold today use CMOS image sensor technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Driver electronics: Both the illumination unit and the image sensor have to be controlled by high speed signals and synchronized. These signals have to be very accurate to obtain a high resolution. For example, if the signals between the illumination unit and the sensor shift by only 10 picoseconds, the distance changes by 1.5 mm. For comparison: current CPUs reach frequencies of up to 3 GHz, corresponding to clock cycles of about 300 ps - the corresponding 'resolution' is only 45 mm.\n", "Digital cameras are often included in smart phones and PDAs, but their resolution is lower than the dedicated camera device. Most are not truly IA because they do not readily communicate with other devices or process information. Most brands share information by USB or flash memory card which is removed from the camera and inserted in complementary devices (most PDAs accept these cards). Other methods, such as Infrared Communications or Bluetooth are also available.\n\nSection::::Portable devices available.:Software availability.\n", "Although small spy cameras had existed for decades, advances in miniaturisation and electronics since the 1950s have greatly aided the ability to conceal miniature cameras, and the quality and affordability of tiny cameras (often called \"spy cameras\" or subminiature cameras) has greatly increased. Some consumer digital cameras are now so small that in previous decades they would have qualified as \"spy cameras\", and digital cameras of twenty megapixels or more are now being embedded in some mobile camera phones. The vast majority of mobile phones in use are camera phones.\n", "In response to the convenience and flexibility of smartphone cameras, some manufacturers produced \"smart\" digital cameras that combine features of traditional cameras with those of a smartphone. In 2012, Nikon and Samsung released the Coolpix S800c and Galaxy Camera, the first two digital cameras to run the Android operating system. Since this software platform is used in many smartphones, they can integrate with services (such as e-mail attachments, social networks and photo sharing sites) as smartphones do, and use other Android-compatible software as well.\n", "The camera phone, like many complex systems, is the result of converging and enabling technologies. There are dozens of relevant patents dating back as far as 1956. Compared to digital cameras, a consumer-viable camera in a mobile phone would require far less power and a higher level of camera electronics integration to permit the miniaturization.\n", "The HTC One is equipped with a 4.0-megapixel rear-facing camera module that contains a custom image sensor marketed as UltraPixel, which is composed of pixels that are 2.0 µm in size. Most high-end smartphones at the time of its release used 8- or 13-megapixel cameras with pixel sizes ranging from 1.4 to 1.0 µm, both of which are considerably smaller in size than the pixels found in the One's UltraPixel sensor. Although these smaller pixel sizes were typically necessary to ensure that the camera sensor did not compromise the design of the phone, there were concerns that this could result in a loss of dynamic range and sensitivity, and also result in poor performance in low-light environments. As such, HTC stated that its camera design with larger sensor pixels could notably increase overall image quality, especially in low-light environments. The camera also includes optical image stabilization, and is further enhanced by improvements to the Sense camera software and the ImageChip 2 image processor.\n", "Cameras on cell phones proved popular right from the start, as indicated by the J-Phone in Japan having had more than half of its subscribers using cell phone cameras in two years. The world soon followed. In 2003, more camera phones were sold worldwide than stand-alone digital cameras largely due to growth in Japan and Korea. In 2005, Nokia became the world's most sold digital camera brand. In 2006, half of the world's mobile phones had a built-in camera. In 2006, Thuraya released the first satellite phone with an integrated camera. The Thuraya SG-2520 was manufactured by Korean company APSI and ran Windows CE. In 2008, Nokia sold more camera phones than Kodak sold film-based simple cameras, thus becoming the biggest manufacturer of any kind of camera. In 2010, the worldwide number of camera phones totaled more than a billion. Since 2010, most mobile phones, even cheapest ones, are being sold with a camera. High-end camera phones usually had a relatively good lens and high resolution.\n", "Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one. One of the most important differences is an improvement in image noise. This is one of the advantages of digital SLR (single-lens reflex) cameras, which have larger sensors than simpler cameras (so-called point and shoot cameras) of the same resolution.\n\nBULLET::::- Lens quality: resolution, distortion, dispersion (see Lens (optics))\n\nBULLET::::- Capture medium: CMOS, CCD, negative film, reversal film etc.\n", "During 2003 (as camera phones were gaining popularity), in Europe some phones without cameras had support for MMS and external cameras that could be connected with a small cable or directly to the data port at the base of the phone. The external cameras were comparable in quality to those fitted on regular camera phones at the time, typically offering VGA resolution.\n", "In 2000, Sharp introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the J-SH04 J-Phone, in Japan. By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera.\n\nSection::::Image sensors.\n", "Competitors followed suit, and by the end of the year most companies were offering a version in their high-end products. OmniVision has continued to push the technology down their product lines. By contrast, the iPhone 4s employs a sensor manufactured by Sony. Another example is the HTC EVO 4G which has an 8 MP, 1.4 µm pixel BSI sensor from OmniVision. In 2011, Sony implemented their Exmor R sensor in their flagship smartphone Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc.\n", "BULLET::::- UltraPixel – HTC (Image Stabilization is only available for the 2013 HTC One & 2016 HTC 10 with UltraPixel. It is not available for the HTC One (M8) or HTC Butterfly S, which also have UltraPixel)\n\nMost high-end smartphones as of late 2014 use optical image stabilization for photos and videos.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Optical image stabilization.:Lens-based.\n" ]

[ "Picture quality is the same between those cameras.", "Small phone cameras can match the resolution of cameras much larger. " ]

[ "Picture quality is not the same to a trained eye. ", "While it seems resolution of phone cameras may match larger cameras, they actually are not the same resolution at all." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Picture quality is the same between those cameras.", "Small phone cameras can match the resolution of cameras much larger. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Picture quality is not the same to a trained eye. ", "While it seems resolution of phone cameras may match larger cameras, they actually are not the same resolution at all." ]

[ "2. Market approach: The market approach is based on the economic principle of competition and equilibrium. These principles conclude that, in a free and unrestricted market, supply and demand factors will drive the price of an asset at equilibrium point. Furthermore, it provides an indication of the value by comparing the price at which similar property has exchanged between willing buyers and sellers. Data on such similar transactions may be accessed in several public sources, including specialized royalty rate databases.\n", "BULLET::::- Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)\n\nThe valuation analysts use numerous approaches in order to reach a reasonable indication of a defined value for the subject intangible assets on a certain date which is referred to as the valuation date. The most common approaches to estimate the fundamental or fair value of the intellectual property are defined as the following:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Selle v. Gibb\", 741 F. 2d 896 (7th Cir. 1984) Substantial similarity is not enough in the absence of proof of access. Evidence of access must extend beyond mere speculation. \"De rigueur\", not a Supreme Court case but only of the Court of Appeals of the Seventh Circuit, and therefore binding precedent only within its jurisdiction (Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin).\n", "A claim may, upon its proper construction, cover products or processes which involve the use of technology unknown at the time the claim was drafted. The question is whether the person skilled in the art would understand the description in a way which was sufficiently general to include the new technology.\n\nLord Hoffmann concluded that TKT did not infringe any of the claims and dismissed Amgen's appeal. The other lords all agreed.\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n", "The inherent proprietary value of know-how is embedded in the legal protection afforded to trade secrets in general law, particularly, case law. Know-how, in short, is \"private intellectual property\" which can be said to be a form of precursor to other intellectual property rights. The \"trade secret law\" varies from country to country, unlike the case for patents, trademarks and copyright for which there are formal \"conventions\" through which subscribing countries grant the same protection to the \"property\" as the others; examples of which are the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), under United Nations, a supportive organization designed \"to encourage creative activity, [and] to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world\".\n", "BULLET::::- while the \"Computer Associates\" test may prove useful in determining whether substantial portions of works such as computer programs have been copied, many types of works do not lend themselves to a reductive analysis. The cumulative effect of the features copied from the work must be considered, to determine whether those features amount to a substantial part of the creator's skill and judgment expressed in his work as a whole.\n", "Section::::Fair dealing defences and permitted acts.:Relevant cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Test of joint ownership - Problems can occur when there is a need to determine whether a person involved in the creation of a piece of work may have joint ownership. When this is the case, there is a test that can be applied, similar to the one which is used to determine originality. This test is used in order to show that the labour, skill and judgement exercised by the author are unique and are that of which are protected by copyright.\n", "Most of the technological companies are highly based on intangible assets and investment in knowledge, research and innovation. According to studies, expenditures on knowledge, through investments in R&D or software, have grown at a higher rate than expenditures in tangible assets. This change in investments has consequently been reflected by a heavy importance of intangible assets and patents in companies. Therefore, to know the value of companies it is essential to know the value of their intellectual property.\n\nSection::::Cases of application of patent valuation.:Negotiations to sell or license intellectual property rights.\n", "The fact that a certain result or characteristic may occur or be present in the prior art is not alone sufficient to establish inherency of that result or characteristic. To establish inherency, the evidence must make clear that the missing matter is \"necessarily\" present in the prior art reference. Inherency may not be established by probabilities or possibilities.\n\nOnce the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) establishes that a product referenced in prior art appears to be substantially identical, the burden shifts to the applicant to show a non-obvious difference.\n", "Intellectual property valuation\n\nValuation is considered as one of the most critical areas in finance; it plays a key role in many areas of finance such as buy/sell, solvency, merger and acquisition.\n\nSection::::Rationale.\n\nThere are numerous individual reasons or motivations for conducting an intellectual property valuation or economic appraisal analysis. A valuation is prepared, for example, for transactions, pricing and strategic purposes, financing securitization and collateralization, tax planning and compliance, and litigation support.\n\nSection::::Factors driving the value of intellectual property.\n", "The test varies from country to country, but in general it requires that the infringing party's product (or method, service, and so on) falls within one or more of the claims of the patent. The process employed involves \"reading\" a claim onto the technology of interest. If all of the claim's elements are found in the technology, the claim is said to \"read on\" the technology; if a single element from the claim is missing from the technology, the claim does not literally read on the technology and the technology generally does not infringe the patent with respect to that claim, except if the doctrine of equivalence is considered applicable.\n", "Software can contain trade secrets, which provide a competitive advantage to a business. To determine trade secret theft, the same tools and processes can be used to detect copyright infringement. If code was copied without authority, and that code has the characteristics of a trade secret—it is not generally known, the business keeps it secret, and its secrecy maintains its value to the business—then the copied code constitutes trade secret theft.\n", "While the District court accepted that argument, both the Federal Circuit and the Supreme Court denied it, leaving the basic law of inventorship unchanged.\n\nSection::::Legal proceedings and case law.:Disclosure of subject inventions.\n", "3. Income approach: This approach estimates the fair value of intellectual property by discounting the future economic benefits of ownership at an appropriate discount rate.\n\n4. Direct approach: The direct approach is based on the current value of shares of intellectual property in an Intellectual Property (IP) Share Market.\n\n5. Using the pay-off method on top of the four above mentioned methods is a way to enhance the valuation and analysis of intellectual property \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Economics and patents\n\nBULLET::::- Patent valuation\n\nBULLET::::- International Valuation Standards Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Patent portfolio\n\nBULLET::::- Tax amortization benefit\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Under the standard patent rights clause, small businesses and non-profit organizations, if they obtain title by assignment to \"subject inventions,\" can retain that title by complying with certain formalities. No small business or nonprofit organization, however, is required to obtain ownership of such inventions. All organizations agree to do the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Include the patent rights clause in any subcontracts;\n\nBULLET::::- Report subject inventions to the sponsoring agency;\n\nBULLET::::- Elect in writing whether or not to retain title;\n\nBULLET::::- Conduct a program of education for employees regarding the importance of timely disclosure; and\n", "Patents referencing prior arts is a common practice. For example, each United States patent document includes a \"References Cited\" section that lists the prior arts of the patent. Patent databases such as Clarivate Analytics and Webpat provide digitized patent citation information. Verspagen (2007) and Mina (2007) are the two early works that apply main path analysis to the patent data.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Judicial document.\n", "The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's Rule 56 explains that patents are \"affected with a public interest. The public interest is best served, and the most effective patent examination occurs when, at the time an application is being examined, the Office is aware of and evaluates the teachings of all information material to patentability.\" Accordingly, each individual person \"associated with the filing and prosecution of a patent application has a duty of candor and good faith in dealing with the Office, which includes a duty to disclose to the Office all information known to that individual to be material to patentability.\"\n", "The Tenth Circuit instead decided that Rivendell had demonstrated that its software was potentially protectable as a trade secret because \"a trade secret can include a system where the elements are in the public domain, but there has been accomplished an effective, successful and valuable integration of the public domain elements and the trade secret gave the claimant a competitive advantage\".\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Intellectual property derives its value from a wide range of significant parameters such as usefulness, market share, barriers to entry, legal protection, IP’s profitability, industrial and economic factors, growth projections, remaining economic life, and new technologies.\n\nSection::::Approaches.\n", "According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, \"everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author\". Although the relationship between intellectual property and human rights is a complex one, there are moral arguments for intellectual property.\n", "RGSOIPL also offers a doctorate programme leading to Ph.D in law. The institute recently churned out its first Ph.D. in IP Law.\n", "Valuation of patent rights is one of the main activities related to intellectual property management within an organization or company. Indeed, knowing the economic value and importance of the intellectual property rights assists in the strategic decisions to be taken on the company's assets, but also facilitates the commercialization and transactions concerning intellectual property rights.\n\nThere are several business situations where valuation is required:\n\nSection::::Cases of application of patent valuation.:Valuation of a company for the purposes of a merger, acquisition, joint venture or bankruptcy.\n", "There is a growing body of case law on Bayh-Dole.\n\nSection::::Legal proceedings and case law.:Ownership of inventions.\n\nStanford v. Roche, was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that title in a patented invention vests first in the inventor, even if the inventor is a researcher at a federally funded lab subject to the Bayh–Dole Act. The judges affirmed the common understanding of US Constitutional law that inventors automatically own their inventions, and contractual obligations to assign those rights to third parties are secondary.\n", "Section::::The patent.\n", "Another matter is the transfer of other legal rights normally granted by ownership. In 2011, a US District judge ruled that a woman who had purchased a stolen laptop could sue a device tracking company for invasion of privacy stemming from recording software installed on the laptop to facilitate its recovery after being stolen. This ruling demonstrated that \"bona fide\" purchasers are entitled to some rights by virtue of possession alone, or that \"nemo dat\" is superseded by the \"bona fide\" purchaser's right to privacy.\n\nSection::::Recording statutes.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- A representative in 2005 from The Marco Corporation stated, \"In some cases, we do have redemption programs that go as high as forty to fifty per cent, but generally it’s about one to five per cent\". In the same article, John Challinor, advertising manager for Sony Canada remarks, \"The industry average is less than ten percent... and it can be as low as one percent.\"\n\nBULLET::::- NPD Group, a marketing firm, estimates 50% to 70%.\n\nSection::::General complaints.\n", "BULLET::::- PMA, a marketing firm, estimated that in 2005, $486.5 million worth of rebates were redeemed. The redemption rates averaged 21.1% when calculated as a percentage of total sales, and 67.6% when calculated as a percentage of incremental sales. PMA notes, \"These statistics reveal that redemption rates calculated as a percentage of total sales can be misleading when diluted by non-incremental sales, consequently making redemption rates appear lower than they truly are.\"\n", "In the United States, Connecticut state regulations section 42-110b-19(e) require retailers who advertise the net price of an item after rebate to pay consumers the amount of that rebate at time of purchase. Rhode Island has similar legislation (Gen. Laws 6-13.1-1). Otherwise, the after-rebate price cannot be advertised as the final price to be paid by the consumer. For example, retailers in Connecticut can advertise only \"$40 with a $40 rebate,\" not \"Free After Rebate,\" unless they give the rebate at the time of purchase.\n\nSection::::Rationale.\n", "BULLET::::- Customers tend to notice price increases and react negatively. Rebates offer retailers the benefit of giving customers a temporary discount on an item, to stimulate sales, while allowing it to maintain its current price point. This method avoids the negative backlash that could be perceived with a price being lowered and then raised later.\n", "At some big box stores, personal computers are regularly sold with sizable rebates attached, making the advertised price more attractive to buyers. Hardware manufacturers have come under fire, also. Dell, for one, has been the subject of rebate complaints involving misprinted receipts, potentially confusing expiration dates, and service representatives who are slow to react.\n\nRebate issues began to clog Dell's customer service forums, leading the company to shut down that portion of the website. CompUSA used rebates regularly until it started closing its remaining stores in December 2007.\n", "Consumers who are aware of this, and who value their time, effort, and opportunity costs above the value of the rebate may choose to intentionally ignore a non-instant rebate that requires such procedures and assume the out-the-door price when considering the purchase.\n\nOn the other hand, if the consumer does not see it this way, if the consumer's income and budget are extremely limited or non-existent, or if the consumer is more concerned with the price than his or her time for any reason, the rebate may be seen as a good deal.\n", "Another potential disadvantage to receiving a rebate is that the rebate does not refund any of the sales tax charged at the time of purchase. Thus the consumer will pay more in tax than if the price had simply been lowered at the time of purchase.\n\nSection::::Redemption rate inconsistencies.\n", "Some jurisdictions require retailers to offer return policies. For example, in the European Union the Consumer Rights Directive of 2011 obliges member states to give purchasers the right to return goods or cancel services purchased from a business away from a normal commercial premises, such as online, mail order, or door-to-door, with limited exceptions, within two weeks or one year if the seller did not clearly inform the purchaser of their rights from the receipt of the goods, for a full refund. The Consumer Rights Directive is implemented in the United Kingdom by the Consumer Contracts (information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Rebates also allow companies to \"price protect\" certain product lines by being selective in which models or brands to be discounted. This allows retailers and manufacturers to move some product at lower cost while maintaining prices of successful models. A straight price reduction on some models would have a domino effect on all products in a line.\n\nBULLET::::- During the turnaround time, the company can earn interest on the money.\n", "The product holder increases its purchasing power to acquire a new product by selling back its old one.\n\nSection::::The development factors.\n\nSeveral factors have greatly accelerated the development of recommerce in developed countries, including:\n\nBULLET::::- The demand for solutions enabling consumers to separate themselves ethically from their products,\n\nBULLET::::- The ease of use of recommerce services, and more importantly,\n\nBULLET::::- The preponderance of takeover bids, which handsomely compensate the owners of recommerce services.\n", "Industry advisers claim that if mail-in rebates go away, they will not be replaced by \"instant rebates\" of the same value amount because of the loss of the tangible benefits listed above (fiscal accounting, price protection, etc.) Steve Baker, vice president of industry analysis for NPD Group, comments that \"It's a case of be careful of what you ask for. You may see some great deals go away.\"\n", "Alec Slade Baker of San Diego State University argues that procedural rhetoric be used to study capitalist systems as well. In his masters dissertation, \"Civilization and Its Contents: Procedural Rhetoric, Nationalism, and Civilization V\", he examines the rhetorical arguments created by customer service return policies at a variety of commercial businesses. According to him, forgiving return policies, Nordstrom’s communicate to customers a willingness to help and accommodate. On the other hand, strict return policies such as that of Dollar Tree reflect a hostile distrust of the customer that impacts the way they interact with those businesses.\n", "BULLET::::- If the turnaround time crosses into the next fiscal year or quarter, a rebate offer can inflate sales in the current period, and not have to be accounted for until the next period and then it could be attributed as a cost reducing sales or expense for the next period, giving companies an accounting advantage with their Wall Street projections.\n", "BULLET::::- In November 2005, \"BusinessWeek\" estimated a return rate of 60 percent. Some estimates have been as low as 2%. For example, nearly half of the 100,000 new TiVo subscribers in 2005 did not redeem their $100 rebates, allowing the company to keep $5,000,000 in additional profit.\n\nBULLET::::- PC Data in the Reston, VA estimates between \"10 and 30 percent\".\n\nBULLET::::- PlusNetMarketing in Wilmington, DE quotes 80%.\n", "In the UK, consumers have the right to a full refund for faulty goods. However, traditionally, many retailers allow customers to return goods within a specified period (typically two weeks to two months) for a full refund or an exchange, even if there is no fault with the product. Exceptions may apply for goods sold as damaged or to clear.\n\nGoods bought through \"distance selling,\" for example online or by phone, also have a statutory \"cooling off\" period of fourteen calendar days during which the purchase contract can be cancelled and treated as if not done.\n", "BULLET::::- the terms of the plan’s refund or return policy;\n\nBULLET::::- how and when consumers can cancel their membership;\n\nBULLET::::- the price of the goods or services if a consumer fails to cancel, including shipping and handling, if applicable.\n\nUsually a plan will use the same billing method for future shipments that it used for the introductory merchandise or service period.\n\nSection::::Federal Trade Commission (FTC) message to consumers.\n\nThe Federal Trade Commission (FTC) advises that before consumers agree to any plan:\n", "Instead of checks, prepaid gift cards are being given by many stores. Merchants like these cards, as they cannot be redeemed for cash and must be spent. However, some states require that retailers redeem the card value for cash if it falls below a certain level, such as $5 in Washington state. Many sales people are not aware of this and will deny giving the refund. Consumers must be careful of expiration dates and read the fine print.\n", "Section::::Recent trends.\n", "Section::::Refund policies.\n\nAlthough not technically cooling off periods, many retailers voluntarily grant purchasers a defined period of time during which they may return products that have not been damaged and remain in salable condition.\n", "Section::::Case law.:\"Parke, Davis\" case.\n\nIn \"United States v. Parke, Davis & Co.\".\n\nSection::::Case law.:\"Schwinn\" case.\n\nIn 1967, in \"United States v. Arnold, Schwinn & Co.\",\n\nSection::::Case law.:\"GTE Sylvania\" case.\n\nIn 1977, in \"Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc.\", the Supreme Court overruled the \"Schwinn\" case's rule that post-sale restraints on mass-marketed goods were illegal \"per se\" under the antitrust laws. \"Prompted by a decline in its market share to a relatively insignificant 1% to 2% of national television sales\", Sylvania adopted a franchise distribution system.\n", "A common complaint against rebates is the claim that rebates can be used as a form of \"price discrimination\" against members of lower classes who are less likely to redeem rebates than a more educated middle class. Sridhar Moorthy, marketing professor at the University of Toronto also advocates a \"price discrimination\" theory between \"people who are price-sensitive and people who are not price-sensitive\". A different view, as taken by the BusinessWeek article, is that rebates can be viewed as a \"tax on the disorganized\" that is paid by those who do not submit their rebates as opposed to those who do. As mentioned above, rebates are also less enticing the more the consumer values the opportunity costs (time and effort) involved in rebate submission.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn April 1970 the six founding member states of the then European Communities (EC) adopted the so-called 'own resources system' as the means of funding the EC budget. Under this system, revenues were to flow automatically to the EC budget rather than through agreement of the national parliaments, as had been the case until then, and calculated based on three elements: \n\nBULLET::::- Customs duties collected on imports from the rest of the world\n\nBULLET::::- Agricultural resources\n\nBULLET::::- VAT base.\n", "BULLET::::- Rebates: Many products are advertised with a price printed in large numbers. However, a higher price is printed above in much smaller numbers, and the large-print price is only given after a rebate. Initially, the customer must first pay the high price. In order for the rebate to be redeemed, the customer must then follow a set of instructions. In some cases, meeting all the requirements necessary in order to obtain the rebate may be difficult, and as a result, many rebates are denied.\n", "Rebates may offer customers lower pricing. Deal hunter sites frequently tout the benefits of rebates in making technology affordable: \"Rebates are the meat and potatoes of the ultimate tech deal, no matter what you are buying… They are paying you money to buy their stuff. All you have to do is take it.\"\n\nAccording to 2011 research, 47% of consumers submitted a rebate in the past 12 months, whereas similar research conducted in 2009 showed that only 37 percent of consumers had submitted a rebate in the prior year.\n", "In the UK, rebates are less common, with manufacturers and retailers preferring to give discounts at the point of sale rather than requiring mail-in or coupons. However, rebates are sometimes given in the form of \"cashback offers\" for mobile phone contracts or other high value retail items sold alongside a credit agreement.\n\nSection::::Rebate clearinghouses.\n\nMost rebates are handled under contract by rebate clearinghouses that specialize in processing rebates and contest applications.\n\nSection::::Types of rebates.\n\nSection::::Types of rebates.:Instant rebate.\n" ]

[ "Perpetual retail sales cause profit margins to suffer. ", "Profit margins should suffer when a store constantly issues rebates." ]

[ "Prices advertised as always being on sale are not actually marked down. ", "When a store issues rebates, it also raises prices to cover the cost of the rebates." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Perpetual retail sales cause profit margins to suffer. ", "Profit margins should suffer when a store constantly issues rebates." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Prices advertised as always being on sale are not actually marked down. ", "When a store issues rebates, it also raises prices to cover the cost of the rebates." ]

[ "The term web page usually refers to what is visible, but may also refer to the contents of the source code itself, which is usually a text file containing hypertext written in HTML or a comparable markup language. Most current web browsers include the ability to view the source code. Web browsers will frequently have to access multiple web resource elements, such as style sheets, scripts, and images, while presenting each web page.\n", "For privacy reasons, the users' comments are usually ignored by websites of the Internet preservation, like it happens in Web Archive, or in Archive.today copy saving.\n\nSection::::Mobile video hosting.\n", "While there are many millions of pages that are predominantly composed of HTML, or some variation, in general we view data, applications, E-services, images (graphics), audio and video files, personal web pages, archived e-mail messages, and many more forms of file and data systems as belonging to websites and web pages.\n", "UMG's theory fails to account for the reality that web hosts, like Veoh, also store user-submitted materials in order to make those materials accessible to other Internet users. The reason one has a website is so that others may view it.\n\nSection::::DMCA safe harbor analysis.:Actual and apparent knowledge.\n", "Not only must web archivists deal with the technical challenges of web archiving, they must also contend with intellectual property laws. Peter Lyman states that \"although the Web is popularly regarded as a public domain resource, it is copyrighted; thus, archivists have no legal right to copy the Web\". However national libraries in some countries have a legal right to copy portions of the web under an extension of a legal deposit.\n", "The source code was released into the public domain on April 30, 1993. Some of the code still resides on Tim Berners-Lee's NeXT Computer in the CERN museum and has not been recovered due to the computer's status as a historical artifact. To coincide with the 20th anniversary of the research center giving the web to the world, a project began in 2013 at CERN to preserve this original hardware and software associated with the birth of the Web.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In 1999, in the United States court case \"Bernstein v. United States\" it was further ruled that source code could be considered a constitutionally protected form of free speech. Proponents of free speech argued that because source code conveys information to programmers, is written in a language, and can be used to share humor and other artistic pursuits, it is a protected form of communication.\n\nSection::::Legal aspects.:Licensing.\n", "The right to study and modify a computer program entails that source code—the preferred format for making changes—be made available to users of that program. While this is often called 'access to source code' or 'public availability', the Free Software Foundation recommends against thinking in those terms, because it might give the impression that users have an obligation (as opposed to a right) to give non-users a copy of the program.\n", "Generally speaking, software is \"open source\" if the source code is free to use, distribute, modify and study, and \"proprietary\" if the source code is kept secret, or is privately owned and restricted. One of the first software licenses to be published and to explicitly grant these freedoms was the GNU General Public License in 1989; the BSD license is another early example from 1990.\n", "When creating a web page, it is important to ensure it conforms to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standards for HTML, CSS, XML and other standards. The W3C standards are in place to ensure all browsers which conform to their standards can display identical content without special consideration for proprietary rendering techniques. A properly coded web page is going to be accessible to many different browsers old and new alike, display resolutions, as well as those users with audio or visual impairments.\n\nSection::::Features.:Saving.\n", "CSP can also be delivered within the HTML code using a HTML META tag, although in this case its effectiveness will be limited.\n\nSupport for the sandbox directive is also available in Internet Explorer 10 and Internet Explorer 11 using the experimental codice_3 header.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Work vigorously to create a true 'free source' code capability program at universities and colleges. This program should go to promote true open source projects, not hybrid source projects like the GPL and Linus . The federal government should support a $5 billion budget over ten years to produce a free source code project in partnership with the IT industry and other governments interested in promoting increased computers science research and development. This effort would be a benefit to academia, the private sector, and the IT economy.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Interview with Googles (sic) Greg Stein and Chris DiBona \"(Slashdot interview about the launch of Google's open-source code hosting platform)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Apache's Greg Stein says commercial software's days are numbered \"(ComputerWorld / InfoWorld / MacWorld article)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Highlights of Greg Stein’s keynote \"(A third-party summary of Stein's keynote at EclipseCon 2006)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Homepage\n\nBULLET::::- Google's Greg Stein InfoTalk on Open Source\n\nBULLET::::- In Competitive Move, I.B.M. Puts Code in Public Domain \"(New York Times article on IBM's donation of WebSphere to the Apache Software Foundation)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Greg Stein Interview podcast (with Leo Laporte and Randal Schwartz).\n", "There are legitimate tools like the Creative Commons’ licenses that students can access and use at liberty. They are allowed to translate and amend these materials. Public school teachers in the USA can share resources they developed as compliance for government-authorized standards in education. One of these is called the Common Core State Standards. Some teachers and school officials have recommended that OERs can help reduce expenses in production and distribution of course materials for primary and secondary institutions. Some teachers and school officials have recommended that OERs can help reduce expenses in production and distribution of course materials for primary and secondary institutions. Certain projects like the OER Commons as storage for open educational resources.\n", "For proprietary software, the provisions of the various copyright laws, trade secrecy and patents are used to keep the source code closed. Additionally, many pieces of retail software come with an end-user license agreement (EULA) which typically prohibits decompilation, reverse engineering, analysis, modification, or circumventing of copy protection. Types of source code protection—beyond traditional compilation to object code—include code encryption, code obfuscation or code morphing.\n\nSection::::Quality.\n", "Soliciting, evaluating, and categorizing websites – the large-scale collecting, hand-sorting, and display of websites – could be considered an original form of website analysis. The rise of the algorithmic search engine has largely led to the disappearance of such manual methods. \n\nDespite the fact that there is no centralized responsibility for its preservation, web content is rapidly becoming the official record. For example, in 2017, the United States Department of Justice affirmed that the government treats the President’s tweets as official statements. \n\nSection::::Collecting the web.\n", "Since the French judicial ruling many websites must abide by the rules of the countries in which they are accessible.\n\nSection::::Accessibility, censorship and filtering.:Freedom of information.\n\nFreedom of information, that is the freedom of speech as well as the freedom to seek, obtain and impart information brings up the question of who or what, has the jurisdiction in cyberspace. The right of freedom of information is commonly subject to limitations dependent upon the country, society and culture concerned.\n", "There is nothing in Section 508 that requires private web sites to comply unless they are receiving federal funds or under contract with a federal agency. Commercial best practices include voluntary standards and guidelines as the World Wide Web Consortium's (W3C) Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Automatic accessibility checkers (engines) such as \"IBM Rational Policy Tester\" and AccVerify, refer to Section 508 guidelines but have difficulty in accurately testing content for accessibility.\n", "The founder of Mozilla Europe, Tristan Nitot, stated in 2008:\n\nCompanies building websites should beware of proprietary rich-media technologies like Adobe's Flash and Microsoft's Silverlight. (...) You're producing content for your users and there's someone in the middle deciding whether users should see your content.\n\nRepresenting open standards, inventor of CSS and co-author of HTML5, Håkon Wium Lie explained in a Google tech talk of 2007, entitled \"the element\", the proposal of Theora as the format for HTML5 video:\n", "Web applications are required to be processor independent, so portability can be achieved by using web programming techniques, writing in JavaScript. Such a program can run in a common web browser. Such web applications must, for security reasons, have limited control over the host computer, especially regarding reading and writing files. Non-web programs, installed upon a computer in the normal manner, can have more control, and yet achieve system portability by linking to portable libraries providing the same interface on different systems.\n\nSection::::Source code portability.\n", "Accessibility of web pages by those with physical, eyesight or other disabilities is not only a good idea considering the ubiquity and importance of the web in modern society, but is also mandated by law. In the U.S., the Americans with Disabilities Act and in the UK, the Disability Discrimination Act place requirement on web sites operated by publicly funded organizations. In many other countries similar laws either already exist or soon will. Making pages accessible is more complex than just making them valid; that is a prerequisite but there are many other factors to be considered. Good web design, whether done using a WYSIWYG tool or not needs to take account of these too.\n", "BULLET::::- GNU Lesser General Public License 2.1\n\nBULLET::::- Mozilla Public License 1.1\n\nBULLET::::- Artistic License/GPL dual-licensed (often used by the Perl community)\n\nOne year later, around 2008, the GNU General Public License 3.0 was added and strongly recommended together with the permissive Apache license, notably excluded was the AGPLv3 to reduce license proliferation.\n\nIn 2010, Google removed these restrictions, and announced that it would allow projects to use any OSI-approved license (see #OSI's stance below), but with the limitation that public domain projects are only allowed as single case decision.\n\nSection::::Solution approaches.:OSI's stance.\n", "Web Accessibility Initiative\n\nThe World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)'s Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) is an effort to improve the accessibility of the World Wide Web (WWW or Web) for people with disabilities. People with disabilities may encounter difficulties when using computers generally, but also on the Web. Since people with disabilities often require non-standard devices and browsers, making websites more accessible also benefits a wide range of user agents and devices, including mobile devices, which have limited resources.\n", "Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under fair-use doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines creates an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners. Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a \"chilling effect\" among cultural practitioners.\n", "HTML can embed programs written in a scripting language such as JavaScript, which affects the behavior and content of web pages. Inclusion of CSS defines the look and layout of content. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), former maintainer of the HTML and current maintainer of the CSS standards, has encouraged the use of CSS over explicit presentational HTML \n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Development.\n" ]

[ "You can view actual source code of the website.", "Webpage source codes are allowed to be viewed." ]

[ "The code you are viewing is not what makes the website function. The code that makes the site function is run on a server and the results are put onto the page to be displayed. You are viewing those results and other basic layout information. ", "Webpage source codes are not allowed to be viewed, it is the webpage being seen." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "You can view actual source code of the website.", "Webpage source codes are allowed to be viewed." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The code you are viewing is not what makes the website function. The code that makes the site function is run on a server and the results are put onto the page to be displayed. You are viewing those results and other basic layout information. ", "Webpage source codes are not allowed to be viewed, it is the webpage being seen." ]

