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[ "The Bergeron process, if occurring at all, is much more efficient in producing large particles than is the growth of larger droplets at the expense of smaller ones, since the difference in saturation pressure between liquid water and ice is larger than the enhancement of saturation pressure over small droplets (for droplets large enough to considerably contribute to the total mass). For other processes affecting particle size, see rain and cloud physics.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Investigations show that in all cases gas atomisation of molten metal yields a broad range of droplet diameters, typically in the range 10-600 µm diameter, with a mean diameter of ~100 µm. Droplet diameter governs the dynamic behaviour of the droplet in flight which in turn determines the time available for in-flight cooling which is critical in controlling the resulting billet microstructure. At a flight distance of 300–400 mm, predictions show droplet velocities of 40-90 ms for droplet diameters in the range 20-150 µm respectively, compared to measured velocities of ~100 ms, and at distances of up to 180 mm from the atomiser, droplets were still being accelerated by the gas. Droplets cool in-flight predominantly by convection and radiation, and can experience undercooling of up to prior to nucleation. Models and experimental measurements show that small droplets (50 µm) very rapidly become fully solid prior to deposition, 50-200 µm droplets will be typically semi-solid and droplets of diameters 200 µm will be liquid at deposition. The range of droplet dynamic and thermal histories result in a billet top surface of 0.3 to 0.6 solid fraction. Not all material that impacts the surface is incorporated into the billet: some solid droplets will bounce or splash-off the billet top surface or be directed out of the deposition region by turbulent gas movement in the chamber. The proportion of droplets that impact the surface compared to the proportion that are incorporated into the billet has been termed the \"sticking efficiency\": dependent on the geometric sticking which is a function of the spray angle relative to substrate and the thermal sticking efficiency dependent on spray and billet solid/liquid fraction.\n", "Optical patternators provide the distribution of drop surface areas rather than the mass flux. In many instances, this is advantageous as all local transfer phenomena, such as mass; momentum; energy and species are directly proportional to the surface area density of the droplets in the spray.\n\nThere are three principal types of optical patternators: (a) those that use laser sheets, (b)those that use planar liquid laser induced fluorescence and (c) those that use laser extinction tomography.\n\nSection::::Optical patternators.:Using a laser sheet.\n", "Here γ is the Cassie–Baxter surface tension between liquid and vapor, the γ is the solid vapor surface tension of every component and γ is the solid liquid surface tension of every component. A case that is worth mentioning is when the liquid drop is placed on the substrate and creates small air pockets underneath it. This case for a two-component system is denoted by:\n", "Section::::Droplet formation methods.:Co-flowing droplet formation.\n", "Various equations are useful in determining LWC and the effects that influence it. One of the most significant variables related to the LWC is the droplet concentration of a cloud.\n\nSection::::Equations/relations.:Cloud droplet concentration.\n\nThe droplet concentration of a cloud is the number of water droplets in a volume of cloud, typically a cubic centimeter (Wallace, 2006). The formula for the droplet concentration is as follows.\n", "BULLET::::- is the molar volume.\n\nBULLET::::- is the gas constant\n\nBULLET::::- is the Kelvin radius, the radius of the droplets.\n\nThe effect explains supersaturation of vapors. In the absence of nucleation sites, tiny droplets must form before they can evolve into larger droplets. This requires a vapor pressure many times the vapor pressure at the phase transition point.\n\nThis equation is also used in catalyst chemistry to assess mesoporosity for solids.\n\nThe effect can be viewed in terms of the average number of molecular neighbors of surface molecules (see diagram).\n", "Low volume refers to the low volume of carrier fluid that is required with these types of machines. The droplets that are created are of such a small size that less carrier for the formulation is required to cover the required surface area. The best way to understand the concept of using less formulation to cover a larger surface area is to look at the mathematical side of the scenario. In the case where the diameter of a droplet is reduced to half its original size then the amount of droplets that can be formed from the same volume of formulation will increase eightfold. If the droplet diameter is reduced to 10 percent of its original size, then the amount of droplets that can be formed will increase a thousandfold. In this way the droplet diameter determines the amount of droplets that will form.\n", "Maritime clouds tend to have fewer water droplets than continental clouds. The majority of maritime clouds have droplet concentrations between 100 drops/cm and about 200 drops/cm (Wallace, 2006). Continental clouds have much higher droplet concentrations ranging up to around 900 drops/cm. (Wallace, 2006). However, the droplet radius in maritime clouds tend to be larger, so that the end result is that the LWC is relatively similar in both types of air masses for the same types of clouds (Linacre, 1998).\n\nSection::::Measuring techniques.\n\nThere are several ways that can be used to measure the liquid water content of clouds.\n", "Section::::Droplet formation methods.:Cross-flowing droplet formation.\n", "Satellite drops, also known as secondary droplets, are the drops produced during the thread breakup process in addition to the large main droplet. The drops result when the filament by which the main droplet in hanging from the larger fluid mass itself breaks off from the fluid mass. The fluid contained in the filament can stay as a single mass or breakup due to the recoil disturbances imposed on it by the separation of the main droplet. While the production of satellite droplets can be predicted based on fluid properties, their precise location and volume cannot be predicted.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Coalescence and fragmentation.\n\nCoalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets.\n", "Droplets are formed using the surface tension properties of a liquid. For example, water placed on a hydrophobic surface such as wax paper will form spherical droplets to minimize its contact with the surface. Differences in surface hydrophobicity affect a liquid’s ability to spread and ‘wet’ a surface by changing the contact angle. As the hydrophobicity of a surface increases, the contact angle increases, and the ability of the droplet to wet the surface decreases. The change in contact angle, and therefore wetting, is regulated by the Young-Lippmann equation.\n", "The Ohnesorge number for a 3 mm diameter rain drop is typically ~0.002. Larger Ohnesorge numbers indicate a greater influence of the viscosity.\n\nThis is often used to relate to free surface fluid dynamics such as dispersion of liquids in gases and in spray technology.\n\nIn inkjet printing, liquids whose Ohnesorge number is less than 1 and greater than 0.1 are jettable (1Z10 where Z is the reciprocal of the Ohnersorge number).\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "As the surface disturbance becomes large, non-linear theory must be applied. The behavior of jets with large disturbances was examined experimentally by Magnus and Lenard. Their experiments helped to characterize satellite droplets, droplets that are produced in addition to the large main droplet, through the introduction of high speed photography. High speed photography is now the standard method for experimentally analyzing thread breakup.\n", "Sprays are typically characterized by statistical quantities obtained from size and velocity measurements over many individual droplets. The most widely used quantities are size and velocity probability density distributions as well as fluxes, e.g., number, mass, momentum etc. Through a given plane, some instruments infer such statistical quantities from individual measurements, e.g., number density from light extinction, but very few instruments are capable of making direct size and velocity measurements of individual droplets in a spray( Kalantari and Tropea, 2007). The three most widely used methods of drop size measurements are laser diffraction, optical imaging, and phase Doppler. All of these optical methods are non-intrusive. If all the drops had the same velocity, the measurements of drop size would be the identical for all methods. However, there is a significant difference between the velocity of larger and smaller drops. These optical methods are classified as either spatial or flux based. A spatial sampling method measures the drops in a finite measurement volume. The residence time of drops in the measurement volume affects the results. The flux-based methods sample continually over a measurement cross-section.\n", "Cumulus clouds can be composed of ice crystals, water droplets, supercooled water droplets, or a mixture of them. The water droplets form when water vapor condenses on the nuclei, and they may then coalesce into larger and larger droplets. In temperate regions, the cloud bases studied ranged from above ground level. These clouds were normally above , and the concentration of droplets ranged from 23 to 1300 droplets per cubic centimeter (380 to 21,300 droplets per cubic inch). This data was taken from growing isolated cumulus clouds that were not precipitating. The droplets were very small, ranging down to around 5 micrometers in diameter. Although smaller droplets may have been present, the measurements were not sensitive enough to detect them. The smallest droplets were found in the lower portions of the clouds, with the percentage of large droplets (around 20 to 30 micrometers) rising dramatically in the upper regions of the cloud. The droplet size distribution was slightly bimodal in nature, with peaks at the small and large droplet sizes and a slight trough in the intermediate size range. The skew was roughly neutral. Furthermore, large droplet size is roughly inversely proportional to the droplet concentration per unit volume of air. In places, cumulus clouds can have \"holes\" where there are no water droplets. These can occur when winds tear the cloud and incorporate the environmental air or when strong downdrafts evaporate the water.\n", "As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing, and is also known as the warm rain process. In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe examination of droplet formation has a long history, first traceable to the work of Leonardo da Vinci who wrote:\n\nHe thus correctly attributed the fall of droplets to gravity and the mechanism which drives thread breakup to the cohesion of water molecules.\n", "BULLET::::- The vapor–solid, vapor–liquid, and liquid–solid interfacial energies play a key role in the shape of the droplets and therefore must be examined before choosing a suitable catalyst; small contact angles between the droplet and solid are more suitable for large area growth, while large contact angles result in the formation of smaller (decreased radius) whiskers.\n", "Section::::Function.:Capillary exchange.:Bulk flow.\n", "Clusters with an arbitrary small number of droplets can be created. Unlike the clusters with a large number of droplets, small clusters cannot always form a hexagonally symmetric structure. Instead, they produce various more or less symmetric configurations depending on the number of droplets. Tracing individual droplets in small clusters is crucial for potential applications. The symmetry, orderliness, and stability of these configurations can be studied with such a measure of self-organization as the Voronoi entropy.\n", "Scientists traditionally thought that the variation in the size of raindrops was due to collisions on the way down to the ground. In 2009 French researchers succeeded in showing that the distribution of sizes is due to the drops' interaction with air, which deforms larger drops and causes them to fragment into smaller drops, effectively limiting the largest raindrops to about 6 mm diameter. However, drops up to 10 mm (equivalent in volume to a sphere of radius 4.5 mm) are theoretically stable and could be levitated in a wind tunnel.\n", "Spray angle\":\" Spray angle has an inverse effect on drop size. An increase in spray angle will reduce the drop size, whereas a reduction in spray angle will increase the drop size.\n\nLiquid properties\":\" Viscosity and surface tension increase the amount of energy required to atomize the spray. An increase in any of these properties will typically increase the drop size.\n", "where D can be found using the Stokes-Einstein relation formula_10, R is the droplet radius, and c is the number of droplets per unit volume. This equation can be reduced to the following:\n\nformula_11 \n\nwhere formula_12 is the rate constant of flocculation formula_13. If the droplet radii are not all the same size and aggregation occurs, the flocculation rate constant is equal to formula_14.\n\nSection::::Progression of macroemulsions.:Creaming.\n" ]

[ "All water droplets are roughly the same size." ]

[ "Water droplets are not all roughly the same size, we just don't see the smaller ones." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All water droplets are roughly the same size.", "All water droplets are roughly the same size." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Water droplets are not all roughly the same size, we just don't see the smaller ones.", "In a rain storm, smaller waterdroplets keep flying around due to their size and are not visible near the ground; larger water droplets fall down, and become visible to us." ]

[ "Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.\n", "Every species occupies a \"niche\" in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Some invading species fill niches that are not used by native species, and they also can create new niches. An example of this type can be found within the \"Lampropholis delicata\" species of skink.\n", "While all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, species interact with each other more directly.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Traits of invaded ecosystems.\n\nIn 1958, Charles S. Elton claimed that ecosystems with higher species diversity were less subject to invasive species because of fewer available niches. Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems and argued that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion.\n", "Invaded ecosystems may have experienced disturbance, typically human-induced. Such a disturbance may give invasive species a chance to establish themselves with less competition from natives less able to adapt to a disturbed ecosystem.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Vectors.\n\nNon-native species have many \"vectors\", including biogenic vectors, but most invasions are associated with human activity. Natural range extensions are common in many species, but the rate and magnitude of human-mediated extensions in these species tend to be much larger than natural extensions, and humans typically carry specimens greater distances than natural forces.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Economic.:Economic opportunities.\n\nSome invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, silver carp and common carp can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into pet foods, or mink feed. Water hyacinth can be turned into fuel by methane digesters, and other invasive plants can also be harvested and utilized as a source of bioenergy.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Economic.:Economic opportunities.:Benefits.\n", "Although some argue that \"invasive\" is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define, the fact of the matter is that organisms have and continue to be introduced to areas in which they are not native, sometimes with but usually without much regard to the harm that could result.\n", "Perhaps the best place to study problems associated with introduced species is on islands. Depending upon the isolation (how far an island is located from continental biotas), native island biological communities may be poorly adapted to the threat posed by exotic introductions. Often this can mean that no natural predator of an introduced species is present, and the non-native spreads uncontrollably into open or occupied niche.\n", "Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with the aim of ameliorating environmental problems. A number of fast spreading plants such as kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control. Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species and involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread.\n", "This debate hinged on the spatial scale at which invasion studies were performed, and the issue of how diversity affects susceptibility remained unresolved as of 2011. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between diversity and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse. The latter result may be a side-effect of invasives' ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered. However, this spatial scale dependent pattern of the effects of invasion on diversity does not seem to hold true when the invader is a vertebrate. \n", "Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, are essential to the ecosystem of that area. If they are removed from the location it could be harmful to that area.\n\nEconomics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable Chinese mitten crab is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Vectors.:Within the aquatic environment.\n", "Invasive species can negatively impact food web structures. In terms of trophic levels, the initial introduction of a non-native species results in a higher species richness whereby the trophic relationships are altered by the additional resource (if an animal is not a predator at the top of the food chain) and consumer. However, the consequent degree of the impact on the local ecosystem once a species becomes overabundant is case dependent as some invasive species, like the brown tree snake in Guam, have caused numerous extinctions of native fauna, while others have had fewer damaging impacts on the environment.\n", "Other examples are \"Centaurea solstitialis\" (yellow starthistle) and \"Centaurea diffusa\" (diffuse knapweed). These Eastern European noxious weeds have spread through the western and West Coast states. Experiments show that 8-hydroxyquinoline, a chemical produced at the root of \"C. diffusa\", has a negative effect only on plants that have not co-evolved with it. Such co-evolved native plants have also evolved defenses. \"C. diffusa\" and \"C. solstitialis\" do not appear in their native habitats to be overwhelmingly successful competitors. Success or lack of success in one habitat does not necessarily imply success in others. Conversely, examining habitats in which a species is less successful can reveal novel weapons to defeat invasiveness.\n", "An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water, or food. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems which are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule. Invasive species often coexist with native species for an extended time, and gradually, the superior competitive ability of an invasive species becomes apparent as its population grows larger and denser and it adapts to its new location.\n", "Introduced species, which may be invasive species, are often ecosystem engineers. Kudzu, a leguminous plant introduced to the southeast U.S., changes the distribution and number of animal and bird species in the areas it invades. It also crowds out native plant species. The zebra mussel is an ecosystem engineer in North America. By providing refuge from predators, it encourages the growth of freshwater invertebrates through increasing microhabitats. Light penetration into infected lakes also improves the ecosystem, resulting in an increase in algae. In contrast to the benefits some ecosystem engineers can cause, invasive species often have the reverse effect.\n", "Unlike the notable ideas (concerning the success of invasive non-indigenous organisms) that preceded it, such as the enemy release hypothesis (ERH) and Charles Darwin's Habituation Hypothesis, the EICA hypothesis postulates that an invasive species is \"not\" as fit (in its introduced habitat) at its moment of introduction as it is at the time that it is considered invasive. As suggested by the name of the hypothesis (Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability), the hypothesis predicts that much of the invasive potential of an invasive species is derived from its ability to evolve to reallocate its resources.\n", "Invasive species can be transported intentionally or accidentally. Many invasive species originate in shipping areas from where they are unintentionally transported to their new location. Sometimes human populations intentionally introduce species into new landscapes to serve various purposes, ranging from decoration to erosion control. These species can later become invasive and dramatically modify the landscape. It is important to note that not all exotic species are invasive; in fact, the majority of newly introduced species never become invasive. Humans have on their migrations through the ages taken along plants of agricultural and medicinal value, so that the modern distribution of such favored species is a clear mapping of the routes they have traveled and the places they have settled.\n", "In general, invasive species that become overabundant most commonly have a negative impact on local biodiversity with little research having found positive effects. Furthermore, an invasive species may have an initial positive benefit that fades as the species become overabundant and the cost of damage control increases.\n", "Typically, an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location. At low population densities, it can be difficult for the introduced species to reproduce and maintain itself in a new location, so a species might reach a location multiple times before it becomes established. Repeated patterns of human movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and down highways offer repeated opportunities for establishment (also known as a high propagule pressure).\n", "The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance. Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species-rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. An important question is, \"do invasive species cause extinctions?\" Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: alpha diversity) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: beta diversity). Overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. Extirpation, population decline and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Biodiversity.\n\nBiotic invasion is considered one of the five top drivers for global biodiversity loss and is increasing because of tourism and globalization. This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated fresh water systems, though quarantines and ballast water rules have improved the situation.\n", "Invasive species are an excellent example of successful ecological release because low levels of biodiversity, an abundance of resources, and particular life history traits allow their numbers to increase dramatically. Additionally, there are few predators for these species.\n\nSection::::Causes and mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Causes and mechanisms.:Cascade effect.\n", "With the exception of an early study exploring the facilitative effects of litter deposition, studies that explicitly addressed terrestrial plant priority effects began to appear in the literature around the year 2000. A study on two species of introduced grasses in Hawaiian woodlands found that the species with inferior competitive abilities may be able to persist through priority effects. At least three studies have come to similar conclusions about the coexistence of native and exotic grasses in California grassland ecosystems. If given time to establish, native species can successfully inhibit the establishment of exotics. Authors of the various studies attributed the prevalence of exotic grasses in California to the low seed production and relatively poor dispersal ability of native species.\n", "Section::::Human impact and intervention.\n\nThe diversity of species across many parts of the world exists only because bioregions are separated by barriers, particularly large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains, and deserts. Humans can introduce species that have never met in their evolutionary history, on varying time scales ranging from days to decades (Long, 1981; Vermeij, 1991). Humans are moving species across the globe at an unprecedented rate. Those working to address invasive species view this as an increased risk to indigenous species.\n", "Another example is the Dutch elm disease, which has severely reduced the American elm trees in forests and cities.\n\nDiseases may also be vectored by invasive insects such as the Asian citrus psyllid and the bacterial disease citrus greening.\n\nIt has been argued that some invasive species \"...could fill niches in degraded ecosystems and help restore native biodiversity...\".\n\nSection::::Study and eradication.\n" ]

[ "All invasive species are successful." ]

[ "We only hear about the successful invasive species. That makes it seem like it is very common. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All invasive species are successful." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "We only hear about the successful invasive species. That makes it seem like it is very common. " ]

[ "The process of heating a pan to cause the oil to oxidize is analogous to the hardening of drying oil used in oil paints, or to varnish a painting. But whereas the curing of oils is the result of autoxidation at room temperature for a painting, for a pan, the thermoxidized oil undergoes a conversion into the hard surface of the seasoned pan at the high temperatures of cooking.\n", "Spilled hot cooking oil can also cause severe third degree burns, In the worst-case scenario, severe burns can be fatal. The higher temperatures and tendency of oil to stick to the skin make spilled hot cooking oil far more dangerous than spilled hot water. Children can accidentally place their hands on top of the stove, playing with the materials while being cooked, or accidentally pull the pot down, which can cause significant injury. The utmost care should be used when deep frying when children are present, to protect their safety at all times.\n\nSection::::Environmental.\n", "Hot chocolate effect\n\nThe hot chocolate effect, also known as the allassonic effect, is a phenomenon of wave mechanics first documented in 1982 by Frank Crawford, where the pitch heard from tapping a cup of hot liquid rises after the addition of a soluble powder. It was first observed in the making of hot chocolate or instant coffee, but also occurs in other situations such as adding salt to supersaturated hot water or cold beer. Recent research has found many more substances which create the effect, even in initially non-supersaturated liquids.\n", "Above the smoke point are flash and fire points. The flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors will ignite but aren't produced in sufficient quantities to stay lit. The flash point generally occurs at about . The fire point is the temperature at which hot oil produces sufficient vapors they will catch on fire and burn. As frying hours increase, all these temperature points decrease. They depend more on an oil's acidity than fatty-acid profile.\n", "There are many cooking techniques that do not use oil as part of the process such as steaming or boiling. Water based techniques are typically used to cook vegetables or other plants which can be consumed as food. When no oil is present the method of heat transfer to the food is typically water vapor. Water vapor molecules do not have any significant surface interactions with the food surface. Since food, including vegetables, is cooked by the vaporization of water within the food, the use of water vapor as the mode of heat transfer has no effect on the chemical interactions on the surface of the food.\n", "The dangers of oil or fat fires (generally flammable substances less dense than water) are well known in industrial processes. Attempts to extinguish oil fires with water result in a boilover: an extremely hazardous condition whereby the flaming oil is violently expelled from the container. These fires result from either heating the oil to its autoignition point or by oil splattering onto the heat source.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of cooking vessels\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Online copy of an Oxfordshire council safety flyer (PDF document)\n\nBULLET::::- Photo story of a chip pan fire\n", "Cooking techniques can be broken down into two major categories: Oil based and water based cooking techniques. Both oil and water based techniques rely on the vaporization of water to cook the food. Oil based cooking techniques have significant surface interactions that greatly affect the quality of the food they produce. These interactions stem from the polar oil molecules interacting with the surface of the food. Water based techniques have far less surface interactions that affect the quality of the food.\n\nSection::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Pan fry.\n", "In terms of surface interactions, chromium oxide is polar. The oxygen atoms on the surface have a permanent dipole moment, and are therefore hydrophilic. This means that water will wet it, but oils or other lipids will not.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.:Cast iron.\n", "But at this moment, Akiyama answered to questions about the oil in the interview as follows: \"I have no idea why Sakuraba felt slippery. It may be my sweat, as I sweat a lot always and it often drips off my body.\"\n", "Section::::Temperature.\n\nThe smoke point of an oil correlates with its level of refinement. Many cooking oils have smoke points above standard home cooking temperatures:\n\nBULLET::::- Pan frying (sauté) on stove top heat: 120 °C (248 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- Deep frying: 160 - 180 °C (320 °F - 356 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- Oven baking: Average of 180 °C (356 °F)\n\nSmoke point decreases at different pace in different oils.\n\nConsiderably above the temperature of the smoke point is the flash point, the point at which the vapours from the oil can ignite in air, given an ignition source.\n\nThe following table presents smoke points of various fats and oils. \n", "BULLET::::- Hydrocarbon fires – as it will only spread the fire because of the difference in density/hydrophobicity. For example, adding water to a fire with an oil source will cause the oil to spread, since oil and water do not mix.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal fires – as these fires produce huge amounts of energy (up to 7.550 calories/kg for aluminium) and water can also create violent chemical reactions with burning metal (possibly even serving as an additional oxidizing agent).\n\nSince these reactions are well understood, it has been possible to create specific water-additives which will allow:\n", "If oil and water are mixed and small oil droplets are formed and dispersed throughout the water, eventually the droplets will coalesce to decrease the amount of energy in the system. However, if solid particles are added to the mixture, they will bind to the surface of the interface and prevent the droplets from coalescing, making the emulsion more stable.\n", "Section::::Importance of cooking temperature on interfaces.:Smoke points of oils.\n", "The following oils are suitable for high-temperature frying due to their high smoke point above :\n\nBULLET::::- Avocado oil\n\nBULLET::::- Mustard oil\n\nBULLET::::- Palm oil\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut oil (marketed as \"groundnut oil\" in the UK and India)\n\nBULLET::::- Rice bran oil\n\nBULLET::::- Safflower oil\n\nBULLET::::- Semi-refined sesame oil\n\nBULLET::::- Semi-refined sunflower oil\n", "Section::::Oxidative stability.\n\nHydrolysis and oxidation are the two primary degradation processes that occur in an oil during cooking. Oxidative stability is how resistant an oil is to reacting with oxygen, breaking down and potentially producing harmful compounds while exposed to continuous heat. Oxidative stability is the best predictor of how an oil behaves during cooking. \n", "BULLET::::- Emulsion Breaking, resulting from the oxygen and hydrogen ions that bond into the water receptor sites of emulsified oil molecules creating a water-insoluble complex separating water from oil, driller's mud, dyes, inks and fatty acids etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Halogen Complexing, as the metal ions bind themselves to chlorines in a chlorinated hydrocarbon molecule resulting in a large insoluble complex separating water from pesticides, herbicides, chlorinated PCBs, etc.\n", "A cooking technique called flash boiling uses a small amount of water to quicken the process of boiling. For example, this technique can be used to melt a slice of cheese onto a hamburger patty. The cheese slice is placed on top of the meat on a hot surface such as a frying pan, and a small quantity of cold water is thrown onto the surface near the patty. A vessel (such as a pot or frying-pan cover) is then used to quickly seal the steam-flash reaction, dispersing much of the steamed water on the cheese and patty. This results in a large release of heat, transferred via vaporized water condensing back into a liquid (a principle also used in refrigerator and freezer production).\n", "Cool flames were accidentally discovered in the 1810s by Sir Humphry Davy, who was inserting a hot platinum wire into a mixture of air and diethyl ether vapor. \"When the experiment on the slow combustion of ether is made in the dark, a pale phosphorescent light is perceived above the wire, which of course is most distinct when the wire ceases to be ignited. This appearance is connected with the formation of a peculiar acrid volatile substance possessed of acid properties.\" After noticing that certain types of flame did not burn his fingers or ignite a match, he also found that those unusual flames could change into conventional ones and that at certain compositions and temperatures, they did not require an external ignition source, such as a spark or hot material.\n", "Cooking oil\n\nCooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed edible oil.\n\nCooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid.\n", "Oftentimes the food is covered in a liquid batter before it is deep fried. This eliminates the interactions between the denatured proteins on meat and the oil. In deep frying, the interactions are primarily at the interface of the batter and the oil. \n", "Raw tung oil tends to dry to a fine wrinkled finish; the English name for this is gas checking: this property was used to make wrinkle finishes, usually by adding excess cobalt drier. To stop this, the oil is heated to gas-proof it, and most oils used for coating are gas-proofed, also known as \"boiled\".\n\nThe name is often used by paint and varnish manufacturers as a generic name for any wood finishing product that contains the real tung oil and/or provides a finish that resembles the finish obtained with tung oil.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Abel Gonzales Jr., also known as \"Fried Jesus\", of Dallas, Texas, invented deep-fried butter, serving it at the 2009 State Fair of Texas in Dallas, Texas. Prepared using frozen, battered butter, it was awarded the \"Most Creative food prize\" at that time.\n", "The emulsion in this instance is a water-in-oil one. Studies have shown that by surrounding the water-soluble flavor extracts with the continuous oil phase of the emulsion resulted in a slower rate of flavor dispersion from the water, leading to the prolonged taste of flavor in the final product. The oil phase effectively prevents the flavor-containing water particles from leaching out from the product and transferring to the surrounding environment, such as sauces or other food materials.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of bacon substitutes\n\nBULLET::::- List of meat substitutes\n\nBULLET::::- List of vegetarian and vegan companies\n", "Under prolonged heat, the triglycerides in the oil begin to break down. This means the glycerol molecules and the fatty acid chains begin to break apart. As this occurs the oil becomes more polar. As the oil becomes more polar, the Van der Waals interactions between the glycerol and the hydrocarbons begin to increase. In this case, the dipole on glycerol induces a dipole in the hydrocarbon chain. The strength of the dipole induced dipole interactions can be modeled with a combination of Debye, Keesom and London interactions through addition.\n\nDebye:\n\nKeesom:\n\nLondon:\n", "Water contact\n\nWater contact is a term used in the hydrocarbon industry to describe the elevation above which fluids other than water can be found in the pores of a rock. \n\nFor example, in a traditional hand-excavated water well, the level at which the water stabilizes represents the water table, or the elevation in the rock where air starts to occupy the rock pores.\n\nIn most situations in the hydrocarbon industry the term is qualified as being an oil-water contact (abbreviated to \"OWC\") or a gas-water contact (\"GWC\"). Often there is also a gas-oil contact (\"GOC\").\n" ]

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[ "Tennis elbow or lateral epicondylitis is a chronic or an acute inflammation of the tendons that arise from the outer part of the elbow. The affected tendons are the tendons of extensor muscles which originate from the lateral epicondyle of humerus. It is caused by the repetitive movements and overuse. It damages the tendons which results in pain and tenderness on the outer part of the elbow.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:De Quervain's syndrome.\n", "There are several recommendations regarding prevention, treatment, and avoidance of recurrence that are largely speculative including stretches and progressive strengthening exercises to prevent re-irritation of the tendon and other exercise measures.\n\nOne way to help treat minor cases of tennis elbow is to simply relax the affected arm. The rest lets stress and tightness within the forearm slowly relax and eventually have the arm in working condition—in a day or two, depending on the case.\n", "Longitudinal sonogram of the lateral elbow displays thickening and heterogeneity of the common extensor tendon that is consistent with tendinosis, as the ultrasound reveals calcifications, intrasubstance tears, and marked irregularity of the lateral epicondyle. Although the term “epicondylitis” is frequently used to describe this disorder, most histopathologic findings of studies have displayed no evidence of an acute, or a chronic inflammatory process. Histologic studies have demonstrated that this condition is the result of tendon degeneration, which replaces normal tissue with a disorganized arrangement of collagen. Therefore, the disorder is more appropriately referred to as \"tendinosis\" or \"tendinopathy\" rather than \"tendinitis.\"\n", "The UCL is important because it stabilizes the elbow from being abducted. If intense or repeated bouts of valgus stress occur on the UCL, injury will most likely transpire. Damage to the ulnar collateral ligament is common among baseball pitchers and javelin throwers because the throwing motion is similar. Physicians believe repetitive movements, especially pitching in baseball, cause adolescents' UCL injuries. Furthermore, physicians have stated that if an adolescent throws over 85 throws for 8 months or more in a year, or throw when exhausted, the adolescent has a significantly higher risk of succumbing to a UCL surgery. Gridiron football, racquet sports, ice hockey and water polo players have also been treated for damage to the ulnar collateral ligament. Specific overhead movements like those that occur during baseball pitching, tennis serving or volleyball spiking increase the risk of UCL injury. During the cocking phase of pitching, the shoulder is horizontally abducted, externally rotated and the elbow is flexed. There is slight stress on the UCL in this position but it increases when the shoulder is further externally rotated. The greater the stress the more the UCL is stretched causing strain. During the overhead throwing motion, valgus stress on the medial elbow occurs during arm cocking and acceleration. The initiation of valgus stress occurs at the conclusion of the arm-cocking phase. In the transitional moment from arm cocking to arm acceleration, the shoulder vigorously rotates internally, the forearm is in near full supination, and the elbow flexes from 90° to approximately 125°. From late cocking to ball release, the elbow rapidly extends from approximately 125° to 25° at ball release. This causes tremendous valgus stress and tensile strain on the UCL. Injuries to the ulnar collateral ligament are believed to result from poor throwing mechanics, overuse, high throwing velocities, and throwing certain types of pitches, such as curveballs. Poor mechanics along with high repetition of these overhead movements can cause irritation, micro-tears or ruptures of the UCL. Injuries to the Ulnar Collateral Ligament in baseball players are rarely due to one-time, traumatic events. Rather, they are more often due to small chronic tears that accumulate over time.\n", "The extensor digiti minimi also has a small origin site medial to the elbow that this condition can affect. The muscle involves the extension of the little finger and some extension of the wrist allowing for adaption to \"snap\" or flick the wrist—usually associated with a racquet swing. Most often, the extensor muscles become painful due to tendon breakdown from over-extension. Improper form or movement allows for power in a swing to rotate through and around the wrist—creating a moment on that joint instead of the elbow joint or rotator cuff. This moment causes pressure to build impact forces to act on the tendon causing irritation and inflammation.\n", "BULLET::::- Rotation of the anconeus muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Denervation of the lateral epicondyle\n\nBULLET::::- Decompression of the posterior interosseous nerve\n\nSurgical techniques for lateral epicondylitis can be done by open surgery, percutaneous surgery or arthroscopic surgery, with no evidence that any particular type is better or worse than another. Side effects include infection, damage to nerves and inability to straighten the arm. \n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nResponse to initial therapy is common, but so is relapse (25% to 50%) and/or prolonged, moderate discomfort (40%).\n", "Lateral epicondylitis is an overuse injury that frequently occur in tennis. It is also known as tennis elbow. This injury categorise as tendon injury where it occur in the forearm muscle called the extensor carpic radialis brevis (ECRB). The injury is regularly developed in the recreational players. Experienced players are less likely to develop lateral epicondylitis than the inexperienced players due to poorer technique. Tennis elbow or lateral epicondylalgia is a common injury that occurs in 40-50% of tennis players. It is more prominent at the lower levels of play and usually comes from any incorrect use of the wrist or grip on the forehand or one-handed backhand strokes[18]. Players at higher levels often have more relaxed grips and have a larger racquet extension out to the ball after they make contact, where professionals have less emphasis on the arm and more on the use of every part of the body in order exert the natural power behind the ball, lower level players don’t get the training to discover how to use their whole body for a tennis stroke and are often reduced to using their arms in order to exert all of the power therefore putting heavy strain on the arm[18]. Holding the grip tightly will put more tension on the arm therefore when going for a swing the muscles will be absorbing all of the shock from the initial contact of the ball[19]. Symptoms of tennis elbow include the slow pain which occurs around the elbow. Simple tasks such as shaking hands or moving the wrist with force, like lifting weights or doing push ups, will worsen the pain[21]. Tennis Elbow has actually shown that inflammatory tendons are only part of the early stages or acute stages with a treatment of anti-inflammatory or steroids being appropriate uses for this symptom[20]. Most players respond well to simple rest, but other means of treatment include physical therapy, strength training, and electrical stimulation[18]. Some players make alterations to their racquet such as increasing grip size which will ultimately prevent any unwanted movement of the wrist when extending out and finishing the tennis stroke[19].\n", "It is due to excessive use of the muscles of the back of the forearm. Typically this occurs as a result of work or sports, classically racquet sports. The diagnosis is typically based on the symptoms with medical imaging used to rule out other potential causes. It is more likely if pain increases when a person tries to bend back their wrist when their wrist is held in a neutral position. It is classified as a chronic tendinosis, not a tendinitis.\n", "The anterior forearm contains several muscles that are involved with flexing the digits of the hand, and flexing and pronating the wrist. The tendons of these muscles come together in a common tendinous sheath, which originates from the medial epicondyle of the humerus at the elbow joint. In response to minor injury, or sometimes for no obvious reason at all, this point of insertion becomes inflamed.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Epicondylitis is much more common on the lateral side of the elbow (tennis elbow), rather than the medial side. In most cases, its onset is gradual and symptoms often persist for weeks before a person seeks care. In golfer's elbow, pain at the medial epicondyle is aggravated by resisted wrist flexion and pronation, which is used to aid diagnosis. Tennis elbow is indicated by the presence of lateral epicondylar pain precipitated by resisted wrist extension.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "A common injury associated with the lateral epicondyle of the humerus is lateral epicondylitis also known as tennis elbow. Repetitive overuse of the forearm, as seen in tennis or other sports, can result in inflammation of \"the tendons that join the forearm muscles on the outside of the elbow. The forearm muscles and tendons become damaged from overuse. This leads to pain and tenderness on the outside of the elbow.\" \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Medial epicondyle of the humerus\n\nBULLET::::- Common extensor tendon\n\nBULLET::::- Tennis elbow (lateral epicondylitis)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Slim Golf Blog - Treating & Preventing Golfer's Elbow\n", "The term \"tennis elbow\" is widely used (although informal), but the condition should be understood as not limited to tennis players. The medical term \"lateral epicondylitis\" is most commonly used for the condition.\n\nSince histological findings reveal noninflammatory tissue, the term “lateral elbow tendinopathy,\" \"tendinosis,” or “angio-fibroblastic tendinosis” have been suggested instead of “lateral epicondylitis”. \n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nTennis elbow is a type of repetitive strain injury resulting from tendon overuse and failed healing of the tendon. In addition, the extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle plays a key role.\n", "Tennis elbow is the most common elbow problem among athletes, highly associated with world class tennis players, it is a condition that involves the common wrist extensor origin, in particular the origin of extensor carpi radialis. The causes for tennis elbow includes any activity, not only tennis, where the repetitive use of the extensor muscles of the forearm may cause acute or chronic tendonitis of the tensinous insertion of these muscles at the lateral epicondyle of the elbow. The condition itself is most common with painters, plumbers, and carpenters. Further studied have shown that auto-workers, butchers and cooks also get tennis elbow more often than the rest of the population.\n", "Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury. It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas. These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as “the elbow”). Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm. Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch.\n", "Therapy includes a variety of exercises for muscle and tendon reconditioning, starting with stretching and gradual strengthening of the flexor-pronator muscles. Strengthening will slowly begin with isometrics and progresses to eccentric exercises helping to extend the range of motion back to where it once was. After the strengthening exercises, it is common for the subject to ice the area.\n", "Moderate evidence exists demonstrating that joint manipulation directed at the elbow and wrist and spinal manipulation directed at the cervical and thoracic spinal regions results in clinical changes to pain and function. There is also moderate evidence for short-term and mid-term effectiveness of cervical and thoracic spine manipulation as an add-on therapy to concentric and eccentric stretching plus mobilisation of wrist and forearm. Although not yet conclusive, the short-term analgesic effect of manipulation techniques may allow more vigorous stretching and strengthening exercises, resulting in a better and faster recovery process of the affected tendon in lateral epicondylitis.\n", "At least one author questions that lateral epicondylitis is caused by repetitive microtrauma/overuse, maintaining the theory is likely overstated and lacks scientific support.\n\nOther speculative risk factors for lateral epicondylitis include taking up tennis later in life, unaccustomed strenuous activity, decreased mental chronometry and speed and repetitive eccentric contraction of muscle (controlled lengthening of a muscle group).\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Physical examination.\n", "In high median nerve palsy patients, recovery time varies from as early as four months to 2.5 years. Initially, patients are immobilized in a neutral position of the forearm and elbow flexed at 90° in order to prevent further injury. Additionally, gentle exercises and soft tissue massage are applied. The next goal is strengthening and flexibility, usually involving wrist extension and flexion; however, it is important not to overuse the muscles in order to prevent re-injury. If surgery is required, post operative therapy initially involves decreasing pain and sensitivity to the incision area. Adequate grip and elbow strength must be achieved before returning to pre-operative activity.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nIn most cases, a physician will diagnose an ulnar collateral ligament injury using a patient’s medical history and a physical examination that includes a valgus stress test. The valgus stress test is performed on both arms and a positive test is indicated by pain on the affected arm that is not present on the uninvolved side. Physicians often utilize imaging techniques such as ultrasound, x-rays and magnetic resonance imaging or arthroscopic surgery to aid with making a proper diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "Depending upon severity and quantity of multiple tendon injuries that have built up, the extensor carpi radialis brevis may not be fully healed by conservative treatment. Nirschl defines four stages of lateral epicondylitis, showing the introduction of permanent damage beginning at Stage 2.\n\nBULLET::::1. Inflammatory changes that are reversible\n\nBULLET::::2. Nonreversible pathologic changes to origin of the extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle\n\nBULLET::::3. Rupture of ECRB muscle origin\n\nBULLET::::4. Secondary changes such as fibrosis or calcification.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Usually, an outside force is acting to suppress the nerve, or cause nerve damage. Most commonly, shoulder dislocation or fractions in the shoulder can cause the palsy. Contact sports such as football and hockey can cause the injury Other cases have been caused by repeated crutch pressure or injuries accidentally caused by health professionals (iatrogenesis). Furthermore, following an anterior shoulder operation; damage to the axillary nerve is possible and has been documented by various surgeons, thus causing axillary nerve palsy. Other possible causes include: deep infection, pressure from a cast or splint, fracture of the humerus, or nerve disorders in which the nerves become inflamed.\n", "A common injury to the extensor carpi ulnaris is tennis elbow. This injury occurs in people that participate in activities requiring repetitive arm, elbow, and wrist, especially when they are tightly gripping an object. Some symptoms include pain when shaking hands or when squeezing/gripping an object. The pain worsens when a person moves their wrist with force. The pain intensifies because the extensor carpi ulnaris has an injury near the elbow area and as a person moves their arm, the muscle contracts, thus causing it to move over the medial epicondyle of the humerus. This causes irritation to the already existing injury. Some treatments for tennis elbow include occupational therapy, physical therapy, anti-inflammatory medication, and rest from the activity that caused the injury. A similar injury involving the medial elbow is known as golfer's elbow.\n", "Axillary nerve palsy patients present themselves with differing symptoms. For instance, some axillary nerve palsy patients complain that they cannot bend their arm at the elbow, however no other pain or discomfort exists. To further complicate diagnosis, onset of palsy can be delayed and may not be noticed until 12-24 hours after the trauma of shoulder region occurred. Therefore it is important to recognize the symptoms, but also to realize that different people have various combinations of them.\n\nSymptoms include:\n\nBULLET::::- cannot bend arm at the elbow\n\nBULLET::::- deficiency of deltoid muscle function\n", "Although treatment for tennis elbow prior 2010 was unknown because the etiology remained unclear, tests confirmed that the cause was an imbalance with the agonist-antagonist functional relationship. Treatment now includes anti-inflammatory medicines, rest, equipment check, physical therapy, braces, steroid injections, shock wave therapy and if symptoms persist after 6 to 12 months, doctors may recommend surgery.\n", "Rest is the primary intervention for this injury. Ice, pain medication, steroid injections, strengthening exercises, and avoiding any aggravating activities can also help. Surgery is a last resort, and rarely used. Exercises should focus on strengthening and stretching the forearm, and utilizing proper form when performing movements.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Rheumatoid arthritis.\n\nRheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that affects joints. It is very common in the wrist, and is most common at the radioulnar joint. It results in pain, stiffness, and deformities.\n" ]

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[ "The 2008 Swedish film Let the Right One In () was released on DVD in the United States with subtitles different from those seen in movie theaters. This led to a number of complaints and the theatrical subtitles were restored to later issues of the DVD.\n\nTimur Bekmambetov's 2004 film \"Night Watch\" was shown in cinemas with specially designed subtitles which blended with the action. When the film was released on DVD, some viewers were disappointed to find that these subtitles had been replaced with more conventionally formatted subtitles.\n", "Section::::Release.\n\nThe film debuted at the Palm Springs Film Festival. The DVD was released on January 27, 2009. The special features have a making of documentary, deleted scenes, director's commentary, the script, stills, cast and crew bios, the trailer, and a documentary called Family Dancing.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nReview aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 83% of critics gave positive feedback, based on 6 reviews.\n\nSean Axmaker of Seattle PI said that the video filmography and pacing isn't very good at times, but that he still likes the film because of the romance, offbeat humor, and gags.\n", "Principal photography began in August 2006 in Morocco and various locations in Texas – Austin, Lockhart, San Antonio and Uhland. However, the film was not released until March 28, 2008.\n\nSection::::Home release.\n\nThe DVD was released on July 8, 2008. The DVD includes an audio commentary by director Kimberly Peirce and co-writer Mark Richard, 2 featurettes, and 11 deleted scenes.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Release.\n\nThe world premiere of \"End of Watch\" was held on September 8, 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival. It was originally scheduled to be released theatrically on September 28, 2012, but the release was later moved to September 21.\n\nSection::::Release.:Home media.\n\n\"End of Watch\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on January 22, 2013 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Box office.\n\n\"End of Watch\" grossed $41 million in North America and $16.6 million in other territories for a total gross of $57.6 million, against its budget of $7 million.\n", "The DVD packaging is housed in a digipak, whereas the other two discs are in format-labeled plastic cases (i.e., red for HD DVD and blue for Blu-ray); more specific differences between formats are detailed on the release's micro-site FAQ. The packaging insert for the Blu-ray and HD DVD releases contains a hidden message related to the \"Year Zero ARG\", which does not appear on the DVD release's insert.\n\nSection::::Issues with certain Blu-ray players.\n", "BULLET::::- Olivia Wilde as Beatrice Fairbanks\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Crudup as Dylan Tate\n\nBULLET::::- Jenny Slate as Jocelyn\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Roberts as Barry the Therapist\n\nSection::::Production notes.\n\nThe Director and the financier had two very different versions of the film, including both the cut and presentation (poster, trailer, marketing, et al.). A Director's Cut still might come out at some point.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Hollywood won't know the impact of simultaneous release until a studio tries it with a big-budget movie, such as a Star Wars sequel. But those movies do very well in the current window system, so it is unlikely that Warner Bros. would take a chance with one of them. What is likely to be seen instead is a further narrowing of the time between theatrical and DVD releases. That makes cinema owners nervous too, but not as much as simultaneous release.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The first documentary entitled \"A Look at Test Screenings\" runs for 13 minutes and outlines the test screening process, giving an overview of how those screenings were conducted and scored. The featurette shows video footage of the test screening audience and specific comments regarding why the deleted scenes were either cut or reshot. The second documentary, titled \"Premonitions\", explores real-life intuitive investigator Pam Coronado, who has helped police solve many murders and missing person cases with her psychic abilities. The featurette runs for 20 minutes. Some DVDs contain two non DVD-ROM games—\"Death Clock\" and \"Psychic Test\"—in addition to the film's theatrical trailer and filmographies of the cast and crew.\n", "In \"L.A. Confidential\" , it seems like the criminal case that the movie revolves around is completely closed with no loose ends until one of the witnesses admits that she lied about important details to give more importance towards the trial of the people who raped her, exposing a cover-up conspiracy. In \"\", the director keeps using editing techniques that are indicative of endings in scenes that could be used as such, but continues until the movie finally ends. \"Spider-Man 3\" has two false endings. Another example is in \"The Simpsons Movie\", where, at a very climatic stage in the film, the screen fades away and says \"To be continued\", which is then followed by the word \"Immediately.\"\n", "\"That was a mess,\" said Andrew Bergman. \"I never fixed the ending, and that was the problem. You’ve got to have it when you get it on the floor. You can’t say, ‘Later, we’ll get it straight.’ It’s true in every medium. You’ve got to hit the ground running, and we didn’t. I never had the ending straight.\"\n", "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n\n\"Memento\" was released on DVD and VHS in the United States and Canada on September 4, 2001, and in the United Kingdom on January 14, 2002. The UK edition contains a hidden feature that allows the viewer to watch the film in chronological order. The Canadian version does not have this feature but the film chapters are set up to do this manually or through DVD programming. The original US release does not have the chronological feature nor are the chapters set up correctly to do it.\n", "Section::::Release and reception.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\n\"End of Days\" received mainly negative reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 11%, based on reviews from 101 critics. Metacritic gives it an average score of 33/100, based on reviews from 33 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B-\" on an A+ to F scale.\n", "In its opening weekend in the United States, the film grossed $13.1 million, finishing first at the box office. It was especially popular among Hispanics, who made up 32% of the audience on the opening weekend, and a writer for \"The Hollywood Reporter\" attributed the film's popularity to strong word of mouth. The film was initially released in 2,730 theaters and expanded to 2,780 locations in its second week of release. On December 7, the film was given a nationwide re-release in 1,259 theaters shortly after it received two Independent Spirit Award nominations. On the first weekend of its re-release, it grossed $752,000.\n", "Some movies come to a formal ending, followed by the rolling of the credits, which is almost universally used to indicate that the film has ended, only to have the actors reappear in one or more mid-credits scenes. In comedy films, these sequences may be bloopers or outtakes. In other types of films, the mid-credit scenes may continue the narrative set out in the movie. The Marvel Cinematic Universe movies have become notorious for this, in some cases featuring a mid-credits scene and an end-credits scene in the same movie.\n\nSection::::Video games.\n", "Extra features often provide entertainment or add depth and understanding to the film. Games, bloopers, and galleries provide entertainment. Deleted scenes and alternative endings allow the audience to view additional content which was not included in a theatrical release. Directors cuts allow the audience to see how the director envisioned the main title without the constraints which are placed on a theatrical release.\n", "\"From Beginning to End\" grossed $62,081 in nine theatres its opening weekend, $365,094 in second weekend, the film finished sixth place during its opening weekend. The film went on to gross $386,049 in Brazil and $14,373 in Taiwan, for a foreign total of $400,422.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n\nThe film received mixed reviews, some praising it for retaining a good plot while transcending boundaries and others condemning it as an ordinary plot using the subject matter to gain attention.\n", "The film was released by Universal Pictures on November 24, 1999. It has grossed $66.9 million in North America and $145.1 million elsewhere, for a worldwide total of $212 million. The film received mainly negative reviews.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "\"The Final Destination\" was initially scheduled for a DVD and Blu-ray Disc release on December 22, 2009. The film was pushed back to January 5, 2010 in the US. Both the DVD and Blu-ray Disc included two pairs of 3D glasses with each set and featured a 2D version on the disc, along with additional scenes. Only the Blu-ray Disc version included two alternate endings, a \"making of\" featurette about the deaths, storyboard visualization and a preview of \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" (2010). The Blu-ray Disc release, also a combo pack, includes a standard DVD of the film.\n", "Some films, including Richard Linklater's \"School of Rock\", take the idea of the post-credits scene to its limit by running the credits during the main action of the film. In this example, the characters perform a song in the last minutes of the film, and the credits run inconspicuously until one character sings the line \"the movie is over/but we're still on screen\".\n", "Feature films that have been released directly to YouTube or other streaming sites include \"Home\" (2009), \"The Cult of Sincerity\" (2008), \"Life in a Day\" (2011), \"\" (2012) and \"\" (2007).\n\nSection::::Film release.:Shrinking of the theatrical window.\n\nWhile originally conceived for a six months duration, the theatrical window has today been reduced to an average of four weeks. Major movie studios have reportedly been pushing to shrink the duration of the theatrical window in an attempt to make up for the substantial losses in the DVD market they've been suffering from since the 2004 sales peak.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Contemporary reviews.\n", "BULLET::::4. The House 1:51\n\nBULLET::::5. First Morning 1:07\n\nBULLET::::6. Haunted Piano :51\n\nBULLET::::7. Taking A Bath 1:13\n\nBULLET::::8. An Attempt To Escape 2:24\n\nBULLET::::9. Medication 1:52\n\nBULLET::::10. Transformation 2:27\n\nBULLET::::11. What If Ben Finds Out 1:33\n\nBULLET::::12. But I Belong To You 2:08\n\nBULLET::::13. Miscarriage 2:21\n\nBULLET::::14. The Drowning 5:00\n\nBULLET::::15. The Burial 3:44\n\nBULLET::::16. Following Lucy 1:03\n\nBULLET::::17. Burial Site 4:02\n\nBULLET::::18. Lucy Saves Alice 2:16\n\nBULLET::::19. Set Free 1:25\n\nBULLET::::20. Deadline (Suite for Orchestra) 6:01\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Exclusive: First Five Minutes of \"Deadline\", Starring Brittany Murphy, from filmschoolrejects.com\n", "We did lose a few funny scenes that I wanted to keep. When I showed New World my original cut, they felt strongly that the film should move a lot faster. I realized that I’d made a picture that was a little too dense and sophisticated, so we increased the pacing. I know that along with some of the commercials, we did lose a romantic scene between Moriarty and Andrea that took place in a hotel room. It was perhaps a wise decision to cut some of those scenes out, because I don’t think they played well in the totality of the film. The story needed to drive forward at certain points and not be slowed down with extraneous material, although it can be painful cutting scenes out that you like.\n", "Alternative endings are often filmed before being scrapped, and may be subsequently included as a special feature in the film's DVD release. These alternative endings are a special type of deleted scene. In other cases, ideas that were presented but discarded early on are alluded to by the production team in commentary or interviews.\n\nSome films or movies also present the alternative ending on International releases as well as their international Home media release, with its original region release only showing the alternative ending on certain TV channels.\n\nThe following are examples of known alternative endings to movies:\n" ]