[ "Likewise, it has been argued that the quarto of \"Romeo and Juliet\" was printed from a reduced and simplified version, designed for provincial productions. The argument has also been made for the published version of Marlowe's \"Massacre at Paris\", and the first quarto of \"Hamlet\".\n", "Shakespeare continued to be considered the greatest English writer of all time throughout the 20th century. Most Western educational systems required the textual study of two or more of Shakespeare's plays, and both amateur and professional stagings of Shakespeare were commonplace. It was the proliferation of high-quality, well-annotated texts and the unrivalled reputation of Shakespeare that allowed for stagings of Shakespeare's plays to remain textually faithful, but with an extraordinary variety in setting, stage direction, and costuming. Institutions such as the Folger Shakespeare Library in the United States worked to ensure constant, serious study of Shakespearean texts and the Royal Shakespeare Company in the United Kingdom worked to maintain a yearly staging of at least two plays.\n", "\"Every member had a copy of the Variorum of 1821, which we fondly believed had gathered under each play all Shakespearian lore worth preserving down to that date. What had been added since that year was scattered in many different editions, and in numberless volumes dispersed over the whole domain of literature. To gather these stray items of criticism was real toil, real but necessary if we did not wish our labour over the text to be in vain.\"\n", "For mainstream Shakespearian scholars, the most compelling evidence against Oxford (besides the historical evidence for William Shakespeare) is his death in 1604, since the generally accepted chronology of Shakespeare's plays places the composition of approximately twelve of the plays after that date. Critics often cite \"The Tempest\" and \"Macbeth\", for example, as having been written after 1604.\n", "Editions of The Tempest and Romeo and Juliet were released in November 2013, while new editions of Hamlet and A Midsummer Night’s Dream are in progress. All the plays feature the Sanders Portrait on the front cover and a brief summary of the portrait's provenance and research inside.\n\nSection::::Scientific testing.\n\nIn all, thirteen tests have been done over a fifteen-year period on the Sanders Portrait, more than any other reputed portrait of Shakespeare, performed by researchers across Canada and the world. These tests include:\n\nSection::::Scientific testing.:Dendrochronology.\n", "Since then, several editors and critics of theater began to focus on the dramatic text and the language of Shakespeare, creating a study that focused on extracting all the power of his literary texts, being used in studies on the printed page rather than in the theater. This attitude reached a high point with the Romantics, which saw his figure as a genius, prophet, and Bard – and continued important in the last century, receiving analysis not only by poets and authors, but also by psychoanalysts, psychologists and philosophers.\n\nSection::::17th century.\n", "The Oxford \"Complete Works\" was the first to emphasize Shakespeare's collaborative work, describing \"Macbeth\", \"Measure for Measure\" and \"Timon of Athens\" as either collaborations with or revisions by Thomas Middleton; \"Pericles\" as a collaboration with George Wilkins; \"Henry VI Part One\" as a collaboration with several unknown other dramatists; and \"Henry VIII\" and \"The Two Noble Kinsmen\" as collaborations with John Fletcher. It also broke with tradition in presenting Shakespeare's works in chronological order, rather than dividing them by genre.\n", "BULLET::::- \"English literature in the twentieth century\" (1933) by John William Cunliffe\n\nBULLET::::- \"The complete works of George Gascoigne\" (1907) by George Gascoigne edited by John William Cunliffe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Modern English playwrights; a short history of the English drama from 1825\" (1927) by John William Cunliffe\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Columbia University Course in Literature : Writers of Modern America\", John W. Cunliffe (Chairman), Columbia University Press, New York, 1929\n\nBULLET::::- \"Early English classical tragedies\" (1912) by John William Cunliffe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Century readings for a course in English literature\" (1910) by John William Cunliffe\n", "The history of Elizabethan drama is also altered to portray de Vere as an innovator. Jonson is amazed to learn that \"Romeo and Juliet\", written in 1598, is apparently entirely in blank verse. The play actually appeared in print in 1597, and \"Gorboduc\" precedes it as the first to employ the measure throughout the play by more than 35 years. By 1598 the form was standard in theatre; however, Jonson's shock may have been in reference to the fact that De Vere in particular would be capable of writing a play in iambic pentameter, and not to the idea that one could be written. The film also portrays \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" as composed by De Vere in his childhood, approximately 1560. It was written several decades later; however, the film does imply that De Vere wrote many plays and hid them from the public for decades before having Shakespeare perform them, so this does not necessarily contradict the timeline of the play being first performed on the London stage in public between 1590 and 1597, as is the traditional belief.\n", "Since then, Paul Edmondson and Stanley Wells have written a short e-book, \"Shakespeare Bites Back\" (2011), and edited a longer book of essays by prominent academic Shakespeareans, \"Shakespeare Beyond Doubt\" (2013), in which Edmondson says that they had \"decided to lead the Shakespeare Authorship Campaign because we thought more questions would be asked by our visitors and students because of \"Anonymous\", because we saw, and continue to see, something very wrong with the way doubts about Shakespeare's authorship are being given academic credibility by the Universities of Concordia and Brunel, and because we felt that merely ignoring the anti-Shakespearians was inappropriate at a time when their popular voice was likely to be gaining more ground\".\n", "Section::::20th century.:Film.\n\nThat divergence between text and performance in Shakespeare continued into the new media of film. For instance, both \"Hamlet\" and \"Romeo and Juliet\" have been filmed in modern settings, sometimes with contemporary \"updated\" dialogue. Additionally, there were efforts (notably by the BBC) to ensure that there was a filmed or videotaped version of every Shakespeare play. The reasoning for this was educational, as many government educational initiatives recognised the need to get performative Shakespeare into the same classrooms as the read plays.\n\nSection::::20th century.:Poetry.\n", "In September 2007, the \"Shakespeare Authorship Coalition\" sponsored a \"Declaration of Reasonable Doubt\" to encourage new research into the question of Shakespeare's authorship, which has garnered more than 3,000 signatures, including more than 500 academics. In late 2007, Brunel University of London began offering a one-year MA program on the Shakespeare authorship question (since suspended), and in 2010, Concordia University (Portland, Oregon) opened the Shakespeare Authorship Research Centre.\n\nSection::::Non-English candidates.\n", "Oxfordian researchers believe that the play is an early version of Shakespeare's own play, and point to the fact that Shakespeare's version survives in three quite different early texts, Q1 (1603), Q2 (1604) and F (1623), suggesting the possibility that it was revised by the author over a period of many years.\n\nSection::::Chronology of the plays and Oxford's 1604 death.:Dates of composition.:\"Macbeth\".\n", "By the end of its first decade, CSF had produced 26 of the 37 plays in the canon, with only one duplication, Hamlet in 1965. Howard M. Banks’ production of Henry V was filmed for television in 1961.\n", "In 2005 Cal Shakes began a partnership with Write to Read, a juvenile hall literacy program run by the Alameda County Library, holding writing workshops based on \"Hamlet: Blood in the Brain\". In 2007, actor and Cal Shakes Associate Artist Andy Murray began to teach workshops and extended residencies using Shakespeare to develop the public speaking, leadership, and cooperation skills of the juvenile hall residents.\n", "While going round the school he saw a class studying Shakespeare's \"Romeo and Juliet\" under the direction of an inspiring teacher who had roused a great response to the play from the pupils. His Royal Highness was surprised to hear that the children were studying the play without seeing it performed.\n", "The rest of this edition I have not read, but, from the little that I have seen, I think it not dangerous to declare that, in my opinion, its pomp recommends it more than its accuracy. There is no distinction made between the ancient reading, and the innovations of the editor; there is no reason given for any of the alterations which are made; the emendations of former editions are adopted without any acknowledgement, and few of the difficulties are removed which have hitherto embarrassed the readers of Shakespeare.\n", "The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T.S. Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's \"primitiveness\" in fact made him truly modern. Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for \"post-modern\" studies of Shakespeare. By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New Historicism, African-American studies, and queer studies. In a comprehensive reading of Shakespeare's works and comparing Shakespeare literary accomplishments to accomplishments among leading figures in philosophy and theology as well, Harold Bloom has commented that \"Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine. He \"encloses\" us because we \"see\" with his fundamental perceptions.\"\n", "In 2007, the New York Times surveyed 265 Shakespeare teachers on the topic. To the question \"Do you think there is good reason to question whether William Shakespeare of Stratford is the principal author of the plays and poems in the canon?\", 6% answered \"yes\" and an additional 11% responded \"possible\", and when asked if they \"mention the Shakespeare authorship question in your Shakespeare classes?\", 72% answered \"yes\". When asked what best described their opinion of the Shakespeare authorship question, 61% answered that it was a \"A theory without convincing evidence\" and 32% called the issue \"A waste of time and classroom distraction\".\n", "The earliest editions in the series feature drawings by C. Walter Hodges that reconstruct the appearance of the plays when first produced in the Elizabethan theatre; this practice continued until Hodges' death in 2004.\n\nNotable editions published in the series include the first ever edition of the disputed play \"Edward III\" to be published as Shakespeare's as part of a series; and a controversial edition of \"Pericles, Prince of Tyre\" that rejects the conventional thesis that the play was poorly printed and the result of collaborative authorship.\n", "Individual scholars have sometimes preferred alternative explanations for variant texts, such as revision or abridgement by the author. Steven Urkowitz argued the hypothesis that \"King Lear\" is a revised work, in \"Shakespeare's Revision of \"King Lear\"\". Some scholars have argued that the more challenging plays of the Shakespearean canon, such as \"All's Well That Ends Well\" and \"Troilus and Cressida\", make sense as works that Shakespeare wrote in the earliest, rawest stage of his career and later revised with more sophisticated additions.\n", "This is considered to be the first inclusion of a subplot in an English Language drama, and thus, in many ways, exceeds the main plot in critical discussion.\n\nSection::::Productions.\n\nThe first modern revival of Fulgens and Lucres was by the Group Theatre of London, at the Everyman Theatre, Hampstead in March 1932.§ Fulgens and Lucres was recently produced by Poculi Ludique Societas the Centre for Drama, Theatre and Performance Studies at the University of Toronto, Nov. 8-16, 2014. The production was directed by Matthew Milo Sergi, Professor of Early English Drama at the University of Toronto.\n\nSection::::Editions.\n", "Many of William Shakespeare's plays, including \"Hamlet\", \"Romeo and Juliet\", and \"Othello\", have been adapted into films. The first sound adaptation of any Shakespeare play was the 1929 production of \"The Taming of the Shrew\", starring Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks. It was later adapted as both a musical play called \"Kiss Me, Kate\", which opened on Broadway in 1948, and as the 1953 Hollywood musical of the same name. \"The Taming of the Shrew\" was again retold in 1999 as a teen comedy set in a high school in \"10 Things I Hate about You\", and also in 2003 as an urban romantic comedy, \"Deliver Us from Eva\". The 1961 musical film \"West Side Story\" was adapted from \"Romeo and Juliet\", with its first incarnation as a Broadway musical play that opened in 1957. The animated film \"The Lion King\" (1994) was inspired by \"Hamlet\" as well as various traditional African myths, and 2001's \" O\" was based on \"Othello\".\n", "Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley's \"The Cenci\" perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in England until a century after his death. Byron's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scott's novels, were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in France, and through these versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare, and went some way to restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan \"improvements\" to them. The greatest actor of the period, Edmund Kean, restored the tragic ending to \"King Lear\"; Coleridge said that, “Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning.”\n", "In the 1921 edition of \"The Tempest\", Wilson included a facsimile of the manuscript for \"Sir Thomas More\" and a full discussion of the copy for the texts, which afterward became required reading in the field. Shakespeare's hand in the manuscript for \"Sir Thomas More\" was discovered by Edward Maunde Thompson in \"Shakespeare's Handwriting: A Study\" (1916)—and treated in detail in what is still the definitive study: \"Shakespeare's Hand in the Play of Sir Thomas More\" (1923) by Alfred W. Pollard, W. W. Greg, R. W. Chambers and Wilson—but \"The New Shakespeare\" was the first series of editions to bring this discovery to bear on editing Shakespeare. The series was also the first to apply Pollard's recognition of the primacy of the quartos to textual work.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The EOG is used to assess the function of the pigment epithelium. During dark adaptation, resting potential decreases slightly and reaches a minimum (\"dark trough\") after several minutes. When light is switched on, a substantial increase of the resting potential occurs (\"light peak\"), which drops off after a few minutes when the retina adapts to the light. The ratio of the voltages (i.e. \"light peak\" divided by \"dark trough\") is known as the \"Arden ratio\". In practice, the measurement is similar to eye movement recordings (see above). The patient is asked to switch eye position repeatedly between two points (alternating looking from center to the left and from center to the right). Since these positions are constant, a change in the recorded potential originates from a change in the resting potential.\n", "Taken orally, glycerol (often mixed with fruit juice to reduce its sweet taste) can cause a rapid, temporary decrease in intraocular pressure. This can be a useful initial emergency treatment of severely elevated pressure.\n\nThe depolarising muscle relaxant succinylcholine, which is used in anaesthesia, transiently increases IOP by around 10mmHg for a few minutes. This is significant for example if the patient requires anaesthesia for a trauma and has sustained an eye (globe) perforation. The mechanism is not clear but it is thought to involve contraction of tonic myofibrils and transient dilation of choroidal blood vessels. Ketamine also increases IOP.\n", "Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation. He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by \"palming\", or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands, without putting pressure on the eyeballs. If the covered eyes did not strain, he said, they would see \"a field so black that it is impossible to remember, imagine, or see anything blacker\", since light was excluded by the palms. However, he reported that some of his patients experienced \"illusions of lights and colors\" sometimes amounting to \"kaleidoscopic appearances\" as they \"palmed\", occurrences he attributed to his ubiquitous \"strain\" and that he claimed disappeared when one truly relaxed. This phenomenon, however, was almost certainly caused by Eigengrau or \"dark light\". In fact, even in conditions of perfect darkness, as inside a cave, neurons at every level of the visual system produce random background activity that is interpreted by the brain as patterns of light and color.\n", "A soft contact lens may be removed by pinching the edge between the thumb and index finger. Moving the lens off the cornea first can improve comfort during removal and reduce risk of scratching the cornea with a fingernail. It is also possible to push or pull a soft lens far enough to the side or bottom of the eyeball to get it to fold then fall out, without pinching and thereby damaging it. If these techniques are used with a rigid lens, it may scratch the cornea.\n", "Section::::Safety.\n\nZinc chloride is a skin irritant. After contact of the skin, immediate removal is necessary using soap and plenty of water. After contact of the eyes, adequate measures are rinsing with plenty of water or other eye rinse and contacting an ophthalmologist as soon as possible.\n", "…but Ella ignored her baby, whose head was covered with a fine black down, and the nurse held him helplessly in her hands and pleaded with Ella gently to take him, and then she asked her again, this time impatiently, to take him and feed him like all the other mothers, but Ella went on ignoring her baby, just as she went on ignoring Israel, who remained standing stubbornly by the bed and did not take his eyes off her as they slowly filled with tears and her face grew more and more blurred until it dissolved into the whiteness of the pillows, and behind him he heard the head nurse clapping her hands again, and finally she turned to him and asked him to leave – all the other visitors had already gone – and Israel took two or three steps backward and then he turned around and walked out of the room.\n", "BULLET::::- Pupil dilation - Pupil dilation may be harder to detect by most people. Sexual desire may be a cause of such dilation. It may also be an indication of attraction. Physiologically, eyes dilate when it is darker to let in more light.\n\nBULLET::::- Rubbing of eyes - Eyes may water, causing a person to rub their own eyes. This can happen when a person feels uncomfortable or tired. It may also happen when a person simply has something in their eyes.\n\nSection::::Nonverbal Communication.:Cultural Impact.\n\nSection::::Nonverbal Communication.:Cultural Impact.:Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication.\n", "When You Close Your Eyes\n\n\"When You Close Your Eyes\" is a song by Night Ranger from their 1983 album \"Midnight Madness\".\n\nIt reached number 14 on both the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts in the U.S.\n\nIn the music video, scenes of the band performing are interspersed with a man's memories of his ex-girlfriend, and scenes showing her current situation, a housewife married to a chimpanzee, reportedly played in the video by Tom Segura.\n", "BULLET::::- It has also been suggested that the eyelids should be rubbed gently, or pulled slowly open with your fingers, before trying to open them, or keeping the affected eye closed while \"looking\" left and right to help spread lubricating tears. If the patient's eyelids feel stuck to the cornea on waking and no intense pain is present, use a fingertip to press firmly on the eyelid to push the eye's natural lubricants onto the affected area. This procedure frees the eyelid from the cornea and prevents tearing of the cornea.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The Mishnah taught that on the night before Yom Kippur, if the High Priest was a sage, he would expound the relevant Scriptures, and if he was not a sage, the disciples of the sages would expound before him. If he was used to reading the Scriptures, he would read, and if he was not, they would read before him. They would read from Job, Ezra, and Chronicles, and Zechariah ben Kubetal said from Daniel. If he tried to sleep, young priests would snap their middle finger before him and say, \"Mr. High Priest, arise and drive the sleep away!\" They would keep him busy until near the time for the morning offering.\n", "BULLET::::- 29 April - The foreign ministers of Britain David Miliband and French Bernard Kouchner is visiting Colombo, the capital, to try to get a \"cease-fire, humanitarian\" and \"reiterate the call of the international community the cease-fire, to respect international humanitarian law and protect civilians. \" The Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt, who was part of the trip, was denied a visa to enter the country.\n\nSection::::Events.:May 2009.\n", "Also, after insertion, the patient is able to close his or her eyelids while the eye is cleansed. This provides a distinct advantage over manual methods of cleansing the eye (such as inserting eye drops) which require the patient to keep the eye open for an extended period of time and which can be very painful to the patient because of an injured patient's natural reaction of closing the eye in response to injury (blepharospasm) as well as the increased light sensitivity of injured eyes.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Light-dependent stomatal opening occurs in many species and under many different conditions. Light is a major stimulus involved in stomatal conductance, and has two key elements that are involved in the process: the stomatal response to blue light, and photosynthesis in the guard cell's chloroplast. The stomata open when there is an increase in light, and they close when there is a decrease in light. This is because the blue light activates a receptor on the guard cell membrane which induces the pumping of protons of the cells, which creates an electrochemical gradient. This causes free floating potassium and other ions to enter the guard cells via a channel. The increase in solutes within the guard cells leads to a decrease in the osmotic potential of the cells, causing water to flood in, the guard cell's to become enlarged, and therefore open.The second key element involved in light-dependent stomatal opening is the photosynthesis in the guard cell's chloroplast. This event also increases the amount of solutes within the guard cell. Carbon Dioxide enters the chloroplasts which increases the amount of photosynthesis. This increases the amount of solutes that are being produced by the chloroplast which are then released into the cytosol of the guard cell. Again, this causes a decrease in osmotic potential, water floods into the cells, the cells swell up with water, and the stomate is opened.\n", "The most common phosphenes are pressure phosphenes, caused by rubbing or applying pressure on or near the closed eyes. They have been known since antiquity, and described by the Greeks. The pressure mechanically stimulates the cells of the retina. Experiences include a darkening of the visual field that moves against the rubbing, a diffuse colored patch that also moves against the rubbing, a scintillating and ever-changing and deforming light grid with occasional dark spots (like a crumpling fly-spotted flyscreen), and a sparse field of intense blue points of light. Pressure phosphenes can persist briefly after the rubbing stops and the eyes are opened, allowing the phosphenes to be seen on the visual scene. Hermann von Helmholtz and others have published drawings of their pressure phosphenes. One example of a pressure phosphene is demonstrated by gently pressing the side of one's eye and observing a colored ring of light on the opposite side, as detailed by Isaac Newton.\n", "The smooth muscle of the blood vessels reacts to the stretching of the muscle by opening ion channels, which cause the muscle to depolarize, leading to muscle contraction. This significantly reduces the volume of blood able to pass through the lumen, which reduces blood flow through the blood vessel. Alternatively when the smooth muscle in the blood vessel relaxes, the ion channels close, resulting in vasodilation of the blood vessel; this increases the rate of flow through the lumen.\n", "BULLET::::- 27 August – Government minister Risad Badhiutheen appears before magistrate Ranga Dassanayake in Mannar, accused of threatening to kill magistrate Anthonypillai Judeson, and is released on bail.\n\nBULLET::::- 5 September – Chinese national Chow Wan swallows a fake diamond at the FACET 2012 gem exhibition at Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall whilst his accomplice steals a Rs 1.8 million ($13,000) diamond.\n\nBULLET::::- 6 September – Universities re-open but the lecturers continue to strike.\n", "Jayatilleka was Sri Lanka's Permanent Representative to the United Nations in Geneva between June 2007 and October 2009. During his tenure he was chairman of the International Labour Organization's governing body (2007–08); vice president of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) (2007–08); and co-ordinator of the Asian group on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2009). Jayatilleka is credited with shielding Sri Lanka from censure by the UNHRC for alleged human rights violations during the final stages of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009. Jayatilleka had been appointed for a two-year term but when his contract expired in June 2009 President Mahinda Rajapaksa extended his contract until June 2010. However, on 17 July 2009 the Foreign Ministry told him by fax to \"relinquish [his] duties and return to Colombo on 20 August\". According to Jayatilleka no reason was given for his sacking but it was suggested that Sinhalese nationalists were unhappy with support for the implementation of the 13th Amendment.\n", "Topical antibiotics: If prescribed, topical creams or ointments can be applied after the cleansing of the lid margin. A small amount of antibiotic ophthalmic ointment is spread along the lid fissure with a swab or fingertip, while the eyes are closed. It is prescribed for use prior to bedtime to avoid blurred vision. Another method to reduce side effects of blepharitis are antibiotics such as erythromycin or sulfacetamide, which are used via eye drops, creams, or ointments on the eyelid margin. blepharitis caused by Demodex mites can be treated using a diluted solution of tea tree oil, via application by a cotton swab, for 5–10 minutes per day.\n", "Accordingly, the Status of Mission Agreement (SOMA) on the Establishment and the Management of the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM) dated 18th March 2002 between the Royal Norwegian Government and the Government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka will also stand terminated with effect from 16th January 2008.\"\n", "Section::::Career.:Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\nOn January 21, 2010, Dotel agreed to a one-year, $3.25 million deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates, plus bonuses for games finished. The deal also included a club option for 2011 for $4.5 million with a $250,000 buyout. Dotel started the year as the Pirates closer and stayed the closer until he was traded. Dotel recorded 21 saves in 2010 with the Pirates.\n\nSection::::Career.:Los Angeles Dodgers.\n", "Rodinal increases perceived edge sharpness dramatically: in the case of standing development ( no agitation for long developing time, an hour or more) the developer is used up more quickly in dark than in light areas, development of light areas next to dark areas (the edges of the image) is reduced, increasing contrast at edges. Very dilute Rodinal (1 part to 100 or more) is often used to maximise this effect.\n", "The process usually involves lying face down on a table, with the lower extremities secured tightly with straps to the table. After the skin area has been numbed, the dye is injected into the thecal sac, then the table is slowly rotated in a circular motion, first down at the head end for approximately 4 to 6 minutes, then rotated up at the head end for the same duration. Several more minutes lying flat and the process is complete. This movement ensures the contrast has sufficiently worked its way through the spinal cord, followed by X-rays or a CT scan.\n", "In applanation tonometry the intraocular pressure (IOP) is inferred from the force required to flatten (applanate) a constant area of the cornea, for the Imbert-Fick law. The Maklakoff tonometer was an early example of this method, while the Goldmann tonometer is the most widely used version in current practice. Because the probe makes contact with the cornea, a topical anesthetic, such as proxymetacaine, is introduced on to the surface of the eye in the form of an eye drop.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Applanation tonometry.:Goldmann tonometry.\n", "Section::::Other hazards.\n\nLiquid \"n\"-butanol, as is common with most organic solvents, is extremely irritating to the eyes; repeated contact with the skin can also cause irritation. This is believed to be a generic effect of \"defatting\". No skin sensitization has been observed. Irritation of the respiratory pathways occurs only at very high concentrations (2,400 ppm).\n", "Researchers predicted the low light plants would have adapted to have faster habitual learning capabilities so they could filter out unharmful stimuli to increase their energy production. Plants were either grown in high light or low light conditions. The plants were stimulated by being dropped from 15 cm for either a single drop, or consecutive training sessions where the plants were repeatedly dropped. To test that the plants were suppressing their leaf folding reflex from habitual learning and not from exhaustion, the plants were shaken as a novel stimuli to see if the plants would fold their leaves (dishabituation test). The first group was tested to see if short term memory was enough for plants to modify their behaviour.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Limited utility Pennies are not accepted by any vending machines or by most toll booths, and are generally not accepted in bulk. Economist Greg Mankiw says that \"The purpose of the monetary system is to facilitate exchange, but...the penny no longer serves that purpose.\" Pennies often drop out of circulation (e.g., they are stored in jars in a person's home) and due to their low value are sometimes even discarded by consumers. This contributes to the United States Mint needing to produce more pennies than all other coins combined.\n", "BULLET::::- Effort to transport and countApproximately 60 percent of coins minted are pennies and all these pennies (generally over 5 billion annually) must be transported by secure and therefore expensive means from the Mint to banks and then onto stores. Store employees spend valuable time counting low-value pennies at the end of a work shift. Banks often return loose coins on an armored truck to be sorted and wrapped so as to be ready to be given out to a customer. This process costs on the order of 10 cents per roll (a 20 percent charge on a roll of 50 pennies).\n", "BULLET::::- Production at a loss , it costs 2.06 cents to mint a penny. This results in an annual loss of approximately $90 million. The price of the raw materials from which the penny is made exceeds the face value, so there is a risk that coins will be illegally melted down for raw materials.\n", "This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while, the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, \n", "BULLET::::- Increased cost Commissioned by Jarden Zinc, which supplies zinc \"penny blanks\" to the Mint, a report conducted by Navigant Consulting found that the government would lose money without the penny. According to Americans for Common Cents' website, \"First, the Mint's fabrication and distribution costs include fixed components that will continue to be incurred whether or not the Mint produces the penny. Navigant estimates this fixed component at $13 million in FY 2011. Plus, there is $17.7 million in Mint overhead allocated to the penny that would have to be absorbed by the remaining denominations of circulating coins without the penny. Second, under current Mint accounting, the nickel costs eleven cents to manufacture. In a scenario (unlikely to occur) where nickel production doubled without the penny, Navigant concludes that with existing fixed costs, eliminating the penny would likely result in increased net costs to the Mint of $10.9 million, relative to the current state.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Panama and Ecuador, which use the United States dollar as their currency, mint their own coins including one-centavo pieces identical in size to the penny. However, prices and wages are generally lower in those countries compared to the United States.\n\nSection::::Laws regarding melting and export.\n", "It has been suggested that the cent should be eliminated as a unit of currency for several reasons including that many Americans do not actually spend them, but rather only receive them in change at stores and proceed to return them to a bank for higher denomination currencies, or cash them in at coin counting kiosks. Most modern vending machines do not accept pennies, further diminishing their utility, and the production cost (figured in U.S. Dollars) now exceeds the face value of the coin, caused by increasing inflation. In 2001 and 2006, for example, United States Representative Jim Kolbe (R) of Arizona introduced bills which would have stopped production of pennies (in 2001, the Legal Tender Modernization Act, and in 2006, the Currency Overhaul for an Industrious Nation [COIN] Act).\n", "Section::::Penny Harvest History.\n\nThe Penny Harvest began in 1991 with a question from then 4-year old Nora Gross – \"That man is cold. Why can't we take him home?\" She was referring to a homeless man she saw while walking on NYC's Broadway with her father Teddy Gross, founder of Common Cents and the Penny Harvest. That question was the catalyst for what was to become the Penny Harvest program. Gross began \"harvesting\" in his building, \"asking neighbors if they had any pennies, and how they would feel about giving them to the homeless.\"\n\nSection::::Penny Harvest Outcomes.\n", "Many countries outside the United States have chosen to remove low-value coins from circulation:\n\nBULLET::::- Australia discontinued one-cent coins in 1990 and two-cent coins of the Australian dollar in 1989 due to the metal exceeding face value and were withdrawn from circulation in 1992.\n", "Section::::Play.\n", "Section::::Criticism.\n\nHandling and counting penny coins entail transaction costs that may be higher than a penny. It has been claimed that, for micropayments, the mental arithmetic costs more than the penny. Changes in the price of metal commodity, combined with the continual debasement of paper currencies, causes the metal value of penny coins to exceed their face value.\n", "When minting coins, especially low denomination coins, there is a risk that the value of metal within a coin is greater than the face value. This leads to the possibility of smelters taking coins and melting them down for the scrap value of the metal. Pre-1992 British pennies were made of 97% copper; but as of 2008, based on the price of copper, the value of a penny from this period is 1.5 new-pence. Modern British pennies are now made of copper-plated steel. For similar reasons, American pennies (cents) were once made of copper alloys, but since 1982 have been made of copper-plated zinc.\n", "Australia and New Zealand adopted 5¢ and 10¢, respectively, as their lowest denomination, followed by Canada, which adopted 5¢ as its lowest denomination in 2012. Several nations have stopped minting equivalent value coins, and efforts have been made to end the routine use of pennies in several countries, including the United States. In the UK, since 1992, one- and two-penny coins have been made from copper-plated steel (making them magnetic) instead of bronze.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Zinc toxicity Zinc can cause anemia or gastric ulceration in babies that inadvertently ingest pennies made after 1982. A single penny can kill a pet.\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental hazardThe mining of zinc and copper causes toxic pollution and is especially undesirable when considering the valuable metals are being used to produce a coin with no to limited utility.\n", "Section::::Nickels.\n\nAs of 2017, nickels cost to produce, providing an argument for elimination similar to the penny's production at a loss. The current face value of a nickel is also well below that which the lowest-denomination coin (the penny) held at the time of the half-cent's elimination in 1857.\n\nSection::::Lobbying.\n\nBULLET::::- The sole provider of zinc \"penny blanks,\" Jarden Zinc Products of Greeneville, Tennessee, has hired lobbyists to make the case for preserving the penny and their sales.\n\nBULLET::::- The coin lobby Citizens to Retire the Penny support the elimination of the United States one-cent coin.\n", "Section::::Arguments for preservation.\n\nBULLET::::- Consumers and the economy Research commissioned by the zinc lobby and its front group Americans for Common Cents concludes that was the penny to be eliminated, consumers might be hit with a \"rounding tax.\" The paper stated that rather than eliminate the penny, it could make more sense to change the composition of the penny to a cheaper metal than zinc if the costs of zinc do not come down and there continues to be a significant loss per penny.\n", "Section::::History.:United Kingdom.\n", "BULLET::::- Some countries in the Eurozone use one and two-cent coins. As posted prices generally include taxes, it is possible (but not standard) for vendors to round prices to the nearest five cents and eliminate the need for smaller-value coins. However, Finland, Ireland and the Netherlands have abandoned the use of one- and two-cent coins altogether. Finland only ever produced a small number of one-cent coins, mostly for collecting and legal reasons.\n", "As of 2015, based on the U.S. Mint Annual Report released for 2014, it costs the U.S. Mint 1.67 cents (down from 2.41 cents in 2011 and 1.83 cents in 2013) to make one cent because of the cost of materials, production, and distribution. This figure includes the Mint's fixed components for distribution and fabrication, as well as Mint overhead allocated to the penny. Fixed costs and overhead would have to be absorbed by other circulating coins without the penny. The loss from producing the one cent coin in the United States for the year of 2013 was $55,000,000. This was a slight decrease from 2012, the year before, which had a production loss of $58,000,000.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Debasement\n\nBULLET::::- Inflation\n\nBULLET::::- Gresham's law\n\nBULLET::::- Metal theft\n\nBULLET::::- Take a penny, leave a penny\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Ban The Penny (\"Forbes\" magazine)\n\nBULLET::::- Should the penny go? (\"CNN\")\n\nBULLET::::- Canadian survey results on removal of the penny\n\nBULLET::::- Americans for Common Cents, a pro-penny organization\n\nBULLET::::- Man tries to get rid of million pennies, USATODAY/AP, July 1, 2004\n\nBULLET::::- Not So Common Cents, on shortage of pennies, FindArticles, August 16, 1999\n\nBULLET::::- Citizens to Retire the U.S. Penny\n\nBULLET::::- PennyFreeBiz: Merchant's grass roots effort for retiring the Penny\n", "BULLET::::- Coins of the pound sterling\n\nBULLET::::- Efforts to eliminate the penny in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)\n\nBULLET::::- Legal Tender Modernization Act\n\nBULLET::::- One-cent coin (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Penny sizes of nails\n\nBULLET::::- Pennyweight\n\nBULLET::::- Pfennig\n\nBULLET::::- Smashed penny\n\nBULLET::::- Prutah\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Penny Importance – Blog post & video covering the importance of retaining copper pennies.\n\nBULLET::::- The MegaPenny Project – A visualisation of what exponential numbers of pennies would look like.\n", "Pennies has also received messages of support from prominent figures in the retail and technology industry. Joanna Shields, former Vice President of Facebook, described Pennies as \"a simple idea that removes friction from giving\", and UK Digital Champion Martha Lane Fox has said that Pennies' \"simple yet clever technology can make a real difference when the charitable sector needs it most\".\n\nPublic figures such as Prince Harry, Cheryl Cole, Jason Donovan, Gary Barlow and Jeremy Irons have also supported Pennies.\n\nSection::::The Pennies Foundation.\n", "BULLET::::- Lost productivity and opportunity cost of use With the median wage in the US being $18.12 per hour in 2017, it takes less than two seconds to earn one cent. Thus, it is not worthwhile for most people to deal with a penny. If it takes only two seconds extra for each transaction that uses a penny, the cost of time wasted in the US is about $3.65 per person annually, or about one billion dollars for all Americans. Using a different calculation, economist Robert Whaples estimates a $300 million annual loss. Additionally, Whaples argues that eliminating the penny would coax people into using one dollar coins. The Federal Reserve says that replacing one-dollar bills with one-dollar coins would save an additional $500 million per year.\n", "In June 2011, Pennies won an award in the 'fundraising' category of the Technology4Good awards (T4G). It was also nominated by \"Third Sector\" magazine in its \"Britain’s Most Admired Charities\" 2011 awards in the Most Innovative Charity category. In late 2012, Pennies won the 'Best Not for Profit IT Project' in IT Industry Awards held by BCS, the Chartered Institute for IT and \"Computing\" magazine. \n\nIn May 2013, Pennies was named as a finalist in the first Google Global Impact Challenge UK, which recognises innovative non-profits using technology for social good.\n", "In advocating abolition of the penny, the Coin Coalition cites three penny-related costs that are passed on to consumers:\n\nBULLET::::- Wrapping charges (Stores pay about 60 cents for each roll of 50 pennies),\n\nBULLET::::- Lost store productivity from penny users slowing the checkout line, and\n\nBULLET::::- Lost wages paid to clerks counting pennies in the register on each shift.\n\nJames C. Benfield, a partner with Bracy Williams and Company (Washington, D.C.), led the Coalition from 1987 until his death in 2002. He testified in committee hearings on the United States $1 Coin Act of 1997.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]

[ "Producing pennies is a waste of money." ]

[ "The production of physical currency like pennies is not primarily a money-making enterprise, but an exchange medium that facilitates economic activity." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Producing pennies is a waste of money." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The production of physical currency like pennies is not primarily a money-making enterprise, but an exchange medium that facilitates economic activity." ]

[ "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe distinction between viral upper respiratory tract infections is loosely based on the location of symptoms with the common cold affecting primarily the nose, pharyngitis (the throat), and bronchitis (the lungs). There can be significant overlap and more than one area can be affected. The common cold is frequently defined as nasal inflammation with varying amount of throat inflammation. Self-diagnosis is frequent. Isolation of the viral agent involved is rarely performed, and it is generally not possible to identify the virus type through symptoms.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Viruses are common causes of the common cold. Less often, bacteria may also cause pharyngitis. Both of these organisms enter the body via the nose or mouth as aerosolized particles when someone sneezes or coughs. Because many germs are contagious, one can even acquire them from touching utensils, toys, personal care products or door knobs. The most common viruses that causes throat irritation include the common cold virus, influenza, infectious mononucleosis, measles and croup. Most bacteria and viruses usually induce throat irritation during the winter or autumn.\n\nSection::::Epiglottitis.\n", "In general, physicians are unsure why only certain people who have been exposed to the HPV types implicated in the disease develop laryngeal papillomatosis. In the case of the juvenile form of the disease, the likelihood of a child born of an infected mother developing laryngeal papillomatosis is low (between 1 in 231 to 1 in 400), even if the mother’s infection is active. Risk factors for a higher likelihood of transmission at childbirth include the first birth, vaginal birth, and teenage mother.\n\nThere are three big risk factors that contribute to the acquirement of the juvenile variant. These include:\n", "The most common upper respiratory tract infection is the common cold. However, infections of specific organs of the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, pharyngitis and laryngitis are also considered upper respiratory tract infections.\n\nSection::::Respiratory tract infections.:Lower respiratory tract infection.\n", "It is a very serious disorder of the back of the throat near the windpipe. The most common cause of epiglottitis is an infection by the bacteria, H influenza. The condition may present all of a sudden with high fever, severe sore throat, difficult and painful swallowing, drooling saliva, hoarse voice, difficulty breathing and malaise. The condition is life-threatening and needs immediate hospitalization. Epiglottitis is treated with antibiotics. Routine vaccination has made epiglottitis very rare but it still does present in some children. Prompt diagnosis and treatment can be life saving.\n\nSection::::Post-nasal drip.\n", "It is caused by bacteria which if untreated can lead to many other problems in the body. Strep throat is most common in childhood but can affect people of all ages. It may present with throat pain, difficulty swallowing, painful and swollen tonsils, fever, headache, skin rash and flu. The diagnosis of strep throat is straight forward and the treatment requires a course of penicillin. However, if the treatment is not adequate, rheumatic fever can occur with resultant damage to the heart valves.\n\nSection::::Environment.\n", "BULLET::::- Acute viral laryngitis: This form of laryngitis is characterized by lower vocal pitch as well as hoarseness. The symptoms in this form of laryngitis are usually present for less than one week, however they can persist for 3-4 weeks. This form of laryngitis might also be accompanied by upper respiratory tract symptoms such as: sore throat, odynophagia, rhinorrhea, dyspnea, postnasal discharge, and congestion.\n\nBULLET::::- Fungal laryngitis: A biopsy and culture of abnormal lesion may help confirm fungal laryngitis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Visual diagnosis.\n", "In people with secondary CAD (associated with another underlying condition), there may be additional signs and symptoms depending on the condition present. For example: Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection (the most common cause of secondary CAD) may cause respiratory symptoms. Various infections or cancers may cause enlarged or swollen lymph nodes.\n\nBULLET::::- 80–99% of people have these symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- Arthralgia\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmunity\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Hemolytic anemia\n\nBULLET::::- Muscular weakness\n\nBULLET::::- Pallor\n\nBULLET::::- 5–29% of people have these symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal urine color\n\nBULLET::::- Back pain\n\nBULLET::::- Diarrhea\n\nBULLET::::- Headache\n\nBULLET::::- Hepatomegaly\n\nBULLET::::- Lymphadenopathy\n\nBULLET::::- Nausea and vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- Splenomegaly\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- Most acute cases of laryngitis are caused by viral infections, the most common of which tend to be rhinovirus, influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, adenovirus, coronavirus, and RSV. In patients who have a compromised immune system, other viruses such as herpes, HIV and coxsackievirus may also be potential causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acute.:Bacterial.\n", "Laryngeal papillomatosis is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, most frequently genotypes 6 and 11 although genotypes 16, 18, 31, and 33 have also been implicated. HPV-11 is associated with more aggressive forms of papillomatosis, which may involve more distal parts of the tracheobronchial tree. The mode of viral inoculation is hypothesized to vary according to age of disease onset. The presence of HPV in the respiratory tract does not necessarily result in the development of laryngeal papillomatosis. Other factors that could be involved include immunodeficiency or other similar infections. For example, laryngeal papillomatosis may become more aggressive due to the presence of certain viruses (e.g., herpes simplex virus, Epstein-Barr virus).\n", "BULLET::::- Infectious mononucleosis (\"glandular fever\") is caused by the Epstein–Barr virus. This may cause significant lymph-node swelling and an exudative tonsillitis with marked redness and swelling of the throat. The heterophile test can be used if this is suspected.\n\nBULLET::::- Herpes simplex virus can cause multiple mouth ulcers.\n\nBULLET::::- Measles\n\nBULLET::::- Common cold: rhinovirus, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza virus can cause infection of the throat, ear, and lungs causing standard cold-like symptoms and often pain.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Bacterial.\n", "Sepsis following a throat infection was described by Schottmuller in 1918. However, it was André Lemierre, in 1936, who published a series of 20 cases where throat infections were followed by identified anaerobic sepsis, of whom 18 died.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- () Acute nasopharyngitis (common cold)\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute sinusitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute pharyngitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Streptococcal pharyngitis\n\nBULLET::::- Strep throat\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute pharyngitis due to other specified organisms\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute pharyngitis, unspecified\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute tonsillitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute laryngitis and tracheitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute laryngitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute tracheitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute laryngotracheitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute obstructive laryngitis (croup) and epiglottitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute obstructive laryngitis (croup)\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute epiglottitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Acute upper respiratory infections of multiple and unspecified sites\n\nSection::::J00–J99 – Diseases of the respiratory system.:(J09–J18) Influenza and Pneumonia.\n", "The acute form generally resolves without specific treatment. Resting the voice and sufficient fluids may help. Antibiotics generally do not appear to be useful in the acute form. The acute form is common while the chronic form is not. The chronic form occurs most often in middle age and is more common in men than women.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe primary symptom of laryngitis is a hoarse voice. Because laryngitis can have various causes, other signs and symptoms may vary. They can include\n\nBULLET::::- Dry or sore throat\n\nBULLET::::- Coughing (both a causal factor and a symptom of laryngitis)\n", "Physical signs of a peritonsillar abscess include redness and swelling in the tonsillar area of the affected side and swelling of the jugulodigastric lymph nodes. The uvula may be displaced towards the unaffected side.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n\nBULLET::::- Retropharyngeal abscess\n\nBULLET::::- Extension of abscess in other deep neck spaces leading to airway compromise; see Ludwig's angina\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis\n\nBULLET::::- Glomerulonephritis and rheumatic fever (strep throat chronic complications)\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased oral intake and dehydration\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "If an individual patient’s susceptibility to infection increases, it is important to reassess immune function in case deterioration has occurred and a new therapy is indicated. If infections are occurring in the lung, it is also important to investigate the possibility of dysfunctional swallow with aspiration into the lungs (see above sections under Symptoms: Lung Disease and Symptoms: Feeding, Swallowing and Nutrition.)\n", "BULLET::::- () Chronic disease of tonsils and adenoids, unspecified\n\nBULLET::::- () Peritonsillar abscess\n\nBULLET::::- () Chronic laryngitis and laryngotracheitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Chronic laryngitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Chronic laryngo-tracheitis\n\nBULLET::::- () Diseases of vocal cords and larynx, not elsewhere classified\n\nBULLET::::- () Paralysis of vocal cords and larynx\n\nBULLET::::- () Polyp of vocal cord and larynx\n\nBULLET::::- () Nodules of vocal cords\n\nBULLET::::- () Other diseases of vocal cords\n\nBULLET::::- () Oedema of larynx\n\nBULLET::::- () Laryngeal spasm\n\nBULLET::::- () Stenosis of larynx\n\nBULLET::::- () Other diseases of larynx\n\nBULLET::::- () Other diseases of upper respiratory tract\n", "Common cold\n\nThe common cold, also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally those with other health problems may develop pneumonia.\n", "Throat cultures done after antibiotic therapy can tell you if the infection has been removed. These throat swabs, however, are not indicated because up to 25% of properly treated individuals can continue to carry the streptococcal infection while asymptomatic.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n\nBULLET::::- Viral exanthem: Viral infections are often accompanied by a rash which can be described as morbilliform or maculopapular. This type of rash is accompanied by a prodromal period of cough and runny nose in addition to a fever, indicative of a viral process.\n", "These comprise about 40–80% of all infectious cases and can be a feature of many different types of viral infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Adenovirus is the most common of the viral causes. Typically, the degree of neck lymph-node enlargement is modest and the throat often does not appear red, although it is painful.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Orthomyxoviridae\" family which cause influenza are present with rapid onset high temperature, headache, and generalized ache. A sore throat may be associated.\n", "Differentiating a viral and a bacterial cause of a sore throat based on symptoms alone is difficult. Thus, a throat swab often is done to rule out a bacterial cause.\n\nThe modified Centor criteria may be used to determine the management of people with pharyngitis. Based on five clinical criteria, it indicates the probability of a streptococcal infection.\n\nOne point is given for each of the criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Absence of a cough\n\nBULLET::::- Swollen and tender cervical lymph nodes\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature more than\n\nBULLET::::- Tonsillar exudate or swelling\n", "Section::::Post-viral cough.\n\nA post-viral cough is a lingering cough that follows a viral respiratory tract infection, such as a common cold or flu and lasting up to eight weeks. Post-viral cough is a clinically recognized condition represented within the European medical literature.Patients usually experience repeated episodes of post-viral cough. The heightened sensitivity in the respiratory tract is demonstrated by inhalation cough challenge\n\nSection::::Cancer.\n\nRarely persistent throat irritation and hoarseness may also be from a more serious disorder like cancer.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of a throat irritation include a physical exam and throat culture.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "A number of different bacteria can infect the human throat. The most common is group A streptococcus (\"Streptococcus pyogenes\"), but others include \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", \"Haemophilus influenzae\", \"Bordetella pertussis\", \"Bacillus anthracis\", \"Corynebacterium diphtheriae\", \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\", \"Chlamydophila pneumoniae\", \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae,\" and \"Fusobacterium necrophorum\".\n\nBULLET::::- Streptococcal pharyngitis\n", "Under normal circumstances, as viruses and bacteria enter the body through the nose and mouth, they are filtered in the tonsils. Within the tonsils, white blood cells of the immune system destroy the viruses or bacteria by producing inflammatory cytokines like phospholipase A2, which also lead to fever. The infection may also be present in the throat and surrounding areas, causing inflammation of the pharynx.\n\nSometimes, tonsillitis is caused by an infection of spirochaeta and treponema, in this case called Vincent's angina or Plaut-Vincent angina.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- This is another major cause of acute laryngitis, and may develop in conjunction with or due to a viral infection. Common bacterial strains are; group A streptococcus, \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", \"C. diphtheriae\", \"M. catarrhalis\", \"Haemophilus influenzae\", \"Bordetella pertussis\", \"Bacillus anthracis\", and \"M. tuberculosis\". In developing countries, more unusual bacterial causes may occur such as mycobacterial and syphilitic, though these may occur in developed nations as well.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acute.:Fungal.\n" ]

[ "A sore throat often turns into the common cold.", "Sore throats turn into a common cold. " ]

[ "It is likely that the sore throat is just the first symptom of the common cold.", "Because a sore throat is a symptom of a cold, the cold was likely already had beforehand, meaning the sore throat did not turn into the cold, because the sore throat was the cold. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A sore throat often turns into the common cold.", "Sore throats turn into a common cold. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is likely that the sore throat is just the first symptom of the common cold.", "Because a sore throat is a symptom of a cold, the cold was likely already had beforehand, meaning the sore throat did not turn into the cold, because the sore throat was the cold. " ]

[ "This page gives a list of domestic animals, also including a list of animals which are or may be currently undergoing the process of domestication and animals that have an extensive relationship with humans beyond simple predation. This includes species which are semi-domesticated, undomesticated but captive-bred on a commercial scale, or commonly wild-caught, at least occasionally captive-bred, and tameable. In order to be considered fully domesticated, most species have undergone significant genetic, behavioural and/or morphological changes from their wild ancestors; while others have been changed very little from their wild ancestors despite hundreds or thousands of years of potential selective breeding. A number of factors determine how quickly any changes may occur in a species, however, there isn't always a desire to improve a species from its wild form. Domestication is a gradual process, i.e., there is no precise moment in the history of a given species when it can be considered to have become fully domesticated.\n", "Section::::Plants.:Working with wild plants to improve domestics.\n\nWork has also has been focusing on improving domestic crops through the use of crop wild relatives. The amount and depth of genetic material available in crop wild relatives is larger than originally believed, and the range of plants involved, both wild and domestic, is ever expanding. Through the use of new biotechnological tools such as genome editing, cisgenesis/intragenesis, the transfer of genes between crossable donor species including hybrids, and other omic approaches.\n", "The biomass of wild vertebrates is now increasingly small compared to the biomass of domestic animals, with the calculated biomass of domestic cattle alone being greater than that of all wild mammals. Because the evolution of domestic animals is ongoing, the process of domestication has a beginning but not an end. Various criteria have been established to provide a definition of domestic animals, but all decisions about exactly when an animal can be labelled \"domesticated\" in the zoological sense are arbitrary, although potentially useful.\n", "Due to the somewhat unclear outlines of what, precisely, constitutes domestication, there are some species that may or may not be fully domesticated. There are also species that are extensively used or kept as pets by humans, but are not significantly altered from wild-type animals. Most animals on this second table are at least somewhat altered from wild animals by their extensive interactions with humans. Many could not be released into the wild, or are in some way dependent on humans.\n\nSection::::Taxonomical groupings.\n\nThe categories used in Taxon group column are: \n", "Section::::Plants.:Challenges facing genetic improvement.\n", "Many times, domesticated species live in or near areas which also still hold naturally evolved, region-specific wild ancestor species and subspecies. In some cases, a domesticated species of plant or animal may become feral, living wild. Other times, a wild species will come into an area inhabited by a domesticated species. Some of these situations lead to the creation of hybridized plants or animals, a cross between the native species and a domesticated one. This type of crossbreeding, termed genetic pollution by those who are concerned about preserving the genetic base of the wild species, has become a major concern. Hybridization is also a concern to the breeders of purebred species as well, particularly if the gene pool is small and if such crossbreeding or hybridization threatens the genetic base of the domesticated purebred population.\n", "BULLET::::- Bactrian camel successfully introduced to + Europe (no wild population exists)\n\nSection::::Sheep and Goats.\n\nBULLET::::- Feral sheep successfully introduced to ? USA, New Zealand, Tibet , and Oceania\n\nBULLET::::- Feral goat/Wild goat successfully introduced to × Australia, × New Zealand, × Hawaii, ? Africa, ? North America, British isles , South America, Europe, Asia , and Oceania\n\nBULLET::::- Himalayan tahr successfully introduced to ? USA, ? South America, New Zealand, and Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Mouflon successfully introduced to ? USA, + mainland Europe, ? South America (on private estates), × Hawaii, and Canary Islands \n", "Although the breeding population has been largely isolated from wild populations outside the US, they still have the potential to transmit zoonotic disease. There is a considerable risk of monkey B virus from rhesus macaques. Research workers have died from this disease contracted from non-human primate research subjects. Additionally, there is considerable risk to the non-human primate pet through transmission of human disease. One such example is herpes simplex virus, which can be deadly to certain smaller monkeys.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Wildlife smuggling\n\nBULLET::::- Exotic felines as pets\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "One researcher has enquired as to why, among the world's 148 large wild terrestrial herbivorous mammals, only 14 were domesticated, and proposed that their wild ancestors must have possessed six characteristics before they could be considered for domestication:\n\nBULLET::::1. Efficient diet – Animals that can efficiently process what they eat and live off plants are less expensive to keep in captivity. Carnivores feed on flesh, which would require the domesticators to raise additional animals to feed the carnivores and therefore increase the consumption of plants further.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bubalus bubalis\" (water buffalo)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Canis lupus\" (dog)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capra aegagrus\" (feral goat)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Equus africanus\" (donkey)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Felis silvestris\" (feral cat)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Herpestes javanicus\" (small Asian mongoose) – Fiji \n\nBULLET::::- \"Macaca fascicularis\" (crab-eating macaque)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mus musculus\" (house mouse)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mustela putorius\" (ferret) – Azores \n\nBULLET::::- \"Oryctolagus cuniculus\" (European rabbit)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ovis aries\" (sheep)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rattus norvegicus\" (brown rat)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rattus rattus\" (black rat)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rusa marianna\" (Philippine deer)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sciurus carolinensis\" (eastern gray squirrel) - Pitcairn Islands \n\nBULLET::::- \"Suncus murinus\" (Asian house shrew)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sus scrofa\" (wild boar)\n\nSection::::Oceania and remote islands.:Birds.\n", "National Geographic has made much the same point, suggesting that the genetic explanation for the difference between wildness and tameness \"has implications for understanding not just how we domesticated animals, but how we tamed the wild in ourselves as well.\" The magazine's writer asked: \"Out of 148 large mammal species on Earth, why have no more than 15 ever been domesticated? Why have we been able to tame and breed horses for thousands of years, but never their close relative the zebra, despite numerous attempts?\"\n", "Section::::Universal features.:Limited reversion.\n\nFeral mammals such as dogs, cats, goats, donkeys, pigs, and ferrets that have lived apart from humans for generations show no sign of regaining the brain mass of their wild progenitors. Dingos have lived apart from humans for thousands of years but still have the same brain size as that of a domestic dog. Feral dogs that actively avoid human contact are still dependent on the human niche for survival and have not reverted to the self-sustaining behaviors of their wolf ancestors.\n\nSection::::Categories.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Captive wild\" animals : Directly affected by a relaxation of natural selection associated with feeding, breeding and protection/confinement by humans, and an intensification of artificial selection through passive selection for animals that are more suited to captivity.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Domestic\" animals : Subject to intensified artificial selection through husbandry practices with relaxation of natural selection associated with captivity and management.\n", "Some species, such as the brown rat, house sparrow, ring-necked pheasant, and European starling, have been introduced very widely. In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral; these include rabbits, dogs, ducks, goats, fish, pigs, and cats.\n\nSection::::Genetics.\n", "The USDA issues permits for keeping and breeding certain exotic species, whether captured from the wild or bred. In the United States, for example, it is illegal to import non-human primates for the pet trade, but animals bred in captivity exist in the trade, using animals descended from those brought in legally before the ban was enacted. As of September 2014, most US states forbid or regulate the possession of exotic pets, but 5 states have no license or permit requirements.\n", "As agricultural societies migrated away from the domestication centers taking their domestic partners with them, they encountered populations of wild animals of the same or sister species. Because domestics often shared a recent common ancestor with the wild populations, they were capable of producing fertile offspring. Domestic populations were small relative to the surrounding wild populations, and repeated hybridizations between the two eventually led to the domestic population becoming more genetically divergent from its original domestic source population.\n", "Section::::Pathways.:Directed pathway.\n\nThe directed pathway was a more deliberate and directed process initiated by humans with the goal of domesticating a free-living animal. It probably only came into being once people were familiar with either commensal or prey-pathway domesticated animals. These animals were likely not to possess many of the behavioral preadaptions some species show before domestication. Therefore, the domestication of these animals requires more deliberate effort by humans to work around behaviors that do not assist domestication, with increased technological assistance needed.\n", "Domestication should not be confused with taming. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Human selection included tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. Domestic animals need not be tame in the behavioral sense, such as the Spanish fighting bull. Wild animals can be tame, such as a hand-raised cheetah. A domestic animal's breeding is controlled by humans and its tameness and tolerance of humans is genetically determined. However, an animal merely bred in captivity is not necessarily domesticated. Tigers, gorillas, and polar bears breed readily in captivity but are not domesticated. Asian elephants are wild animals that with taming manifest outward signs of domestication, yet their breeding is not human controlled and thus they are not true domesticates.\n", "Among birds, the major domestic species today is the chicken, important for meat and eggs, though economically valuable poultry include the turkey, guineafowl and numerous other species. Birds are also widely kept as cagebirds, from songbirds to parrots.\n\nThe longest established invertebrate domesticates are the honey bee and the silkworm. Terrestrial snails are raised for food, while species from several phyla are kept for research, and others are bred for biological control.\n", "Many species of NHP are kept as pets by humans, the Allied Effort to Save Other Primates (AESOP) estimates that around 15,000 NHPs live as exotic pets in the United States. The expanding Chinese middle class has increased demand for NHPs as exotic pets in recent years. Although NHP import for the pet trade was banned in the U.S. in 1975, smuggling still occurs along the United States – Mexico border, with prices ranging from US$3000 for monkeys to $30,000 for apes.\n", "BULLET::::- Zebu successfully introduced to ? Africa - considered to be a breed of domestic cattle\n\nBULLET::::- Water buffalo successfully introduced to × Australia, Brazil, and Oceania\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bison bison\" (American bison) successfully introduced to California \n\nBULLET::::- \"Bison bonasus\" (European bison) successfully reintroduced to Europe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ovibos moschatus\" (Greenland muskox) successfully introduced to Scandinavia and Russia\n\nSection::::Camels.\n\nBULLET::::- Dromedary camel successfully introduced to + Europe (no wild population exists), + Asia (all wild populations exist within the natural range), and × Australia, and unsuccessfully introduced to USA due to the Civil War\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rusa unicolor\" (sambar deer) successfully introduced to Australia , New Zealand, and North America\n\nSection::::Mongooses and relatives.\n\nBULLET::::- Common genet successfully introduced to ? Europe and unsuccessfully introduced to most of Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- Small Asian mongoose successfully introduced to × Hawaii, ? Venezuela, ? Guyana, ? Suriname, ? mainland Europe Caribbean Islands, Japan , Mauritius, and Fiji and unsuccessfully introduced to British Isles\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow mongoose successfully introduced to ? Namibia and ? South Africa, but not outside of its natural range\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian mongoose successfully introduced to ? Europe\n", "BULLET::::- American mink successfully introduced to ? Asia and the × British Isles, South America, and Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Ferret successfully introduced to the ? British Isles, New Zealand, and Azores \n\nBULLET::::- Stoat successfully introduced to × New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- \"Martes melampus\" (Japanese marten) successfully introduced to Asia \n\nBULLET::::- \"Mustela itatsi\" (Japanese weasel) successfully introduced to Asia \n\nBULLET::::- \"Mustela nivalis\" (least weasel) successfully introduced to New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mustela sibirica\" (Siberian weasel) successfully introduced to Asia \n\nSection::::Raccoons and relatives.\n\nBULLET::::- South American coati unsuccessfully introduced to ? Europe\n", "Paul Shepard writes \"Man substitutes controlled breeding for natural selection; animals are selected for special traits like milk production or passivity, at the expense of overall fitness and nature-wide relationships...Though domestication broadens the diversity of forms – that is, increases visible polymorphism – it undermines the crisp demarcations that separate wild species and cripples our recognition of the species as a group. Knowing only domestic animals dulls our understanding of the way in which unity and discontinuity occur as patterns in nature, and substitutes an attention to individuals and breeds. The wide variety of size, color, shape, and form of domestic horses, for example, blurs the distinction among different species of \"Equus\" that once were constant and meaningful.\"\n", "23,465 non-human primates destined for laboratories or laboratory suppliers were imported into the U.S. in 2014 including macaques, grivets and capuchins. The majority of these animals were from China, Mauritius, Cambodia and Vietnam, respectively. Covance, Charles River Laboratories and SNBL USA are the largest U.S. importers of monkeys destined for laboratories. Between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the United States.\n" ]

[ "Pets other than dogs are domesticated." ]

[ "Most pets are not domesticated like dogs, and pets thought of as being domesticated are just nice to humans." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Pets other than dogs are domesticated.", "Pets other than dogs are domesticated." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Most pets are not domesticated like dogs, and pets thought of as being domesticated are just nice to humans.", "Most pets are not domesticated like dogs, and pets thought of as being domesticated are just nice to humans." ]

[ "Adipose tissue can be used to store fatty acids for regulating temperature and energy. These fatty acids can be released by adipokine signaling of high glucagon and epinephrine levels, which inversely corresponds to low insulin levels. High glucagon and low insulin correspond to times of fasting or to times when blood glucose levels are low. Fatty acids must be metabolized in mitochondria in order to produce energy, but free fatty acids cannot penetrate biological membranes due to their negative electrical charge. So coenzyme A is bound to the fatty acid to produce acyl-CoA, which is able to enter the mitochondria.\n", "Thus, the production of ketone bodies cuts the brain's glucose requirement from 80 g per day to about 30 g per day. Of the remaining 30 g requirement, 20 g per day can be produced by the liver from glycerol (itself a product of fat breakdown). This still leaves a deficit of about 10 g of glucose per day that must come from some other source. This deficit is supplied via gluconeogenesis from fatty acid breakdown via acetyl-CoA and the body's own proteins.\n", "Individuals with diabetes mellitus can experience overproduction of ketone bodies due to a lack of insulin. Without insulin to help extract glucose from the blood, tissues the levels of malonyl-CoA are reduced, and it becomes easier for fatty acids to be transported into mitochondria, causing the accumulation of excess acetyl-CoA. The accumulation of acetyl-CoA in turn produces excess ketone bodies through ketogenesis. The result is a rate of ketone production higher than the rate of ketone disposal, and a decrease in blood pH.\n", "Studies have shown that the effectiveness of low-fat diets for weight loss is broadly similar to that of low-carbohydrate diets in the long-term. The Endocrine Society state that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Cardiovascular health.\n", "Low-carbohydrate diets are relatively high in protein and fats. Low-carbohydrate diets are sometimes \"ketogenic\" (i.e., they restrict carbohydrate intake sufficiently to cause ketosis).\n\nSection::::Types.:Low-calorie.\n", "Acetyl-CoA can be metabolized through the TCA in any cell, but it can also undergo a different process in liver cells: ketogenesis, which produces ketone bodies. Ketone bodies are also produced in mitochondria, and usually occur in response to low blood glucose levels. When glucose levels are low, oxaloacetate is diverted away from the TCA cycle and is instead used to produce glucose \"de novo\" (gluconeogenesis). But when oxaloacetate is unavailable to condense with acetyl-CoA, acetyl-CoA cannot enter the cycle, and so the body has evolved an alternative way to harvest energy from it.\n", "After 2 or 3 days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for 3 days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies. After 4 days, this may go upwards to 70% or more. Thus, the production of ketone bodies cuts the brain's glucose requirement from 80 g per day to 30 g per day, about 35% of normal, with 65% derived from ketone bodies. But of the brain's remaining 30 g requirement, 20 g per day can be produced by the liver from glycerol (itself a product of fat breakdown). But this still leaves a deficit of about 10 g of glucose per day that must be supplied from some other source. This other source will be the body's own proteins.\n", "On the ketogenic diet, carbohydrates are restricted and so cannot provide for all the metabolic needs of the body. Instead, fatty acids are used as the major source of fuel. These are used through fatty-acid oxidation in the cell's mitochondria (the energy-producing parts of the cell). Humans can convert some amino acids into glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis, but cannot do this by using fatty acids. Since amino acids are needed to make proteins, which are essential for growth and repair of body tissues, these cannot be used only to produce glucose. This could pose a problem for the brain, since it is normally fuelled solely by glucose, and most fatty acids do not cross the blood–brain barrier. However, the liver can use long-chain fatty acids to synthesise the three ketone bodies β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate and acetone. These ketone bodies enter the brain and \"partially\" substitute for blood glucose as a source of energy.\n", "Longer-term ketosis may result from fasting or staying on a low-carbohydrate diet (ketogenic diet), and deliberately induced ketosis serves as a medical intervention for various conditions, such as intractable epilepsy, and the various types of diabetes. In glycolysis, higher levels of insulin promote storage of body fat and block release of fat from adipose tissues, while in ketosis, fat reserves are readily released and consumed. For this reason, ketosis is sometimes referred to as the body's \"fat burning\" mode.\n", "While it is believed that carbohydrate intake after exercise is the most effective way of replacing depleted glycogen stores, studies have shown that, after a period of 2–4 weeks of adaptation, physical endurance (as opposed to physical intensity) is unaffected by ketosis, as long as the diet contains high amounts of fat, relative to carbohydrates. Some clinicians refer to this period of keto-adaptation as the \"Schwatka imperative\" after Frederick Schwatka, the explorer who first identified the transition period from glucose-adaptation to keto-adaptation.\n\nSection::::Veterinary medicine.\n", "Food energy intake must be balanced with activity to maintain a proper body weight. Sedentary individuals and those eating less to lose weight may suffer malnutrition if they eat food supplying empty calories but not enough nutrients. In contrast, people who engage in heavy physical activity need more food energy as fuel, and so can have a larger amount of calorie-rich, essential nutrient-poor foods. Dietitians and other healthcare professionals prevent malnutrition by designing eating programs and recommending dietary modifications according to patient's needs.\n", "Consistent with this, dietary macronutrients differentially affect adipose and muscle LPL activity. After 16 days on a high-carbohydrate or a high-fat diet, LPL activity increased significantly in both tissues 6 hours after a meal of either composition, but there was a significantly greater rise in adipose tissue LPL in response to the high-carbohydrate diet compared to the high-fat diet. There was no difference between the two diets' effects on insulin sensitivity or fasting LPL activity in either tissue.\n", "BULLET::::- When the body has excess carbohydrates available, some glucose is fully metabolized, and some of it is stored in the form of glycogen or, upon citrate excess, as fatty acids. (CoA is also recycled here.)\n\nBULLET::::- When the body has no free carbohydrates available, fat must be broken down into acetyl-CoA in order to get energy. Under these conditions, acetyl-CoA cannot be metabolized through the citric acid cycle because the citric acid cycle intermediates (mainly oxaloacetate) have been depleted to feed the gluconeogenesis pathway. The resulting accumulation of acetyl-CoA activates ketogenesis.\n", "Ketones are produced by the liver as part of fat metabolism and are normally not found in sufficient quantity to be measured in the urine or blood of non-diabetics or well-controlled diabetics. The body normally uses glucose as its fuel and is able to do so with sufficient insulin levels. When glucose is not available as an energy source because of untreated or poorly treated diabetes and some other unrelated medical conditions, it begins to use fat for energy instead. The result of the body turning to using fat instead of glucose for energy means ketone production that is measurable when testing either urine or blood for them.\n", "Ketones are metabolic end-products of fatty acid metabolism. In healthy individuals, ketones are formed in the liver and are completely metabolized so that only negligible amounts appear in the urine. However, when carbohydrates are unavailable or unable to be used as an energy source, fat becomes the predominant body fuel instead of carbohydrates and excessive amounts of ketones are formed as a metabolic byproduct. Higher levels of ketones in the urine indicate that the body is using fat as the major source of energy.\n", "Section::::Health aspects.:Body weight.\n\nStudies have shown that people losing weight with a low-carbohydrate diet, compared to a low-fat diet, have very slightly more weight loss initially, equivalent to approximately 100kcal/day, but that the advantage diminishes over time and is ultimately insignificant. The Endocrine Society state that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"\n", "The heart preferentially utilizes fatty acids as fuel under normal physiologic conditions. However, under ketotic conditions, the heart can effectively utilize ketone bodies for this purpose.\n", "Fats stored in adipose tissue are released from the fat cells into the blood as free fatty acids and glycerol when insulin levels are low and glucagon and epinephrine levels in the blood are high. This occurs between meals, during fasting, starvation and strenuous exercise, when blood glucose levels are likely to fall. Fatty acids are very high energy fuels, and are taken up by all metabolizing cells that have mitochondria. This is because fatty acids can only be metabolized in the mitochondria. Red blood cells do not contain mitochondria and are therefore entirely dependent on anaerobic glycolysis for their energy requirements. In all other tissues the fatty acids that enter the metabolizing cells are combined with co-enzyme A to form acyl-CoA chains. These are transferred into the mitochondria of the cells, where they are broken down into acetyl-CoA units by a sequence of reactions known as β-oxidation.\n", "Section::::Ketosis and ketoacidosis.\n\nIn normal individuals, there is a constant production of ketone bodies by the liver and their utilization by extrahepatic tissues. The concentration of ketone bodies in blood is maintained around . Their excretion in urine is very low and undetectable by routine urine tests (Rothera's test).\n", "Ketone bodies are produced by the liver under the circumstances listed above (i.e. fasting, starving, low carbohydrate diets, prolonged exercise and untreated type 1 diabetes mellitus) as a result of intense gluconeogenesis, which is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (not including fatty acids). They are therefore always released into the blood by the liver together with newly produced glucose after the liver glycogen stores have been depleted (these glycogen stores are depleted within the first 24 hours of fasting).\n", "DIET provides a degree of control over the scheduling subsystem via plug-in schedulers. When a service request from an application arrives at a SeD, the SeD creates a performance-estimation vector, a collection of performance-estimation values that are pertinent to the scheduling process for that application. The values to be stored in this structure can be either values provided by CoRI (Collectors of Resource Information) or custom values generated by the SeD itself. The design of the estimation vector's subsystem is modular.\n", "Metabolic syndrome is a risk factor for neurological disorders. Metabolomic studies suggest an excess of organic acids, impaired lipid oxidation byproducts, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids in the blood serum of affected patients. However, it is not entirely clear whether the accumulation of essential fatty acids and amino acids is the result of excessive ingestion or excess production by gut microbiota.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Diagnosis of Fatty-acid metabolism disorder requires extensive lab testing.\n\nNormally, in cases of hypoglycaemia, triglycerides and fatty acids are metabolised to provide glucose/energy. However, in this process, ketones are also produced and ketotic hypoglycaemia is expected. However, in cases where fatty acid metabolism is impaired, a non-ketotic hypoglycaemia may be the result, due to a break in the metabolic pathways for fatty-acid metabolism.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The glycemic load is \"the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount\".\n\nIn a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results:\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 and 2 were high carbohydrate (55% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 2 was low-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 and 4 were high protein (25% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 4 was low-glycemic index\n", "The production of ketone bodies is then initiated to make available energy that is stored as fatty acids. Fatty acids are enzymatically broken down in β-oxidation to form acetyl-CoA. Under normal conditions, acetyl-CoA is further oxidized by the citric acid cycle (TCA/Krebs cycle) and then by the mitochondrial electron transport chain to release energy. However, if the amounts of acetyl-CoA generated in fatty-acid β-oxidation challenge the processing capacity of the TCA cycle; i.e. if activity in TCA cycle is low due to low amounts of intermediates such as oxaloacetate, acetyl-CoA is then used instead in biosynthesis of ketone bodies via acetoacyl-CoA and β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA). Furthermore, since there is only a limited amount of coenzyme A in the liver the production of ketogenesis allows some of the coenzyme to be freed to continue fatty-acid β-oxidation. Depletion of glucose and oxaloacetate can be triggered by fasting, vigorous exercise, high-fat diets or other medical conditions, all of which enhance ketone production. Deaminated amino acids that are ketogenic, such as leucine, also feed TCA cycle, forming acetoacetate & ACoA and thereby produce ketones. Besides its role in the synthesis of ketone bodies, HMG-CoA is also an intermediate in the synthesis of cholesterol, but the steps are compartmentalised. Ketogenesis occurs in the mitochondria, whereas cholesterol synthesis occurs in the cytosol, hence both processes are independently regulated.\n" ]

[ "The body doesn't use the fat that people on the Keto Diet are consuming.", "On a Keto Diet the body uses your existing fat supply, not the fats you eat." ]

[ "People on the diet consume fewer calories because fat and protein satisfy hunger more easily than carbohydrates, but consumed fat is still burned first.", "Your body will use dietary energy before it starts using body fat." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The body doesn't use the fat that people on the Keto Diet are consuming.", "On a Keto Diet the body uses your existing fat supply, not the fats you eat." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "People on the diet consume fewer calories because fat and protein satisfy hunger more easily than carbohydrates, but consumed fat is still burned first.", "Your body will use dietary energy before it starts using body fat." ]

[ "As a security measure, merchants who require the CVV2 for \"card not present\" payment card transactions are required by the card issuer not to store the CVV2 once the individual transaction is authorized. This way, if a database of transactions is compromised, the CVV2 is not included, and the stolen card numbers are less useful. Virtual terminals and payment gateways do not store the CVV2 code; therefore, employees and customer service representatives with access to these web-based payment interfaces, who otherwise have access to complete card numbers, expiration dates, and other information, still lack the CVV2 code.\n", "Section::::Vulnerabilities.:2011: CVM downgrade allows arbitrary PIN harvest.\n\nAt the CanSecWest conference in March 2011, Andrea Barisani and Daniele Bianco presented research uncovering a vulnerability in EMV that would allow arbitrary PIN harvesting despite the cardholder verification configuration of the card, even when the supported CVMs data is signed.\n\nThe PIN harvesting can be performed with a chip skimmer. In essence, a CVM list that has been modified to downgrade the CVM to Offline PIN is still honoured by POS terminals, despite its signature being invalid.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Three improvements to card security have been introduced to the more common credit card networks, but none has proven to help reduce credit card fraud so far. First, the cards themselves are being replaced with similar-looking tamper-resistant smart cards which are intended to make forgery more difficult. The majority of smart card (IC card) based credit cards comply with the EMV (Europay MasterCard Visa) standard. Second, an additional 3 or 4 digit card security code (CSC) is now present on the back of most cards, for use in card not present transactions. Stakeholders at all levels in electronic payment have recognized the need to develop consistent global standards for security that account for and integrate both current and emerging security technologies. They have begun to address these needs through organisations such as PCI DSS and the Secure POS Vendor Alliance.\n", "Section::::Online, phone, and mail order transactions.\n\nWhile EMV technology has helped reduce crime at the point of sale, fraudulent transactions have shifted to more vulnerable telephone, Internet, and mail order transactions — known in the industry as card-not-present or CNP transactions. CNP transactions made up at least 50% of all credit card fraud. Because of physical distance, it is not possible for the merchant to present a keypad to the customer in these cases, so alternatives have been devised, including\n", "In many countries of the world, debit card and/or credit card payment networks have implemented liability shifts. Normally, the card issuer is liable for fraudulent transactions. However, after a liability shift is implemented, if the ATM or merchant's point of sale terminal does not support EMV, the ATM owner or merchant is liable for the fraudulent transaction.\n", "BULLET::::- The first code, called CVC1 or CVV1, is encoded on track two of the magnetic stripe of the card and used for card present transactions. The purpose of the code is to verify that a payment card is actually in the hand of the merchant. This code is automatically retrieved when the magnetic stripe of a card is read (swiped) on a point-of-sale (card present) device and is verified by the issuer. A limitation is that if the entire card has been duplicated and the magnetic stripe copied, then the code is still valid. (See credit card fraud § skimming.)\n", "In 2016, a new e-commerce technology called Motioncode was introduced, designed to automatically refresh the CVV code to a new one every hour or so.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe codes have different names:\n\nBULLET::::- \"CID\": \"Card Id\", \"Card Identification Number\", or \"Card Identification Code\"Discover, American Express (four digits on front of card)\n\nBULLET::::- \"CSC\" or \"Card Security Code\"debit cards, American Express (three digits on back of card)\n\nBULLET::::- \"CVC2\" or \"Card Validation Code\"MasterCard\n\nBULLET::::- \"CVD\" or \"Card Verification Data\"Discover, sometimes used as the common initialism for this kind of code\n\nBULLET::::- \"CVE\" or \"Elo Verification Code\"Elo in Brazil\n", "Terminal risk management is only performed in devices where there is a decision to be made whether a transaction should be authorised on-line or offline. If transactions are always carried out on-line (e.g., ATMs) or always off-line, this step can be skipped. Terminal risk management checks the transaction amount against an offline ceiling limit (above which transactions should be processed on-line). It is also possible to have a 1 in an online counter, and a check against a hot card list (which is only necessary for off-line transactions). If the result of any of these tests is positive, the terminal sets the appropriate bit in the terminal verification results (TVR).\n", "Credit cards are produced in BIN (Bank Identification Number) ranges. Where an issuer does not use random generation of the card number, it is possible for an attacker to obtain one good card number and generate valid card numbers. But the probability for such an action remains very low and because of the presence of the Valid date / Expire date and the CVV.\n\nSection::::Compromised accounts.:Phishing.\n", "Despite widespread use in North America, there are still a large number of countries such as China and India that have some problems to overcome in regard to credit card security. Increased security measures include use of the card verification number (CVN) which detects fraud by comparing the verification number printed on the signature strip on the back of the card with the information on file with the cardholder's issuing bank. \n", "The CSC is in addition to the bank card number which is embossed or printed on the card. The CSC is used as a security feature, in situations where a personal identification number (PIN) cannot be used. The PIN is not printed or embedded on the card but is manually entered by the cardholder during point-of-sale (card present) transactions. Contactless card and chip cards may electronically generate their own code, such as iCVV or a \"dynamic\" CVV.\n", "Because submission of the PIN is suppressed, this is the exact equivalent of a merchant performing a PIN bypass transaction. Such transactions can't succeed offline, as a card never generates an offline authorisation without a successful PIN entry. As a result of this, the transaction ARQC must be submitted online to the issuer, who knows that the ARQC was generated without a successful PIN submission (since this information is included in the encrypted ARQC) and hence would be likely to decline the transaction if it were for a high value, out of character, or otherwise outside of the typical risk management parameters set by the issuer.\n", "Card security code\n\nA card security code (CSC), card verification data (CVD), card verification number, card verification value (CVV), card verification value code, card verification code (CVC), verification code (V-code or V code), or signature panel code (SPC) is a security feature for \"card not present\" payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud.\n", "Thus, acquirers may be faced with either accepting cards that are not enrolled and susceptible to fraud, or, to reject such cards until a means of strong customer authentication is available. As acquirers and payment gateways are liable for fraud on their networks from 1 February 2015, unless they have strong customer authentication in place, it is unclear what impact the ECB's requirements will have on SEPA eCommerce.\n", "Credit card security relies on the physical security of the plastic card as well as the privacy of the credit card number. Therefore, whenever a person other than the card owner has access to the card or its number, security is potentially compromised. Once, merchants would often accept credit card numbers without additional verification for mail order purchases. It's now common practice to only ship to confirmed addresses as a security measure to minimise fraudulent purchases. Some merchants will accept a credit card number for in-store purchases, whereupon access to the number allows easy fraud, but many require the card itself to be present, and require a signature (for magnetic stripe cards). A lost or stolen card can be cancelled, and if this is done quickly, will greatly limit the fraud that can take place in this way. European banks can require a cardholder's security PIN be entered for in-person purchases with the card.\n", "A similar system of controls can be used on physical cards. Technology provides the option for banks to support many other controls too that can be turned on and off and varied by the credit card owner in real time as circumstances change (i.e., they can change temporal, numerical, geographical and many other parameters on their primary and subsidiary cards). Apart from the obvious benefits of such controls: from a security perspective this means that a customer can have a Chip and PIN card secured for the real world, and limited for use in the home country. In this eventuality a thief stealing the details will be prevented from using these overseas in non chip and pin EMV countries. Similarly the real card can be restricted from use on-line so that stolen details will be declined if this tried. Then when card users shop online they can use virtual account numbers. In both circumstances an alert system can be built in notifying a user that a fraudulent attempt has been made which breaches their parameters, and can provide data on this in real time.\n", "BULLET::::- The second code, and the most cited, is CVV2 or CVC2. This code is often sought by merchants for card not present transactions occurring by mail, fax, telephone or Internet. In some countries in Western Europe, card issuers require a merchant to obtain the code when the cardholder is not present in person.\n\nBULLET::::- Contactless cards and chip cards may supply their own electronically generated codes, such as iCVV or a \"dynamic\" CVV.\n\nSection::::Location of code.\n", "Section::::Additional security precautions.:Using smart card readers with a separate keyboard.\n\nEntering a PIN code to activate the smart card commonly requires a numeric keypad. Some card readers have their own numeric keypad. This is safer than using a card reader integrated into a PC, and then entering the PIN using that computer's keyboard. Readers with a numeric keypad are meant to circumvent the eavesdropping threat where the computer might be running a keystroke logger, potentially compromising the PIN code. Specialized card readers are also less vulnerable to tampering with their software or hardware and are often EAL3 certified.\n", "MalwareLocker is currently the only Ceedo product.\n\nIt uses Ceedo application containers to create an isolated virtual environment and a security perimeter around the application and related data. Users can continue to use protected applications as they otherwise would, while all interactions between the application and the host computer are filtered through intelligent security checkpoints that ensure potential threats are confined to the container. The outcome is a protection measure that can be effective against all malware infections and is not dependant on threat detection.\n", "In addition to a duress code, there is duress activity. This may include the duressed individual withdrawing cash from an ATM using a specific credit card, instead of using their debit card. Many credit card companies allow for email alerts to be set up when specific activity occurs. There are technical issues that could pose problems, such as a delay in notification, cellular network availability, and the fact that a location is not disclosed, only the activity.\n", "Section::::Profits, losses, and punishment.:Credit card companies.\n\nTo prevent being \"charged back\" for fraud transactions, merchants can sign up for services offered by Visa and MasterCard called Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode, under the umbrella term 3-D Secure. This requires consumers to add additional information to confirm a transaction.\n\nOften enough online merchants do not take adequate measures to protect their websites from fraud attacks, for example by being blind to sequencing. In contrast to more automated product transactions, a clerk overseeing \"card present\" authorization requests must approve the customer's removal of the goods from the premises in real time.\n", "If the account holder's computer hosts malware, the smart card security model may be broken. Malware can override the communication (both input via keyboard and output via application screen) between the user and the application. Man-in-the-browser malware (e.g., the Trojan Silentbanker) could modify a transaction, unnoticed by the user. Banks like Fortis and Belfius in Belgium and Rabobank (\"\") in the Netherlands combine a smart card with an unconnected card reader to avoid this problem. The customer enters a challenge received from the bank's website, a PIN and the transaction amount into the reader. The reader returns an 8-digit signature. This signature is manually entered into the personal computer and verified by the bank, preventing point-of-sale-malware from changing the transaction amount.\n", "Section::::Additional security precautions.:Other smart card designs.\n\nSmart card design is an active field, and there are smart card schemes which are intended to avoid these particular problems, though so far with little security proofs.\n\nSection::::Additional security precautions.:Using digital signatures only with trusted applications.\n", "\"Declined due to AVS mismatch\", the authorization code, along with the hold on the authorized funds, will remain on the customer's card until the merchant account reverses the authorization or the issuing bank have it expire (typically 7 day for all business types except hotels and car rentals that can have up to 30 days). As a result, the held funds may be subtracted from the customer's available balance, and an online statement may reflect the authorization request which might be mistaken for an actual charge. Most card issuing banks will remove authorizations within 1–2 days if they are not claimed for settlement.\n", "In an attempt to stop these practices, countermeasures against card cloning have been developed by the banking industry, in particular by the use of smart cards which cannot easily be copied or spoofed by unauthenticated devices, and by attempting to make the outside of their ATMs tamper evident. Older chip-card security systems include the French Carte Bleue, Visa Cash, Mondex, Blue from American Express and EMV '96 or EMV 3.11. The most actively developed form of smart card security in the industry today is known as EMV 2000 or EMV 4.x.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Need to use PIN to increase security of credit card." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Credit card security is a sliding scale. It is deemed to be more convinient to not do that and the risk is low." ]