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[ "Flatness problem\n\nThe flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is a cosmological fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model of the universe. Such problems arise from the observation that some of the initial conditions of the universe appear to be fine-tuned to very 'special' values, and that small deviations from these values would have extreme effects on the appearance of the universe at the current time.\n", "One such observation is that of anisotropies (that is, variations with direction - see below) in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation. The CMB is electromagnetic radiation which fills the universe, left over from an early stage in its history when it was filled with photons and a hot, dense plasma. This plasma cooled as the universe expanded, and when it cooled enough to form stable atoms it no longer absorbed the photons. The photons present at that stage have been propagating ever since, growing fainter and less energetic as they spread through the ever-expanding universe.\n", "If the average density of the universe exactly equals the critical density so that formula_8, then the geometry of the universe is flat: as in Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the same distance. Measurements from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat with only a 0.4% margin of error.\n", "The right hand side of the last expression above contains constants only and therefore the left hand side must remain constant throughout the evolution of the universe.\n", "This relationship can be expressed by the first Friedmann equation. In a universe without a cosmological constant, this is:\n", "Flatness (cosmology)\n\nThe concept of \"curvature of space\" is fundamental to cosmology. A space without curvature is called a \"flat space\" or Euclidean space. \n", "The problem was first mentioned by Robert Dicke in 1969. The most commonly accepted solution among cosmologists is cosmic inflation, the idea that the universe went through a brief period of extremely rapid expansion in the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang; along with the monopole problem and the horizon problem, the flatness problem is one of the three primary motivations for inflationary theory.\n\nSection::::Energy density and the Friedmann equation.\n", "In the case of the flatness problem, the parameter which appears fine-tuned is the density of matter and energy in the universe. This value affects the curvature of space-time, with a very specific critical value being required for a flat universe. The current density of the universe is observed to be very close to this critical value. Since the total density departs rapidly from the critical value over cosmic time, the early universe must have had a density even closer to the critical density, departing from it by one part in 10 or less. This leads cosmologists to question how the initial density came to be so closely fine-tuned to this 'special' value.\n", "Section::::Solutions to the problem.:Anthropic principle.\n\nOne solution to the problem is to invoke the anthropic principle, which states that humans should take into account the conditions necessary for them to exist when speculating about causes of the universe's properties. If two types of universe seem equally likely but only one is suitable for the evolution of intelligent life, the anthropic principle suggests that finding ourselves in that universe is no surprise: if the other universe had existed instead, there would be no observers to notice the fact.\n", "Some cosmologists agreed with Dicke that the flatness problem was a serious one, in need of a fundamental reason for the closeness of the density to criticality. But there was also a school of thought which denied that there was a problem to solve, arguing instead that since the universe must have some density it may as well have one close to formula_27 as far from it, and that speculating on a reason for any particular value was \"beyond the domain of science\". Enough cosmologists saw the problem as a real one, however, for various solutions to be proposed.\n", "The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric (FLRW). The universe may have positive, negative, or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density. Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density; positive if greater; and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be \"flat\".\n", "Astronomical models of the Universe were proposed soon after astronomy began with the Babylonian astronomers, who viewed the Universe as a flat disk floating in the ocean, and this forms the premise for early Greek maps like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus.\n", "There is a strong consensus among cosmologists that the universe is considered \"flat\" (see Shape of the universe) and will continue to expand forever.\n\nFactors that need to be considered in determining the universe's origin and ultimate fate include: the average motions of galaxies, the shape and structure of the universe, and the amount of dark matter and dark energy that the universe contains.\n\nSection::::Emerging scientific basis.\n\nSection::::Emerging scientific basis.:Theory.\n", "According to Einstein's field equations of general relativity, the structure of spacetime is affected by the presence of matter and energy. On small scales space appears flat – as does the surface of the Earth if one looks at a small area. On large scales however, space is bent by the gravitational effect of matter. Since relativity indicates that matter and energy are equivalent, this effect is also produced by the presence of energy (such as light and other electromagnetic radiation) in addition to matter. The amount of bending (or curvature) of the universe depends on the density of matter/energy present.\n", "BULLET::::- for 6 or 7 extra space-like dimensions all with a \"compact\" topology\n\nBULLET::::- − The \"remarkable theorem\" discovered by Gauss, which showed there is an intrinsic notion of curvature for surfaces. This is used by Riemann to generalize the (intrinsic) notion of curvature to higher-dimensional spaces\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- How do we know that the universe is flat A video explains how astrophysicists measure the geometry of the universe at Physicsworld.com\n\nBULLET::::- Geometry of the Universe at icosmos.co.uk\n\nBULLET::::- , 2015 version: https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1601/1601.03884.pdf\n\nBULLET::::- Universe is Finite, \"Soccer Ball\"-Shaped, Study Hints. Possible wrap-around dodecahedral shape of the universe\n", "The present day shape of the universe has been determined from measurements of the cosmic microwave background using satellites like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. These observations indicate that the spatial geometry of the observable universe is \"flat\", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity. The flat Universe, combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating expansion of the Universe, indicates that space has a non-zero vacuum energy, which is called dark energy.\n", "In 1972, Shenton's role was taken over by Charles K. Johnson, a correspondent from California, US. He incorporated the IFERS and steadily built up the membership to about 3,000. He spent years examining the studies of flat and round Earth theories and proposed evidence of a conspiracy against flat Earth: \"The idea of a spinning globe is only a conspiracy of error that Moses, Columbus, and FDR all fought...\" His article was published in the magazine \"Science Digest\", 1980. It goes on to state, \"If it is a sphere, the surface of a large body of water must be curved. The Johnsons have checked the surfaces of Lake Tahoe and the Salton Sea without detecting any curvature.\"\n", "The principle can be applied to solve the flatness problem in two somewhat different ways. The first (an application of the 'strong anthropic principle') was suggested by C. B. Collins and Stephen Hawking, who in 1973 considered the existence of an infinite number of universes such that every possible combination of initial properties was held by some universe. In such a situation, they argued, only those universes with exactly the correct density for forming galaxies and stars would give rise to intelligent observers such as humans: therefore, the fact that we observe Ω to be so close to 1 would be \"simply a reflection of our own existence.\"\n", "Whether the universe is “flat″ could determine its ultimate fate; whether it will expand forever, or ultimately collapse back into itself. The geometry of spacetime has been measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) to be nearly flat. According to the WMAP 5-year results and analysis, “WMAP determined that the universe is flat, from which it follows that the mean energy density in the universe is equal to the critical density (within a 1% margin of error). This is equivalent to a mass density of 9.9 × 10 g/cm, which is equivalent to only 5.9 protons per cubic meter.” The WMAP data are consistent with a flat geometry, with Ω = 1.02 +/- 0.02.\n", "Guth realized from his theory that the reason the universe appears to be flat was that it was fantastically big, just the same way the spherical Earth appears flat to those on its surface. The observable universe was actually only a very small part of the actual universe. Traditional Big Bang theory found values of omega near one to be puzzling, because any deviations from one would quickly become much, much larger. In inflation theory, no matter where omega starts, it would be driven towards equal to one, because the universe becomes so huge. In fact, a major prediction of inflationary theory is that omega will be found to be one.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1898, during his solo circumnavigation of the world, Joshua Slocum encountered a group of flat-Earthers in Durban, South Africa. Three Boers, one of them a clergyman, presented Slocum with a pamphlet in which they set out to prove that the world was flat. Paul Kruger, President of the Transvaal Republic, advanced the same view: \"You don't mean \"round\" the world, it is impossible! You mean \"in\" the world. Impossible!\"\n", "To illustrate further, consider the question: \"Does our Universe rotate?\" To answer, we might attempt to explain the shape of the Milky Way galaxy using the laws of physics, although other observations might be more definitive, that is, provide larger discrepancies or less measurement uncertainty, like the anisotropy of the microwave background radiation or Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The flatness of the Milky Way depends on its rate of rotation in an inertial frame of reference. If we attribute its apparent rate of rotation entirely to rotation in an inertial frame, a different \"flatness\" is predicted than if we suppose part of this rotation actually is due to rotation of the universe and should not be included in the rotation of the galaxy itself. Based upon the laws of physics, a model is set up in which one parameter is the rate of rotation of the Universe. If the laws of physics agree more accurately with observations in a model with rotation than without it, we are inclined to select the best-fit value for rotation, subject to all other pertinent experimental observations. If no value of the rotation parameter is successful and theory is not within observational error, a modification of physical law is considered, for example, dark matter is invoked to explain the galactic rotation curve. So far, observations show any rotation of the universe is very slow, no faster than once every 60·10 years (10 rad/yr), and debate persists over whether there is \"any\" rotation. However, if rotation were found, interpretation of observations in a frame tied to the universe would have to be corrected for the fictitious forces inherent in such rotation in classical physics and special relativity, or interpreted as the curvature of spacetime and the motion of matter along the geodesics in general relativity.\n", "At cosmological scales the present universe is geometrically flat, which is to say that the rules of Euclidean geometry associated with Euclid's fifth postulate hold, though in the past spacetime could have been highly curved. In part to accommodate such different geometries, the expansion of the universe is inherently general relativistic; it cannot be modeled with special relativity alone, though such models exist, they are at fundamental odds with the observed interaction between matter and spacetime seen in our universe.\n", "The Flat Earth model is a belief that the Earth's shape is a plane or disk covered by a firmament containing heavenly bodies. Most pre-scientific cultures have had conceptions of a Flat Earth, including Greece until the classical period, the Bronze Age and Iron Age civilizations of the Near East until the Hellenistic period, India until the Gupta period (early centuries AD) and China until the 17th century. It was also typically held in the aboriginal cultures of the Americas, and a flat Earth domed by the firmament in the shape of an inverted bowl is common in pre-scientific societies.\n", "BULLET::::- Professor Joseph W. Holden of Maine, a former justice of the peace, gave numerous lectures in New England and lectured on flat Earth theory at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. His fame stretched to North Carolina where the Statesville \"Semi-weekly Landmark\" recorded at his death in 1900: \"We hold to the doctrine that the Earth is flat ourselves and we regret exceedingly to learn that one of our members is dead.\"\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Scientists think the Universe is actually flat." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Scientists use flatness of the universe to describe the topography of the universe in 4 dimensions. " ]

[ "The developer declared itself bankrupt in an application to a court in Katowice on June 8, 2015 as a result of legal dispute with Epic Games, the creators of Unreal Engine 3. Epic Games had filed a lawsuit in October 2012 over overdue royalties for using their game engine. A month later, the developers were ordered by the court to cease production and distribution of a video game as well as hand out all the data carriers with the game engine. After the developers failed to comply, Epic Games contacted Valve which blocked the video games made by it from being sold on Steam by May 2015.\n", "The NOIR is sent to, and the response must be sent by, the petitioner (or an attorney representing the petitioner, if the petitioner is using an attorney) rather than the beneficiary. A copy may be sent to the beneficiary for information.\n", "Id Software and 3D Realms are early proponents in this practice, releasing the source code for the game engines of some older titles under a free software license (but not the actual game content, such as levels or textures). Also Falcon 4.0's lead designer Kevin Klemmick argued in 2011 that availability of the source code of his software for the community was a good thing: \n", "A notable case in late 2005 involved Vivendi Universal shutting down a \"King's Quest\" fan project, \"King's Quest IX: Every Cloak Has a Silver Lining\". It was to be an unofficial sequel granting closure to the series, which had its last release in 1998. After a letter-writing campaign and fan protests, Vivendi reversed its decision and gave permission for the game to be made. As part of the negotiations, the developers were required to remove \"King's Quest\" from the title. Conversely, fan protests for the shutting down of \"Chrono Resurrection\" (a remake demo of \"Chrono Trigger\") in 2004 have yielded no result on Square Enix's action to block the project.\n", "In July 2010, several players who successfully used information leaked from Valve to increase their chances of finding a rare \"Team Fortress 2\" weapon/tool called the Golden Wrench found themselves banned by VAC. During the same month, approximately 12,000 owners of \" \"were banned when Steam updated a DLL file on-disk after it had been loaded into memory by the game, causing a false positive detection. These bans were revoked and those affected received a free copy of \"Left 4 Dead 2\" or an extra copy to send as a gift.\n", "Hosting and distributing copyrighted software without permission is illegal. Copyright holders, sometimes through the Entertainment Software Association, send cease and desist letters, and some sites have shut down or removed infringing software as a result. However, most of the Association's efforts are devoted to new games, due to those titles possessing the greatest value.\n\nSection::::Law.:EU law.\n", "List of commercial video games with available source code\n\nThis is a list of commercial video games with available source code. The source code of these commercially developed and distributed video games is available to the public or the games' communities.\n\nSection::::Motivation.\n\nCommercial video games are typically developed as proprietary closed source software products, with the source code treated as a trade secret (unlike open-source video games). When there is no more expected revenue, these games enter the end-of-life as a product with no support or availability for the game's users and community, becoming abandoned.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Sometimes software developers themselves will intentionally leak their source code in an effort to prevent a software product from becoming abandonware after it has reached its end-of-life, allowing the community to continue development and support. Reasons for leaking instead of a proper release to public domain or as open-source can include scattered or lost intellectual property rights. An example is the video game \"Falcon 4.0\" which became available in 2000; another one is \"Dark Reign 2\", which was released by an anonymous former Pandemic Studios developer in 2011. Another notable example is an archive of Infocom's video games source code which appeared from an anonymous Infocom source and was archived by the Internet Archive in 2008.\n", "\"Deleted Scenes\" was originally the focus on the game with standard multiplayer included. However, after declaring the game gold and handing out review copies of Ritual's work, Valve saw an average review score of around 60%. The companies retracted the gold status and work on \"Condition Zero\" was essentially begun again. Ritual's share of development was dropped, and Turtle Rock Studios eventually made its own version. The final game contained Ritual's single-player portion, called \"Deleted Scenes\", along with Turtle Rock's version.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Legal issues.\n", "In some cases, fans of a video game have helped to preserve the game to the best of their abilities without access to source code, even through the copyright nature of these fan projects are highly contentious, and more so when monetary issues are involved. Games like \"\" and \"\", which had difficult production issues before release, may leave unused assets to be found by players, and in the case of both these games, players have developed unofficial patches that work to complete the content, in some cases, exceeding expectations of the original content creators.\n\nSection::::Preservation of video game software.:Others.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 6, 2005, Arve Bersvendsen, a Norwegian Web developer, used Copyscape to find a copy of a CSS tutorial he wrote posted on a site owned by Apple Inc. Bersvendsen claimed that Apple had infringed his copyright, and the content in question was immediately removed.\n", "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) can be a problem for the preservation of old software as it prohibits required techniques. In October 2003, the US Congress passed 4 clauses to the DMCA which allow for reverse engineering software in case of preservation. \n\nIn November 2006 the Library of Congress approved an exemption to the DMCA that permits the cracking of copy protection on software no longer being sold or supported by its copyright holder so that they can be archived and preserved without fear of retribution.\n\nSection::::Law.:US copyright law.\n", "In several of the cases listed here, the game's developers released the source code expressly to prevent their work from becoming abandonware. Such source code is often released under varying (free and non-free, commercial and non-commercial) software licenses to the games' communities or the public; artwork and data are often released under a different license than the source code, as the copyright situation is different or more complicated. The source code may be pushed by the developers to public repositories (e.g. SourceForge or GitHub), or given to selected game community members, or sold with the game, or become available by other means. The game may be written in an interpreted language such as BASIC or Python, and distributed as raw source code without being compiled; early software was often distributed in text form, as in the book \"BASIC Computer Games\". In some cases when a game's source code is not available by other means, the game's community \"reconstructs\" source code from compiled binary files through time-demanding reverse engineering techniques. \n", "Abandonware refers to software that may still be capable of running on modern computers or consoles, but the developer or publisher has either disappeared, no longer sell the product, or no longer operate servers necessary for running the software, among other cases. \n\nLegally, such software still falls under normal copyright laws. Under the DMCA, the Copyright Office has made exceptions since 2015 for allowing museums and other archivists to bypass copyright issues to get such software into a playable state, a new exception seeks to allow this specifically for multiplayer games requiring servers, specifically massively-multiplayer online games.\n", "In 2006, two Michigan gamers began a project dubbed \"Flowers for Jack\", soliciting donations to deliver a massive floral arrangement to Thompson's office. The flowers were delivered in February along with a letter aimed at opening a dialogue between Thompson and the video gaming community. Thompson rejected this overture and forwarded the flowers to some of his industry foes, with such comments as \"Discard them along with the decency you discarded long ago. I really don't care. Grind them up and smoke them if you like.\"\n", "Following the media reaction to the game, Valve suggested a broader review of its content policies would take place \"soon\". Valve issued this updated policy on June 6, 2018, which stated that they would allow any content on Steam as long as it was not illegal, or if the content was \"trolling\". Valve's Doug Lombardi used \"Active Shooter\" as an example of such trolling, in that the game was \"designed to do nothing but generate outrage and cause conflict through its existence\", and even if another developer, without the history of abusing Steam as they found with Berdyev, had released the same title, they still would have removed it for its trolling nature.\n", "One period of the video game industry that has received a great deal of attention is up through the 1980's. As a result of the video game crash of 1983, many companies involved in developing games folded or were acquired by other companies. In this process, the source code for many games prior to the crash were lost or destroyed, leaving only previously-sold copies of games on their original format as evidence of their existence.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.\n", "In March 2011, in response to the creation of a school shooter mod entitled \"\", developed by Checkerboarded Studios on Valve Corporation's Source engine, Thompson emailed Valve's managing director, Gabe Newell, demanding that the mod be removed, as he speculated that Valve played a part in the mod's development. In the letter, Thompson stated that \"Half-Life\" was directly responsible for the Erfurt school massacre, as well as the Virginia Tech massacre and that Valve had until 5:00 PM on March 18 to remove the mod.\n\nSection::::\"The Howard Stern Show\".\n", "No copies of the source code are believed to currently exist. Attempts at recovery were thwarted by the games' design requiring a fresh copy of the master disk for each gaming session, an outdated concept that sometimes caused the original game disk to be accidentally saved over and lost. Chiptune artist 8 Bit Weapon released an EP titled \"MeanTime EP\" as a tribute to the game on August 7, 2007. A trademark was filed for \"Meantime\" on November 11, 2014, by Roxy Friday LLC, a company associated with inXile Entertainment, authors of \"Wasteland 2\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In 2005, 3000AD, Inc. also announced termination of DreamCatcher's publishing right for Universal Combat, but the deal expired on 18 December 2007.\n\nWhen 3000AD announced they would release the game as freeware, the company reported it had told DreamCatcher to initiate a DIF (Destroy In Field) order to its various retailers so that the remaining copies can no longer be sold, and any unsold copies would be filed as losses in Q4 2007.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n", "As a result, on November 7, 2012, Silicon Knights was directed by the court to destroy all game code derived from Unreal Engine 3, all information from licensee-restricted areas of Epic's Unreal Engine documentation website, and to permit Epic Games access to the company's servers and other devices to ensure these items have been removed. In addition, the studio was instructed to recall and destroy all unsold retail copies of games built with Unreal Engine 3 code, including \"Too Human\", \"X-Men Destiny\", \"The Sandman\", \"The Box\"/\"Ritualyst\", and \"Siren in the Maelstrom\" (the latter three titles were projects never released, or even officially announced).\n", "Rarely has any abandonware case gone to court, but it is still unlawful to distribute copies of old copyrighted software and games, with or without compensation, in any Berne Convention signatory country.\n\nSection::::Law.:Enforcement of copyright.\n\nOld copyrights are usually left undefended. This can be due to intentional non-enforcement by owners due to software age or obsolescence, but sometimes results from a corporate copyright holder going out of business without explicitly transferring ownership, leaving no one aware of the right to defend the copyright.\n", "Other examples are \"Arx Fatalis\" (by Arkane Studios) and \"Catacomb 3-D\" (by Flat Rock Software) with source code opened to the public delayed after release, while copyrighted assets and binaries are still sold on gog.com as digital distribution.\n\nDoing so conforms with the FSF and Richard Stallman, who stated that for art or entertainment the software freedoms are not required or important.\n\nThe similar product bundling of an open-source software product with hardware which prevents users from running modified versions of the software is called tivoization and is legal with most open-source licenses except GPLv3, which explicitly prohibits this use-case.\n", "Two of Worlds Apart Production's games are available solely through the Skotos service. Scott Martins, co-founder of World Apart Productions, stated on the Skotos.net forums that the two text-based games would continue to be offered by Skotos Tech Inc. after concern was expressed by players upon hearing of WAP's acquisition by Sony Online Entertainment.\n\nIn late 2010 and early 2011, Sony SOE divested itself of any owning interest in \"The Eternal City\" and Grendel's Revenge, ceding the titles to Skotos., and shut down the Sony SOE Denver division.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Genetic moderators.\n\nMost genetic studies in addiction research focus on the genetic determinants of diagnostic phenotypes such as alcohol use disorder. However, because the causes of alcohol use disorder are so numerous and varied, researchers have turned their attention to endophenotypes, or distinct, genetically-linked phenotypes associated with a broad disorder. Endophenotypes are especially useful in addictions research because they are more closely linked to genetic variations than the broad disorder. Therefore, investigators have explored the effects of genetic variation in the endogenous opioid system and the GABAergic system on SR.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Adenylyl Cyclase.\n\nAdenylyl cyclase (AC) plays a role in ethanol induced signaling pathways. Acute ethanol may increase AC activity resulting in increased levels of cAMP and altered activity of cAMP targets. Of the cAMP targets, protein kinase A (PKA) has been associated with ethanol use. While acute ethanol use increases the activity of AC, chronic use tends to desensitize AC such that more simulation, increased ethanol consumption, is required to elicit the same response.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Kinases.\n", "Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\n", "The genetic makeup of an individual determines how they respond to alcohol. What causes an individual to be more prone to addiction is their genetic makeup. For example, there are genetic differences in how people respond to methylphenidate (Ritalin) injections.\n\nReward\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:CREB Targets.\n\nThe effects of ethanol on CREB are further manifested in CREB-target genes, namely BDNF, TrkB, Arc, NPY, and CRF.\n\nBULLET::::- BDNF\n\nBULLET::::- Arc\n\nBULLET::::- NPY\n\nBULLET::::- CRF\n\nTaken together, ethanol consumption influences a wide array of molecules. Many of these are involved in feed-forward mechanisms which further promote alcohol relapse and dependence.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Epigenetic Mechanisms.\n", "Despite intense research efforts, the exact mechanism for the development of FAS or FASD is unknown. On the contrary, clinical and animal studies have identified a broad spectrum of pathways through which maternal alcohol can negatively affect the outcome of a pregnancy. Clear conclusions with universal validity are difficult to draw, since different ethnic groups show considerable genetic polymorphism for the hepatic enzymes responsible for ethanol detoxification.\n\nGenetic examinations have revealed a continuum of long-lasting molecular effects that are not only timing specific but are also dosage specific; with even moderate amounts being able to cause alterations.\n", "Finally, a link has been found between ethanol use and histone acetylation during development. After ethanol exposure, adolescent rats showed increased H3 and H4 acetylation in reward centers of the brain, such as the frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. This effect was not seen in adult rats. Thus, brain chromatin remodeling that increases gene expression in reward centers of developing brains may contribute to an increased propensity toward alcoholism upon and after ethanol exposure.\n\nSection::::Tolerance.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Receptors.\n", "In artificial selection studies, specific strains of rats were bred to prefer alcohol. These rats preferred drinking alcohol over other liquids, resulting in a tolerance for alcohol and exhibited a physical dependency on alcohol. Rats that were not bred for this preference did not have these traits. Upon analyzing the brains of these two strains of rats, it was discovered that there were differences in chemical composition of certain areas of the brain. This study suggests that certain brain mechanisms are more genetically prone to alcoholism.\n", "Section::::Human metabolic physiology.:Physiologic structures.\n\nA basic organizing theme in biological systems is that increasing complexity in specialized tissues and organs, allows for greater specificity of function. This occurs for the processing of ethanol in the human body. The enzymes required for the oxidation reactions are confined to certain tissues. In particular, much higher concentration of such enzymes are found in the liver, which is the primary site for alcohol catabolism. Variations in genes influence alcohol metabolism and drinking behavior.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.:Energy thermodynamics.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.:Energy thermodynamics.:Energy calculations.\n", "Alcohol activates endogenous opioid receptors, potentiating dopamine release which increases the rewarding effects of alcohol. To that end, the A118G single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of the mu-opioid receptor gene (\"OPRM1\"), has garnered much interest as a potential moderator of SR. Numerous laboratory studies have demonstrated that G-allele carriers experience the stimulating, hedonic effects of alcohol more strongly than A homozygotes. However, a study of non-treatment seeking participants with alcohol dependence found that A homozygotes experienced more stimulation than G carriers, and a study of heavy drinkers reported no differences in SR between \"OPRM1\" genotype. These mixed findings may stem from differences in alcohol use severity among samples, as the allostatic model of addiction contends that individuals shift from reward to relief drinking as alcohol use disorder progresses. Thus, it is possible that social drinkers and individuals with mild alcohol use disorder may experience the hedonic effects of alcohol as most salient while individuals with more severe alcohol use disorder may consume alcohol for its negative reinforcing properties (i.e., to reduce withdrawal symptoms). The use of retrospective, instead of real time, self-reports of SR as well as differences in ethnicities of samples may further contribute to discrepancies in studies exploring the effects of the \"OPRM1\" gene and SR. Taken together, the literature pertaining to the expression of SR by \"OPRM1\" genotype suggests that the A118G SNP of the \"OPRM1\" gene is associated with enhanced sensitivity to the stimulating, but not sedative, effects of alcohol.\n", "Section::::Gene expression and ethanol metabolism.:Ethanol to acetaldehyde in human adults.:Ethanol to acetaldehyde in human fetuses.\n", "Having a particular genetic variant (A-allele of ADH1B rs1229984) is associated with non-drinking and lower alcohol consumption. This variant is also associated with favorable cardiovascular profile and a reduced risk of coronary heart disease compared to those without the genetic variant, but it is unknown whether this may be caused by differences in alcohol consumption or by additional confounding effects of the genetic variant itself.\n\nSection::::Gender differences.\n", "The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills at lower doses to unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.\n", "There is also a genetic risk for proinflammatory cytokine mediated alcohol-related brain damage. There is evidence that variants of these genes are involved not only in contributing to brain damage but also to impulsivity and alcohol abuse. All three of these genetic traits contribute heavily to an alcohol use disorder.\n\nSection::::Neurological deficits.\n", "Section::::Alcohol and cortisol interactions.:Recent findings.\n\nRecent research supports this strong association between high alcohol use and heightened cortisol levels. In one study, overnight urinary cortisol levels were taken from people who regularly drank a large amount of alcohol versus a small amount of alcohol. People who drank more alcohol had higher cortisol levels and lower heart rate variability (which is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, ANS), suggesting a connection between the HPA axis and the ANS. People who drank more alcohol had higher blood pressure and difficulty sleeping, indicative of heightened cortisol levels.\n", "The Differentiator Model is based on the widely accepted notion that alcohol's effects are biphasic. That is, the stimulating effects of alcohol (i.e., euphoria, sociality, energy) are more prevalent as BAC rises (i.e., ascending limb), while alcohol's sedative effects (i.e., relaxation, nausea, headaches) are experienced most strongly as BAC falls (i.e., descending limb). The Differentiator Model proposes that individuals at greatest risk for developing alcohol use disorder (or those who already meet criteria for alcohol use disorder) are more sensitive to the stimulating effects of alcohol on the ascending limb of intoxication and less sensitive to the sedative effects on the descending limb. Additionally, the combination of heightened rewards and diminished consequences over the course of a drinking episode increases motivation to consume alcohol, leading to longer and more frequent drinking episodes. Repeated engagement in these risky drinking occasions may ultimately contribute to the development of alcohol use disorder.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Distribution.\n\nUpon ingestion, ethanol is rapidly distributed throughout the body. It is distributed most rapidly to tissues with the greatest blood supply. As such, ethanol primarily affects the brain, liver, and kidneys. Other tissues with lower circulation, such as bone, require more time for ethanol to distribute into. Ethanol crosses biological membranes and the blood–brain barrier easily, through a simple process of passive diffusion. The volume of distribution of ethanol is around . It is only weakly or not at all plasma protein bound.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Metabolism.\n", "With chronic alcohol intake, consumption of ethanol similarly induces CREB phosphorylation through the D receptor pathway, but it also alters NMDA receptor function through phosphorylation mechanisms; an adaptive downregulation of the D receptor pathway and CREB function occurs as well. Chronic consumption is also associated with an effect on CREB phosphorylation and function via postsynaptic NMDA receptor signaling cascades through a MAPK/ERK pathway and CAMK-mediated pathway. These modifications to CREB function in the mesolimbic pathway induce expression (i.e., increase gene expression) of ΔFosB in the , where ΔFosB is the \"master control protein\" that, when overexpressed in the NAcc, is necessary and sufficient for the development and maintenance of an addictive state (i.e., its overexpression in the nucleus accumbens produces and then directly modulates compulsive alcohol consumption).\n", "Because SR is such a strong predictor of future alcohol consumption and problems, medication development has focused on drugs which either reduce the pleasant or increase the unpleasant effects of alcohol.\n", "Section::::Genetic differences.:American Indian alcoholism.\n\nWhile little detailed genetic research has been done, it has been shown that alcoholism tends to run in families with possible involvement of differences in alcohol metabolism and the genotype of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes.\n\nSection::::Genetic differences.:Genetics and amount of consumption.\n", "Alcohol addiction is a complex disease that results from a variety of genetic, social, and environmental influences. Alcoholism affected approximately 4.65 percent of the U.S. population in 2001–2002, producing severe economic, social, and medical ramifications (Grant 2004). Researchers estimate that between 50 and 60 percent of alcoholism risk is determined by genetics (Goldman and Bergen 1998; McGue 1999).This strong genetic component has sparked numerous linkage and association studies investigating the roles of chromosomal regions and genetic variants in determining alcoholism susceptibility.\n\nSection::::Marital relationships.\n", "Short-term effects of alcohol consumption\n\nThe short-term effects of alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) consumption – due to drinking beer, wine, distilled spirits or other alcoholic beverages – range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia (memory \"blackouts\"), and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.\n", "Expression of the \"DAT1\" dopamine transporter gene has also been shown to predict severity of alcohol use disorder symptoms with a recent study linking simultaneous carriers of the \"OPRM1\" G-allele and \"DAT1\" A10 allele homozygotes to pleasurable subjective effects along rising BAC.\n\nAlcohol researchers have also evaluated the role of gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors as moderators of SR. Most investigation has focused on genes coding for GABA receptors, which are involved in dopamine release. Some studies have linked \"GABRA2\" and \"GABRG1\" genes to reductions in the experience of positive and negative subjective effects.\n\nSection::::Clinical implications.\n" ]

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[ "Some animals (such as cockroaches) can survive decapitation, and die not because of the loss of the head directly, but rather because of starvation. A number of other animals, including chickens, snakes, and turtles, have also been known to survive for some time after being decapitated, as they have a slower metabolism, and their nervous systems can continue to function at some capacity for a limited time even after connection to the brain is lost, responding to any nearby stimulus.\n", "Section::::Explanation of the case.\n\nIt was determined that the axe had missed the jugular vein and a clot had prevented Mike from bleeding to death. Although most of his head was severed, most of his brain stem and one ear were left on his body. Since basic functions (breathing, heart rate, etc.) as well as most of a chicken's reflex actions are controlled by the brain stem, Mike was able to remain quite healthy. This is a good example of central motor generators enabling basic homeostatic functions to be carried out in the absence of higher brain centres.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Electrical stunning, which is the only method used used at smaller slaughterhouses, has a much higher chance of failure. Incorrect amperage, positioning of the stunner, or length of time applied can lead to the pig regaining consciousness or even being paralyzed and unable to move while still capable of feeling pain while bleeding out. Stunning is often poorly executed by rushed slaughterhouse workers, which results in an estimated 1.8 million pigs a year in the UK regaining consciousness on the production line each year and being fully conscious as they die from blood loss, and 244,800 pigs a year are incorrectly stunned and do not lose consciousness at all.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nA primitive form of stunning was used in premodern times in the case of cattle, which were poleaxed prior to being bled out. However, prior to slaughter pistols and electric stunners, pigs, sheep and other animals (including cattle) were simply struck while fully conscious.\n", "BULLET::::- Electric-Tong Stun – for larger animals, e.g. sheep, cow, camel, goat, etc. The tong would have to stay attached to the head when the bovine falls. The neck to neck position must never be used because the current may fail to go through the brain. A headholder that holds the animal's head up when the body falls is strongly recommended.\n\nBULLET::::- Electronarcosis is also often used for larger animals, dulling the animal's senses before the slaughtering and has been agreed upon as licit by the Egyptian Fatwa Committee.\n\nSection::::Animal welfare.\n", "time a lump of fat: they then sell for two Shillings or half-a-crown a piece… The method of killing them is by cutting off their head with a pair of scissars, the quantity of blood that issues is very great, considering the size of the bird. They are dressed like the Woodcock, with their intestines; and, when killed at the critical time, say the Epicures, are reckoned the most delicious of all morsels.\n", "BULLET::::- Maceration; the chicks are placed into a large high-speed grinder.\n\nBULLET::::- Cervical dislocation; the neck is broken.\n\nBULLET::::- Electrocution; an electric current is passed through the chick's body until it is dead.\n\nBULLET::::- Suffocation; the chicks are placed in plastic bags.\n\nBULLET::::- Gases or gas mixtures; carbon dioxide is used to induce unconsciousness and then death.\n\nSection::::Methods.:US recommended methods.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Cows.\n\nIn January 1932, the \"Townsville Daily Bulletin\", an Australian newspaper, reported an incident where a dairy cow was partially blown up and killed on a farm at Kennedy Creek (near Cardwell, North Queensland). The cow had reputedly picked up a detonator in her mouth while grazing in a paddock. This was only triggered later, when the cow began to chew her cud, at a time when she was in the process of being milked. The cow had its head blown off by the resulting explosion, and the farmer milking the cow was knocked unconscious.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Rats.\n", "The animal may be stunned prior to having its throat cut. The UK Food Standards Agency figures from 2011 suggest that 84% of cattle, 81% of sheep and 88% of chickens slaughtered for \"halal\" meat were stunned before they died.\n", "Quickly after the animal is incapacitated it is hung upside down by its hind limbs and an extremely sharp knife, in an orientation parallel to the ground, is fully inserted through the skin just behind the point of the jaw and below the neck bones. From this position, the knife is drawn forward away from the spine to sever the jugular veins, carotid arteries, and trachea. Properly performed, blood will flow freely and death will occur within seconds. Sheep and swine will reach brain death in under 10 seconds; however, larger animals, notably cattle may take up to 40 seconds to reach brain death. This period may extend to a couple of minutes if complications, such as arterial occlusion, occur. However, the animal's inverted position allows blood to flow more precipitously and thus makes an animal regaining consciousness before it is fully exsanguinated highly unlikely. In any case, animal welfare advisory councils clearly emphasize that the time from incapacitation to start of exsanguination should be prompt; recommending a time under 15 seconds.\n", "To induce tonic immobility, the animal is gently restrained on its side or back for a period of time, e.g. 15 seconds. This is done either on a firm, flat surface or sometimes in a purpose-built ‘V’- or ‘U’-shaped restraining cradle. In rodents, the response is sometimes induced by additionally pinching or attaching a clamp to the skin at the nape of the neck. Scientists record behaviours such as the number of inductions (15-second restraining periods) required for the animal to remain still, the latency to the first major movements (often cycling motions of the legs), latency to first head or eye movements and the duration of immobility, sometimes called the ‘righting time’.\n", "Various methods are used to render an animal unconscious during animal slaughter. \n\nBULLET::::- Electrical (stunning or slaughtering with electric current known as electronarcosis):This method is used for swine, sheep, calves, cattle, and goats. Current is applied either across the brain or the heart to render the animal unconscious before being killed. In industrial slaughterhouses, chickens are killed prior to scalding by being passed through an electrified water-bath while shackled.\n", "Cervical dislocation, or displacement (breaking or fracturing) of the neck, is an older yet less common method of killing small animals such as mice. Performed properly it is intended to cause as painless death as possible and has no cost or equipment involved. The handler must know the proper method of executing the movement which will cause the cervical displacement and without proper training and method education there is a risk of not causing death and can cause severe pain and suffering. It is unknown how long an animal remains conscious, or the level of suffering it goes through after a correct snapping of the neck, which is why it has become less common and often substituted with inhalants.\n", "BULLET::::- Water-bath Stun – for poultry only - where birds are dragged through water with an electric stunner within. Stated that sometimes they are not rendered fully paralyzed after the water bath because they lift their bodies up while struggling and do not make full contact with the stunner. Furthermore, the birds come out of the electrified bath paralyzed, but not stunned. Karen Davis of United Poultry Concerns.\n", "Section::::Recommended culling practices.\n\nThe American Veterinary Medical Association recommends cervical dislocation and asphyxiation by carbon dioxide as the best options, but has recently amended their guidelines to include maceration, putting non-anesthetized chicks through a grinder.\n", "In Islamic and Jewish law, captive bolts and other methods of pre-slaughter paralysis are not permissible, as consumption of animals found dead are regarded as carrion and stunned animals that are later killed will come into this category. Various halal food authorities have more recently permitted the use of a recently developed fail-safe system of head-only stunning using a mushroom shaped hammer head that delivers a blow that is not fatal, proved by it being possible to reverse the procedure and revive the animal after the shock.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hypovolemia, blood volume loss\n\nBULLET::::- Desanguination\n\nBULLET::::- Slaughterhouse\n\nBULLET::::- Tourniquet\n", "In the Netherlands, for example, the law states that poultry must be stunned for 4 seconds minimum with an average current of 100 mA, which leads to systematic understunning.\n", "BULLET::::- Cattle are castrated, their horns are removed and third-degree burns (livestock branding) are inflicted on them, all without anesthetic.\n\nBULLET::::- Cows used for their milk have calves removed from them shortly after birth. These calves are sent to veal farms.\n\nBULLET::::- Chickens bred and drugged to grow so quickly that their hearts, lungs, and limbs often can't keep up.\n\nBULLET::::- Mother pigs (sows) are confined to gestation crates that are so small that the pigs cannot turn around or even lie down.\n\nBULLET::::- Chickens' and turkeys' beaks are burned or cut off without anesthetic.\n", "In a New Guinean Chimbu community, a woman whose child was killed breastfeeds a piglet whose mother died. At a celebration that recurs every five years, in a matter of hours, dozens of pigs are slaughtered by beating on their heads with wooden poles and eaten, after which the partly cannibalistic community returns to its perpetual state of hunger. Dogs, however, are fed and treated with affection and respect. At the Pet Haven Cemetery in Pasadena, California, dog owners mourn their beloved. In Taipei, Taiwan, dogs are grown, butchered and skinned alive for local dog meat gourmets. In Rome, hundreds of chicks are tinged in many colors and then dried at 50 degrees Celsius to be included in Easter Eggs; according to the narrator, of the 600 that undergo it, approximately 70 do not survive the procedure. For foie gras, geese in Strasbourg are force-fed using funnels. In a farm 200 miles from Tokyo, Wagyu cattle are massaged and fed beer for three or four specialised restaurants in Tokyo and New York.\n", "Within the European Union, most animals slaughtered for human consumption are killed by cutting major blood vessels in the neck or thorax so that rapid blood loss occurs. After a certain degree of blood loss has occurred, the animal will become unconscious, and after a greater blood loss death will ensue. From the moment of cutting until the loss of consciousness, the animal can experience pain, stress and fear. Without stunning, the time between cutting through the major blood vessels and insensibility, as deduced from behavioural and brain response, is up to 20 seconds in sheep, up to 25 seconds in pigs, up to 2 minutes in cattle, up to 2.5 or more minutes in poultry, and sometimes 15 minutes or more in fish. If one wants to minimise animal suffering during slaughter, stunning is required. The best stunning method depends on the species of animal.\n", "Special effects are primarily not computer generated. In one scene, a doll's head filled with pig intestines was used to make the \"Ap\"'s head. Whilst not realistic, the film's sound effects resulted in many viewers screaming nonetheless.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n\nIn the Khmer ghost legends \"Ap\" was a complete person who was able to remove its head at night to fly across the rice fields in search of sustenance, usually blood. Stomach, heart and intestines trail from her neck.\n", "Nick Cohen, writing for the \"New Statesman\", discusses research papers collected by Compassion in World Farming which indicate that the animal suffers pain during the process. In 2009, Craig Johnson and colleagues showed that calves that have not been stunned feel pain from the cut in their necks, and they may take at least 10–30 seconds to lose consciousness. This has led to prohibitions against unstunned slaughter in some countries.\n", "BULLET::::- A man is stabbed in the head with a large knife, but eventually makes a full recovery / A crocodile expert routinely has the animals swallow a device that monitors their health; while they are tranquilized, he sticks his arm down their throats to retrieve the device after some time has passed / Willie McQueen, who lost his legs in a train accident and later became a football player / After experiencing a false pregnancy, a dog behaves as if cordless telephones are her puppies / Carey Hart successfully performs a 360-degree backflip on a motorcycle / Clothing made from latex that is painted onto the skin and allowed to dry.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Laboratory reports.\n\nLaboratory reports carried out on some mutilated animals have shown unusually high or low levels of vitamins or minerals in tissue samples, and the presence of chemicals not normally found in animals. However, not all mutilated animals display these anomalies, and those that do have slightly different anomalies from one another. On account of the time between death and necropsy, and a lack of background information on specific cattle, investigators have often found it impossible to determine if these variations are connected to the animals' deaths or not.\n", "Exsanguination is the process whereby an animal is cut so that it bleeds to death. Fish are cut in highly vascular body regions, and the process is stressful unless the animals are unconscious. If not stunned, according to behavioral and neural criteria, fish may remain conscious for 15 minutes or more between the time when major blood vessels have been cut and when they lose consciousness. Eel brains may continue to process information for 13–30 minutes after being decapitated, and some fish may remain sensible for 20–40 minutes after evisceration.\n\nSection::::Potentially more humane methods.\n\nSection::::Potentially more humane methods.:Percussive stunning.\n" ]