[ "The perception of darkness differs from the mere absence of light due to the effects of after images on perception. In perceiving, the eye is active, and the part of the retina that is unstimulated produces a complementary afterimage.\n\nSection::::Scientific.:Physics.\n", "In vision, binocular disparity is the difference between two retinal images. This disparity serves as the basis for stereopsis, one of the most important depth cues in human sight. In Campus' video, however, the two disparate images are mixed on a single monitor, rendering stereoscopic perception of the image impossible.\n\nSection::::Chapters.:3. Convergence.\n", "In order to balance the input of visual information from each eye to the brain, the data is presented in such a manner that the user needs to use both eyes to see the complete scene. Furthermore, the stimulus offered to the weaker eye may be stronger, for example with stronger contrast, than the stimulus for the stronger eye.\n\nSome of these methods involve the use of dichoptic computer games (such as the game Tetris). A dichoptic presentation of popular movies has also been proposed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cheiroscope\n\nSection::::Further references.\n", "Section::::Anatomical interpretations.\n", "In sufficiently bright light, convergence is low, but during dark adaptation, convergence of rod signals boost. This is not due to structural changes, but by a possible shutdown of inhibition that stops convergence of messages in bright light. If only one eye is open, the closed eye must adapt separately upon reopening to match the already adapted eye.\n\nSection::::Dark adaptation.:Measuring Dark Adaptation.\n", "The visually evoked cyclovergence relaxes once the cyclodisparity is reduced to zero. The effect also relaxes when the eyes are presented with darkness; however, experiments show that in the latter case the cyclovergence does not disappear completely straight away.\n", "Section::::Binocular interaction.\n\nApart from binocular summation, the two eyes can influence each other in at least three ways.\n\nBULLET::::- Pupillary diameter. Light falling in one eye affects the diameter of the pupils in both eyes. One can easily see this by looking at a friend's eye while he or she closes the other: when the other eye is open, the pupil of the first eye is small; when the other eye is closed, the pupil of the first eye is large.\n", "O does everything physically possible to avoid being seen by others, but the only thing he can do to avoid perception by an “all seeing god” is to tear up his picture, a symbolic act, as if saying, “If I don’t believe you exist you can’t see me.” There is no one there to see him for what he really is other than himself and so, in this godless world, it is only fitting that E, representing O's self-perception, would appear standing where the picture has been torn from the wall. O also destroys the photographs of his past, his ‘memories’ of who he was. Now all that remains for O is to escape from himself - which he achieves by falling asleep until woken by E's intense gaze. The room is more figurative than literal, like many of Beckett's rooms, “as much psychological as physical, ‘rooms of the mind,’ as one ... actor called them.”\n", "There is a creation of intermediate and far-intermediate distance zone of binocular fusion, allowing the merging of images from each eye in the brain so no dissociation occurs between the eyes as with monovision. Due to increased depth of field in both eyes, the distance vision is significantly better than would otherwise be anticipated.\n", "Bare recognized before he began shooting that audiences would be have a hard time following the movie if there was \"too much\" action playing on both sides of the screen simultaneously, and he scripted a few single-screen segments \"for shock value.\" \"Although primarily [the split-screen] serves to depict simultaneous action,\" Bare explained, \"Duo-Vision also lends itself to showing truth and untruth, flashbacks in time, visions of the future or cause and effect without abrupt interruption of the story's main continuity. As applied to \"Wicked, Wicked\", the Duo-Vision technique involves an active screen and a passive screen, meaning that dialogue comes from only one screen at a time while silent footage unreels on the other so there is no dialogue confusion.\"\n", "Section::::Chapters.:5. Impulse.\n\nOne camera pans throughout the room, while the other is fixed on what appears to be an oscilloscope screen. The first camera scans through light and dark areas of the room, while the graph on the screen is visibly responsive to the light levels detected by the first camera. The shot no longer mimes biological sight, but imagines the possibility of machinic sight. This new sight, now divorced from a mimetic relationship to the body, compels the viewer to consider the relationship between human and machinic vision.\n\nSection::::Chapters.:6. Fusion.\n", "Throughout the first two parts, almost everything is seen through the eye of the camera (designated in the script as E), although there are occasional moments when O's perception is seen. In the third part, much more of O's perception of the room and its contents is given. In order to distinguish between the two perceptions, objects seen by O were shot through a lens-gauze, blurring his perception while E's perception was shot without gauze or filters, keeping the images sharp.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:The street.\n", "Section::::No Colavita effect in people with one eye.\n", "Generally speaking, if the double vision is intractable by optical and other means and the patient needs relief from the disturbing double images, it may be indicated to use a more modest approach that simply ensures that the image of the weaker eye no longer interferes with the image of the dominant eye. This relieves the most disturbing symptoms, albeit at the cost of offering only subnormal binocular vision.\n", "BULLET::::- The topos of \"light and darkness\" is also reflected in numerous titles in popular culture, such as \"Heart of Darkness\" (1899), \"Light in My Darkness\" (1927), \"Darkness and the Light\" (1942), \"Creatures of Light and Darkness\" (1969), \"From Darkness to Light\" (1973), \"Darkness and Light\" (1989), \"The Lord of the Light and of the Darkness\" (1993), the \"\" episode \"\" (1997), the \"Babylon 5\" episode \"Between the Darkness and the Light\" (1997), and \"Out of the Darkness, Into the Light\" (1998).\n", "Electrophysiological evidence from the late 1970s has shown that there is no direct retinal input from S-cones to the superior colliculus, implying that the perception of color information should be impaired. However, more recent evidence point to a pathway from S-cones to the superior colliculus, opposing previous research and supporting the idea that some chromatic processing mechanisms are intact in blindsight.\n", "This phenomenon of activity-dependent competition is especially seen in the formation of ocular dominance columns within the visual system. Early in development, most of the visual cortex is binocular, meaning it receives roughly equal input from both eyes. Normally, as development progresses, the visual cortex will segregate into monocular columns that receive input from only one eye. However, if one eye is patched, or otherwise prevented from receiving sensory input, the visual cortex will shift to favor representation of the uncovered eye. This demonstrates activity-dependent competition and Hebbian theory because inputs from the uncovered eye make and retain more connections than the patched eye.\n", "The Gemara deduced from the words \"the man whose eye is open\" in which refer to only a single open eye, that Balaam was blind in one eye.\n", "The Stiles–Crawford effect of the second kind is the phenomenon where the observed color of monochromatic light entering the eye near the edge of the pupil is different compared to that for the same wavelength light entering near the center of the pupil, regardless of the overall intensities of the two lights.\n", "Section::::Chapters.:4. Fovea.\n", "In vision, convergence is a term signifying the ability of the eyes to turn inward, typically used to focus on objects that are close up. Convergence reduces the disparity of these objects to zero. This is why on the second iteration of Campus's walk we see a single image of his body when he is close to the camera and a double image when he is further away. On the third iteration, had he perfectly rotated the cameras further inward, the point of convergence would be located even closer to the camera. The imperfection in his process has been said to underscore the difference between the mode of sight performed by the cameras and human perception.\n", "In Beckett's original script, the two main characters, the camera and the man it is pursuing are referred to as E (the Eye) and O (the Object). This simplistic division might lead one to assume that the Eye is only interested in the man it is pursuing. This may be true, but it does not mean it will not have the same effect on anyone who comes in contact with it. “E is both part of O and not part of O; E is also the camera and, through the camera, the eye of the spectator as well. But E is also self, not merely O’s self but the self of any person or people, specifically that of the other characters — the elderly couple and the flower-lady — who respond to its stare with that look of horror.” E is, so to speak, O's blind eye. \"He has the function of making all with whom he comes into contact self-aware.”\n", "In 1861, Fechner reported that if he looked at a light with a darkened piece of glass over one eye then closed that eye, the light appeared to become brighter, even though less light was coming into his eyes. This phenomenon has come to be called Fechner's paradox. It has been the subject of numerous research papers, including in the 2000s. It occurs because the perceived brightness of the light with both eyes open is similar to the average brightness of each light viewed with one eye.\n\nSection::::Influence.\n", "\"Furthermore, to demonstrate the perfection of his art and the greatness of God, Michelangelo depicted God dividing the light from darkness in these scenes, where He is seen in all His majesty as He sustains himself alone with open arms with the demonstration of love and creative energy.\n", "In visual allochiria, objects situated on one side of the visual field are perceived in the contralateral visual field. In one of the two cases ever recorded, the visual impression received by the right open eye was regularly referred to the left eye, and the patient maintained that she perceived the impression with the left eye that in fact was shut. In the other case, a colored object held in front of the left eye was recognized and the patient maintained that she saw the color with the right eye.\n\nSection::::Types.:Gustatory allochiria.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Directors also play an important role in post-production. While the film is still in production, the director sends \"dailies\" to the film editor and explains his or her overall vision for the film, allowing the editor to assemble an editor's cut. In post-production, the director works with the editor to edit the material into the director's cut. Well-established directors have the \"final cut privilege\", meaning that they have the final say on which edit of the film is released. For other directors, the studio can order further edits without the director's permission.\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 Harold Robbins' \"The Pirate\" - 1st Assistant Director (2nd Unit Locations)\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Equus - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 The Man in the Iron Mask - Art Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 Gulliver’s Travels - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1976 Beauty and the Beast - 2nd unit director/assistant director\n\nBULLET::::- 1976 Voyage of the Damned - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 Russian Roulette - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1974 The Last Chapter – Director and Screenplay\n\nBULLET::::- 1974 Great Expectations - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1974 Cat and Mouse - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1974 The Great Gatsby - Assistant Director\n", "There are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, producers, film editors or actors. Other film directors have attended a film school. Directors use different approaches. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films.\n\nSection::::Responsibility.\n", "At the end of the day, the director approves the next day's shooting schedule and a daily progress report is sent to the production office. This includes the report sheets from continuity, sound, and camera teams. Call sheets are distributed to the cast and crew to tell them when and where to turn up the next shooting day. Later on, the director, producer, other department heads, and, sometimes, the cast, may gather to watch that day or yesterday's footage, called \"dailies\", and review their work.\n", "While the crew prepare their equipment, the actors do their costumes and attend the hair and make-up departments. The actors rehearse the script and blocking with the director, and the camera and sound crews rehearse with them and make final tweaks. Finally, the action is shot in as many takes as the director wishes. Most American productions follow a specific procedure:\n", "Generally, the sole superiors of the director are the producer(s) and the studio that is financing the film, although sometimes the director can also be a producer of the same film. The role of a director differs from producers in that producers typically manage the logistics and business operations of the production, whereas the director is tasked with making creative decisions. The director must work within the restrictions of the film's budget and the demands of the producer and studio (such as the need to get a particular age rating).\n", "Director played a number of headline gigs in Irish venues in December, including Dublin, Dundalk and Mullingar.\n\nSection::::Career.:\"I'll Wait for Sound\" (2009).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Around the World with Willy Fog\" – Director, Script Adaptor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Attack of the Super Monsters\" – Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bob in a Bottle\" – Supervising Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Captain Harlock and the Queen of a Thousand Years\" – Dialogue Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds\" – Script Adaptor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fist of the North Star\" – Dialogue Director, Casting Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics\" – Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hunt for the Sword Samurai\" – ADR Writer, ADR Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Littl' Bits\" – ADR Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Favorite Fairy Tales\" – Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Noozles\" – Supervising Director\n", "In 2006, Mark received his Director's Diploma from the Raindance Organization in London. In 2007, Mark also appeared on the front cover of \"Hollywood Scriptwriter\" in the April edition.\n", "BULLET::::- \"$5 Cover: Seattle\" — First Assistant Director for several episodes, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- \"Room 104\" (2017) — Director, Season 1, episode 7: \"Missionaries\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Room 104\" (2017) — Director, Season 1, episode 11: \"The Fight\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Graves\" (2017) — Director, Season 2, episode 8: \"They Die Happier\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Animal Kingdom\" (2018) — Director, Season 3, episode 5: \"Prey\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Society\" (2019) — Director, Season 1, episode 6: \"Like a F-ing God or Something\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Animal Kingdom\" (2019) — Director, Season 4, episode 4: \"Tank\"\n\nSection::::Filmography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shag Carpet Sunset\" (2002) — Director of Photography\n", "The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the boundaries of the film's budget. There are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors or actors. Other film directors have attended a film school. Directors use different approaches. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films.\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 Mario Puzo's the Fortunate Pilgrim - 2nd Unit Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 Hawks - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 Dirty Rotten Scoundrels - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 Duet for One - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 Highlander - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 Dream Lover - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 Little Shop of Horrors - 1st Assistant Director (Additional Shooting)\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 - 1st Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 Plenty – 1st Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 13 at Dinner - 1st Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 The Bounty - Assistant Director\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 Agatha Christie's Ordeal by Innocence - Assistant Director\n", "Section::::Career.:Directing.\n", "The nature of the film, and the budget, determine the size and type of crew used during filmmaking. Many Hollywood blockbusters employ a cast and crew of hundreds, while a low-budget, independent film may be made by a skeleton crew of eight or nine (or fewer). These are typical crew positions:\n\nBULLET::::- Storyboard artist: creates visual images to help the director and production designer communicate their ideas to the production team.\n\nBULLET::::- Director: is primarily responsible for the storytelling, creative decisions and acting of the film.\n", "The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the budget.\n", "A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. The director most often has the highest authority on a film set. Generally, a film director controls a film's artistic and dramatic aspects and visualizes the screenplay (or script) while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision. The director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of film-making. Under European Union law, the director is viewed as the author of the film.\n", "In production, the film is created and shot. More crew will be recruited at this stage, such as the property master, script supervisor, assistant directors, stills photographer, picture editor, and sound editors. These are just the most common roles in filmmaking; the production office will be free to create any unique blend of roles to suit the various responsibilities possible during the production of a film.\n", "Section::::Career.:Directing.:\"Fish Tank\".\n", "Cassavetes said: \"The hardest thing for a film-maker, or a person like me, is to find people … who really want to do something … They've got to work on a project that's theirs.\" This method differs greatly from the 'director run' sets of big-budget Hollywood productions.\n", "Section::::Career.:Directing ADR.\n", "A take is over when the director calls \"cut!\" and the camera and sound stop recording. The script supervisor will note any continuity issues, and the sound and camera teams log technical notes for the take on their respective report sheets. If the director decides additional takes are required, the whole process repeats. Once satisfied, the crew moves on to the next camera angle or \"setup,\" until the whole scene is \"covered.\" When shooting is finished for the scene, the assistant director declares a \"wrap\" or \"moving on,\" and the crew will \"strike,\" or dismantle, the set for that scene.\n", "Section::::TV production career.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Crew.\n\nWhile most of the staff and crew remain the same from show to show, the directors may vary based on the filming location. For example, Richard Valverde served as director for shows in Paris, Michael Watt directed shows in Canada and the United States, and Victor Fable directed in the United States. Notable directors include The Voice's Alan Carter, who directed six shows in the United States, CEO of production company A. Smith & Co. Kent Weed, of six shows in the United States, and NBC director Ron de Moraes who directed four shows.\n", "Takemitsu attached the greatest importance to the director's conception of the film; in an interview with Max Tessier, he explained that, \"everything depends on the film itself ... I try to concentrate as much as possible on the subject, so that I can express what the director feels himself. I try to extend his feelings with my music.\"\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "Both buddies start running around in different instances to approve the script. At the cost of incredible efforts, then shortening the text, then, on the contrary, adding the text back, the director still manages to approve the script. After that film director goes to film studio and begins to gather the film crew: art director, director of photography, composer, sound engineer, assistant director, actors, workers and others is going to.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- In 1951 Danny Kaye recorded a Sylvia Fine song titled \"Tongue Twisters\".\n\nBULLET::::- The children's books by Dr. Seuss contain a significant number of tongue-twisters, with \"Oh Say Can You Say?\", and \"Fox in Socks\" being the most extreme cases.\n", "Tongue-twisters may rely on rapid alternation between similar but distinct phonemes (e.g., \"s\" and \"sh\" ), combining two different alternation patterns, familiar constructs in loanwords, or other features of a spoken language in order to be difficult to articulate. For example, the following sentence was claimed as \"the most difficult of common English-language tongue-twisters\" by William Poundstone.\n\nThe seething sea ceaseth and thus the seething sea sufficeth us.\n", "Shibboleths, that is, phrases in a language that are difficult for someone who is not a native speaker of that language to say might be regarded as a type of tongue-twist. An example is Georgian \"baq'aq'i ts'q'alshi q'iq'inebs\" (\"a frog croaks in the water\"), in which \"q\" is a sort of gulping sound. Another example, the Czech and Slovak \"strč prst skrz krk\" (\"stick a finger through the throat\") is difficult for a non-native speaker due to the absence of vowels, although syllabic r is a common sound in Czech, Slovak and some other Slavic languages.\n\nSection::::Related concepts.:Finger-fumblers.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1952 film \"Singin' in the Rain\", movie star Don Lockwood (Gene Kelly) uses tongue-twisters while learning proper diction so he can make the transition from silent films to \"talkies\" in 1920s Hollywood. He also turns one of them (\"Moses Supposes His Toeses Are Roses\") into a song and dance number along with his best friend Cosmo Brown (Donald O'Connor).\n", "Many tongue-twisters use a combination of alliteration and rhyme. They have two or more sequences of sounds that require repositioning the tongue between syllables, then the same sounds are repeated in a different sequence. An example of this is the song Betty Botter ():\n\nBetty Botter bought a bit of butter.\n\nThe butter Betty Botter bought was a bit bitter\n\nAnd made her batter bitter.\n\nBut a bit of better butter makes better batter.\n\nSo Betty Botter bought a bit of better butter\n\nMaking Betty Botter's bitter batter better\n", "BULLET::::- In 1968, Jack Webb guested on \"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson\" and took part in a parody of \"Dragnet\". The premise was Webb (as Sgt. Joe Friday) grilling Carson about \"kleptomaniac Claude Cooper from Cleveland, who copped clean copper clappers kept in a closet.\" It became one of the most famous sketches in the show's history and was regularly shown on anniversary specials.\n\nBULLET::::- In the cartoon episode \"You Said a Mouseful\" from \"Pinky and the Brain\", both Pinky and Brain go through a collage of tongue-twisters that cover almost every category possible.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alliteration\n", "Old Mother Hunt had a rough cut punt\n\nNot a punt cut rough,\n\nBut a rough cut punt.\n\nIn 2013, a psychologist at an Acoustical Society of America conference claimed that “Pad kid poured curd pulled cod\" is the trickiest twister to date.\n\nSection::::Related concepts.\n\nSection::::Related concepts.:Shibboleths.\n", "The following twister won the \"grand prize\" in a contest in \"Games Magazine\" in 1979:\n\nShep Schwab shopped at Scott's Schnapps shop;\n\nOne shot of Scott's Schnapps stopped Schwab's watch.\n\nSome tongue-twisters take the form of words or short phrases which become tongue-twisters when repeated rapidly (the game is often expressed in the form \"Say this phrase three (or five, or ten, \"etc.\") times as fast as you can!\"). Some examples include:\n\nA Proper Copper Coffee Pot.\n\nThe sixth sitting sheet-slitter slit six sheets.\n\nIrish Wristwatch, Swiss Wristwatch.\n\nPad kid poured curd pulled cold.\n\nPeggy Badcock.\n", "These deliberately difficult expressions were popular in the 19th century. The popular \"she sells sea shells\" tongue twister was originally published in 1850 as a diction exercise. The term tongue twister was first applied to these kind of expressions in 1895. \n", "The sign language equivalent of a tongue twister is called a finger-fumbler. According to Susan Fischer, the phrase \"Good blood, bad blood\" is a tongue-twister in English as well as a finger-fumbler in ASL.\n\nSection::::Related concepts.:One-syllable article.\n\nOne-syllable article is a form of Mandarin Chinese tongue twister, written in Classical Chinese. Due to Mandarin Chinese having only four tonal ranges (compared to nine in Cantonese, for example), these works sound like a work of one syllable in different tonal range when spoken in Mandarin, but are far more comprehensible when spoken in another dialect.\n\nSection::::Tongue-twisters in creative works.\n", "There are some biases shown through slips of the tongue. One kind is a lexical bias which shows that the slips people generate are more often actual words than random sound strings. Baars Motley and Mackay (1975) found that it was more common for people to turn two actual words to two other actual words than when they do not create real words. This suggests that lexemes might overlap somewhat or be stored similarly.\n", "Speech may be affected by a tongue thrust swallowing pattern. Sounds such as /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ are produced by placing the tongue on the upper alveolar ridge, and therefore a tongue thrust may distort these sounds . \n\nChewing and swallowing with dysfunctional muscle patterning (as in a tongue thrust) is not as effective as a normal chewing and swallowing motion. \n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "There is little laboratory evidence supporting the hypothesis that tongue rolling is inheritable and dominant. In 1940, Alfred Sturtevant observed that ~70% of people of European ancestry could roll their tongues and the remaining ~30% could not do it. A 1975 twin study found that identical twins were no more likely than fraternal twins to both have the same phenotype for tongue rolling.\n\nCloverleaf tongue is the ability to fold the tongue in a certain configuration with multiple bends. To the extent to which it is genetic, it is probably a dominant trait distinct from tongue rolling.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Factors that can contribute to tongue thrusting include macroglossia (enlarged tongue), thumb sucking, large tonsils, hereditary factors, ankyloglossia (tongue tie), and certain types of artificial nipples used in feeding infants, also allergies or nasal congestion can cause the tongue to lie low in the mouth because of breathing obstruction and finally contributing to tongue thrusting. In addition, it is also seen after prolonged therapy by levodopa in Parkinsonism, also it occurs as extra pyramidal side effect (acute muscular dystonia) after use of neuroleptics (anti-psychotics). \n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nTongue extrusion is normal in infants.\n", "Tongue thrusting is a type of orofacial myofunctional disorder, which is defined as habitual resting or thrusting the tongue forward and/or sideways against or between the teeth while swallowing, chewing, resting, or speaking. Abnormal swallowing patterns push the upper teeth forward and away from the upper alveolar processes and cause open bites. In children, tongue thrusting is common due to immature oral behavior, narrow dental arch, prolonged upper respiratory tract infections, spaces between the teeth (diastema), muscle weakness, malocclusion, abnormal sucking habits, and open mouth posture due to structural abnormalities of genetic origin. Large tonsils and adenoids also contribute to tongue thrust swallowing.\n", "Tongue-twister\n\nA tongue-twister \n\nis a phrase that is designed to be difficult to articulate properly, and can be used as a type of spoken (or sung) word game. Some tongue-twisters produce results that are humorous (or humorously vulgar) when they are mispronounced, while others simply rely on the confusion and mistakes of the speaker for their amusement value.\n\nSection::::Types of tongue-twisters.\n", "Dustin Allor, a 19-year-old body piercer in the U.S., split her tongue in 1996 herself. Not having any reference of this being done before, she came up with the tie-off or fishing line method. In 1997 she was featured on the cover of Fakir Musafar's Body Play Magazine.Dustin's documented success with this process inspired coworker Natalie Lowry to follow suit in 2001.\n", "The earliest version of this tongue twister was published in \"Peter Piper's Practical Principles of Plain and Perfect Pronunciation\" by John Harris (1756–1846) in London in 1813, which includes a one name tongue-twister for each letter of the alphabet in the same style. However, the rhyme was apparently known at least a generation earlier. Some authors have identified the subject of the rhyme as Pierre Poivre, an eighteenthcentury French horticulturalist and government administrator of Mauritius, who once investigated the Seychelles' potential for spice cultivation.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "\"She sells sea shells\" was turned into a popular song in 1908, with words by British songwriter Terry Sullivan and music by Harry Gifford. According to folk etymology, it was said to be inspired by the life and work of Mary Anning, an early fossil collector. However, there is no factual basis for this claim, especially since the expression predates Anning's life.\n\nShe sells sea-shells on the sea-shore.\n\nThe shells she sells are sea-shells, I'm sure.\n\nFor if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore\n\nThen I'm sure she sells sea-shore shells.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Geographic tongue is a common condition, affecting 2-3% of the adult general population, although other sources report a prevalence of up to 14%. It is one of the most common tongue disorders that occurs in children. The condition often starts in childhood, sometimes at an early age, but others report that the highest incidence occurs in the over 40 age group. Females are sometimes reported to be more commonly affected than males, in a 2:1 ratio, although others report that the gender distribution is equal.\n", "Appropriate motion and strength of the tongue are vital for eating, swallowing, and breathing. Tongue motion plays a fundamental role in the development of oral and facial structures, as insufficient tongue motion may cause many body malfunctions.\n\nMany tongue malfunctions are not diagnosed at the newborn stage, which can have significant consequences in later life, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Breastfeeding difficulties\n\nBULLET::::- Palate abnormalities\n\nBULLET::::- Colic\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease\n\nBULLET::::- Altered breathing patterns\n\nBULLET::::- Altered sleep patterns resulting in poor sleep quality\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep apnea\n\nBULLET::::- Swallowing difficulties\n\nBULLET::::- Otitis / Ear Infection\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired speech\n\nBULLET::::- Postural issues\n", "Tongue thrust\n\nTongue thrust (also called reverse swallow or immature swallow) is the common name of an oral myofunctional disorder, a dysfunctional muscle pattern in which the tongue protrudes anteriorly or laterally during swallowing, during speech, and while the tongue is at rest. Nearly all infants exhibit a swallowing pattern involving tongue protrusion, but by six months of age most lose this reflex allowing for the ingestion of solid foods.\n", "A common temporary failure in word retrieval from memory is referred to as the \"tip-of-the-tongue\" phenomenon. The expression \"tongue in cheek\" refers to a statement that is not to be taken entirely seriously – something said or done with subtle ironic or sarcastic humour. A \"tongue twister\" is a phrase made specifically to be very difficult to pronounce. Aside from being a medical condition, \"tongue-tied\" means being unable to say what you want due to confusion or restriction. The phrase \"cat got your tongue\" refers to when a person is speechless. To \"bite one's tongue\" is a phrase which describes holding back an opinion to avoid causing offence. A \"slip of the tongue\" refers to an unintentional utterance, such as a Freudian slip. The \"gift of tongues\" refers to when one is uncommonly gifted to be able to speak in a foreign language, often as a type of spiritual gift. Speaking in tongues is a common phrase used to describe \"glossolalia\", which is to make smooth, language-resembling sounds that is no true spoken language itself. A deceptive person is said to have a forked tongue, and a smooth-talking person said to have a .\n", "Section::::Research on the psychology of language and gesture.:Mirror neuron \"twist\".\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Immunity.\n\nMany ophiophagous animals seem to be immune to the venom of the usual snakes they prey and feed upon. The phenomenon was studied in the mussurana by the Brazilian scientist Vital Brazil. They have antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic antibodies in their blood. The Virginia opossum (\"Didelphis virginiana\") has been found to have the most resistance towards snake venom. This immunity is not acquired and has probably evolved as an adaptation to predation by venomous snakes in their habitat.\n", "Because snakes digest nearly all of their prey, they do not require additional sources of vitamins or minerals. Moreover, at this time, there exist no data to suggest otherwise.\n\nSection::::Captivity.:Heat, lighting and substrate.\n", "With such a varied diet, the gray four-eyed opossum will both encounter and eat venomous snakes. While the bites of these snakes may be harmful to most animals, the gray four-eyed opossum is able to overcome the toxic effects due to its immunity to the toxins. The immunity was initially thought to come from an immune response leading to the production of antibodies, but in fact it comes from toxin-neutralizing proteins found in opossum serum. These proteins are produced by the opossum prior to any encounter with a venomous snake, thus this immunity is not learned but inherited.\n", "They prefer hatchling snakes but they can also eat small mammals like young rodents.\n\nSection::::Venom.\n\nThree isotoxins, named sarafotoxins S6a1, S6b and S6c, with strong cardiotoxic activity were isolated from the venom of a snake, Atractaspis engaddensis. All three sarafotoxins are homologous peptides (four or less than four residue replacements) consisting of 21 amino acid residues. Their structure and activity are novel among snake venom components.\n", "Some of the various adaptations produced by this process include venom more toxic to specific prey in several lineages, proteins that pre-digest prey, as well as a method to track down prey after a bite. The presence of digestive enzymes in snake venom was once believed to be an adaptation to assist digestion. However, studies of the western diamondback rattlesnake (\"Crotalus atrox\"), a snake with highly proteolytic venom, show that venom has no impact on the time required for food to pass through the gut. These various adaptations of venom have also led to considerable debate about the definition of venom and venomous snakes.\n", "Venomous snakes are often said to be poisonous, but poison and venom are not the same thing. Poisons must be ingested, inhaled or absorbed, while venom must be injected into the body by mechanical means. While unusual, there are a few species of snake which are actually poisonous. \"Rhabdophis\" keelback snakes are both venomous and poisonous – their poisons are stored in nuchal glands and are acquired by sequestering toxins from poisonous toads the snakes eat. Similarly, certain garter snakes from Oregon can retain toxins in their livers from ingesting rough-skinned newts.\n\nSection::::Danger.\n\nSection::::Danger.:Toxicity issues.\n", "Section::::Behaviour and diet.:Diet.\n\nThese species feeds mainly on lizards such as skinks, geckos, agamids, other snakes, toads and occasionally mice and birds. They will also readily eat carrion.\n\nSection::::Venom.\n", "Animals with an empty stomach readily vomit after ingestion of this substance. However, when there is food in the stomach of the animals the stimulation to vomit decreases, so more quantities may be absorbed. It has been found that ANTU may cause death in some animals within 2–4 hours of ingestion, while animals that survive 12 hours may recover from the poison. \n", "After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place. Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic (\"cold-blooded\"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is . So much metabolic energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (\"Crotalus durissus\"), surface body temperature increases by as much as during the digestive process. Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.\n", "Conant (1929) gave a detailed account of the feeding behavior of a captive specimen from South Carolina. When prey was introduced, the snake quickly became attentive and made an attack. Frogs and small birds were seized and held until movement stopped. Larger prey was approached in a more cautious manner; a rapid strike was executed after which the snake would withdraw. In 2.5 years, the snake had accepted three species of frogs, including a large bullfrog, a spotted salamander, water snakes, garter snakes, sparrows, young rats, and three species of mice. Brimley (1944) described a captive specimen that ate copperheads (\"A. contortrix\"), as well as members of its own species, keeping its fangs embedded in its victims until they had been immobilized.\n", "In the wild, the western hognose snake feeds predominately on amphibians, such as large and medium-sized tree frogs, as well as small or medium-sized toads and small lizards. There have been accounts of \"H. nasicus\" eating the occasional rodent in the wild as well. Not being a true constrictor, \"Heterodon\" bites and chews, driving the rear fangs into the prey as a way of introducing the saliva to help break down the toxins from toads. There have been many cases of hognose snakes in captivity that will not eat for about two to three-and-a-half months, from the months January to mid March. This is because hognose snakes' instinct is to brumate underground during the winter months.\n", "Many owners have resorted to force feeding their \"Dasypeltis\" because the animal seems not to be eating. However, evidence has shown that, like large constrictors, these snakes may go for very long periods (months) without eating after a large meal. As long as the snake is behaving normally and does not appear to be in physical distress, force feeding is not advised. When a specimen seems to be \"off\" its food, offering it eggs approximately monthly is appropriate. If the snake does not eat but continues to drink, is active, and sheds, then it does not need to be force fed.\n", "In populations where garter snakes and newts live together, higher levels of tetrodotoxin and resistance to it are observed in the two species respectively. Where the species are separated, the toxin levels and resistance are lower. While isolated garter snakes have lower resistance, they still demonstrate an ability to resist low levels of the toxin, suggesting an ancestral predisposition to tetrodotoxin resistance. The lower levels of resistance in separated populations suggest a fitness cost of both toxin production and resistance. Snakes with high levels of tetrodotoxin resistance crawl more slowly than isolated populations of snakes, making them more vulnerable to predation. The same pattern is seen in isolated populations of newts, which have less toxin in their skin. There are geographic hotspots where levels of tetrodotoxin and resistance are extremely high, showing a close interaction between newts and snakes.\n", "A wide range of animals will eat anoles, such as large spiders, centipedes, predatory katydids, snakes, large frogs, lizards, birds, monkeys, and carnivoran mammals. At least in part of their range, snakes may be the most significant predator of anoles. For example, the Caribbean \"Alsophis\" and \"Borikenophis\" racers, and the Mexican, Central American and South American \"Oxybelis\" vine snakes feed mostly on lizards like anoles. Some reptile-eating snakes have a specialized venom that has little effect on humans, but it rapidly kills an anole. On some Caribbean Islands anoles make up as much as 40–75% of the diet of American kestrels. Large anoles may eat smaller individuals of other anole species and cannibalism—eating smaller individuals of their own species—is also widespread. There is a documented case of a small anole being captured and killed by an outside potted Venus flytrap plant.\n", "The colloquial term \"poisonous snake\" is generally an incorrect label for snakes. A poison is inhaled or ingested, whereas venom produced by snakes is injected into its victim via fangs. There are, however, two exceptions: \"Rhabdophis\" sequesters toxins from the toads it eats, then secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators, and a small unusual population of garter snakes in the U.S. state of Oregon retains enough toxins in their livers from the newts they eat to be effectively poisonous to small local predators (such as crows and foxes).\n", "Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snake bites (like any animal bite) will cause tissue damage.\n\nCertain birds, mammals, and other snakes (such as kingsnakes) that prey on venomous snakes have developed resistance and even immunity to certain venoms. Venomous snakes include three families of snakes, and do not constitute a formal classification group used in taxonomy.\n", "Unlike other venomous snakes that tend to strike, release, and then track their prey, \"B. insularis\" keeps its prey in its mouth once it has been envenomated.\n\nWhile other lanceheads have been observed shaking their tails in order to lure prey, this behavior has not been observed in the golden lancehead. However, considering the presence of potential prey susceptible to caudal luring and the opportunistic nature of \"B. insularis,\" it would not be surprising if this behavior were eventually observed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of crotaline species and subspecies\n\nBULLET::::- Snakebite\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Common garter snakes are resistant to naturally found poisons such as that of the American toad and rough-skinned newt, the latter of which can kill a human if ingested. They have the ability to absorb the toxin from the newts into their bodies, making them poisonous, which can deter potential predators.\n", "\"Charlotte, N.C., March 25 (AP) - Pete, a thirty-foot python, had a late luncheon today - six months late. Pythons, Harry Lewiston, keeper of the reptile, explained, eat only about once every three months. Pete hurt his throat nine months ago and had to pass up two meals. Today, with an eight-foot rubber hose, he was fed a snack of thirty pounds of chopped meat, fifteen dozen eggs and fifteen pounds of crushed bone. It took eighteen men to hold Pete while they fed him.\"\n", "Some species are among the longest species (\"Pantherophis obsoletus\") and largest species (\"Pituophis catenifer\") in North America. A lot of species also have evolved to predate and consume other species of snakes, most notably among the species in the genus \"Lampropeltis\". All species kill their prey through constriction. Many species are in captivity such as kingsnakes and corn snakes.\n", "In captivity, they can remain in excellent health through \"an all rodent diet\" (e.g., mice, rats) and are opportunistic feeders. Many owners prefer to feed their snakes pre-killed rodents as they will not carry over mites or other parasites, are generally more convenient to store, and will not pose any danger to the reptile (mice and rats will bite and scratch in an effort to defend themselves). Some owners have been reported to feed their snakes in separate enclosures (\"feeding areas\") to ensure further sanitation. Most local pet stores that sell reptiles, will also typically carry frozen mice at various stages of development.\n", "The diet consists of mainly reptiles, including snakes, but they will eat mammals if available. Because black-headed pythons live in the desert, they heat up quicker and stay warmer for longer. This means they can eat more because they digest food quicker in warmer conditions. When ingesting large prey, this species positions one or two coils just ahead of its distended mouth and by constriction makes the task of swallowing easier.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Meet the Slithers — a family with a bit of a slob prob! Raging rodents are lunching on leftovers in their dirty den, and the Slithers realize they need an exterminator. The solution? Bucky, a boa constrictor with a big appetite. But digesting mouse lumps causes snake slowdown, and for a while Bucky's the ultimate cage potato. Until the peckish pet needs a fresh supply. Time to visit the neighbors!\n", "Throughout much of the newt’s range, the common garter snake (\"Thamnophis sirtalis\") has been observed to exhibit resistance to the tetrodotoxin produced in the newt's skin. While in principle the toxin binds to a tube-shaped protein that acts as a sodium channel in the snake's nerve cells, researchers have identified a genetic disposition in several snake populations where the protein is configured in such a way as to hamper or prevent binding of the toxin. In each of these populations, the snakes exhibit resistance to the toxin and successfully prey upon the newts. Successful predation of the rough-skinned newt by the common garter snake is made possible by the ability of individuals in a common garter snake population to gauge whether the newt's level of toxin is too high to feed on. \"T. sirtalis\" assays toxin levels of the rough-skinned newt and decides whether or not the levels are manageable by partially swallowing the newt, and either swallowing or releasing the newt. Toxin-resistant garter snakes are the only known animals today that can eat a rough-skinned newt and survive.\n", "Snake nAchRs have specific sequence features that render them poor binding partners for alpha-neurotoxins. Some mammalian lineages also display mutations conferring resistance to alpha-neurotoxins; such resistance is believed to have evolved convergently at least four times in mammals, reflecting two different biochemical mechanisms of adaptation. The introduction of glycosylation sites on the receptor, resulting in steric hindrance at the neurotoxin binding site, is a well-characterized resistance mechanism found in mongooses, while the honey badger, domestic pig, and hedgehog lineages replace aromatic amino acids with charged residues; at least in some lineages, these molecular adaptations likely reflect predation on venomous snakes.\n" ]

[ "Animals should experience difficulties digesting poisonous snakes after eating them." ]

[ "Venomous is the correct term rather than poisonous snakes, also poison becomes harmful when injected, not digested. When consumed, the venom broken apart during digestion and becomes less harmful during this process." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Animals should experience difficulties digesting poisonous snakes after eating them." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Venomous is the correct term rather than poisonous snakes, also poison becomes harmful when injected, not digested. When consumed, the venom broken apart during digestion and becomes less harmful during this process." ]