[ "All chickens \"survive\" for several minutes with the head cut off." ]

[ "A properly decapitated chicken dies almost instantly." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "All chickens \"survive\" for several minutes with the head cut off." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A properly decapitated chicken dies almost instantly." ]

[ "In case of an offline attack where the attacker has access to the encrypted material, one can try key combinations without the risk of discovery or interference. However database and directory administrators can take countermeasures against online attacks, for example by limiting the number of attempts that a password can be tried, by introducing time delays between successive attempts, increasing the answer's complexity (e.g. requiring a CAPTCHA answer or verification code sent via cellphone), and/or locking accounts out after unsuccessful logon attempts. Website administrators may prevent a particular IP address from trying more than a predetermined number of password attempts against any account on the site.\n", "However, this argument assumes that the register values are changed using conventional set and clear operations which inevitably generate entropy. It has been shown that computational hardware can be designed not to encounter this theoretical obstruction (see reversible computing), though no such computers are known to have been constructed.\n", "In some cases, the analysis may reduce the candidates to the set of all valid solutions; that is, it may yield an algorithm that directly enumerates all the desired solutions (or finds one solution, as appropriate), without wasting time with tests and the generation of invalid candidates. For example, for the problem \"find all integers between 1 and 1,000,000 that are evenly divisible by 417\" a naive brute-force solution would generate all integers in the range, testing each of them for divisibility. However, that problem can be solved much more efficiently by starting with 417 and repeatedly adding 417 until the number exceeds 1,000,000which takes only 2398 (= 1,000,000 ÷ 417) steps, and no tests.\n", "A password-based key derivation function (password-based KDF) is generally designed to be computationally intensive, so that it takes a relatively long time to compute (say on the order of several hundred milliseconds). Legitimate users only need to perform the function once per operation (e.g., authentication), and so the time required is negligible. However, a brute-force attack would likely need to perform the operation billions of times, at which point the time requirements become significant and, ideally, prohibitive.\n", "Note that 31 bits is a single bit short of a 4-byte word. Thus, the value can be placed inside such a word without using the sign bit (the most significant bit). This is done to definitely avoid doing modular arithmetic on negative numbers, as this has many differing definitions and implementations.\n\nSection::::Tokens.\n", "According to the research on public-facing Oracle PeopleSoft applications and their vulnerabilities, systems available online are susceptible to the TokenChpoken attack. A TokenChpoken attack, which affects systems that use Single Sign-On (SSO), is possible because an authentication cookie (PS_TOKEN) used by PeopleSoft applications can be forged. When the PS_TOKEN is identified by a \"brute force\" TokenChpoken attack, it is possible to log in under a system account and gain access to all data from the compromised system.\n", "One example of a case where combinatorial complexity leads to solvability limit is in solving chess. Chess is not a solved game. In 2005 all chess game endings with six pieces or less were solved, showing the result of each position if played perfectly. It took ten more years to complete the tablebase with one more chess piece added, thus completing a 7-piece tablebase. Adding one more piece to a chess ending (thus making an 8-piece tablebase) is considered intractable due to the added combinatorial complexity.\n\nSection::::Speeding up brute-force searches.\n", "This vulnerability is not strictly due to self-service password reset—it often exists in the help desk prior to deployment of automation. Self-service password reset technology is often used to reduce this type of vulnerability, by introducing stronger caller authentication factors than the human-operated help desk had been using prior to deployment of automation.\n", "BULLET::::- Physical evidence: For a keypad that is used only to enter a security code, the keys which are in actual use will have evidence of use from many fingerprints. A passcode of four digits, if the four digits in question are known, is reduced from 10,000 possibilities to just 24 possibilities (10 versus 4! (factorial of 4)). These could then be used on separate occasions for a manual \"brute force attack\".\n", "Academic attacks are often against weakened versions of a cryptosystem, such as a block cipher or hash function with some rounds removed. Many, but not all, attacks become exponentially more difficult to execute as rounds are added to a cryptosystem, so it's possible for the full cryptosystem to be strong even though reduced-round variants are weak. Nonetheless, partial breaks that come close to breaking the original cryptosystem may mean that a full break will follow; the successful attacks on DES, MD5, and SHA-1 were all preceded by attacks on weakened versions.\n", "Password removal can be done with the help of precomputation tables or a guaranteed decryption attack.\n\nAttacks that target the original password set in Microsoft Excel and Word include dictionary attack, rule-based attack, brute-force attack, mask attack and statistics-based attack.\n", "Both hardware and software tokens are available from various vendors, for some of them see references below. Hardware tokens implementing OATH HOTP tend to be significantly cheaper than their competitors based on proprietary algorithms. As of 2010, OATH HOTP hardware tokens can be purchased for a marginal price. Some products can be used for strong passwords as well as OATH HOTP.\n\nSoftware tokens are available for (nearly) all major mobile/smartphone platforms (J2ME, Android, iPhone, BlackBerry, Maemo, macOS, and Windows Mobile).\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "a race condition still exists: the first account may be debited, then execution of the thread may be suspended, leaving the accounts as a whole in an inconsistent state. Thus, additional locks must be added to ensure correctness of composite operations, and in the worst case, one might need to simply lock all accounts regardless of how many are used in a given operation.\n", "Over a four-hour period on April 27, 2011 an automated SQL Injection attack occurred on the DSLReports website. The attack was able to extract 8% of the site's username/password pairs, which amounted to approximately 8,000 of the 9,000 active accounts and 90,000 old or inactive accounts created during the site's 10-year history. Once the intrusion was detected, stopped and the extent of the compromised accounts had been assessed, passwords for those accounts were automatically reset.\n\nSection::::Content.\n", "Brute-force attacks can be made less effective by obfuscating the data to be encoded making it more difficult for an attacker to recognize when the code has been cracked or by making the attacker do more work to test each guess. One of the measures of the strength of an encryption system is how long it would theoretically take an attacker to mount a successful brute-force attack against it.\n\nBrute-force attacks are an application of brute-force search, the general problem-solving technique of enumerating all candidates and checking each one.\n\nSection::::Basic concept.\n", "The recommendation is made that persistent throttling of HOTPvalue verification take place, to address their relatively small size and thus vulnerability to brute force attacks. It is suggested that verification be locked out after a small number of failed attempts, or that each failed attempt attracts an additional (linearly-increasing) delay.\n", "Although using the ostrich algorithm is one of the methods of dealing with deadlocks, other effective methods exist such as dynamic avoidance, banker's algorithm, detection and recovery, and prevention.\n\nSection::::Trade-offs.\n\nAlthough efficient, using the Ostrich algorithm trades correctness for convenience. Yet since the algorithm directly deals with extreme cases it is not a large trade-off. In fact, the simplest and most used method to recover from a deadlock is a reboot.\n", "Given these constraints, an attacker might have difficulty finding logged-in victims or attackable form submissions. On the other hand, attack attempts are easy to mount and invisible to victims, and application designers are less familiar with and prepared for CSRF attacks than they are for, say, password cracking dictionary attacks.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nMost CSRF prevention techniques work by embedding additional authentication data into requests that allows the web application to detect requests from unauthorized locations.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Synchronizer token pattern.\n", "An underlying assumption of a brute-force attack is that the complete keyspace was used to generate keys, something that relies on an effective random number generator, and that there are no defects in the algorithm or its implementation. For example, a number of systems that were originally thought to be impossible to crack by brute force have nevertheless been cracked because the key space to search through was found to be much smaller than originally thought, because of a lack of entropy in their pseudorandom number generators. These include Netscape's implementation of SSL (famously cracked by Ian Goldberg and David Wagner in 1995) and a Debian/Ubuntu edition of OpenSSL discovered in 2008 to be flawed. A similar lack of implemented entropy led to the breaking of Enigma's code.\n", "There are three new scenarios which BROP can be relevant for. They are:(i) In case of closed binary services, to discover vulnerabilities where techniques like fuzz and penetration testing need to be used.(ii) A known vulnerability in an open-source library can be leveraged to carry an exploit, even though the proprietary binary which uses it is a closed source.(iii) It can also be used to hack an open-source server for which the binary is unknown.The attack assumes that there is a service on the server which has a known stack vulnerability and also that the service should restart on crash.\n", "Such encrypted or hashed exchanges do not directly reveal the password to an eavesdropper. However, they may supply enough information to allow an eavesdropper to deduce what the password is, using a dictionary attack or brute-force attack. The use of information which is randomly generated on each exchange (and where the response is different from the challenge) guards against the possibility of a replay attack, where a malicious intermediary simply records the exchanged data and retransmits it at a later time to fool one end into thinking it has authenticated a new connection attempt from the other.\n", "The first attack by Kalka, Teicher and Tsaban shows a class of weak-keys when formula_4 or formula_14 are chosen randomly. The authors of Algebraic Eraser followed up with a preprint on how to choose parameters that aren't prone to the attack. Ben-Zvi, Blackburn, and Tsaban improved the first attack into one the authors claim can break the publicized security parameters (claimed to provide 128-bit security) using less than 8 CPU hours, and less than 64MB of memory. Anshel, Atkins and Goldfeld responded to this attack in January 2016.\n", "In October 2017 security researchers Mathy Vanhoef (imec-DistriNet, KU Leuven) and Frank Piessens (imec-DistriNet, KU Leuven) published their paper \"Key Reinstallation Attacks: Forcing Nonce Reuse in WPA2\" (KRACK). This paper also listed a vulnerability of common 802.11r implementations and registered the CVE identifier CVE-2017-13082.\n\nOn August 4th, 2018 researcher Jens Steube (of Hashcat) described a new technique to crack WPA PSK (Pre-Shared Key) passwords that he states will likely work against all 802.11i/p/q/r networks with roaming functions enabled.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Unlicensed Mobile Access\n\nBULLET::::- IEEE 802.11s - Mesh networking\n\nBULLET::::- IEEE 802.11u - Cellular interworking\n\nBULLET::::- Inter-Access Point Protocol\n", "\"To be perfectly honest, there is no yes or no answer to the “Are Ethereum exchanges safe” question. Going purely on past records, they are safe though exchanges like Poloniex have been hacked. This does not make Poloniex any less safe than the others. People who hack exchanges are constantly upgrading their methods, and likewise, the exchanges are trying to stay a step ahead. The best bet is to use offline storage of ETHs once the transaction is complete.\"\n", "In May 2017 O2 Telefónica, a German mobile service provider, confirmed that cybercriminals had exploited SS7 vulnerabilities to bypass SMS based two-step authentication to do unauthorized withdrawals from users bank accounts. The criminals first infected the account holder's computers in an attempt to steal their bank account credentials and phone numbers. Then the attackers purchased access to a fake telecom provider and set-up a redirect for the victim's phone number to a handset controlled by them. Finally the attackers logged into victims' online bank accounts and requested for the money on the accounts to be withdrawn to accounts owned by the criminals. SMS passcodes were routed to phone numbers controlled by the attackers and the criminals transferred the money out.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "There have been claims that laughter can be a supplement for cardiovascular exercise and might increase muscle tone. However an early study by Paskind J. showed that laughter can lead to a decrease in skeletal muscle tone because the short intense muscle contractions caused by laughter are followed by longer periods of muscle relaxation. The cardiovascular benefits of laughter also seem to be just a figment of imagination as a study that was designed to test oxygen saturation levels produced by laughter, showed that even though laughter creates sporadic episodes of deep breathing, oxygen saturation levels are not affected.\n", "BULLET::::- contrary to the body, the soul is perfectly flexible, always in activity. However, we tend to attribute these qualities to the body, we considerer it as flexible and ignore his resistance, its materiality. But when we are fully aware that the body is a weigh, a burden for the soul, the situation is comic. Hence, « is comic any incident which attracts our attention on the physique of a person while the mind is active ». There is a comic effect when our attention is diverted from the mind to the physique.\n", "The most common anecdotal examples are of parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children, and when people are in life-and-death situations. Hysterical strength can result in torn muscles due to higher mechanical stress.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1982, in Lawrenceville, Georgia, Tony Cavallo was repairing a 1964 Chevrolet Impala automobile from underneath. The vehicle was propped up with jacks, but it fell. Cavallo's mother, Mrs. Angela Cavallo, lifted the car high enough and long enough for two neighbours to replace the jacks and pull Tony from beneath the car.\n", "Section::::Positive hijacks.\n\nGoleman points out that \"'not all limbic hijackings are distressing. When a joke strikes someone as so uproarious that their laughter is almost explosive, that, too, is a limbic response. It is at work also in moments of intense joy.\"\n", "The vocalisation of the spotted hyena resembling hysterical human laughter has been alluded to in numerous works of literature: \"to laugh like a hyæna\" was a common simile, and is featured in \"The Cobbler's Prophecy\" (1594), \"Webster's Duchess of Malfy\" (1623) and Shakespeares \"As You Like It\", Act IV. Sc.1.\n\nBud and Lou, from the DC Comics, are also hyenas and are pets of Harley Quinn.\n\nSection::::Relationships with humans.:Attacks on humans.\n", "Norman Cousins developed a recovery program incorporating megadoses of Vitamin C, along with a positive attitude, love, faith, hope, and laughter induced by Marx Brothers films. \"I made the joyous discovery that ten minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep,\" he reported. \"When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval.\"\n", "Laughter has been shown to decrease cortisol, the body's stress hormone. When this hormone is elevated it can cause issues like high blood pressure, weight gain, and memory loss. It also increases endorphins, which lowers pain in the body. Yoga has been shown to decrease cortisol and increase endorphins. \n", "Cleitarchus' paraphrase of a scholium to Plato's \"Republic\" has a description of the practice which predates the fall of Carthage in 146 BC:\n\nThere stands in their midst a bronze statue of Kronos, its hands extended over a bronze brazier, the flames of which engulf the child. When the flames fall upon the body, the limbs contract and the open mouth seems almost to be laughing until the contracted body slips quietly into the brazier. Thus it is that the 'grin' is known as 'sardonic laughter,' since they die laughing. (trans. Paul G. Mosca)\n\nDiodorus Siculus (20.14):\n", "Hysterical strength\n\nHysterical strength is a display of extreme strength by humans, beyond what is believed to be normal, usually occurring when people are in life-and-death situations. Common anecdotal examples include parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children. The extra strength is commonly attributed to increased adrenaline production, though supporting evidence is scarce, and inconclusive when available; research into the phenomenon is difficult, though it is thought that it is theoretically possible.\n\nExtreme strength may occur during excited delirium.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "BULLET::::- On 24 March 1975, Alex Mitchell, from King's Lynn, England, died laughing while watching the \"Kung Fu Kapers\" episode of \"The Goodies\", featuring a kilt-clad Scotsman with his bagpipes battling a master of the Lancastrian martial art \"Eckythump\", who was armed with a black pudding. After 25 minutes of continuous laughter, Mitchell finally slumped on the sofa and died from heart failure. His widow later sent \"The Goodies\" a letter thanking them for making Mitchell's final moments of life so pleasant. Diagnosis of his granddaughter in 2012 of having the inheritable long QT syndrome (a heart rhythm abnormality) suggests that Mitchell may have died of a cardiac arrest caused by the same condition.\n", "Laughter-induced syncope\n\nLaughter-induced syncope is an unusual but recognized form of situational syncope (fainting) likely to have a similar pathophysiological origin to tussive syncope. One reported case occurred while a patient was watching the television show \"Seinfeld\", and was given the name Seinfeld syncope.\n\nThere are few case reports of this syndrome in the literature. Patients, as in this case, might present initially to the ED, and laughter should be considered among the numerous differentials for syncope.\n", "BULLET::::- On October 14, 1920, 56-year-old Mr. Arthur Cobcroft, a dog trainer from Loftus Street, Leichhardt, Australia, was reading a five year old newspaper and was amused at the prices rulling for some commodities in 1915 as compared to 1920. He made a remark to his wife regarding this, and burst into laughter, and in the midst of it he collapsed and died. A doctor named Nixon was called in, and stated that the death was due to heart failure, brought by excessive laughter.\n", "The episode is infamous for the documented example of a man laughing to death. Fifty-year-old Alex Mitchell could not stop laughing for a continuous 25-minute period—almost the entire length of the show—and suffered a fatal heart attack as a result of the strain placed on his heart. It was from a skit in which a kilted Scotsman seems about to successfully defeat Bill wielding a black pudding. However, the returning boomerang from an earlier battle with Graeme's \"Australian relative\" knocks the Scotsman out. Mitchell's widow later sent the Goodies a letter thanking them for making his final moments so pleasant.\n", "BULLET::::- At the end of the film \"Mary Poppins\", Mr. Dawes, Sr. is said to have died laughing after being told a joke. Unlike most examples, this is presented as a positive, his son stating that he \"had never look so happy in all his life.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In the musical and film \"Little Shop of Horrors\", a character asphyxiates on laughing gas and his last words are \"I've laughed myself to death\".\n\nBULLET::::- In Episode 12 of Season 1 of \"1000 Ways to Die\", a man dies after laughing continuously for 36 hours at an unknown joke.\n", "The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it have been carefully investigated by psychologists. They agree the predominant characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a \"sudden glory\". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the \"play instinct\" and its emotional expression.\n", "\"Laughology\" makes the case that the laughter fitness trend has scientific basis. The film features the development of Laughter Yoga and traces the development of laughter culture to the Inuit of the far north.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nThe \"National Post\" wrote: \"Laughter has never been so thoroughly explored in a film as it is here.\"\n", "The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it has been carefully investigated by psychologists and agreed upon the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a \"sudden glory.\" Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the \"play instinct\" and its emotional expression.\n", "In films, evil laughter often fills the soundtrack when the villain is off-camera. In such cases, the laughter follows the hero or victim as they try to escape. An example is in \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\", where Belloq's laugh fills the South American jungle while Indiana Jones attempts to escape from the Hovitos.\n\nOn the television series \"Dallas\", JR Ewing (Larry Hagman) would often break into his trademark evil laugh whenever he knew he had put one over on somebody, especially Cliff Barnes (Ken Kercheval). \n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Evil Laugh on TV Tropes\n", "Laughter in animals\n\nLaughter in animals other than humans describes animal behavior which resembles human laughter.\n\nSeveral non-human species demonstrate vocalizations that sound similar to human laughter. A significant proportion of these species are mammals, which suggests that the neurological functions occurred early in the process of mammalian evolution.\n\nSection::::Apes.\n", "BULLET::::- Panksepp, J., Burgdorf, J.,\"\"Laughing\" rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy?\" Physiology & Behavior (2003) 79:533-547. psych.umn.edu\n\nBULLET::::- Milius, S., \"Don't look now, but is that dog laughing?\" Science News (2001) V160 4:55. sciencenews.org\n\nBULLET::::- Simonet, P., et al., \"Dog Laughter: Recorded playback reduces stress related behavior in shelter dogs\" 7th International Conference on Environmental Enrichment (2005). petalk.org\n\nBULLET::::- Discover Health (2004) \"Humor & Laughter: Health Benefits and Online Sources\", helpguide.org\n\nBULLET::::- Klein, A. \"The Courage to Laugh: Humor, Hope and Healing in the Face of Death and Dying.\" Los Angeles, CA: Tarcher/Putman, 1998.\n", "There are a few main regions of the human brain associated with humor and laughter. The production of laughter involves two primary brain pathways, one for involuntary and one for voluntary laughter (i.e., Duchenne and non-Duchenne laughter). Involuntary laughter is usually emotionally driven and includes key emotional brain areas such as the amygdala, thalamic areas, and the brainstem. Voluntary laughter, however, begins in the premotor opercular area in the temporal lobe and moves to the motor cortex and pyramidal tract before moving to the brainstem. Wild et al. (2003) propose that the generation of laughter is mostly influenced by neural pathways that go from the premotor and motor cortex to the ventral side of the brainstem through the cerebral peduncles. It is also suggested that real laughter is not produced from the motor cortex, but that the normal inhibition of cortical frontal areas stops during laughter.\n", "BULLET::::- In \",\" the heroes cross a \"Chasm of Death\" filled with gas fumes that induce uncontrollable laughter, frequently killing those who try to cross the chasm.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Monty Python sketch \"The Funniest Joke in the World\", the British win the Second World War by translating a lethally funny joke into German and transmitting it to German troops and two Gestapo officers.\n\nBULLET::::- In Coleman Barks' translation of Jelaluddin Rumi's poem \"Dying, Laughing\", from his collection of poems \"The Essential Rumi\": \"He opened like a rose that drops to the ground and died laughing.\"\n", "A link between laughter and healthy function of blood vessels was first reported in 2005 by researchers at the University of Maryland Medical Center with the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford), theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2015, in Vienna, Virginia, Charlotte Heffelmire lifted a GMC pick-up truck to free her father from underneath.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1932 film \"The Mummy\", a young Egyptologist ignores the warning of a curse written on a casket and opens it, within which he finds and transcribes the Scroll of Thoth. After reading it, he restores to life the mummy of Imhotep. The curse upon him, he begins laughing uncontrollably, and is later mentioned to have died laughing \"in a straightjacket\".\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2014 film \"Até que a Sbórnia nos Separe\", the man laughing uncontrollably and dies in heart failure during votation of Caos Building.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.:World War II — a leap in AWD proliferation.\n", "Selectable 4WD has both axles rigidly coupled together, which has some advantages in very poor off-road conditions. To gain the same advantage in a permanent AWD system with a differential, the differential can be locked manually with a differential lock. As this control is frequently misunderstood and mis-used, which can then cause damage due to wind-up, they have tended to be replaced by automatic locking through the viscous couplers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Front-wheel drive\n\nBULLET::::- Rear-wheel drive\n\nBULLET::::- All-terrain vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- Two-wheel drive\n\nBULLET::::- H-drive\n", "4WD systems were developed in many different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures and functions. The terms used by various manufacturers often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. SAE International's standard J1952 recommends only the term All-Wheel-Drive with additional sub classifications which cover all types of AWD/4WD/4x4 systems found on production vehicles.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:4x4.\n", "In 2008, Nissan introduced the GT-R featuring a rear-mounted transaxle. The AWD system requires two drive shafts, one main shaft from the engine to the transaxle and differential and a second drive shaft from the transaxle to the front wheels.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Road racing.\n\nSpyker is credited with building and racing the first ever four-wheel drive racing car, the \"Spyker 60 HP\" in 1903.\n\nBugatti created a total of three four-wheel-drive racers, the Type 53, in 1932, but the cars were notorious for having poor handling.\n", "The term \"IWD\" can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels. For example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:SAE Recommended Practices.\n\nPer the SAE International standard J1952, AWD is the preferred term for all the systems described above. The standard subdivides AWD systems into three categories.\n\nPart-Time AWD systems require driver intervention to couple and decouple the secondary axle from the primarily driven axle and these systems do not have a center differential (or similar device). The definition notes that part-time systems may have a low range.\n", "Section::::Longitudinal systems.:The Torsen type \"C\" (T3).\n", "BULLET::::- 2016-present Jeep Compass (MP)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018-present Jeep Grand Commander\n\nSection::::Active Drive.:Active Drive II.\n\nActive Drive II includes all of the features of Active Drive I but adds a low gear range. When in \"4-Low\" mode the front and rear axles are locked together and power is sent to all four-wheels through a 2.92:1 gear reduction in the power transfer unit; providing a crawl ratio of 56:1 for four cylinder Jeep Cherokees and a 47.8:1 crawl ratio for six-cylinder Cherokees. All Cherokees with this system have a raised ride height of one inch.\n\nApplications:\n\nBULLET::::- 2014–present Jeep Cherokee (KL)\n", "Section::::Active Drive.:Active Drive Low.\n\nActive Drive Low includes all of the features of Active Drive I but denotes a greater possible crawl ratio. When in \"4-Low\" mode the front and rear axles are locked together and power is sent to all four-wheels through the power transfer unit although no low range gear reduction occurs. Active Drive low relies on shorter axle gear ratios while holding first gear in the ZF9HP transmission to achieve a crawl ratio of 20:1; similar in effect to Freedom Drive II.\n\nApplications:\n\nBULLET::::- 2015–present Jeep Renegade (BU)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018-present Jeep Compass (MP)\n\nSection::::Active Drive.:Active Drive Lock.\n", "BULLET::::- Jeep Cherokee (XJ), Jeep Comanche, Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ), Jeep Liberty (Command-Trac)\n\nBULLET::::- Jeep Wrangler (Rubicon model has locking front and rear differentials)\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Sorento (some 2002-2009 models with 2WD/4HI/4LO - mostly LX)\n\nBULLET::::- Land Rover Series I, II & III (except V8 models)\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln Mark LT\n\nBULLET::::- Mazda B-series\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz G-Class\n\nBULLET::::- Mitsubishi Raider\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Patrol\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Terrano II\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Armada, Pathfinder (All-mode 4WD) Auto-engages 4WD with slip\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Titan, Xterra, Frontier (rear locker an option)\n\nBULLET::::- Subaru Loyale, GL/DL, BRAT Front/4wd/4wd lo, Justy 4WD\n", "Quadra-Trac II was introduced in 1999 and it employs a two-speed chain-driven transfer case featuring three modes of operation, \"4-All Time\", \"N\" or neutral, and \"4-Lo\". Two different transfer cases were used, the NV247 in 1999-2004 WJs and the NV245 in 2005-2010 WKs and 2006-2009 XKs.\n", "BULLET::::- 2005–Present Jeep Wrangler Unlimited Rubicon (TJ,JK,JL)\n\nSection::::Selec-Trac.\n\nSection::::Selec-Trac.:Selec-Trac.\n", "In addition to these basic modes there could be implementations that combine these modes. The system could have a clutch across the center differential, for example, capable of modulating the front axle torque from a Full-time mode with the 30:70 torque split of the center differential to the 0:100 torque split of the 2WD mode\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Late 1800s.\n", "Since 2008, some versions of 4Matic have provided true AWD where the system remains active at all times. Sophisticated engine management and ABS systems control the amount of torque transferred to each wheel allowing the system to be effective at any speed.\n\nSection::::Description.:Fourth Generation.\n", "Section::::Definitions.:4WD.\n\n\"Four-wheel drive (4WD)\" refers to vehicles with two axles providing torque to four axle ends. In the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term \"4WD\" is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfer case which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:AWD.\n", "Full-Time AWD systems drive both front and rear axles at all times via a center (inter-axle) differential. The torque split of that differential may be fixed or variable depending on the type of center differential. This system can be used on any surface at any speed. The definition does not address inclusion or exclusion of a low range gear.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nWhen tire grip is good during road driving, a differential is used between the axles to avoid driveline windup. This is not required off-road, as the limited grip allows the tires to slip. All-wheel drive vehicles designed for extensive off-road use may not have such a differential, and so they suffer from wind-up when used on-road. Selectable 4WD also avoids this problem and requires only a simple dog clutch in the transfer case, rather than a differential. For this reason, most early off-road vehicles used that system; e.g., Jeep, Land Rover.\n", "BULLET::::- Toyota Sienna AWD (-2010 only) #\n\nThe above systems ending with \"#\" function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel.\n\nSection::::Systems by design type.:Multiple-clutch systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Acura RL, RDX (SH-AWD) Right and left axle shaft\n\nBULLET::::- Acura MDX SH-AWD & VTM4\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Explorer - Ford's full-time shift-on-the-fly \"Intelligent 4WD System\" (I-4WD) on the 2011 Explorer with \"Terrain Management System\" and RSC (Roll Stability Control), Curve Control functionality, HDC (Hill Descent Control) and HAA (Hill Ascent Assist).\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Ridgeline\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Pilot\n\nBULLET::::- Infiniti FX (ATTESA E-TS)\n", "All-wheel drive\n\nAn all-wheel drive vehicle (AWD vehicle) is one with a powertrain capable of providing power to all its wheels, whether full-time or on-demand.\n\nThe most common forms of all-wheel drive are:\n\nBULLET::::- 4×4 (also, four-wheel drive and 4WD): Reflecting two axles with both wheels on each capable of being powered.\n\nBULLET::::- 6×6 (also, six-wheel drive and 6WD): Reflecting three axles with both wheels on each capable of being powered.\n\nBULLET::::- 8×8 (also, eight-wheel drive and 8WD): Reflecting four axles with both wheels on each capable of being powered.\n\nVehicles may be either part-time all-wheel drive or full-time:\n", "Since Volkswagen Group's first mainstream transverse engined vehicle in 1974, four-wheel drive (4WD) has also been considered for their A-platform family of cars. It was not until the second generation of this platform that 4WD finally appeared on the market. The mid-1980s Mk2 Golf syncro, with its transverse engine and transmission positioning, had most of its torque sent primarily to the front axle.\n", "Section::::Design.:Limiting slippage.\n", "What: Automatic four wheel drive (on demand).\n\nHaldex Traction LSC multi-plate clutch with ECU electronic control, acting as a pseudo center differential.\n\nOpen rear differential, no EDL.\n\nOpen front differential, EDL.\n", "There were some differences in the chassis between 2WD and AWD model Stageas. The main difference being that the driver's side chassis rail on the AWD version was positioned closer to the lower sill. This was done to make room for the transfer case located on the end of the AWD transmission.\n", "Quadra-Drive II uses the New Venture Gear NV245 transfer case mated to front and rear axles containing electronic limited slip differentials or ELSDs. Jeep added traction control in 2005 and starting in 2011 only a rear ELSD is offered, while the front has an open differential.\n\nApplications:\n\nBULLET::::- 2005–Present Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK,WK2)\n\nBULLET::::- 2006-2010 Jeep Commander (XK)\n\nSection::::Freedom Drive.\n", "Four wheel drive systems include Quadra-Trac I, Quadra-Trac II, and Quadra-Drive II. Using Selec-Terrain, the driver can select modes for Auto, Sport, Snow, Sand/Mud, and Rock.\n\nOptional \"Quadra-Lift\" height adjustable air suspension can raise the vehicle's ground clearance up to . Lift modes include Park, Aero, Normal Ride Height, Off-Road 1, and Off-Road 2.\n", "Particularly in North America for several decades, the designation \"AWD\" has been used and marketed - distinctly from \"4X4\" and \"4WD\" - to apply to vehicles with drive train systems that have permanent drive, a differential between the front and rear drive shafts, and active management of torque transfer, especially following the advent of ABS. However, the designations \"AWD\" and \"all-wheel drive\" long predated the trend, with Associated Equipment Company (AEC) building AWD trucks in conjunction with FWD (UK) in 1929, and General Motors manufacturing a line as \"all-wheel drive\" as early as the late 1930s. This distinction in terminology is not generally used outside North America.\n" ]

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[ "Imperial units also retain common use in firearms and ammunition. Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even when the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g., .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). However, ammunition that is already classified in metric is still kept metric (e.g., 9×19mm). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges.\n", "Section::::Current use.:Financial services.\n\nSome commodity market prices are quoted in customary units (such as barrels of oil, troy ounces of gold, pounds of frozen pork bellies, etc.). The federal government reports international production figures in metric units (for instance, wheat in metric tons) but in bushels for domestic production figures.\n\nSection::::Current use.:Firearms.\n\nThe U.S. uses both the inch and millimeter for caliber on civilian and law enforcement firearms.\n", "BULLET::::- In both metric and non-metric countries, racing bicycle frames are generally measured in centimetres, while mountain bicycle and other frames are measured in either or both.\n\nBULLET::::- In the sport of surfing, surfboards are usually designed, constructed, and sold in feet and inches.\n\nBULLET::::- In Philippines certain pre-metric units are still used, e.g., the quiñón for land measurement .\n", "Tools and fasteners with sizes measured in inches are sometimes called \"SAE bolts\" or \"SAE wrenches\" to differentiate them from their metric counterparts. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) originally developed fasteners standards using U.S. units for the U.S. auto industry; the organization now uses metric units.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acre-foot\n\nBULLET::::- Board foot\n\nBULLET::::- Conversion of units\n\nBULLET::::- Cord (unit)\n\nBULLET::::- Fahrenheit (vs. Celsius vs. Kelvin)\n\nBULLET::::- History of measurement, systems, and units of measurement\n\nBULLET::::- Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States (1790)\n\nBULLET::::- Mars Climate Orbiter\n\nBULLET::::- Standard cubic foot\n", "BULLET::::- The intended use of the measurement including the engineering tolerances.\n\nBULLET::::- Historical definitions of the units and their derivatives used in old measurements; e.g., international foot vs. US survey foot.\n\nSome conversions from one system of units to another need to be exact, without increasing or decreasing the precision of the first measurement. This is sometimes called \"soft conversion\". It does not involve changing the physical configuration of the item being measured.\n", "There are certain circumstances where abbreviations (as opposed to the SI symbols) are used, particularly where safety is concerned. One such instance is the use of \"mcg\" rather than \"μg\" to represent \"micrograms\" in the pharmaceutical industry.\n\nSection::::Units.\n\nThere are three basic classes of units in SI:\n\nBULLET::::- Base units such as the metre, kilogram, second. Base units are defined with great precision as they form the basis for all other metric units of measure.\n", "The second development is actual metric calibers being introduced to the United States. 6 mm and 7 mm caliber rifles are particularly popular as are 9 mm and 10 mm caliber handguns. These metric caliber rounds are either described by their metric caliber, such as the very popular 7mm Remington Magnum round or have their bullet diameter converted into inches, such as the also extremely popular .243 Winchester. Occasionally, U.S.-designed inch-caliber rounds are stated in metric as well.\n", "Some measurements are reported in units derived from both customary and metric units. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat rate from a power plant: BTU/kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Federal automobile exhaust emission standards: grams per mile\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine in beverages: milligrams per ounce\n\nBULLET::::- The standard method for sizing tires combines millimeters for tread width but uses inches for rim diameter.\n", "Historically, ammunition rounds designed in the United States were denoted by their caliber in inches (e.g., .45 Colt and .270 Winchester.) Two developments changed this tradition: the large preponderance of different cartridges using an identical caliber and the international arms trade bringing metric calibers to the United States. The former led to bullet diameter (rather than caliber) often being used to describe rounds to differentiate otherwise similar rounds. A good example is the .308 Winchester, which fires the same .30-caliber projectile as the .30-06 Springfield and the .300 Savage. Occasionally, the caliber is just a number close to the diameter of the bullet, like the .220 Swift, .223 Remington and .222 Remington Magnum, all of which actually have .22 caliber or bullets.\n", "BULLET::::- In Hong Kong, traditional Chinese and British imperial units are normally used instead of metric units in particular types of trade.\n\nBULLET::::- Construction workers in Northern Europe often refer to planks and nails by their old inch-based names.\n\nBULLET::::- The length of small sail boats is often given in feet in popular conversation.\n\nBULLET::::- Office space is often rented in traditional units, such as square feet in Hong Kong and India, \"tsubo\"/\"pyeong\"/\"ping\" in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan.\n", "BULLET::::- In Latin America, as SI units are standard, litres are used as well, e.g., often regarding fuel economy (km per litre), and the Spanish word \"galón\" may occasionally refer to a portable fuel container, often 5–20 L\n\nBULLET::::- Road distances and speed limits are still displayed in miles and miles per hour respectively in the USA, UK, Burma, and various Caribbean nations.\n\nBULLET::::- Precious metals are often sold by troy weight, even in countries that otherwise use the metric system.\n\nBULLET::::- Air conditioning is often measured in British thermal units (BTUs) even in countries that use neither pounds or Fahrenheit.\n", "BULLET::::- In many long-time metric countries, when non-metric units are used, it is often to give rough estimates in a short form, while accurate measures always are metric, e.g., \"6 feet\" may feel less exact and shorter to say than \"1.8 metres\" or \"180 cm\". Measurement tools for inches are generally rare to find there, only on the other side of some carpenter's rulers, and may present a variation between national legacy inches and British/US inches, easily causing significant measurement errors if used.\n", "BULLET::::- The Earth's circumference is approximately  m. In scientific notation, this is . In engineering notation, this is written . In SI writing style, this may be written (\"40 megameters\").\n\nBULLET::::- An inch is defined as \"exactly\" 25.4 mm. Quoting a value of 25.400 mm shows that the value is correct to the nearest micrometer. An approximated value with only two significant digits would be instead. As there is no limit to the number of significant digits, the length of an inch could, if required, be written as (say) instead.\n\nSection::::Converting numbers.\n", "Imperial measures are often encountered in the description of cartridges, even when the cartridge is of a relatively recent product introduction (e.g. .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). Ammunition which is classified in metric already is still kept metric (e.g. 9 mm, 7.62 mm). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges. The popular .30-30 Winchester is a .30 calibre bullet originally loaded with 30 grains of smokeless gunpowder.\n\nSection::::Common usage today.:Print.\n", "BULLET::::- \"amphora quadrantal\" (Roman jar) – one cubic \"pes\" (Roman foot)\n\nBULLET::::- \"congius\" – a half-\"pes\" cube (thus \"amphora quadrantal\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"sextarius\" – literally , of a \"congius\"\n\nSection::::Weight.\n", "One such distinction is that between these systems and older British/English units/systems or newer additions. The term \"imperial\" should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in the Weights and Measures Act 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions, such as the slug or poundal.\n\nThe US customary system is historically derived from the English units that were in use at the time of settlement. Because the United States was already independent at the time, these units were unaffected by the introduction of the imperial system.\n\nSection::::Current use.\n", "Various symbols have been used to represent angular mils for compass use:\n\nBULLET::::- mil, MIL and similar abbreviations are often used by militaries in the English speaking part of the world.\n\nBULLET::::- ‰, called \"artillery per milles\" (German: \"Artilleriepromille\"), a symbol used by the Swiss Army.\n", "BULLET::::- Ligne – a French unit of length, roughly equal to , or 9 points\n\nBULLET::::- Line\n\nBULLET::::- Macedonian cubit\n\nBULLET::::- Pace\n\nBULLET::::- Palm\n\nBULLET::::- Parasang\n\nBULLET::::- Pes\n\nBULLET::::- Pyramid inch – a unit of length, believed to be equal to 1/25th of the cubit\n\nBULLET::::- Rod\n\nBULLET::::- Sana lamjel\n\nBULLET::::- Spat – a unit of length equal to\n\nBULLET::::- Stadion\n\nBULLET::::- Step\n\nBULLET::::- Unglie\n\nBULLET::::- Vara – an Aragonese, Spanish and Portuguese unit\n", "BULLET::::- Lambda – an uncommon metric unit of volume discontinued with the introduction of the SI\n\nBULLET::::- London quarter\n\nBULLET::::- Lump of butter – used in the U.S., up to and possibly after of the American Revolution. It equaled \"one well rounded tablespoon\".\n\nBULLET::::- Masu\n\nBULLET::::- Metretes\n\nBULLET::::- Octave\n\nBULLET::::- Omer\n\nBULLET::::- Pau\n\nBULLET::::- Peck – the name of two different units of volume, one imperial and one U.S. Both equaled about 9 litres.\n\nBULLET::::- Puddee\n\nBULLET::::- Salt spoon – used in the U.S., up to and possibly after of the American Revolution. Four salt spoons equaled one teaspoon.\n", "BULLET::::- Historically, in Germany and Austria, thousands separators were occasionally denoted by alternating uses of comma and point, e.g. 1.234,567.890,12 for \"eine Milliarde 234 Millionen ...\", but this is never seen in modern days and requires explanation to a contemporary German reader.\n", "BULLET::::- Foot : Prior to the Anglo-Saxon invasions, the Roman foot of was used. The Anglo-Saxons introduced a North-German foot of , divided into 4 palms or 12 thumbs, while the Roman foot continued to be used in the construction crafts. In the late 13th century, the modern foot of 304.8 mm was introduced, equal to exactly Anglo-Saxon foot.\n\nBULLET::::- Cubit : From fingertips to elbow, 18 inches.\n\nBULLET::::- Yard (= Ulna) : 3 feet = 36 inches, the practical base unit as the length of the prototype bar held by the Crown or Exchequer.\n", "BULLET::::- Television and monitor screen diagonals are still commonly cited in inches in many countries; however, in countries such as Australia, France and South Africa, centimetres are often used for television sets, whereas CRT computer monitors and all LCD monitors are measured in inches.\n", "BULLET::::- The Roman drachma was a weight of Roman pounds, or about 3.41 grams.\n\nA coin weighing one drachma is known as a stater, drachm, or drachma. The Ottoman dirhem was based on the Sassanian drachm, which was itself based on the Roman dram/drachm.\n\nSection::::British unit of mass.\n\nThe British Weights and Measures Act of 1878 introduced verification and consequent stamping of apothecary weights, making them officially recognized units of measurement. By 1900, Britain had enforced the distinction between the avoirdupois and apothecaries' versions by making the spelling different:\n", "BULLET::::- apothecaries' weight, now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.\n", "BULLET::::- Knitting needles in the United States are measured according to a non-linear unitless numerical system.\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminum foil is measured in \"mils\" ( inch, or 0.0254 mm) in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- Cross-sectional area of electrical wire is measured in circular mils in the U.S. and Canada, one circular mil (cmil) being equal to (or ). Since this is so small, actual wire is commonly measured in thousands of a cmil, called either kcmil or MCM.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"mil\" or \"thou\" is also sometimes used to mean thousandth of an inch.\n" ]

[ "Firearm ammo classified in metric." ]

[ "Firearm ammo is classified in both metric and imperial. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Firearm ammo classified in metric." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Firearm ammo is classified in both metric and imperial. " ]

[ "Skin flora do not readily pass between people: 30 seconds of moderate friction and dry hand contact results in a transfer of only 0.07% of natural hand flora from naked with a greater percentage from gloves.\n\nSection::::Hygiene.:Removal.\n\nThe most effective (60 to 80% reduction) antimicrobial washing is with ethanol, isopropanol, and n-propanol. Viruses are most affected by high (95%) concentrations of ethanol, while bacteria are more affected by n-propanol.\n\nUnmedicated soaps are not very effective as illustrated by the following data. Health care workers washed their hands once in nonmedicated liquid soap for 30 seconds. The students/technicians for 20 times.\n", "An increase in hand washing compliance by hospital staff results in decreased rates of resistant organisms.\n\nWater supply and sanitation infrastructure in health facilities offer significant co-benefits for combatting AMR, and investment should be increased. There is much room for improvement: WHO and UNICEF estimated in 2015 that globally 38% of health facilities did not have a source of water, nearly 19% had no toilets and 35% had no water and soap or alcohol-based hand rub for handwashing.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Industrial wastewater treatment.\n", "Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.\n", "An important use of hand washing is to prevent the transmission of antibiotic resistant skin flora that cause hospital-acquired infections such as Methicillin-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\". While such flora have become antibiotic resistant due to antibiotics there is no evidence that recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms when used in hand washing. However, many strains of organisms are resistant to some of the substances used in antibacterial soaps such as Triclosan.\n", "One survey of bar soaps in dentist clinics found they all had their own flora and on average from two to five different genera of microorganisms with those used most more likely to have more species varieties. Another survey of bar soaps in public toilets found even more flora. Another study found that very dry soaps are not infected while all are that rest in pools of water. However, research upon soap that was specially infected found that soap flora do not transmit to the hands.\n\nSection::::Hygiene.:Damaged skin.\n", "Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing santizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and \"S. aureus\".\n", "A comprehensive analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Water.\n", "Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions help to prevent many neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), for example soil-transmitted helminthiasis. An integrated approach to NTDs and WASH benefits both sectors and the communities they are aiming to serve. This is especially true in areas that are endemic with more than one NTD.\n", "Comparing hand-rubbing with alcohol-based solution with hand washing with antibacterial soap for a median time of 30 seconds each showed that the alcohol hand-rubbing reduced bacterial contamination 26% more than the antibacterial soap. But soap and water is more effective than alcohol-based hand rubs for reducing H1N1 influenza A virus and Clostridium difficile spores from hands.\n", "If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol (check the product label to be sure). Hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol is effective in killing Cronobacter germs. But use soap and water as soon as possible afterward because hand sanitizer does not kill all types of germs and may not work as well if hands are visibly greasy or dirty.\n", "BULLET::::- Mechanical removal (i.e., cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under running water to remove pathogens from the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Using a process or product that inactivates the pathogens in situ. Pathogen kill is achieved using a \"micro-biocidal\" product, i.e., a disinfectant or antibacterial product; waterless hand sanitizer; or by application of heat.\n\nBULLET::::- In some cases combined pathogen removal with kill is used, e.g., laundering of clothing and household linens such as towels and bed linen.\n\nSection::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Hand washing.\n", "Sanitizing surfaces is part of nosocomial infection in health care environments. Modern sanitizing methods such as Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide systems have been effective against gastroenteritis, MRSA, and influenza agents. Use of hydrogen peroxide vapor has been clinically proven to reduce infection rates and risk of acquisition. Hydrogen peroxide is effective against endospore-forming bacteria, such as \"Clostridium difficile\", where alcohol has been shown to be ineffective. Ultraviolet cleaning devices may also be used to disinfect the rooms of patients infected with \"Clostridium difficile\" or MRSA after discharge.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Antimicrobial surfaces.\n", "Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The CDC still states \"liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable\".\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Antibacterial soap.\n", "BULLET::::- Drying with the jet-air dryer resulted in an increase on average of the total number of bacteria on the finger pads by 42% and on the palms by 15%.\n\nBULLET::::- After washing and drying hands with a paper towel, the total number of bacteria was reduced on average on the finger pads by up to 76% and on the palms by up to 77%.\n", "Interventions that promote hand washing can reduce diarrhoea episodes by about a third, and this is comparable to providing clean water in low income areas. 48% of reductions in diarrhoea episodes can be associated with hand washing with soap.\n", "For reference the MIC of erythromycin that is effective against 90 percent of lab grown Campylobacter bacteria, the most common food-borne pathogen in the United States, is 60 ng/mL. One study found that the average concentration of erythromycin, a commonly prescribed antibiotic, was 0.09 ng/mL in water treatment plant effluents. Additionally, transfer of genetic elements among bacteria has been observed under natural conditions in wastewater treatment plants, and selection of resistant bacteria has been documented in sewers receiving wastewaters from pharmaceutical plants. Moreover, antibiotic resistant bacteria may also remain in sewage sludge and enter the food chain if the sludge is not incinerated but used as fertilizer on agricultural land.\n", "A 2013 study showed that improved hand washing practices may lead to small improvements in the length growth in children under five years of age\n\nIn developing countries, childhood mortality rates related to respiratory and diarrheal diseases can be reduced by introducing simple behavioral changes, such as hand washing with soap. This simple action can reduce the rate of mortality from these diseases by almost 50 percent.\n", "The main sources of infection in the home are people (who are carriers or are infected), foods (particularly raw foods) and water, and domestic animals (in the U.S. more than 50% of homes have one or more pets). Sites that accumulate stagnant water—such as sinks, toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths, etc. readily support microbial growth and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are mostly those that threaten \"at risk\" groups. Pathogens (potentially infectious bacteria, viruses etc.—colloquially called \"germs\") are constantly shed from these sources via mucous membranes, feces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people are exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an infection.\n", "During laundering, temperature and detergent work to reduce microbial contamination levels on fabrics. Soil and microbes from fabrics are severed and suspended in the wash water. These are then \"washed away\" during the rinse and spin cycles. In addition to physical removal, micro-organisms can be killed by thermal inactivation which increases as the temperature is increased. Chemical inactivation of microbes by the surfactants and activated oxygen-based bleach used in detergents contributes to the hygiene effectiveness of laundering. Adding hypochlorite bleach in the washing process achieves inactivation of microbes. A number of other factors can contribute including drying and ironing.\n", "Mass water is different from the highly purified water from the Module 15 &40. It is only cleaned from germs, but particles will still be there. The module has the capacity to provide a maximum of 40,000 beneficiaries with basic sanitation facilities.\n\nSection::::Specific units.:Water and sanitation.:Module Poolfilter.\n", "In developing countries, child mortality rates related to respiratory and diarrheal diseases can be reduced by introducing simple behavioral changes, such as handwashing with soap. This simple action can reduce the rate of mortality from these diseases by almost 50 per cent.\n", "A map has been created to help identify areas with high levels of infection with the WASH-impacted NTDs and low levels of rural improved water and sanitation coverage. In addition, WASH practitioners can use the manual \"WASH and the Neglected Tropical Diseases: A Manual for WASH Implementers\" to target, implement, and monitor WASH program impact on the NTDs.\n", "When this technique was studied two purification methods were used to treat water. The first was a typical reverse osmosis technique used for pure water. The other was a double reverse osmosis technique with electric deionization which was continuously disinfected with UV light and disinfected weekly with ozone. The tubing it ran through was tested weekly for bacterial colonies. The highly purified water showed a sharp decrease in bacteria colony adherence. Water purification methods are being scrutinized here because it is in this state that contamination is thought to occur and biofilms are formed.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Surface modification.\n", "Well water for personal use is often filtered with reverse osmosis water processors; this process can remove very small particles. A simple, effective way of killing microorganisms is to bring the water to a full boil for one to three minutes, depending on location. A household well contaminated by microorganisms can initially be treated by shock chlorination using bleach, generating concentrations hundreds of times greater than found in community water systems; however, this will not fix any structural problems that led to the contamination and generally requires some expertise and testing for effective application.\n", "One of the oldest methods is called the multiple tube method. In this method a measured sub-sample (perhaps 10 ml) is diluted with 100 ml of sterile growth medium and an aliquot of 10 ml is then decanted into each of ten tubes. The remaining 10 ml is then diluted again and the process repeated. At the end of 5 dilutions this produces 50 tubes covering the dilution range of 1:10 through to 1:10000.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "In Canada, since the beginning of 1990, there are some companies offering servicing of failed IG units. They provide open ventilation to the atmosphere by drilling hole(s) in the glass and/or spacer. This solution often reverses the visible condensation, but cannot clean the interior surface of the glass and staining that may have occurred after long-term exposure to moisture. They may offer a warranty from 5 to 20 years. This solution lowers the insulating value of the window, but it can be a \"green\" solution when the window is still in good condition. If the IG unit had a gas fill (e.g. argon or krypton or a mixture) the gas is naturally dissipated and the R-value suffers.\n", "SmartScreen Filter creates a problem for small software vendors when they distribute an updated version of installation or binary files over the internet. Whenever an updated version is released, SmartScreen responds by stating that the file is not commonly downloaded and can therefore install harmful files on your system. This can be fixed by the author digitally signing the distributed software. Reputation is then based not only on a file's hash but on the signing certificate as well. A common distribution method for authors to bypass SmartScreen warnings is to pack their installation program (for example Setup.exe) into a ZIP-archive and distribute it that way, though this can confuse non-expert users.\n", "Carbon dioxide concentrations in closed or confined rooms can increase to 1,000 ppm within 45 minutes of enclosure. For example, in a sized office, atmospheric carbon dioxide increased from 500 ppm to over 1,000 ppm within 45 minutes of ventilation cessation and closure of windows and doors\n\nSection::::Common pollutants.:Ozone.\n\nOzone is produced by ultraviolet light from the Sun hitting the Earth's atmosphere (especially in the ozone layer), lightning, certain high-voltage electric devices (such as air ionizers), and as a by-product of other types of pollution.\n", "The life of an IGU varies depending on the quality of materials used, size of gap between inner and outer pane, temperature differences, workmanship and location of installation both in terms of facing direction and geographic location, as well as the treatment the unit receives. IG units typically last from 10 to 25 years, with windows facing the equator often lasting less than 12 years. IGUs typically carry a warranty for 10 to 20 years depending upon the manufacturer. If IGUs are altered (such as installation of a solar control film) the warranty may be voided by the manufacturer.\n", "UV degradation\n\nMany natural and synthetic polymers are attacked by ultraviolet radiation, and products using these materials may crack or disintegrate if they are not UV-stable. The problem is known as \"UV degradation\", and is a common problem in products exposed to sunlight. Continuous exposure is a more serious problem than intermittent exposure, since attack is dependent on the extent and degree of exposure.\n\nMany pigments and dyes can also be affected, and the problem known as phototendering can affect textiles such as curtains or drapes.\n\nSection::::Susceptible polymers.\n", "Plants also appear to reduce airborne microbes and molds, and to increase humidity. However, the increased humidity can itself lead to increased levels of mold and even VOCs.\n", "Some patients gradually build a protective layer of melanin by regularly exposing themselves for short times to ultraviolet radiation.\n\nWindow films which block UV and visible light up to 450 nm can provide relief from symptoms if applied to the patient's automobile and home windows. An example of such would be Madico Amber 81 which can protect through the 500 nm range.\n", "Most screens are ready for re-coating at this stage, but sometimes screens will have to undergo a further step in the reclaiming process called dehazing. This additional step removes haze or \"ghost images\" left behind in the screen once the emulsion has been removed. Ghost images tend to faintly outline the open areas of previous stencils, hence the name. They are the result of ink residue trapped in the mesh, often in the knuckles of the mesh (the points where threads cross).\n", "However, thermal resistance \"per unit price\" is much less than conventional materials. VIPs are more difficult to manufacture than polyurethane foams or mineral wools, and strict quality control of manufacture of the membranes and sealing joins is important if a panel is to maintain its vacuum over a long period of time. Air will gradually enter the panel, and as the pressure of the panel normalizes with its surrounding air its R-value deteriorates. Conventional insulation does not depend on the evacuation of air for its thermal performance, and is therefore not susceptible to this form of deterioration. However, materials like polyurethane foam are susceptible to water absorption and performance degradation as well.\n", "Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers and is directed into the baghouse compartment. The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface until air can no longer move through it. When a sufficient pressure drop (ΔP) occurs, the cleaning process begins. Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in isolation). When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.\n", "BULLET::::- In the winter, the screen was removed and replaced with a storm window, which created a two-layer separation between the interior and exterior spaces, increasing window insulation in cold winter months. To permit ventilation the storm window may be hung from removable hinge loops and swung open using folding metal arms. No screening was usually possible with open storm windows, though in the winter, insects typically are not active.\n", "In some cases, a manufacturer sends all screens to sale, and then replaces the screen if the customer reports the unit as faulty, and the defective pixels meet their minimum requirements for return. Some screens come with a leaflet stating how many dead pixels they are allowed to have before the owner can send them back to the manufacturer. Dead pixels may tend to occur in clusters; in most cases, displays with such a cluster problem can be sent back to the manufacturer.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short- and long-term adverse health effects. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. VOCs are emitted by a wide array of products numbering in the thousands. Examples include: paints and lacquers, paint strippers, cleaning supplies, pesticides, building materials and furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers, and photographic solutions.\n", "Vacuum technology is also used in some non-transparent insulation products called vacuum insulated panels.\n", "\"Factory tint\", done at the time of manufacture is generally not an applied film, but instead is done by dyeing the inside of the glass with a darkened pigment, an electrical process known as \"deep dipping.\" The pigment gives the glass a tint, but doesn't provide UV ray protection or heat rejection like most window films do. The average VLT of factory tint is between 15%-26%.\n\nSection::::Regulations for automotive use.:Regulation by country.\n", "However, current reproductions of these old-style storm windows can be made with detachable glass in the bottom pane that can be replaced with a detachable screen when desired. This eliminates the need for changing the entire storm window according to the seasons.\n", "Stuck pixels, unlike dead pixels, have been reported by LCD screen owners to disappear, and there are several popular methods purported to fix them, such as gently rubbing the screen (in an attempt to reset the pixel), cycling the color value of the stuck pixel rapidly (in other words, flashing bright colors on the screen), or simply tolerating the stuck pixel until it disappears (which can take anywhere from a day to years). While these methods can work on some stuck pixels others cannot be fixed by the above methods. Also, some stuck pixels will reappear after being fixed if the screen is left off for several hours.\n", "BULLET::::- Chemicals (known as getters) to collect gases leaked through the membrane or offgassed from the membrane materials. These are added to VIPs with glass-fiber or foam cores, because cores with bigger pore size require a higher vacuum (less than about 1 mbar) during the planned service life.\n\nSection::::Thermal performance.\n", "Significant amounts of ozone can be produced. Even small amounts of ozone can cause ozone cracking in many polymers over time, in addition to the damage by the radiation itself.\n\nSection::::Effects on materials and devices.:Effects on gases.:Gas-filled radiation detectors.\n\nIn some gaseous ionisation detectors, radiation damage to gases plays an important role in the device's ageing, especially in devices exposed for long periods to high intensity radiation, e.g. detectors for the Large Hadron Collider or the Geiger–Müller tube\n", "However, studies have shown that even vacuum cleaners featuring HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filters tend to release a large amount of allergens back into the air in the exhaust.\n\nIn general, more recent and more expensive models do perform better than older and less expensive ones.\n\nSection::::Existing technology.\n", "Outdoor air used for ventilation may have sufficient ozone to react with common indoor pollutants as well as skin oils and other common indoor air chemicals or surfaces. Particular concern is warranted when using \"green\" cleaning products based on citrus or terpene extracts, because these chemicals react very quickly with ozone to form toxic and irritating chemicals as well as fine and ultrafine particles. Ventilation with outdoor air containing elevated ozone concentrations may complicate remediation attempts.\n", "The manufacturing process used to create the Microvision's LCD was primitive by modern standards. Poor sealing and impurities introduced during manufacture has resulted in the condition known as \"screen rot\". The liquid crystal spontaneously leaks and permanently darkens, resulting in a game unit that still plays but is unable to properly draw the screen. While extreme heat (such as resulting from leaving the unit in the sun) which can instantly destroy the screen can be avoided, there is nothing that can be done to prevent screen rot in most Microvisions.\n\nSection::::Problems.:ESD damage.\n", "In many cases, if materials have failed to dry out several days after the suspected water event, mold growth is suspected within wall cavities even if it is not immediately visible. Through a mold investigation, which may include destructive inspection, one should be able to determine the presence or absence of mold. In a situation where there is visible mold and the indoor air quality may have been compromised, mold remediation may be needed. Mold testing and inspections should be carried out by an independent investigator to avoid any conflict of interest and to insure accurate results; free mold testing offered by remediation companies is not recommended.\n", "In many cases, the use of a screensaver is impractical. Most plasma-type display manufacturers include methods for reducing the rate of burn-in by moving the image slightly, which does not eliminate screen burn, but can soften the edges of any ghost image that does develop. Similar techniques exist for modern OLED displays. For example, manufacturers of Android Wear watches with OLED displays can request that Android Wear enable \"burn protection techniques\" that periodically shift the contents of the screen by a few pixels.\n", "Fungal 18S rDNA fragments of \"G. pannorum\" have been recovered from glass panels of 19th century churches in Brakel, Germany, where their presence was interpreted to contribute to have degradation. Minimal organic films on optical glass provide sufficient nutrition to sustain growth of this species, causing etching of the glass surface. \"Geomyces pannorum\" has been implicated in the biodegradation of buried plastics such as polyester polyurethane. It is capable of degrading plasticized polyvinyl chloride (pPVC) and polyurethane resins.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The thermometer shows a reading at the top of the mercury section on both the maximum and minimum scales; this shows the current temperature and should be the same on both scales. If the two readings are not the same, then the instrument scales are not correctly positioned or the instrument is damaged.\n", "As the air pressure decreases at altitudes above sea level (and increases below sea level) the uncorrected reading of the barometer will depend on its location. The reading is then adjusted to an equivalent sea-level pressure for purposes of reporting. For example, if a barometer located at sea level and under fair weather conditions is moved to an altitude of 1,000 feet (305 m), about 1 inch of mercury (~35 hPa) must be added on to the reading. The barometer readings at the two locations should be the same if there are negligible changes in time, horizontal distance, and temperature. If this were not done, there would be a false indication of an approaching storm at the higher elevation.\n", "Sometimes, especially near ambient temperatures, readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body—even the person holding the instrument — rather than radiated by the object being measured, and to an incorrect assumed emissivity.\n", "The table below shows examples for three locations in the city of San Francisco, California. Note the corrected barometer readings are identical, and based on equivalent sea-level pressure. (Assume a temperature of 15 °C.)\n", "(2) Its heating and cooling must be reversible. That is to say, the material must be able to be heated and cooled indefinitely often by the same increment and decrement of heat, and still return to its original pressure, volume and temperature every time. Some plastics do not have this property;\n\n(3) Its heating and cooling must be monotonic. That is to say, throughout the range of temperatures for which it is intended to work,\n", "The density of mercury will change with increase or decrease in temperature, so a reading must be adjusted for the temperature of the instrument. For this purpose a mercury thermometer is usually mounted on the instrument. Temperature compensation of an aneroid barometer is accomplished by including a bi-metal element in the mechanical linkages. Aneroid barometers sold for domestic use typically have no compensation under the assumption that they will be used within a controlled room temperature range.\n\nSection::::Compensations.:Altitude.\n", "The TECP humidity sensor is a relative humidity sensor, so it must be coupled with a temperature sensor in order to measure absolute humidity. Both the relative humidity sensor and a temperature sensor are attached directly to the circuit board of the TECP and are, therefore, assumed to be at the same temperature.\n\nSection::::Scientific payload.:Meteorological station.\n", "BULLET::::- When the sun is shining, standing the barometer up, measuring the height of the barometer and the lengths of the shadows of both barometer and building, and finding the building's height using similar triangles.\n", "One must be careful when measuring temperature to ensure that the measuring instrument (thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with the heat transfer properties of the system.\n", "According to the Stefan–Boltzmann law, radiant power is proportional to the fourth power of temperature, so when the measurement surface has both hot and cold areas, the indicated temperature may be higher than the actual average temperature, and closer to fourth-power mean average.\n", "For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give the same reading for the same temperature (or do replacement or multiple thermometers give the same reading)? Reproducible temperature measurement means that comparisons are valid in scientific experiments and industrial processes are consistent. Thus if the same type of thermometer is calibrated in the same way its readings will be valid even if it is slightly inaccurate compared to the absolute scale.\n", "Some electronic thermometers may work by contact (the electronic sensor is placed in the location where temperature is to be measured, and left long enough to reach equilibrium). These typically reach equilibrium faster than mercury thermometers; the thermometer may beep when equilibrium has been reached, or the time may be specified in the manufacturer's documentation.\n\nSection::::Classification by technology.:Electronic.:Remote.\n", "Apparent temperature\n\nApparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n\nBULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "Section::::Primary and secondary thermometers.\n", "Section::::Intuition.\n\nConsider a thermometer wrapped in a water-moistened cloth. The drier, less humid the air, the faster the water will evaporate. The faster water evaporates, the lower the thermometer's temperature will be relative to air temperature. \n", "(1) Its heating and cooling must be rapid. That is to say, when a quantity of heat enters or leaves a body of the material, the material must expand or contract to its final volume or reach its final pressure and must reach its final temperature with practically no delay; some of the heat that enters can be considered to change the volume of the body at constant temperature, and is called the latent heat of expansion at constant temperature; and the rest of it can be considered to change the temperature of the body at constant volume, and is called the specific heat at constant volume. Some materials do not have this property, and take some time to distribute the heat between temperature and volume change.\n", "Calandra asked the student the same question, and received a wealth of different answers including dropping the barometer from the top of the building and timing its fall with a stopwatch; trading the barometer to the building's superintendent in return for the information wanted; creating two small pendulums and measuring the variation of g from the ground to the top of the building; creating a pendulum as high as the building and measuring its period; and comparing the length of the shadows of the building and the barometer. The student admitted that he knew the expected \"correct\" answer, but was fed up with the professor's \"teaching him how to think ... rather than teaching him the structure of the subject.\"\n", "There are factors that make readings of this thermometer to some extent unreliable, for example faulty placement in the external ear canal by the operator, and wax blocking the canal. Such error-producing factors usually cause readings to be below the true value, so that a fever can fail to be detected.\n\nSection::::Classification by location.:Temporal artery.\n", "A thermometer calibrated to a known fixed point is accurate (i.e. gives a true reading) at that point. Most thermometers are originally calibrated to a constant-volume gas thermometer. In between fixed calibration points, interpolation is used, usually linear. This may give significant differences between different types of thermometer at points far away from the fixed points. For example, the expansion of mercury in a glass thermometer is slightly different from the change in resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer, so these two will disagree slightly at around 50 °C. There may be other causes due to imperfections in the instrument, e.g. in a liquid-in-glass thermometer if the capillary tube varies in diameter.\n", "Before a new maximum or minimum reading can be taken, the thermometer must be reset by moving the markers to the top of the mercury, usually by hand using a small magnet to slide them along the tube. Any change in temperature after that will push one of the markers along with it. (If the markers are not reset, they will register maxima and minima only if they exceed the values already encountered.)\n", "In contrast, \"Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature.\"\n\nSection::::Calibration.\n", "Most surfaces have high emissivity (over 0.9 for most biological surfaces), and most IR thermometers rely on this simplifying assumption; however, reflective surfaces have lower emissivity than non-reflective surfaces. Some sensors have an adjustable emissivity setting, which can be set to measure the temperature of reflective and non-reflective surfaces. A non-adjustable thermometer may be used to measure the temperature of a reflective surface by applying a non-reflective paint or tape, with some loss of accuracy.\n", "Some typical circumstances are where the object to be measured is moving; where the object is surrounded by an electromagnetic field, as in induction heating; where the object is contained in a vacuum or other controlled atmosphere; or in applications where a fast response is required, an accurate surface temperature is desired or the object temperature is above the recommended use point for contact sensors, or contact with a sensor would mar the object or the sensor, or introduce a significant temperature gradient on the object's surface.\n", "Indoor–outdoor thermometer\n\nAn indoor–outdoor thermometer is a thermometer that simultaneously provides a measurement of the indoor and outdoor temperatures. The outdoor part of the thermometer requires some kind of remote temperature sensing device. Conventionally, this was done by extending the bulb of the thermometer to the remote site. Modern instruments are more likely to use some form of electronic transducer.\n\nSection::::Glass thermometer.\n", "Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the flow speed.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Influence of Literary Chinese.\n\nFor most of the pre-modern period, Chinese culture dominated East Asia. Scholars in Vietnam, Korea and Japan wrote in Literary Chinese and were thoroughly familiar with the Chinese classics. Their languages absorbed large numbers of Chinese words, known collectively as Sino-Xenic vocabulary, i.e. Sino-Japanese, Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese. These words were written with Chinese characters and pronounced in a local approximation of Middle Chinese.\n", "Characteristic of many MSEA languages is a particular syllable structure involving monosyllabic morphemes, lexical tone, a fairly large inventory of consonants, including phonemic aspiration, limited clusters at the beginning of a syllable, plentiful vowel contrasts and relatively few final consonants. Languages in the northern part of the area generally have fewer vowel and final contrasts but more initial contrasts.\n", "The script of the Han Chinese characters has long been a unifying feature in East Asia as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to its East Asian neighbors. Chinese characters became the unifying language of bureaucratic politics and religious expression in East Asia. The Chinese script was passed on first to Korea, Vietnam in the 1st century, then to Japan, where it forms a major component of the Japanese writing system. In Korea, however, Sejong the Great invented the hangul alphabet, which has since been used as the main orthographic system for the Korean language. In Japan, much of the Japanese language is written in hiragana, katakana in addition to Chinese characters.\n", "The core Languages of the East Asian Cultural Sphere generally include the Chinese languages, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. All of these languages have a well documented history of having historically used Chinese characters and Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese all have roughly 60% of their vocabulary stemming from Chinese. There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages such as Zhuang and Hmong-Mien. They are often overlooked since neither have their own country or heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written in hanzi inspired characters called Sawndip for over 1000 years. Hmong while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages as well.\n", "East Asian literary culture was based on the use of Literary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship and government across the region. Although each of these countries developed vernacular writing systems and used them for popular literature, they continued to use Chinese for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the 19th century.\n", "BULLET::::- Hoanya\n\nBULLET::::- Ketangalan\n\nBULLET::::- Kulun\n\nBULLET::::- Papora\n\nBULLET::::- Siraiya\n\nBULLET::::- Taokas\n\nSection::::East Asia.:Korea.\n\nBULLET::::- Goguryeo\n\nBULLET::::- Gaya\n\nBULLET::::- Buyeo\n\nBULLET::::- Baekje\n\nSection::::North Asia.\n\nSection::::North Asia.:Siberia.\n\nBULLET::::- Arin\n\nBULLET::::- Assan\n\nBULLET::::- Kamassian\n\nBULLET::::- Koibal\n\nBULLET::::- Kott\n\nBULLET::::- Mator\n\nBULLET::::- Pumpokol\n\nBULLET::::- Sireniki\n\nBULLET::::- Yugh\n\nBULLET::::- Yurats\n\nSection::::South Asia.\n\nSection::::South Asia.:India.\n\nBULLET::::- Aariya\n\nBULLET::::- Ahom\n\nBULLET::::- Andamanese languages\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Bea\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Bo\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Cari\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Jeru\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Kede\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Kol\n\nBULLET::::- Aka-Kora\n\nBULLET::::- Akar-Bale\n\nBULLET::::- Oko-Juwoi\n\nBULLET::::- Arwi\n\nBULLET::::- Cochin Portuguese creole\n\nBULLET::::- Lubanki\n\nSection::::South Asia.:Sri Lanka.\n\nBULLET::::- Ceylon Portuguese\n\nBULLET::::- Ceylon Dutch\n\nBULLET::::- Magasake\n\nSection::::Southeast Asia.\n\nSection::::Southeast Asia.:Indonesia.\n\nBULLET::::- Hukumina\n", "However, as Chinese writing concepts were passed on to Korea, Japan and Vietnam, these nations developed their own characteristic writing systems to complement Hanzi. Vietnam invented their own Chữ Nôm glyphs, Japan invented kana, and Korea invented their own alphabet hangul. To this day, Vietnam mostly writes in quoc ngu (a modified Latin alphabet) but there is also a resurgence of Hanzi (or chu han) as well. Sino cognates compose a vast majority of the vocabulary of these languages (see Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary, Sino-Korean vocabulary, Sino-Japanese vocabulary). In the 20th century, China has also re-borrowed terms from Japan to represent western concepts known as \"Wasei-kango\".\n", "A number of smaller, but important language families spread across central and northern Asia have long been linked in an as-yet unproven Altaic family. These are the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic (including Manchu), Koreanic, and Japonic languages. Speakers of the Turkish language (Anatolian Turks) are believed to have adopted the language, having instead originally spoken the Anatolian languages, an extinct group of languages belonging to the Indo-European family.\n\nSection::::Language groups.:Mon–Khmer.\n\nThe Mon–Khmer languages (also known as Austroasiatic) are the oldest family in Asia. Languages given official status are Vietnamese and Khmer (Cambodian).\n\nSection::::Language groups.:Kra–Dai.\n", "In addition, political and social conventions often override considerations of mutual intelligibility. For example, the varieties of Chinese are often considered a single language even though there is usually no mutual intelligibility between geographically separated varieties. Another similar example would be varieties of Arabic. In contrast, there is often significant intelligibility between different Scandinavian languages, but as each of them has its own standard form, they are classified as separate languages. There is also significant intelligibility between Thai languages of different regions of Thailand.\n", "The script of the Han Chinese characters has long been a unifying feature in East Asia as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to its East Asian neighbors. Chinese characters became the unifying language of bureaucratic politics and religious expression in East Asia. The Chinese script was passed on first to Korea and then to Japan, where it forms a major component of the Japanese writing system. In Korea, however, Sejong the Great invented the hangul alphabet, which has since been used as the main orthographic system for the Korean language. In Japan, much of the Japanese language is written in hiragana, katakana in addition to Chinese characters.\n", "BULLET::::2. Islam, see Xinjiang, Muslims in China, Islam in Hong Kong, Islam in Japan, Islam in Korea, Islam in Vietnam.\n\nBULLET::::3. Christianity, one of the most popular religions in Hong Kong, Korea etc.\n\nSection::::East Asian Culture.:Language.\n\nSection::::East Asian Culture.:Language.:Historical Linguistics.\n\nVarious languages are thought to have originated in East Asia and have various degrees of influence on each other. These include:\n\nBULLET::::1. Altaic: proposed to include the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic language families; and possibly also the Japonic and Koreanic families, and the Ainu language. thought to have originated around Xinjiang or in the Eurasian steppe.\n", "While other languages have been impacted by the Sinosphere such as the Thai with its Thai numeral system and Mongolian with its historical use of hanzi: the amount of Chinese vocabulary overall is not nearly as expansive in these languages as the core CJKV, or even Zhuang and Hmong.\n\nThere are various hypotheses trying to unify various subsets of the above languages, including the Sino-Austronesian and Austric language groupings. An overview of these various language groups is discussed in Jared Diamond's \"Germs, Guns, and Steel\", among other places.\n\nSection::::East Asian Culture.:Language.:Writing Systems.\n", "Asia is a continent with great linguistic diversity, and is home to various language families and many language isolates. In fact, Asia contains almost every major language family except the Bantu languages. A majority of Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue over 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia while over 100 are spoken in the Philippines. The official figure of 'mother tongues' spoken in India is 1683, of which an estimated 850 are in daily use. Korea, on the other hand, is home to only one language.\n", "Supercentral languages spread by land and sea. Land-bound languages spread via marching empires: German, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese and Japanese. However, when the conquerors were defeated and were forced to move out of the territory, the spread of the languages receded. As a result, some of these languages are currently barely supercentral languages and are instead confined to their remaining state territories, as is evident from German, Russian and Japanese.\n", "Section::::Literature.:Japanese.\n\nIn the early eleventh century, court lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote Tale of the Genji considered the masterpiece of Japanese literatures and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel.\n", "The languages of East Asia belong to several distinct language families, with many common features attributed to interaction. In the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, Chinese varieties and languages of southeast Asia share many areal features, tending to be analytic languages with similar syllable and tone structure. In the 1st millennium AD, Chinese culture came to dominate East Asia. Classical Chinese was adopted by scholars in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. There was a massive influx of Chinese vocabulary into these and other neighboring languages. The Chinese script was also adapted to write Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese, though in the first two the use of Chinese characters is now restricted to university learning, linguistic or historical study, artistic or decorative works and (in Korean's case) newspapers.\n", "The eponymous pidgin (\"business\") language developed with European trade in China. Of the many creoles to have developed, the most spoken today are Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole of the Philippines, and various Malay-based creoles such as Manado Malay influenced by Portuguese. A very well-known Portuguese-based creole is the Kristang, which is spoken in Malacca, a city-state in Malaysia.\n\nSection::::Language groups.:Sign languages.\n", "BULLET::::- proto-Japonic *wasara ~ *wǝsǝrǝ ‘early ripening crop, early ripening rice’\n\nBULLET::::- proto-Austronesian *baCaR ‘broomcorn millet (\"Panicum miliaceum\")’\n\nBULLET::::- proto-Koreanic *pʌsal ‘hulled variety of grain, rice’\n\nBut her view is not uncontroversial as she takes the Altaic/Transeurasian theory for granted.\n\nSection::::Possible external relations.:Austronesian and/or Kra-Dai (Austro-Tai) theory.\n", "Throughout East Asia, Literary Chinese was the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, these were limited to popular literature. Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation of Middle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively into the local vernaculars, and today comprise over half their vocabularies.\n", "is still read widely but pronounced differently by readers in China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan; for centuries it was a \"de facto\" universal \"literary\" language for a broad-based culture. In something of the same way Sanskrit in India and Nepal, Tamil in India and Sri Lanka and Pali in Sri Lanka and in Theravada countries of South-East Asia (Burma, Thailand, Cambodia), were literary languages for many for whom they were not their mother tongue.\n", "BULLET::::- Kamarian\n\nBULLET::::- Tambora language\n\nSection::::Southeast Asia.:Malaysia.\n\nBULLET::::- Kenaboi\n\nBULLET::::- Wila'\n\nBULLET::::- Seru\n\nBULLET::::- Lelak\n\nSection::::Southeast Asia.:Philippines.\n\nBULLET::::- Agta Dicamay\n\nBULLET::::- Agta Villaviciosa\n\nBULLET::::- Ayta Tayabas\n\nBULLET::::- Katabaga\n\nBULLET::::- Ermitaño creole\n\nSection::::West Asia.\n\nSection::::West Asia.:Anatolia.\n\nBULLET::::- Anatolian languages\n\nBULLET::::- Carian\n\nBULLET::::- Hittite\n\nBULLET::::- Luwian\n\nBULLET::::- Lycian\n\nBULLET::::- Lydian\n\nBULLET::::- Mysian\n\nBULLET::::- Palaic\n\nBULLET::::- Galatian\n\nBULLET::::- Hattian\n\nBULLET::::- Phrygian\n\nBULLET::::- Trojan\n\nBULLET::::- Urartian\n\nSection::::West Asia.:Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- Hadramautic\n\nBULLET::::- Himyarite\n\nBULLET::::- Minaean\n\nBULLET::::- Nabatean\n\nBULLET::::- Qatabanian\n\nBULLET::::- Sabaean\n\nSection::::West Asia.:Caucasus.\n\nBULLET::::- Ubykh\n\nBULLET::::- Caucasian Albanian\n\nSection::::West Asia.:Iranian Plateau.\n\nBULLET::::- Azari\n\nBULLET::::- Elamite\n\nBULLET::::- Parthian\n\nSection::::West Asia.:Levant.\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonite\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Proto-Asian hypothesis\" or \"Austro-Asian\" (Larish 2006) argues for lexical evidence of relationship among all of the languages typically included in Austric as well as Japanese–Korean.\n\nBULLET::::- East Asian (Starosta 2005) covers all of these families as well as Sino-Tibetan. It posits Austronesian (including Kra–Dai) as the most divergent branch, coordinate with a primary branch \"Sino-Tibetan–Yangzian\" which links Sino-Tibetan with a clade called \"Yangzian\" (or \"Yangtzean\"), named for the Yangtze river, which includes Austroasiatic and Hmong–Mien.\n", "Section::::Language groups.:Afro-Asiatic.\n\nThe Afroasiatic languages (in older sources Hamito-Semitic), particularly its Semitic branch, are spoken in Western Asia. It includes Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic, in addition to extinct languages such as Akkadian. The Modern South Arabian languages contain a substratum influence from the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic, which suggests that Cushitic speakers originally inhabited the Arabian Peninsula alongside Semitic speakers.\n\nSection::::Language groups.:Siberian families.\n", "Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the \"Hangul\" alphabet for Korean and supplemented with \"kana\" syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex \"Chữ nôm\" script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters (\"Kanji\") and kana. Korean is written exclusively with Hangul in North Korea, and supplementary Chinese characters (\"Hanja\") are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. Vietnamese is written with a Latin-based alphabet.\n", "Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces.\n\nSection::::Demographics.:Religions.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Asian languages should be similar to one another." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Many languages spoken primarily in Asia are unrelated to each other." ]

[ "When exposed to these infected or dysfunctional somatic cells, effector CTL release perforin and granulysin: cytotoxins that form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions and water to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse. CTL release granzyme, a serine protease encapsulated in a granule that enters cells via pores to induce apoptosis (cell death). To limit extensive tissue damage during an infection, CTL activation is tightly controlled and in general requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by \"helper\" T-cells (see below).\n", "In absence of dedicated research, recommended treatment of bites is, as for all true cobras, with the appropriate antivenom (SAVP polyvalent from South African Vaccine Producers). The dosage may need to be higher than for the average \"N. nigricollis\" bite. First aid treatment for venom in the eyes is immediate irrigation with water or any bland liquid - failure to do so may result in permanent blindness. Whether bitten or spat at, the patient should be seen as soon as possible by a physician. No available data suggest this species' toxins differ clinically from those of other spitting cobras, except perhaps by the effects of greater dosages, on average. Spitting cobra venom has rather low systemic toxicity, meaning with appropriate treatment, survival of bitten persons is very likely. A strong necrotizing effect (kills tissue around the wound) means survivors may be disfigured. If a jet of venom gets into the eyes and is not treated immediately, blindness (due to destruction of the cornea) is likely; even in patients treated with antivenom, amputation may become necessary if a full dose of a large spitting cobra's venom is received.\n", "The polyvalent antivenin is produced by injecting horses with adapted venom. The venom is first detoxified to prevent too much damage and death. This is mostly done by complexing the venom with an aldehyde like formalin. The venom is also administered with an adjuvant, like aluminium hydroxide or sodium alginate, to stimulate the immunological response. When the venom is injected, the body will produce antibodies. These will bind components – the variability of peptides – of the venom, which prevent further activity of the molecule and are ultimately removed by the immune system of the body. These antibodies are collected and purified from the blood and then packaged in mostly a liquid form. Horses are used because of the large blood volume. The final antivenom product expires after 5 years and needs to preferentially be kept cool, 4-8 °C. It can, however, survive different environmental situations for some weeks to months, without losing its potency.\n", "Antivenom for the treatment of deathstalker envenomations is produced by pharmaceutical companies Twyford (German) and Sanofi Pasteur (French), and by the Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center in Riyadh. Envenomation by the deathstalker is considered a medical emergency even with antivenom treatment, as its venom is unusually resistant to treatment and typically requires large doses of antivenom.\n", "There have been debates about whether the original gene duplication events occurred in a salivary gland or in body tissues themselves. The prevailing idea for many years is the birth-and-death model described above, in which genes in other body tissues are duplicated and then recruited to the venom gland before natural selection for toxicity. However, in 2014 a new model was proposed in which salivary protein genes are duplicated and then restricted to the venom gland. This model does away with the recruitment hypothesis and cites the homology between certain venom and body genes as unrelated in the linear fashion described in the traditional birth-and-death model.\n", "A number of venomous animals have been experimentally found to regulate the amount of venom they use during predation or defensive situations. Species of anemones, jellyfish, ants, scorpions, spiders, and snakes are found to use their venoms frugally depending on the situation and size of their preys or predators.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Before the story begins, Venom makes an agreement with Spider-Man that they will leave each other alone, on the condition that Venom commits no crimes. Venom then moves from New York City to San Francisco, and takes up with a group of Californian mole people. Shortly thereafter, Orwell Taylor, the father of one of Venom's victims, seeks him out with a group of super-powered mercenaries to take revenge.\n", "Antivenom for the treatment of deathstalker envenomations is produced by pharmaceutical companies Twyford (German) and Sanofi Pasteur (French), and by the Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center in Riyadh. Envenomation by the deathstalker is considered a medical emergency even with antivenom treatment, as its venom is unusually resistant to treatment and typically requires large doses of antivenom.\n", "In case of a bite from the black mamba, the victim should be treated according to a standard protocol. The most important part of this treatment is the intravenous injection of a polyvalent antivenom. South African Vaccine Producers produces this antivenom. Polyvalent means that it can be used for different snakebites: vipers, mambas and cobras. Large quantities of the antivenom must be injected to counter the effects of the venom.\n", "Section::::Venom.:Treatments for envenomations.\n\nThere is an effective antivenom manufactured in both Japan and China. Its effectiveness is increased when co-administered with a serine protease inhibitor such as FOY (see, e.g. Camostat). In common with many other venomous snakes, the mamushi is highly resistant to its own venom because of various neutralising factors present in its sera including phospholipase A2 (PLA) inhibitors; these and other inhibitors are the target of antivenom development.\n", "Spider-Man, seeing misleading coverage of Venom on television, heads to San Francisco to confront him and instead winds up fighting alongside Venom against five new offspring of the Venom Symbiote: Scream, Phage, Riot, Lasher, and Agony.\n\nSection::::Collected editions.\n", "As an alternative when conventional antivenom is not available, hospitals sometimes use an intravenous version of the antiparalytic drug neostigmine to delay the effects of neurotoxic envenomation through snakebite. Some promising research results have also been reported for administering the drug nasally as a \"universal antivenom\" for neurotoxic snakebite treatment.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nAntivenoms act by binding to and neutralizing venoms.\n", "Some incarnations of the Venom Symbiote have shown it able to replicate itself. This ability is shown in the 2005–2006 miniseries \"\", when Venom recreates his own Symbiote to combat his loneliness.\n\nThe Venom Symbiote is vulnerable to fire and sonic waves, causing it great pain and exhaustion if it sustains enough exposure. It can sense and track all of its offspring Symbiotes except Carnage, who learned how to block this ability shortly after bonding with Cletus Kasady and confronting Venom/Eddie Brock for the first time.\n", "Although individuals can vary in their physiopathological response and sensitivity to animal venoms, there is no natural immunity to them in humans. Some ophiophagic animals are immune to the venoms produced by some species of venomous snakes, by the presence of antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic factors in their blood.\n", "Genes associated with venom toxins have been found in the salivary glands on a wide range of lizards, including species traditionally thought of as non-venomous, such as iguanas and bearded dragons. This suggests that these genes evolved in the common ancestor of lizards and snakes, some 200 million years ago (forming a single clade, the Toxicofera). However, most of these putative venom genes were \"housekeeping genes\" found in all cells and tissues, including skin and cloacal scent glands. The genes in question may thus be evolutionary precursors of venom genes.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Respiration.\n", "Patients are given an injection of venom under the skin in small amounts. During immunotherapy, the first dose is small, but will gradually increase per injection. This sort of immunotherapy is designed to change how the immune system reacts to increased doses of venom entering the body.\n", "Plasma cells are short-lived cells (2–3 days) that secrete antibodies. These antibodies bind to antigens, making them easier targets for phagocytes, and trigger the complement cascade. About 10% of plasma cells survive to become long-lived antigen-specific memory B cells. Already primed to produce specific antibodies, these cells can be called upon to respond quickly if the same pathogen re-infects the host, while the host experiences few, if any, symptoms.\n\nSection::::Alternative systems.\n\nSection::::Alternative systems.:In jawless vertebrates.\n", "Activating receptors have lower affinity for their ligands than do inhibitory receptors. Although the purpose of this difference in affinity is unknown, it is possible that the cytolysis of target cells occurs preferentially under conditions in which the expression of stimulating MHC class I molecules on target cells is high, which may occur during viral infection. This difference, which is also present in Ly49, the murine homolog to KIR, tips the balance towards self-tolerance.\n\nSection::::Receptor Types.:Expression.\n", "After killing Hybrid and Scream, Eddie Brock follows Venom into Crime Master's headquarters as part of his plan to destroy all symbiotes. During the ensuing fight between Venom and Crime Master's underlings, Crime Master locks Brock up and forcibly bonds him to the symbiote, making him the new Toxin. Brock joins the Savage Six to fight Venom, but is severely burned in the fight.\n", "Section::::\"The Alien Costume\".:Production.\n", "Section::::Immunity.\n\nMany ophiophagous animals seem to be immune to the venom of the usual snakes they prey and feed upon. The phenomenon was studied in the mussurana by the Brazilian scientist Vital Brazil. They have antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic antibodies in their blood. The Virginia opossum (\"Didelphis virginiana\") has been found to have the most resistance towards snake venom. This immunity is not acquired and has probably evolved as an adaptation to predation by venomous snakes in their habitat.\n", "The VeNom Codes have been developed in the first opinion and referral hospitals at the RVC in collaboration with Glasgow Vet School and the PDSA and are now maintained by a multi-institution group of veterinary clinicians and IT specialists from the RVC, Glasgow Vet School and the PDSA called the VeNom Coding Group.\n", "BULLET::::- It secretes Neurokinin B containing phosphocholine molecules. This is the same mechanism used by parasitic nematodes to avoid detection by the immune system of their host.\n\nBULLET::::- Also, there is presence of small lymphocytic suppressor cells in the fetus that inhibit maternal cytotoxic T cells by inhibiting the response to interleukin 2.\n", "Antivenoms may also have some cross protection against a variety of venoms from snakes within the same family or genera. For instance, Antivipmyn (Instituto Bioclon) is made from the venoms of Crotalus durissus and Bothrops asper. Antivipmyn has been shown to cross neutralize the venoms from all North American pit vipers. Cross neutralization affords antivenom manufacturers the ability to hyperimmunize with fewer venom types to produce geographically suitable antivenoms.\n\nSection::::Families of venomous snakes.\n\nOver 600 species are known to be venomous—about a quarter of all snake species. The following table lists some major species.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Most of the evidence now supports the proposition that the venom system is used by males on one another as a weapon when competing for females, taking part in sexual selection. During this season, males become more aggressive and are found with punctures in their bodies, especially in the tail region. Adult male platypuses largely avoid each other, outside of this mating rivalry.\n\nPlatypus venom is likely retained from its distant non-monotreme ancestors, being the last living example of what was once a common characteristic among mammals. Proteins derived from platypus venom are being studied for potential analgesic properties.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Over the last hundred years, there has been a large shift from manual labor jobs (e.g. farming, manufacturing, building) to office jobs which is due to many contributing factors including globalization, outsourcing of jobs and technological advances (specifically internet and computers). In 1960, there was a decline of jobs requiring moderate physical activity from 50% to 20%, and one in two Americans had a physically demanding job, while in 2011 this ratio was one in five. From 1990 to 2016, there was a decrease of about one third in manual labor jobs/employment. In 2008, the United States American National Health Interview Survey found that 36% of adults were inactive, and 59% of adult respondents never participated in vigorous physical activity lasting more than 10 minutes per week. According to a 2018 study, office based workers typically spend 70-85% sitting. In the US population, prevalence of sitting watching television or videos at least 2 h/d was high in 2015-2016 (ranging from 59% to 65%); the estimated prevalence of computer use outside school or work for at least 1 h/d increased from 2001 to 2016 (from 43% to 56% for children, from 53% to 57% among adolescents, and from 29% to 50% for adults); and estimated total sitting time increased from 2007 to 2016 (from 7.0 to 8.2 h/d among adolescents and from 5.5 to 6.4 h/d among adults).\n", "Baumeister and Vohs have suggested that the disastrous failure of men in high office to control impulses in their private lives may at times be attributed to decision fatigue stemming from the burden of day-to-day decision making. Similarly, Tierney notes that \"C.F.O.s [are] prone to disastrous dalliances late in the evening\", after a long day of decision-making.\n", "Section::::Solutions.:Workplace initiatives to address employee health.\n", "Section::::Health effects.\n\nEffects of a sedentary work life or lifestyle can be either direct or indirect. One of the most prominent direct effect of a sedentary lifestyle is an increased BMI leading to obesity. A lack of physical activity is one of the leading causes of preventable death worldwide.\n", "According to a study, the amount of time people are taking for lunch breaks in the United States is shrinking, thereby making the term \"lunch hour\" a misnomer. Some employers request the lunch to be taken at their work station or do not offer lunch breaks at all. Many employees are taking shorter lunch breaks in order to compete with other employees for a better position, and to show their productivity.\n", "Change is hard and daily life patterns are the most deeply ingrained habits of all. To eliminate non-priorities in study time it is suggested to divide the tasks, capture the moments, review task handling method, postpone unimportant tasks (understood by its current relevancy and sense of urgency reflects wants of the person rather than importance), control life balance (rest, sleep, leisure), and cheat leisure and non productive time (hearing audio taping of lectures, going through presentations of lectures when in queue, etc.).\n", "As the American workforce began to shift towards sedentary employment, the prevalence of [WMSD/cognitive issues/ etc..] began to rise. In 1900, 41% of the US workforce was employed in agriculture but by 2000 that had dropped to 1.9% This coincides with an increase in growth in desk-based employment (25% of all employment in 2000) and the surveillance of non-fatal workplace injuries by OSHA and Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971 .0-1.5 and occurs in a sitting or reclining position. Adults older than 50 years report spending more time sedentary and for adults older than 65 years this is often 80% of their awake time. Multiple studies show a dose-response relationship between sedentary time and all-cause mortality with an increase of 3% mortality per additional sedentary hour each day. High quantities of sedentary time without breaks is correlated to higher risk of chronic disease, obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer.\n", "\"\"Casual leisure\" is immediately, intrinsically rewarding; and it is a relatively short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no special training to enjoy it.\" For example, watching TV or going for a swim. In 2018 the diary of United States President Donald Trump was leaked to the media, showing a large proportion of each day devoted to leisure in unstructured free time – listed by his staff under the euphemism: \"executive time\".\n\nSection::::Types.:Project-based leisure.\n", "This phrase was coined by Dutch psychologists Ad Vingerhoets and Maaike van Huijgevoort, who presented a paper titled \"Leisure sickness: An explorative study\" at a meeting of the American Psychosomatic Society on March 7, 2001. Symptoms include headaches (even migraines), fatigue, muscular aches and pains, and illnesses such as colds and flus. Sufferers (and for about 3% of the population, this occurs every weekend), typically have, according to the authors, an \"inability to transition from the work to the non-work environment, a high need for achievement and a high sense of responsibility.\"\n\nSection::::Medical history.\n", "Section::::Role of technology.\n\nAccording to Bowswell and Olson-Buchanan the recent changes in the work place are due to changes in technology. Greater technological advancements such as portable cellphones, portable computers, e-mail and cell phone have made it possible for employees to work beyond the confinement of their physical office space. This allows employees to answer e-mails and work on deadlines after-hours while not officially \"on the job\".\n", "In order to embrace the benefits of Slow Living we should start with daily mundane tasks. For example when we brush our teeth, take a bath we are normally distracted and focus is to complete that activity as soon as possible. If we do these everyday tasks slowly we will be more mindful and hence we connect more deeply. The degree of joy after doing mundane tasks slowly will be immense and benefits of slow living will slowly creep into our life.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n", "Currently, there is a large proportion of the overall workforce who is employed in low physical activity occupations. Sedentary behavior, such as spending long periods of time in seated positions poses a serious threat for injuries and additional health risks. Unfortunately, even though some workplaces make an effort to provide a well designed environment for sedentary employees, any employee who is performing large amounts of sitting will likely suffer discomfort. \n", "Section::::Sociological problems.\n\nSociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.\n", "Stanford University Professor of Psychology Carol Dweck found \"that while decision fatigue does occur, it primarily affects those who believe that willpower runs out quickly.\" She states that \"people get fatigued or depleted after a taxing task only when they believe that willpower is a limited resource, but not when they believe it's not so limited\". She notes that \"in some cases, the people who believe that willpower is not so limited actually perform better after a taxing task.\"\n\nSection::::Effects.:Impaired self-regulation.\n", "Section::::Ergonomics.\n", "Sitting may occupy up to half of an adult's workday in developed countries. Workplace programs to reduce sitting vary in method. They include sit-stand desks, counseling, workplace policy changes, walking/standing meetings, treadmill desks, breaks, therapy ball chairs, and stepping devices. Results of these programs are mixed, but there is moderate evidence to show that changes to chairs (adjusting the biomechanics of the chair or using different types of chairs) can effectively reduce musculoskeletal symptoms in workers who sit for most of their day.\n", "Workaholics, less common than the social myths, are those who work compulsively at the expense of other activities. They prefer to work rather than spend time socializing and engaging in other leisure activities.\n\nEuropean and American men statistically have more leisure time than women, due to both household and parenting responsibilities and increasing participation in the paid employment. In Europe and the United States, adult men usually have between one and nine hours more leisure time than women do each week.\n\nSection::::Family leisure.\n", "Stress in the workforce is a common issue many people face in their lifetime, however, leisure activities may help lower a person's stress levels and increase their satisfaction. When someone engages in enjoyable leisure activities, their moods tend to increase, which in turn, allows them to better accept everyday stressors. When faced with difficult job situations one must be able to achieve adequate free time to truly enjoy their leisure activity of choice. Another important aspect of leisure activity is the type performed, whether is it an active or passive activity. Joudrey & Wallace (2009) conducted a study that statistically found the importance of active leisure activity. Passive leisure activities were suggested to give workers an ability to \"escape\", which in end could cause depressive moods. However, workers participating in active leisure showed considerably higher levels of mental health.\n", "On a 2017 study visit to the United States, Hesketh noted a further manifestation in respect of US police patrol officers taking vacation allocations to mask sickness. In some of these cases it was in order to negate complaints or criticisms of working additional duties or employment outside of their police department. A culture of long hours and relatively high wages drove officers to use their own vacation time if suffering ill health to continue on additional paid work that was not as emotionally taxing or physically demanding.\n", "Active activities may be more or less intensive ranging from walking, through jogging and cycling to sports such as tennis or football. Playing chess or undertaking creative writing might also be considered as demanding as these require a fair amount of mental effort.\n\nBased on 2007 data, a US survey on use of leisure time found that the daily use of leisure time by individuals over 15 averaged 4.9 hours. Of this, more than half (2.6 hours) went on watching TV while only 19 minutes involved active participation in sports and exercise.\n\nSection::::Privacy.\n", "Recent study also suggests that employees who hold the same job (for example, call center representatives) may experience the same \"display rules\" differently if they work for different supervisors, who vary in the emphasis they place on their subordinates' interpersonal role requirements, and by so, experience different levels of emotional exhaustion. Such that having a supervisor who places greater importance on interpersonal job demands results in greater emotional exhaustion (especially for those subordinates who have low career identity) .\n\nSection::::Determinants.:Social interaction model of effects on work strain.\n", "BULLET::::- Short takt time can put considerable stress on the \"moving parts\" of a production system or subsystem. In automated systems/subsystems, increased mechanical stress increases the likelihood of breakdown, and in non-automated systems/subsystems, personnel face both increased physical stress (which increases the risk of repetitive motion (also \"stress or \"strain\") injury), intensified emotional stress, and lowered motivation, sometimes to the point of increased absenteeism.\n\nBULLET::::- Tasks have to be leveled to make sure tasks don't bulk in front of certain stations due to peaks in workload. This decreases the flexibility of the system as a whole.\n", "The state of being idle is sometimes even celebrated with a few books on the subject of idleness. \"How to Be Idle\" by Tom Hodgkinson is one such example from an author who is also known for his magazine, \"\"The Idler\"\", devoted to promoting its ethos of \"idle living\". Bertrand Russell's \"In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays\" is another book that explores the virtues of being idle in the modern society.\n\nMark Slouka published an essay, \"Quitting the Paint Factory: The Virtues of Idleness\", hinting at a post-scarcity economy and linking conscious busyness with anti-democratic and fascist tendencies.\n", "In addition, the timing of tackling tasks is important as tasks requiring high levels of concentration and mental energy are often done in the beginning of the day when a person is more refreshed. Literature also focuses on overcoming chronic psychological issues such as procrastination.\n", "Sedentary lifestyle\n\nA sedentary lifestyle is a type of lifestyle involving little or no physical activity. A person living a sedentary lifestyle is often sitting or lying down while engaged in an activity like reading, socializing, watching television, playing video games, or using a mobile phone/computer for much of the day. A sedentary lifestyle can potentially contribute to ill health and many preventable causes of death.\n" ]