[ "Section::::Polymers.\n", "In amorphous materials, the discussion of \"dislocations\" is inapplicable, since the entire material lacks long range order. These materials can still undergo plastic deformation. Since amorphous materials, like polymers, are not well-ordered, they contain a large amount of free volume, or wasted space. Pulling these materials in tension opens up these regions and can give materials a hazy appearance. This haziness is the result of \"crazing\", where fibrils are formed within the material in regions of high hydrostatic stress. The material may go from an ordered appearance to a \"crazy\" pattern of strain and stretch marks.\n\nSection::::Physical mechanisms.:Martensitic materials.\n", "Section::::Fiber drawing (polymers).\n\nFiber drawing is a hybrid process, in which gravity or another force is used to geometrically and mechanically alter the extruded fibers. This process not only reduces the cross section of the polymer fiber, but also increases the strength of the fibers by aligning the individual polymer molecules.\n", "In structural engineering, the plastic moment (M) is a property of a structural section. It is defined as the moment at which the entire cross section has reached its yield stress. This is theoretically the maximum bending moment that the section can resist - when this point is reached a plastic hinge is formed and any load beyond this point will result in theoretically infinite plastic deformation. In practice most materials are work-hardened resulting in increased stiffness and moment resistance until the material fails. This is of little significance in structural mechanics as the deflection prior to this occurring is considered to be an earlier failure point in the member.\n", "In applications where high optical transparency is necessary, examples being poly(methyl methacrylate) and polycarbonate it is important to find a secondary phase that does not scatter light. To do so it is important to match refractive indices of both phases. Traditional rubber particles do not offer this quality. Modifying the surface of nanoparticles with polymers of comparable refractive indices is an interest of current research.\n\nSection::::Relationship between the secondary phase properties and toughening effect.:Secondary phase concentration.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Equal channel angular extrusion.\n\nEqual channel angular extrusion (ECAE, sometimes called Equal channel angular pressing, ECAP) was developed in the 1970s. In this process, a metal billet is pressed through an angled (typically 90 degrees) channel. To achieve optimal results, the process may be repeated several times, changing the orientation of the billet with each pass. This produces a uniform shear throughout the bulk of the material. \n\nSection::::Methods.:High pressure torsion.\n", "Section::::Polymers.:Rubber toughening.\n", "A more common and related problem is \"swelling\", where small molecules infiltrate the structure, reducing strength and stiffness and causing a volume change. Conversely, many polymers (notably flexible vinyl) are intentionally swelled with plasticizers, which can be leached out of the structure, causing brittleness or other undesirable changes.\n", "Simple (mechanical) shear versus physics\n\nNow some of you may say, ‘surely shear of a plane distorts a crystal’ as shown in the left sketch below.\n\nSimple shear. (Engineering) Shear (Physics)\n", "Crazing can take place in glassy polymers under environmental effects. It is troublesome because it requires a much lower stress state and sometimes it happens in a long delay, which means it's hard to detect and avoid. For example, the PMMA containers in daily use is quite resistive to humidity and temperature without any visible defects. But after they are machine-washed and then left in air for one or two days, they will shutter abruptly when wet with gin. During the process, the stress applied is negligible, but crazing is still found in the containers.\n", "BULLET::::2. Under plane strain conditions and constant load amplitudes, there is no plastic wedge at large distances behind the crack tip. However, the material in the plastic wake is plastically deformed. It is plastically sheared; this shearing induces a rotation of the original piece of material, and as a consequence, a local wedge is formed in the vicinity of the crack tip.\n\nSection::::Crack closure mechanisms.:Phase-transformation-induced crack closure.\n", "PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how it is processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid, and it is very lightweight. It makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol (requires additional \"barrier\" treatment) and solvents. It is strong and impact-resistant. PET becomes white when exposed to chloroform and also certain other chemicals such as toluene.\n", "Section::::Representative polymers.:Polystyrene.\n", "There are two types of processing defects that can occur during coextrusion. The first defect is interface instability, causing unintended interface shapes. This can cause \"encapsulation\" of the higher viscosity melt by the lower viscosity melt, leading to poor final performance of the extruded part. The severity of this type of defect is proportional to the difference in viscosities between the two polymer melts. The other type of defect forms from oscillations in the melt flow, causing small wavelike patterns on the surface of the melt and reducing optical transparency.\n", "With the photochromic material dispersed in the glass substrate, the degree of darkening depends on the thickness of glass, which poses problems with variable-thickness lenses in prescription glasses. With plastic lenses, the material is typically embedded into the surface layer of the plastic in a uniform thickness of up to 150 µm.\n", "There are two different types of die tooling used for coating over a wire, tubing (or jacketing) and pressure. In jacketing tooling, the polymer melt does not touch the inner wire until immediately before the die lips. In pressure tooling, the melt contacts the inner wire long before it reaches the die lips; this is done at a high pressure to ensure good adhesion of the melt. If intimate contact or adhesion is required between the new layer and existing wire, pressure tooling is used. If adhesion is not desired/necessary, jacketing tooling is used instead.\n\nSection::::Die types.:Coextrusion.\n", "Plasticizers are, by mass, often the most abundant additives. These oily but nonvolatile compounds are blended in to plastics to improve rheology, as many organic polymers are otherwise too rigid for particular applications.\n\nSection::::Additives.:Colorants.\n\nColorants are another common additive, though their weight contribution is small.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n", "BULLET::::- The primary embrittlement mechanism of plastics is gradual loss of plasticizers, usually by overheating or aging.\n\nBULLET::::- The primary embrittlement mechanism of asphalt is by oxidation, which is most severe in warmer climates. Asphalt pavement embrittlement can lead to various forms of cracking patterns, including longitudinal, transverse, and block (hexagonal). Asphalt oxidation is related to polymer degradation, as these materials bear similarities in their chemical composition.\n\nSection::::Glasses and Ceramics.\n", "In general, the process of microbial plastic biodegradation results in a considerable decrease in polymer molecular weight, causing the plastic to lose its structural integrity. There are several different ways in which microorganisms can carry out the process of plastic degradation, and the mechanism differs slightly depending on the environmental conditions. \n\nSection::::Mechanism of biodegradation.:Direct Action.\n", "Section::::Characteristics of the continuous phase relevant to toughening theory.:Glass Transition Temperature.\n", "Above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties of a thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some thermoplastics do not fully crystallize below the glass transition temperature, retaining some or all of their amorphous characteristics. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are used when high optical clarity is necessary, as light is scattered strongly by crystallites larger than its wavelength. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are less resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress cracking because they lack a crystalline structure.\n", "Internal strain within a metal is either elastic or plastic. Elastic strain is not permentant, while the plastic is. In the case of elastic strain this is observed as a distortion of the crystal lattice, in the case of plastic strain this is observed by the presence of dislocations –the displacement of part of the crystal lattice. Such strain effects can result in unwanted cracking of the material, as is the case with residual plastic strain. In other cases deliberate introduction of plastic strain results in a strengthening of the material and other performance enhancing behaviors, for example in the manufacture of semi-conductors and solar cells.\n", "Typically, fiber drawing occurs immediately after spinning. Application of an external force, either from gravity or take up rollers, causes the fibers to contract laterally and lengthen. This orients the individual polymer molecules along the length of the fiber, increasing strength. The radius of the fibers have been shown to decrease hyperbolically as they lengthen. Once the fibers solidify, they may begin to crystallize, with each grain initially randomly oriented. Further drawing will cause the crystal grains to elongate and reorient in the direction of the tensile axis, further strengthening the fibers.\n\nSection::::Fiber drawing (polymers).:Spinning stability.\n", "While many ideas from the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) models are applicable to polymers there are certain characteristics that need to be considered when modeling behavior. Additional plastic deformation should be considered at crack tips as yielding is more likely to occur in plastics.\n\nSection::::Fracture Mechanics in Polymers.:\"Yielding Mechanisms\".\n", "DEET is an effective solvent, and may dissolve some watch crystals, plastics, rayon, spandex, other synthetic fabrics, and painted or varnished surfaces including nail polish. It also may act as a plasticizer by remaining inside some formerly hard plastics, leaving them softened and more flexible.\n\nSection::::Effects on the environment.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "To unfold, the seat-post is again pulled up to allow the rear triangle to swing back and up into the normal riding position. The seat-post is then slid down through the upper and lower parts of the seat-tube, locking the rear triangle and wheel into place.\n", "Some alternative closures on these jumpsuits include zippers that zip from top to bottom (they are separating zippers similar to those found on coats) and tuck into a small pocket found below waist level.\n\nOther zippers may be off-center in order to be in a location in which the patient is not used to finding it.\n\nSection::::Mousetraps.\n", "The next MoMA PS1 show was \"POSE\" by Ryan McNamara and Diane von Furstenberg. The participants changed into signature DVF wrap-dresses and were treated to quick hair and make-up. Once ready, performance artist McNamara would photograph the participants in precise fashion poses. These photos were immediately uploaded to a program that transformer the photos into textile patterns of the participants. The participants could then order DVF wrap-dresses with their patterns printed on the fabric: a one-of-a-kind DVF wrap-dress of oneself wearing a DVF wrap-dress.\n", "It was in this novel that Erica Jong coined the term \"zipless fuck\", which soon entered the popular lexicon. A \"zipless fuck\" is defined as a sexual encounter for its own sake, without emotional involvement or commitment or any ulterior motive, between two previously unacquainted persons.\n\nJong goes on to explain that it is \"zipless\" because \"when you came together, zippers fell away like rose petals, underwear blew off in one breath like dandelion fluff. For the true ultimate zipless A-1 fuck, it was necessary that you never got to know the man very well.\"\n\nSection::::Feminist influences then and now.\n", "Section::::Career.:Chopped.\n", "BULLET::::- On March 6, 2011, Roslyn Walker became the first person to escape from a regulation Posey straitjacket complete with front and side loops and have his arms secured behind his back during the Secret Escape Challenge meeting in Essex. It took him 14 minutes and 27 seconds to free himself.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n", "Zippy appeared twice in a 2008 episode of \"Harry Hill's TV Burp\". He featured in an edited scene of \"EastEnders\", appearing at the door after a character had been seen undoing a large number of zips when searching someone's handbag. He later appeared in a montage of television figures saying the word \"cataracts\". In 2009, Zippy and George appeared on Peter Kay's The Official BBC Children in Need Medley, and Zippy made an appearance on the seventh series of Celebrity Juice as the celebrity from the Glamourerer Magazine Head section of the show.\n", "Bodystockings are put on through the neck, in a similar technique to putting on a pair of tights: the body and arm sections are rolled down and then the legs are scrunched up like stockings; one would put one foot in and pull the stocking part up, and then the same on the other leg; from the waist, the bodystocking is pulled up over the torso to the chest, and then the arms are scrunched up and put on in same way as the legs; and the garment is then adjusted as required, and any ribbons and fasteners tied.\n", "\"Now you need to know how to undress and go to bed in the presence of a man. So start undressing.\" Slowly, in an almost automatic fashion, she undressed. I had her show me her right breast, her left breast, her right nipple, her left nipple. Her belly button. Her genital area. Her knees. Her gluteal [buttock] regions. I asked her to point where she would like to have her husband kiss her. I had her turn around [naked]. I had her dress slowly. She dressed. I dismissed her.\n", "Section::::Variations.:Gas recirculation.\n", "She attended Stanton College Preparatory School and later the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD). She graduated with a BFA from RISD in Apparel Design in 2005. In 2005, prior to graduation she participated in \"Seamless: Computational Couture,\" a fashion show hosted by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with fellow RISD grad Emily Albinski, together they designed a dress that with the push of a button would inflate into a ball gown shape. Shortly after the \"Seamless: Computational Couture\" show, she appeared on Project Runway.\n\nSection::::Project Runway.\n", "The family business, and his father’s success, made a large impression on Dino, and soon after he graduated high school he designed and created his own zip-up dress shirt. It was a hit, and all his friends wanted ones of their own, but it wasn’t until his mid-twenties that he felt ready to step into his father’s footsteps.\n\nSection::::Career.\n\nSection::::Career.:\"ONS\" undergarment line.\n", "A \"packer,\" a prosthetic penis worn at the crotch to approximate the size and shape of flaccid male genitalia, may be worn. \"Packing\" is generally done on a daily basis for transgender men, sometimes for the rest of their life, especially if they do not undergo sex reassignment surgery. For other transgender men or cross-dressing women, packing is done on an as-needed basis either for personal comfort or for drag performances.\n", "The intercity bus brings a newcomer to town, a young, beautiful woman who is expecting to be met by Dr. Deemer. Told by the hotel clerk that she will have to wait until the only taxi returns, she accepts a ride from Dr. Hastings, who is going back to Deemer's lab. She introduces herself as Stephanie Clayton, nicknamed \"Steve\", who has signed on to assist in the lab.\n", "The user clips the piece of clothing on two hooks and the item is pulled into the machine. Then a series of rollers and arms moves in all directions to straighten and fold it. The machine can fold shirts, tops, trousers and dresses, but not small pieces of clothing like underwear or large items like sheets. The folded items are returned in a stack through a window at the bottom of the machine.\n", "Section::::Career.:How it's done.\n", "This change in locale presented Jim and I with a problem—how to get the women out of their clothes and into their underwear. (Try to imagine someone like David Lean or William Wyler wrestling with a dilemma like this.) Not that women would ever run around in their under- wear regardless of the location, but it was a little easier to swallow when they were in a sorority house. I asked Jim if it would be too much of a problem to redress the reception area to make it seem like we're on different levels of a high rise instead of a single level office. Jim liked that idea because it opened up all sorts of possibilities for us. It not only gave the ladies more room to run and hide from the killer, it also meant (and this was the genius of the stroke) that they could discover a lingerie company on another level. The sequence where these ladies become so excited when they discover these frilly and sexy undergarments (and just can't wait to try them on) is as ridiculous and infantile as anything you can imagine. But half-naked women is just about all that a film like this has to offer.\n", "Lex Schoppi is a trick producer and author of magic books and articles about the art of quick change. He has been Author of the Year for his quick change books and several times Artist of the Year in Germany. His stage partner Alina is a Latin dancer. They work with long dresses and overcoats. Alina is the only woman in the world to master the split second costume change whilst still bound (the world fastest escape illusion).\n", "Section::::Cast.:Debbie Asprea.\n\nDebbie Asprea is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for eighteen years. She has been with Kleinfeld for fifteen of those eighteen years. She attributes her love of fashion to her father, who was a dress contractor.\n\nSection::::Spinoffs.\n", "After her graduation, she started her own brand in her name to design for both women and men. She often uses old fabrics or fabrics from secondhand clothes. In her vintage collection this is the most visible. She designs shirts with plenty of its original look remaining, but leaves them inside out or with the back of the tshirt in the front. She reconstructs with the help of in-stitchings, bleaching, colouring and application sewings to create her clothes.\n", "Section::::Gliding.\n", "Section::::Dressing the diver in and out.:Dressing in.\n", "Fürstenberg attended a boarding school in Oxfordshire. She studied at Madrid University before transferring to the University of Geneva to study economics. She then moved to Paris and worked as an assistant to fashion photographer's agent Albert Koski. She left Paris for Italy to apprentice to the textile manufacturer Angelo Ferretti in his factory, where she learned about cut, color and fabric. It was here that she designed and produced her first silk jersey dresses.\n\nSection::::Career and brand.\n", "BULLET::::- In the TV series \"Monk\" (Season 7, Episode 15: \"Mr Monk and the Magician\"), a Zig Zag cabinet is used with Adrian Monk inside the cabinet.\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode \"Our Very First Telethon\" of \"Full House\", Joey performs this trick with Rebecca standing in as his assistant. The box gets stuck as Joey tries to put Rebecca back together and she must perform her song with Danny while still in the box.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Treatment.:External treatment.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Phototherapy.\n", "There are a number of different causes of skin inflammation of the hands, the interplay of which is also significant: environmental factors such as excessive water; contact with allergens or irritants; and genetic disposition. A single catalyst is seldom responsible for the development of hand eczema in patients.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Differences according to catalysts.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nHand eczema is a common condition: study data indicates a one-year prevalence of up to 10% in the general population. It is estimated that only 50–70% of people affected consult a doctor. The frequency of severe, chronic and recurrent forms of hand eczema is estimated at 5–7%. Approximately 2–4% of hand eczema patients also report that external (topical) therapy is insufficient. \n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nNormally, skin inflammation connected with hand eczema is accompanied by blister formation and pronounced itching, but solid calluses and painful tearing may also occur. The quality of life of the affected person is seriously diminished, especially in the case of chronic forms of the illness, and psychological impact is often very high. This impact is enhanced by the high visibility of the illness on the hands, which may lead to feelings of shame and fear of rejection.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "People allergic to Balsam of Peru may experience a flare-up of hand eczema if they use or consume products that use it as an ingredient.\n", "Patch testing has been found to be helpful in the diagnosis of hand eczema.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nHand eczema is a complex condition, and treatment should only be administered by a dermatologist with specialist knowledge. Treatment may be very costly. Treatment should follow certain basic principles, and chronic and severe cases of hand eczema in particular require complex treatment concepts. Besides skin care, hand protection, and external (topical) applications with preparations containing effective ingredients or light therapy, an internal (systemic) therapy may be considered.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Avoidance of catalysts, basic procedures, and skin protection.\n", "While it has been suggested that eczema may sometimes be an allergic reaction to the excrement from house dust mites, with up to 5% of people showing antibodies to the mites, the overall role this plays awaits further corroboration.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Genetic.\n\nA number of genes have been associated with eczema, one of which is filaggrin. Genome-wide studies found three new genetic variants associated with eczema: OVOL1, ACTL9 and IL4-KIF3A.\n", "Facial eczema\n\nFacial eczema, FE, is a disease that mainly affects ruminants such as cattle, sheep, deer, goats, and South American camelids (alpaca, llamas).\n\nIt is caused by the fungus \"Pithomyces chartarum\" that under favorable conditions can rapidly disseminate in pastures. The fungus requires warm, humid weather with night-time temperatures over 13°C (55°F) for several days, and litter at the bottom of the sward.\n\n\"P. chartarum\" occurs worldwide, but is a problem predominantly where farm animals are intensively grazed, especially in New Zealand.\n", "Eczema herpeticum\n\nEczema herpeticum is a rare but severe disseminated infection that generally occurs at sites of skin damage produced by, for example, atopic dermatitis, burns, long term usage of topical steroids or eczema. It is also known as Kaposi varicelliform eruption, Pustulosis varioliformis acute and Kaposi-Juliusberg dermatitis.\n\nSome sources reserve the term \"eczema herpeticum\" when the cause is due to human herpes simplex virus, and the term \"Kaposi varicelliform eruption\" to describe the general presentation without specifying the virus.\n", "Other conditions that can result in symptoms similar to the common form include contact dermatitis, herpes simplex virus, discoid lupus, and scabies.\n\nOther conditions that can result in symptoms similar to the blistering form include other bullous skin diseases, burns, and necrotizing fasciitis.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Differences according to prevailing signs of skin illness (morphology).\n\nThe clinical appearance of various subtypes of hand eczema differs. The term dyshidrotic hand eczema is used to describe formations that mainly exhibit pronounced, itching blister formations, while callus and tear formations typically indicate hyperkeratotic fissured hand eczema.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Differences according to degree of severity and course.\n\nIndependent of the triggering cause or the prevailing signs of skin illness, the selection and planning of treatment options is important, since different types of illness also differ in terms of their degree of severity and the course of the illness. \n", "Non-communicable inflammation of the skin of the hands is referred to as hand eczema. Hand eczema is widely prevalent and, as it is a very visible condition associated with severe itching or pain, has serious consequences for the affected person including a high psychological impact. Different disease patterns can be identified according to the course of the illness, appearance of symptoms, degree of severity, or catalysts. Prognosis is hard to predict for individual cases of chronic hand eczema and usually differs from patient to patient. Successful treatment depends on determining the causes of the condition, obtaining an accurate diagnosis, sustainable hand protection procedures and an early, extensive, and where appropriate internal treatment.\n", "Severe skin irritation is physically apparent, with reddening of non-pigmented and unprotected areas. This subsequently leads to itch and rubbing, followed by further inflammation, exudation, and scab formation. Lesions and inflammation that occur are said to resemble the conditions seen in foot and mouth disease. Sheep have been observed to have face swelling, dermatitis, and wool falling off due to rubbing. Lactating animals may cease or have reduced milk production; pregnant animals may abort. Lesions on udders are often apparent. Horses may show signs of anorexia, depression (with a comatose state), dilated pupils, and injected conjunctiva.\n\nSection::::Livestock.:Poisoning.:Diagnosis.\n", "Patch tests are used in the diagnosis of allergic contact dermatitis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nThe term \"eczema\" refers to a set of clinical characteristics. Classification of the underlying diseases has been haphazard with numerous different classification systems, and many synonyms being used to describe the same condition.\n\nA type of dermatitis may be described by location (e.g., hand eczema), by specific appearance (eczema craquele or discoid) or by possible cause (varicose eczema). Further adding to the confusion, many sources use the term eczema interchangeably for the most common type: atopic dermatitis.\n", "The formula for Noxzema was invented by Francis J. Townsend, a doctor who lived in Ocean City, Maryland. The formula was called \"Townsend R22\" and referred to commonly as \"no-eczema\". Townsend prescribed it as a remedy to early resort vacationers burned by the sun. \n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Bullous impetigo.\n\nBullous impetigo, mainly seen in children younger than 2 years, involves painless, fluid-filled blisters, mostly on the arms, legs, and trunk, surrounded by red and itchy (but not sore) skin. The blisters may be large or small. After they break, they form yellow scabs.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Ecthyma.\n", "The clinical symptoms of FE are distressing: restlessness, frequent urination, shaking, persistent rubbing of the head against objects (e.g. fences, trees etc.), drooping and reddened ears, swollen eyes, and avoidance of sunlight by seeking shade. Exposed areas of skin develop weeping dermatitis and scabs that can become infected and attractive to a blow-fly, causing myiasis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Initial skin findings include red-purple, dusky, flat spots known as macules that start on the trunk and spread out from there. These skin lesions then transform into large blisters. The affected skin can then become necrotic or sag from the body and peel off in great swaths.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Mucosal findings.\n", "While light hand eczema heals relatively quickly following dermatological therapy and patient participation, more pronounced hand eczema may persist over several weeks. Severe hand eczema is characterised by consistent or recurring, extended inflammation of the skin that severely affects the patient. Hand eczema is described as chronic if it lasts at least 3 months in spite of dermatological treatment, or if it recurs at least twice within a period of 12 months (relapsed) . Severe and chronic patterns of hand eczema are often resilient to treatment, making the condition extremely stressful for those affected.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Evidence show that risk factors favouring digital dermatitis outbreaks include: poor hygiene and high humidity; introduction of infected animals; no hoof care for heifers and dry cows; high levels of chronically infected animals; insufficient or inadequate hoof trimming; soft hooves and unbalanced nutrition.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n\nDigital dermatitis appears as lesions which initially looks like a raw, red, oval ulcer on the back of the heel. These lesions develop raised, hair-like projections or wart-like lesions, and some may extend up between the claws or appear on the front of the foot.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "When causing the same disease, clinical demonstrations of \"E. floccosum\" are generally indistinguishable from other dermatophytes, except for tinea pedis: infections involving \"E. floccosum\" can demonstrate marked scaling in patient's toe and sole and produce punctate lesions nearby. Brownish macules could derive from some of these lesions.\n", "Treatment typically takes place in hospital such as in a burn unit or intensive care unit. Efforts include stopping the cause, pain medication, and antihistamines. Antibiotics, intravenous immunoglobulins, and corticosteroids may also be used. Treatments do not typically change the course of the underlying disease. Together with SJS it affects 1 to 2 persons per million per year. It is more common in females than males. Typical onset is over the age of 40. Skin usually regrows over two to three weeks; however, recovery can take months and most are left with chronic problems.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Prodrome.\n", "Section::::Prognosis and treatment.\n", "Autoeczematization (id reaction, autosensitization) is an eczematous reaction to an infection with parasites, fungi, bacteria, or viruses. It is completely curable with the clearance of the original infection that caused it. The appearance varies depending on the cause. It always occurs some distance away from the original infection. (ICD-10 L30.2)\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Less common types.:Viral.\n\nThere are eczemas overlaid by viral infections (eczema herpeticum or vaccinatum), and eczemas resulting from underlying disease (e.g., lymphoma). Eczemas originating from ingestion of medications, foods, and chemicals, have not yet been clearly systematized. Other rare eczematous disorders exist in addition to those listed here.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Protection from UV light can be accomplished by film that addresses only the UV spectrum. As UV is one of the main sources of fading, it can prolong the life of fixtures and fittings. Basic colorless clear films reject (absorbs) some UV radiation up to 380 nm, and depending on the manufacturer, UV inhibitors are added to the polyester, with specialist films offering protection to 400 nm. Tinted films are necessary for protection to 500 nm.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "A 2009 Australian study of drivers trying to see stationary cyclists on a closed circuit found that fluorescent vests (without retro-reflective stripes) were not a significant improvement on black clothing at night, and that retro-reflective strips were more effective when attached to knees and ankles than on a more or less static jacket.\n", "The brightness of MR lamps can be adjusted when used with appropriate light fixtures and dimmers. However, the color temperature changes significantly when the lamp is dimmed, shifting dramatically to the warmer end of the spectrum.\n\nLike all halogen lamps, MR lamps produce significant heat and care must be taken to avoid contact with skin or proximity to flammable materials when the lamp is on or has been on recently.\n", "BULLET::::1. The light source is shone into the sample and focused into a slit\n\nBULLET::::2. The transmitted light is refracted into a rainbow with the reflection grating\n\nBULLET::::3. The resulting light strikes the photodetector device which compares the intensity of the beam\n\nBULLET::::4. Electronic circuits convert the relative currents into linear transmission percentages and/or absorbance/concentration values\n", "Section::::Supplementary lighting and visibility.:Reflective and high-visibility materials.:Clothing.\n\nOn dark roads, retroreflective materials such as 3M's Scotchlite will show up boldly in car headlights.\n\nThe colour of lighting should be checked in the rider's surroundings. A single solid colour can disappear under artificial light, particularly yellow sodium vapour lighting, and colour blindness is common; red/green colourblindness can make yellow fluorescent vanish against a green background (hedges or grass), although people with red/green colourblindness dispute this. Vests with both yellow and orange fluorescent areas plus wide strips of reflective may be the best solution.\n", "Section::::Experimental considerations.\n", "There is some indication that washing fabrics in detergents containing fabric brighteners, which absorb UV radiation, might increase their protective capability. Studies at the University of Alberta also indicate that darker-colored fabrics offer more protection than lighter-colored fabrics.\n\nWhile there is some correlation between the percentages of visible light and UV that pass through the same fabric, it is not a strong relationship. With new-technology textiles designed for the sole purpose of UV blocking, it is not always possible to judge the UV protection level simply by holding up the fabric and examining how much visible light passes through.\n", "A 2012 British case-control study showed a non-significant increase in the odds of a crash for users of reflective conspicuity aids whilst cycling. In 2014, a further case-control study conducted in Canada reported a decrease in the odds of a collision with a motor vehicle when wearing 'light' coloured (not specifically fluorescent) clothing in daylight but an increase in the odds of a collision for cyclists using fluorescent clothing (and lights) at night. The number of conspicuity aids used was positively associated with an increase in collision crash odds but a non-significant reduction in the likelihood of hospitalisation.\n", "Materials from the II–VI compounds, such as HgCdTe, are used for high-performing infrared light-sensing cameras. In 2017, the US Army Research Labs in collaboration with Stony Brook University developed an alternative within the . InAsSb, a III–V compound, is commonly used commercially for opto-electronics in items such as DVDs and cell phones. To counteract this possibility in implementing InAsSb, scientists added a graded layer with increased atomic spacing and an intermediate layer of the substrate GaAs to trap any potential defects. This technology was designed with night-time military operations in mind.\n\nSection::::History.:Soviet Union and Russia.\n", "A similar analysis for illumination of the device from below instead of from above shows that in that case the central portion of the pattern is bright, not dark. (Compare the given example pictures to see this difference.)\n\nGiven the radial distance of a bright ring, \"r\", and a radius of curvature of the lens, \"R\", the air gap between the glass surfaces, \"t\", is given to a good approximation by\n\nwhere the effect of viewing the pattern at an angle oblique to the incident rays is ignored.\n\nSection::::Thin-film interference.\n", "\"Factory tint\", done at the time of manufacture is generally not an applied film, but instead is done by dyeing the inside of the glass with a darkened pigment, an electrical process known as \"deep dipping.\" The pigment gives the glass a tint, but doesn't provide UV ray protection or heat rejection like most window films do. The average VLT of factory tint is between 15%-26%.\n\nSection::::Regulations for automotive use.:Regulation by country.\n", "The primary problem with the shadow mask system is that the vast majority of the beam energy, typically 85%, is lost 'lighting up' the mask as the beam passes over the opaque sections between the holes. This means that the beams must be greatly increased in power to produce acceptable brightness when they do pass through the holes.\n\nSection::::History.:The General Electric Porta-Color.\n\nPaul Pelczynski was the project leader in the conception and production of the General Electric Porta Color in 1966.\n", "An EL film is a so-called Lambertian radiator: unlike with neon lamps, filament lamps, or LEDs, the brightness of the surface appears the same from all angles of view; electroluminescent light is not directional and therefore hard to compare with (thermal) light sources measured in lumens or lux. The light emitted from the surface is perfectly homogeneous and is well-perceived by the eye. EL film produces single-frequency (monochromatic) light that has a very narrow bandwidth, is absolutely uniform and visible from a great distance.\n", "Section::::Uses and effects.:Night vision devices.\n", "Retroreflection (sometimes called retroflection) is used on road surfaces, road signs, vehicles, and clothing (large parts of the surface of special safety clothing, less on regular coats). When the headlights of a car illuminate a retroreflective surface, the reflected light is directed towards the car and its driver (rather than in all directions as with diffuse reflection). However, a pedestrian can see retroreflective surfaces in the dark only if there is a light source directly between them and the reflector (e.g., via a flashlight they carry) or directly behind them (e.g., via a car approaching from behind). \"Cat's eyes\" are a particular type of retroreflector embedded in the road surface and are used mostly in the UK and parts of the United States.\n", "Some digital lighting chasers are made to do the above described single light chase pattern along with other combinations of Turning ON and OFF of the light to create different sequences like forward light chase, backward light chase, bouncing, dark chase (1 channel OFF while all 3 others ON), etc...\n\nAlso, more than 4 channel chasers are used to create more effects and to animate illuminated objects.\n\nChase circuits using LEDs are commonly built by electronics hobbyists with timer (such as the 555 timer IC) and counter (such as the 4017, which allows up to 10 channels) integrated circuits.\n", "The effect of the 3M Uniformity Tape on the injection of LED light from a nominally lambertian LED is shown in Figure 2a-c. The left image in Figure 2a shows the injection cone angle of the LED into a light guide under normal TIR conditions (+/-42 degrees in a conventional PMMA light guide with an optically flat entrance face). The right image shows a close-up view of the left image. Figures 2b and 2c (and their details on the right) show the effects of two variations of 3M Uniformity Tape, with refractive index equal to 1.54 and 1.62, respectively.\n", "Photographers make regular use of walls, ceilings and even entire rooms as reflectors, especially with the interior of buildings which may lack sufficient available light. Often known as \"bounce flash\" photography, but equally common with Tungsten lights in cinematography, this technique was pioneered by Subrata Mitra in 1956.\n", "This effect called bleaching arises from the fact that the excitation of the system with the pump pulse reduces the absorbance of the test pulse.\n\nThere may also be positive contributions to formula_79 spectrally near the original absorption line due to resonance broadening and at other spectral positions due to excited-state absorption, i.e., optical transitions to states such as biexcitons which are only possible if the system is in an excited state.\n\nThe bleaching and the positive contributions are generally present in both coherent and incoherent situations where the polarization vanishes but occupations in excited states are present.\n", "BULLET::::- Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can make the color of objects appear differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The same is true with green surfaces.\n", "If light of low coherence (i.e., made up of many wavelengths) is used, a speckle pattern will not normally be observed, because the speckle patterns produced by individual wavelengths have different dimensions and will normally average one another out. However, speckle patterns can be observed in polychromatic light in some conditions.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Subjective speckles.\n", "Section::::Experimental setup.\n", "Because photochromic compounds fade back to their clear state by a thermal process, the higher the temperature, the less dark photochromic lenses will be. This thermal effect is called \"temperature dependency\" and prevents these devices from achieving true sunglass darkness in very hot weather. Conversely, photochromic lenses will get very dark in cold weather conditions. Once inside, away from the triggering UV light, the cold lenses take longer to regain their transparency than warm lenses.\n", "Latex rubber, which is naturally translucent, or plastics can be made into clothing material of any level of transparency. Clear plastic is typically only found in over-garments, such as raincoats. The use of translucent latex rubber for clothing can also be found in fetish clothing. Some materials become transparent when wet or when extreme light is shone on it, such as by a flashbulb.\n\nSection::::18th and 19th centuries.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- The Anarchy is the inspiration for the fictional civil war called Dance of the Dragons between princess Rhaenyra Targaryen and her half-brother Aegon, depicted in George R. R. Martin's novella \"The Princess and the Queen\" (published 2013 in the anthology \"Dangerous Women\") and novel \"Fire and Blood\". It is set in the same fictional universe as his epic fantasy novel series \"A Song of Ice and Fire\".\n", "BULLET::::- Sharon Kay Penman's 750-page novel \"When Christ and His Saints Slept\" (published in 1995) gives a comprehensive and informative view of the entire power struggle.\n\nBULLET::::- Elizabeth Chadwick's \"A Place Beyond Courage\" (published 2008, Sphere) is set during the Anarchy, focusing on the life of John FitzGilbert the Marshal. Her most recent novel \"The Lady of the English\" focuses on Matilda and on Henry's young wife Adeliza.\n", "\"We thought we could best represent what the album means by using the symbolism of a burning flag stitched onto an actual flag. The image represents a championing of the ’cause’ of struggling against the rules and regulations that dictate our thinking.”\n\nSection::::Release.\n\nOn December 19, 2011 Say Anything streamed their first single from the album called \"Burn a Miracle.\" The track was officially released the following day to digital music retailers. On January 10, 2012 the album's track listing was revealed.\n", "BULLET::::- Diana Norman's novel \"Morning Gift\" (published in 1985) follows the trials of a Norman noblewoman as she struggles to keep safe her lands, her young son, and her people during the period of the Anarchy.\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Follett's novel \"The Pillars of the Earth\" (published in 1989) is set during this time, and was adapted to an eight-part TV miniseries debuting in the U.S. on Starz and Canada on The Movie Network/Movie Central on July 23, 2010. It premiered in the UK on Channel 4, October 16, 2010, and on CBC Television January 8, 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- Graham Shelby's 1972 novel \"The Oath and the Sword\" (aka \"The Villains of the Piece\"), focuses on Empress Matilda's faithful supporter Brien FitzCount, Lord of Wallingford, through the years of the Anarchy.\n\nBULLET::::- Jean Plaidy's \"Passionate Enemies\" (c. 1976) from her multi-volume treatment of the British monarchy, captures the mood of the period and the personalities of Matilda and Stephen.\n\nBULLET::::- Ellis Peters set her series of Brother Cadfael books (published 1977–1994) against the background of the Anarchy.\n", "Similarly, in the United States there was an intense debate at the same time between individualist and communist anarchists. Anarchists like Voltairine de Cleyre \"came to label herself simply 'Anarchist,' and called like Malatesta for an 'Anarchism without Adjectives,' since in the absence of government many different experiments would probably be tried in various localities in order to determine the most appropriate form\". Voltarine sought conciliation between the various schools and said in her essay \"Anarchism\": \"There is nothing un-Anarchistic about any of [these systems] until the element of compulsion enters and obliges unwilling persons to remain in a community whose economic arrangements they do not agree to. (When I say 'do not agree to' I do not mean that they have a mere distaste for...I mean serious differences which in their opinion threaten their essential liberties...)...Therefore I say that each group of persons acting socially in freedom may choose any of the proposed systems, and be just as thorough-going Anarchists as those who select another\".\n", "The constructivist sentiment is summed up in the following extract from the article: \"I argue that self-help and power politics do not follow either logically or causally from anarchy and that if today we find ourselves in a self-help world, this is due to process, not structure. There is no 'logic' of anarchy apart from the practices that create and instantiate one structure of identities and interests rather than another; structure has no existence or causal powers apart from process. Self-help and power politics are institutions, not essential features, of anarchy. Anarchy is what states make of it\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "We can see that what we now have resembles a state. In chapter 3 Nozick argued that two necessary conditions to be fulfilled by an organization to be a state were:\n\nBULLET::::1. Monopoly of the use of force.\n\nBULLET::::2. Universal protection.