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[ "Coloring enthusiasts use coloring notebooks for stress relief. The pages in coloring notebooks contain different adult coloring pages. Students take notes in notebooks, and studies suggest that the act of writing (as opposed to typing) improves learning.\n\nNotebook pages can be recycled via standard paper recycling. Recycled notebooks are available, differing in recycled percentage and paper quality.\n\nSection::::Electronic successors.\n", "BULLET::::- A repeated microtext LIETUVOS BANKAS above the bottom ornamental band on the front and on the vertical edges of the security line structure on the back.\n\nBULLET::::- Microtexts Lituanica and NR 688 E on the body and tail of the plane.\n\nBULLET::::- Elements (front and back) intended for the anti-colour copier protection: multicoloured top and bottom edges of the banknote, security line structure, specific fine line patterns.\n\nBULLET::::- Invisible fibres embedded in the paper fluorescent under ultraviolet light in blue, green and red.\n\nBULLET::::- The outline of the orange numeral 10 fluorescent under ultraviolet light in brownish yellow.\n", "Standard office paper has traditionally been designed for use with typewriters and copy machines, where the paper usually does not get wet. With these papers, moisture tends to wick through the fibers and away from the point of contact. For inkjet printing, this dulls edges of lines and graphic boundaries, and lessens pigment intensity.\n", "BULLET::::- Ultraviolet ink; the paper itself does not glow, fibres embedded in the paper do appear, and be coloured red, blue and green, the EU flag is green and has orange stars, the ECB President's, currently Mario Draghi's, signature turns green, the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map, a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow.\n\nBULLET::::- Microprinting, on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting, for example, inside the \"ΕΥΡΩ\" (EURO in Greek characters) on the front. The micro-text is sharp, not blurred.\n", "BULLET::::- In some cases, pink or blue colors appear in some sheet films. This is caused by antihalation dyes, which are normally colorless and incorporated into the gelatin layer. When acetic acid is formed during deterioration, the acidic environment causes the dyes to return to their original pink or blue color.\n\nSection::::Decay and the \"vinegar syndrome\".:Testing for degradation.\n", "Dry correction products (such as correction paper) under brand names such as \"Ko-Rec-Type\" were introduced in the 1970s and functioned like white carbon paper. A strip of the product was placed over the letters needing correction, and the incorrect letters were retyped, causing the black character to be overstruck with a white overcoat. Similar material was soon incorporated in carbon-film electric typewriter ribbons; like the traditional two-color black-and-red inked ribbon common on manual typewriters, a black and white correcting ribbon became commonplace on electric typewriters. But the black or white coating could be partly rubbed off with handling, so such corrections were generally not acceptable in legal documents.\n", "Some parchment (usually poor quality) is smeared with \"log\", a chalky substance, to make it whiter. Occasionally this is only done on the reverse. Some scribes object to the use of \"log\" as it forms a barrier between the ink and the parchment.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Engineering paper, or an Engineer's Pad, is traditionally printed on light green or tan translucent paper. It may have four, five or ten squares per inch. The grid lines are printed on the back side of each page and show through faintly to the front side. Each page has an unprinted margin. When photocopied or scanned, the grid lines typically do not show up in the resulting copy, which often gives the work a neat, uncluttered appearance. In the U.S. and Canada, some engineering professors require student homework to be completed on engineering paper.\n", "Improperly exposed bluelines are more likely to fade at an increased rate since the chemical reaction in the ammonia phase continues until the process is completed. But also properly exposed bluelines should not be exposed to the elements, and bluelines kept in flat files or hanging on racks in a cool, dry room often retain the majority of their lines and are able to be subsequently scanned into a digital format for various purposes.\n\nSection::::Demise of the technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Graph paper has horizontal and vertical lines evenly spaced over the entire page to create a grid of squares and is used for drafting, drawing and plotting graphs. Often every tenth or fifth line is bolded to assist in counting the lines when plotting data.\n\nBULLET::::- Quadrille ruled paper (or \"quad paper\") is similar to graph paper but without the bolded tenth lines. It is useful in mathematics to keep numbers in columns when doing manual operations such as long division or long multiplication, and in spreadsheets or accounts.\n", "BULLET::::- Quad paper, sometimes referred to as quadrille paper from French quadrillé, 'small square', is a common form of graph paper with a sparse grid printed in light blue or gray and right to the edge of the paper. In the U.S. and Canada, it often has two, four or five squares to the inch for work not needing too much detail. Metric paper with similarly sparse grid typically has one or two squares per centimeter.\n", "Prior to personal computers, document comparison entailed the printing of two versions of a single document and reviewing those hard copies in detail for changes and version amendment. Included in this process were the potential for human error and the expansive administrative time necessitated by this arduous process. A ruler was used with a red pen to draw strike-through lines of deleted text and double-underline inserted text. The term \"redline\" came from using a red pen on the original/current version. When the document was placed in a copy machine, the copies came out black, thus the term \"blackline.\" \n", "BULLET::::- Note paper (or \"Writing paper\", \"Filler paper\", \"Loose leaf paper\", \"Binder paper\") is typically used for handwriting and is produced in different layouts and sizes. The layout usually consists of evenly spaced horizontal lines, or \"feints\", with vertical lines drawn to indicate margins, the middle of the page, or sections of a line. The example shown right is described as \"A4, bound, with narrow feint and margin\".\n", "Ruled paper\n\nRuled paper (or lined paper) is writing paper printed with lines as a guide for handwriting. The lines often are printed with fine width and in light colour and such paper is sometimes called \"feint-ruled paper\". Additional vertical lines may provide margins or act as tab stops or create a grid for plotting data; for example, graph paper (\"squared paper\" or \"grid paper\") is divided into squares by horizontal and vertical lines.\n\nSection::::Generic types.\n", "BULLET::::- Variable colour ink – This appears on the lower right-hand side corner of the reverse of the higher-value notes. When observed from different angles, the colour will change from purple to olive green or brown. This special ink is also on the left bottom on the Europa series notes.\n", "BULLET::::- Before the widespread adoption of CAD, engineering drawings or architectural drawings were plotted onto sheets of boPET film, known as drafting film. The boPET sheets become legal documents from which copies or blueprints are made. boPET sheets are more durable and can withstand more handling than bond paper. Although \"blueprint\" duplication has fallen out of use, mylar is still used for its archival properties, typically as a record set of plans for building departments to keep on file.\n\nBULLET::::- Overhead transparency film for photocopiers or laser printers (boPET film withstands the high heat).\n", "Opacity is a property of paper that describes the amount of light which is transmitted through it. While paper that has a low degree of opacity is more translucent, or allows much light to pass through it. A paper's opacity determines the extent to which printing on a particular side of paper will be visible from the reverse side (called show-through)\n\nSection::::Paper test.:Optical properties.:Paper shade.\n", "BULLET::::- Narrow ruled paper has  in () spacing between ruling lines, and is used by those with smaller handwriting or to fit more lines per page.\n\nBULLET::::- Medium ruled (or \"College ruled\") paper has spacing between horizontal lines, with a vertical margin drawn about from the left-hand edge of the page. Its use is very common in the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Microprinting, On numerous areas of the banknotes you can see microprinting, for example, inside the \"ΕΥΡΩ\" (EURO in Greek characters) on the front. You will need a magnifying glass to see it. The tiny text is sharp, and not blurred.\n\nBULLET::::- A security thread, The security thread is embedded in the banknote paper. Hold the banknote against the light - the thread will appear as a dark stripe. The word \"EURO\" and the value can be seen in tiny letters on the stripe.\n", "It is reported that a Berkshire (England) paper mill worker failed to add sizing to a batch of paper that was being produced. The batch was discarded. Subsequently, someone tried to write on a piece of this discarded \"scrap\" paper and found that it rapidly absorbed any ink applied, making it unusable for writing. Its marked absorbency having been noted, however, led to its subsequently being produced and used as blotting paper, replacing sand, which was the material that had been used for absorbing superficial wet ink. In a time when most paper was produced from \"rags\", red/pink rags, from which it was difficult to remove all color and had generally been discarded, were now directed to the production of blotters, hence the historically characteristic pink color of blotters.\n", "BULLET::::- Ultraviolet ink; the paper itself does not glow, fibres embedded in the paper do appear, and be coloured red, blue and green, the EU flag is green and has orange stars, the ECB President's, currently Mario Draghi's, signature turns green, the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map, a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow.\n\nBULLET::::- Microprinting, on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting, for example, inside the \"ΕΥΡΩ\" (EURO in Greek characters) on the front. The micro-text is sharp, but not blurred.\n", "Blue pencil (editing)\n\nA blue pencil is a pencil traditionally used by a copy editor or sub-editor to show corrections to a written copy. \n\nThe colour is used specifically because it will not show in some lithographic or photographic reproduction processes; these are known as non-photo blue pencils. For similar reasons, sometimes red pencils are used since their pigment will not reproduce by xerography.\n\nWith the introduction of electronic editing using word processors or desktop publishing, literal blue pencils are seen more rarely.\n", "Aside from foxing, other types of age-related paper deterioration include destruction of the lignin by sunlight and absorbed atmospheric pollution, typically causing the paper to go brown and crumble at the edges, and acid-related damage to cheap paper such as newsprint, which is manufactured without neutralizing acidic contaminants.\n\nSection::::Causes of foxing.\n", "BULLET::::- Microprinting, On numerous areas of the banknotes you can see microprinting, for example, inside the \"ΕΥΡΩ\" (EURO in Greek characters) on the front. You will need a magnifying glass to see it. The tiny text is sharp, and not blurred.\n\nBULLET::::- A security thread, The security thread is embedded in the banknote paper. Hold the banknote against the light - the thread will appear as a dark stripe. The word \"EURO\" and the value can be seen in tiny letters on the stripe.\n", "BULLET::::- Ultraviolet ink, Under ultraviolet light, the paper itself should not glow, fibres embedded in the paper should appear, and should be coloured red, blue and green, the European Union flag looks green and has orange stars, the ECB President signature turns green, the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map, a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow.\n" ]

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[ "Development at birth varies considerably among animals, and even among mammals. Altricial species are relatively helpless at birth and require considerable parental care and protection. In contrast, precocial animals are born with open eyes, have hair or down, have large brains, and are immediately mobile and somewhat able to flee from, or defend themselves against, predators. Primates are precocial at birth, with the exception of humans.\n\nThe duration of gestation in placental mammals varies from 18 days in jumping mice to 23 months in elephants. Generally speaking, fetuses of larger land mammals require longer gestation periods.\n", "Human infants are also almost always born with assistance from other humans because of the way that the pelvis is shaped. Since the pelvis and opening of birth canal face backwards, humans have difficulty giving birth themselves because they cannot guide the baby out of the canal. Non-human primates seek seclusion when giving birth because they do not need any help due to the pelvis and opening being more forward. Human infants depend on their parents much more and for much longer than other primates. Humans spend a lot of their time caring for their children as they develop whereas other species stand on their own from when they are born. The faster an infant develops, the higher the reproductive output of a female can be. So in humans, the cost of slow development of their infants is that humans reproduce relatively slowly. This phenomenon is also known as cooperative breeding.\n", "The solution to this was to give birth at an early stage of fetal development, before the skull grew too large to pass through the birth canal. This adaptation enabled the human brain to continue to grow, but it imposed a new discipline. The need to care for helpless infants for long periods of time forced humans to become less mobile. Human bands increasingly stayed in one place for long periods, so that females could care for infants, while males hunted food and fought with other bands that competed for food sources. As a result, humans became even more dependent on tool-making to compete with other animals and other humans, and relied less on body size and strength.\n", "Physiological prematurity\n\nThe term physiological prematurity refers to the fact that compared to most animals, humans are born in a premature biological state. Although sensory organs and skeletal and muscular systems are largely developed prenatally, human babies at the time of their birth are completely helpless and dependent on intensive care. This is in contrast to the maturity at birth found in other higher mammals (e.g. elephants, horses). \n", "The fetuses of most mammals are situated similarly to the human fetus within their mothers. However, the anatomy of the area surrounding a fetus is different in litter-bearing animals compared to humans: each fetus of a litter-bearing animal is surrounded by placental tissue and is lodged along one of two long uteri instead of the single uterus found in a human female.\n", "Gestation length in humans is believed to be shorter than most other primates of comparable size. The gestation length for humans is 266 days, or eight days short of nine months, which is counted from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. During gestation, mothers must support the metabolic cost of tissue growth, both of the fetus and the mother, as well as the ever-increasing metabolic rate of the growing fetus. Comparative data from across mammals and primates suggest that there is a metabolic constraint on how large and energetically expensive a fetus can grow before it must leave the mother's body. It is thought that this shorter gestation period is an adaptation to ensure the survival of mother and child because it leads to altriciality. Neonatal brain and body size have increased in the hominin lineage, and human maternal investment is greater than expected for a primate of our body mass. The obstetrical dilemma hypothesis suggests that in order to successfully undergo childbirth, the infant must be born earlier and earlier, thereby making the child increasingly developmentally premature. The concept of the infant being born underdeveloped is called altriciality. Humans are born with an underdeveloped brain; only 25% of their brains fully developed at birth as opposed to non-human primates where the infant is born with 45–50% brain development. Scientists have believed that the shorter gestation period can be attributed to the narrower pelvis, as the baby must be born before its head reaches a volume that cannot be accommodated by the obstetric canal.\n", "There is no sharp limit of development, gestational age, or weight at which a human fetus automatically becomes viable. According to studies between 2003 and 2005, 20 to 35 percent of babies born at 24 weeks of gestation survive, while 50 to 70 percent of babies born at 25 weeks, and more than 90 percent born at 26 to 27 weeks, survive. It is rare for a baby weighing less than 500 g (17.6 ounces) to survive. The chances of a fetus surviving increase 3-4% per day between 23 and 24 weeks of gestation and about 2-3% per day between 24 and 26 weeks of gestation. After 26 weeks the rate of survival increases at a much slower rate because survival is high already.\n", "Birth\n\nBirth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring. In mammals, the process is initiated by hormones which cause the muscular walls of the uterus to contract, expelling the fetus at a developmental stage when it is ready to feed and breathe. In some species the offspring is precocial and can move around almost immediately after birth but in others it is altricial and completely dependent on parenting. In marsupials, the fetus is born at a very immature stage after a short gestational period and develops further in its mother's womb's pouch.\n", "Infants sometimes \"crawl\" with their stomachs on the ground as early as 3 months, but this crawling is infrequent with the baby remaining stationary most of the time. True crawling with the stomach off the ground and the baby frequently on the move usually develops between 7 and 11 months of age and lasts anywhere from a week to 4 months before the child switches to walking. Even after taking their first unaided steps, most babies still crawl part of the time until they have mastered walking. While crawling, infants gradually practice standing, at first by using people or objects for support and, later, without support. Crawling babies are notorious for getting into trouble, so parents are often advised to childproof their house before a baby reaches crawling age.\n", "Typical individual differences in motor ability are common and depend in part on the child's weight and build. Infants with smaller, slimmer, and more maturely proportionated builds tended to belly crawl and crawl earlier than the infants with larger builds. Infants with more motor experience have been shown to belly crawl and crawl sooner. Not all infants go through the stages of belly crawling. However, those who skip the stage of belly crawling are not as proficient in their ability to crawl on their hands and knees. After the infant period, typical individual differences are strongly affected by opportunities to practice, observe, and be instructed on specific movements. Atypical motor development such as persistent primitive reflexis beyond 4–6 months or delayed walking may be an indication of developmental delays or conditions such as autism, cerebral palsy, or down syndrome . Lower motor coordination results in difficulties with speed accuracy and trade-off in complex tasks.\n", "At the opposite end of the spectrum are precocial animals in which the young have open eyes, have hair or down, have large brains, and are immediately mobile and somewhat able to flee from, or defend themselves against, predators. For example, with ground-nesting birds such as ducks or turkeys, the young are ready to leave the nest in one or two days. Among mammals, most ungulates are precocial, being able to walk almost immediately after birth. Beyond the precocial are the superprecocial animals, such as the megapode birds, which hatch with full flight feathers.\n\nSection::::Basis.\n", "Early human ancestors, hominids, originally gave birth in a similar way that non-human primates do because early obligate quadrupedal individuals would have retained similar skeletal structure to great apes. Most non-human primates today have neonatal heads that are close in size to the mother's birth canal, as evidenced by observing female primates who do not need assistance in birthing, often seeking seclusion away from others of their species. In modern humans, parturition (childbirth) differs greatly from the rest of the primates because of both pelvic shape of the mother and neonatal shape of the infant. Further adaptations evolved to cope with bipedalism and larger craniums were also important such as neonatal rotation of the infant, shorter gestation length, assistance with birth, and a malleable neonatal head.\n", "Obstructed labor is unique to humans compared to other primates. The evolution of humans to become obligate bipedal and increase in brain size create the problems associated with obstructed labor. In order for bipedal locomotion to be possible, many changes had to occur to the skeletal structure of humans, especially in the pelvis. Both the shape and orientation of the pelvis changed. Other primates have straighter and wider pelvises compared to humans. A narrow pelvis is better for bipedal locomotion but makes childbirth more difficult. The pelvis is sexually dimorphic, with females having a wider pelvis to be better suited for childbirth. However, the female pelvis still must accommodate for bipedal locomotion which is what creates the challenges for obstructed labor. The brain size of humans has also increased as the species has evolved, resulting in a larger head of the fetus that must exit the womb. This requires human infants to be born less developed when compared to other species. The bones of the skull are not yet fused when a human infant is born in order to prevent the head from becoming too large to exit the womb. However, the head of the fetus is still large and poses the possibility for obstructed labor.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Marsupials.\n", "Females den in hollow trees. Kits are born blind and helpless. They are partially covered with fine hair. Kits begin to crawl after about three weeks. After about seven weeks, they open their eyes. They start to climb after eight weeks. Kits are completely dependent on their mother's milk for the first eight to ten weeks, after which they begin to switch to a solid diet. After four months, kits become intolerant of their litter mates, and at five months, the mother pushes them out on their own. After one year, juveniles will have established their own range.\n", "As a consequence of bipedalism, human females have narrower birth canals. The construction of the human pelvis differs from other primates, as do the toes. A trade-off for these advantages of the modern human pelvis is that childbirth is more difficult and dangerous than in most mammals, especially given the larger head size of human babies compared to other primates. Human babies must turn around as they pass through the birth canal while other primates do not do, which makes humans the only species where females usually require help from their conspecifics (other members of their own species) to reduce the risks of birthing. As a partial evolutionary solution, human fetuses are born less developed and more vulnerable. Chimpanzee babies are cognitively more developed than human babies until the age of six months, when the rapid development of human brains surpasses chimpanzees. Another difference between women and chimpanzee females is that women go through the menopause and become unfertile decades before the end of their lives. All species of non-human apes are capable of giving birth until death. Menopause probably developed as it provides an evolutionary advantage of more caring time to relatives' young.\n", "The conflict between the size of the human foetal brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm, else it will not get through the mother's pelvis) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright bipedal stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. Neanderthals had a similar problem.\n", "In the case of mammals it has been suggested that large adult body sizes favor production of large, precocious young, which develop with a long gestation period. Large young may be associated with long lifespan, extended reproductive period, and reduced litter size. It has been suggested that altricial strategies in mammals may be favoured if there is a selective advantage to mothers that are capable of resorbing embryos in early stages of development. Some ecological niches require young to be precocial for survival, such as cetaceans: restricted to water, and immobile, their helpless young would quickly drown.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "BULLET::::- The cochleae are now developed, though the myelin sheaths in neural portion of the auditory system will continue to develop until 18 months after birth.\n\nBULLET::::- The respiratory system, while immature, has developed to the point where gas exchange is possible.\n\nSection::::Changes by weeks of gestation.:Changes by weeks of gestation.:Week 31.\n\nGestational age: 30 weeks old.\n\nEmbryonic age: Week nr 29. 28 weeks old.\n\nBULLET::::- The fetus reaches a length of about .\n\nBULLET::::- The fetus weighs about .\n\nBULLET::::- The amount of body fat rapidly increases.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhythmic breathing movements occur, but lungs are not fully mature.\n", "The benefits of a fetal stage means that young are more developed when they are born. Therefore, they may need less parental care and may be better able to fend for themselves. However, carrying fetuses exerts costs on the mother, who must take on extra food to fuel the growth of her offspring, and whose mobility and comfort may be affected (especially toward the end of the fetal stage).\n\nIn some instances, the presence of a fetal stage may allow organisms to time the birth of their offspring to a favorable season.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The parts of the fetal brain that control movement will not fully form until late in the second trimester, and the first part of the third trimester. Control of movement is limited at birth, and purposeful voluntary movements develop during the long period up until puberty. According to an overview produced by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, purposive movement begins at about 18 weeks, gradually replacing reflex movements, and purposeful voluntary movements then develop further after birth.\n", "Different animals employ different precocial and altricial strategies; there is no clear distinction between the two states, and a wide range of intermediate states. The ability of the parents to obtain nutrition and contribute to the pre-natal and post-natal development of their young appears to be associated.\n", "The evolution of a larger brain created a problem for early humans, however. A larger brain requires a larger skull, and thus requires the female to have a wider birth canal for the newborn's larger skull to pass through. But if the female's birth canal grew too wide, her pelvis would be so wide that she would lose the ability to run, which was a necessary skill 2 million years ago.\n", "Section::::Infant crawling.\n", "A fetus is a stage in the prenatal development of viviparous organisms. This stage lies between embryogenesis and birth . Many vertebrates have fetal stages, ranging from most mammals to many fish. In addition, some invertebrates bear live young, including some species of onychophora and many arthropods. The prevalence of convergent evolution to the fetal stage shows that it is relatively easy to develop. It presumably originates from a delay of egg release, with the eggs being hatched inside the parent before being laid. Over time, the robustness of the egg wall can be decreased until it becomes little more than a sac.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Researchers think that this structure may greatly influence the structural investigation of elements.\n\nBULLET::::- It is the phase that forms above 600 K at pressures greater than 17 GPa.\n\nBULLET::::- At 11 GPa, the intra-cluster bond length of the cluster is 0.234 nm, and the inter-cluster distance is 0.266 nm. (For comparison, the intra-molecular bond length of the oxygen molecule is 0.120 nm.)\n", "Although most metal oxides are polymeric, some oxides are molecules. Examples of molecular oxides are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. All simple oxides of nitrogen are molecular, e.g., NO, NO, NO and NO. Phosphorus pentoxide is a more complex molecular oxide with a deceptive name, the real formula being PO. Some polymeric oxides depolymerize when heated to give molecules, examples being selenium dioxide and sulfur trioxide. Tetroxides are rare. The more common examples: ruthenium tetroxide, osmium tetroxide, and xenon tetroxide.\n", "The density of solid oxygen ranges from 21 cm/mol in the α-phase, to 23.5 cm/mol in the γ-phase.\n\nSection::::Phases.\n\nSix different phases of solid oxygen are known to exist:\n\nBULLET::::1. α-phase: \"light blue\" — forms at 1 atm, below 23.8 K, monoclinic crystal structure.\n\nBULLET::::2. β-phase: \"faint blue\" to \"pink\" — forms at 1 atm, below 43.8 K, rhombohedral crystal structure, (at room temperature and high pressure begins transformation to tetraoxygen).\n\nBULLET::::3. γ-phase: \"faint blue\" – forms at 1 atm, below 54.36 K, cubic crystal structure.\n\nBULLET::::4. δ-phase: \"orange\" — forms at room temperature at a pressure of 9 GPa\n", "Solid oxygen\n\nSolid oxygen forms at normal atmospheric pressure at a temperature below 54.36 K (−218.79 °C, −361.82 °F). Solid oxygen O, like liquid oxygen, is a clear substance with a light sky-blue color caused by absorption in the red part of the visible light spectrum.\n", "In this phase it exhibits a dark-red color, very strong infrared absorption, and a magnetic collapse. It is also stable over a very large pressure domain and has been the subject of numerous X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic and theoretical studies. It has been shown to have a monoclinic C2/m symmetry and its infrared absorption behaviour was attributed to the association of oxygen molecules into larger units.\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid oxygen is already used as an oxidant in rockets, and it has been speculated that red oxygen could make an even better oxidant, because of its higher energy density.\n", "The tetraoxygen molecule (O) was first predicted in 1924 by Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed it to explain why liquid oxygen defied Curie's law. Modern computer simulations indicate that although there are no stable O molecules in liquid oxygen, O molecules do tend to associate in pairs with antiparallel spins, forming transient O units.\n", "There are three distinct oxygen sites (marked O1, O2 and O3 in figure 1), two distinct metal sites (M1 and M2) and only one distinct silicon site. O1, O2, M2 and Si all lie on mirror planes, while M1 exists on an inversion center. O3 lies in a general position.\n\nSection::::High pressure polymorphs.\n", "Because of its cryogenic nature, liquid oxygen can cause the materials it touches to become extremely brittle. Liquid oxygen is also a very powerful oxidizing agent: organic materials will burn rapidly and energetically in liquid oxygen. Further, if soaked in liquid oxygen, some materials such as coal briquettes, carbon black, etc., can detonate unpredictably from sources of ignition such as flames, sparks or impact from light blows. Petrochemicals, including asphalt, often exhibit this behavior.\n", "The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lowering the melting temperature.\n", "Oxygen is the third-most common element by mass in the universe (although carbon forms more of the atoms it is a lighter atom). It is highly electronegative and non-metallic, usually diatomic, gas down to very low temperatures. Only fluorine is more reactive among non-metallic elements. It is two electrons short of a full octet and readily takes electrons from other elements. It reacts violently with alkali metals and white phosphorus at room temperature and less violently with alkali earth metals heavier than magnesium. At higher temperatures it burns most other metals and many non-metals (including hydrogen, carbon, and sulfur). Many oxides are extremely stable substances difficult to decompose—like water, carbon dioxide, alumina, silica, and iron oxides (the latter often appearing as rust). Oxygen is part of substances best described as some salts of metals and oxygen-containing acids (thus nitrates, sulfates, phosphates, silicates, and carbonates.\n", "For metal oxides acidity and basicity are dependent on the charge and the radius of the metal ions as well as the character of the metal oxygen bond. The bond between oxygen and the metal is influenced by the coordination of the metal cations and the oxygen anions as well as the filling of the metal d-orbitals. The surface coordination is controlled by the face that is exposed and by the surface relaxation. Structural defects can greatly contribute to the acidity or basicity as sites of high unsaturation can occur from oxygen or metal ion vacancies.\n", "In rutile surfaces, the most common type of defect is oxygen vacancies. There are two types of oxygen vacancies, which result from either the removal of a bridging O ions or the removal of an inplane O ion. Both of these will reduce the coordination of the surface cations.\n\nSection::::Surface acidity/basicity.\n\nSection::::Surface acidity/basicity.:Extension of acid/base theories to solids.\n", "Oxides of most metals adopt polymeric structures. The oxide typically links three metal atoms (e.g., rutile structure) or six metal atoms (carborundum or rock salt structures). Because the M-O bonds are typically strong and these compounds are crosslinked polymers, the solids tend to be insoluble in solvents, though they are attacked by acids and bases. The formulas are often deceptively simple. Many are nonstoichiometric compounds.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Molecular oxides.\n", "The metastable molecule tetraoxygen () was discovered in 2001, and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen. It was proven in 2006 that this phase, created by pressurizing to 20 GPa, is in fact a rhombohedral cluster. This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either or and may therefore be used in rocket fuel. A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures, this phase becomes superconducting.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Physical properties.\n", "Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements to give corresponding oxides. The surface of most metals, such as aluminium and titanium, are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Many oxides of the transition metals are non-stoichiometric compounds, with slightly less metal than the chemical formula would show. For example, the mineral FeO (wüstite) is written as formula_1, where \"x\" is usually around 0.05.\n", "This is called the water-gas shift reaction when occurring in the gas phase, but it can also take place (very slowly) in aqueous solution.\n\nIf the hydrogen partial pressure is high enough (for instance in an underground sea), formic acid will be formed:\n\nThese reactions can take place in only a few million years even at temperatures such as found at Pluto.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Mining.\n", "Section::::Surface structure and stability.\n", "The characteristic melting point of metals and ionic solids is ~ 1000 °C and greater, while molecular solids typically melt closer to 300 °C (see table), thus many corresponding substances are either liquid (ice) or gaseous (oxygen) at room temperature. This is due to the elements involved, the molecules they form, and the weak intermolecular interactions of the molecules.\n", "Section::::Surface acidity/basicity.:Structural relation to surface acidity/basicity.\n", "When either of the gases are mixed in excess of this ratio, or when mixed with an inert gas like nitrogen, the heat must spread throughout a greater quantity of matter and the temperature will be lower.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nA pure stoichiometric mixture may be obtained by water electrolysis, which uses an electric current to dissociate the water molecules:\n", "At temperatures where the magnesium is still liquid or solid (say 600-700 °C), but carbon oxides are gaseous, the immense thermodynamic counter drive makes the reactions impractical, even if the carbon monoxide was purged away by argon, for example. The equilibrium can theoretically be driven either way, but it's impractically slow if the forward and reverse reaction rates are minuscule. \n\nAt low temperatures the reaction energetics dominate everything else, and in this sense too silicon outperforms carbon, because silicon dioxide has a much larger heat of formation than the carbon oxides, as best seen in Ellingham diagrams.\n\nSection::::Historical background.\n", "Oxygen molecules have attracted attention because of the relationship between the molecular magnetization and crystal structures, electronic structures, and superconductivity. Oxygen is the only simple diatomic molecule (and one of the few molecules in general) to carry a magnetic moment. This makes solid oxygen particularly interesting, as it is considered a 'spin-controlled' crystal that displays antiferromagnetic magnetic order in the low temperature phases. The magnetic properties of oxygen have been studied extensively. At very high pressures, solid oxygen changes from an insulating to a metallic state; and at very low temperatures, it even transforms to a superconducting state. Structural investigations of solid oxygen began in the 1920s and, at present, six distinct crystallographic phases are established unambiguously.\n", "When three corners are shared the structure extends into two dimensions. In amphiboles, (of which asbestos is an example) two chains are linked together by sharing of a third corner on alternate places along the chain. This results in an ideal formula and a linear chain structure which explains the fibrous nature of these minerals. Sharing of all three corners can result in a sheet structure, as in mica, , in which each silicon has one oxygen to itself and a half-share in three others. Crystalline mica can be cleaved into very thin sheets.\n", "Nitrogen may be usefully compared to its horizontal neighbours carbon and oxygen as well as its vertical neighbours in the pnictogen column (phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth). Although each period 2 element from lithium to nitrogen shows some similarities to the period 3 element in the next group from magnesium to sulfur (known as the diagonal relationships), their degree drops off quite abruptly past the boron–silicon pair, so that the similarities of nitrogen to sulfur are mostly limited to sulfur nitride ring compounds when both elements are the only ones present. Nitrogen resembles oxygen far more than it does carbon with its high electronegativity and concomitant capability for hydrogen bonding and the ability to form coordination complexes by donating its lone pairs of electrons. It does not share carbon's proclivity for catenation, but chains composed of eight nitrogen atoms (PhN=N–N(Ph)–N=N–N(Ph)–N=NPh) and more are obtainable. One property nitrogen does share with both its horizontal neighbours is its preferentially forming multiple bonds, typically with carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen atoms, through p–p interactions; thus, for example, nitrogen occurs as diatomic molecules and thus has very much lower melting (−210 °C) and boiling points (−196 °C) than the rest of its group, as the N molecules are only held together by weak van der Waals interactions and there are very few electrons available to create significant instantaneous dipoles. This is not possible for its vertical neighbours; thus, the nitrogen oxides, nitrites, nitrates, nitro-, nitroso-, azo-, and diazo-compounds, azides, cyanates, thiocyanates, and imino-derivatives find no echo with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth. By the same token, however, the complexity of the phosphorus oxoacids finds no echo with nitrogen.\n" ]

[ "Oxygen does not have a solid form", "Oxygen does not have a solid form. " ]

[ "Oxygen does have a solid form at -218.79 C.", "Oxygen does have a solid form. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Oxygen does not have a solid form", "Oxygen does not have a solid form. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Oxygen does have a solid form at -218.79 C.", "Oxygen does have a solid form. " ]

[ "Governments create debt by issuing government bonds and bills. Less creditworthy countries sometimes borrow directly from a supranational organization (e.g. the World Bank) or international financial institutions.\n", "Section::::Modern practice.:South Asia.:Rice harvesting.\n", "In 2018, the global government debt reached the equivalent of $66 trillion, or about 80% of global GDP. \n\nSection::::Government and sovereign bonds.\n", "Section::::Levels and flows.\n\nGlobal debt underwriting grew 4.3 percent year-over-year to during 2004. It is expected to rise in the coming years if the spending habits of millions of people worldwide continue the way they do.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAccording to historian Paul Johnson, the lending of \"food money\" was commonplace in Middle Eastern civilizations as early as 5000 BC. \n", "Section::::Overall levels.\n\nDebt levels are worth 3 years of GDP in many countries that have an annual GDP/person above $10,000. Worldwide debt levels are perhaps worth two or three years of GDP. GDP (at currency exchange rate) was $40 trillion during 2004. Debt levels may therefore be about $100 trillion.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: 3,938 (?) (Q4 2003 report)\n\nSection::::Levels.\n\nSection::::Levels.:Euro area.\n\nBULLET::::- Credit debt: ?\n\nBULLET::::- Households: 80.9% of households’ gross disposable income\n\nBULLET::::- Non-financial corporations: 78.9% of GDP\n\nBULLET::::- Government: 70.7% of GDP\n\nSection::::Levels.:Japan.\n\nBULLET::::- Credit debt: ?\n\nBULLET::::- Households: 110.5% of households’ gross disposable income\n\nBULLET::::- Non-financial corporations: 110.5% of GDP\n\nBULLET::::- Government: 141.3% of GDP\n\nSection::::Levels.:United States.\n\nDollar amounts are debt owed by each sector (amounts borrowed by each sector)\n\nBULLET::::- Credit debt: $35.8 trillion (303% of GDP) (35820.6/11809.9)\n\nBULLET::::- Households: 90% of GDP (67.5% of households’ gross disposable income)\n", "In international legal thought, odious debt is debt that is incurred by a regime for purposes that do not serve the interest of the state. Such debts are thus considered by this doctrine to be personal debts of the regime that incurred them and not debts of the state. International Third World debt has reached the scale that many economists are convinced that debt relief or debt cancellation is the only way to restore global equity in relations with the developing nations.\n", "Section::::The 2007–2012 global economic crisis and cooperatives.\n", "Section::::Policy initiatives.\n\nSection::::Policy initiatives.:The United Nations.\n", "Debt crisis\n\nDebt crisis is a situation in which a country is without the ability of paying back its government debt. When the expenditures of its government are more than its tax revenues for a prolonged period, a country may enter into a debt crisis .In any country,the government finances its expenditures primarily by raising money through taxation. When tax revenues are insufficient, the government can make up the difference by issuing debt.\n", "BULLET::::- It is not only individual persons and businesses that go bankrupt as a consequence of the fact that there is more debt than money in circulation. Many states have gone bankrupt and some states have done so many times. The debt problem is particularly severe for developing countries that have debt in foreign currencies. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank have been promoting loans to resource-rich developing countries for the expressed purpose of promoting economic growth in these countries, yet these loans were denominated in foreign currencies and most of the money were used for paying transnational entrepreneurs without ever entering the local economy. These countries have been forced to sell off national assets in order to service the debt. Also a number of countries in the European Union are affected when a large part of the money circulating in the country originates from banks in other member countries. The spiraling, unpayable national debt has led to social chaos and even war in some cases.\n", "Some argue against debt as an instrument and institution, on a personal, family, social, corporate and governmental level. Islam forbids lending with interest even today. In hard times, the cost of servicing debt can grow beyond the debtor's ability to pay, due to either external events (income loss) or internal difficulties (poor management of resources).\n", "Section::::History.:Africa.\n", "Companies also use debt in many ways to leverage the investment made in their assets, \"leveraging\" the return on their equity. This leverage, the proportion of debt to equity, is considered important in determining the riskiness of an investment; the more debt per equity, the riskier.\n\nSection::::Types of borrowers.:Governments.\n\nGovernments issue debt to pay for ongoing expenses as well as major capital projects. Government debt may be issued by sovereign states as well as by local governments, sometimes known as municipalities.\n", "To assist in the reinvestment of released capital, most International Financial Institutions provide guidelines indicating probable shocks, programs to reduce a country’s vulnerability through export diversification, food buffer stocks, enhanced climate prediction methods, more flexible and reliable aid disbursement mechanisms by donors, and much higher and more rapid contingency financing. Sometimes outside experts are brought to control the country's financial institutions.\n\nSection::::Recent debt relief.:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.\n", "Section::::Debt monetization.\n\nDebt monetization is the financing of government operations by the central bank. If a nation's expenditure exceeds its revenues, it incurs a government deficit which can be financed by the government treasury by \n\nBULLET::::- money it already holds (e.g. income or liquidations from a sovereign wealth fund)\n\nBULLET::::- issuing new bonds\n\nor by the central bank by\n\nBULLET::::- money it creates \"de novo\"\n", "Some of the high levels of debt were amassed following the 1973 oil crisis. Increases in oil prices forced many poorer nations' governments to borrow heavily to purchase politically essential supplies. At the same time, OPEC funds deposited and \"recycled\" through western banks provided a ready source of funds for loans. While a portion of borrowed funds went towards infrastructure and economic development financed by central governments, a portion was lost to corruption and about one-fifth was spent on arms.\n\nSection::::Debt abolition.\n", "BULLET::::- Determine whether triple bottom line issues are likely to lead to failure or defaults of governments—say due to being overthrown.\n\nBULLET::::- Determine whether any of the debt being undertaken may be held to be odious debt, which might permit it to be disavowed without any effect on a country's credit status. This includes any loans to purchase \"assets\" such as leaders' palaces, or the people's suppression or extermination. International law does not permit people to be held responsible for such debts—as they did not benefit in any way from the spending and had no control over it.\n", "Governments often borrow money in a currency in which the demand for debt securities is strong. An advantage of issuing bonds in a currency such as the US dollar, the pound sterling, or the euro is that many investors wish to invest in such bonds. Countries such as the United States, Germany, Italy and France have only issued in their domestic currency (or in the Euro in the case of Euro members).\n", "Monetarily sovereign countries (such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Australia and most other countries, in contrast with eurozone countries) that issue debt denominated in their home currency can make payments on the interest or principal of government debt by creating money, although at the risk of higher inflation. In this way their debt is different from that of households, which are restricted by their income. Thus such government bonds are at least as safe as any other bonds denominated in the same currency.\n", "The concept of debt overhang has been applied to sovereign governments, predominantly in developing countries (Krugman, 1988). It describes a situation where the debt of a country exceeds its future capacity to pay it. Debt overhang in developing countries was the motivation for the successful Jubilee 2000 campaign.\n\nSection::::Debt overhang and the financial crisis of 2008.\n", "Since a sovereign government, by definition, controls its own affairs, it cannot be obliged to pay back its debt. Nonetheless, governments may face severe pressure from lending countries. In a few extreme cases, a major creditor nation, before the establishment of the UN Charter Article 2 (4) prohibiting use of force by states, made threats of war or waged war against a debtor nation for failing to pay back debt to seize assets to enforce its creditor's rights. For example, in 1882, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt. Other examples include the United States' \"gunboat diplomacy\" in Venezuela in the mid-1890s and the United States occupation of Haiti beginning in 1915.\n", "Debt bondage has been described by the United Nations as a form of \"modern day slavery\" and is prohibited by international law. It is specifically dealt with by article 1(a) of the United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery. It persists nonetheless especially in developing countries, which have few mechanisms for credit security or bankruptcy, and where fewer people hold formal title to land or possessions. According to some economists, like Hernando de Soto, this is a major barrier to development in these countries. For example, entrepreneurs do not dare to take risks and cannot get credit because they hold no collateral and may burden families for generations to come.\n", "Since the crisis, government intervention in BOP areas such as the imposition of capital controls or foreign exchange market intervention has become more common and in general attracts less disapproval from economists, international institutions like the IMF and other governments.\n\nIn 2007, when the crises began, the global total of yearly BoP imbalances was $1680 billion. On the credit side, the biggest current account surplus was China with approx. $362 billion, followed by Japan at $213 billion and Germany at £185 billion, with oil producing countries such as Saudi Arabia also having large surpluses.\n", "Section::::Monetary financing.:Restrictions.\n\nMonetary financing used to be standard monetary policy in many countries, such as Canada or France, while in others it was and still is prohibited. In the Eurozone, Article 123 of the Lisbon Treaty explicitly prohibits the European Central Bank from financing public institutions and state governments. In Japan, the nation's central bank \"routinely\" purchases approximately 70% of state debt issued each month, and owns, as of Oct 2018, approximately 440 trillion JP¥ (approx. $4trillion) or over 40% of all outstanding government bonds.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Females of other species of placental mammal undergo estrous cycles, in which the endometrium is completely reabsorbed by the animal (covert menstruation) at the end of its reproductive cycle. Many zoologists regard this as different from a \"true\" menstrual cycle. Female domestic animals used for breeding —for example dogs, pigs, cattle, or horses— are monitored for physical signs of an estrous cycle period, which indicates that the animal is ready for insemination.\n\nSection::::Estrus and menstruation.\n", "Some species, such as cats, cows and domestic pigs, are polyestrous, meaning that they can go into heat several times per year. Seasonally polyestrous animals or seasonal breeders have more than one estrous cycle during a specific time of the year and can be divided into short-day and long-day breeders:\n\nBULLET::::- Short-day breeders, such as sheep, goats, deer and elk are sexually active in fall or winter.\n\nBULLET::::- Long-day breeders, such as horses, hamsters and ferrets are sexually active in spring and summer.\n\nSpecies that go into heat twice per year are diestrous.\n", "BULLET::::2. Low levels of GnRH prevent the emergence of a dominant follicle by reducing the release of LH and FSH hormones. Current follicular waves cease and a new wave emerges 3–5 days after implant.\n\nBULLET::::3. A dominant follicle develops but there is no ovulation as LH release is prevented by suppression of GnRH.\n\nBULLET::::4. Removal of progesterone device produces a surge of GnRH, generating a pulse of LH that induces ovulation.\n\nSection::::Methods of progesterone administration.\n", "Device retention is high (around 98%) in both PRID and CIRD. Reasons for loss include overlubrication, pneumovagina, rogue cows pulling out the nylon string or plastic tail and slack cows, large breeds after several calvings.\n\nSection::::Methods of progesterone administration.:Other devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Progestogen ear implant.\n\nBULLET::::- Progestogen impregnated intravaginal sponge. For use mainly in sheep.\n\nSection::::Clinical uses of Progesterone devices.\n", "Female dogs have an estrous cycle that is nonseasonal and monestrus, i.e. there is only one estrus per estrous cycle. The interval between one estrus and another is, on average, seven months, however, this may range between 4 and 12 months. This interestrous period is not influenced by the photoperiod or pregnancy. The average duration of estrus is 9 days with spontaneous ovulation usually about 3 days after the onset of estrus.\n", "Ovulation is triggered in induced ovulators by a LH surge from the anterior pituitary that is induced during mating. Animals this has been recorded in include rabbits, voles, ferrets and camels. In some species such as the ferret the duration of intromission has no effect on the LH surge, whereas in other species such as the cat these are related and higher levels of LH were produced by mating multiple times. In many species, for a LH surge to occur, little intromission is required.\n", "After completion (or abortion) of a pregnancy, some species have \"postpartum estrus\", which is ovulation and corpus luteum production that occurs immediately following the birth of the young. For example, the mouse has a fertile postpartum estrus that occurs 14 to 24 hours following parturition.\n\nSection::::Cycle variability.\n\nEstrous cycle variability differs among species, but cycles are typically more frequent in smaller animals. Even within species significant variability can be observed, thus cats may undergo an estrous cycle of 3 to 7 weeks. Domestication can affect estrous cycles due to changes in the environment.\n\nSection::::Frequency.\n", "However, species vary significantly in the detailed functioning. One difference is that animals that have estrous cycles resorb the endometrium if conception does not occur during that cycle. Animals that have menstrual cycles shed the endometrium through menstruation instead. Another difference is sexual activity. In species with estrous cycles, females are generally only sexually active during the estrus (oestrus) phase of their cycle . This is also referred to as being \"in heat\". In contrast, females of species with menstrual cycles can be sexually active at any time in their cycle, even when they are not about to ovulate.\n", "Continuous breeder\n\nContinuous breeders are animal species that can breed or mate throughout the year. This includes humans and apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and gibbons), who can have a child at any time of year. In continuous breeders, females are sexually receptive during estrus, at which time ovarian follicles are maturing and ovulation can occur. Evidence of ovulation, the phase during which conception is most probable, is advertised to males among many non-human primates via swelling and redness of the genitalia.\n", "There are a number of methods that are used to induce ovulation in cattle such as: artificial insemination, introducing a number of hormones such as chorionic gonadotrophin, hCG and LH. As well as injecting progesterone by intravaginal devices called PRIDs (progesterone-releasing intravaginal devices)\n\nSection::::In cats.\n", "In addition to relaxin production by the horse embryo, the maternal placenta is the main source of relaxin production, whereas in most animals the main source of relaxin is the corpus luteum. Placental trophoblast cells produce relaxin, however, the size of the placenta does not determine the level of relaxin production. This is seen because different breeds of horses show different relaxin levels. From 80 day of gestation onwards, relaxin levels will increase in the mare's serum with levels peaking in late gestation. Moreover, the pattern of relaxin expression will follow the expression of oestrogen, however, there is not yet a known link between these two hormones. During labour, there is a spike in relaxin 3-4 hours before delivery, which is involved in myometrial relaxation and softening of the pelvic ligaments to aid preparation of the birth canal for the delivery of the horse foetus. Following birth, the levels of relaxin will gradually decrease if the placenta is also delivered, however, if the placenta is retained in the mare then the levels will remain high. In addition, if the mare undergoes an abortion then the relaxin levels will decline as the placenta ceases to function.\n", "A lack of periods, known as amenorrhea, is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not occurred in 90 days. Other problems with the menstrual cycle include painful periods and abnormal bleeding such as bleeding between periods or heavy bleeding. Menstruation in other animals occur in primates (apes and monkeys).\n", "BULLET::::- Controlled Internal Drug Release (CIDR). For use in cattle and buffalo. This is a T-shaped silicone elastomer device impregnated in progesterone (1.38g). It has a plastic tail to ease removal.\n\nThe curve of plasma progesterone in ovariectomised cows fitted with either PRID or CIDR show similar overall levels with a more obvious initial peak in the coil versus the t-shaped device. It has been suggested that this increased level of plasma progesterone is due to optimal contact of the coil with the vaginal walls. Some heifers resent insertion of either device as it involves penetration of the hymen.\n", "The female cat in heat has an estrus of 14 to 21 days and is generally characterized as an induced ovulator, since coitus induces ovulation. However, various incidents of spontaneous ovulation have been documented in the domestic cat and various non-domestic species. Without ovulation, she may enter interestrus before reentering estrus. With the induction of ovulation, the female becomes pregnant or undergoes a non-pregnant luteal phase, also known as pseudopregnancy. Cats are polyestrous but experience a seasonal anestrus in autumn and late winter.\n\nSection::::Specific species.:Dogs.\n", "BULLET::::- Progesterone: prevents conception and decreases sexual receptibility of the mare to the stallion. Progesterone is therefore lowest during the estrus phase, and increases during diestrus. It decreases 12–15 days after ovulation, when the corpus luteum begins to decrease in size.\n\nBULLET::::- Prostaglandin: secreted by the endrometrium 13–15 days following ovulation, causes luteolysis and prevents the corpus luteum from secreting progesterone\n", "Although there is variability in the response to estrus synchronization, studies show consistently high pregnancy rates following Fixed Time Artificial Insemination with CIDR synchronization of ovarian follicle development.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Oestrus synchronization.:Sheep and goats.\n", "Differences in the social structure and marking behavior among different species may lead to a different size and position of the preorbital glands on the animal's face. For example, Günther's dik-dik (\"Madoqua guentheri\") is a monogamous species of antelope that lives in a permanent territory, the boundaries of which the animals mark several times a day by actively pressing the preorbital glands to grasses and low-lying plants and applying the secretions. In this territorial animal, the preorbital glands remain of considerable size throughout the year. The glands are located in large preorbital pits in the lacrimal bone, and are surrounded by specialized facial muscles that compress them to express the secretions more effectively. In contrast, the saiga antelope (\"Saiga tatarica\") is a polygamous and somewhat nomadic species which does not occupy any permanent territory at any time during the year. For most of the year the preorbital glands remain small, only growing to substantial size during the rut. At that time of year, secretions ooze more or less continuously from the glands. In this nonterritorial animal, the preorbital glands are not as well-developed, lack well-developed surrounding facial muscles, and are positioned in an inconspicuous and shallow depression of the lacrimal bone.\n", "Induced ovulation is the process in which the pre-ovulatory LH surge and therefore ovulation is induced by some component of coitus e.g. receipt of genital stimulation. Usually spontaneous steroid-induced LH surges are not observed in induced ovulator species throughout their reproductive cycles, which indicates that GnRH release is absent or reduced due to lack of positive feedback action from steroid hormones. However, by contradiction some spontaneously ovulating species can occasionally undergo mating-induced preovulatory LH surges. Species in which the females are induced ovulators include cats, rabbits, ferrets, and camels. In 1985, Chen \"et al.\", used Bactrian camels to investigate the factor(s) that induce ovulation during breeding season. They monitored the camel ovaries for ovulation by rectal palpation following insemination of semen samples. Chen \"et al.\", concluded that in this particular camel species ovulation was induced by the seminal plasma, and not by the spermatozoa.\n", "Both sexes become sexually mature when they are one to two years old. Oestrus in females lasts one to four days; it typically occurs once or twice a year, though it can occur three or four times a year if the mother loses her litters. Observations of captive servals suggest that when a female enters oestrus, the rate of urine-marking increases in her as well as the males in her vicinity. Zoologist Jonathan Kingdon described the behaviour of a female serval in oestrus in his 1997 book \"East African Mammals\". He noted that she would roam restlessly, spray urine frequently holding her vibrating tail in a vertical manner, rub her head near the place she has marked, salivate continuously, give out sharp and short \"miaow\"s that can be heard for quite a distance, and rub her mouth and cheeks against the face of an approaching male. The time when mating takes place varies geographically; births peak in winter in Botswana, and toward the end of the dry season in the Ngorongoro Crater. A trend generally observed across the range is that births precede the breeding season of murid rodents.\n", "The behaviors that occur among male and female Woodlark cuscus before, during, and after mating have not yet been observed. However, the capture of five female Woodlark cuscuses in August 1987 led to the following interesting observations: one of the females were parous but did not have any young while another was clearly lactating. Two others had its naked young in their pouches while one of them had its older young on its back. This transition from the pouch of the mother to the back of the mother as the young age is typical in the Phalanger lullulae because they are metatherians and this transition is typical metatherian behavior. The various states of the young and female cuscuses were in demonstrate that the breeding season most likely happens over a long period of time. It has also been noted that they give birth to single young.\n", "Fixed interval (FI) schedules require that a set amount of time pass between drug infusions, regardless of the number of times that the desired response is performed. This “refractory” period can prevent the animal from overdosing on a drug.\n\nVariable interval (VI) schedules of reinforcement are identical to FI schedules, except that the amount of time between reinforced operant responses varies, making it more difficult for the animal to predict when the drug will be delivered.\n", "Section::::Research on non-surgical sterilization/contraception.:Hormone agonists and antagonists.\n\nMany GnRH agonists similar to Suprelorin® have been developed for human use. When given as long-acting implants, these cause “medical castration,” that is, the complete suppression of reproductive activity and the suppression of sex steroids. They have been shown to be effective in both dogs and cats. \n", "In 1985, estrous synchrony was reported in female chimpanzees. In her study, 10 female chimpanzees were caged, at different times, in two groups of four and six in the same building. The anogenital swelling of each female was recorded daily. Synchrony was measured by calculating the absolute differences in days between (1) the day of swelling onset and (2) the day of maximum swelling. She reported a statistically significant average difference of 5.7 days for onset of swelling and 8.0 days for maximum swelling. Schank, however, noted that due to females who became pregnant and who stopped cycling, most of the data were based on only four animals. He performed a computer simulation study to calculate the expected swelling onset and maximal swelling onset difference for female chimpanzees with the reported mean estrous cycle lengths of 36.7 (with a standard deviation of 4.3) days. He reported an expected difference of 7.7 days. Thus, a maximum swelling difference of 8.0 days is about what would be expected by chance and given that only four animals contributed data to the study, a 5.7 day onset difference is not significantly less than 7.7 days.\n", "Some mammals (e.g. domestic cats, rabbits and camilidae) are termed \"induced ovulators\". For these species, the female ovulates due to an external stimulus during, or just prior, to mating, rather than ovulating cyclically or spontaneously. Stimuli causing induced ovulation include the sexual behaviour of coitus, sperm and pheromones. \n\nDomestic cats have penile spines. Upon withdrawal of a cat's penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which may cause ovulation.\n\nSection::::Seasonality.:Amphibians.\n", "Section::::Estrous cycle of the mare.:Effects on the reproductive system during the estrous cycle.\n\nChanges in hormone levels can have great effects on the physical characteristics of the reproductive organs of the mare, thereby preparing, or preventing, her from conceiving.\n\nBULLET::::- Uterus: increased levels of estrogen during estrus cause edema within the uterus, making it feel heavier, and the uterus loses its tone. This edema decreases following ovulation, and the muscular tone increases. High levels of progesterone do not cause edema within the uterus. The uterus becomes flaccid during anestrus.\n" ]

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[ "In 2007, following reformulation of the recipes for a number of varieties, Girl Scouts of the USA announced that all their cookies had less than 0.5 grams of trans fat per serving, allowing them to meet the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requirements for \"zero trans fat\" labeling.\n\nHigh-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is used in some cookies. The bakers claim that it is a necessary ingredient in ensuring the quality of the cookie.\n\nSection::::Production.:Palm oil.\n", "Federal guidelines issued in early 2005 called for people to minimize their consumption of trans fat. Concerned parents urged the Girl Scouts to address this and other health concerns about the cookies, suggesting that the cookie program was at odds with the Girl Scouts' healthy living initiative. The Girl Scout organization replied that the cookies were a treat which \"shouldn't be a big part of somebody's diet\", and said that they are \"encouraging\" the companies that bake the cookies to find alternative oils.\n", "In November 2013 owner and president Charles DeBaufre, Jr. said that the FDA's proposed ban on trans fat could change how Berger Cookies taste because two key ingredients, margarine and fudge, contain partially hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed oil, a source of trans fat. He said attempts to produce the cookies without trans fat have produced discouraging results. He further said that without an FDA exception allowing them to use trans fat, the bakery would continue to test out new recipes or \"go out of business, one of the two.\" However, in November 2017 \"The Baltimore Sun\" reported that DeBaufre's fudge supplier had already changed the recipe and eliminated trans fats over the previous summer, with no apparent impact on the taste but an increase in calories due to additional sweeteners.\n", "In 2007, two individual inventors took part in a Belgian TV inventor show, called De Bedenkers (\"The Inventors\"), with competing recipes for a similar product: to make a spreadable product out of Speculoos cookies. Chef Danny De Maeyer had already filed a patent at that time, but didn't make it very far. His competitor Els Scheppers made it into the semi-finals with hers. Lotus, the biggest brand of Speculoos (known as Biscoff in the US) cookies, bought her idea and produced it to market. They also bought De Maeyer's patent in 2009, so as to seal the market.\n", "Although IHOP restaurants pledged in a 2007 press release to eliminate transfat from their food, the nutrition information on the company website for the Summer/Fall 2015 Core Menu shows that they still have a considerable amount of trans fat in their food, including 4.5 grams in their \"mega monster cheeseburger\".\n\nThe Girl Scouts of the USA announced in November 2006 that all of their cookies contain less than 0.5 g trans fats per serving, thus meeting or exceeding the FDA guidelines for the \"zero trans fat\" designation. High levels of trans fats remain common in packaged baked goods.\n", "In September 2011, GSUSA released a new policy on palm oil in Girl Scout cookies to take effect from the 2012-13 cookie season. Amongst the pledges made, GSUSA announced it will purchase GreenPalm certificates to support the sustainable production of palm oil. The certificates offer a premium price to palm oil producers who are operating within the guidelines for social and environmental responsibility set by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil.\n", "Section::::History.:Twenty-first century.\n\nFrom January 2006, Nabisco replaced the trans fat in the Oreo cookie with non-hydrogenated vegetable oil.\n", "The texture of a chocolate chip cookie is largely dependent on its fat composition and the type of fat used. A study done by Kansas State University showed that carbohydrate based fat-replacers were more likely to bind more water, leaving less water available to aid in the spread of the cookie while baking. This resulted in softer, more cake-like cookies with less spread.\n\nSection::::Composition and variants.:Common variants.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"M&M cookie\", or \"party cookie\", replaces the chocolate chips with M&M's. This recipe originally used shortening as the fat, but has been updated to use butter.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Filled cookies\" are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit or confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Molded cookies\" are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.\n", "By 2007, several Belgian companies began marketing a paste variant of speculoos, now available worldwide under various brands and names: as \"Speculla\", \"Cookie Butter\", \"Biscoff Spread\". As a form of spreadable Speculoos cookies, the flavor is caramelized and gingerbread-like with a color similar to peanut butter and a consistency ranging from creamy to granular or crunchy. The spread consists of 60% crushed speculoos cookies along with vegetable oils.\n", "Cookies from different manufacturers have somewhat different nutritional content. One cookie is around 20-30 calories and 5-7 grams of total carbohydrates per cookie. Most cookies contain around 3 grams of sugar, but some have no sugar. They can have between 8 milligrams and 2 milligrams of sodium, and may contain significant (compared to their size) amounts of iron or protein. Their small size means they have little nutritional value overall.\n\nSection::::Around the world.\n", "Trends over the last couple of years have shown a greater demand for margarine over butter. Unilever is a margarine-producing company that has taken advantage of this public shift towards assumed \"healthier\" fat options by producing a variety of non-hydrogenated, low in saturated fats margarines.\n\nSection::::European Food Safety Authority.\n", "The Just Cookies product line was launched in 2014, and was marketed as a more sustainable and healthy cookie because of its ingredients. Flavors as of 2016 included chocolate chip, sugar, oatmeal raisin, double chocolate espresso and peanut butter. Because the cookies are made without butter or eggs, they are cholesterol-free. Both Oprah Winfrey and Andrew Zimmern publicly commented they were fans of the brand, and by late 2014, the large catering company Compass Group had replaced its conventional chocolate chip cookies with Just Cookies. Unlike other JUST products, the macadamia cookies contained milk. Just Cookies were later discontinued, but Just Cookie Dough continues to be available as of 2018.\n", "In Scandinavia, a different kind of cookie butter has been used to make confectionery cakes for many years. It usually has a very thick consistency and is flavoured with cocoa and liquor.\n\nIn Sweden, cookie butter is the main ingredient in \"Dammsugare\" (Punsch-rolls). The buttery paste is flavoured with cocoa and punsch, wrapped in a thin sheet of marzipan and dipped in dark chocolate. The marzipan is usually coloured brightly green.\n", "Oils in baked cakes do not behave as soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Repostería – a Mexican type of shortbread-like cookie that's lightly baked and dipped into a cinnamon sugar blend until the cinnamon sugar surrounds the cookie. These are often served with coffee or hot spiced Mexican chocolate.\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Dansk. a brand of butter cookie produced in Denmark by the Kelsen Group since 1966, and widely exported in a distinctive blue tin featuring an image of the Hjemstavnsgaard farmhouse on the island of Funen\n\nBULLET::::- Sablé – a French round shortbread cookie that originates in Sablé-sur-Sarthe, in Sarthe\n", "In May 2003, BanTransFats.com Inc., a U.S. non-profit corporation, filed a lawsuit against the food manufacturer Kraft Foods in an attempt to force Kraft to remove trans fats from the Oreo cookie. The lawsuit was withdrawn when Kraft agreed to work on ways to find a substitute for the trans fat in the Oreo.\n", "On the cookie's 100th anniversary, Kellogg's resumed distribution of Hydrox under the Sunshine label, with the first batches shipped in late August 2008. Hydrox aficionados had bombarded Kellogg's with thousands of phone calls and an on-line petition asking that production resume. The recipe was slightly altered from the original; trans-fats were removed. The cookies were to be available nationally for a limited time, and less than a year later Kellogg's had removed Hydrox from their web site.\n", "For some foods alternative ingredients can be used. Common oils and fats become rancid relatively quickly if not refrigerated; replacing them with hydrogenated oils delays the onset of rancidity, increasing shelf life. This is a common approach in industrial food production, but recent concerns about health hazards associated with trans fats have led to their strict control in several jurisdictions. Even where trans fats are not prohibited, in many places there are new labeling laws (or rules), which require information to be printed on packages, or to be published elsewhere, about the amount of trans fat contained in certain products.\n", "Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked.\n", "Every bag of Nestlé chocolate chips sold in North America has a variation (butter vs. margarine is now a stated option) of her original recipe printed on the back.\n\nThe original recipe was passed down to Sue Brides' daughter, Peg. In a 2017 interview, she shared the original recipe:\n\nBULLET::::- 1 1/2 cups (350 mL) shortening\n\nBULLET::::- 1 1/8 cups (265 mL) sugar\n\nBULLET::::- 1 1/8 cups (265 mL) brown sugar\n\nBULLET::::- 3 eggs\n\nBULLET::::- 1 1/2 teaspoon (7.5 g) salt\n\nBULLET::::- 3 1/8 cups (750 mL) of flour\n\nBULLET::::- 1 1/2 teaspoon (7.5 g) hot water\n", "Dare is known for adopting the resealable, \"tin tie\" packaging, for their cookies, that was originally used for coffee. This bag guaranteed freshness and soon became the standard packaging for cookies across Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Moon Pie, marshmallow sandwiched between two graham cracker cookies and dipped in a flavored coating\n\nBULLET::::- Nutter Butter, peanut-shaped cookies with a peanut butter filling\n\nBULLET::::- Nutty Bars, wafers with peanut butter and covered in chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Oreo, a line of sandwich cookies—most notably a creme-filled chocolate sandwich cookie modeled after Hydrox—manufactured by Mondelez International\n\nBULLET::::- Prince de LU, biscuits with chocolate cream\n\nBULLET::::- Wafer, a crisp, often sweet, very thin, flat, and dry biscuit\n\nBULLET::::- Wagon Wheels, biscuits with marshmallow filling, covered in a chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Whoopie pie, round, mound-shaped pieces of cake with a sweet, creamy filling\n", "In the 1990s, the National Council limited the bakeries providing cookies to just ABC Bakers (a division of Interbake Foods) and Little Brownie Bakers (a division of the Keebler Company). In 1998, cookie sale awards were instituted. The Girl Scouts moved to eliminate trans fat from its cookies in 2005, and started providing nutritional information on the cookie box. In 2009 the number of Thin Mints, Do-si-dos, and Tagalongs in each box was reduced and Lemon Chalet Cremes became smaller because of the increasing costs of ingredients and transportation. In January 2015, Girl Scouts began to offer customers the ability to purchase cookies using an online portal though a mobile app called \"Digital Cookie\". The app can only be used by Girl Scouts themselves with parent supervision, and Girl Scouts are able to share an individual link to their online cookie business to friends and family only. \n", "Cookies or biscuits may be mass-produced in factories, made in small bakeries or homemade. Biscuit or cookie variants include sandwich biscuits, such as custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, Bourbons and Oreos, with marshmallow or jam filling and sometimes dipped in chocolate or another sweet coating. Cookies are often served with beverages such as milk, coffee or tea. Factory-made cookies are sold in grocery stores, convenience stores and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses, with the latter ranging from small business-sized establishments to multinational corporations such as Starbucks.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n" ]

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[ "has a limit of +∞ as , \"ƒ\"(\"x\") has the vertical asymptote , even though \"ƒ\"(0) = 5. The graph of this function does intersect the vertical asymptote once, at (0,5). It is impossible for the graph of a function to intersect a vertical asymptote (or a vertical line in general) in more than one point. Moreover, if a function is continuous at each point where it is defined, it is impossible that its graph does intersect any vertical asymptote.\n", "There are three kinds of asymptotes: \"horizontal\", \"vertical\" and \"oblique\" asymptotes. For curves given by the graph of a function , horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as \"x\" tends to Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines near which the function grows without bound. An oblique asymptote has a slope that is non-zero but finite, such that the graph of the function approaches it as \"x\" tends to \n", "An asymptote can be either vertical or non-vertical (oblique or horizontal). In the first case its equation is \"x\" = \"c\", for some real number \"c\". The non-vertical case has equation , where \"m\" and formula_58 are real numbers. All three types of asymptotes can be present at the same time in specific examples. Unlike asymptotes for curves that are graphs of functions, a general curve may have more than two non-vertical asymptotes, and may cross its vertical asymptotes more than once.\n\nSection::::Curvilinear asymptotes.\n", "A common example of a vertical asymptote is the case of a rational function at a point x such that the denominator is zero and the numerator is non-zero.\n\nIf a function has a vertical asymptote, then it isn't necessarily true that the derivative of the function has a vertical asymptote at the same place. An example is\n\nThis function has a vertical asymptote at formula_18 because \n\nand\n\nThe derivative of formula_21 is the function\n\nFor the sequence of points\n", "The function \"ƒ\"(\"x\") may or may not be defined at \"a\", and its precise value at the point \"x\" = \"a\" does not affect the asymptote. For example, for the function\n", "The asymptotes most commonly encountered in the study of calculus are of curves of the form . These can be computed using limits and classified into \"horizontal\", \"vertical\" and \"oblique\" asymptotes depending on their orientation. Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as \"x\" tends to +∞ or −∞. As the name indicates they are parallel to the \"x\"-axis. Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines (perpendicular to the \"x\"-axis) near which the function grows without bound. Oblique asymptotes are diagonal lines such that the difference between the curve and the line approaches 0 as \"x\" tends to +∞ or −∞.\n", "The vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero (If both the numerator and denominator are zero, the multiplicities of the zero are compared). For example, the following function has vertical asymptotes at \"x\" = 0, and \"x\" = 1, but not at \"x\" = 2.\n\nSection::::Elementary methods for identifying asymptotes.:Asymptotes for rational functions.:Oblique asymptotes of rational functions.\n", "BULLET::::- If \"y\"=\"c\" is a horizontal asymptote of \"f\"(\"x\"), then \"y\"=\"c\"+\"k\" is a horizontal asymptote of \"f\"(\"x\")+\"k\"\n\nIf a known function has an asymptote, then the scaling of the function also have an asymptote.\n\nBULLET::::- If \"y\"=\"ax\"+\"b\" is an asymptote of \"f\"(\"x\"), then \"y\"=\"cax\"+\"cb\" is an asymptote of \"cf\"(\"x\")\n\nFor example, \"f\"(\"x\")=\"e\"+2 has horizontal asymptote \"y\"=0+2=2, and no vertical or oblique asymptotes.\n\nSection::::General definition.\n\nLet be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates \"A\"(\"t\") = (\"x\"(\"t\"),\"y\"(\"t\")). Suppose that the curve tends to infinity, that is:\n", "Although the definition here uses a parameterization of the curve, the notion of asymptote does not depend on the parameterization. In fact, if the equation of the line is formula_54 then the distance from the point \"A\"(\"t\") = (\"x\"(\"t\"),\"y\"(\"t\")) to the line is given by\n\nif γ(\"t\") is a change of parameterization then the distance becomes\n\nwhich tends to zero simultaneously as the previous expression.\n", "Section::::Asymptotes of functions.:Vertical asymptotes.\n\nThe line \"x\" = \"a\" is a \"vertical asymptote\" of the graph of the function if at least one of the following statements is true:\n\nBULLET::::1. formula_9\n\nBULLET::::2. formula_10\n\nwhere formula_11 is the limit as \"x\" approaches the value \"a\" from the left (from lesser values), and formula_12 is the limit as \"x\" approaches \"a\" from the right.\n\nFor example, if ƒ(\"x\") = \"x\"/(\"x\"–1), the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 as \"x\" approaches 1. So\n\nand the curve has a vertical asymptote \"x\"=1.\n", "To handle queries of this type, for a graph in which each vertex has at most \"d\" incoming and at most \"d\" outgoing edges for some constant \"d\", the lists associated with each vertex are augmented by a fraction of the items from each outgoing neighbor of the vertex; the fraction must be chosen to be smaller than 1/\"d\", so that the total amount by which all lists are augmented remains linear in the input size. Each item in each augmented list stores with it the position of that item in the unaugmented list stored at the same vertex, and in each of the outgoing neighboring lists. In the simple example above, \"d\" = 1, and we augmented each list with a 1/2 fraction of the neighboring items.\n", "BULLET::::- y\" and \"x: \"y\" is a square. The integer right triangle with legs formula_21 and formula_27 and hypotenuse formula_20 would have two sides (\"b\" and \"a\") each of which is a square or twice a square, with a smaller hypotenuse than the original triangle (formula_20 compared to formula_12).\n", "This is based on the notion of an asymptotic function which cleanly approaches a constant value (the \"asymptote\") as the independent variable goes to infinity; \"clean\" in this sense meaning that for any desired closeness epsilon there is some value of the independent variable after which the function never differs from the constant by more than epsilon.\n\nAn asymptote is a straight line that a curve approaches but never meets or crosses. Informally, one may speak of the curve meeting the asymptote \"at infinity\" although this is not a precise definition. In the equation\n", "BULLET::::- A mapping of the items in the augmented list of the node to small integers, such that the ordering of the positions in the augmented list is equivalent to the comparison ordering of the integers, and a reverse map from these integers back to the list items. A technique of allows this numbering to be maintained efficiently.\n", "The asymptotes of an algebraic curve in the affine plane are the lines that are tangent to the projectivized curve through a point at infinity. For example, one may identify the asymptotes to the unit hyperbola in this manner. Asymptotes are often considered only for real curves, although they also make sense when defined in this way for curves over an arbitrary field.\n", "Consider the graph of the function formula_1 shown to the right. The coordinates of the points on the curve are of the form formula_2 where x is a number other than 0. For example, the graph contains the points (1, 1), (2, 0.5), (5, 0.2), (10, 0.1), … As the values of formula_3 become larger and larger, say 100, 1,000, 10,000 …, putting them far to the right of the illustration, the corresponding values of formula_4, .01, .001, .0001, …, become infinitesimal relative to the scale shown. But no matter how large formula_3 becomes, its reciprocal formula_6 is never 0, so the curve never actually touches the \"x\"-axis. Similarly, as the values of formula_3 become smaller and smaller, say .01, .001, .0001, …, making them infinitesimal relative to the scale shown, the corresponding values of formula_4, 100, 1,000, 10,000 …, become larger and larger. So the curve extends farther and farther upward as it comes closer and closer to the \"y\"-axis. Thus, both the \"x\" and \"y\"-axes are asymptotes of the curve. These ideas are part of the basis of concept of a limit in mathematics, and this connection is explained more fully below.\n", "Asymptote\n\nIn analytic geometry, an asymptote () of a curve is a line such that the distance between the curve and the line approaches zero as one or both of the \"x\" or \"y\" coordinates tends to infinity. Some sources include the requirement that the curve may not cross the line infinitely often, but this is unusual for modern authors. In projective geometry and related contexts, an asymptote of a curve is a line which is tangent to the curve at a point at infinity.\n", "Let be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates \"A\"(\"t\") = (\"x\"(\"t\"),\"y\"(\"t\")), and \"B\" be another (unparameterized) curve. Suppose, as before, that the curve \"A\" tends to infinity. The curve \"B\" is a curvilinear asymptote of \"A\" if the shortest distance from the point \"A\"(\"t\") to a point on \"B\" tends to zero as \"t\" → \"b\". Sometimes \"B\" is simply referred to as an asymptote of \"A\", when there is no risk of confusion with linear asymptotes.\n\nFor example, the function\n\nhas a curvilinear asymptote , which is known as a \"parabolic asymptote\" because it is a parabola rather than a straight line.\n", "Section::::Asymptotes and curve sketching.\n\nAsymptotes are used in procedures of curve sketching. An asymptote serves as a guide line to show the behavior of the curve towards infinity. In order to get better approximations of the curve, curvilinear asymptotes have also been used although the term asymptotic curve seems to be preferred.\n\nSection::::Algebraic curves.\n", "Section::::Asymptotes of functions.\n", "Each branch of the hyperbola has two arms which become straighter (lower curvature) further out from the center of the hyperbola. Diagonally opposite arms, one from each branch, tend in the limit to a common line, called the asymptote of those two arms. So there are two asymptotes, whose intersection is at the center of symmetry of the hyperbola, which can be thought of as the mirror point about which each branch reflects to form the other branch. In the case of the curve formula_1 the asymptotes are the two coordinate axes.\n", "BULLET::::- For each neighboring node in the catalog graph, a similar integer searching data structure for the numbers associated with the subset of the data propagated from the neighboring node. With this structure, and the mapping from items to integers, one can efficiently find for each element \"x\" of the augmented list, a position within a constant number of steps of the location of \"x\" in the augmented list associated with the neighboring node.\n", "A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant) asymptote, and possibly many vertical asymptotes.\n\nThe degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes. The cases are tabulated below, where deg(numerator) is the degree of the numerator, and deg(denominator) is the degree of the denominator.\n", "It is not possible for \"s\" to equal \"s\" for any finite \"k\": as showed, there exists a constant \"α\" such that \"s\" ≤ \"s\"(1 − \"α\"/\"k\"). Therefore, if the exponential time hypothesis is true, there must be infinitely many values of \"k\" for which \"s\" differs from \"s\".\n", "BULLET::::- The Erdős–Straus conjecture concerns the length of the shortest expansion for a fraction of the form 4/\"n\". Does an expansion\n" ]

[ "In exponential equations there is no asymptote since the graph is leveled off vertically. " ]

[ "There actually are no limits within vertical lines in exponential equations. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "In exponential equations there is no asymptote since the graph is leveled off vertically. ", "In exponential equations there is no asymptote since the graph is leveled off vertically. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "There actually are no limits within vertical lines in exponential equations. ", "There actually are no limits within vertical lines in exponential equations. " ]

[ "Before the adoption of four standard time zones for the continental United States, many towns and cities set their clocks to noon when the sun passed their local meridian, pre-corrected for the equation of time on the date of observation, to form local mean solar time. Noon occurred at different times but time differences between distant locations were barely noticeable prior to the 19th century because of long travel times and the lack of long-distance instant communications prior to the development of the telegraph.\n", "A possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 pm (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock.\n", "The difference between apparent solar time and mean time was recognized by astronomers since antiquity, but prior to the invention of accurate mechanical clocks in the mid-17th century, sundials were the only reliable timepieces, and apparent solar time was the generally accepted standard.\n\nSection::::Events and units of time in seconds.\n", "With the advent of the industrial revolution, a greater understanding and agreement on the nature of time itself became increasingly necessary and helpful. In 1847 in Britain, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) was first created for use by the British railways, the British navy, and the British shipping industry. Using telescopes, GMT was calibrated to the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the UK.\n", "The word \"noon\" is derived from Latin \"nona hora\", the ninth hour of the day, and is related to the liturgical term none. The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a.m. (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p.m. (15:00) at the equinox. In English, the meaning of the word shifted to \"midday\" and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time (that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones). The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century.\n", "Section::::Modern definitions.\n\nIn the past, time was measured by observing stars with instruments such as photographic zenith tubes and Danjon astrolabes, and the passage of stars across defined lines would be timed with the observatory clock. Then, using the right ascension of the stars from a star catalog, the time when the star should have passed through the meridian of the observatory was computed, and a correction to the time kept by the observatory clock was computed. Sidereal time was defined such that the March equinox would transit the meridian of the observatory at 0 hours local sidereal time.\n", "The most common convention starts the civil day at midnight: this is near the time of the lower culmination of the Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. Such a day may be referred to as a calendar day.\n\nA day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes, with each minute composed of 60 seconds.\n\nSection::::International System of Units (SI).:Decimal and metric time.\n", "Section::::Counting hours.\n\nMany different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.\n\nAstrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods.\n", "In so-called \"Italian time\", \"Italian hours\", or \"old Czech time\", the first hour started with the sunset Angelus bell (or at the end of dusk, i.e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom and geographical latitude). The hours were numbered from 1 to 24. For example, in Lugano, the sun rose in December during the 14th hour and noon was during the 19th hour; in June the sun rose during the 7th hour and noon was in the 15th hour. Sunset was always at the end of the 24th hour. The clocks in church towers struck only from 1 to 12, thus only during night or early morning hours.\n", "Midnight\n\nMidnight is the transition time from one day to the next – the moment when the date changes. In ancient Roman timekeeping, midnight was halfway between sunset and sunrise (i.e., solar midnight), varying according to the seasons. By clock time, midnight is the opposite of noon, differing from it by 12 hours.\n", "The realisation of time has gone through three phases. During both the first and second phases, man used Solar time—during the first phase, realisation of time was by observing the earth's rotation using such devices as the sundial or astrolabe. During the second phase actual timing devices such as hourglasses or clocks were used. If the user needed to know time-of-day rather than elapsed time, clocks were synchronized with astronomical time. The third phase made use of clocks that were sufficiently accurate that they could measure variations in the earth's rotation—such clocks taking over from the rotation of the earth as the prime measure of time. \n", "Sexagesimal divisions of the day from a calendar based on astronomical observation have existed since the third millennium BC, though they were not seconds as we know them today. Small divisions of time could not be counted back then, so such divisions were figurative. The first timekeepers that could count seconds accurately were pendulum clocks invented in the 17th century. Starting in the 1950s, atomic clocks became better timekeepers than earth's rotation, and they continue to set the standard today.\n\nSection::::Clocks and solar time.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early timekeeping.\n\nBefore clocks were invented, it was common practice to mark the time of day with apparent solar time (also called \"true\" solar time) – for example, the time on a sundial – which was typically different for every location and dependent on longitude.\n", "The \"hora sexta\" of the Romans corresponded closely with our noon. Among the Jews it was already regarded, together with Terce and None, as an hour most favourable to prayer. In the Acts of the Apostles we read that St. Peter went up to the higher parts of the house to pray (). It was the middle of the day, also the usual hour of rest, and in consequence for devout men, an occasion to pray to God, as were the morning and evening hours.\n", "In the same manner, a noon gun has been fired in Cape Town, South Africa, since 1806. The gun is fired daily from the Lion Battery at Signal Hill.\n\nA cannon was fired at one o'clock every weekday at Liverpool, England, at the Castle in Edinburgh, Scotland, and also at Perth in Australia to establish the time. The Edinburgh \"One O'Clock Gun\" is still in operation. A cannon located at the top of Santa Lucia Hill, in Santiago, Chile, is shot every noon.\n", "Standard time came into existence in the United States on 18 November 1883. Earlier, on 11 October 1883, the General Time Convention, forerunner to the American Railway Association, approved a plan that divided the United States into several time zones. On that November day, the US Naval Observatory telegraphed a signal that coordinated noon at Eastern standard time with 11 am Central, 10 am Mountain, and 9 am Pacific standard time.\n\nA March 1905 issue of \"The Technical World\" describes the role of the United States Naval Observatory as a source of time signals:\n\nSection::::Radio time sources.\n\nSection::::Radio time sources.:Dedicated time signal broadcasts.\n", "The hour was initially established in the ancient Near East as a variable measure of of the night or daytime. Such seasonal, temporal, or unequal hours varied by season and latitude. The hour was subsequently divided into 60 minutes, each of 60 seconds. Equal or equinoctial hours were taken as of the day as measured from noon to noon; the minor seasonal variations of this unit were eventually smoothed by making it of the mean solar day. Since this unit was not constant due to long term variations in the Earth's rotation, the hour was finally separated from the Earth's rotation and defined in terms of the atomic or physical second.\n", "Section::::History.:Devices that measure duration, elapsed time and intervals.:Marine chronometer.\n", "For many centuries, up to 1925, astronomers counted the hours and days from noon, because it was the easiest solar event to measure accurately. An advantage of this method (used in the Julian Date system, in which a new Julian Day begins at noon) is that the date doesn't change during a single night's observing.\n\nSection::::Counting hours.:Counting from midnight.\n", "Over shorter timescales, there are a variety of practices for defining when each day begins. In ordinary usage, the civil day is reckoned by the midnight epoch, that is, the civil day begins at midnight. But in older astronomical usage, it was usual, until January 1, 1925, to reckon by a noon epoch, 12 hours after the start of the civil day of the same denomination, so that the day began when the mean sun crossed the meridian at noon. This is still reflected in the definition of J2000, which started at noon, Terrestrial Time.\n", "Section::::History.:Devices that measure duration, elapsed time and intervals.:Water.\n", "Section::::History.:Devices that measure duration, elapsed time and intervals.:Astronomical.\n", "Originally there were two cycles; one cycle which could be tracked by the position of the Sun (day) followed by one cycle which could be tracked by the Moon and stars (night). This eventually evolved into the two 12-hour periods which are used today, starting at midnight (a.m.) and noon (p.m.). Noon itself is rarely abbreviated today, but if it is, it is denoted M.\n\nThe 12-hour clock can be traced back as far as Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt.\n\nBoth an Egyptian sundial for daytime use\n", "At about the same time, sundials were developed, likely marked first at noon, sunrise and sunset. In ancient Sumer and Egypt, numbers were soon used to divide the day into 12 hours; the night was similarly divided. In Egypt there is not as much seasonal variation in the length of the day, but those further from the equator would need to make many more modifications in calibrating their sundials to deal with these differences. Ancient traditions did \"not\" begin the day at midnight, some starting at dawn instead, others at dusk (both being more obvious).\n", "BULLET::::- Born:\n\nBULLET::::- Samantha Smith, American child peace activist, in Houlton, Maine (killed in plane crash, 1985)\n\nBULLET::::- Nawal Al Zoghbi, Lebanese singer, in Byblos\n\nSection::::June 30, 1972 (Friday).\n\nBULLET::::- For the first time, a leap second was observed. The National Bureau of Standards in Boulder, Colorado, stopped the clock at 23:59:59 GMT ( local time), adding 23:59:60 before moving over to 0h 0m 0s.\n\n 1972-06-30 23.59.57\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "During heavy breathing (hyperpnea), as, for instance, during exercise, inhalation is brought about by a more powerful and greater excursion of the contracting diaphragm than at rest (Fig. 8). In addition the \"accessory muscles of inhalation\" exaggerate the actions of the intercostal muscles (Fig. 8). These accessory muscles of inhalation are muscles that extend from the cervical vertebrae and base of the skull to the upper ribs and sternum, sometimes through an intermediary attachment to the clavicles. When they contract the rib cage's internal volume is increased to a far greater extent than can be achieved by contraction of the intercostal muscles alone. Seen from outside the body the lifting of the clavicles during strenuous or labored inhalation is sometimes called clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n", "As the diaphragm contracts, the rib cage is simultaneously enlarged by the ribs being pulled upwards by the intercostal muscles as shown in Fig. 4. All the ribs slant downwards from the rear to the front (as shown in Fig. 4); but the lowermost ribs \"also\" slant downwards from the midline outwards (Fig. 5). Thus the rib cage's transverse diameter can be increased in the same way as the antero-posterior diameter is increase by the so-called pump handle movement shown in Fig. 4.\n", "In mammals, inhalation at rest is primarily due to the contraction of the diaphragm. This is an upwardly domed sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts the sheet flattens, (i.e. moves downwards as shown in Fig. 7) increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The contracting diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs downwards. But because the pelvic floor prevents the lowermost abdominal organs moving in that direction, the pliable abdominal contents cause the belly to bulge outwards to the front and sides, because the relaxed abdominal muscles do not resist this movement (Fig. 7). This entirely passive bulging (and shrinking during exhalation) of the abdomen during normal breathing is sometimes referred to as \"abdominal breathing\", although it is, in fact, \"diaphragmatic breathing\", which is not visible on the outside of the body. Mammals only use their abdominal muscles only during forceful exhalation (see Fig. 8, and discussion below). Never during any form of inhalation.\n", "Expansion of the thoracic cavity is driven in three planes; the vertical, the anteroposterior and the transverse. The vertical plane is extended by the help of the diaphragm contracting and the abdominal muscles relaxing to accommodate the downward pressure that is supplied to the abdominal viscera by the diaphragm contracting. A greater extension can be achieved by the diaphragm itself moving down, rather than simply the domes flattening. The second plane is the anteroposterior and this is expanded by a movement known as the 'pump handle.' The downward sloping nature of the upper ribs are as such because they enable this to occur. When the external intercostal muscles contract and lift the ribs, the upper ribs are able also to push the sternum up and out. This movement increases the anteroposterior diameter of the thoracic cavity, and hence aids breathing further. The third, transverse, plane is primarily expanded by the lower ribs (some say it is the 7th to 10th ribs in particular), with the diaphragm's central tendon acting as a fixed point. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribs are able to evert and produce what is known as the bucket handle movement, facilitated by gliding at the costovertebral joints. In this way, the transverse diameter is expanded and the lungs can fill.\n", "Diaphragmatic breathing causes the abdomen to rhythmically bulge out and fall back. It is, therefore, often referred to as \"abdominal breathing\". These terms are often used interchangeably because they describe the same action.\n\nWhen the accessory muscles of inhalation are activated, especially during labored breathing, the clavicles are pulled upwards, as explained above. This external manifestation of the use of the accessory muscles of inhalation is sometimes referred to as clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n\nSection::::Passage of air.\n\nSection::::Passage of air.:Upper airways.\n", "During heavy breathing (hyperpnea) as, for instance, during exercise, exhalation is brought about by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation, (in the same way as at rest), but, in addition, the abdominal muscles, instead of being passive, now contract strongly causing the rib cage to be pulled downwards (front and sides). This not only decreases the size of the rib cage but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax. The end-exhalatory lung volume is now less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human, there is always still at least one liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n", "The rib cage is separated from the lower abdomen by the thoracic diaphragm which controls breathing. When the diaphragm contracts, the thoracic cavity is expanded, reducing intra-thoracic pressure and drawing air into the lungs. This happens through one of two actions (or a mix of the two): when the lower ribs the diaphragm connects to are stabilized by muscles and the central tendon is mobile, when the muscle contracts the central tendon is drawn down, compressing the cavity underneath and expanding the thoracic cavity downward. When the central tendon is stabilized and the lower ribs are mobile, a contraction of the diaphragm elevates the ribs, which works in conjunction with other muscles to expand the thoracic indent upward.\n", "The diaphragm is the primary muscle that allows for lung expansion and contraction. Smaller muscles between the ribs, the external intercostals, assist with this process.\n\nSection::::Function.:Defences against infection.\n", "Section::::Significance in strength training.\n\nThe adoption of a deeper breathing pattern typically occurs during physical exercise in order to facilitate greater oxygen absorption. During this process the diaphragm more consistently adopts a lower position within the body’s core. In addition to its primary role in breathing, the diaphragm also plays a secondary role in strengthening the posture of the core. This is especially evident during deep breathing where its generally lower position increases intra-abdominal pressure, which serves to strengthen the lumbar spine.\n", "Cavity expansion happens in two extremes, along with intermediary forms. When the lower ribs are stabilized and the central tendon of the diaphragm is mobile, a contraction brings the insertion (central tendon) towards the origins and pushes the lower cavity towards the pelvis, allowing the thoracic cavity to expand downward. This is often called belly breathing. When the central tendon is stabilized and the lower ribs are mobile, a contraction lifts the origins (ribs) up towards the insertion (central tendon) which works in conjunction with other muscles to allow the ribs to slide and the thoracic cavity to expand laterally and upwards.\n", "The air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.\n", "Thus the diaphragm emerges in the context of a body plan that separated an upper feeding compartment from a lower digestive tract, but the point at which it originates is a matter of definition. Structures in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have been called diaphragms, but it has been argued that these structures are not homologous. For instance, the alligator diaphragmaticus muscle does not insert on the esophagus and does not affect pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter. The lungs are located in the abdominal compartment of amphibians and reptiles, so that contraction of the diaphragm expels air from the lungs rather than drawing it into them. In birds and mammals, lungs are located above the diaphragm. The presence of an exceptionally well-preserved fossil of Sinosauropteryx, with lungs located beneath the diaphragm as in crocodiles, has been used to argue that dinosaurs could not have sustained an active warm-blooded physiology, or that birds could not have evolved from dinosaurs. An explanation for this (put forward in 1905), is that lungs originated beneath the diaphragm, but as the demands for respiration increased in warm-blooded birds and mammals, natural selection came to favor the parallel evolution of the herniation of the lungs from the abdominal cavity in both lineages. However, birds do not have diaphragms. They do not breathe in the same way as mammals, and do not rely on creating a negative pressure in the thoracic cavity, at least not to the same extent. They rely on a rocking motion of the keel of the sternum to create local areas of reduced pressure to supply thin, membranous airsacs cranially and caudally to the fixed-volume, non-expansive lungs. A complicated system of valves and air sacs cycles air constantly over the absorption surfaces of the lungs so allowing maximal efficiency of gaseous exchange. Thus, birds do not have the reciprocal tidal breathing flow of mammals. On careful dissection, around eight air sacs can be clearly seen. They extend quite far caudally into the abdomen.\n", "The hypothesis suggests that the air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory limb of the reflex at receptors in the stomach, esophagus and along the diaphragm. This triggers the hiccup, which creates suction in the chest, pulling air from the stomach up and out through the mouth, effectively burping the animal.\n\nThis theory is supported by the strong tendency for infants to get hiccups, the component of the reflex that suppresses peristalsis in the esophagus, and the existence of hiccups only in milk-drinking mammals.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Evolutionary causes.:Phylogenetic hypothesis.\n", "Along with the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles are one of the most important groups of respiratory muscles. These muscles are attached between the ribs and are important in manipulating the width of the rib cage. There are three layers of intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles are most important in respiration. These have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and forward from rib to rib. The contraction of these fibres raises each rib toward the rib above, with the overall effect of raising the rib cage, assisting in inhalation.\n\nSection::::Accessory muscles of respiration.\n", "The muscles of respiration are those muscles that contribute to inhalation and exhalation, by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm and, to a lesser extent, the intercostal muscles drive respiration during quiet breathing. Additional 'accessory muscles of respiration' are typically only used under conditions of high metabolic demand (e.g. exercise) or respiratory dysfunction (e.g. an asthma attack). However, in instances where these accessory muscles become stiff and hard, expansion of the rib cage can be restricted. Maintenance of the elasticity of these muscles is crucial to the health of the respiratory system and to maximize its functional capabilities.\n", "In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres. Because it is a organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is between 2 and 4 litres.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Sections.\n\nIn classical anatomy the human stomach is divided into four sections, beginning at the cardia, each of which has different cells and functions. \n\nBULLET::::- The \"cardia\" is where the contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach.\n", "There were previously conflicting statements in the academic anatomy community over whether the cardia is part of the stomach, part of the oesophagus or a distinct entity. Modern surgical and medical textbooks have agreed that \"The gastric cardia is now clearly considered to be part of the stomach.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology.\n\nThe word \"stomach\" is derived from the Latin \"\" which is derived from the Greek word \"stomachos\" (), ultimately from \"stoma\" (), \"mouth\". The words \"gastro-\" and \"gastric\" (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word \"gaster\" (, meaning \"belly\").\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n", "Some researchers have argued that the generation of intra-abdominal pressure, caused by the activation of the core muscles and especially the transversus abdominis, may serve to lend support to the lumbar spine. One way in which intra-abdominal pressure can be increased is by the adoption of a deeper breathing pattern. In this case, and as considered by Hans Lindgren, 'The diaphragm [...] performs its breathing function at a lower position to facilitate a higher IAP.' Thus, the adoption of a deeper breathing pattern may improve core stability.\n", "BULLET::::2. Ductal coarctation: The narrowing occurs at the insertion of the ductus arteriosus. This kind usually appears when the ductus arteriosus closes.\n", "\"Accessory muscles\" refers to muscles that assist, but do not play a primary role, in breathing. There is some controversy concerning which muscles may be considered accessory muscles of inhalation. However, the sternocleidomastoid and the scalene muscles (anterior, middle and posterior scalene) are typically considered accessory muscles of breathing. Both assist in elevating the rib cage. The involvement of these muscles seems to depend on the degree of respiratory effort. During quiet breathing, the scalenes are consistently physically active, while the sternocleidomastoids are quiet. With an increase in the respiratory volume, sternocleidomastoids also become active. Both muscles are simultaneously activated when one breathes in at the maximal flow rate.\n", "The stomach bed refers to the structures upon which the stomach rests in mammals. These include the pancreas, spleen, left kidney, left suprarenal gland, transverse colon and its mesocolon, and the diaphragm. The term was introduced around 1896 by Philip Polson of the Catholic University School of Medicine, Dublin. However this was brought into disrepute by surgeon anatomist J Massey.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n", "The lungs are not capable of inflating themselves, and will expand only when there is an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity. In humans, as in the other mammals, this is achieved primarily through the contraction of the diaphragm, but also by the contraction of the intercostal muscles which pull the rib cage upwards and outwards as shown in the diagrams on the left. During forceful inhalation (Figure on the right) the accessory muscles of inhalation, which connect the ribs and sternum to the cervical vertebrae and base of the skull, in many cases through an intermediary attachment to the clavicles, exaggerate the pump handle and bucket handle movements (see illustrations on the left), bringing about a greater change in the volume of the chest cavity. During exhalation (breathing out), at rest, all the muscles of inhalation relax, returning the chest and abdomen to a position called the “resting position”, which is determined by their anatomical elasticity. At this point the lungs contain the functional residual capacity of air, which, in the adult human, has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 liters.\n", "The lungs of birds contain millions of tiny parallel passages called parabronchi. Small sacs called \"atria\" radiate from the walls of the tiny passages; these, like the alveoli in other lungs, are the site of gas exchange by simple diffusion. The blood flow around the parabronchi and their atria forms a cross-current process of gas exchange (see diagram on the right).\n", "The end stage of type I and type II hernias occurs when the whole stomach migrates up into the chest by rotating 180° around its longitudinal axis, with the cardia and pylorus as fixed points. In this situation the abnormality is usually referred to as an intrathoracic stomach.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n" ]