\n\nThe protective agency resembles a state in these two conditions. Firstly, it is a \"de facto\" monopoly due to the competitive advantage mentioned earlier. It doesn’t have any special right to be it, it just is.\n", "Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (DFNS), more commonly known as Rojava, a \"de facto\" autonomous region in northern Syria. Abdullah Öcalan—a founding member of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) who is currently imprisoned in Turkey—is an iconic and popular figure in the DFNS whose ideas shaped the region's society and politics. While in prison, Öcalan corresponded with (and was influenced by) Murray Bookchin, an anarcho-communist theorist and philosopher who developed Communalism and libertarian municipalism. Modelled after Bookchin's ideas, Öcalan developed the theory of democratic confederalism. In March 2005, he issued his \"Declaration of Democratic Confederalism in Kurdistan\", calling upon citizens \"to stop attacking the government and instead create municipal assemblies, which he called 'democracy without the state.\n", "Section::::Schools of thought.:Constructivism.\n\nWhile the concept of anarchy is the foundation for realist, liberal, neorealist, and neoliberal international relations theories, constructivist theory disputes that anarchy is a fundamental condition of the international system. Alexander Wendt, the most influential modern constructivist thinker, is often quoted for writing, \"Anarchy is what states make of it\". That is to say, anarchy is not inherent in the international system in the way in which other schools of IR theory envision it, but rather it is a construct of the states in the system. \n", "BULLET::::- Martha Claudia Moreno as Johnny's Mother\n\nBULLET::::- Diego Escamilla Corona as Techno\n\nBULLET::::- Milkman as David\n\nBULLET::::- Erwin Jonathan Mora Alvarado as Príncipe Azteca\n\nBULLET::::- Juan Pablo Escalante as Nito\n\nBULLET::::- Daniel Adrián Mejía Aguirre as Hamster\n\nBULLET::::- Mario Alberto Sánchez as Major Tom\n\nBULLET::::- Yair Domínguez Monroy as Pedo Bomba\n\nBULLET::::- Francisco Kjeldson as Safari\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Note that this isn’t a state as we usually understand it. It is presumably organized more like a company and, more importantly, there still exist independents. But, as Nozick says:\n\nHe does recognize, however, that this entity doesn’t fit perfectly in the Weberian tradition of the definition of the state. It isn’t “the sole authorizer of violence”, since some independents may conduct violence to one another without intervention. But it is the sole \"effective\" judge over the permissibility of violence. Therefore, he concludes, this may be also called a “statelike entity” \n", "Section::::Circle-A.\n\nThe circle-A is almost certainly the best-known present-day symbol for anarchy. It is a monogram that consists of the capital letter \"A\" surrounded by the capital letter \"O\". The letter \"A\" is derived from the first letter of \"anarchy\" or \"anarchism\" in most European languages and is the same in both Latin and Cyrillic scripts. The \"O\" stands for order and together they stand for \"society seeks order in anarchy\" (), a phrase written by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in his 1840 book \"What Is Property?\".\n", "Most Esperantists, however, continue to hold the \"verda stelo\" dear as a symbol of international or supranational solidarity, and regard the preference of one symbol over another as a purely personal choice. At most Esperanto congresses, all three main symbols can be seen in use on displays or being worn as badges.\n\nSometimes, Esperanto travelers will display the flag, wear a badge with one of the above symbols, or even wear green clothes, to make themselves known to other Esperanto speakers.\n\nSection::::Flag variants.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Anarchist Tension\" (1996) by [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]]\n\nBULLET::::- \"[[An Anarchist FAQ]]\" (2008)\n\nSection::::Anarchist schools of thought.\n\n[[File:Anarchist flags and stars-2019.svg|thumb|The bisected flags/stars which [[Anarchist symbolism|symbolize]] various [[anarchist schools of thought]] (note that these are not necessarily mutually exclusive; for example, a pacifist can be a communist)]]\n", "The constructivist Alexander Wendt argued, \"anarchy is what states make of it\". In Wendt's opinion, while the international system is anarchical, anarchy does not determine state behaviour in the way in which other schools of international relations theory envision it, but rather it is a construct of the states in the system.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "\"We want no more 'systems,' or 'constitutions' -- we shall have anarchy. Men will effect by voluntary association, and abjure the foulness of the modern wage-slavery and city-mechanisms.\"\n\n\"But can you expect the more brutal classes to thrive under this system. Will they not rather degenerate into savagery?\"\n\n\"You forget the Attila will still sail the breeze, and she will then have her fleet of consorts.\"\n\n\"What! You do not propose, then, to leave anarchy unreasoned?\"\n", "The rallying language of the poem had led to elements of it being used by political movements. It was recited by students at the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and by protesters in Tahrir Square during the Egyptian revolution of 2011. The phrase \"like lions after slumber, in unvanquishable number\" from the poem is used as a motto/slogan by the International Socialist Organization in their organ. The line \"Ye are many-they are few\" inspired the campaign slogan \"We are many, they are few\" used by protesters during the Poll tax riots of 1989–90 in the United Kingdom, and also inspired the title of the 2014 documentary film \"We Are Many\", which focused on the global 15 February 2003 anti-war protests.\n", "Cultural depictions of the Anarchy\n\nCultural depictions of the Anarchy, a long-running civil war in England between 1135 and 1153, has furnished the background of some major fictional portrayals. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- George Shipway's novel \"Knight in Anarchy\" (1969) centres on a knight sworn to Geoffrey de Mandeville as he tries to gain power in the Anarchy.\n\nBULLET::::- Cecelia Holland's \"The Earl\", also published as \"Hammer for Princes\" (1971), gives a vivid description of the last year of the struggle, Prince Henry's invasion of England and his eventual recognition as King Stephen's heir.\n", "The procedure that leads to a night-watchman state involves compensation to non-members who are prevented from enforcing their rights, an enforcement mechanism that it deems risky by comparison with its own. Compensation addresses any disadvantages non-members suffer as a result of being unable to enforce their rights. Assuming that non-members take reasonable precautions and adjusting activities to the association's prohibition of their enforcing their own rights, the association is required to raise the non-member above his actual position by an amount equal to the difference between his position on an indifference curve he would occupy were it not for the prohibition, and his original position.\n", "These conditions are important because they are the basis for the “individualist anarchist” to claim that every state is necessarily ilegitimate. This part of the book is a refutation of that claim, showing that some states could be formed by a series of legitimate steps. The \"de facto\" monopoly has arisen by morally permissible steps and the universal protection, isn’t really redistributive because the people who are given money or protective services at a discount had a right to this as a compensation for the disadvantages forced upon them. Therefore, the state isn’t violating anybody’s rights.\n", "Thus, constructivists assert that through their practices, states can either maintain this culture of anarchy or disrupt it, in turn either validating or questioning the normative basis of the international system itself. For constructivists it is even possible that some as yet unknown way of looking at the situation could emerge as people adjust their ideas about war and socially acceptable reactions to different situations.\n\nThe constructivist sentiment is summed up in the following extract from Wendt’s seminal constructivist text, \"Anarchy is what states make of it\":\n", "Several months after the conference, a significant number of people joined the IUA. Locally elected councils were then formed. Local councils assign the duties of determining solutions to the problems of both temporary and permanent group coordination. All positions are not constant in the local councils. Therefore, at the local council level, there is a constant reshuffling of posts either by the Board, or upon the personal initiative of the party. At the beginning of 2012, organizations in Spain and Sweden requested and were granted entry into the IUA.\n\nSection::::Approach and philosophy.\n", "Section::::Political philosophy.:Immanuel Kant.\n\nThe German philosopher Immanuel Kant treated anarchy in his \"Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View\" as consisting of \"Law and Freedom without Force\". For Kant, anarchy falls short of being a true civil state because the law is only an \"empty recommendation\" if force is not included to make this law efficacious (\"legitimation\", etymologically fancifully from \"legem timere\", i.e. \"fearing the law\"). For there to be such a state, force must be included while law and freedom are maintained, a state which Kant calls a republic.\n\nKant identified four kinds of government:\n", "The British pacifist G. Lowes Dickinson has often been credited with coining \"Anarchy\" as a term of art in political science in his books: \"The European Anarchy\" (1916), \"War: Its Nature, Cause and Cure\" (1923) and \"The International Anarchy\" (1926). Some argue that Dickinson used anarchy in a context that is inconsistent with modern IR theorists. Jack Donnelly argues that Philip Kerr's book \"Pacifism is Not Enough\" (1935) was first to ascribe the same meaning and context to term anarchy that modern IR theorists do.\n" ]

[ "Having a universally standardized symbol goes against the idea of anarchy.", "Having a universal symbol goes against the idea of anarchy." ]

[ "Recognition of symbols has nothing to do with anarchy; anarchy exists when things aren't forced upon people by rules or governance.", "Anarchy doesn't require that people use well understood symbols, it just requires that things aren't forced on people by rules." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Having a universally standardized symbol goes against the idea of anarchy.", "Having a universal symbol goes against the idea of anarchy." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Recognition of symbols has nothing to do with anarchy; anarchy exists when things aren't forced upon people by rules or governance.", "Anarchy doesn't require that people use well understood symbols, it just requires that things aren't forced on people by rules." ]

[ "In 2012, to relieve capacity pressure, and develop climbing tourism, Nepal lobbied the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (or UIAA) to reclassify five summits (two on Lhotse and three on Kanchenjunga), as standalone eight-thousanders, while Pakistan lobbied for a sixth summit (on Broad Peak) In 2012, the UIAA set up a project group to consider the proposals called the \"AGURA Project\". The six proposed summits for reclassification are subsidiary-summits of existing eight-thousanders, but which are also themselves above 8,000 metres and have a prominence above 60 metres.\n", "For example, the encirclement parent of Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps, is Mount Everest. Mont Blanc's key col is a piece of low ground near Lake Onega in northwestern Russia (at 113 m elevation), on the divide between lands draining into the Baltic and Caspian Seas. This is the meeting place of two 113 m contours, one of them encircling Mont Blanc; the other contour encircles Mount Everest. This example demonstrates that the encirclement parent can be very far away from the peak in question when the key col is low.\n", "The \"encirclement parent\" is found by tracing the contour below peak A's key col and picking the highest mountain in that region. This is easier to determine than the prominence parent; however, it tends to give non-intuitive results for peaks with very low cols such as Jabal Shams which is #110 in the list.\n\nNote that either sort of parent of a typical very high-prominence peak such as Denali will lie far away from the peak itself, reflecting the independence of the peak.\n", "Around Concordia are clustered some of the highest peaks in the world. Four of the world's fourteen \"eight-thousanders\" are in this region, as well as a number of important lower peaks.\n", "Almost all mountains in the list are located in the Himalaya and Karakoram ranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks or higher are located in East, Central or South Asia in a rectangle edged by Noshaq () on the Afghanistan–Pakistan border in the west, Jengish Chokusu (Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, ) on the Kyrgyzstan–Xinjiang border to the north, Gongga Shan (Minya Konka, ) in Sichuan to the east, and Kabru () on the Sikkim–Nepal border to the south.\n", "Approaching \"Mountains and Clouds\" from the south entrance gives a different impression; one initially sees only two mountain peaks, and the highest seems to touch or merge into the lowest cloud form. From this perspective, it is the mountain-cloud unit that impresses.\n", "This means that, while simple to define, the encirclement parent often does not satisfy the intuitive requirement that the parent peak should be close to the child peak. For example, one common use of the concept of parent is to make clear the location of a peak. If we say that Peak A has Mont Blanc for a parent, we would expect to find Peak A somewhere close to Mont Blanc. This is not always the case for the various concepts of parent, and is least likely to be the case for encirclement parentage.\n", "BULLET::::10. Alaska Range – North America: United States; highest point: Denali, 6194 meters above sea level.\n\nAll of the Asian ranges above have been formed in part over the past 35 to 55 million years by the collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate is still particularly mobile and these mountain ranges continue to rise in elevation every year; of these the Himalayas are rising most quickly; the Kashmir and Pamirs region to the north of the Indian subcontinent is the point of confluence of these mountains which encircle the Tibetan Plateau on three sides.\n", "The islands of Réunion and Madagascar also have higher peaks and are between the Ging Range and Africa.\n\nSection::::Fires on the mountain.\n", "List of mountains in Nepal\n\nNepal contains part of the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world. Eight of the fourteen eight-thousanders are located in the country, either in whole or shared across a border with China or India. Nepal has the highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest.\n\nSection::::Other ranges.\n", "Coesite has been identified in UHP metamorphic rocks around the world, including the western Alps of Italy at Dora Maira, the Erzgebirge of Germany, the Lanterman Range of Antarctica, in the Kokchetav Massif of Kazakhstan, in the Western Gneiss region of Norway, the Dabie-Shan Range in Eastern China, and the Himalayas of Eastern Pakistan.\n\nSection::::Crystal structure.\n", "The Tethyan Himalayan sequence, Greater Himalayan crystalline complex, and Lesser Himalayan sequence are grouped together as the North Indian sequence due to the overlapping age from Proterozoic to Phanerozoic. For Pre-collisional Himalaya, only the North Indian Sequence is of concern as the Sub-Himalayan sequence is a rock unit that was deposited at the same time as the India and Asia collision and the resulting mountain-building process.\n\nSection::::Major rock units in Himalaya.:Tethyan Himalayan sequence.\n", "An example of a three tiered plant community is in Central Westland of South Island, New Zealand. These forests are the most extensive continuous reaches of podocarp/broadleaf forests in that country. The overstory includes miro, rimu and mountain totara. The mid-story includes tree ferns such as \"Cyathea smithii\" and \"Dicksonia squarrosa\", whilst the lowest tier and epiphytic associates include \"Asplenium polyodon\", \"Tmesipteris tannensis\", \"Astelia solandri\" and \"Blechnum discolor\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Community (ecology)\n\nBULLET::::- Size-asymmetric competition\n\nBULLET::::- Ecosystem\n\nBULLET::::- Habitat\n\nBULLET::::- Phytosociology\n\nBULLET::::- Salt Marsh\n\nBULLET::::- Stand level modelling\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Eight-thousander\n\nThe International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation or UIAA recognise eight-thousanders as the 14 mountains that are more than in height above sea level, and are considered to be sufficiently independent from neighbouring peaks. However, there is no precise definition of the criteria used to assess independence, and since 2012 the UIAA has been involved in a process to consider whether the list should be expanded to 20 mountains. All eight-thousanders are located in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges in Asia, and their summits are in the death zone. \n", "Mountains can also be “islands” and harbors of paleoendemism because species that live on mountain peaks are geographically isolated. For example, in the Maritime Alps, \"Saxifraga florulenta\", is an endemic plant that evolved in the Late Miocene and was once widespread across the Mediterranean Basin. Additionally, Piper’s bellflower (\"Campanula piperi\") in the Olympic Mountains in Northern Washington is suspected to be a paleoendemic because the closest related species is located over 1,000 km away. Another example is \"Stroganowia tiehmii\" which is endemic to a single mountain range in Nevada and all other members of the genus are in Central Asia.\n", "Section::::Factors.\n\nA variety of environmental factors determines the boundaries of altitudinal zones found on mountains, ranging from direct effects of temperature and precipitation to indirect characteristics of the mountain itself, as well as biological interactions of the species. The cause of zonation is complex, due to many possible interactions and overlapping species ranges. Careful measurements and statistical tests are required prove the existence of discrete communities along an elevation gradient, as opposed to uncorrelated species ranges.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Temperature.\n", "Where three or more cirques meet, a pyramidal peak is created.\n\nSection::::Cleaver.\n", "Section::::Major rock units in Himalaya.:Greater Himalayan crystalline complex.\n", "Section::::Major rock units in Himalaya.:Lesser Himalayan sequence.\n", "The giant groundsels are found in the alpine zone of the mountains of equatorial East Africa - Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru in Tanzania, Mount Kenya, the Aberdare Range, and Cherangani Hills in Kenya, Mount Elgon on the Uganda/Kenya border, the Rwenzori Mountains on the Uganda/Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) border, the Virunga Mountains on the borders of Rwanda, Uganda and the DRC, and Mitumba Mountains (Mount Kahuzi and Mount Muhi) in the east of the DRC.\n", "Patterns of increased endemism at higher elevations on both islands and continents have been documented on a global level. As topographical elevation increases, species become isolated from one another; often constricted to graded zones. This isolation on \"mountain top islands\" creates barriers to gene flow, encouraging allopatric speciation, and generating the formation of endemic species. Mountain building (orogeny) is directly correlated with—and directly affects biodiversity. The formation of the Himalayan mountains and the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau for example have driven the speciation and diversification of numerous plants and animals such as \"Lepisorus\" ferns; glyptosternoid fishes (Sisoridae); and the \"Rana chensinensis\" species complex. Uplift has also driven vicariant speciation in \"Macowania\" daisies in South Africa's Drakensberg mountains, along with \"Dendrocincla\" woodcreepers in the South American Andes. The Laramide orogeny during the Late Cretaceous even caused vicariant speciation and radiations of dinosaurs in North America.\n", "Most sources (and the table below) define no parent for island and landmass highpoints; others treat Mount Everest as the parent of every such peak with the ocean as the \"key col\".\n\nIn the table below, where a single parent is listed, the different definitions agree; where two are given, the prominence parent is marked \"\", and the encirclement parent \"²\".\n\nSection::::Prominence table.\n\nThe following sortable table lists the Earth's 125 most topographically prominent summits. Of these, China has the most: 16. Close behind it are Indonesia, with 13, and the United States with 12.\n\nSection::::Additional peaks.\n", "As the plant succession develops further, trees start to appear. The first trees (or pioneer trees) that appear are typically fast growing trees such as birch, willow or rowan. In turn these will be replaced by slow growing, larger trees such as ash and oak. This is the climax community on a lithosere, defined as the point where a plant succession does not develop any further—it reaches a delicate equilibrium with the environment, in particular the climate.\n", "Four-thousand footers\n\nFour-thousand footers (sometimes abbreviated 4ks) are a group of forty-eight mountains in New Hampshire at least above sea level. To qualify for inclusion a peak must also meet the more technical criterion of topographic prominence important in the mountaineering sport of peak-bagging.\n", "Many mountains, in addition to their highest point or peak, will also have subsidiary subpeaks. Generally, the topographic prominence of a peak or subpeak, as well as the general topography, all come into consideration when determining whether such apexes are considered to be independent peaks or subpeaks. Although objective criteria have been proposed for distinguishing peaks from subpeaks, there is no widely agreed standard. In 1994, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA) classified 82 mountain peaks in the Alps whose summits were at least above sea level and with at least of topographic prominence over any adjacent mountain pass or col, as a distinct peak.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::4. Image text and banner ads: A click opens your browser and re-directs you to a page\n\nBULLET::::5. Push notification\n\nSection::::Mobile rich media.\n\nThere are limitations to rich media on mobile because all of the coding must be done in HTML5, since iOS does not support flash.\n\nSection::::Handsets display and corresponding ad images.\n", "Because users have different operating systems, web browsers and computer hardware (including mobile devices and different screen sizes), online ads may appear to users differently from how the advertiser intended, or the ads may not display properly at all. A 2012 comScore study revealed that, on average, 31% of ads were not \"in-view\" when rendered, meaning they never had an opportunity to be seen. Rich media ads create even greater compatibility problems, as some developers may use competing (and exclusive) software to render the ads (see e.g. Comparison of HTML 5 and Flash).\n", "The Mobile Entertainment Forum (MEF) carried out a survey of its members in 2006 where 81% of respondents expected successful advertising models to cut prices or fund the consumption of entertainment content on mobile phones.\n", "Section::::Privacy concerns.\n\nMobile advertising has become more and more popular. However, some mobile advertising is sent without a required permission from the consumer causing privacy violations. It should be understood that irrespective of how well advertising messages are designed and how many additional possibilities they provide, if consumers do not have confidence that their privacy will be protected, this will hinder their widespread deployment. But if the messages originate from a source where the user is enrolled in a relationship/loyalty program, privacy is not considered violated and even interruptions can generate goodwill.\n", "Some see mobile advertising as closely related to online or internet advertising, though its reach is far greater — currently, most mobile advertising is targeted at mobile phones, that came at an estimated global total of $4.6bn as of 2009. Notably computers, including desktops and laptops, are currently estimated at 1.1 billion globally. Moreover, mobile advertising includes SMS and MMS advertising units in addition to the advertisement types served and processed via online channels.\n", "Advocates have raised the issue of privacy. Targeted mobile marketing requires customization of ad content to reach interested and relevant customers. To customize such behavioral personal data, user profiling, data mining and other behavior watch tools are employed, and privacy advocates warn that this may cause privacy infringement.\n", "With the release of iOS 9, the Safari web browser allows for third-party content blocking apps. Safari also allows users to customize the appearance of the Reader mode, with options for font and background color.\n\nA few days after the release of iOS 9, ad blocking software had topped the App Store charts, with Marco Arment, developer of a Peace app, saying that \"web advertising and behavioral tracking is out of control. ... They're unacceptably creepy, bloated, annoying, and insecure, and they're getting worse at an alarming pace.\"\n\nSection::::App features.:Wallet.\n", "As mobile is an interactive mass media similar to the internet, advertisers are eager to utilize and make use of viral marketing methods, by which one recipient of an advertisement on mobile, will forward that to a friend. This allows users to become part of the advertising experience. At the bare minimum mobile ads with viral abilities can become powerful interactive campaigns. At the extreme, they can become engagement marketing experiences. A key element of mobile marketing campaigns is the most influential member of any target audience or community, which is called the alpha user.\n\nSection::::Privacy concern.\n", "The violence of video games relates to ethics in interactive media because it brings on aggressive attitude and behavior that impacts the social lives of the people playing these video games. Furthermore, behavioral targeting ties into the ethics of interactive media because these websites and apps on our phones contain our personal information which allow the owners or the ones running the companies to receive it and use them for themselves. Interactive media influences advertising because by society using social media or any websites, we are able to see that there's advertising in everything we view especially when your scrolling through Instagram or those pop up ads that come up on your screen reading an article on your computer.\n", "Since the early 2000s, advertising has been pervasive online and more recently in the mobile setting. Targeted advertising based on mobile devices allows more information about the consumer to be transmitted, not just their interests, but their information about their location and time. This allows advertisers to produce advertisements that could cater to their schedule and a more specific changing environment.\n\nSection::::Types.:Content and contextual targeting.\n", "Due to the high volume of internet traffic using mobile devices, they can no longer be ignored. In 2014, for the first time more users accessed the internet from their mobile devices than desktop. Where a web site must support basic mobile devices that lack JavaScript, browser (\"user agent\") detection (also called \"browser sniffing\") and mobile device detection are two ways of deducing if certain HTML and CSS features are supported (as a basis for progressive enhancement)—however, these methods are not completely reliable unless used in conjunction with a device capabilities database.\n", "\"“In the past week, we have noticed a series of reports about our apps by the media. We fully understand the seriousness of the allegations. As such, we immediately conducted an internal investigation on this matter. We regret to find irregularities in some of our products’ use of AdMob advertisements. Given this, we fully understand and accept Google’s decision. Moreover, we have actively cooperated with them by doing a thorough examination of every app involved.\"\n", "Understanding mobile devices is a significant aspect of digital marketing because smartphones and tablets are now responsible for 64% of the time US consumers are online (Whiteside, 2016). Apps provide a big opportunity as well as challenge for the marketers because firstly the app needs to be downloaded and secondly the person needs to actually use it. This may be difficult as ‘half the time spent on smartphone apps occurs on the individuals single most used app, and almost 85% of their time on the top four rated apps’ (Whiteside, 2016). Mobile advertising can assist in achieving a variety of commercial objectives and it is effective due to taking over the entire screen, and voice or status is likely to be considered highly; although the message must not be seen or thought of as intrusive (Whiteside, 2016). Disadvantages of digital media used on mobile devices also include limited creative capabilities, and reach. Although there are many positive aspects including the users entitlement to select product information, digital media creating a flexible message platform and there is potential for direct selling (Belch & Belch, 2012).\n", "2. Advertising model advertisement implantation mode is a common marketing mode in most APP applications. Through Banner ads, consumer announcements, or in-screen advertising, users will jump to the specified page and display the advertising content when users click. This model is more intuitive, and can attract users' attention quickly.\n", "There is a lot of competition in this field as well. However, just like other services, it is not easy anymore to rule the mobile application market. \n\nMost companies have acknowledged the potential of Mobile Apps to increase the interaction between a company and its target customers. With the fast progress and growth of the smartphone market, high-quality Mobile app development is essential to obtain a strong position in a mobile app store.\n\nHere are several models for APP marketing.\n", "The rapid change in the technology used by mobile advertisers can also have adverse effect to the number of consumers being reached by the mobile advertisements, Telephia. due to technical limitations of their mobile devices. Because of that, campaigns that aim to achieve wide response or are targeting lower income groups might be better of relying on older, more widespread mobile media advertising technologies, such as SMS or any other mode of communication.\n\nSection::::Viral marketing.\n", "Section::::Interactivity.\n\nMobile devices aim to outgrow the domain of voice-intensive cellphones and to enter a new world of multimedia mobile devices, like laptops, PDA phones and smartphones. Unlike the conventional one-way media like TV, radio and newspaper, web media has enabled two-way traffic, thereby introducing a new phase of interactive advertising, regardless of whether static or mobile. \n\nThis user-centric approach was noted at the 96th annual conference of Association of National Advertisers in 2006, which described ”a need to replace decades worth of top-down marketing tactics with bottom-up, grass-roots approaches”. \n", "With the strong growth in the use of smartphones, app usage has also greatly increased. The annual number of mobile app downloads over the last few years has exponentially grown, with hundreds of billions of downloads in 2018, and the number of downloads expecting to climb by 2022. Therefore, mobile marketers have increasingly taken advantage of smartphone apps as a marketing resource. Marketers aim to optimize the visibility of an app in a store, which will maximize the number of downloads. This practice is called App Store Optimization (ASO).\n", "Also, with geographic positioning features included in newer mobile devices, the medium has the potential to provide marketers with the ability to target customers based on their geographic location. Currently, the most popular advertising delivery method to mobile devices is through plain text messaging, however, over the next few years multimedia advertisements are expected to become the dominant message format. \n\nWord of Mouth\n\nPromotion of products can also happen through verbal communication between people.\n\nSection::::Audience research.\n", "Apps in Windows Phone Store are subjected to a content policy, which exists to guide app developers, and to facilitate a restriction or banning of certain content. Examples of restricted or banned content include pornography, promotion of violence, discrimination, hate, or the usage of drugs, alcohol and tobacco. Suggestions or depictions of prostitution, sexual fetishes, or generally anything that \"a reasonable person would consider to be adult or borderline adult content\" are forbidden from the marketplace, even after the unification with Windows Store.\n\nSection::::Windows Phone 7 SDK.\n", "BULLET::::- Twice as effective at converting users who click on the ads into buyers\n\nHowever, other studies show that targeted advertising, at least by gender, is not effective.\n", "\"The Atlantic\" magazine speculates that many of the new \"gadgets have a 'hidden agenda' to hold you in their ecosystem\". Writer Derek Thomson explains that \"in the Splinternet age, ads are more tightly controlled by platform. My old BlackBerry defaulted to Bing search because (network operator) Verizon has a deal with Microsoft. But my new phone that runs Google Android software serves Google ads under apps for programs like Pandora\". They rationalize the new standards as possibly a result of companies wishing to increase their revenue through targeted advertising to their own proprietary user base. They add, \"This is a new age, where gadgets have a 'hidden agenda' to hold you in their ecosystem of content display and advertising. There are walls going up just as the walls to mobile Internet access are falling down\".\n", "According to a 2014 research study released by RiskIQ, a security services company, malicious apps introduced through Google Play increased 388% between 2011 and 2013, while the number of apps removed by Google dropped from 60% in 2011 to 23% in 2013. The study further revealed that \"Apps for personalizing Android phones led all categories as most likely to be malicious\". According to \"PC World\", \"Google said it would need more information about RiskIQ's analysis to comment on the findings.\"\n", "The mobile industry continues to be one of the fastest growing industries in the world. The number of apps being created has increased substantially across Apple iOS, Android, and Amazon. It has been reported that Apps account for 89% of mobile media time, while websites take up the other 11% \n", "Partners 4INFO and Catalina's June 2015 study reveals how mobile advertising is affecting in-store sales. The study looked at 83 mobile campaigns across a variety of CPG categories for 59 different brands; campaign durations ranged from four to 38 weeks, with 12 weeks on average. They claim mobile advertising generates more than double the sales of its desktop counterparts. The Benchmarking was performed using 4INFO partner Nielsen Catalina Solutions.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "A fixed phone line (a line that is not a mobile phone line) can be hard-wired or cordless and typically refers to the operation of wireless devices or systems in fixed locations such as homes. Fixed wireless devices usually derive their electrical power from the utility mains electricity, unlike mobile wireless or portable wireless, which tend to be battery-powered. Although mobile and portable systems can be used in fixed locations, efficiency and bandwidth are compromised compared with fixed systems. Mobile or portable, battery-powered wireless systems can be used as emergency backups for fixed systems in case of a power blackout or natural disaster.\n", "Mobile telephones use digital signals, while land lines terminate in analog signal systems. For historical reasons, mobile phone calls that cross network/carrier boundaries use an analog network backbone, and are converted from digital to analog signals on one network and converted back to digital signals on the receiving network.\n\nSection::::Bit-rates.\n\nIf one phone uses a high-bitrate codec, and the other a low-bitrate, the user with the high-bitrate will be able to hear the user with the low-bitrate, but possibly not the reverse.\n", "A wireless telephone base station communicates with a mobile or hand-held phone. For example, in a wireless telephone system, the signals from one or more mobile telephones in an area are received at a nearby base station, which then connects the call to the land-line network. Other equipment is involved depending on the system architecture. Mobile telephone provider networks, such as European GSM networks, may involve carrier, microwave radio, and switching facilities to connect the call. In the case of a portable phone such as a US cordless phone, the connection is directly connected to a wired land line.\n", "BULLET::::- Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for a majority of cell phones.\n", "When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.\n\nAlthough originally intended for cell phones, with the development of smartphones, cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:\n", "BULLET::::- wireless telephones are circuit switched: the communications paths are set up by dialing at the start of a call and the path remains in place until one of the callers hangs up.\n\nBULLET::::- wireless telephones communicate with other telephones usually over the public switched telephone network.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Communications satellites\" – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cellular and PCS systems\" use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.\n", "A cellular network is a network of handheld mobile phones (cell phones) in which each phone communicates with the telephone network by radio waves through a local antenna at a cellular base station (cell site). The coverage area in which service is provided is divided into a mosaic of small geographical areas called \"cells\", each served by a separate low power multichannel transceiver and antenna at a base station. All the cell phones within a cell communicate with the system through that cell's antenna, on separate frequency channels assigned by the base station from a common pool of frequencies used by the system. \n", "BULLET::::- Cell phone – a portable wireless telephone that is connected to the telephone network by radio signals exchanged with a local antenna at a cellular base station (cell tower). The service area covered by the provider is divided into small geographical areas called \"cells\", each served by a separate base station antenna and multichannel transceiver. All the cell phones in a cell communicate with this antenna on separate frequency channels, assigned from a common pool of frequencies.\n", "A mobile phone, such as a smartphone, that connects to data or voice services without going through the cellular base station is not on the mobile Internet. A laptop with a broadband modem and a cellular service provider subscription, that is traveling on a bus through the city is on mobile Internet.\n\nA mobile broadband modem \"tethers\" the smartphone to one or more computers or other end-user devices to provide access to the Internet via the protocols that cellular telephone service providers may offer.\n", "While cellular is becoming more common, many machines still use landlines (POTS, DSL, cable) to connect to the IP network. The cellular M2M communications industry emerged in 1995 when Siemens set up a department inside its mobile phones business unit to develop and launch a GSM data module called \"M1\" based on the Siemens mobile phone S6 for M2M industrial applications, enabling machines to communicate over wireless networks. In October 2000, the modules department formed a separate business unit inside Siemens called \"Wireless Modules\" which in June 2008 became a standalone company called Cinterion Wireless Modules. The first M1 module was used for early point of sale (POS) terminals, in vehicle telematics, remote monitoring and tracking and tracing applications. Machine to machine technology was first embraced by early implementers such as GM and Hughes Electronics Corporation who realized the benefits and future potential of the technology. By 1997, machine to machine wireless technology became more prevalent and sophisticated as ruggedized modules were developed and launched for the specific needs of different vertical markets such as automotive telematics.\n", "Section::::Types of wireless networks.:Cellular network.\n\nA cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. In a cellular network, each cell characteristically uses a different set of radio frequencies from all their immediate neighbouring cells to avoid any interference.\n", "Since almost all mobile phones use cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA, and AMPS (analog), the term \"cell phone\" is in some regions, notably the US, used interchangeably with \"mobile phone\". However, satellite phones are mobile phones that do not communicate directly with a ground-based cellular tower but may do so indirectly by way of a satellite.\n", "Wireless home phone\n\nA wireless home phone service is a service that allows a regular wired telephone to connect to a cellular network, as if it were a mobile phone. It is an example of a wireless last mile connection to the public switched telephone network, also known as a wireless local loop.\n", "Section::::Dedicated lines.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cellphone\" - a portable telephone that is connected to the telephone network by radio signals exchanged with a local antenna called a cell tower. Cellphones have highly automated digital receivers working in the UHF and microwave band that receive the incoming side of the duplex voice channel, as well as a control channel that handles dialing calls and switching the phone between cell towers. They usually also have several other receivers that connect them with other networks: a WiFi modem, a bluetooth modem, and a GPS receiver. The cell tower has sophisticated multichannel receivers that receive the signals from many cell phones simultaneously.\n", "In August 2013, it was possible to intercept a Line chat session at the network level using packet capture software and to reconstruct it on a PC. Messages were sent in clear text to Line’s server when on cellular data but encrypted when using Wi-Fi most of the time.\n", "When joined together, these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile broadband modems, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.\n\nCellular networks offer a number of desirable features:\n", "Section::::History.:3G.\n\n3G networks have taken this approach to a higher level, using different underlying technology but the same principles. They routinely provide speeds over 300kbit/s. Due to the now increased internet speed, internet connection sharing via WLAN has become a workable reality. Devices which allow internet connection sharing or other types of routing on cellular networks are called also cellular routers.\n", "Section::::Dedicated lines.:Landlines in developing countries.\n", "Landline (novel)\n\nLandline is a 2014 American sci-fi novel by Rainbow Rowell. It tells the story of 37-year-old Georgie McCool who discovers that she is able to call her husband's 22-year-old self through his landline. Rowell stated that aspects from the novel are loosely based on her own life such as the fact that Georgie is incredibly career-driven while her husband is a stay-at-home dad. The character of Georgie McCool was named after the song Georgy Girl and the village of McCool Junction.\n", "Landline\n\nA landline telephone (also known as land line, land-line, main line, home phone, landline, fixed-line, and wireline) is a phone that uses a metal wire or optical fiber telephone line for transmission as distinguished from a mobile cellular line, which uses radio waves for transmission.\n\nIn 2003, the CIA World Factbook reported approximately 1.263 billion main telephone lines worldwide. China had more than any other country at 350 million and the United States was second with 268 million. The United Kingdom had 23.7 million residential fixed home phones.\n", "BULLET::::- Cordless phone- a landline telephone in which the handset is portable and communicates with the rest of the phone by a short range full duplex radio link, instead of being attached by a cord. Both the handset and the base station have low power FM radio transceivers operating in the UHF band that handle the short range bidirectional radio link.\n", "In the United States, Sprint PCS was the first company to build and operate a PCS network, launching service in November 1995 under the \"Sprint Spectrum\" brand in the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area. Sprint originally built out the network using GSM radio interface equipment. Sprint PCS later selected CDMA as the radio interface for its nationwide network and built out a parallel CDMA network in the Baltimore-Washington area, launching service in 1997. Sprint operated the two networks in parallel until finishing a migration of its area customers to the CDMA network. After completing the customer migration, Sprint PCS sold the GSM radio interface network equipment to Omnipoint Communications in January 2000. Omnipoint was later purchased by VoiceStream Wireless which subsequently became T-Mobile USA.\n", "Mobile phones receive and send radio signals with any number of cell site base stations fitted with microwave antennas. These sites are usually mounted on a tower, pole or building, located throughout populated areas, then connected to a cabled communication network and switching system. The phones have a low-power transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest cell sites, normally not more than 8 to 13 km (approximately 5 to 8 miles) away. In areas of low coverage, a cellular repeater may be used, which uses a long distance high-gain dish antenna or yagi antenna to communicate with a cell tower far outside of normal range, and a repeater to rebroadcast on a small short-range local antenna that allows any cellphone within a few meters to function properly.\n" ]