[ "The stomach expands when you breath in.", "The stomach shouldn't expand if the lungs are the one in the chest." ]

[ " It is more than likely the diaphragm expanding.", "The diaphragm moves up and down, therefore it is what truly expands and not the stomach. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The stomach expands when you breath in.", "The stomach shouldn't expand if the lungs are the one in the chest." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ " It is more than likely the diaphragm expanding.", "The diaphragm moves up and down, therefore it is what truly expands and not the stomach. " ]

[ "The advent and acceptance of the ebook has allowed writers to become quite prolific with \"bound collections\" offered as downloads in formats such as pdf, Smashwords, and Mobipocket.\n\nOn-demand merchandising sites like CafePress and Zazzle are also sources of income from sales of T-shirts, mugs, calendars, mousepads and other fan items.\n\nSome publishers have started using serials on their sites as \"eye bait\" and proving grounds for novels, Tor Books. Similarly, writers with established series have been able to continue writing those series after being dropped by conventional publishers, as Lawrence Watt-Evans has done with his Ethshar novels.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Some tendencies in the behaviour of web users are easily understood from the information foraging theory standpoint. On the Web, each site is a patch and information is the prey. Leaving a site is easy, but finding good sites has not always been as easy. Advanced search engines have changed this fact by reliably providing relevant links, altering the foraging strategies of the users. When users expect that sites with lots of information are easy to find, they have less incentive to stay in one place. The growing availability of broadband connections may have a similar effect: always-on connections encourage this behavior, short online visits to get specific answers.\n", "Web-based fiction dates to the earliest days of the World Wide Web, including the extremely popular The Spot (1995–1997), a tale told through characters' journal entries and interactivity with its audience. \"The Spot\" spawned many similar sites, including \"Ferndale\" and \"East Village\", though these were not as successful and did not last long. Most of these early ventures are no longer in existence.\n", "Quicklinks were first introduced in 2000 as a way to incorporate the internet into modern reading habits. Peter Usborne has been quoted in the trade magazine The Bookseller as saying: \"I initially thought that the internet would kill non-fiction, because teachers would tell children to use the internet to help with homework. But if you key in ‘castles' [on a search engine], you get 900,000 possible websites. The internet is an inadequate resource for children.\"\n", "Researchers from the University College London have done a 5-year study on Internet habits, and have found that people using the sites exhibited “a form of skimming activity,” hopping from one source to another and rarely returning to any source they’d already visited. The 2008 report says, \"It is clear that users are not reading online in the traditional sense; indeed there are signs that new forms of “reading” are emerging as users “power browse” horizontally through titles, contents pages and abstracts going for quick wins. It almost seems that they go online to avoid reading in the traditional sense.\"\n", "Section::::Brain power.\n\nResearch suggests that using the Internet helps boost brain power for middle-aged and older people (research on younger people has not been done). The study compares brain activity when the subjects were reading and when the subjects were surfing the Internet. It found that Internet surfing uses much more brain activity than reading does. Lead researcher Professor Gary Small said: \"The study results are encouraging, that emerging computerized technologies may have physiological effects and potential benefits for middle-aged and older adults. Internet searching engages complicated brain activity, which may help exercise and improve brain function.\"\n\nSection::::Productivity.\n", "It is found that those who read articles online go through the article more thoroughly than those who read from print-based materials. Upon choosing their reading material, online readers read 77% of the content, which can be compared to broadsheet newspaper where the corresponding number is 62%.\n\nSection::::Effects of anonymity.\n\nInteracting on the Internet mostly does not involve \"physical\" interactions with another person (i.e. face-to-face conversation), and therefore easily leads to a person feeling free to act differently online, as well as unrestraint in civility and minimization of authority, etc.\n", "American writer Nicholas Carr asserts that Internet use reduces the deep thinking that leads to true creativity. He also says that hyperlinks and overstimulation means that the brain must give most of its attention to short-term decisions. Carr also states that the vast availability of information on the World Wide Web overwhelms the brain and hurts long-term memory. He says that the availability of stimuli leads to a very large cognitive load, which makes it difficult to remember anything.\n", "The last style is tightly cohesive. As the name implies, webserials of this type very closely intertwine episodes or chapters with each other, and depend on the reader being familiar with as much of the story beforehand as possible. They are often meant to be read as one would read a book, though obviously accounting for better and more frequent natural breaks in the plot than a book would usually require.\n\nSection::::Types.:Fan fiction.\n", "UCLA professor of psychiatry Gary Small studied brain activity in experienced web surfers versus casual web surfers. He used MRI scans on both groups to evaluate brain activity. The study showed that when Internet surfing, the brain activity of the experienced Internet users was far more extensive than that of the novices, particularly in areas of the prefrontal cortex associated with problem-solving and decision making. However, the two groups had no significant differences in brain activity when reading blocks of text. This evidence suggested that the distinctive neural pathways of experienced Web users had developed because of their Web use. Dr. Small concluded that “The current explosion of digital technology not only is changing the way we live and communicate, but is rapidly and profoundly altering our brains.” \n", "Over the past few years, the primary medium for publishing webserials has been the blog. Some webserials have supplementary blogs for updates, news, or fictional blogs for the characters themselves.\n\nLiveJournal is also a popular platform for web serials due to its large userbase and integrated communities. Some webserials are published on Livejournal directly, whereas some have LiveJournal communities for reader discussion and feedback.\n", "The interactive novel is a form of digital fiction. While authors of traditional paper-and-ink novels have sometimes tried to give readers the random directionality offered by true hypertexting, this approach was not completely feasible until the development of HTML. Paper novels (indeed, some digital novels) are linear, that is, read from page to page in a straight line. Interactive novels, however, offer readers a unique way to read fiction by choosing a page, a character, or a direction. By following hyperlinked phrases within the novel, readers can find new ways to understand characters. There is no wrong way to read a hypertext interactive novel. Links embedded within the pages are meant to be taken at a reader's discretion – to allow the reader a choice in the novel's world.\n", "Some authors, such as Neil Postman in his book, \"Amusing Ourselves to Death\", believe that the attention span of humans is decreasing as use of modern technology, especially television, increases. Internet browsing may have a similar effect because it enables users to move easily from one page to another. Most internet users spend less than one minute on the average website. Movie reviewer Roger Ebert, an active blogger and \"Tweeter,\" wrote of the effect of technology on his reading habits and his search for \"frisson\" on the web and in life. Ebert cited an article by Nicholas Carr in the June 2010 \"Wired\" magazine about a UCLA professor, Gary Small, who used an MRI scan to observe the brain activity of six volunteers, three web veterans and three not. The professor found that veteran web users had developed \"distinctive neural pathways.\"\n", "Unlike a book, a web fiction is often not compiled and published as a whole. Instead, it is released on the Internet in installments or chapters as they are finished, although published compilations and anthologies are not unknown. The webserial form dominates in the category of fan fiction, as writing a serial takes less specialized software and often less time than an ebook.\n", "Unbeknownst to many, is that Book Stacks Unlimited or books.com, was founded in 1991, and launched online in 1992. Founded by Charles M. Stack, it is considered to be the very first online bookstore. It has been stated that Bezos, who had worked on Wall Street for eight years, found that web usage was increasing 2000% each year. This inspired him to search for a web-based business. Once Bezos decided to launch the largest online bookstore, he began advertising on over 28,000 other internet sites and has since dominated the business.\n", "In an August 2008 article in \"The Atlantic\" (\"Is Google Making Us Stupid?\"), Nicholas Carr experientially asserts that using the Internet can lead to lower attention span and make it more difficult to read in the traditional sense (that is, read a book at length without mental interruptions). He says that he and his friends have found it more difficult to concentrate and read whole books, even though they read a great deal when they were younger (that is, when they did not have access to the Internet). This assertion is based on anecdotal evidence, not controlled research.\n", "Webserials are cheaper to run than webcomics for the most part, although the returns are not much better, if at all (except in China). Most authors must pay for the costs out of their own pockets, though the significantly lower bandwidth strain of text instead of pictures may help lower the expenses. Hosting and advertisement costs are still just as much a concern for non-organized webserial authors as webcomic artists.\n", "Section::::Attention span.\n\nAccording to the New York Times, many scientists say that \"people's ability to focus is being undermined by bursts of information\".\n\nFrom 53,573 page views taken from various users, 17% of the views lasted less than 4 seconds while 4% lasted more than 10 minutes. In regards to page content, users will only read 49% of a site that contains 111 words or fewer while users will opt to read 28% of an average website (approximately 593 words). For each additional 100 words on a site, users will spend 4.4 seconds longer on the site.\n", "Flipboard evolved from a thought experiment undertaken by McCue and Doll in which they asked what the web would look like if it was washed away in a hurricane and needed to be built again from scratch with the knowledge of hindsight. \"We thought,\" said McCue, \"it would be possible to build something from the ground up that was inherently social. And we thought that new form factors like the tablet would enable content to be presented in ways that were fundamentally more beautiful.\" McCue said that when reading magazines like National Geographic he would ask himself: \"Why is it that the Web isn't as beautiful as these magazines? What could we do to make the web a more beautiful place?\"\n", "Section::::Read-only culture vs. read/write culture.\n\nLessig outlines two cultures - the read-only culture (RO) and the read/write culture (RW). The RO culture is the culture we consume more or less passively. The information or product is provided to us by a 'professional' source, the content industry, that possesses an authority on that particular product/information. Analog technologies inherently supported RO culture's business model of production and distribution and limited the role of the consumer to just that, 'consuming'.\n", "The authors Helene Blowers and Robin Bryan in their book \"Weaving a Library Web: A Guide to Developing Children's Websites\" write that Levine has identified \"one of the greatest challenges\" that libraries face as children born in the information-rich world of the Web come of age. They write, \"[I]t is not surprising to learn that children prefer the Internet over any other medium when it comes to receiving information. ... This is clear shift in preference since the heyday of TV.\"\n", "Section::::Details of the theory.:Models.\n\nAttempts have been made to develop computational cognitive models to characterize information foraging behavior on the Web. \n\nThese models assume that users perceive relevance of information based on some measures of information scent, which are usually derived based on statistical techniques that extract semantic relatedness of words from large text databases. Recently these information foraging models have been extended to explain social information behavior See also models of collaborative tagging.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Information Foraging: Why Google Makes People Leave Your Site Faster by Jakob Nielsen, June 30, 2003, \"Alertbox\".\n", "Web fiction\n\nWeb fiction is written work of literature available primarily or solely on the Internet. A common type of web fiction is the webserial. The term comes from old serial stories that were once published regularly in newspapers and magazines. They are also sometimes referred to as 'webcomics without pictures', although many do use images as illustrations to supplement the text.\n", "In the latter part of the 1990s, literacy researchers started to explore the differences between printed text and the network-enabled devices with screens. This research was largely focused on two areas: the credibility of information that can be found on the World Wide Web and the difference that hypertext makes to 'reading' and 'writing'. These skills were included in definitions of information literacy and included in a SCONUL position paper in 1999. This paper became the '7 Pillars of Information Literacy', which was last updated in 2011.\n\nSection::::Web Literacy Map.\n", "The Web has enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. However, publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and groups use \"web logs\" or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result.\n" ]

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[ "However, in practice the \"ritsuryō\" system of government had become largely an empty formality as early as in the middle of the Heian period in the 10th and 11th centuries, a development which was completed by the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate in 1185. The high positions in the \"ritsuryō\" system remained as sinecures, and the emperor was de-powered and set aside as a symbolic figure who \"reigned, but did not rule\" (on the theory that the living god should not have to defile himself with matters of earthly government).\n", "The ritsuryō code allowed retired emperors to exert some limited powers, and there are early examples such as Empress Jitō, Emperor Shōmu and Emperor Uda in the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries respectively.\n", "While most provinces were overseen by just a Governor, Mutsu, in what is now the Tohoku region, had a military general in charge of controlling the Emishi natives, who had been subjugated when the Japanese took over the area in the ninth century. Historically, this post was always held by a member of the Abe clan, and there were many conflicts between the Abe general and the Governor over administrative control of the province.\n", "During Japan's shogunate, the emperor was notionally a supreme spiritual and temporal lord who delegated authority for joint rule to the \"shōgun\". In practice, the \"shōguns\" power was so complete that they are usually considered \"de facto\" monarchs rather than viceroys or corulers.\n\nSection::::Formal use.:Historical diarchies.:Tibet.\n", "Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials in the pre-Meiji period reached its nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate, and yet the core structures of ritsuryō government did manage to endure for centuries.\n", "On November 9, 1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, agreeing to \"be the instrument for carrying out\" imperial orders. The Tokugawa shogunate had ended. However, while Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunal government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers, a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable.\n", "Finally, by 1872, the \"daimyōs\", past and present, were summoned before the Emperor, where it was declared that all domains were now to be returned to the Emperor. The roughly 280 domains were turned into 72 prefectures, each under the control of a state-appointed governor. If the \"daimyōs\" peacefully complied, they were given a prominent voice in the new Meiji government. Later, their debts and payments of samurai stipends were either taxed heavily or turned in to bonds which resulted in a large loss of wealth among former samurai.\n\nSection::::Military reform.\n", "Emperor Go-Hanazono abdicated in 1464 (the 5th year of \"Kanshō\"), but not long afterwards, the \"Ōnin\" War (\"Ōnin-no-ran\") broke out, and there were no further abdications until 1586 (the 5th year of \"Tensho\"), when Emperor Ōgimachi abdicated in favor of his grandson Emperor Go-Yōzei. This was due to the disturbed state of the country; and the fact that there was neither a house for an ex-emperor nor money to support him or the cloistered rule.\n\nSection::::Edo period.\n\nThe last cloistered emperor was Emperor Reigen, in the Edo period.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Emperor Daijō\n\nBULLET::::- Cloistered rule\n\nSection::::References.\n", "A few domains, notably Chōsū and Satsuma, used innovative methods to restore their finances, but most sunk further into debt. The financial crisis provoked a reactionary solution near the end of the \"Tempo era\" (1830-1843) promulgated by the chief counselor Mizuno Tadakuni. He raised taxes, denounced luxuries and tried to impede the growth of business; he failed and it appeared to many that the continued existence of the entire Tokugawa system was in jeopardy.\n\nSection::::Artistic and intellectual development.\n", "BULLET::::- Tokugawa Shogunate: Medieval Japan was caught in a vicious series of skirmishes between warring clans, states, and rulers, all of them vying for power in a mad scramble. While many of these lords struggled against each other openly, Ieyasu Tokugawa seized mastery of all of Japan through a mix of superior tactics and cunning diplomacy, until he became the dominant power of the land. By establishing his shogunate as the sole ruling power in Japan, Ieyasu Tokugawa and his successors controlled all aspects of life, closing the borders of Japan to all foreign nations and ruling with a policy of isolationism.\n", "During the last years of the \"bakufu\", or \"bakumatsu\", the \"bakufu\" took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country.\n", "Although a new parliament was formed, it had no real power, and neither did the Emperor. Power had passed from the Tokugawa into the hands of those \"daimyōs\" and other samurai who had led the Restoration. Japan was thus controlled by the \"Genrō\", an oligarchy which comprised the most powerful men of the military, political and economic spheres. The Emperor, if nothing else, showed greater political longevity than his recent predecessors, as he was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 50 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586. \n", "After the Meiji Restoration, the leaders of the new Meiji government envisioned a highly centralized state to replace the old feudal order. Within months after Emperor Meiji's Charter Oath, the ancient \"ritsuryō\" structure from the late Heian period was revived in a modified form with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within a new \"Daijō-kan\" system. \n", "Prior to the adoption of the Meiji Constitution, Japan had in practice no written constitution. Originally, a Chinese-inspired legal system and constitution known as \"ritsuryō\" was enacted in the 6th century (in the late Asuka period and early Nara period); it described a government based on an elaborate and theoretically rational meritocratic bureaucracy, serving under the ultimate authority of the emperor and organised following Chinese models. In theory the last \"ritsuryō\" code, the Yōrō Code enacted in 752, was still in force at the time of the Meiji Restoration.\n", "Although the Emperor of Ethiopia had theoretically unlimited power over his subjects, his councillors came to play an increasing role in governing Ethiopia, because many Emperors were succeeded either by a child, or one of the incarcerated princes, who could only successfully leave their prisons with help from the outside. As a result, by the mid-18th century the power of the Emperor had been largely transferred to his deputies, like Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray (ca. 1691 – 1779), who held actual power in the Empire and elevated or deposed Emperors at will.\n\nSection::::Ideology.\n", "Cloistered rule\n\nThe cloistered rule system, or (meaning \"monastery administration\"), was a specific form of government in Japan during the Heian period. In this bifurcated system, an emperor abdicated, but retained power and influence. Those retired emperors who withdrew to live in monasteries (\"in\") continued to act in ways intended to counterbalance the influence of Fujiwara regents and the warrior class. Simultaneously, the titular emperor, the former emperor's chosen successor, fulfilled all the ceremonial roles and formal duties of the monarchy.\n", "Nevertheless, in spite of these institutional changes, sovereignty still resided in the Emperor on the basis of his divine ancestry. The new constitution specified a form of government that was still authoritarian in character, with the Emperor holding the ultimate power and only minimal concessions made to popular rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of the political process. The Meiji Constitution was to last as the fundamental law until 1947, when it was supplanted by Japan's current constitution.\n\nSection::::Elections and political power.\n", "All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under \"imperial control\", thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government. With Fuhanken sanchisei, the areas were split into three types: , and the already existing domains.\n\nIn 1869, the \"daimyōs\" of the Tosa, Hizen, Satsuma and Chōshū Domains, who were pushing most fiercely against the shogunate, were persuaded to \"return their domains to the Emperor\". Other daimyō were subsequently persuaded to do so, thus creating, arguably for the first time, a central government in Japan which exercised direct power through the entire \"realm\" (天下).\n", "Section::::History.:Economic factors.\n\nDuring the 19th century, Great Power status was considered dependent on resource-rich colonial empires, both as a source of raw materials for military and industrial production, and international prestige.\n", "The number of \"Chūnagon\" has varied, from three in 705 to four in 756. There were eight in 1015; and in later years, there were up to ten \"Chūnagon\" at one time.\n\nSection::::Chūnagon in context.\n\nAny exercise of meaningful powers of court officials in the pre-Meiji period reached its nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate, and yet the core structures of ritsuryō government did manage to endure for centuries.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nThe Tokugawa shogunate had established itself in the early 17th century. Under its rule, the \"shōgun\" governed Japan. About 180 lords, known as \"daimyōs\", ruled autonomous realms under the \"shōgun\", and occasionally the \"shōgun\" called upon the \"daimyōs\" for gifts but did not tax them. The \"shōgun\" controlled the \"daimyōs\" in other ways too; only the \"shōgun\" could approve \"daimyōs\" marriages, and the \"shōgun\" could divest a \"daimyō\" of his lands.\n", "In 1871, the central government supported the creation of consultative assembles at the lowest levels of government, at the town, village and county level. The membership of the prefectural assemblies was drawn from these local assemblies. As the local assemblies only had the power of debate, and not legislation, they provided an important safety valve, without the ability to challenge the authority of the central government.\n\nSection::::Reorganization of the central government.\n", "In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extra-constitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively, the genro made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genro, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically.\n", "During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854.\n\nBy 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the \"daimyō\" system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.\n\nSection::::Wars.:Colonialism.\n", "\"Shugo\" participation in the Senior Vassal Council and in the Board of Retainers were two of the more prominent examples of their participation within the remodeled regime. The importance of this participation cannot be overestimated: it was through the use of these intermediary instruments whereby the Ashikaga shōguns were able to centralize the state under their direction.\n" ]

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[ "Besides fermentation, microbial food cultures can act on food products to alter their chemical make-up and provide additional flavors. This is especially true in processes such as the making of blue cheese or aged beef.\n\nSection::::Extraction.\n\nIn the case of beverages, such as the aging of wine, beer, or whiskey, storing the beverage for extended periods of time in wooden casks allows the liquid to extract flavor compounds from the wood itself, adding to the complexity and depth of flavor. Traditional Balsamic Vinegar is aged for years in a succession of oak barrels to extract and concentrate flavors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.\n\nTechniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.\n\nSection::::Modern industrial techniques.:Pasteurization.\n", "Drying of foods by leaving them in a low-humidity environment has been used as a food preservation technique for millennia. Air-dried meat such as jerky may have been some of the first preserved foods ever eaten by man. Drying also concentrates flavors in foods by removing water from them.\n\nSection::::Fermentation.\n\nFoods may be aged to allow fermentation to occur, such as in the making of alcoholic beverages, in cheesemaking, in pickling, such as kimchi, and in meat or fish products such as fermented sausage or surströmming.\n\nSection::::Culturing.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "Dry-aging can be done at home under refrigeration by three means: open air, with the presence of salt blocks, and with the use of a moisture permeable drybag to protect the meat while it is aging. Since the mid-2010s, some chefs have experimented with a \"quick\" or \"cheat\" dry-age by coating a cut of beef with ground koji (rice inoculated with \"Aspergillus oryzae\") to simulate the effect of traditional dry-aging; the results are not quite the same, but can be achieved within 48 to 72 hours. The koji technique can also be applied to chicken and shrimp.\n", "The process of dry-aging usually also promotes growth of certain fungal (mold) species on the external surface of the meat. This does not cause spoilage, but rather forms an external \"crust\" on the meat's surface, which is trimmed off when the meat is prepared for cooking. These fungal species complement the natural enzymes in the beef by helping to tenderize and increase the flavor of the meat. The genus \"Thamnidium\", in particular, is known to produce collagenolytic enzymes which greatly contribute to the tenderness and flavor of dry-aged meat.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life, often without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "Section::::Food historian.\n", "Aging (food)\n\nAging (American English) or ageing (British English), in the context of food or beverages, is the leaving of a product over an extended period of time (often months or years) to aid in improving the flavor of the product. Aging can be done under a number of conditions, and for a number of reasons:\n\nSection::::Drying.\n", "When dry aging using a moisture permeable material, surface mold growth is not present, flavor and scent exchange within the refrigerated environment is not a concern, and trim loss of the outer hardened surface is measurably reduced. The flavor and texture profile of the beef is similar on all dimensions to the traditional open air dry-aged results.\n\nHistorically, it was common to store mutton or beef joints at room temperature for extended periods; even after the invention of refrigeration hanging sides of beef in large coolers for a few weeks as part of the processing was standard.\n\nSection::::Wet-aged beef.\n", "Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers, use specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less-benign organisms. These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption.\n", "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.:Hurdle technology.\n\nHurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as \"hurdles\" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food. The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the final product.\n", "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Jellying.\n", "Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the aging room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages. These cheeses include soft ripened cheeses such as Brie and Camembert, blue cheeses such as Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and rind-washed cheeses such as Limburger.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n\nMaintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.\n\nNew techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Curing.\n", "The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as 12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol. Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Cooling.\n", "Preservatives can expand the shelf life of food and can lengthen the time long enough for it to be harvested, processed, sold, and kept in the consumer's home for a reasonable length of time. One of the age old techniques for food preservation, to avoid mold and fungus growth, is the process of drying out the food or dehydrating it. While there is a chance of it developing a fungus targeted towards dried food products, the chances are quite low.\n", "Beef aging\n\nBeef aging (American English) or ageing is a process of preparing beef for consumption, mainly by breaking down the connective tissue.\n\nSection::::Dry-aged beef.\n", "Section::::Fermentation.\n\nFermentation is one of the methods to preserve food and alter its quality. Yeast, especially \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\", is used to leaven bread, brew beer and make wine. Certain bacteria, including lactic acid bacteria, are used to make yogurt, cheese, hot sauce, pickles, fermented sausages and dishes such as kimchi. A common effect of these fermentations is that the food product is less hospitable to other microorganisms, including pathogens and spoilage-causing microorganisms, thus extending the food's shelf-life. Some cheese varieties also require molds to ripen and develop their characteristic flavors.\n\nSection::::Microbial biopolymers.\n", "BULLET::::- Old dough (\"pâte fermentée\") may be made with yeast or sourdough cultures, and in essence consists of a piece of dough reserved from a previous batch, with more flour and water added to feed the remaining flora. Because this is a piece of old dough, it has the typical ingredient of salt to distinguish it from other pre-ferments. Once old dough had rested for an additional 10 hours of age, the French named it \"Levain de Chef\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments, with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.\n\nSection::::Modern industrial techniques.:Pulsed electric field electroporation.\n", "Eating deteriorated food could not be considered safe due to mycotoxins or microbial wastes. Some pathogenic bacteria, such as \"Clostridium perfringens\" and \"Bacillus cereus\", are capable of causing spoilage.\n\nIssues of food spoilage do not necessarily have to do with the quality of the food, but more so with the safety of consuming said food. However, there are cases where food has been proven to contain toxic ingredients. 200 years ago, Claviceps purpurea, a type of fungus, was linked to human diseases and 100 years ago in Japan, yellow rice was found to contain toxic ingredients. \n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The Russet Burbank variety stores very well for long periods of time. It can be stored at 7°C for up to five months without the need to apply gasses that inhibit sprouting. One issue that can occur while in storage is internal black spot, also known as IBS. Also, if the potatoes are harvested too early there could be a skinning issue.\n\nSection::::Disease resistance.\n", "Many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruit’s moisture content and to kill bacteria, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). Some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods.\n", "The objective of preserving vegetables is to extend their availability for consumption or marketing purposes. The aim is to harvest the food at its maximum state of palatability and nutritional value, and preserve these qualities for an extended period. The main causes of deterioration in vegetables after they are gathered are the actions of naturally-occurring enzymes and the spoilage caused by micro-organisms. Canning and freezing are the most commonly used techniques, and vegetables preserved by these methods are generally similar in nutritional value to comparable fresh products with regards to carotenoids, vitamin E, minerals. and dietary fiber.\n" ]

[ "Aged food does not go bad." ]

[ "In the case of aged beef, the outer layer has bacteria on it, which is shaved off, and the rest is still good." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Aged food does not go bad.", "\"Aged\" food does not go bad." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "In the case of aged beef, the outer layer has bacteria on it, which is shaved off, and the rest is still good.", "In the case of aged beef, the outer layer has bacteria on it, which is shaved off, and the rest is still good." ]

[ "Windows uses a \"drive letter\" abstraction at the user level to distinguish one disk or partition from another. For example, the path C:\\WINDOWS represents a directory WINDOWS on the partition represented by the letter C. Drive C: is most commonly used for the primary hard disk drive partition, on which Windows is usually installed and from which it boots. This \"tradition\" has become so firmly ingrained that bugs exist in many applications which make assumptions that the drive that the operating system is installed on is C. The use of drive letters, and the tradition of using \"C\" as the drive letter for the primary hard disk drive partition, can be traced to MS-DOS, where the letters A and B were reserved for up to two floppy disk drives. This in turn derived from CP/M in the 1970s, and ultimately from IBM's CP/CMS of 1967.\n", "MS-DOS/PC DOS versions 4.0 and earlier assign letters to all of the floppy drives before considering hard drives, so a system with four floppy drives would call the first hard drive E:. Starting with DOS 5.0, the system ensures that drive C: is always a hard disk, even if the system has more than two physical floppy drives.\n", "BULLET::::- His successors as Chief of the SIS have since been generally known by his alias, C\n\nBULLET::::- Voiceless palatal stop or [c]\n\nBULLET::::- Dominical letter C for a common year starting on Friday\n\nBULLET::::- C, the production code for the 1964 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"The Edge of Destruction\"\n\nBULLET::::- Charlie, the military time zone code for UTC+03:00\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- C band (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- C-clamp, a type of fastener\n\nBULLET::::- C class (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- C series (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Circle-c (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- C++, an object oriented programming language based on C\n\nBULLET::::- C# (programming language), developed at Microsoft in 2001\n", "The concept of drive letters, as used today, presumably owes its origins to IBM's VM family of operating systems, dating back to CP/CMS in 1967 (and its research predecessor CP-40), by way of Digital Research's (DRI) CP/M. The concept evolved through several steps:\n", "By the 20th century, the \"k\" spelling was more popular in the United States, while the \"c\" variant was preferred in the UK. In the 1950s, when the American company IBM pioneered hard disk drive storage devices, it used the \"k\" spelling. Consequently, in computer terminology today it is common for the \"k\" word to refer mainly to magnetic storage devices (particularly in British English, where the term \"disk\" is sometimes regarded as a contraction of \"diskette\", a much later word and actually a diminutive of \"disk\").\n\nSection::::Computer discs.\n", "BULLET::::- The drive letter syntax chosen for CP/M was inherited by Microsoft for its operating system MS-DOS by way of Seattle Computer Products' (SCP) 86-DOS, and thus also by IBM's OEM version PC DOS. Originally, drive letters always represented physical volumes, but support for logical volumes eventually appeared.\n\nBULLET::::- Through their designated position as DOS successor, the concept of drive letters was also inherited by OS/2 and the Microsoft Windows family.\n", "Drive letters: In CP/M, the drive booted from is drive A, whether it's a floppy disk or a hard disk. In addition, double-sided Eagles addressed single-sided floppies as drive I or J. Which drive letter applied to which device did not change on a given system, but modifying systems could be confusing:\n", "C News\n\nC News is a news server package, written by Geoff Collyer, assisted by Henry Spencer, at the University of Toronto as a replacement for B News. It was presented at the Winter 1987 USENIX conference in Washington, D.C.\n", "Some versions of DOS do not assign the drive letter, beginning with C:, to the first active primary partition recognized upon the first physical hard disk, but on the first primary partition recognized of the first hard disk, even if it is not set active.\n\nIf there is more than one extended partition in a partition table, only the logical drives in the first recognized extended partition type are processed.\n", "Some late versions of the DR-DOS IBMBIO.COM provide a preboot config structure, holding bit flags to select (beside others) between various drive letter assignment strategies. These strategies can be preselected by a user or OEM or be changed by a boot loader on the fly when launching DR-DOS. Under these issues, the boot drive can be different from A: or C: as well.\n", "After floppy disks became obsolete in the early 2000s, the letters A and B became unused. But for 25 years, virtually all DOS-based PC software assumed the program installation drive was C, so the primary HDD continues to be \"the C drive\" even today.\n\nOther operating system families (e.g. Unix) are not bound to these designations.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Storage media.:OS support.\n", "DOS maintains separate working directories for each lettered drive, and also has the concept of a current working drive. The command can be used to change the working directory of the working drive or another lettered drive. Typing the drive letter as a command on its own changes the working drive, e.g. ; alternatively, with the switch may be used to change the working drive and that drive's working directory in one step.\n\nModern versions of Windows simulate this behaviour for backwards compatibility under CMD.EXE.\n", "Early operating systems used a command line interface in which the user typed short commands, often followed by various parameters and options. For operations on disks, one commonly specified the disk name or drive number (or letter). On early versions of MS-DOS, the codice_2 was usually the first floppy drive (DRIVE A:); on later versions that supported hard disk drives, the option was changed to the hard disk (DRIVE C:).\n", "BULLET::::- U: — Unix-like \"unified filesystem\" with virtual directory codice_4 for device files under MiNT, MagiC, and MultiTOS.\n\nBULLET::::- Z: — First network drive if using Banyan VINES, and the initial drive letter assignment for the virtual disk network in the DOSBox x86 emulator. It is also the first letter selected by Windows for network resources, as it automatically selects from Z: downwards. By default, Wine maps Z: to the root of the UNIX directory tree.\n", "Each disk drive was identified by a drive letter, for example drive codice_8 and drive codice_9. To refer to a file on a specific drive, the drive letter was prefixed to the file name, separated by a colon, e.g. codice_10. With no drive letter prefixed, access was to files on the current default drive.\n", "In DOS, drives are referred to by identifying letters. Standard practice is to reserve \"A\" and \"B\" for floppy drives. On systems with only one floppy drive DOS assigns both letters to the drive, prompting the user to swap disks as programs alternate access between them. This facilitates copying from floppy to floppy or having a program run from one floppy while accessing its data on another. Hard drives were originally assigned the letters \"C\" and \"D\". DOS could only support one active partition per drive. As support for more hard drives became available, this developed into first assigning a drive letter to each drive's active primary partition, then making a second pass over the drives to allocate letters to logical drives in the extended partition, then a third pass to give any other non-active primary partitions their names (where such additional partitions existed and contained a DOS-supported file system). Lastly, DOS allocates letters for optical disc drives, RAM disks, and other hardware. Letter assignments usually occur in the order the drivers are loaded, but the drivers can instruct DOS to assign a different letter; drivers for network drives, for example, typically assign letters nearer the end of the alphabet.\n", "When there is no second physical floppy drive, drive B: can be used as a \"virtual\" floppy drive mapped onto the physical drive A:, whereby the user would be prompted to switch floppies every time a read or write was required to whichever was the least recently used of A: or B:. This allows for much of the functionality of two floppy drives on a computer that has only one. This concept of multiple drive letters sharing a single physical device (optionally with different \"views\" of it) is not limited to the first floppy drive, but can be utilized for other drives as well by setting up additional block devices for them with the standard DOS DRIVER.SYS in CONFIG.SYS.\n", "where \"A\" is the LBA address, \"N\" is the number of heads on the disk, \"N\" is the maximum number of sectors per track, and (\"c\", \"h\", \"s\") is the CHS address.\n", "The new device first shipped in 1971 as the 23FD, the program load component of the 2835 Storage Control Unit. and then as a standard part of most System 370 processing units and other IBM products. Internally IBM used another device, code named \"Mackerel\", to write boot disks for distribution to the field.\n", "BULLET::::- 2314 Direct Access Storage Facility - Model l: A bundle of an SCU and nine drives, two four drive modules and one one drive module.\n\nBULLET::::- 2314 Storage Control Unit Model A1 - This SCU was announced initially as a part of an A Series DASF and shortly thereafter unbundled. The unbundled DASD models were the one drive 2312 Disk Storage, the four drive 2313 Disk Storage and the two drive 2318 Disk Storage. One to nine drives could be attached as in the Model A1 DASF.\n", "BULLET::::- A: — Floppy disk drives, ″ or ″, and possibly other types of disk drives, if present.\n\nBULLET::::- B: — Reserved for a second floppy drive (that was present on many PCs).\n\nBULLET::::- C: — First hard disk partition.\n", "With DOS, Microsoft Windows, and OS/2, a common practice is to use one primary partition for the active file system that will contain the operating system, the page/swap file, all utilities, applications, and user data. On most Windows consumer computers, the drive letter C: is routinely assigned to this primary partition. Other partitions may exist on the HDD that may or may not be visible as drives, such as recovery partitions or partitions with diagnostic tools or data. (Microsoft drive letters do not correspond to partitions in a one-to-one fashion, so there may be more or fewer drive letters than partitions.)\n", "C (disambiguation)\n\nC is the third letter in the Latin alphabet.\n\nC or c may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Computing.\n\nBULLET::::- C (programming language), developed at Bell Labs in 1972\n\nBULLET::::- C, a hexadecimal digit\n\nBULLET::::- C, a computable function, the set of all computable decision problems\n\nBULLET::::- codice_1, or \"Drive C\", the default drive letter assignment for the default hard drive in MS-DOS, PC DOS, and Microsoft Windows\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n\nBULLET::::- Circa, an approximate date or other value\n\nBULLET::::- Celsius\n\nBULLET::::- Carat (purity)\n\nBULLET::::- centi-, an SI prefix\n\nBULLET::::- Coulomb, the SI derived unit for electric charge\n", "C\n\nC is the third letter in the English alphabet and a letter of the alphabets of many other writing systems which inherited it from the Latin alphabet. It is also the third letter of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is named \"cee\" (pronounced ) in English.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "C0\n\nC0 or C00 has several uses including:\n\nBULLET::::- C0, the IATA code for Centralwings airline\n\nBULLET::::- C0 and C1 control codes\n\nBULLET::::- a CPU power state in the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface\n\nBULLET::::- an alternate name for crt0, a library used in the startup of a C program\n\nBULLET::::- in mathematics:\n\nBULLET::::- the differentiability class C\n\nBULLET::::- a C-semigroup, a strongly continuous one-parameter semigroup\n\nBULLET::::- \"c\", the Banach space of real sequences that converge to zero\n\nBULLET::::- a C field is an algebraically closed field\n\nBULLET::::- in physics, \"c\", the speed of light in a vacuum\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Task Manager was introduced in its current form with Windows NT 4.0. Prior versions Windows NT, as well as Windows 3.x, includes the Task List application, is capable of listing currently-running processes and killing them, or creating a new process. Windows 9x has a program known as \"Close Program\" which lists the programs currently running and offers options to close programs as well shut down the computer.\n\nSection::::Functionality.\n", "In addition to deskbands, Windows supports \"Application Desktop Toolbars\" (also called \"appbands\") that supports creating additional toolbars that can dock to any side of the screen, and cannot be overlaid by other applications.\n", "The \"Processes\" tab shows a list of all running processes on the system. This list includes Windows Services and processes from other accounts. The \"Delete\" key can also be used to terminate processes on the Processes tab. By default the processes tab shows the user account the process is running under, the amount of CPU, and the amount of memory the process is currently consuming. There are more columns that can be shown. The Processes tab divides the process into three categories:\n\nBULLET::::- Apps: Programs with a main window\n", "Right-clicking any of the applications in the list allows switching to that application or ending the application's task. Issuing an \"end task\" causes a request for graceful exit to be sent to the application.\n\nSection::::Functionality.:Processes and details.\n", "Section::::Similar applications.\n\nSimilar effects are used on other operating systems.\n", "The right side of macOS's Menu bar also typically contains several notification widgets and quick access functions, called Menu extras.\n\nSection::::Unix-like operating systems.\n\nSection::::Unix-like operating systems.:KDE.\n\nIn KDE Plasma 5, taskbar uses Widgets, called \"Plasmoids\", as elements in taskbar.\n\nSection::::Unix-like operating systems.:GNOME.\n", "BULLET::::- Windows Vista introduced window previews which show thumbnail views of the application in real-time. This capability is provided by the Desktop Window Manager. The Start menu tooltip no longer says \"Click here to begin\" but now says simply \"Start\".\n", "BULLET::::- Windows processes: Components of Windows itself that do not have a main windows, including services\n\nBULLET::::- Background process: Programs that do not have a main window, including services, and are not part of the Windows itself\n\nThis tab shows the name of every main window and every service associated with each process. Both a graceful exit command and a termination command can be sent from this tab, depending on whether the command is sent to the process or its window.\n", "BULLET::::- Windows 7 introduced the ability to pin applications to the taskbar so that buttons for launching them appear when they are not running. Previously, the Quick Launch was used to pin applications to the taskbar; however, running programs appeared as a separate button.\n\nBULLET::::- Windows 7 removed several classic taskbar features.\n\nBULLET::::- Deskbands are minimized functional, long-running programs, such as Windows Media Player. Programs that minimize to deskbands are not displayed in the taskbar.\n", "Section::::Functionality.:Performance.\n\nThe \"Performance\" tab shows overall statistics about the system's performance, most notably the overall amount of CPU usage and how much memory is being used. A chart of recent usage for both of these values is shown. Details about specific areas of memory are also shown.\n", "The taskbar as a whole can be hidden until the mouse pointer is moved to the display edge, or has keyboard focus. The Windows 7+ taskbar does not allow pinning any arbitrary folder to the taskbar, it gets pinned instead to the jumplist of a pinned Explorer shortcut, however third party utilities such as Winaero's Taskbar Pinner can be used to pin any type of shortcut to the Taskbar.\n\nSection::::Microsoft Windows.:Desktop toolbars.\n", "Management Pack creation is possible with the System Center Operations Manager 2007 R2 Resource Kit, Visual Basic 2010 with Authoring Extensions and Visio MP Designer.\n\nSection::::Versions.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Operations Manager 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Operations Manager 2005\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Operations Manager 2005 Service Pack 1\n\nBULLET::::- System Center Operations Manager 2007 (6.0.5000.0)\n\nBULLET::::- System Center Operations Manager 2007 Service Pack 1 (6.0.6278.0)\n\nBULLET::::- System Center Operations Manager 2007 R2 (6.1.7221.0)\n\nBULLET::::- System Center Operations Manager 2012 (7.0.8560.0)\n\nBULLET::::- System Center Operations Manager 2012 Service Pack 1 (7.0.9538.0)\n\nBULLET::::- System Center Operations Manager 2012 R2 (7.1.10226.0)\n", "The \"Details\" tab is a more basic version of the \"Processes\" tab, and acts similar to the \"Processes\" tab in Windows 7 and earlier. It has a more rudimentary user experience and can perform some additional actions. Right-clicking a process in the list allows changing the priority the process has, setting processor affinity (setting which CPU(s) the process can execute on), and allows the process to be ended. Choosing to \"End Process\" causes Windows to immediately kill the process. Choosing to \"End Process Tree\" causes Windows to immediately kill the process, as well as all processes directly or indirectly started by that process. Unlike choosing \"End Task\" from the \"Applications\" tab, when choosing to \"End Process\" the program is not given warning nor a chance to clean up before ending. However, when a process that is running under a security context different from the one of the process which issued the call to TerminateProcess, the use of the KILL command line utility is required.\n", "Windows 1.0, released in 1985, features a horizontal bar located at the bottom of the screen where running programs reside when minimized (referred to as \"iconization\" at the time), represented by icons. A window can be minimized by double-clicking its title bar, dragging it onto an empty spot on the bar, or by issuing a command from one of its menus. A minimized window is restored by double-clicking its icon or dragging the icon out of the bar.\n", "BULLET::::- Windows Me added an option to disable moving or resizing the taskbar.\n\nBULLET::::- Windows XP introduced \"taskbar grouping\", which can group the taskbar buttons of several windows from the same application into a single button. This button pops up a menu listing all the grouped windows when clicked. This keeps the taskbar from being overcrowded when many windows are open at once.\n", "In Windows XP only, a Shutdown menu is present that provides access to Standby, Hibernate, Turn off, Restart, Log Off, and Switch User. Later versions of Windows make these options available through the start menu.\n\nOn the Performance tab, the display of the CPU values was changed from a display mimicking a LED seven-segment display, to a standard numeric value. This was done to accommodate non-Arabic numeral systems, such as Eastern Arabic numerals, which cannot be represented using a seven-segment display.\n", "In Windows 8, Windows Task Manager has been overhauled and the following changes were made:\n\nBULLET::::- Starting in Windows 8, the tabs are hidden by default and Task Manager opens in summary mode (\"Fewer details\"). This view only shows applications and their associated processes. Prior to Windows 8, what is shown in the summary mode was shown in tab named \"Applications\".\n\nBULLET::::- Resource utilization in the Processes tab is shown with various shades of yellow, with darker color representing heavier use.\n", "BULLET::::- Upon opening the Taskbar properties on Windows 95 and Windows 98 whilst holding down the CTRL key, an extra tab for DeskBar Options is shown, but no part of it can be used. The DeskBar option was a feature that was never included within these versions of Windows.\n\nSection::::Mac OS.\n", "With the rapid development of operating systems and graphical user interfaces in general, more OS-specific elements have become integrated into and become key elements of the taskbar.\n\nSection::::Early implementations.\n\nSection::::Early implementations.:Windows 1.0.\n", "These include grouping and multiple row layout in the task bar, icon hiding in the system tray, panel autohiding, window previews and tooltips are back in the panel and task bar, notifications and job tracking by Plasma, and the ability to have icons on the desktop again by using a Folder View as the desktop background where icons now remain where they are placed.\n", "BULLET::::- The CPU tab now displays simple percentages on heat-mapping tiles to display utilization for systems with many (64 or more, up to 640) logical processors. The color used for these heat maps is blue, with darker color again indicating heavier utilization.\n\nBULLET::::- Hovering the cursor over any logical processor's data now shows the NUMA node of that processor and its ID.\n\nBULLET::::- A new Startup tab has been added that lists running startup applications.\n\nBULLET::::- The Processes tab now lists application names, application status, and overall usage data for CPU, memory, hard disk, and network resources for each process.\n", "The program can be started in recent versions of Windows by pressing and then typing in codice_1, by pressing and clicking \"Start Task Manager\", by pressing , or by right-clicking on the Windows taskbar and selecting \"Task Manager\".\n", "Users can add additional toolbars that display the contents of folders. The display for toolbars that represent folder items (such as Links, Desktop and Quick Launch) can be changed to show large icons and the text for each item. Prior to Windows Vista, the Desktop Toolbars could be dragged off the taskbar and float independently, or docked to a display edge. Windows Vista greatly limited, but did not eliminate the ability to have desktop toolbar not attached to the taskbar. Windows 7 has deprecated the use of Floating Deskbands altogether; they only appear pinned into the Taskbar.\n", "BULLET::::- On OS X, moving a textured window with the mouse can be done from any location (not just the title bar), unless on that location there's a view which handles dragging events, like slider controls. If no such view (or superview) is there, dragging events are sent up the chain to the window which does handle the dragging event.\n", "RISC OS 5 in 2002 introduced further changes in icon design, including the Iyonix 'blue jellybean' \"Task Manager\" icon, again designed by Richard Hallas.\n\nSection::::History and evolution.:RISC OS 6.\n\nRISC OS 6 in 2006 introduced the number 6 in the centre of the \"Task Manager\"s cogwheel icon. Where appropriate, Adjust (right mouse button) clicks perform consistent operations such as loading the configuration choices for parts of the system.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Overview.:Enthusiast culture.\n", "At this point an increase in operating voltage of a part may allow more headroom for further increases in clock speed, but the increased voltage can also significantly increase heat output. At some point there will be a limit imposed by the ability to supply the device with sufficient power, the user's ability to cool the part, and the device's own maximum voltage tolerance before it achieves destructive failure. Overzealous use of voltage and/or inadequate cooling can rapidly degrade a device's performance to the point of failure, or in extreme cases outright destroy it.\n", "In addition to providing underclocking features, manufacturers can choose to limit the capability of a machine in order to make it more efficient. Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) models can help makers build devices that work on less power.\n\nSection::::Types of underclocking.:Graphics cards.\n", "Underclocking is almost always involved in the latter stages of Undervolting, which seeks to find the highest clock speed that a processor will stably operate at a given voltage. That is, while overclocking seeks to maximize clock speed with temperature and power as constraints, underclocking seeks to find the highest clock speed that a device can reliably operate at a fixed, arbitrary power limit. A given device may operate correctly at its stock speed even when undervolted, in which case underclocking would only be employed after further reductions in voltage finally destabilizes the part. At that point the user would need to determine if the last working voltage and speed have satisfactorily lowered power consumption for their needs – if not then performance must be sacrificed, a lower clock is chosen (the underclock) and testing at progressively lower voltages would continue from that point. A lower bound is where the device itself fails to function and/or the supporting circuitry cannot reliably communicate with the part.\n", "Section::::Considerations.:Factors allowing overclocking.\n", "Overclocking offers several draws for overclocking enthusiasts. Overclocking allows testing of components at speeds not currently offered by the manufacturer, or at speeds only officially offered on specialized, higher-priced versions of the product. A general trend in the computing industry is that new technologies tend to debut in the high-end market first, then later trickle down to the performance and mainstream market. If the high-end part only differs by an increased clock speed, an enthusiast can attempt to overclock a mainstream part to simulate the high-end offering. This can give insight on how over-the-horizon technologies will perform before they are officially available on the mainstream market, which can be especially helpful for other users considering if they should plan ahead to purchase or upgrade to the new feature when it is officially released.\n", "Overclocking is sometimes offered as a legitimate service or feature for consumers, in which a manufacturer or retailer tests the overclocking capability of processors, memory, video cards, and other hardware products. Several video card manufactures now offer factory-overclocked versions of their graphics accelerators, complete with a warranty, usually at a price intermediate between that of the standard product and a non-overclocked product of higher performance.\n", "Overclockability arises in part due to the economics of the manufacturing processes of CPUs and other components. In many cases components are manufactured by the same process, and tested after manufacture to determine their actual maximum ratings. Components are then marked with a rating chosen by the market needs of the semiconductor manufacturer. If manufacturing yield is high, more higher-rated components than required may be produced, and the manufacturer may mark and sell higher-performing components as lower-rated for marketing reasons. In some cases, the true maximum rating of the component may exceed even the highest rated component sold. Many devices sold with a lower rating may behave in all ways as higher-rated ones, while in the worst case operation at the higher rating may be more problematical.\n", "Athlon XP-Ms were popular with desktop overclockers, as well as underclockers. The lower voltage requirement and higher heat rating selected CPUs that were essentially \"cherry picked\" from the manufacturing line. Being some of the best cores \"off the line\", these CPUs typically overclocked more reliably than their desktop-headed counterparts. Also, the fact that they were not locked to a single multiplier was a significant simplification in the overclocking process. Some \"Barton\" core Athlon XP-Ms have been successfully overclocked as high as 3.1 GHz.\n", "In a professional production environment, overclocking is only likely to be used where the increase in speed justifies the cost of the expert support required, the possibly reduced reliability, the consequent effect on maintenance contracts and warranties, and the higher power consumption. If faster speed is required it is often cheaper when all costs are considered to buy faster hardware.\n\nSection::::Considerations.:Cooling.\n", "BULLET::::- It can be cheaper to purchase a lower performance component and overclock it to the clock rate of a more expensive component.\n\nBULLET::::- Extending life on older equipment.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:General.\n\nBULLET::::- Higher clock rates and voltages increase power consumption, also increasing electricity cost and heat production. The additional heat increases the ambient air temperature within the system case, which may affect other components. The hot air blown out of the case heats the room it's in.\n", "Some system builders and part manufacturers now offer factory overclocking, which is covered under warranty. Alternatively a manufacturer or user may seek individual components that overclock, in order to buy a cheaper product that will prove to run to a higher quality product's standard.\n", "The speed gained by overclocking depends largely upon the applications and workloads being run on the system, and what components are being overclocked by the user; benchmarks for different purposes are published.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Underclocking.\n", "Overclocking\n\nIn computing, overclocking is the practice of increasing the clock rate of a computer to exceed that certified by the manufacturer. Commonly operating voltage is also increased to maintain a component's operational stability at accelerated speeds. Semiconductor devices operated at higher frequencies and voltages increase power consumption and heat. An overclocked device may be unreliable or fail completely if the additional heat load is not removed or power delivery components cannot meet increased power demands. Many device warranties state that overclocking and/or over-specification voids any warranty.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nOverclocked processors first became commercially available in 1983, when AMD sold an overclocked version of the Intel 8088 CPU. In 1984, some consumers were overclocking IBM's version of the Intel 80286 CPU by replacing the clock crystal.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clock rate\n\nBULLET::::- CPU-Z\n\nBULLET::::- Double boot\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamic voltage scaling\n\nBULLET::::- POWER8 on-chip controller (OCC)\n\nBULLET::::- Serial presence detect (SPD)\n\nBULLET::::- Super PI\n\nBULLET::::- Underclocking\n\nBULLET::::- UNIVAC I Overdrive, 1952 unofficial modification\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- OverClocked inside\n\nBULLET::::- How to Overclock a PC, WikiHow\n\nBULLET::::- Overclocking guide for the Apple iMac G4 main logic board\n", "Section::::Overview.:Components.\n\nTechnically any component that uses a timer (or clock) to synchronize its internal operations can be overclocked. Most efforts for computer components however focus on specific components, such as, processors (a.k.a. CPU), video cards, motherboard chip sets, and RAM. Most modern processors derive their effective operating speeds by multiplying a base clock (processor bus speed) by an internal multiplier within the processor (the CPU multiplier) to attain their final speed.\n", "To further complicate matters, in process technologies such as silicon on insulator (SOI), devices display hysteresis—a circuit's performance is affected by the events of the past, so without carefully targeted tests it is possible for a particular sequence of state changes to work at overclocked rates in one situation but not another even if the voltage and temperature are the same. Often, an overclocked system which passes stress tests experiences instabilities in other programs.\n", "The TDP of a CPU has been underestimated in some cases, leading to certain real applications (typically strenuous, such as video encoding or games) causing the CPU to exceed its specified TDP and resulting in overloading the computer's cooling system. In this case, CPUs either cause a system failure (a \"therm-trip\") or throttle their speed down. Most modern processors will cause a therm-trip only upon a catastrophic cooling failure, such as a no longer operational fan or an incorrectly mounted heatsink.\n", "Some processors underclock automatically as a defensive measure, to prevent overheating which could cause permanent damage. When such a processor reaches a temperature level deemed too high for safe operation, the \"thermal control circuit\" activates, automatically decreasing the clock and CPU core voltage until the temperature has returned to a safe level. In a properly cooled environment, this mechanism should trigger rarely (if ever).\n\nThere are several different underclocking competitions similar in format to overclocking competitions, except the goal is to have the lowest clocked computer, as opposed to the highest.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "Section::::Considerations.\n\nThere are several things to be considered when overclocking. First is to ensure that the component is supplied with adequate power at a voltage sufficient to operate at the new clock rate. Supplying the power with improper settings or applying excessive voltage can permanently damage a component.\n", "Dynamic frequency scaling (automatic underclocking) is very common on laptop computers and has become common on desktop computers as well. In laptops, the processor is usually underclocked automatically whenever the computer is operating on batteries. Most modern notebook and desktop processors (utilizing power-saving schemes like AMD's Cool'n'Quiet and PowerNow!) will underclock themselves automatically under a light processing load, when the machine BIOS and the operating system support it. Intel has also used this method on numerous processors through a feature called SpeedStep. SpeedStep first appeared on chips like the Core 2 Duo and selective Pentium models, later becoming a standard in mid to high-end Core i3, i5, and i7 models.\n", "BULLET::::- Increasing the operation frequency of a component will usually increase its thermal output in a linear fashion, while an increase in voltage usually causes heat to increase quadratically. Excessive voltages or improper cooling may cause chip temperatures to rise almost instantaneously, causing the chip to be damaged or destroyed.\n\nBULLET::::- Exotic cooling methods used to facilitate overclocking such as water cooling are more likely to cause damage if they malfunction. Sub-ambient cooling methods such as phase-change cooling or liquid nitrogen will cause water condensation, which will cause damage unless controlled.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Limitations.\n", "A particular \"stress test\" can verify only the functionality of the specific instruction sequence used in combination with the data and may not detect faults in those operations. For example, an arithmetic operation may produce the correct result but incorrect flags; if the flags are not checked, the error will go undetected.\n", "Benchmarks are used to evaluate performance, and they can become a kind of \"sport\" in which users compete for the highest scores. As discussed above, stability and functional correctness may be compromised when overclocking, and meaningful benchmark results depend on the correct execution of the benchmark. Because of this, benchmark scores may be qualified with stability and correctness notes (e.g. an overclocker may report a score, noting that the benchmark only runs to completion 1 in 5 times, or that signs of incorrect execution such as display corruption are visible while running the benchmark). A widely used test of stability is Prime95, which has built-in error checking that fails if the computer is unstable.\n", "The performance of an underclocked machine will often be better than might be expected. Under normal desktop use, the full power of the CPU is rarely needed. Even when the system is busy, a large amount of time is usually spent waiting for data from memory, disk, or other devices. Such devices communicate with the CPU through a bus which operates at a much lower bandwidth. Generally, the lower the CPU multiplier (and thus clockrate of a CPU), the closer its performance will be to that of the bus, and the less time it will spend waiting.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]