[ "Cell phones connect with each other via wireless signals." ]

[ "A cell phone connects wirelessly to a tower, the call is routed over a land line to another tower, then the calls is transmitted back to the other phone." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Cell phones connect with each other via wireless signals." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A cell phone connects wirelessly to a tower, the call is routed over a land line to another tower, then the calls is transmitted back to the other phone." ]

[ "\"Red Eye\" also appeared in three of Taiwan's Next Media Animations. The first was \"Is Islamophobia sweeping the US?\" which showed Gutfeld's gay bar next to the Park51 complex. The second video was \"Bedbugs Take Over USA\". The final scene shows Gutfeld, Levy, and Schulz being attacked and eaten by giant bedbugs on the \"Red Eye\" set. The third video, \"Glenn Beck leaving Fox. Who will replace him?\", proposed \"Red Eye\" as the best replacement for Glenn Beck because 5:00 p.m. is \"when people are actually awake\" while Gutfeld spars with a giant bedbug.\n", "The tapetum lucidum, in animals that have it, can produce eyeshine, for example as seen in cat eyes at night. Red-eye effect, a reflection of red blood vessels, appears in the eyes of humans and other animals that have no tapetum lucidum, hence no eyeshine, and rarely in animals that have a tapetum lucidum. The red-eye effect is a photographic effect, not seen in nature.\n\nSome ophthalmologists specialise in this segment.\n\nSection::::Extraocular anatomy.\n", "A number of computer and smartphone applications, such as f.lux, redshift and Night Shift adjust the computer video color temperature, reducing the amount of blue light emitted by the screen, particularly at night.\n\nDry eye is a symptom that is targeted in the therapy of CVS. The use of over-the-counter artificial-tear solutions can reduce the effects of dry eye in CVS. Prior to using artificial tear solutions, it is necessary to check if dry eye is the actual cause of the problem (measured by a tear meniscus test) or whether there are no actual symptoms of dry eye at all.\n", "A reduction in visual acuity in a 'red eye' is indicative of serious ocular disease, such as keratitis, iridocyclitis, and glaucoma, and never occurs in simple conjunctivitis without accompanying corneal involvement.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Ciliary flush.\n\nCiliary flush is usually present in eyes with corneal inflammation, iridocyclitis or acute glaucoma, though not simple conjunctivitis.\n\nA ciliary flush is a ring of red or violet spreading out from around the cornea of the eye.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Corneal abnormalities.\n", "Dr. David M. Maurice (1922-2002), an eye specialist and semi-retired adjunct professor at Columbia University, proposed that REM sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. Among the supportive evidences, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from iris had to reach cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. According to the theory, when the animal is awake, eye movement (or cool environmental temperature) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. When the animal is sleeping, REM provides the much-needed stir to aqueous humor. This theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye-sealed newborn animals, spend much time in REM sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person's REM sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper into the night. However, owls have REM sleep, but do not move their head more than in non-REM sleep and is well known that owls' eyes are nearly immobile.\n", "BULLET::::- dry eye syndrome - caused by either decreased tear production or increased tear film evaporation which may lead to irritation and redness\n\nBULLET::::- airborne contaminants or irritants\n\nBULLET::::- tiredness\n\nBULLET::::- drug use including cannabis\n\nBULLET::::- episcleritis - most often a mild, inflammatory disorder of the 'white' of the eye unassociated with eye complications in contrast to scleritis, and responding to topical medications such as anti-inflammatory drops.\n\n\"Usually urgent\" \n", "Section::::Possible functions.:Oxygen supply to cornea.\n", "A Pacific University research study of 36 participants found significant differences in irritation or burning of the eyes, tearing, or watery eyes, dry eyes, and tired eyes, that were each improved by amber colored lenses versus placebo lenses, but in a follow-up study in 2008, the same team was not able to reproduce the results of the first study.\n", "Opacities may be keratic, that is, due to the deposition of inflammatory cells, hazy, usually from corneal edema, or they may be localized in the case of corneal ulcer or keratitis.\n\nCorneal epithelial disruptions may be detected with fluorescein staining of the eye, and careful observation with cobalt-blue light.\n\nCorneal epithelial disruptions would stain green, which represents some injury of the corneal epithelium.\n\nThese types of disruptions may be due to corneal inflammations or physical trauma to the cornea, such as a foreign body.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Pupillary abnormalities.\n", "Section::::Primary red beds.\n", "Recognition of different types of sleep can be seen in the literature of ancient India and Rome. Observers have long noticed that sleeping dogs twitch and move but only at certain times.\n", "White eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\n\nAlthough human eyes lack a tapetum lucidum, they still exhibit a weak reflection from the fundus, as can be seen in photography with the red-eye effect and with near-infrared eyeshine. Another effect in humans and other animals that may resemble eyeshine is \"leukocoria\", which is a white shine indicative of abnormalities such as cataracts and cancers.\n\nSection::::Eyeshine.:In blue-eyed cats and dogs.\n", "Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had simply obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the strain would not have built up .\n", "Red-eye flight\n\nIn commercial aviation, a red-eye flight is a flight scheduled to depart at night and arrive the next morning.\n\nThe term \"red-eye\" derives from the symptom of having red eyes, which can be caused by fatigue or late-night travel. \n\nSection::::Business and passenger utility.\n", "Red Eyes\n\nSection::::Summary.\n", "Section::::Signs of the disease.\n\nAcute Haemmorrhagic Conjunctivitis is normally recognized by the affected individual upon waking. The eyelids stick together requiring great effort in separating them. Intense whitish mucopurulent discharge is observed throughout the day with the eye having a reddish hue. There is pain which is worse upon looking up or at light. Other symptoms include sore eyes, feeling of grittiness or burning, redness, watery discharge, swelling of eyelids.\n\nSection::::Infection rate.\n", "When the individual is awake, blinking of the eyelid causes rheum to be washed away with tears via the nasolacrimal duct. The absence of this action during sleep, however, results in a small amount of dry rheum accumulating in corners of the eye, most notably in children.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation.\n\nGenerally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration-linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.\n", "Section::::Second rebellion and demise.:Flight back east and collapse.\n", "NREM Stage 1 (N1 – light sleep, somnolence, drowsy sleep – 5–10% of total sleep in adults): This is a stage of sleep that usually occurs between sleep and wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment.\n", "Etienne Jordan, a contemporary who saw him, said: in \"the morning he would grow pale over books and in the afternoon over cards in the pleasant company of ladies. His library and adjoining apartment were marvellously well kept.\"\n\nSection::::Works.\n", "BULLET::::- learn to wake with eyes closed and still and keeping artificial tear drops within reach so that they may be squirted under the inner corner of the eyelids if the eyes feel uncomfortable upon waking.\n", "However the Elephantine papyri mention the high priest Johanan as a contemporary of Darius II. Furthermore, in the book of Ezra, Ahasuerus follows king Darius (Ezra 6:1), while Johanan (Ezra 10:6) is mentioned as (grand)son (Nehemiah 12:22) of the high priest at the time of Nehemiah, Eliashib (Nehemiah 3:1).\n\nIn Ezra 4:8 the text changes from Hebrew to Aramaic, therefore the king's name in Ezra 4:7, also used in the following letter, possibly is the Aramaic version of the king's name Ahasuerus mentioned in Ezra 4:6.\n\nSection::::Biblical references.:Book of Daniel.\n", "Jack Webb explains how safe Jerry is in his world, but when Jerry goes to sleep, Webb looks grim and tells the audience Jerry is going to have a Red Nightmare.\n", "BULLET::::- In severe cases of sleep apnea, the more translucent areas of the body will show a bluish or dusky cast from cyanosis, the change in hue (\"turning blue\") produced by the deoxygenation of blood in vessels near the skin.\n\nBULLET::::- Compounding effects of independent conditions:\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Carbohydrate loading is generally recommended for endurance events lasting longer than 120 minutes. Many endurance athletes prefer foods with low glycemic indices for carbo-loading due to their minimal effect on serum glucose levels. Low glycemic foods commonly include vegetables, whole wheat pasta, and grains. Many marathoners and triathlon participants have large pasta dinners the night before the race. Since muscles also use amino acids extensively when functioning within aerobic limits, meals should also include adequate protein. Large portions before a race can, however, decrease race-day performance if the digestive system has not had the time to process the food regimen.\n", "While most athletes do not meet the clinical criteria to be diagnosed with an eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, many will exhibit disordered eating habits such as fasting, as well as avoiding certain types of food the athlete thinks are \"bad\" (such as foods containing fat). More severe examples of disordered eating habits may include binge-eating; purging; and the use of diet-pills, laxatives, diuretics, and enemas.\n", "The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen – a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes participating in endurance sports such as marathons to consume carbohydrates during their events.\n\nSection::::Nutrition for special populations.:Paediatric nutrition.\n", "Youth athletes employ a variety of methods to lose weight, including dehydration, fasting, diet pills, laxatives, vomiting, and the use of rubber exercise suits. These practices result in “decreased plasma and blood volume, reduced cardiac outputs, impaired thermoregulatory responses, decreased renal blood flow, and an increase in the amount of electrolytes lost from the body.”\n\nSection::::Eating disorders.:Long-term effects.\n", "Differing conditions and objectives suggest the need for athletes to ensure that their sports nutritional approach is appropriate for their situation. Factors that may affect an athlete's nutritional needs include type of activity (aerobic vs. anaerobic), gender, weight, height, body mass index, workout or activity stage (pre-workout, intro-workout, recovery), and time of day (e.g. some nutrients are utilized by the body more effectively during sleep than while awake).Most culprits that get in the way of performance are fatigue, injury and soreness. A proper diet will reduce these disturbances in performance. The key to a proper diet is to get a variety of food, and to consume all the macro-nutrients, vitamins, and minerals needed. According to Eblere's article (2008), it is ideal to choose raw foods, for example unprocessed foods such as oranges instead of orange juice. Eating foods that are natural means the athlete is getting the most nutritional value out of the food. When foods are processed, the nutritional value is normally reduced.\n", "A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Evidence suggests that the Mediterranean diet may improve cardiovascular results. There is also evidence that a Mediterranean diet may be better than a low-fat diet in bringing about long-term changes to cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., lower cholesterol level and blood pressure).\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Exercise.\n", "By restricting their diet, the athlete may worsen their problem of low energy availability. Having low dietary energy from excessive exercise and/or dietary restrictions leaves too little energy for the body to carry out normal functions such as maintaining a regular menstrual cycle or healthy bone density.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Amenorrhea.\n", "The Center for Disease Control recommends 30 minutes of physical activity a day.\n\nInstead of 30 minutes a day at one time, short bursts of physical activity for 8–10 minutes three times a day are also suitable. Exercising this way can reduce the risk of getting heart disease or coronary ischemia, if it is performed at moderate intensity.\n", "BULLET::::1. Carbohydrate loading is used to ensure that the initial glycogen levels are maximized, thus prolonging the exercise. This technique amounts to increasing complex carbohydrate intake during the last few days before the event.\n\nBULLET::::2. Consuming food or drinks containing carbohydrates during the exercise. This is an absolute must for very long distances; it is estimated that Tour de France competitors receive up to 50% of their daily caloric intake from on-the-bike supplements.\n", "Section::::Factors influencing nutritional requirements.:Anaerobic exercise.\n\nDuring anaerobic exercise, the process of glycolysis breaks down the sugars from carbohydrates for energy without the use of oxygen. This type of exercise occurs in physical activity such as power sprints, strength resistances and quick explosive movement where the muscles are being used for power and speed, with short-time energy use. After this type of exercise, there is a need to refill glycogen storage sites in the body (the long simple sugar chains in the body that store energy), although they are not likely fully depleted.\n", "Although most of these athletes develop eating disorders to keep their competitive edge, others use exercise as a way to maintain their weight and figure. This is just as serious as regulating food intake for competition. Even though there is mixed evidence showing at what point athletes are challenged with eating disorders, studies show that regardless of competition level all athletes are at higher risk for developing eating disorders that non-athletes, especially those that participate in sports where thinness is a factor.\n", "Boxing, like several other fighting sports, categorizes its competitors into weight classes. Some fighters try to take advantage of this by dieting before weigh-in so that they can be bumped down a weight class. In extreme cases, a fighter may forego solid food before the official weigh-in ceremony, and eat a lot afterward to compensate. In some very extreme cases, boxers have been forced to stop eating solid food up to three days before the weigh-in ceremony, in order to make weight for the fight. Sometimes, if a boxer doesn't make the weight agreed for on the first weight-in, he or she might go to a sauna or to jog with a jacket to sweat and lose the extra pounds, however this is mainly water that the body holds. After weigh ins, competitors will in general add on weight before the fight, resulting in them weighing anywhere from 5 to 25 lbs above the weight class.\n", "Section::::Potential causes of disordered eating.:Athletic influences.\n\nDisordered eating among athletes, particularly female athletes, has been the subject of much research. In one study, women with disordered eating were 3.6 times as likely to have an eating disorder if they were athletes. In addition, female collegiate athletes who compete in heavily body conscious sports like gymnastics, swimming, or diving are shown to be more at risk for developing an eating disorder. This is a result of the engagement in sports where weekly repeated weigh-ins are standard, and usually required by coaches.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Other precautions.\n\nAnyone beginning an intensive physical training program is typically advised to consult a physician, because of possible undetected heart or other conditions for which such activity is contraindicated.\n", "Section::::Without depletion.\n\nResearch in the 1980s led to a modified carbo-loading regimen that eliminates the depletion phase, instead calling for increased carbohydrate intake (to about 70% of total calories) and decreased training for three days before the event is the correct regimen.\n\nSection::::Short workout.\n", "Section::::Over-Training.\n", "Nutritional experts rarely give advice on how to cut weight safely or effectively, and recommend against cutting weight. However, many athletes choose to do it because they wish to gain an advantage in their sport.\n\nSection::::Dieting.\n\nIn addition to improving performance through healthy eating, some athletes will seek to lose weight through dieting and aerobic exercise. By losing fat they hope to achieve a higher \"strength-to-mass ratio\" or \"lean weight.\" This means more muscle and less fat, and should theoretically give them an advantage against other athletes of the same weight.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Human weight\n\nBULLET::::- Weight loss\n", "Section::::Factors influencing nutritional requirements.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Hydration.\n\nAs with other sports, weight trainers should avoid dehydration throughout the workout by drinking sufficient water. This is particularly true in hot environments, or for those older than 65.\n\nSome athletic trainers advise athletes to drink about every 15 minutes while exercising, and about throughout the day. \n", "Section::::Safety.\n\nWeight training is a safe form of exercise when the movements are controlled and carefully defined. However, as with any form of exercise, improper execution and the failure to take appropriate precautions can result in injury.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Maintaining proper form.\n", "For a marquee event like the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, some eaters, like current contest champion Joey Chestnut, will begin training several months before the event with personal time trials using the contest food. Retired competitive eater Ed \"Cookie\" Jarvis trained by consuming entire heads of boiled cabbage followed by drinking up to two gallons of water every day for two weeks before a contest. Due to the risks involved with training alone or without emergency medical supervision, the IFOCE actively discourages training of any sort.\n\nSection::::Televised contests.\n", "Exercise-induced nausea\n\nExercise-induced nausea is a feeling of sickness or vomiting which can occur shortly after exercise has stopped as well as during exercise itself. It may be a symptom of either over-exertion during exercise, or from too abruptly ending an exercise session. People engaged in high-intensity exercise such as aerobics and bicycling have reported experiencing exercise-induced nausea. \n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nA study of 20 volunteers conducted at Nagoya University in Japan associated a higher degree of exercise-induced nausea after eating.\n", "Research has found that having a well planned exercise routine can greatly benefit the elderly. It an reduce the risks of coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus and insulin resilience, hypertension and obesity as well as vast improvements in bone density and muscle mass.\n\nSection::::Exercise program development.\n", "A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Evidence suggests that the Mediterranean diet may improve cardiovascular outcomes. There is also evidence that a Mediterranean diet may be more effective than a low-fat diet in bringing about long-term changes to cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., lower cholesterol level and blood pressure). The DASH diet (high in nuts, fish, fruits and vegetables, and low in sweets, red meat and fat) has been shown to reduce blood pressure, lower total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol and improve metabolic syndrome; but the long-term benefits outside the context of a clinical trial have been questioned. A high fiber diet appears to lower the risk.\n", "Other medical professionals contend that binge eating can cause stomach perforations in those with ulcers and gulping large quantities of water during training can lead to water intoxication, a condition which dilutes electrolytes in the blood. Gastroparesis, also known as stomach paralysis, is also a concern among those who routinely stretch their stomachs beyond capacity. The condition may lead to the stomach's inability to contract and lose its ability to empty itself. Side effects of gastroparesis include chronic indigestion, nausea and vomiting.\n\nSection::::Criticisms and dangers.:Deaths.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon such as coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, decompose the water, producing water gas.\n", "The reaction is endothermic, so the fuel must be continually re-heated to keep the reaction going. In order to do this, an air stream, which alternates with the vapor stream, is introduced for the combustion of carbon to take place.\n\nTheoretically, to make 6 L of water gas, 5 L of air is required.\n\nOr, alternatively, to prevent contamination with nitrogen, energy can be provided by using pure oxygen to burn carbon into carbon monoxide.\n\nIn this case 1 L of oxygen will create 5.3 L of pure water gas.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe water-gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780.\n", "The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected or ignited with a flame above the water if this was the intention. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C. The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_25: most of the particles pass through quickly, but some are held up. This can happen when the main source and sink are very close together or the same. For example, most water vapor rising from the ocean surface soon returns to the ocean, but water vapor that gets sufficiently far away will probably return much later in the form of rain.\n\nSection::::Simple flow models.\n\nSection::::Simple flow models.:Plug flow reactor.\n", "Water can have two different roles. In the case of a solid combustible, the solid fuel produce pyrolyzing products under the influence of heat, commonly radiation. This process is halted by the application of water, since water is more easily evaporated than the fuel is pyrolyzed. Thereby energy is removed from the fuel surface and it is cooled and the pyrolysis is stopped, removing the fuel supply to the flames. In fire fighting, this is referred to as surface cooling.\n", "For liquids, the LFL is typically close to the saturated vapor concentration at the flash point, however, due to differences in the liquid properties, the relationship of LFL to flash point (which is also dependent on the test apparatus) is not fixed and some spread in the data usually exists.\n\nThe formula_1 of a mixture can be evaluated using the Le Chatelier mixing rule, if the formula_2 of the components formula_3 are known:\n\nformula_4\n", "Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal, atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as CO, propane, and other similar industrial gases have boiling temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated far beyond the standard . That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, is capable of holding \"liquid\" water at very high temperatures.\n", "LHV calculations assume that the water component of a combustion process is in vapor state at the end of combustion, as opposed to the higher heating value (HHV) (a.k.a. \"gross calorific value\" or \"gross CV\") which assumes that all of the water in a combustion process is in a liquid state after a combustion process.\n", "At atmospheric pressure the boiling point of water is - liquid water at atmospheric pressure does not exist at temperatures higher than . At that moment, the water would boil and turn to vapor explosively, and the liquid water turned to gas would take up significantly more volume (~1,600-fold) than it did as liquid, causing a vapor explosion. Such explosions can happen when the superheated water of a Boiler escapes through a crack in a boiler, causing a boiler explosion.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:BLEVEs without chemical reactions.\n", "The use of water allows the use of the flame ionisation detector (FID), which gives mass sensitive output for nearly all organic compounds.\n\nThe maximum temperature is limited to that at which the stationary phase is stable. C18 bonded phases which are common in HPLC seem to be stable at temperatures up to 200 °C, far above that of pure silica, and polymeric styrene–divinylbenzene phases offer similar temperature stability.\n\nWater is also compatible with use of an ultraviolet detector down to a wavelength of 190 nm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Pressurized water reactor\n\nBULLET::::- Steam cracking\n\nBULLET::::- Supercritical carbon dioxide\n\nBULLET::::- Superheated steam\n", "Water is efficient at extinguishing fire, and usually has the advantage of being available at little cost, but when dropped from an aircraft has big disadvantages because it breaks up in the air-stream and a significant proportion erodes into mist and either evaporates before it hits the target or falls in concentrations too light to be effective against a fire, so its extinguishing properties do not last very long. Water is only effective if dropped directly on flames.\n", "When organic matter is heated at increasing temperatures in open containers, the following processes generally occur, in successive or overlapping stages:\n\nBULLET::::- Below about 100 °C, volatiles, including some water, evaporate. Heat-sensitive substances, such as vitamin C and proteins, may partially change or decompose already at this stage.\n", "The amount of air required for complete combustion to take place is known as theoretical air. However, in practice, the air used is 2-3x that of theoretical air.\n\nSection::::Types.:Complete and incomplete.:Incomplete.\n\nIncomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon, carbon monoxide, and/or hydroxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.\n", "Section::::Energy requirements.\n\nThe energy required to heat water is significantly lower than that needed to vaporize it, for example for steam distillation\n", "One of the main hazards in operation of recovery boilers is the smelt-water explosion. This can happen if even a small amount of water is mixed with the solids in high temperature. Smelt-water explosion is purely a physical phenomenon. The smelt water explosion phenomena have been studied by Grace. By 1980 there were about 700 recovery boilers in the world. The liquid - liquid type explosion mechanism has been established as one of the main causes of recovery boiler explosions.\n", "In a second stage combustion chamber, more fuel is injected and ignited. As a result of this process, all oxygen is consumed, and what remains is an inert gas.\n\nThis process takes place in a 7 meter long combustion tube, which is cooled by water. The heated water is injected at the end of the cooling tube, and consequently the water is turned into water vapor and steam.\n\nAs a result, the Steamexfire produces up to 25 cubic meters of inert steam and water vapor per second.\n\nThe fore runner of the Steamexfire is called the GAG unit.\n", "This temporarily superheated water undergoes volume boiling as opposed to pool boiling in conventional boilers where the heating surface is in contact. Thus the water partially flashes to steam with two-phase equilibrium prevailing. Suppose that the pressure inside the evaporator is maintained at the saturation pressure, \"T\".\n\nHere, \"x\" is the fraction of water by mass that vaporizes. The warm water mass flow rate per unit turbine mass flow rate is 1/\"x\".\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"electron-beam\" method, the source is heated by an electron beam with an energy up to 15 keV.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"flash evaporation\", a fine wire or powder of source material is fed continuously onto a hot ceramic or metallic bar, and evaporates on contact.\n", "It insulates fires by melting at approximately 350–400 degrees F. Class A fires are caused by the burning of common combustible materials, such as wood, paper, or most plastics.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Burning liquids and gases.\n\nThe powder breaks the chain reaction of by coating the surface to which it is applied. These fires (Class B in the American system; Classes B and C in the European and Australian systems) include the burning of gasoline, oil, propane, and natural gas.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Electrical fires.\n", "Explosion: No danger of explosion. KNO is an oxidising agent, so will accelerate combustion of combustibles. \n\nFire Extinguishing Media: Dry chemical, carbon dioxide, Halon, water spray, or fog. If water is used, apply from as far a distance as possible. Water spray may be used to keep fire exposed containers cool. Do not allow water runoff to enter sewers or waterways.\n\nSpecial Information: Wear full protective clothing and breathing equipment for high-intensity fire or potential explosion conditions. This oxidizing material can increase the flammability of adjacent combustible materials.\n\nSection::::Accidental Release Measures.\n", "BULLET::::1. Oxidation of SO into SO by V:\n\nBULLET::::- 2SO + 4V + 2O → 2SO + 4V\n\nBULLET::::2. Oxidation of V back into V by dioxygen (catalyst regeneration):\n\nBULLET::::- 4V + O → 4V + 2O\n\nHot sulfur trioxide passes through the heat exchanger and is dissolved in concentrated HSO in the absorption tower to form oleum:\n\nNote that directly dissolving SO in water is impractical due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction. Acidic vapor or mists are formed instead of a liquid.\n\nOleum is reacted with water to form concentrated HSO.\n\nSection::::Purification unit.\n", "Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For example, a smoke explosion is a very violent combustion of unburned gases contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air. This interval can be very small (kerosene) or large (acetylene).\n\nWater cannot be used on certain type of fires:\n\nBULLET::::- Fires where live electricity is present – as water conducts electricity it presents an electrocution hazard.\n", "In the smelt water explosion even a few liters of water, when mixed with molten smelt can violently turn to steam in few tenths of a second. Char bed and water can coexist as steam blanketing reduces heat transfer. Some trigger event destroys the balance and water is evaporated quickly through direct contact with smelt. This sudden evaporation causes increase of volume and a pressure wave of some 10 000 – 100 000 Pa. The force is usually sufficient to cause all furnace walls to bend out of shape. Safety of equipment and personnel requires an immediate shutdown of the recovery boiler if there is a possibility that water has entered the furnace. All recovery boilers have to be equipped with special automatic shutdown sequence.\n", "If the heating process is relatively slow, the liquid has enough time to relax to an equilibrium state and the liquid follows the binodal curve, the Clausius–Clapeyron relation is still valid. During this time heterogeneous evaporation occurs in the substance with bubbles nucleating from impurity sites, surfaces, grain boundaries etc. \n", "Chlorine and sulfur are not quite standardized; they are usually assumed to convert to hydrogen chloride gas and SO or SO gas, respectively, or to dilute aqueous hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, respectively, when the combustion is conducted in a bomb containing some water quantity of water.\n\nSection::::Higher heating value.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Gustatory rhinitis - spicy and pungent food may in some people produce rhinorrhea, nasal stuffiness, lacrimation, sweating and flushing of face. It can be relieved by ipratropium bromide nasal spray (an anticholinergic), a few minutes before meal.\n\nBULLET::::- Non-air flow rhinitis - it is seen in patients of laryngectomy, tracheostomy and choanal atresia. Nose is not used for air flow and the turbinates become swollen due to loss of vasomotor control. In choanal atresia there is an additional factor of infection due to stagnation of discharge in the nasal cavity which should otherwise drain freely into nasopharynx.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n", "Pungency\n\nPungency is the condition of having a strong, sharp smell or flavor that is often so strong that it is unpleasant. \"Pungency\" is the technical term used by scientists to refer to the characteristic of food commonly referred to as spiciness or hotness and sometimes heat, which is found in foods such as chili peppers.\n\nThe term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a lower degree of pungency that are \"agreeably stimulating to the palate.\" Examples of piquant food include mustard and curry.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "In people with nasal polyps due to aspirin or NSAID sensitivity, the underlying mechanism is due to disorders in the metabolism of arachidonic acid. Exposure to cycloxygenase inhibitors such as aspirin and NSAIDs leads to shunting of products through the lipoxygenase pathway leading to an increased production of products that cause inflammation. In the airway, these inflammatory products lead to symptoms of asthma such as wheezing as well as nasal polyp formation.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "[eosinophil]]s in response to capsaicin, can trigger further sensory sensitization to the molecule. Patients with chronic cough also have an enhanced cough reflex to pathogens even if the pathogen has been expelled. In both cases, the release of eosinophils and other immune molecules cause a hypersensitization of sensory neurons in bronchial airways that produce enhanced symptoms. It has also been reported that increased immune cell secretions of neurotrophins in response to pollutants and irritants can restructure the peripheral network of nerves in the airways to allow for a more primed state for sensory neurons.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "The fruit of most species of \"Capsicum\" contains capsaicin (methyl-n-vanillyl nonenamide), a lipophilic chemical that can produce a strong burning sensation (pungency or spiciness) in the mouth of the unaccustomed eater. Most mammals find this unpleasant, whereas birds are unaffected. The secretion of capsaicin protects the fruit from consumption by insects and mammals, while the bright colors attract birds that will disperse the seeds.\n", "A systematic review on non-allergic rhinitis reports improvement of overall function after treatment with capsaicin (the active component of chili peppers). The quality of evidence is low, however.\n\nSection::::Types.:Allergic.\n\nAllergic rhinitis or hay fever may follow when an allergen such as pollen, dust, or Balsam of Peru is inhaled by an individual with a sensitized immune system, triggering antibody production. These antibodies mostly bind to mast cells, which contain histamine. When the mast cells are stimulated by an allergen, histamine (and other chemicals) are released. This causes itching, swelling, and mucus production.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "Another way to isolate the sense of retronasal smell is to use the “nose pinch test.” When eating while pinching the nostrils closed, the flavor of food appears to dissipate, namely because the pathway for air exiting the nose that creates the flavor image is blocked.\n\nSection::::Speculative evolutionary significance.\n", "The respiratory reactions to NSAIDs vary in severity, ranging from mild nasal congestion and eye watering to lower respiratory symptoms including wheezing, coughing, an asthma attack, and in rare cases, anaphylaxis. In addition to the typical respiratory reactions, about 10% of patients with AERD manifest skin symptoms such as urticaria and/or gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain or vomiting during their reactions to aspirin.\n", "BULLET::::- Rhinitis of pregnancy - pregnant women may develop persistent rhinitis due to hormonal changes. Nasal mucous become edematous and block the airway. Some may develop secondary infection and even sinusitis in such cases. Care should be taken while prescribing drugs. Generally, local measures such as limited use of nasal drops, topical steroids and limited surgery (cryosurgery) to turbinates are sufficient to relate the symptoms. Safety of developing fetus is not established for newer antihistamines and they should be avoided.\n\nBULLET::::- Honeymoon rhinitis - this usually follows sexual excitement, leading to nasal stuffiness.\n", "BULLET::::- Food allergies such as milk, peanuts, and eggs. However, asthma is rarely the only symptom, and not all people with food or other allergies have asthma\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfite sensitivity Asthma can occur in reaction to ingestion or inhalation of sulfites, which are added to foods and wine as preservatives.\n\nBULLET::::- Salicylate sensitivity Salicylates can trigger asthma in sensitive individuals. Salicylates occur naturally in many healthy foods. Aspirin is also a salicylate.\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n", "Sores or ulcerations can become infected by virus, bacteria or fungus. Pain and loss of taste perception makes it more difficult to eat, which leads to weight loss. Ulcers may act as a site for local infection and a portal of entry for oral flora that, in some instances, may cause septicaemia (especially in immunosuppressed patients). Therefore, oral mucositis can be a dose-limiting condition, disrupting a patient’s optimal cancer treatment plan and consequentially decreasing their chances of survival.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "In vasomotor rhinitis, certain nonspecific stimuli, including changes in environment (temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or weather), airborne irritants (odors, fumes), dietary factors (spicy food, alcohol), sexual arousal, exercise, and emotional factors trigger rhinitis. There is still much to be learned about this, but it is thought that these non-allergic triggers cause dilation of the blood vessels in the lining of the nose, which results in swelling and drainage.\n", "The various non-allergic NSAID hypersensitivity syndromes affect 0.5–1.9% of the general population, with AERD affecting about 7% of all asthmatics and about 14% of adults with severe asthma. AERD, which is slightly more prevalent in women, usually begins in young adulthood (twenties and thirties are the most common onset times, although children are afflicted with it and present a diagnostic problem in pediatrics) and may not include any other allergies. Most commonly the first symptom is rhinitis (inflammation or irritation of the nasal mucosa), which may manifest as sneezing, runny nose, or congestion. The disorder typically progresses to asthma, then nasal polyposis, with aspirin sensitivity coming last. Anosmia (lack of smell) also is common, as inflammation within the nose and sinuses likely reaches the olfactory receptors.\n", "Lesions to the olfactory nerve can occur because of \"blunt trauma\", such as coup-contrecoup damage, meningitis, and tumors of the frontal lobe of the brain. These injuries often lead to a reduced ability to taste and smell. Lesions of the olfactory nerve do not lead to a reduced ability to sense pain from the nasal epithelium. This is because pain from the nasal epithelium is not carried to the central nervous system by the olfactory nerve - it is carried to the central nervous system by the trigeminal nerve.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Aging and smell.\n", "BULLET::::- Herbal inhibitors – Many herbal substances have been observed since antiquity for reducing flatulence, particularly gas from eating legumes. Cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and garlic are potent in reducing gas. The potency of garlic increases when heated, whereas the potency of cinnamon decreases. Other spices have a lesser effect in reducing gas, including turmeric, black pepper, asafoetida and ginger. Other common Indian spices, cumin, aniseed, ajowan, and cardamom do \"not\" inhibit gas production, in fact they exacerbate it significantly.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of action.:Relieving gas.\n", "Nose examination: The mucosa is usually boggy and edematous with clear mucoid secretions. The turbinates are congested and hypertrophic.\n\nPharynx examination: Mucosal injection and lymphoid hyperplasia involving tonsils, adenoids and base of tongue may be seen.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Investigations.\n\nAbsolute eosinophil count, nasal smear, skin and in vitro allergy tests to rule out allergic rhinitis, acoustic rhinometry for measuring nasal patency, smell testing, CT scan in cases of sinus disease and MRI in case of mass lesions.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medical.\n\nThe avoidance of inciting factors such as sudden changes in temperature, humidity, or blasts of air or dust is helpful.\n", "Section::::Drugs for nasal administration.\n", "In people with nasal polyps caused by aspirin or NSAIDs, avoidance of these medications will help with symptoms. Aspirin desensitization has also been shown to be beneficial.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "BULLET::::- Patients usually complain of nasal obstruction despite the roomy nasal cavity, which can be caused either by the obstruction produced by the discharge in the nose, or as a result of sensory loss due to atrophy of nerves in the nose, so the patient is unaware of the air flow. In the case of the second cause, the sensation of obstruction is subjective.\n\nBULLET::::- Bleeding from the nose, also called epistaxis, may occur when the dried discharge (crusts) are removed.\n\nBULLET::::- Septal perforation and dermatitis of nasal vestibule can occur. The nose may show a saddle-nose deformity.\n", "Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n", "Section::::Physiology and ecology.\n", "Hair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust. The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucous membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle. When the passageways are irritated by some allergen, these muscles can constrict.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nThe respiratory tract is a common site for infections.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Infection.\n\nUpper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Many products support creating and reading PDF files, such as Adobe Acrobat, PDFCreator and OpenOffice.org, and several programming libraries such as iText and FOP. Third party viewers such as xpdf and Nitro PDF are also available. Mac OS X has built-in PDF support, both for creation as part of the printing system and for display using the built-in Preview application.\n", "Often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized. Any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file. Therefore, the entire PostScript world (fonts, layout, measurements) remains intact.\n\nAs a document format, PDF has several advantages over PostScript:\n\nBULLET::::- PDF contains tokenized and interpreted results of the PostScript source code, for direct correspondence between changes to items in the PDF page description and changes to the resulting page appearance.\n", "PDF is a standard for encoding documents in an \"as printed\" form that is portable between systems. However, the suitability of a PDF file for archival preservation depends on options chosen when the PDF is created: most notably, whether to embed the necessary fonts for rendering the document; whether to use encryption; and whether to preserve additional information from the original document beyond what is needed to print it.\n", "PDF/X files must not only follow certain restrictions, they also must contain a special file identification, inside the PDF, which says which PDF/X version they are. This means that a file can only conform to a single specific PDF/X standard, even if all other requirements are met.\n\nThe printing conditions or \"output intent\" need to be specified in the file. This can be specified in the form of standard profiles using codes, like \"CGATS TR 001 SWOP\".\n", "Solid PDF to Word for Mac was released in April 2010 allowing Apple users to manipulate documents out of PDF into Word, Excel, HTML, text, or iWork formats. An updated version 2 of the tool was released to Mac users in September 2013.\n\nSection::::Products.:Solid PDF Tools.\n", "While PDF/VT-1 always consists of a self-contained file, other variants of the standard support the use of external graphic content (PDF/VT-2) as well as streaming through the use of multi-part MIME packages (PDF/VT-2s). In addition to being a digital master for VDP printing, it can be shared, viewed and interactively navigated by human operators using a normal PDF reader, though completely accurate rendering requires a PDF/X-4 or PDF/VT conforming viewer.\n", "PDF files are supported by almost all modern e-book readers, tablets and smartphones. However, PDF reflow based on Tagged PDF, as opposed to re-flow based on the actual sequence of objects in the content-stream, is not yet commonly supported on mobile devices. Such Re-flow options as may exist are usually found under \"view\" options, and may be called \"word-wrap\".\n\nSection::::Format descriptions.:Plain text files.\n", "Since 1995, Adobe participated in some of the working groups that create technical specifications for publication by ISO and cooperated within the ISO process on specialized subsets of PDF standards for specific industries and purposes (e.g. PDF/X or PDF/A). The purpose of specialized subsets of the full PDF specification is to remove those functions that are not needed or can be problematic for specific purposes and to require some usage of functions that are only optional (not mandatory) in the full PDF specification.\n", "Section::::Products.:deskUNPDF Standard.\n\ndeskUNPDF Standard allows for conversion of a PDF into an editable format such as .doc or .rtf. The converted document can be modified by any word processor such as Word or Open Office Writer.\n\nSection::::Products.:deskUNPDF Professional.\n\nIn addition to PDF to Word capabilities, deskUNPDF Professional features PDF conversion to: .xls (Excel), .odt (Open Document), HTML, and image formats (.bmp, .jpg, .tif & .png). Other formats include .xhtml, .svg, .xml, .csv, .txt, and .lrf,etc. (Sony Reader Format).\n\nSection::::Products.:deskUNPDF for Mac.\n", "PDF Essentials combines the PDF creation of deskPDF Professional with the conversion cabilities of deskUNPDF Standard. PDF Essentials Plus includes the additional output formats available in deskUNPDF Professional. With PDF Essentials Plus, any file which can be printed can be converted to any of the formats available in deskUNPDF, such as extracting tabular data from a website into an Excel spreadsheet, converting a Word document into an e-book format (.lrf), or saving a PowerPoint presentation as HTML.\n\nSection::::Enterprise and Terminal Services.\n", "Adobe distributed its Adobe Reader (now Acrobat Reader) program free of charge from version 2.0 onwards, and continued supporting the original PDF, which eventually became the \"de facto\" standard for fixed-format electronic documents.\n\nIn 2008 Adobe Systems' PDF Reference 1.7 became ISO 32000:1:2008. Thereafter, further development of PDF (including PDF 2.0) is conducted by ISO's TC 171 SC 2 WG 8 with the participation of Adobe Systems and other subject matter experts.\n\nSection::::Adobe specifications.\n", "PDF/A\n\nPDF/A is an ISO-standardized version of the Portable Document Format (PDF) specialized for use in the archiving and long-term preservation of electronic documents. PDF/A differs from PDF by prohibiting features unsuitable for long-term archiving, such as font linking (as opposed to font embedding) and encryption. The ISO requirements for PDF/A file viewers include color management guidelines, support for embedded fonts, and a user interface for reading embedded annotations.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "In a PDF/X file that has color managed data each color managed graphic gets its own color profile, so even though the file as a whole is CMYK, individual graphics may be RGB (with calibration information).\n\nVarious boxes must be defined. The MediaBox which defines the size of the entire document, either the ArtBox or the TrimBox, which define the extent of the printable area. If the file is to be printed with bleed, a BleedBox, which must be larger than the TrimBox/ArtBox, but smaller than the MediaBox, must be defined.\n", "Normally all image content in a PDF is embedded in the file. But PDF allows image data to be stored in external files by the use of \"external streams\" or \"Alternate Images\". Standardized subsets of PDF, including PDF/A and PDF/X, prohibit these features.\n\nSection::::Technical overview.:Imaging model.:Text.\n\nText in PDF is represented by \"text elements\" in page content streams. A text element specifies that \"characters\" should be drawn at certain positions. The characters are specified using the \"encoding\" of a selected \"font resource\".\n\nSection::::Technical overview.:Imaging model.:Text.:Fonts.\n", "Section::::Mac OS X version.\n", "PDF workflows also became predominant. Vendors of Prepress systems, in addition to the offset printing industry, embraced a subset of the PDF format referred to as PDF/X1-a. This industry specific subset is one version of the PDF/X (PDF for eXchange) set of standards.\n", "Active content is not allowed in a PDF/X file. This means that standard PDF features like forms, signatures, comments and embedded sounds and movies are not allowed in PDF/X. Features that are forbidden in the PDF/X standard can sometimes be used, if they do not affect the rendering of the file. This allows for things like annotations outside the BleedBox.\n\nPDF/X-6 is in development which will be the new print production standard built upon PDF 2.0.\n\nSection::::List of the PDF/X standards.\n\nPDF/X is formalized in ISO standards 15929 and 15930:\n", "Two PDF files that look similar on a computer screen may be of very different sizes. For example, a high resolution raster image takes more space than a low resolution one. Typically higher resolution is needed for printing documents than for displaying them on screen. Other things that may increase the size of a file is embedding full fonts, especially for Asiatic scripts, and storing text as graphics.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nPDF viewers are generally provided free of charge, and many versions are available from a variety of sources.\n", "BULLET::::- PDF (computer file format) was first created in 1993 by Adobe. Adobe internal standards were part of its software quality systems, but they were neither published nor coordinated by a standards body. With the Acrobat Reader program available for free, and continued support of the format, PDF eventually became the de facto standard for printable documents. In 2005, PDF/A became a de jure standard as ISO 19005-1:2005. In 2008 Adobe's PDF 1.7 became ISO 32000-1:2008.\n\nExamples of long-time de facto but never de jure standards (for computer file formats):\n", "The differences between Open XML Paper Specification (OpenXPS) and the Portable Document Format (PDF) can be traced to their heritage and the manner of their development, as they have different design goals and different groups providing input.\n\nThe different goals in the development of OpenXPS and PDF resulted in different principles and design tradeoffs between the file formats.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of document markup languages\n\nBULLET::::- List of document markup languages\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- ECMA-388 Open XML Paper Specification\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 32000-1:2008 Document management — Portable document format — Part 1: PDF 1.7\n", "The specifications for PDF are backward inclusive. The PDF 1.7 specification includes all of the functionality previously documented in the Adobe PDF Specifications for versions 1.0 through 1.6. Where Adobe removed certain features of PDF from their standard, they are not contained in ISO 32000-1 either. Some features are marked as deprecated.\n\nSection::::ISO Standardization.\n", "Comparison of OpenXPS and PDF\n\nThis is a comparison of the OpenXPS document file format with the PDF file format. Both file format standards are essentially containers for representing digital content in a paper-like fashion.\n\nNote that OpenXPS is incompatible with .xps files generated by Windows 7 and Vista. Windows versions from Windows 8 onward generate .oxps, OpenXPS compliant files (see Open XML Paper Specification).\n\nSection::::Design aims.\n", "In 2006 PDF was widely accepted as the standard print job format at the Open Source Development Labs Printing Summit. It is supported as a print job format by the Common Unix Printing System and desktop application projects such as GNOME, KDE, Firefox, Thunderbird, LibreOffice and OpenOffice have switched to emit print jobs in PDF.\n\nSome desktop printers also support direct PDF printing, which can interpret PDF data without external help. Currently, all PDF capable printers also support PostScript, but most PostScript printers do not support direct PDF printing.\n", "PDF documents conforming to ISO 32000-1 carry the PDF version number 1.7. Documents containing Adobe extended features still carry the PDF base version number 1.7 but also contain an indication of which extension was followed during document creation.\n\nPDF documents conforming to ISO 32000-2 carry the PDF version number 2.0, and are known to developers as \"PDF 2.0 documents\".\n\nSection::::ISO Standardization.:ISO 32000-1:2008 (PDF 1.7).\n", "A font object in PDF is a description of a digital typeface. It may either describe the characteristics of a typeface, or it may include an embedded \"font file\". The latter case is called an \"embedded font\" while the former is called an \"unembedded font\". The font files that may be embedded are based on widely used standard digital font formats: Type 1 (and its compressed variant CFF), TrueType, and (beginning with PDF 1.6) OpenType. Additionally PDF supports the Type 3 variant in which the components of the font are described by PDF graphic operators. \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The international definition of fog is a visibility of less than ; mist is a visibility of between and and haze from to . Fog and mist are generally assumed to be composed principally of water droplets, haze and smoke can be of smaller particle size; this has implications for sensors such as Thermal Imagers (TI/FLIR) operating in the far-IR at wavelengths of about 10 μm which are better able to penetrate haze and some smokes because their particle size is smaller than the wavelength; the IR radiation is therefore not significantly deflected or absorbed by the particles. \n", "The term \"fog\" is typically distinguished from the more generic term \"cloud\" in that fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often generated locally (such as from a nearby body of water, like a lake or the ocean, or from nearby moist ground or marshes).\n\nBy definition, fog reduces visibility to less than , whereas mist causes lesser impairment of visibility.\n\nFor aviation purposes in the UK, a visibility of less than but greater than is considered to be mist if the relative humidity is 95% or greater; below 95%, haze is reported.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "Fog normally occurs at a relative humidity near 100%. This occurs from either added moisture in the air, or falling ambient air temperature. However, fog can form at lower humidities, and can sometimes fail to form with relative humidity at 100%. At 100% relative humidity, the air cannot hold additional moisture, thus, the air will become supersaturated if additional moisture is added.\n", "Visibility perception depends on several physical and visual factors. A realistic definition should consider the fact that the human visual system (HVS) is highly sensitive to spatial frequencies, and then to use the Fourier transform and the contrast sensitivity\n\nfunction of the HVS to assess visibility.\n\nSection::::Fog, mist, haze, and freezing drizzle.\n", "Because IRVR is not derived using human observers, the values obtained are not a reliable guide to what a pilot can actually expect to see. This can easily be demonstrated by the fact that when obscuration such as fog is variable, different values can apply simultaneously at the same physical point.\n", "Mist is commonly mistaken for fog. These two things are very different, however they do have some things in common. Fog and mist are both formed the same way. Fog is denser and generally lasts for longer but mist is thinner and you can see more clearly through it.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Advection fog occurs when moist air passes over a cool surface by advection (wind) and is cooled. It is common as a warm front passes over an area with significant snow-pack. It is most common at sea when moist air encounters cooler waters, including areas of cold water upwelling, such as along the California coast (\"see\" San Francisco fog). A strong enough temperature difference over water or bare ground can also cause advection fog.\n", "These factors are therefore important for defining the transmitting properties of a transparent material-\n\nTransmission – The amount of light that passes through the material without being scattered\n\nHaze – The amount of light that is subject to Wide Angle Scattering (At an angle greater than 2.5° from normal (ASTM D1003))\n\nClarity – The amount of light that is subject to Narrow Area Scattering (At an angle less than 2.5° from normal)\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n\nMeasurement of these factors is defined in two International test standards-\n\nASTM D1003 – Comprising two test methods –\n\nProcedure A – using a Hazemeter\n", "Section::::Modern methods.:International use.\n", "Haze can be defined as an aerial form of the Tyndall effect therefore unlike other atmospheric effects such as cloud and fog, haze is spectrally selective: shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more, and longer (red/infrared) wavelengths are scattered less. For this reason, many super-telephoto lenses often incorporate yellow filters or coatings to enhance image contrast. Infrared (IR) imaging may also be used to penetrate haze over long distances, with a combination of IR-pass optical filters (such as the Wratten 89B) and IR-sensitive detector.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic haze\n\nBULLET::::- ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution\n\nBULLET::::- Asian brown cloud\n", "Both test methods measure specular gloss and haze together at 20° that means light is transmitted and received at an equal but opposite angle of 20°. \n", "Cloud cover is often referred to as \"mist\" when encountered on mountains, whereas moisture suspended above a body of water or marsh area is usually called \"fog\". One difference between mist and fog is visibility. The phenomenon is called fog if the visibility is or less. In the U.K., the definition of fog is visibility less than (for driving purposes, UK Highway Code rule 226), while for pilots the distance is 1 km. Otherwise, it is known as mist.\n\nMist makes a light beam visible from the side via refraction and scattering on the suspended water droplets.\n", "As most commercially available glossmeters have gloss measurement angles of 20°, 60° and 85° haze measurement is incorporated at either 20° (ISO 13803 / ASTM E430 method B) or at 20° and 60° ( ASTM D4039). There are however some manufacturers that offer glossmeters with measurement angles of 30° and haze measurement in accordance with ASTM E430 Method A and C but are fewer in number, therefore for the purposes of detailing haze measurement theory only the first three methods will be included.\n\nISO 13803 / ASTM E430 method B\n", "What Tineo sees is a dense, obscuring fog in the center of his vision which, if the light is good, allows objects to appear as a blur, though with black turned white and white turned black, as in a photographic negative. If the light indoors or out is too bright, the fog turns into an intense and painful glare.\n", "Specular gloss is measured over an angular range that is limited by aperture dimensions as defined in ASTM Test Method D523. The angular measurement range for this at 20° is ±0.9° (19.1° - 20.9°). For haze measurement additional sensors are used either side of this range at 18.1° and 21.9° to measure the intensity of the scattered light. Both solid colours and those containing metallics can be measured using this method provided haze compensation is used (as detailed later).\n\nASTM D4039\n", "Fog forms when the difference between air temperature and dew point is less than .\n", "Depending on the concentration of the droplets, visibility in fog can range from the appearance of haze, to almost zero visibility. Many lives are lost each year worldwide from accidents involving fog conditions on the highways, including multiple-vehicle collisions.\n", "As measurements of specular gloss depend largely on the refractive index of the material being measured 20° gloss will change more noticeably than 60° gloss, therefore as haze index is calculated using these two measurements it too will be affected by the refractive index of the material. Evaluations of reflection haze using this test method are therefore confined to samples of roughly the same refractive index.\n\nHaze compensation\n", "Modern fog collectors were first studied in the 1900s. One of the first recordings of fog collection occurred in 1969 in South Africa as a water source for an air force base. The project consisted of two fences each 100m^2. Between the two 11L of water was produced on average per day over the 14th month study, which is .05L of water for every square meter. The next large study to occur was performed by the National Catholic University of Chile and the International Development Research Centre in Canada in 1987. One hundred 48m^2 fog fences were assembled in northern Italy. The project was able to yield on average .5L of water for every square meter or 33L for each of the 300 villagers on the town each day.\n", "The presence of fog has often played a key role in historical events, such as strategic battles. One example is the Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776), when American general George Washington and his command were able to evade imminent capture by the British Army, using fog to conceal their escape. Another example is D-Day (June 6, 1944) during World War II, when the Allies landed on the beaches of Normandy, France during fog conditions. Both positive and negative results were reported from both sides during that battle, due to impaired visibility.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nSection::::See also.:Technology.\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-fog\n", "Haze is measured with a wide angle scattering test in which light is diffused in all directions which results in a loss of contrast. That percentage of light that when passing through that deviates from the incident beam by greater than 2.5 degrees on average is defined as haze\n\nSee through quality is measured with a narrow angle scattering test in which light is diffused in a small range with high concentration. This test measures the clarity with which finer details can be seen through the object being tested.\n", "The most common international unit for the MVTR is g/m²/day. In the USA, g/100in²/day is also in use, which is 0.064516 (approximately 1/15) of the value of g/m²/day units. Typical rates in aluminium foil laminates may be as low as 0.001 g/m²/day, whereas the rate in fabrics can measure up to several thousand g/m²/day.\n", "Rainfall tends to be highly seasonal, sparse, and far between, therefore fog interception is a significant water source during dry seasons. Throughout the year, wind speed, temperature, and humidity are fairly consistent, with humidity usually greater than 90%. At one study site in the Guajira Peninsula, dry season precipitation ranged from 1–4 days per month, while in the wet season, although increased, it was still a relatively low 4 to 12 days per month, supporting the idea that the majority of the water in this region is held in low cloud cover and fog interception. Sunshine duration is distributed bimodally and correlates with evaporation rates.\n", "The exact requirements vary by type of airspace, whether it is day or night (for countries that permit night VFR), and from country to country. Typical visibility requirements vary from one statute mile to five statute miles (many countries define these in metric units as 1,500 m to 8 km). Typical cloud clearance requirements vary from merely remaining clear of clouds to remaining at least one mile away (1,500 m in some countries) from clouds horizontally and 1,000 feet away from clouds vertically. For instance, in Australia, VMC minima outside controlled airspace are clear of cloud with 5,000 m visibility below 3,000 ft AMSL or 1,000 ft AGL (whichever is higher), and 1,000 ft vertical/1,500 m horizontal separation from cloud above these altitudes or in controlled airspace. Above 10,000 ft, 8,000 m visibility is required to maintain VMC. Air traffic control may also issue a \"special VFR\" clearance to VFR aircraft, to allow departure from a control zone in less than VMC – this reduces the visibility minimum to 1,600 m.\n", "Visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be discerned. The theoretical black body visibility of pure water based on the values for the optical properties of water for light of 550 nm has been estimated at 74 m.\n\nThe standard measurement for underwater visibility is the distance at which a Secchi disc can be seen.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself is spread over a greater area of the sky. Each rainbow reflects white light inside its coloured bands, but that is \"down\" for the primary and \"up\" for the secondary. The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called Alexander's band, after Alexander of Aphrodisias who first described it.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Twinned rainbow.\n", "In certain circumstances, one or several narrow, faintly coloured bands can be seen bordering the violet edge of a rainbow; i.e., inside the primary bow or, much more rarely, outside the secondary. These extra bands are called \"supernumerary rainbows\" or \"supernumerary bands\"; together with the rainbow itself the phenomenon is also known as a \"stacker rainbow\". The supernumerary bows are slightly detached from the main bow, become successively fainter along with their distance from it, and have pastel colours (consisting mainly of pink, purple and green hues) rather than the usual spectrum pattern. The effect becomes apparent when water droplets are involved that have a diameter of about 1 mm or less; the smaller the droplets are, the broader the supernumerary bands become, and the less saturated their colours. Due to their origin in small droplets, supernumerary bands tend to be particularly prominent in fogbows.\n", "Unlike a double rainbow that consists of two separate and concentric rainbow arcs, the very rare twinned rainbow appears as two rainbow arcs that split from a single base. The colours in the second bow, rather than reversing as in a secondary rainbow, appear in the same order as the primary rainbow. A \"normal\" secondary rainbow may be present as well. Twinned rainbows can look similar to, but should not be confused with supernumerary bands. The two phenomena may be told apart by their difference in colour profile: supernumerary bands consist of subdued pastel hues (mainly pink, purple and green), while the twinned rainbow shows the same spectrum as a regular rainbow.\n", "Light of primary rainbow arc is 96% polarised tangential to the arch. Light of second arc is 90% polarised.\n\nSection::::Number of colours in spectrum or rainbow.\n", "In a primary rainbow, the arc shows red on the outer part and violet on the inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being refracted when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it.\n\nIn a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side of the arc. This is caused by the light being reflected twice on the inside of the droplet before leaving it.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "A single reflection off the backs of an array of raindrops produces a rainbow with an angular size on the sky that ranges from 40° to 42° with red on the outside. Double rainbows are produced by two internal reflections with angular size of 50.5° to 54° with violet on the outside. Within the \"primary rainbow\" (the lowest, and also normally the brightest rainbow) the arc of a rainbow shows red on the outer (or upper) part of the arc, and violet on the inner section. This rainbow is caused by light being reflected once in droplets of water. In a double rainbow, a second arc may be seen above and outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colors reversed (red faces inward toward the other rainbow, in both rainbows). This second rainbow is caused by light reflecting twice inside water droplets. The region between a double rainbow is dark. The reason for this dark band is that, while light \"below\" the primary rainbow comes from droplet reflection, and light \"above\" the upper (secondary) rainbow also comes from droplet reflection, there is no mechanism for the region \"between\" a double rainbow to show any light reflected from water drops, at all.\n", "Section::::Geographic Distribution.\n", "BULLET::::- the positions of the primary and secondary rainbows\n\nBULLET::::- the path of sunlight within a drop: light beams are refracted when entering the atmospheric droplets, then reflected inside the droplets and finally refracted again when leaving them.\n\nBULLET::::- the formation of the rainbow: he explains the role of the individual drops in creating the rainbow\n\nBULLET::::- the phenomenon of color reversal in the secondary rainbow\n", "The Wave is an attribute of \"null-T\". Every time a piece of material is sent through space with \"null-T\" two huge fountains of energy and material waste appear on the poles of the planet. They form the so-called \"Wave\", an enormous kappa-field that appears simultaneously on both poles and moves towards the equator. This Wave looks like a kilometers high black wall with a thin line of blinding light on the crest and is deadly for any kind of living tissue it touches. The scientists name four types of Waves based on their specific characteristics.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "In theory, every rainbow is a circle, but from the ground, usually only its upper half can be seen. Since the rainbow's centre is diametrically opposed to the sun's position in the sky, more of the circle comes into view as the sun approaches the horizon, meaning that the largest section of the circle normally seen is about 50% during sunset or sunrise. Viewing the rainbow's lower half requires the presence of water droplets \"below\" the observer's horizon, as well as sunlight that is able to reach them. These requirements are not usually met when the viewer is at ground level, either because droplets are absent in the required position, or because the sunlight is obstructed by the landscape behind the observer. From a high viewpoint such as a high building or an aircraft, however, the requirements can be met and the full-circle rainbow can be seen. Like a partial rainbow, the circular rainbow can have a secondary bow or supernumerary bows as well. It is possible to produce the full circle when standing on the ground, for example by spraying a water mist from a garden hose while facing away from the sun.\n", "Secondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the water droplets. Technically the secondary bow is centred on the sun itself, but since its angular size is more than 90° (about 127° for violet to 130° for red), it is seen on the same side of the sky as the primary rainbow, about 10° outside it at an apparent angle of 50–53°. As a result of the \"inside\" of the secondary bow being \"up\" to the observer, the colours appear reversed compared to those of the primary bow.\n", "BULLET::::- Iridescent colours in soap bubbles\n\nBULLET::::- Sun dog\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- (Large format handbook for the Summer 1976 exhibition \"The Rainbow Art Show\" which took place primarily at the De Young Museum but also at other museums. The book is divided into seven sections, each coloured a different colour of the rainbow.)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive simulation of light refraction in a drop (java applet)\n\nBULLET::::- Rainbow seen through infrared filter and through ultraviolet filter\n", "The rainbow will occur where the angle is maximum with respect to the angle . Therefore, from calculus, we can set , and solve for , which yields\n\nSubstituting back into the earlier equation for yields ≈ 42° as the radius angle of the rainbow.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Double rainbows.\n\nThe term double rainbow is used when both the primary and secondary rainbows are visible. In theory, all rainbows are double rainbows, but since the secondary bow is always fainter than the primary, it may be too weak to spot in practice.\n", "The colour pattern of a rainbow is different from a spectrum, and the colours are less saturated. There is spectral smearing in a rainbow owing to the fact that for any particular wavelength, there is a distribution of exit angles, rather than a single unvarying angle. In addition, a rainbow is a blurred version of the bow obtained from a point source, because the disk diameter of the sun (0.5°) cannot be neglected compared to the width of a rainbow (2°). Further red of the first supplementary rainbow overlaps the violet of the primary rainbow, so rather than the final colour being a variant of spectral violet, it is actually a purple. The number of colour bands of a rainbow may therefore be different from the number of bands in a spectrum, especially if the droplets are particularly large or small. Therefore, the number of colours of a rainbow is variable. If, however, the word \"rainbow\" is used inaccurately to mean \"spectrum\", it is the number of main colours in the spectrum.\n", "The loop extends over about 600 arcminutes as seen from Earth, covering much of Orion. It is well seen in long-exposure photographs, although observers under very dark skies may be able to see it with the naked eye.\n", "A second periodic signal originates from the rotation of the white dwarf spinning on its axis. The observational characteristic that most clearly defines an intermediate polar is the existence of a spin period signal that is shorter than the orbital period. The known periods range from 33 to 4022 seconds. The physical cause of optical spin-period oscillations is usually attributed to the changing viewing aspect of the accretion curtain as it converges near the white dwarf.\n\nA third light curve periodicity, the sideband period between the spin period and the orbital period, is also often present.\n", "Section::::Variations.:Fogbow.\n", "On the planet Bubbleluna lives the twins Bub and Bob. One day, the sun fails to rise because the Fairy of the Night, Cleon, has stolen the light source known as the Rainbow for Full-Moon Madame Luna. She splits this rainbow into 7 light bubbles. Bub and Bob then set off to retrieve these bubbles and restore the light and peace to their planet.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n", "The Irish leprechaun's secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow. This place is impossible to reach, because the rainbow is an optical effect which depends on the location of the viewer. When walking towards the end of a rainbow, it will appear to \"move\" further away (two people who simultaneously observe a rainbow at different locations will disagree about where a rainbow is).\n", "In addition to the common primary and secondary rainbows, it is also possible for rainbows of higher orders to form. The order of a rainbow is determined by the number of light reflections inside the water droplets that create it: One reflection results in the first-order or \"primary\" rainbow; two reflections create the second-order or \"secondary\" rainbow. More internal reflections cause bows of higher orders—theoretically unto infinity. As more and more light is lost with each internal reflection, however, each subsequent bow becomes progressively dimmer and therefore increasingly harder to spot. An additional challenge in observing the third-order (or \"tertiary\") and fourth-order (\"quaternary\") rainbows is their location in the direction of the sun (about 40° and 45° from the sun, respectively), causing them to become drowned in its glare.\n", "In normal human vision, wavelengths of between about 400 nm and 700 nm are represented by this incomplete circle, with the longer wavelengths equating to the red end of the spectrum. Complement colors are located directly opposite each other on this wheel. These complement colors are not identical to colors in pigment mixing (such as are used in paint), but when lights are additively mixed in the correct proportions appear as a neutral grey or white.\n", "If after looking at the effect for 5 minutes or so, one moves one's eyes elsewhere (e.g., to another point on the figure or to a blank sheet of white paper), one will see a stationary ring of 12 green discs that will fade after a short time. These green discs are the afterimages of the 12 lilac discs.\n", "Rainbows span a continuous spectrum of colours. Any distinct bands perceived are an artefact of human colour vision, and no banding of any type is seen in a black-and-white photo of a rainbow, only a smooth gradation of intensity to a maximum, then fading towards the other side. For colours seen by the human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence is Newton's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, remembered by the mnemonic \"Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain\" (ROYGBIV).\n", "Tertiary and quaternary rainbows should not be confused with \"triple\" and \"quadruple\" rainbows—terms sometimes erroneously used to refer to the—much more common—supernumerary bows and reflection rainbows.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Rainbows under moonlight.\n" ]

[ "The colors of rainbows loop." ]

[ "Rainbow colors don't actual loop, but appears that way due to how humans perceive colors." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The colors of rainbows loop." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Rainbow colors don't actual loop, but appears that way due to how humans perceive colors." ]

[ "Peramivir, an experimental anti-influenza drug, developed by BioCryst Pharmaceuticals has not yet been approved for sale in the United States. This drug can be given as an injection, so may be particularly useful in serious cases of influenza where the patient is unconscious and oral or inhaled drug administration is therefore difficult.\n", "Resistance is quite commonly seen as well in treatment-naive patients and under current treatment with flucytosine. In different strains of \"Candida\" resistance has been noted to occur in 1 to 50% of all specimens obtained from patients.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetic data.\n", "Section::::Drug resistance.\n\nInfluenza viruses can show resistance to anti-viral drugs. Like the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance, this can result from over-use of these drugs. For example, a study published in the June 2009 Issue of Nature Biotechnology emphasized the urgent need for augmentation of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) stockpiles with additional antiviral drugs including zanamivir (Relenza) based on an evaluation of the performance of these drugs in the scenario that the 2009 H1N1 'Swine Flu' neuraminidase (NA) were to acquire the tamiflu-resistance (His274Tyr) mutation which is currently widespread in seasonal H1N1 strains.\n", "A second class of drugs, which include amantadine and rimantadine, target the M2 protein, but have become ineffective against most strains of H5N1, due to their use in poultry in China in the 1990s, which created resistant strains. However, recent data suggest that some strains of H5N1 are susceptible to the older drugs, which are inexpensive and widely available.\n\nResearch indicates that therapy to block one cytokine to lessen a cytokine storm in a patient may not be clinically beneficial.\n\nSection::::Avian flu in humans.:Mortality rate.\n", "However, when the antigenicities of the seed strains and wild viruses do not match, vaccines fail to protect the vaccinees. In addition, even when they do match, escape mutants are often generated. Drugs available for the treatment of influenza include Amantadine and Rimantadine, which inhibit the uncoating of virions by interfering with M2, and Oseltamivir (marketed under the brand name Tamiflu), Zanamivir, and Peramivir, which inhibit the release of virions from infected cells by interfering with NA. However, escape mutants are often generated for the former drug and less frequently for the latter drug.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dog flu\n", "The two main classes of antiviral drugs used against influenza are neuraminidase inhibitors, such as zanamivir and oseltamivir, or inhibitors of the viral M2 protein, such as amantadine and rimantadine. These drugs can reduce the severity of symptoms if taken soon after infection and can also be taken to decrease the risk of infection. However, virus strains have emerged that show drug resistance to both classes of drug.\n\nSection::::Symptomatic treatment.\n\nThe United States authority on disease prevention, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), recommends that persons suffering from influenza infections:\n\nBULLET::::- Stay at home\n", "Influenza differs from the common cold as it is caused by a different group of viruses, and its symptoms tend to be more severe and to last longer. Infection usually lasts for about a week, and is characterized by sudden onset of high fever, aching muscles, headache and severe malaise, non-productive cough, sore throat and rhinitis. Symptoms usually peak after two or three days.\n", "Section::::Microbiology or virology.:Strain engineering.\n\nScientists have modified flu virus strains pandemic in humans in order to study their behavior. Funding for this research has been controversial as a result of safety concerns, and has been halted at times. However, this research continues today.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Pathophysiology.\n\nThe mechanisms by which influenza infection causes symptoms in humans have been studied intensively. One of the mechanisms is believed to be the inhibition of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) resulting in lowered cortisol levels.\n\nKnowing which genes are carried by a particular strain can help predict how well it will infect humans and how severe this infection will be (that is, predict the strain's pathophysiology).\n", "There are two serious technical problems associated with the development of a vaccine against H5N1. The first problem is this: seasonal influenza vaccines require a single injection of 15 μg haemagglutinin in order to give protection; H5 seems to evoke only a weak immune response and a large multicentre trial found that two injections of 90 µg H5 given 28 days apart provided protection in only 54% of people . Even if it is considered that 54% is an acceptable level of protection, the world is currently capable of producing only 900 million doses at a strength of 15 μg (assuming that all production were immediately converted to manufacturing H5 vaccine); if two injections of 90 μg are needed then this capacity drops to only 70 million . Trials using adjuvants such as alum or MF59 to try and lower the dose of vaccine are urgently needed. The second problem is this: there are two circulating clades of virus, clade 1 is the virus originally isolated in Vietnam, clade 2 is the virus isolated in Indonesia. Current vaccine research is focussed on clade 1 viruses, but the clade 2 virus is antigenically distinct and a clade 1 vaccine will probably not protect against a pandemic caused by clade 2 virus.\n", "In children other warning signs include irritability, failing to wake up and interact, rapid breathing, and a blueish skin color. Another warning sign in children is if the flu symptoms appear to resolve, but then reappear with fever and a bad cough.\n\nSection::::Antiviral drugs.\n\nAntiviral drugs directly target the viruses responsible for influenza infections. Generally, anti-viral drugs work optimally when taken within a few days of the onset of symptoms. Certain drugs are used prophylactically, that is they are used in uninfected individuals to guard against infection.\n", "Due to the high mutation rate of the virus, a particular influenza vaccine usually confers protection for no more than a few years. Each year, the World Health Organization predicts which strains of the virus are most likely to be circulating in the next year (see Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine), allowing pharmaceutical companies to develop vaccines that will provide the best immunity against these strains. The vaccine is reformulated each season for a few specific flu strains but does not include all the strains active in the world during that season. It takes about six months for the manufacturers to formulate and produce the millions of doses required to deal with the seasonal epidemics; occasionally, a new or overlooked strain becomes prominent during that time. It is also possible to get infected just before vaccination and get sick with the strain that the vaccine is supposed to prevent, as the vaccine takes about two weeks to become effective.\n", "Pharmaceutical drugs that may cause ILI include many biologics such as interferons and monoclonal antibodies. Chemotherapeutic agents also commonly cause flu-like symptoms. Other drugs associated with a flu-like syndrome include bisphosphonates, caspofungin, and levamisole. A flu-like syndrome can also be caused by an influenza vaccine or other vaccines, and by opioid withdrawal in physically dependent individuals.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The viral hemagglutinin protein is responsible for determining both which species a strain can infect and where in the human respiratory tract a strain of influenza will bind. Strains that are easily transmitted between people have hemagglutinin proteins that bind to receptors in the upper part of the respiratory tract, such as in the nose, throat and mouth. In contrast, the highly lethal H5N1 strain binds to receptors that are mostly found deep in the lungs. This difference in the site of infection may be part of the reason why the H5N1 strain causes severe viral pneumonia in the lungs, but is not easily transmitted by people coughing and sneezing.\n", "Control of swine influenza by vaccination has become more difficult in recent decades, as the evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the infection when the virus strains match enough to have significant cross-protection, and custom (autogenous) vaccines made from the specific viruses isolated are created and used in the more difficult cases.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Humans.\n\nBULLET::::- Prevention of pig-to-human transmission\n\n Swine can be infected by both avian and human flu strains of influenza, and therefore are hosts where the antigenic shifts can occur that create new influenza strains.\n\nBULLET::::- Prevention of human-to-human transmission\n", "Vaccinations against influenza are most commonly given to high-risk humans in industrialized countries and to farmed poultry. The most common human vaccine is the trivalent influenza vaccine that contains purified and inactivated material from three viral strains. Typically this vaccine includes material from two influenza A virus subtypes and one influenza B virus strain. A vaccine formulated for one year may be ineffective in the following year, since the influenza virus changes rapidly over time and different strains become dominant. Antiviral drugs can be used to treat influenza, with neuraminidase inhibitors being particularly effective.\n\nSection::::Variants and subtypes of Influenzavirus A.\n", "There are a number of rapid tests for the flu. One is called a Rapid Molecular Assay, when an upper respiratory tract specimen (mucus) is taken using a nasal swab or a nasopharyngeal swab. It should be done within 3–4 days of symptom onset, as upper respiratory viral shedding takes a downward spiral after that.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Influenza, or flu, is a viral infection that affects mainly the throat, nose, bronchi and occasionally lungs. It is considered one of the most common human infectious diseases. Seasonal influenza epidemics are a major public health concern, causing tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths worldwide each year. Early detection of disease activity, when followed by a rapid response, can reduce the impact of both seasonal and pandemic influenza.\n", "There are two serious technical problems associated with the development of a vaccine against H5N1. The first problem is this: seasonal influenza vaccines require a single injection of 15 μg haemagluttinin in order to give protection; H5 seems to evoke only a weak immune response and a large multicentre trial found that two injections of 90 µg H5 given 28 days apart provided protection in only 54% of people . Even if it is considered that 54% is an acceptable level of protection, the world is currently capable of producing only 900 million doses at a strength of 15 μg (assuming that all production were immediately converted to manufacturing H5 vaccine); if two injections of 90 μg are needed then this capacity drops to only 70 million . Trials using adjuvants such as alum, AS03, AS04 or MF59 to try and lower the dose of vaccine are urgently needed. The second problem is this: there are two circulating clades of virus, clade 1 is the virus originally isolated in Vietnam, clade 2 is the virus isolated in Indonesia. Vaccine research has mostly been focused on clade 1 viruses, but the clade 2 virus is antigenically distinct and a clade 1 vaccine will probably not protect against a pandemic caused by clade 2 virus.\n", "BULLET::::- WHO (PDF) contains latest Evolutionary \"Tree of Life\" for H5N1 article \"Antigenic and genetic characteristics of H5N1 viruses and candidate H5N1 vaccine viruses developed for potential use as pre-pandemic vaccines\" published 18 August 2006\n\nBULLET::::- Influenza research at the human and animal interface World Health Organization. September 2006.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Seasonal Influenza at the Centre for Health Protection in Hong Kong\n\nBULLET::::- Info on influenza at CDC\n\nBULLET::::- Fact Sheet Overview of influenza at World Health Organization\n\nBULLET::::- How to avoid spreading the flu from the Smithsonian Institution\n", "People with the flu are advised to get plenty of rest, drink plenty of liquids, avoid using alcohol and tobacco and, if necessary, take medications such as acetaminophen (paracetamol) to relieve the fever and muscle aches associated with the flu. In contrast, there is no enough evidence to support corticosteroids as add on therapy for influenza. It is advised to avoid close contact with others to prevent spread of infection. Children and teenagers with flu symptoms (particularly fever) should avoid taking aspirin during an influenza infection (especially influenza type B), because doing so can lead to Reye's syndrome, a rare but potentially fatal disease of the liver. Since influenza is caused by a virus, antibiotics have no effect on the infection; unless prescribed for secondary infections such as bacterial pneumonia. Antiviral medication may be effective, if given early (within 48 hours to first symptoms), but some strains of influenza can show resistance to the standard antiviral drugs and there is concern about the quality of the research. High-risk individuals such as young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems should visit the doctor for antiviral drugs. Those with the emergency warning signs should visit the emergency room at once.\n", "Due to routine use of the Hib conjugate vaccine in the U.S. since 1990, the incidence of invasive Hib disease has decreased to 1.3/100,000 in children. However, Hib remains a major cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and children in developing countries where the vaccine is not widely used. Unencapsulated \"H. influenzae\" strains are unaffected by the Hib vaccine and cause ear infections (otitis media), eye infections (conjunctivitis), and sinusitis in children, and are associated with pneumonia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Get plenty of rest\n\nBULLET::::- Drink a lot of liquids\n\nBULLET::::- Do not smoke or drink alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Consider over-the-counter medications to relieve flu symptoms\n\nBULLET::::- Consult a physician early on for best possible treatment\n\nBULLET::::- Remain alert for emergency warning signs\n\nWarning signs are symptoms that indicate that the disease is becoming serious and needs immediate medical attention. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- Pain or pressure in the chest or abdomen\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Confusion\n\nBULLET::::- Severe or persistent vomiting\n", "\"Several companies are focusing on new vehicles for growing antigens, which are the bits of a virus or bacterium needed to spur a person's immune system to fight an infection. VaxInnate, a New Jersey-based biotechnology company, has reported success using E. coli bacteria, which can cause a sometimes-fatal infection but also can be used to grow vaccine ingredients when the harmful part of the bacterium is removed. Dowpharma, a unit of Dow Chemical, has been using different bacteria found in soil and water, P. fluorescens, which may make a higher volume of antigens more quickly than E. coli.\" Also, a vaccine called FluBlOk, which is made in insect cells was granted FDA approval in January 2013. This vaccine, which focuses on hemagglutinin, would cut the production process by one to two months, as well as avoiding other pitfalls of chicken eggs.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Food connoisseurs and chefs are increasingly capitalizing on the newly ascertained understanding of the role smell plays in flavor. Food scientists Nicholas Kurti and Hervé This expanded upon the physiology of flavor and its importance in the culinary arts. In 2006, This published his book, \"Molecular Gastronomy: Exploring the Science of Flavor\", in which he explores the physical mechanisms that bring about flavor perception. Kurti and This influenced others, such as Harold McGee, whose 1984 book, \"On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen\", has been extensively revised in 2004 and remains a key reference on the scientific understanding of food preparation. His book has been described by television personality Alton Brown as “the Rosetta stone of the culinary world.” Such a breakthrough in the understanding of the mechanisms behind experiencing the flavor of different foods is likely to continue inspiring those in the culinary arts to create novel combinations and recipes.\n", "Flavours may be enhanced by the Maillard reaction, which combines sugars and amino acids at temperatures above . Meat roasted traditionally in a hot oven has a brown crust which is generally considered desirable, caused by the Maillard reaction. Meat can be cooked at a high temperature for a short time to brown just the surface, before or after being cooked at low temperature, thus obtaining the benefits of both methods.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Bacteria.\n", "Enfleurage\n\nEnfleurage is a process that uses odorless fats that are solid at room temperature to capture the fragrant compounds exuded by plants. The process can be \"cold\" enfleurage or \"hot\" enfleurage.\n\nSection::::Process.\n\nThere are two types of processes:\n", "Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Starchiness.\n", "BULLET::::2. experience, such as prior exposure to taste-odor mixtures\n\nBULLET::::3. internal state\n\nBULLET::::4. cognitive context, such as information about brand\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Description.\n\nTemperature modality excites or elicits a symptom through cold or hot temperature. Different mammalian species have different temperature modality.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Perception.\n", "Cold smoking differs from hot smoking in that the food remains raw, rather than cooked, throughout the smoking process. Smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between . In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, but remain relatively moist. Cold smoking does not cook foods, and as such, meats should be fully cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as a flavor enhancer for items such as cheese or nuts, along with meats such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops, and steak. The item is often hung in a dry environment first to develop a pellicle, then it can be cold smoked up to several days to ensure it absorbs the smokey flavour. Some cold smoked foods are baked, grilled, steamed, roasted, or sautéed before eating.\n", "Smoking can be done in four ways: cold smoking, warm smoking, hot smoking, and through the employment of \"liquid smoke\". However, these methods of imparting smoke only affect the food surface, and are unable to preserve food, thus, smoking is paired with other microbial hurdles, such as chilling and packaging, to extend food shelf-life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Appearance of warmed-over flavor.\n", "Surface chemistry of cooking\n\nIn cooking several factors, including materials, techniques, and temperature, can influence the surface chemistry of the chemical reactions and interactions that create food. All of these factors depend on the chemical properties of the surfaces of the materials used. The material properties of cookware, such as hydrophobicity, surface roughness, and conductivity can impact the taste of a dish dramatically. The technique of food preparation alters food in fundamentally different ways, which produce unique textures and flavors. The temperature of food preparation must be considered when choosing the correct ingredients.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "BULLET::::- In hot enfleurage, solid fats are heated and botanical matter is stirred into the fat. Spent botanicals are repeatedly strained from the fat and replaced with fresh material until the fat is saturated with fragrance. This method is considered the oldest known procedure for preserving plant fragrance substances.\n", "The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavor when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemical reaction that takes place between the amine group of a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar, usually with the addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors. The Maillard reaction is the basis for producing artificial flavors for processed foods in the flavoring industry, since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor.\n", "Direct heat grilling can expose food to temperatures often in excess of . Grilled meat acquires a distinctive roast aroma and flavor from a chemical process called the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction only occurs when foods reach temperatures in excess of .\n\nStudies have shown that cooking beef, pork, poultry, and fish at high temperatures can lead to the formation of heterocyclic amines, benzopyrenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are carcinogens.\n", "Section::::In food preparation.:Bulgarian cuisine.\n\nBulgarian traditional food, especially tender meat dishes are often simmered for extended periods of time. Examples include stews, soups, Vanyas, etc.\n\nSection::::In food preparation.:Dutch and Flemish cuisine.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Gravy.\n\nLow-temperature cooking reduces the amount of fat and juices, normally used to make gravy, rendered out of the meat.\n\nSection::::Practice.\n\nSous-vide low-temperature cooking is carried out by vacuum-sealing food in a plastic bag placed in a water bath or combi steamer with precisely controlled temperature for a long time. The food may then be browned by heating the surfaces to a much higher temperature of perhaps , using a roasting pan or a blow torch prior to serving. A dishwasher has been used to cook salmon.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Doneness\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular gastronomy\n\nBULLET::::- Food safety\n", "The appearance of warmed-over flavor begins as lipids, primarily lipids from the cell membrane of cells in the meat, are attacked by oxygen. This process is aided by the release of iron from iron-containing proteins in the meat, including myoglobin and hemoglobin. The iron is released by the heat of cooking, or by mechanical grinding. The free iron then acts as a catalyst, or promoter, of oxidation reactions. The reactions break down some of the fats in the meat to form primary oxidation products. These chemicals are not directly responsible for the objectionable taste. Instead, they subsequently further decompose to secondary oxidation products including \"alcohols, acids, ketones, lactones and unsaturated hydrocarbons which produce the [warmed-over flavor].\" Many of these compounds, including pentanal, hexanal, pentylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, 2-octenal and 2,3-octanedione have a strong odor and can be tasted at concentrations as low as 1 part per billion.\n", "BULLET::::- How and why we evolved our particular taste and flavor sense organs and our general food likes and dislikes\n\nBULLET::::- How cooking methods affect the eventual flavor and texture of food ingredients\n\nBULLET::::- How new cooking methods might produce improved results of texture and flavor\n\nBULLET::::- How our brains interpret the signals from all our senses to tell us the \"flavor\" of food\n\nBULLET::::- How our enjoyment of food is affected by other influences, our environment, our mood, how it is presented, who prepares it, etc.\n\nSection::::Chefs.\n", "Climate also affects the supply of fuel for cooking; a common Chinese food preparation method was cutting food into small pieces to cook foods quickly and conserve scarce firewood and charcoal. Foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties even when these preserving techniques are no longer strictly necessary to the maintenance of an adequate food supply.\n\nSection::::Global and regional dishes.\n", "Cooking often involves water, frequently present in other liquids, which is both added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (typically water, stock or wine), and released from the foods themselves. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other recipes. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in steaming, simmering, boiling, braising and blanching. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased evaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients – this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making.\n", "The treatment of this type of data is similar to the treatment of absorbance data. In fact the equation defining the relation between fluorescent intensity and species' concentrations is very similar. \n\nwhere formula_29 is the fluorescent intensity of the ith species at unit concentration.\n\nSection::::Determination of binding constant values.:Calorimetry.\n\nThe heat evolved when an aliquot of host solution is added to a solution containing the guest is the sum of contributions from each reaction\n", "Section::::Food safety.:Mechanisms.:Low-Temperature Process.\n\nLow-temperature processing also plays an essential role in food processing and storage. During this process, microorganisms and enzymes are subjected to low temperatures. Unlike heating, chilling does not destroy the enzymes and microorganisms but simply reduces their activity, which is effective as long as the temperature is maintained. As the temperature is raised, activity will rise again accordingly. It follows that, unlike heating, the effect of preservation by cold is not permanent; hence the importance of maintaining the \"cold chain\" throughout the shelf life of the food product. (Chapter 16 pg, 396) \n", "While naming a flavor or food refines its representation strengthens its recall in memory, the patterns and tendencies in word choice to describe flavor suggests limits to the our perception and communication. In describing the flavor of wine, tasters tend to use words that function as a combination of visual and texture descriptors, and references to objects with similar odorant profiles. Color perception heavily influences the word choice describing a flavor; the color of word's semantic reference is often congruent with the food's color when the taster can see the food.\n", "Section::::Forms of alliesthesia.\n\nBULLET::::- \"thermal\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of the thermic perception (heat and cold), which contributes fundamentally to homeostatic thermoregulation. It is an aspect of thermal comfort.\n\nBULLET::::- \"olfactory\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of olfaction (sense of smell)\n\nBULLET::::- \"gustatory\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of taste - see primary tastes (sweet, salty, bitter, acid, umami and \"calcium)\"\n\nBULLET::::- olfacto-gustatory alliesthesia or alimentary alliesthesia: alliesthesia of tastes/flavors pertaining to food intake\n\nBULLET::::- \"visual\"/optic alliesthesia: alliesthesia of vision\n\nBULLET::::- \"auditory\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of the sense of hearing\n\nEach of these forms of alliesthesia exists in two opposite tendencies:\n", "However, when people perceive wines, the visual cues received from the color of the wine have a strong impact on their opinion of the wine. In a primitive sense, visual cues will generally have a stronger impact on humans than aromatic components since humans have evolved to identify things with eyesight, rather than through scent relative to other evolved species that rely on different sensory capacities more than they do on eyesight. This idea of a particular significance of color in the perception of wine is especially true in red wines.\n", "Warm and cold receptors play a part in sensing innocuous environmental temperature. Temperatures likely to damage an organism are sensed by sub-categories of nociceptors that may respond to noxious cold, noxious heat or more than one noxious stimulus modality (i.e., they are polymodal). The nerve endings of sensory neurons that respond preferentially to cooling are found in moderate density in the skin but also occur in relatively high spatial density in the cornea, tongue, bladder, and facial skin. The speculation is that lingual cold receptors deliver information that modulates the sense of taste; i.e. some foods taste good when cold, while others do not.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "An outlet mall (or outlet center) is a type of shopping mall in which manufacturers sell their products directly to the public through their own stores. Other stores in outlet malls are operated by retailers selling returned goods and discontinued products, often at heavily reduced prices. Outlet stores were found as early as 1936, but the first multi-store outlet mall, Vanity Fair, located in Reading, PA did not open until 1974. Belz Enterprises opened the first enclosed factory outlet mall in 1979, in Lakeland, TN, a suburb of Memphis.\n\nSection::::Components.\n\nSection::::Components.:Food court.\n", "Outlet Collection Winnipeg\n\nOutlet Collection Winnipeg is a fully enclosed shopping centre development located on the intersection of Kenaston Boulevard and Sterling Lyon Parkway, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. It was developed by Ivanhoe Cambridge, a major Canadian real estate company.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAfter the opening of the first IKEA in Winnipeg on the intersection of Kenaston Boulevard and Sterling Lyon Parkway at Seasons of Tuxedo in December 2012, retail quickly began to expand starting with a Cabela's, later joined by restaurants, other small retailers, and residential properties. \n", "The number of U.S. malls increased from 113 in 1988 to 276 in 1991 and to 325 in 1997 and 472 in 2013.\n\nOutlet malls are not an exclusively American phenomenon. In Canada, the Dixie Outlet Mall dates from the late 1980s, and was followed by Vaughan Mills in 1999, and Toronto Premium Outlets in 2013. In Europe, retailer BAA McArthurGlen has opened 13 malls with over 1,200 stores and 3 million square feet (about 30 hectares) of retail space. Stores have also been emerging in Japan since the mid to late 1990s.\n\nSection::::Difference between factory outlet and outlet store.\n", "Outlet store\n\nAn outlet store, factory outlet or factory shop is a brick and mortar or online store in which manufacturers sell their stock directly to the public. Traditionally, a factory outlet was a store attached to a factory or warehouse, sometimes allowing customers to watch the production process such as in the original L.L. Bean store. In modern usage, outlet stores are typically manufacturer-branded stores such as Gap or Bon Worth grouped together in outlet malls. The invention of the factory outlet store is often credited to Harold Alfond, founder of the Dexter Shoe Company.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Dress Smart\n\nDress Smart is a franchise of shopping centres in New Zealand that specialises in outlet stores.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Sears Outlet is an outlet version of Sears department stores located in various retail locations across the United States. The stores carry new, one-of-a-kind, out of carton, discontinued, used, scratched and dented merchandise at 20–60% off regular retail price. While a wide variety of products are available, appliances make up a large majority of available merchandise. Sears Outlet stores were once known as Sears Surplus. Many former Kmarts have been converted to serve as Sears Outlets, though these often take up less than half the floorspace. Each store, on average, is larger than 18,000 square feet in size.\n", "In 1974, Vanity Fair opened up the first multi-store outlet center in Reading, Pennsylvania. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, outlet malls grew rapidly in the United States. A typical outlet mall in the U.S. is opened with between 100,000 to 200,000 square feet (about 1 to 2 hectares) of retail space. This can gradually increase to 500,000 to 600,000 feet (around 5 hectares). The average outlet mall has an area of 216,000 square feet. In 2003, outlet malls in the U.S. generated $15 billion in revenue from 260 stores.\n", "In Canada, South Edmonton Common in Edmonton is the largest power centre, and one of the largest open-air retail developments in North America. Spread over , South Edmonton Common has more than of gross leasable area.\n", "The term \"power center\" is used among developers and retailers as industry jargon to describe a shopping complex, generally in area, that typically includes three or more freestanding anchor stores, separated by a minimal number of small specialty tenants, in which the anchors occupy 75–90% of the total area.\n", "Section::::Store formats and channels.:Clearance centres and outlet stores.\n", "Power centres mainly consist of major national and international big-box stores with large amounts of parking space separate from the stores themselves, and which serve a larger area than the open-air shopping plazas do.\n\nBULLET::::- Black Creek Super Value Centre (Rogers Road and Keele Street), York\n\nBULLET::::- Crossroads (Weston Road and Highway 401), North York\n\nBULLET::::- Downsview Power Centre (unofficial name) (Dufferin Street and Wilson Avenue), North York\n\nBULLET::::- Dufferin and Steeles Power Centre (unofficial name) (Dufferin Street and Steeles Avenue), North York\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Mile (Eglinton Avenue East between Victoria Park Avenue and Birchmount Road), Scarborough\n", "Different types of malls can be found around the world. \"Superregional malls\" are very large malls that contain at least five department stores and 300 shops. This type of mall attracts consumers from a broad radius (up to a 160-km). A \"regional mall\" can contain at least two department stores or \"anchor stores\".. One of the biggest malls in the world is the one near Miami, called \"Sawgrass Mills Mall\": it has 2,370,610 square feet (220,237 m2) of retail selling space, with over 329 retail outlets and name brand discounters.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSears Holdings spun off Sears Hometown and Outlet Stores in 2012 to attempt to restore profitability and raise shareholder confidence. Sears Holdings spun off more than 1,100 Hometown and 122 outlet stores. Hometown stores are small hardware and appliance stores operated by independent retailers. Outlet stores sell Sears merchandise at discount. Outlet stores are approximately 18,000 square feet and equipped with items such as home appliances, lawn and garden equipment, apparel, mattresses, sporting goods and tools. Outlet stores sell discontinued, used, cosmetically blemished or reconditioned merchandise with new parts.\n", "In 2013, the Shamrock Group opened the Plaza at the Border on Las Americas' west side, which includes a Ross Dress for Less and TJ Maxx, while on the east side immediately adjacent to the border crossing is the smaller Outlets at the Border, which opened in the fall of 2014.\n", "Power centers are small shopping centers that almost exclusively feature several big-box retailers as their anchors. They usually have a retail area of and a primary trade area of .\n\nSection::::Types.:Theme/festival center.\n\nTheme or festival centers have distinct unifying themes that are followed by their individual shops as well as their architecture. They are usually located in urban areas and cater to tourists. They typically feature a retail area of .\n\nSection::::Types.:Outlet center.\n", "DFO centres have traditionally been located around airports: a side effect of the Airports Act of 1996, the Commonwealth Government has planning control over the land, meaning state planning legislation can be bypassed by developers. In addition the property developer is able to exploit the cost difference between retail and industrial rents, gives outlet centre operators a distinct advantage over traditional shopping centres. A survey by Melbourne newspaper \"The Age\" in 2007 found that in all three DFO-owned centres, most shops carried at least some full-price, current-season stock, available at normal shopping centres. By 2008 five legal challenges to DFO developments have been made by competing retail developers and the Shopping Centre Council of Australia, all being unsuccessful.\n", "In recent years, it has become quite common for an older shopping mall to be renovated as (or replaced entirely by) a power center, adding big-box stores, category killers and strip shopping center-type buildings to the parking and open areas, rather than to add anchors and new retail space to the existing mall facility. Puente Hills Mall and Del Amo Fashion Center in Southern California are good examples of this. Other examples are Seven Corners Shopping Center in suburban Washington, D.C. and Deerfoot Meadows in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Power centers are almost always located in suburban areas, but occasionally redevelopment has brought power centers to densely populated urban areas.\n", "In 1971, adjacent to its new Kenmore Catalogue Service Centre in Toronto, Simpsons-Sears opened its first new concept \"Clearance Centre\", to assist in the rotation of its off-season and marked down catalogue merchandise. The concept was eventually expanded nationwide, offering consumers an off-priced selection of in-house and brand name products. In the 2000s, these stores were renamed \"Outlet Stores\" to reflect a broader assortment as well as channel-specific merchandise. Sears full-line stores in some markets were converted to this format in 2014. As of Fall 2016, Sears Canada operated 17 outlet locations. In June 2017 Sears announced 10 remaining outlet stores would also close.\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Square Mall - Leesburg\n\nBULLET::::- Lakeshore Mall – Sebring\n\nBULLET::::- Mall at Millenia – Orlando\n\nBULLET::::- Mall at University Town Center – Sarasota\n\nBULLET::::- Mall at Wellington Green – Wellington\n\nBULLET::::- Melbourne Square - Melbourne\n\nBULLET::::- Merritt Square Mall - Merritt Island\n\nBULLET::::- Midtown DeSoto Square Mall - Bradenton\n\nBULLET::::- The Oaks Mall – Gainesville\n\nBULLET::::- Ocean Walk Shoppes – Daytona Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Orange Park Mall – Orange Park\n\nBULLET::::- Orlando Fashion Square – Orlando\n\nBULLET::::- Oviedo Marketplace – Oviedo\n\nBULLET::::- Paddock Mall – Ocala\n\nBULLET::::- Palm Beach Outlets – West Palm Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Pier Park – Panama City Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Port Charlotte Town Center – Port Charlotte\n\nBULLET::::- Regency Square Mall – Jacksonville\n", "BULLET::::- Boynton Beach Mall – Boynton Beach\n\nBULLET::::- CityPlace – West Palm Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Coastland Center – Naples\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut Point – Estero\n\nBULLET::::- CocoWalk – Miami\n\nBULLET::::- Cordova Mall – Pensacola\n\nBULLET::::- Crystal River Mall - Crystal River\n\nBULLET::::- Dolphin Mall – Miami\n\nBULLET::::- Eagle Ridge Mall – Lake Wales\n\nBULLET::::- Edison Mall – Fort Myers\n\nBULLET::::- Festival Bay Mall – Orlando\n\nBULLET::::- Florida Mall – Orange County\n\nBULLET::::- Gardens Mall – Palm Beach Gardens\n\nBULLET::::- Governor's Square – Tallahassee\n\nBULLET::::- Gulf Coast Town Center – Fort Myers\n\nBULLET::::- Gulf View Square – Port Richey\n\nBULLET::::- Indian River Mall – Vero Beach\n\nBULLET::::- International Plaza and Bay Street – Tampa\n\nBULLET::::- Lakeland Square Mall – Lakeland\n", "McArthurGlen Group\n\nMcArthurGlen Group is a public company, which develops and manages designer outlet malls.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nMcArthurGlen originated as a private company in North America, part of the Vancouver based McLean Group. It opened and ran factory outlet shopping centres. Following a $180 million share issue in 1993 it became McArthur/Glen Group. McArthurGlen UK Ltd was also set up in 1993, based in London and managing designer shopping outlets across North America, United Kingdom, and Western Europe.\n\nIn July 9, 2015, McArthurGlen opened its first outlet in North America at Vancouver Airport.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- McArthurGlen Designer Outlets\n", "BULLET::::- Westside Mall, Eglinton Avenue West west of Caledonia Road, York — replaced with a power centre of the same name during the early 2000s (with Canadian Tire, Rogers Plus, FreshCo (renamed from Price Chopper), Dollar Tree (formerly occupied by Shoppers Drug Mart) and CIBC as major tenants) and will be connected to Line 5's Caledonia station in 2021.\n\nBULLET::::- Honeydale Mall (1973–2013): Located in Eatonville neighbourhood of Toronto; officially closed on 28 June 2013.\n\nSection::::Former shopping malls.:Former flea markets.\n", "The district or neighbourhood level of shopping centres in Toronto are typically built around one or a few department stores or grocery supermarkets and are enclosed. These shopping centres typically provide a surrounding free parking lot. Most of these are located in the former suburbs of Toronto, where land was available for parking. There are only three shopping malls of this type within Toronto's pre-1998 city limits: Galleria Shopping Centre (at Dufferin Street and Dupont Street), Dufferin Mall (on Dufferin Street south of Bloor Street and north of College Street), and Gerrard Square (on Gerrard Street East east of Pape Avenue). There are a few ethnic malls of this type as well.\n", "BULLET::::- Bramalea City Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Shoppers World Brampton\n\nBULLET::::- Burlington\n\nBULLET::::- Burlington Mall\n\nBULLET::::- Mapleview Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Hamilton\n\nBULLET::::- Centre Mall\n\nBULLET::::- Eastgate Square\n\nBULLET::::- Jackson Square\n\nBULLET::::- Lime Ridge Mall\n\nBULLET::::- Markham\n\nBULLET::::- Market Village\n\nBULLET::::- Markville Shopping Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Pacific Mall\n\nBULLET::::- Mississauga\n\nBULLET::::- Dixie Outlet Mall\n\nBULLET::::- Erin Mills Town Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Square One Shopping Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Newmarket\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Canada Mall\n\nBULLET::::- Niagara-on-the-Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Outlet Collection at Niagara\n\nBULLET::::- Oakville\n\nBULLET::::- Oakville Place\n\nBULLET::::- Oshawa\n\nBULLET::::- Oshawa Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Pickering\n\nBULLET::::- Pickering Town Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Richmond Hill\n\nBULLET::::- Hillcrest Mall\n\nBULLET::::- St. Catharines\n", "In 2012, Sears Hometown and Outlet Stores was spun off from Sears Holdings.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::State implementations.\n\nThe McKinney-Vento Act is a conditional funding act which means that the federal government gives grants to states and, in return, the grantee states are bound by the terms of the act. If a state chooses not to accept federal funds for these purposes, it does not have to implement the act.\n", "Section::::State implementations.\n\nStates have large amounts of latitude in how they implement TANF programs.\n\nBULLET::::- California: CalWORKs\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado: Colorado Works Program\n\nBULLET::::- South Carolina: TANF/Formerly Family Independence\n\nSection::::Funding and eligibility.\n", "(Sec. 210) Declares that a PHA (or other entity) that administers federal housing assistance for the Housing Authority of the county of Los Angeles, California, or the states of Alaska, Iowa, or Mississippi shall not be required to include a resident of public housing or a recipient of section 8 rental assistance (under the United States Housing Act of 1937) on the agency or entity governing board.\n", "In later years, individual states were given broad discretion as to how much in benefits — and indeed, \"any\" benefits — need be paid to adults without dependent children; and the trend since the 1980s has been for states to sharply curtail, and even eliminate, such aid. As of 2005, only two states — New Jersey and Utah — still paid cash welfare benefits to childless adults deemed \"able-bodied\" (many other states do allow such payments to be made if a disability is demonstrated). In any event, the person(s) seeking General Assistance must first apply for any other programs — state or federal — for which alternate eligibility may or may not exist; only if all such applications are denied is the applicant then permitted to receive General Assistance benefits, which usually include food stamps, and often, assistance in paying for rental housing.\n", "Private colleges and universities set their own financial aid policies. Some offer financial aid in the form of grants and scholarships to undocumented students.\n\nSection::::Higher education.:Additional barriers.\n", "The US Department of Labor reported that 1.9% of total unemployment insurance (UI) payments for 2001 was attributable to fraud or abuse within the UI program. In 2012, it reported the figure as 2.67%. In 2010, less than one-quarter of new welfare applications in San Diego County had some form of discrepancy, whether error or fraud. In response to the perception of state officials' volume of fraud cases, the application process has become more strict. Some advocates have expressed concern that the stricter application process would make it more difficult for families in need to receive aid.\n", "However MTWs must \"assist substantially the same total number of eligible low-income families as would have been served had the funding amounts not been combined.\"\n", "It has been observed that certain situations of TANF exit are more prominent depending on the geographic area which recipients live in. Focusing the comparison between metropolitan (urban) areas and non-metropolitan (rural) areas, the number of recipients experiencing non work TANF related exit is highest among rural areas (rural areas in the South experience the highest cases of this type of exiting the program).\n", "Availability of public assistance programs can vary depending on which states within the United States refugees are allocated to resettle in. For example, health policies differ from state to state, and as of 2017, only 33 states expanded Medicaid programs under the Affordable Care Act. In 2016, The American Journal of Public Health reported that only 60% of refugees are assigned to resettlement locations with expanding Medicaid programs, meaning that more than 1 in 3 refugees may have limited healthcare access.\n", "Eligibility requirements are designed to ensure that those most in need receive relief first and that concerns regarding housing discrimination do not extend into the public housing sector.\n\nSection::::Alternative models.:Scattered-site housing.:Public policy and implications.\n", "The New York City Housing Authority is experiencing record demand for subsidized housing assistance. However, just 13,000 of the 29,000 families who applied were admitted into the public housing system or received federal housing vouchers known as [Section 8] in 2010. Due to budget cuts there have been no new applicants accepted to receive Section 8.\n", "PRWORA replaced AFDC with TANF and ended entitlement to cash assistance for low-income families, meaning that some families may be denied aid even if they are eligible. Under TANF, states have broad discretion to determine who is eligible for benefits and services. In general, states must use funds to serve families with children, with the only exceptions related to efforts to reduce non-marital childbearing and promote marriage. States cannot use TANF funds to assist most legal immigrants until they have been in the country for at least five years. TANF sets forth the following work requirements in order to qualify for benefits:\n", "Applies such requirements to insured and noninsured projects with section 8 rental assistance attached to the units; but not to units receiving PHA project-based assistance under the voucher program, or to public housing units assisted with capital or operating funds.\n", "Meeks's solution to homelessness crisis in America is for the homeless to drive trucks until they become millionaires.\n\n\"Being poor in America is a personal choice, unless there are mitigating circumstances. A homeless man can go to school, get a job driving a truck making $70k per year and in 20 years become a millionaire. In America you can work hard and change your future – if you chose. — Rep. Stephen Meeks (@RepStephenMeeks) November 17, 2018\"\n", "This gap still exists between higher education and financial aid for undocumented students. Since undocumented students are not eligible for most forms of financial aid, merit scholarships are not feasible as they are most often restrict their eligibility to U.S. citizens or permanent residents. Undocumented students are not eligible for federal aid, thus, benefits that come from FAFSA or Pell Grants do not apply to these students. Most state-based aid is also out of reach for undocumented students so grants, work study and loans are not options. States opt to pass their own legislation allowing in-state tuition for undocumented students; while this is an important step for undocumented students, it does not fully bridge the gap for financial aid. Some states, like Georgia, have worked against education for undocumented students by forbidding enrollment in some colleges. Statistics show $11.8 billion in taxes each year comes from undocumented immigrants (Tax Contributions). Findings also show that there would be an $845 million in tax revenue with the Obama Administration's executive action that includes the implementation of DACA and its expansion. These findings also show that a full immigration reform would increase tax revenue by $2.2 billion (Tax Contributions). Giving these groups the availability for higher education aid would only increase these benefits through their consumption and investment in the economy.\n", "BULLET::::1. The first situation involves work related TANF exit, in which individuals no longer qualify for TANF assistance due to acquired employment.\n\nBULLET::::2. The second type of situation is non- work TANF related exit in which the recipient no longer qualifies for assistance due to reaching the maximum time allowed to be enrolled in the assistance program. Once their time limit has been reached, individuals are removed from receiving assistance.\n\nBULLET::::3. The third type of situation is continued TANF receipt in which employed recipients earning a wage that does not help cover expenses continue receiving assistance.\n", "BULLET::::4. States, in fiscal year 2004, have to ensure that 50 percent of all families and 90 percent of two-parent families are participating in work activities. If a state meets these goals without restricting eligibility, it can receive a caseload reduction credit. This credit reduces the minimum participation rates the state must achieve to continue receiving federal funding.\n\nWhile states are given more flexibility in the design and implementation of public assistance, they must do so within various provisions of the law:\n", "Fourth, regardless of each refugee’s situation in regards to education, health, or psychological background, the government has applied a \"one-size-fits-all assistance\" approach. This impedes the local governments’ ability to accommodate the refugees according to their needs, and to prepare or teach them in areas that they are weak.\n\nFifth, while the Federal Government has increased funding for refugees, this does not fix the current problems. The extra money only creates a delaying effect on \"the incidence of poverty.\"\n", "First, the federal government uses \"faith-based groups,\" for refugee placement. The local communities that receive the refugees are not included in the decision-making process. Receiving new refugees into a community requires numerous resources from the local government, but these local governments are not given enough funding from the federal government. They are also not informed as to how many new refugees they are going to receive. This has been a heavy burden for the local governments.\n", "The 2010 passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act could provide new healthcare options for the homeless in the United States, particularly through the optional expansion of Medicaid. A 2013 Yale study indicated that a substantial proportion of the chronically homeless population in America would be able to obtain Medicaid coverage if states expanded Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act.\n", "Before 1997, the federal government designed the overall program requirements and guidelines, while states administered the program and determined eligibility for benefits. Since 1997, states have been given block grants and both design and administer their own programs. Access to welfare and amount of assistance varied quite a bit by state and locality under AFDC, both because of the differences in state standards of need and considerable subjectivity in caseworker evaluation of qualifying \"suitable homes\". However, welfare recipients under TANF are actually in completely different programs depending on their state of residence, with different social services available to them and different requirements for maintaining aid.\n", "In July 2012, the Department of Health and Human Services released a memo notifying states that they were able to apply for a waiver for the work requirements of the TANF program, but only if they could find other credible ways to increase employment by 20%. The waiver would allow states to provide assistance without having to enforce the work component of the program, which currently states that 50 percent of a state's TANF caseload must meet work requirements. The Obama administration stated that the change was made in order to allow more flexibility in how individual states operate their welfare programs. According to Peter Edelman, the director of the Georgetown Center on Poverty, Inequality and Public Policy, the waivers would reduce the difficulty for states in helping TANF applicants find jobs.\n", "Applicants who meet the guidelines are granted a two-year reprieve and are granted work authorization. An estimated 1.8 million undocumented youth are eligible for deferred action. As of August 2013, 557,000 immigrants applied for deferred action and 400,562 have been approved. In reaction to the executive order, some states such as Arizona and Nebraska announced that they would not prescribe state benefits such as granting driver's licenses to recipients. The majority of states announced that they would grant driver's licenses to recipients along with Michigan and Iowa who reversed their decisions to deny state benefits. Without permanent residence, youth granted deferred action still cannot receive federal financial aid. Access to secondary education is still limited, but youth who are granted the ability to work have the potential for increased wages and the ability to pay tuition costs.\n", "It has been argued that the choice of the courts as the avenue for seeking assistance for the homeless and the failure to involve the poor and minorities led to a system that diverted resources, reduced goodwill, and may have further reduced the supply of permanent housing available to poor families.\n", "Iowa City has similar ordinances and has also installed special purple parking meters which are used to fund homeless organizations. The aim is to encourage people to give money to homeless programs through parking fees, rather than directly to beggars. However, some argue that it is better to donate money to panhandlers than to organizations as you can be sure that the money is going directly to the person without any loss through administrative costs.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "In acting, extras are generally not eligible, but stunt performers, puppeteers, singers, and actors with lines or scripted physical interactions with characters (\"supporting actors\" or \"day players\") are eligible. Principal performers generally get larger residuals. In fact, the more prominent the actor, the more generous the residual. Big stars like Tom Cruise, for example, would get a portion of DVD sales in addition to his \"regular\" residuals.\n", "BULLET::::- Cast: While the bulk of the cast usually gets paid by the Actors Guild standard rate of about 2,300 US$ per week, famous and bankable film stars can demand fees up to $30 million per film, plus perks (trailer, entourage, etc.) and possible gross participation. Sometimes an actor will accept a minimal fee in exchange for a more lucrative share of the profits. Union extras are paid around $130 per day (plus extra for overtime or if they provide their own wardrobe), but on a low-budget film non-union extras are paid less, sometimes nothing at all.\n", "Residual payments can sometimes be very small if the role was small or the movie or show was not successful. For example, actor Jeff Cohen received a residual check for $0.67 after appearing in one episode of \"The Facts of Life\"; he took it to a former bar in Studio City called \"Maeve's Re$iduals\", which used to trade free drinks for any SAG-AFTRA residual checks for less than $1.\n", "By contrast, Bob Gunton, who played Warden Norton in \"The Shawshank Redemption\", noted that the movie, one of the most-rerun films, generated \"close to six figures\" in residuals for him in 2004, ten years after the movie was released, and even as of 2014, that he continued to receive \"a very substantial income\".\n", "Residuals are administered by the unions—SAG-AFTRA, the Directors Guild of America (DGA), and the Writers Guild of America (WGA)—for their members, who are paid between one and four months after the air date. According to SAG-AFTRA, it processes around 1.5 million residual checks a year. WGA receives between 100 and 5,000 residual checks a day. The DGA processes \"hundreds of thousands of checks\" a year, and in 2016 it processed $300 million in residuals for its members.\n", "The studio can incur large costs from high-profile housekeeping deals which have become less common during economic down turns. Many such \"vanity deals\" with name Hollywood actors have not generated returns for the studios, thus often an actor's production company is not renewed to stay on the lot after their specified contract is up.\n", "The third way one gets an equity card is through the \"Equity Membership Candidate Program\" (EMC). In this program, actors are allowed to work in Equity productions as credit towards eventual membership. An actor is eligible for membership once he completes fifty weeks of work at theatres that are a part of the EMC program.\n\nOnce a member, the actor is required to pay \"yearly dues\" of $118 plus \"working dues\" which are 2.25% of the gross earnings through an equity contract.\n\nSection::::United States.:Member benefits and privileges.\n", "\"They called and asked if I'd be interested in doing it, and it so happened that it was my favorite show. I was excited . . . Every year I get a (residual) check for like $4 . . . I cash 'em. I don't want to mess up their accounting department.\"\n", "Some direct-to-DVD releases recently have tended to feature actors who were formerly bankable stars. In 2005, salaries for some of these direct-to-DVD actors in the multimillion-dollar range from $2 to $4 million (Jean-Claude Van Damme) and $4.5 to $10 million (Steven Seagal), in some cases exceeding the actors' theatrical rates.\n\nSection::::Digital releases.\n\nSection::::Digital releases.:Direct-to-iTunes.\n", "The British television sitcom \"Extras\" (2005–07) follows the exploits of two professional background actors, Andy and Maggie. They spend most of their time on set looking for a speaking role and a boyfriend, respectively.\n\nIn the Hindi black comedy film \"Mithya\" (2008), the protagonist is a background actor whose facial similarity to an underworld crime boss lands him in trouble.\n", "Many outside of Hollywood fail to realize the longevity of film and television after-market income streams. Many commercial films and network television shows will make money for decades. For the investor who pays for part of the negative costs, the time value of money is important. For many movie investors the required rate of return for this \"risky\" investment may be 25% or more. This means that while there may be TV revenues for an additional ten years after the movie is released, the PV (present value) of those revenues is diminished by the required rate of return and the time it takes for these revenues to accrue. Ancillary revenues (VOD, DVD, Blu-ray, PPV, CATV, etc.), tend to accrue to the studio that purchased these residuals as part of their overall distribution deal. For many movie investors in the past, the theatrical box office was the primary place to gain a PV return on their investment.\n", "Jack Warner called every studio I used to work for and used his muscle to keep me busted. I was blackballed and everyone in the business knew it. Please print that. I made one film in Europe playing a Victorian astronaut, but no one ever saw it. Then by the time I could get work again, it was too late because my type was already out of fashion.\n", "In the spring of 2018 he was filming the role of Jim in the movie adaptation of Emma Jane Unsworth's novel \"Animals\", directed by Sophie Hyde, starring alongside Holliday Grainger and Alia Shawkat. Filming took place in Dublin.\n\nHe performed the role of Chip in John Wilson's production of Leonard Bernstein's \"On The Town\" on 25 August 2018 at the Royal Albert Hall, having performed two weeks earlier in the same venue as one of the Jets in John Wilson's production of \"West Side Story\".\n\nSection::::Awards and reviews.\n", "In 2014, actor Lisa Kudrow of \"Friends\" was ordered to pay $1.6 million to her former manager, who argued that he was owed 5% of Kudrow's residuals earnings from work that he negotiated. Using figures that were publicly disclosed, one analyst estimated Kudrow's residuals to be at least $2.3 million, and likely much higher.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Film distribution\n\nBULLET::::- Film finance\n\nBULLET::::- Royalties\n\nBULLET::::- List of Hollywood strikes involving residuals:\n\nBULLET::::- 1960 Writers Guild of America strike\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 Writers Guild of America strike\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 Writers Guild of America strike\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike\n", "The length of a background actor's employment on a production largely depends on the needs of the director and the scenes being filmed. Some background actors are needed on the set only for a day or two, while others may remain with the film for an extended period. For instance, on James Cameron's film \"Titanic\", a group of 150 \"core background actors\" was hired to play the ship's passengers, and employed throughout the filming.\n\nSection::::Salary and working conditions.\n\nSection::::Salary and working conditions.:United Kingdom.\n", "In the United Kingdom, the distinction between an actor and an extra is defined by agreements between the actors trade unions Broadcasting Entertainment Cinematograph and Theatre Union (BECTU) and Equity, and the various commercial trade and production bodies. These state that once a performer says 13 or more words in any scene, they must become a contracted actor in that production. Minimum pay rates are defined by UK Government minimum wage regulations, and both BECTU and Equity have agreed rates with each body. However, even on non-union productions an extra's pay is an agreed day-rate for ten hours of production time. All performers under agreement with BECTU/Equity are paid on-going royalties. Hence on many advertisements, which are often shown multiple times and distributed internationally, whilst the extra is paid a contracted day-rate, the largest payment is nominally due from ongoing royalties. Due to the resultant complex calculations from multiple international showings, performers under a union managed agreement are often bought-out of their advertisement royalties with a one-off payment.\n", "That said, film actors were still not paid residuals for reruns. As Americans increasingly watched TV at home instead of going out to the movies, movie attendance plummeted by over 65% between 1948 and 1959, studios were grappling with decreased revenues, and actors felt like they were being deprived of significant income that was owed to them. The studios, however, took a hardline stance on residuals for movie actors due to their shrinking revenue as well as the fact that if they paid residuals to actors, they would also have to pay directors and screenwriters as well.\n", "Several casting agencies specialize only in background work, whilst in the UK the directory \"Contacts\" published annually by Spotlight lists all accredited agencies and productions. Some agencies charge a registration fee, and some (mostly commercial background casting) will take between 10% and 15% commission from any booked work. Artists may be required to provide a basic one-page A4 sized CV/resume, that states basic personal details and dimensions, any significant skills (e.g. stage combat), and includes two 8x10 inch photographs on the rear: one head shot; one full body shot.\n", "The Screen Actors Guild, a union representing actors and actresses throughout Hollywood reports that the average television and film actor earns less than US$50,000 annually; the median hourly wage for actors was $18.80 in May 2015. Actors sometimes alternate between theater, television, and film or even branch into other occupations within the entertainment industry such as becoming a singer, comedian, producer, or a television host in order to be monetarily diversified, as doing one gig pays comparatively very little. For instance, David Letterman is well known for branching into late night television as a talk show host while honing his skills as a stand-up comedian, Barbra Streisand ventured into acting while operating as a singer, or Clint Eastwood, who achieved even greater fame in Hollywood for being a film director and a producer than for his acting credentials.\n", "Bridge finance has increased in prevalence in filmmaking in recent years. Bridge financing is an answer to the common \"catch-22\" problem of needing funding to get the actors, but not being able to get the funding without actors. Bridge financing, for example, can be used in scenarios where a filmmaker has a promissory note from an investor to finance a film provided the filmmaker can attach an approved actor, however without money to escrow for the actor's payment, the filmmaker is unable to meet the investor's criteria. In this instance, a short-term lender can provide a bridge loan to secure the actor with the promissory note as collateral; once the actor's payment is escrowed, the equity investment would be triggered, and the bridge loan would be paid back with a small interest.\n", "Due to the negotiations taking place and the suspension of contracts through the Actors Equity, studios were desperate for actors to speed up production, which had dropped significantly. \"The New York Times\" stated, \"It was pointed out that while the Equality regulations were in effect, about 2000 motion picture contracts, involving salaries said to amount to $500,000 were offered to actors in New York.\" Any actor that was to partake in any contract not approved by the Actors Equity would be banished from the Union and would have to reapply for admission after negotiations were finished.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Filming.\n\nThe first spell of film was shot in Karachi.\n\nSection::::Production.:Marketing.\n", "Section::::Salary and working conditions.:United States.\n\nSince 2012, in the US, most major film and television productions fall under the jurisdiction of the SAG-AFTRA union, previously before SAG-AFTRA was AFL-CIO's affiliate, the two unions were separately named as: Screen Actors Guild (SAG) and American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA).\n", "SAG-AFTRA signatory AMPTP producers are allowed to hire non-union background actors after a certain number of SAG performers have been cast; non-union background actors are usually paid the minimum wage. On productions outside of union jurisdiction, payment for background actors is at the discretion of the producers, and ranges from union-scale rates to \"copy and credit\" (i.e., no pay). Those producers who do not pay their actors may be in violation of state and federal laws about minimum wage for a job.\n", "Section::::Professional and amateur acting.\n\nA professional actor is someone who is paid to act. Professional actors sometimes undertake unpaid work for a variety of reasons, including educational purposes or for charity events. Amateur actors are those who do not receive payment for performances.\n\nNot all people working as actors in film; television; or theatre are professionally trained. Mohanlal; Bob Hoskins; for example, had no formal training before becoming an actor.\n\nSection::::Training.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "For ideal black bodies, the brightness temperature is also the directly measurable temperature. For objects in nature, often called Gray Bodies, the actual temperature is only a fraction of the brightness temperature. The fraction of brightness temperature to actual temperature is defined as the emissivity. The relationship between brightness temperature and temperature can be written as:\n\nformula_10\n", "Infra-red observations are commonly combined with albedo to measure the temperature more directly. For example, L.F.Lim et al. [Icarus, Vo. 173, 385 (2005)] does this for 29 asteroids. However, it should be pointed out that these are measurements for \"a particular observing day\", and that the asteroid's surface temperature will change in a regular way depending on its distance from the Sun. From the Stefan-Boltzmann calculation above,\n", "Radiative cooling is one of the few ways an object in space can give off energy. In particular, white dwarf stars are no longer generating energy by fusion or gravitational contraction, and have no solar wind. So the only way their temperature changes is by radiative cooling. This makes their temperature as a function of age very predictable, so by observing the temperature, astronomers can deduce the age of the star.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Nocturnal ice making in Early India and Iran.\n", "Namely, it consists of an open 3He-4He dilution cryostat cooling spiderweb-type bolometers at 100 mK; cold individual optics with horns at different temperature stages (0.1, 1.6, 10 K) and an off-axis Gregorian telescope.\n\nThe CMB signal is measured by the 143 and 217 GHz detectors while interstellar dust emission and atmospheric emission are monitored with the 353 (polarized) and 545 GHz detectors.\n\nThe whole instrument is baffled so as to avoid stray radiation from the Earth and the balloon.\n", "BULLET::::- The intensity of the 21 cm line gives the density and number of atoms in the cloud\n\nBULLET::::- The temperature of the cloud can be calculated\n\nUsing this information the shape of the Milky Way has been determined to be a spiral galaxy, though the exact number and position of the spiral arms is the subject of ongoing research.\n\nSection::::Interstellar medium.:Complex molecules.\n", "ULAS1334 was initially estimated to have a temperature around 550–600 K, a distance of 8–12 parsecs (26–40 light years), and a mass of 15–31 Jupiter masses. More recent spectroscopic observations, using IRS on the Spitzer Space Telescope, give an effective temperature of 500–550 K. Since these temperature estimates are based on model comparisons, they should be treated with caution until the parallax of this object has been measured.\n", "BULLET::::- \"New Spectral Types L and T\" from Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 2005\n\nBULLET::::- \"M Dwarfs and L Dwarfs\", Chapter 9 of Stellar Spectral Classification\n\nSection::::Awards and honors.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Wendell G. Holladay Lectureship\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Marc Aaronson Memorial Lectureship\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 Watkins Visiting Professorship, Wichita State University\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 Underwood Award, Vanderbilt University Department of Physics and Astronomy\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Radio SETI interview, Fall 2011, entitled \"You've Got Sol!\"\n\nBULLET::::- News report, August 2011, entitled \"NASA WISE Mission Uncovers Stars Cooler Than The Human Body\"\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Temperature.\n\nThe surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius, and is often estimated from the star's color index. The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface, as the temperature increases toward the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins.\n", "HST is a warm telescope. The IR background flux collected by cooled focal plane IR instruments like NICMOS or WFC3 is dominated, at rather short wavelengths, by telescope thermal emission rather than by zodiacal scattering. NICMOS data show that the telescope background exceeds the zodiacal background at wavelengths longer than λ ≈ 1.6μm, the exact value depending on the pointing on the sky and on the position of the Earth on its orbit.\n", "where formula_28 is the distance from the Sun on any particular day. If the day of the relevant observations is known, the distance from the Sun on that day can be obtained online from e.g. the NASA orbit calculator, and corresponding temperature estimates at perihelion, aphelion, etc. can be obtained from the expression above.\n\nSection::::Surface temperature.:Albedo inaccuracy problem.\n", "Section::::Publications.:Testing metallicity indicators at z~1.4 with the gravitationally lensed galaxy CASSOWARY 20.\n", "Once every earth scan MSU instrument use the deep space (2.7K) and on-board warm targets to make calibration measures, however as the spacecraft drifts through the diurnal cycle the calibration target temperature may change due to varying solar shadowing effect, the correction is in the order of 0.1 °C/decade for TLT and TMT.\n", "Similarity to the Sun allows for checking derived quantities—such as temperature, which is derived from the color index—against the Sun, the only star whose temperature is confidently known. For stars that are not similar to the Sun, this cross-checking cannot be done.\n\nSection::::By similarity to the Sun.:Solar-type.\n", "In order to make a temperature measurement of an object using an infrared imager, it is necessary to estimate or determine the object's emissivity. For quick work, a thermographer may refer to an emissivity table for a given type of object, and enter that value into the imager. The imager would then calculate the object's contact temperature based on the value entered from the table and the object's emission of infrared radiation as detected by the imager.\n", "LHS 1723\n\nSection::::History of observations.\n\nThe discovery name of this star is LP 656-38, which indicates that its discovery was published between 1963 and 1981 in University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. \"LP\" means \"Luyten, Palomar\".\n\nLHS 1723 is known at least from 1979, when catalogues of high proper motion objects LHS and NLTT were published by Willem Jacob Luyten, and this object was included to these catalogues.\n\nSection::::History of observations.:Distance measurement.\n", "Zanstra method\n\nThe Zanstra method is a method to determine the temperature of central stars of planetary nebulae.\n\nIt was developed by Herman Zanstra in 1927.\n\nIt is assumed that the nebula is optically thick in the Lyman continuum, which means that all ionizing photons from the central star are absorbed inside the nebula.\n\nBased on this assumption, the intensity ratio of a stellar reference frequency to a nebular line such as Hβ can be used to determine the central star's effective temperature.\n\nSection::::Zanstra method for a nebula of hydrogen.\n", "Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by Planck's law. As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the interstellar medium, brown dwarfs, planets both in our own and other solar systems, comets and Kuiper belt objects that will be observed with the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) requiring an additional cryocooler.\n", "Section::::Planet.\n\nSection::::Planet.:Blackbody temperature.\n\nTo find the effective (blackbody) temperature of a planet, it can be calculated by equating the power received by the planet to the known power emitted by a blackbody of temperature .\n\nTake the case of a planet at a distance from the star, of luminosity .\n", "For a planet around another star, formula_1(the incident stellar flux on the planet) is not a readily measurable quantity. To find the equilibrium temperature of such a planet, it may be useful to approximate the host star's radiation as a blackbody as well, such that:\n\nformula_12\n\nThe luminosity (formula_13) of the star, which can be measured from observations of the star's apparent brightness, can then be written as:\n\nformula_14 where the flux has been multiplied by the surface area of the star.\n", "BULLET::::- For slowly rotating stars – Line Depth Ratio (LDR).Here one measures two different spectral lines, one sensitive to temperature and one which is not. Since starspots have a lower temperature than their surroundings the temperature-sensitive line changes its depth. From the difference between these two lines the temperature and size of the spot can be calculated, with a temperature accuracy of 10K.\n\nBULLET::::- For eclipsing binary stars – Eclipse mapping produces images and maps of spots on both stars.\n\nBULLET::::- For stars with transiting extrasolar planets – Light curve variations.\n\nSection::::Temperature.\n", "There are several factors that can determine planetary temperatures and therefore several measures that can draw comparisons to that of the Earth in planets where atmospheric conditions are unknown. Equilibrium temperature is used for planets without atmospheres. With atmosphere, a greenhouse effect is assumed. Finally, surface temperature is used. Each of these temperatures is affected by climate, which is influenced by the orbit and rotation (or tidal locking) of the planet, each of which introduces further variables.\n\nBelow is a comparison of the confirmed planets with the closest known temperatures to Earth.\n\nSection::::Attributes and criteria.:Solar analog.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nHörst moved to the University of Colorado Boulder as a National Science Foundation Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellow in 2011. In 2014, Hörst joined Johns Hopkins University as an Assistant Professor where she specializes in the atmospheric chemistry of planets and their moons. \n\nIn March 2018 Hörst's group demonstrated that they could simulate the atmosphere of alien worlds inside the laboratory, allowing them to analyse the composition of their haze. The study will aid in the analysis of data collected by the James Webb Space Telescope, which NASA expect to launch in 2021.\n", "Calculations of the physical properties of 9 Cephei vary considerably even from broadly similar observational data. Modelling using the non-LTE line-blanketed CMFGEN atmospheric code gives a temperature of 18,000 K, radius of , luminosity of , and mass of . Calculations using the FASTWIND model give gives a temperature of 19,200 K, radius of , luminosity of , and mass of .\n", "Philippa Browning\n\nPhilippa K. Browning is a Professor of Astrophysics in the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics at the University of Manchester. She specialises in the mathematical modelling of fusion plasmas.\n\nSection::::Early life and education.\n", "The latest brown dwarf proposed for the Y spectral type, WISE 1828+2650, is a  Y2 dwarf with an effective temperature originally estimated around 300 K, the temperature of the human body. Parallax measurements have, however, since shown that its luminosity is inconsistent with it being colder than ~400 K. The coolest Y dwarf currently known is WISE 0855−0714 with an approximate temperature of 250 K.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]