[ "overclock is not new max speed." ]

[ "The speed at which the chip consistently passess is the new base speed." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "overclock is not new max speed.", "overclock is not new max speed." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The speed at which the chip consistently passess is the new base speed.", "The speed at which the chip consistently passess is the new base speed." ]

[ "An example of a diagnostic key is shown below. It is not based on the taxonomic classification of the included species — compare with the botanical classification of oaks.\n", "Applied examples that many people could encounter in their day-to-day lives include elevator call buttons and crosswalk buttons. The initial activation of the button moves the system into a requesting state, until the request is satisfied. Subsequent activations of the button between the initial activation and the request being satisfied have no effect, unless the system is designed to adjust the time for satisfying the request based on the number of activations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Closure operator\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed point (mathematics)\n\nBULLET::::- Idempotent of a code\n\nBULLET::::- Nilpotent\n\nBULLET::::- Idempotent matrix\n", "However, the built-in functions must behave like ordinary functions in accordance with ISO C. The main implication is that the program must be able to create a pointer to these functions by taking their address, and invoke the function by means of that pointer. If two pointers to the same function are derived in two different translation units in the program, these two pointers must compare equal; that is, the address comes by resolving the name of the function, which has external (program-wide) linkage.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Linking, libm.\n", "Neither the property of being idempotent nor that of being not is preserved under function composition. As an example for the former, mod 3 and \"g\"(\"x\") = max(\"x\", 5) are both idempotent, but is not, although happens to be. As an example for the latter, the negation function ¬ on the Boolean domain is not idempotent, but is. Similarly, unary negation of real numbers is not idempotent, but is.\n\nSection::::Computer science meaning.\n\nIn computer science, the term \"idempotence\" may have a different meaning depending on the context in which it is applied:\n", "However, in example (2b), the anaphor [DP himself] has within its local domain antecedent, [DP Mary], which would serve as a candidate for binding. However, [DP himself] is co-indexed to [DP John], which is a pronoun. Two factors have gone wrong here. Firstly, as shown in Principle B below, pronouns must be free in their local domain, and as [DP John] is being bound locally by [DP himself], this does not abide to Binding Theory and is considered ungrammatical. Secondly, and most important to this section, Principle A establishes that an anaphor must be bound locally. [DP himself] is not \"c-commanded\" by any local DP, nor any DP, in fact, [DP himself] is \"c-commanding\" [DP John] instead.\n", "The Elysium, where Sunday makes a stand against the invading forces, was the first place to emerge from the Void, along with the Architect. The Seventh Key is strongest here, able to sense approaching troops and create natural disasters to halt them. It is possible that the Incomparable Gardens represent the Garden of Eden.\n\nSection::::Transportation and communication within the House.\n\nSection::::Transportation and communication within the House.:The Front Door.\n", "The lockset and associated hardware typically defines a door's function and how a user could (or could not) access the two adjacent spaces defined by the opening associated with the lockset.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "A Cryptographically Generated Address is used to verify that received signed messages were sent by the host to which that address has been assigned. This is done by verifying that the key pair used for signing has been bound to the CGA. Because the authenticity of the public key can be verified this way, there is no need for a public key infrastructure. If the host itself is required to be authenticated as well, however, then the CGA itself needs to be authenticated beforehand since the bound public key cannot be trusted if the address is not trusted in such a case (assuming it has not been verified by other methods than CGA).\n", "Again, the puzzle comes from considering the situation from the frame of the ladder. In the above analysis, in its own frame, the ladder was always longer than the garage. So how did we ever close the doors and trap it inside?\n", "Idempotence\n\nIdempotence (, ) is the property of certain operations in mathematics and computer science whereby they can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application. The concept of idempotence arises in a number of places in abstract algebra (in particular, in the theory of projectors and closure operators) and functional programming (in which it is connected to the property of referential transparency).\n", "[Xkeys] * (A1)ksv = = [(A1)keys] * Xksv[Xkeys] * (A2)ksv = = [(A2)keys] * Xksv...[Xkeys] * (A40)ksv = = [(A40)keys] * Xksv\n", "Here is an example of a primary key becoming a foreign key on a related table. ID migrates from the Author table to the Book table.\n\nHere ID serves as the primary key in the table 'Author', but also as AuthorID serves as a Foreign Key in the table 'Book'. The Foreign Key serves as the link, and therefore the connection, between the two related tables in this sample database.\n", "In other words, in a UKS, an opponent, say Eve, coerces honest parties Alice and Bob into establishing a secret key where at least one of Alice and Bob does not know that the secret key is shared with the other. For example, Eve may coerce Bob into believing he shares the key with Eve, while he actually shares the key with Alice. The “key share” with Alice is thus unknown to Bob.\n", "A composition of idempotent methods or subroutines, however, is not necessarily idempotent if a later method in the sequence changes a value that an earlier method depends on – \"idempotence is not closed under composition\". For example, suppose the initial value of a variable is 3 and there is a sequence that reads the variable, then changes it to 5, and then reads it again. Each step in the sequence is idempotent: both steps reading the variable have no side effects and changing a variable to 5 will always have the same effect no matter how many times it is executed. Nonetheless, executing the entire sequence once produces the output (3, 5), but executing it a second time produces the output (5, 5), so the sequence is not idempotent.\n", "An example of a synoptic key (corresponding to the diagnostic key shown below) is shown further below. In plants, flower and fruit characteristics often are important for primary taxonomic classification:\n\nSection::::Structural variants of single-access keys.\n", "Section::::Efficiency.\n", "Example A and B are at opposite ends of the security spectrum and no two environments are the same. Depending on the level of protection required, different levels of security will be used.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "BULLET::::- in imperative programming, a subroutine with side effects is idempotent if the system state remains the same after one or several calls, in other words if the function from the system state space to itself associated to the subroutine is idempotent in the mathematical sense given in the definition;\n\nBULLET::::- in functional programming, a pure function is idempotent if it is idempotent in the mathematical sense given in the definition.\n", "When the correct key is inserted, it will clear the wards and rotate about the center post. The key may then strike a lever, activating a latch or sliding bolt, or it may itself push against the latch or bolt. In a double acting lever lock, the key may additionally push against a spring-loaded lever which holds the sliding bolt in place.\n\nSection::::Vulnerabilities.\n", "At the gates of Solla Sollew, the protagonist is greeted by a friendly doorman. The doorman explains to the protagonist about one trouble the city has: a key-slapping Slippard taking charge of the city who has moved into the lock of the door, which happens to be the only way into Solla Sollew, and causes trouble by repeatedly slapping the key out of the keyhole whenever he tries to insert it, thus forbidding anyone to enter the city. Because killing a Slippard is against the rules (and considered a source of bad luck), the doorman is quite unable to evict this pest in that regard. However, he has no choice but to leave Solla Sollew for the city of Boola Boo Ball on the banks of the beautiful river Woo-Wall, where troubles do not exist (\"No troubles at all!\"), and invites the protagonist to come along.\n", "BULLET::::- Taking the absolute value \"abs\"(\"x\") of an integer number \"x\" is an idempotent function for the following reason: \"abs\"(\"abs\"(\"x\")) = \"abs\"(\"x\") is true for each integer number \"x\". This means that \"abs\" ∘ \"abs\" = \"abs\" holds, that is, \"abs\" is an idempotent element in the set of all functions (from integers to integers) with respect to function composition. Therefore, \"abs\" satisfies the above definition of an idempotent function.\n\nOther examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- the identity function is idempotent;\n\nBULLET::::- constant functions are idempotent;\n\nBULLET::::- the floor, ceiling and fractional part functions are idempotent;\n", "For some high challenge occupancies, the code requirements for an occupancy separation are more stringent than for other fire barriers, even with an identical fire resistance rating. In this case, an occupancy separation with a two-hour fire-resistance rating may not be able to \"de-rate\" its closures, such fire doors and firestops. For example, a two-hour rated \"high challenge fire wall\" requires two-hour rated fire doors.\n", "A clear way of seeing this is to consider the doors, which, in the frame of the garage, close for the brief period that the ladder is fully inside. We now look at these events in the frame of the ladder. The first event is the front of the ladder approaching the exit door of the garage. The door closes, and then opens again to let the front of the ladder pass through. At a later time, the back of the ladder passes through the entrance door, which closes and then opens. We see that, as simultaneity is relative, the two doors did not need to be shut at the same time, and the ladder did not need to fit inside the garage.\n", "The practice of always using references in place of copies of equal objects is known as \"interning\". If interning is used, two objects are considered equal if and only if their references, typically represented as pointers or integers, are equal. Some languages do this automatically: for example, Python automatically interns short strings. If the algorithm that implements interning is guaranteed to do so in every case that it is possible, then comparing objects for equality is reduced to comparing their pointers – a substantial gain in speed in most applications. (Even if the algorithm is not guaranteed to be comprehensive, there still exists the possibility of a fast path case improvement when the objects are equal and use the same reference.) Interning is generally only useful for immutable objects.\n", "BULLET::::- In a capability-based model, holding an unforgeable reference or \"capability\" to an object provides access to the object (roughly analogous to how possession of one's house key grants one access to one's house); access is conveyed to another party by transmitting such a capability over a secure channel\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Central Park, 2003. This BioBlitz found more than 800 species, including 393 species of plants, 78 of moths, 14 fungi, 10 spiders, 9 dragonflies, 2 tardigrades, 102 other invertebrates, 7 mammals, 3 turtles, 46 birds and 2 frog species. s.\n\nBULLET::::- Central Park, 2006. In collaboration with the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation, the Explorers Club, the American Museum of Natural History and the Boston Museum of Science. This is the first bioblitz in history to incorporate the collection and analysis of microorganisms.\n", "International Census of Marine Microbes\n\nThe International Census of Marine Microbes is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that inventories microbial diversity by cataloging all known diversity of single-cell \n\norganisms including bacteria, Archaea, Protista, and associated viruses, exploring and discovering unknown microbial diversity, and placing that knowledge into ecological and evolutionary contexts.\n\nThe ICoMM program, led by Mitchell Sogin, has discovered that marine microbial diversity is some 10 to 100 times more than expected, and the vast majority are previously unknown, low abundance organisms thought to play an important role in the oceans.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001: Through sequencing of the ribosomal RNA gene extracted from marine samples, several European teams discover that eukaryotic picoplankton are highly diverse. This finding followed on the first discovery of such eukaryotic diversity in 1998 by Rappe and colleagues at Oregon State University, who were the first to apply rRNA sequencing to eukaryotic plankton in the open-ocean, where they discovered sequences that seemed distant from known phytoplankton The cells containing DNA matching one of these novel sequences were recently visualized and further analyzed using specific probes and found to be broadly distributed.\n\nSection::::Methods of study.\n", "BULLET::::- 1.5-3 million fungi, estimates based on data from the tropics, long-term non-tropical sites and molecular studies that have revealed cryptic speciation. Some 0.075 million species of fungi had been documented by 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- 1 million mites\n\nBULLET::::- The number of microbial species is not reliably known, but the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition dramatically increased the estimates of genetic diversity by identifying an enormous number of new genes from near-surface plankton samples at various marine locations, initially over the 2004-2006 period. The findings may eventually cause a significant change in the way science defines species and other taxonomic categories.\n", "BULLET::::- District of Columbia: A BioBlitz at the Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens in Washington, D.C. in 1996 found approximately 1000 species.\n", "All ATBIs are inherently incomplete since, a) the biota of even well-studied areas includes many undescribed and often difficult-to-study species, and b) new species are regularly established through immigration and introduction.\n\nA study assessed the species richness of megadiverse order of insects as a result of Zurquí All Diptera Biodiversity Inventory project at Costa Rica for one year, identifying more than 40000 flies to 4332 species, including 73 of the world's 160 Diptera families.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiversity\n\nBULLET::::- Measurement of biodiversity\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Species variety.:Bacteria.\n\nThe estimate of the number of species present on skin bacteria has been radically changed by the use of 16S ribosomal RNA to identify bacterial species present on skin samples direct from their genetic material. Previously such identification had depended upon microbiological culture upon which many varieties of bacteria did not grow and so were hidden to science.\n", "Besides photosynthetic bacterioplankton, non-photosynthetic bacterioplankton can also be enumerated by flow cytometry. This is done via DNA or food vacuole staining. Flow cytometry has especially been successful at differentiating prochloroccocus from heterotrophic bacteria, who's counts were initially confounded due to their similar size.\n", "The IISE also releases an annual report that inventories the complete list of species cataloged two years prior and discusses the state of new species discovery. The 2011 report, for example, found that 19,232 species were named in 2009, a 5.6% increase over the prior year. The report takes about two years to compile due to the lack of standardized registration for new species, and issue which IISE has campaigned for. It routinely finds that insects make up roughly half of all new species discovered, followed by vascular plants and arachnids.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Homepage\n", "To assign a biotic index value to a specific water site, the tester first collects macro invertebrates from portions of the sample area of the stream, river or lake and separate them into groups of similar-looking organisms. More extensive testing can be done by looking for certain microscopic organisms.\n", "As with bacterial classification, identification of bacteria is increasingly using molecular methods. Diagnostics using DNA-based tools, such as polymerase chain reaction, are increasingly popular due to their specificity and speed, compared to culture-based methods. These methods also allow the detection and identification of \"viable but nonculturable\" cells that are metabolically active but non-dividing. However, even using these improved methods, the total number of bacterial species is not known and cannot even be estimated with any certainty. Following present classification, there are a little less than 9,300 known species of prokaryotes, which includes bacteria and archaea; but attempts to estimate the true number of bacterial diversity have ranged from 10 to 10 total species—and even these diverse estimates may be off by many orders of magnitude.\n", "As waters become stratified in summer, Roseobacter, SAR86 (Gammaproteobacteria), and SAR11 (Alphaproteobacteria) clades of bacteria increase in abundance. The frequently observed autumn diatom and dinoflagellate blooms are correlated with supplementary nutrient inputs and high-frequency sampling in the Baltic Sea found that in autumn, Actinobacteria generally increase followed by different autumn-specific Flavobacteria, SAR11, and Planctomycetes.\n", "More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. According to another study, the number of described species has been estimated at 1,899,587. 2000–2009 saw approximately 17,000 species described per year. The total number of undescribed organisms is unknown, but marine microbial species alone could number 20,000,000. The number of quantified species will \"ipso facto\" always lag behind the number of described species, and species contained in these lists tend to be on the K side of the r/K selection continuum. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. The total number of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 10 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion [million million] tonnes of carbon). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.\n", "Initially the method of calculation involves assessing the abundance and distribution range of a non-indigenous species (NIS) for a specific area (this can be, for example, an entire regional sea, bay, inlet, lagoon, pond, lake, marina, a sand bank, an aquaculture site etc.). Abundance of a NIS may be ranked as \"low\", \"moderate\" or \"high\"; and the distribution may be scored as \"one locality\" (when a NIS was found only at one locality within the assessment area), \"several localities\", \"many localities\" or \"all localities\" (found at all localities). Combination of the abundance and distribution scores gives five classes of the abundance and distribution range. Once obtained this value aids in calculating an impact on 1) native communities, 2) habitats and, 3) ecosystem functioning. The calculation is based on ecological concepts, e.g. \"key species\", \"type specific communities\", \"habitat alteration, fragmentation and loss\", \"functional groups\", \"food web shift\", etc. Calculations are for a stated time period to enable assessment of temporal changes.\n", "Microbes are highly abundant, diverse, and have an important role in the ecological system. For example, the ocean contains an estimated 1.3 × 10 archaeal cells, 3.1 × 10 bacterial cells, and 1 × 10 virus particles. The bacterial diversity, a measure of the number of \"types\" of bacteria in a community, is estimated to be about 160 for a mL of ocean water, 6,400–38,000 for a g of soil, and 70 for a mL of sewage works. Yet , it was estimated that the total global environmental DNA sequencing effort had produced less than 1 percent of the total DNA found in a liter of seawater or a gram of soil, and the specific interactions between microbes are largely unknown.\n", "Section::::Flow Cytometry.:Enumeration Process.:Staining.\n", "BULLET::::6. It may be useful, to have methods to measure these large numbers, to put a number on diversity, for its own sake, so we have a better idea how large the diversity is. Also, to use as bench marks. A fall from 1000 species to 10, we can readily detect. A fall from 1000 species to 500, is also a significant change—but the methods to detect this change, would be extremely complex.\n", "Colonies can be enumerated from pictures of plates using software tools. The experimenters would generally take a picture of each plate they need to count and then analyse all the pictures (this can be done with a simple digital camera or even a webcam). Since it takes less than 10 seconds to take a single picture, as opposed to several minutes to count CFU manually, this approach generally saves a lot of time. In addition, it is more objective and allows extraction of other variables such as the size and colour of the colonies.\n", "BULLET::::- Rhode Island: Rhode Island Natural History Survey has conducted a BioBlitz at a different site in the state every year since 2000. In the 17 events through 2016, the average participation is 151 and the average species count is 991.\n\nBULLET::::- Vermont: The Vermont Institute of Natural Science held a BioBlitz in 2004 at Hartford.\n\nBULLET::::- Washington: BioBlitzes conducted using NatureTracker software on PDAs for conservation planning./\n", "The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, but may be very large. A May 2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps 1 trillion species on the planet, of which most would be microorganisms. Currently, only one-thousandth of one percent of that total have been described.\n\nSection::::Classification and structure.:Bacteria.\n", "BULLET::::- Gateway National Recreation Area, Sandy Hook Unit, 2015. On September 18–19, the American Littoral Society, in partnership with the National Park Service, hosted the second Sandy Hook BioBlitz. Over 150 scientists, naturalists, and volunteers raced against the clock to identify as many species as possible. This BioBlitz found 75 birds, 12 fungi/lichen, 21 fish, 2 reptiles/amphibians, 44 marine invertebrates, 2 insects, 13 mammals, 15 aquatic plants, and 87 terrestrial plants.\n\nBULLET::::- New York State\n\nBULLET::::- New York City\n", "The first indicator list of polypores widely used in forest inventories and conservation work was developed in northern Sweden in 1992 (\"Steget före\" method). \"Steget före\" list included six polypores in three value classes. In Finland, a list of 30 species for spruce-dominated forests was published in 1993 and widely adopted. Later a similar list for pine-dominated forests was published. Longer lists of indicator species have since been published in Sweden.\n", "When the sample is collected it can be analyzed using a microscope to identify the type of zooplankton or phytoplankton, or a cell count can be undertaken to determine the plankton cell density of the water source.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Fautin has been called \"the world authority on [sea] anemones\", by Prof. J. Frederick Grassle of Rutgers University, who led the international Census of Marine Life which was completed in 2010. She has personally identified at least 19 new species and has co-created with her husband, Prof. R. W. Buddemeier of the Kansas Geological Survey, an extensive database of hexacorals and related species as part of the census.\n", "However, the situation is not as bad as it is sometimes painted. The sum total of all existing taxonomic and nomenclatural documentation of living things is not large by today's data-rich standards. We know where the books and journals are where species might have been described. We simply need to put in the work to make the text and graphics of species descriptions available in databases, particularly electronic databases. In many groups, species are poorly known, but it is now rare to discover a major undetected phylum or family, so coverage of the kinds of diversity of life is probably good, even if all species are not described. Most of the undiscovered groups are probably reasonably closely related to something we have described. Thus if we could document the existing knowledge, we would have a useful, albeit somewhat pixellated map of the diversity of life.\n" ]

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[ "Wear of metals occurs by plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by detachment of particles that form wear debris. The particle size may vary from millimeters to nanometers. This process may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, solid particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses.\n", "Buildings constantly evolve as a result of the changes in the environment around them as well as the occupants, materials, and activities within them. The various surfaces and the air inside a building are constantly interacting, and this interaction results in changes in each. For example, we may see a window as changing slightly over time as it becomes dirty, then is cleaned, accumulates dirt again, is cleaned again, and so on through its life. In fact, the “dirt” we see may be evolving as a result of the interactions among the moisture, chemicals, and biological materials found there.\n", "Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials like these inevitably age.\n\nHowever, most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Laundry, ironing, storage.\n", "Dust\n\nDust is made of fine particles of solid matter. On Earth, it generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from various sources such as soil, dust lifted by wind (an aeolian process), volcanic eruptions, and pollution. Dust in homes, offices, and other human environments contains small amounts of plant pollen, human and animal hairs, textile fibers, paper fibers, minerals from outdoor soil, human skin cells, burnt meteorite particles, and many other materials which may be found in the local environment.\n\nSection::::Dust Mites.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Wear.:Rubbing Wear or Fretting.\n\nThe rubbing wear occurs in systems subject to more or less intense vibrations, which cause relative movements between the surfaces in contact with the order of the nanometer. These microscopic relative movements cause both adhesive wear, caused by the displacement itself, and abrasive wear, caused by the particles produced in the adhesive phase, which remain trapped between the surfaces. This type of wear can be accelerated by the presence of corrosive substances and the increase in temperature.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Wear.:Erosion Wear.\n", "Section::::Consequences of persistence.:Long-range transport.\n", "There are four main environmental agents of deterioration which should be monitored on a regular basis as part of maintenance. These are temperature, relative humidity, light and dust. It is important to recognize the type of damage each agent may present as well as ways to mitigate any harm.\n\nSection::::Environmental Control.:Temperature.\n", "Soil particles picked up during wind erosion of soil are a major source of air pollution, in the form of airborne particulates—\"dust\". These airborne soil particles are often contaminated with toxic chemicals such as pesticides or petroleum fuels, posing ecological and public health hazards when they later land, or are inhaled/ingested.\n", "Even when no visible dirt is present, contamination by microorganisms, especially pathogens, can still cause an object or location to be considered dirty. For example, computer keyboards are especially dirty as they contain on average 70 times more microbes than a lavatory seat.\n\nPeople and animals may eat dirt. This is thought to be caused by mineral deficiency and so the condition is commonly seen in pregnant women.\n\nSection::::Neurosis.\n", "BULLET::::- In dry climate, the rocks exposed are mostly subjected to mechanical disintegration which produces coarse detrital materials: this is referred to as rhexistasy.\n\nSection::::Perturbations of the balance of a soil.\n", "Some evidence points to a two-phase change in climate with two distinct dry transitions caused by the existence of two different steps of insolation decrease at which climate changes. Finally, sometimes the 4.2 kiloyear event is considered to be the true end of the African humid period.\n\nMarine cores usually indicate an abrupt change but not without exceptions while pollen data do not, perhaps due to regional and local differences in vegetation. Furthermore, groundwater and local vegetation can modify local conditions; groundwater-fed water bodies for example persisted longer than those nourished by rain.\n", "Plastic debris is categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary plastics are in their original form when collected. Examples of these would be bottle caps, cigarette butts, and microbeads. Secondary plastics, on the other hand, account for smaller plastics that have resulted from the degradation of primary plastics.\n\nSection::::Types of plastic debris.:Microdebris.\n", "Section::::Influence of human activity.\n\nSoil erosion is the main factor for soil degradation and is due to several mechanisms: water erosion, wind erosion, chemical degradation and physical degradation.\n", "Atmospheric or wind-borne fugitive dust, also known as \"aeolian dust\", comes from arid and dry regions where high velocity winds are able to remove mostly silt-sized material, deflating susceptible surfaces. This includes areas where grazing, ploughing, vehicle use, and other human activities have further destabilized the land, though not all source areas have been largely affected by anthropogenic impacts. One-third of the global land area is covered by dust-producing surfaces, made up of hyper-arid regions like the Sahara which covers 0.9 billion hectares, and drylands which occupy 5.2 billion hectares.\n", "Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces. As well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean. Various tools have been invented for dust removal: Feather and lamb's wool dusters, cotton and polyester dust cloths, furniture spray, disposable paper \"dust cloths\", dust mops for smooth floors and vacuum cleaners. Vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but also from hard surfaces and upholstery. Dusting is very important in hospital environments.\n", "A sudden increase in the amount of land-originating dust in an oceanic drill core off Cape Blanc, Mauritania, has been interpreted as reflecting the end of the African humid period 5,500 years ago occurring in only a few centuries. Potentially, dried up lake basins became an important source for dust. Today, the Sahara is the single largest source of dust in the world, with far ranging effects on ecosystems and climate.\n", "When cleaning equipment it is near impossible to remove all the loose molecules. It is almost certain that traces of the chemical used to clean the equipment will remain on its surfaces, forming a microscopically thin layer.\n", "These small pink, orange or yellow spots can found in the image area and are often found in microfilm. These are created by local oxidation of metallic silver due to moisture and pollutants in the environment.\n\nSection::::Acetate deterioration.:Levels of deterioration.\n\nDeterioration of cellulose acetate is often categorized into the following levels, or stages:\n\nBULLET::::- Level 1: No deterioration\n\nBULLET::::- Level 2: Negatives start to curl and anti-halation colors released\n\nBULLET::::- Level 3: The onset of vinegar syndrome (vinegar odor) as well as shrinkage and brittleness.\n\nBULLET::::- Level 4: Warping\n\nBULLET::::- Level 5: Formation of bubbles and crystals\n", "Adhesive wear can be found between surfaces during frictional contact and generally refers to unwanted displacement and attachment of wear debris and material compounds from one surface to another. Two adhesive wear types can be distinguished:\n\nBULLET::::1. Adhesive wear is caused by relative motion, \"direct contact\" and plastic deformation which create wear debris and material transfer from one surface to another.\n\nBULLET::::2. Cohesive adhesive forces, holds two surfaces together even though they are separated by a measurable distance, with or without any actual transfer of material.\n", "BULLET::::- Law 1 – The mass involved in wear is proportional to the distance traveled in the rubbing between the surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Law 2 – The mass involved in wear is proportional to the applied load.\n\nBULLET::::- Law 3 – The mass involved in wear is inversely proportional to the hardness of the less hard material.\n\nAn important aspect of wear is emission of wear particles into the environment which increasingly threatens human health and ecology. The first researcher who investigated this topic was Ernest Rabinowicz. \n\nSection::::Physics.:Wear.:Abrasive Wear.\n", "Organic materials are porous by nature, which means that they are greatly affected by changes in the moisture levels of their surroundings. Overly moist conditions can lead to growth of fungi on protein materials like human remains, which is one of the most common risks they face. Alternately, low-humidity conditions can potentially cause protein materials to crack, split, and shrink.\n", "Areas with dry or desert climates, especially when combined with high winds, have more severe problems of fugitive dust. Dry and disturbed surfaces can release wind-borne fugitive dust for many months before there is sufficient rainfall to coagulate the soil. Surfaces susceptible to fugitive dust emissions are both natural and man-made.\n\nSpecific sources include open fields and parking lots, paved and unpaved roads, agricultural fields, construction sites, unenclosed storage piles, and material transfer systems.\n", "In 2001 while on a date near some horse stables, engineer David Whitlock was asked why horses roll in the dirt. Not knowing the answer, he studied soil samples and hypothesized that the \"Nitrosomonas eutropha\" that he found present was a key species as these bacteria feed on ammonia and thus could provide a symbiotic ammonia processing function for horses and other vertebrates. To test this theory he suspended the bacteria in water and coated himself with them and then stopped bathing in order to give the AOB a chance to colonize his body. Whitlock has reported in national media that he has not had a shower in over 10 years, but washes his hands before eating, with a number of journalists confirming that he does not smell bad as a result. Whitlock has speculated, along the lines of the “hygiene hypothesis”, that modern lifestyle changes such as the adoption of frequent bathing and synthetic cosmetics have led to the death of so-called “old friend” bacteria which previously performed important functions in the body.\n", "Family members and others living with asbestos workers have an increased risk of developing mesothelioma, and possibly other asbestos-related diseases. This risk may be the result of exposure to asbestos dust brought home on the clothing and hair of asbestos workers via washing a worker's clothes or coming into contact with asbestos-contaminated work clothing. To reduce the chance of exposing family members to asbestos fibres, asbestos workers are usually required to shower and change their clothing before leaving the workplace.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Asbestos.:Asbestos in buildings.\n", "Section::::Accelerated neural aging.\n\nNeuroinflammation is associated with increased rates of neurodegeneration. Inflammation tends to increase naturally with age. By facilitating inflammation, pollutants such as air particulates and heavy metals cause the CNS to age more quickly. Many late-onset diseases are caused by neurodegeneration. Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Alzheimer's disease are all believed to be exacerbated by inflammatory processes, resulting in individuals displaying signs of these diseases at an earlier age than is typically expected.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.\n", "In medieval texts, many special ligatures, scribal abbreviations, and letter forms existed, which are no longer a part of the Latin alphabet. As few of these characters are encoded in Unicode, ligatures have to be broken up into separate letters when digitized. Since few fonts support medieval ligatures or alternative letter forms, it is difficult to transmit them reliably in digital formats.\n", "BULLET::::- Principle coordinator: \"Prof. univ.\" Dimitrie Macrea, \"MC al Academiei RPR\"\n", "Section::::Character set.\n\nSection::::Character set.:Roman Extension.\n", "This project first began in 1996 when Stephen G. Nichols, James M. Beall Professor of French and Chair of the Romance Languages and Literatures Department at Johns Hopkins University, approached staff at the Milton S. Eisenhower Library about digitizing \"Roman de la Rose\" manuscripts for teaching purposes. After receiving funding from Ameritech Library Services, the Getty Grant Program, the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, and the Gladys Krieble Delmas Foundation, the Eisenhower Library created the prototype \"Roman de la Rose: Digital Surrogates of Medieval Manuscripts\", which came to include six \"Rose\" manuscripts from various libraries in the US and UK. The original library contained manuscripts from the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, the Morgan Library in New York, the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, and the Bodleian Library in Oxford.\n", "Menota follows the recommendations of the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative with respect to the encoding and display of special characters. On the normalised level of text rendering, all necessary characters will be found in the official part of the Unicode Standard, but some characters on a diplomatic level and several on a facsimile level can only be displayed by using characters in the Private Use Area of Unicode. MUFI offers several free or low-cost fonts for this use.\n\nSection::::Website.\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval Nordic Text Archive.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The following table shows how characters are encoded in Macintosh Roman. Each character is shown with its Unicode equivalent right below and its decimal code at the bottom.\n\nSection::::Application notes.\n", "BULLET::::- The Mac OS Roman character set (often referred to as MacRoman and known by the IANA as simply MACINTOSH) has most, but not all, of the same characters as ISO-8859-1 but in a very different arrangement; and it also adds many technical and mathematical characters (though it lacks the important ×) and more diacritics. Older Macintosh web browsers were known to munge the few characters that were in ISO-8859-1 but not their native Macintosh character set when editing text from Web sites. Conversely, in Web material prepared on an older Macintosh, many characters were displayed incorrectly when read by other operating systems.\n", "Special fonts like OCR-A, OCR-B, or MICR fonts, with precisely specified sizing, spacing, and distinctive character shapes, allow a higher accuracy rate during transcription in bank check processing. Ironically however, several prominent OCR engines were designed to capture text in popular fonts such as Arial or Times New Roman, and are incapable of capturing text in these fonts that are specialized and much different from popularly used fonts. As Google Tesseract can be trained to recognize new fonts, it can recognize OCR-A, OCR-B and MICR fonts.\n", "HP Roman\n\nIn computing HP Roman is a family of character sets consisting of HP Roman Extension, HP Roman-8, HP Roman-9 and several variants. Originally introduced by Hewlett-Packard around 1978, revisions and adaptations were published several times up to 1999. The 1985 revisions were later standardized as IBM codepages 1050 and 1051. Supporting many European languages, the character sets were used by various HP workstations, terminals, calculators as well as many printers, also from third-parties.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Typographic replication.\n\nVarious typefaces have been designed to allow scribal abbreviations and other archaic glyphs to be replicated in print. They include \"record type\", which was first developed in the 1770s to publish Domesday Book and was fairly widely used for the publication of medieval records in Britain until the end of the 19th century.\n\nSection::::Typographic replication.:Unicode encoding.\n", "Similar initiatives have been founded for Early Cyrillic Symbols (\"Cyrillic Font Initiative\", CYFI) and others. They are coordinated in the Linguistic Corporate Use Area (LINCUA). UNZ is a set compatible with MUFI, but it is not a true subset since it contains PUA additions of its own. It is intended for blackletter fonts, their typographic ligatures in particular.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- ConScript Unicode Registry\n\nBULLET::::- Record type\n\nBULLET::::- Unicode fonts\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval Unicode Font Initiative website\n\nBULLET::::- MUFI character database\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval Nordic Text Archive (extensive use of MUFI characters)\n", "Another common PUA agreement is maintained by the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative (MUFI). This project is attempting to support all of the scribal abbreviations, ligatures, precomposed characters, symbols, and alternate letterforms found in medieval texts written in the Latin alphabet. The express purpose of MUFI is to experimentally determine which characters are necessary to represent these texts, and to have those characters officially encoded in Unicode. As of Unicode version 5.1, 152 MUFI characters have been incorporated into the official Unicode encoding.\n", "Charles Trice Martin's \"The Record Interpreter\" (first edition 1892; second edition 1910), which remains a standard handbook for the interpretation of English medieval manuscript texts, employs a version of record type to present abbreviated words.\n\nA continuing desire in the digital age to represent the special characters of medieval texts in typographical form is demonstrated by the establishment in 2001 of the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative, which aims to coordinate the encoding and display of such characters.\n", "The following table shows the latest 1985 definition of the HP Roman-8 character set (with some remarks regarding former definitions and alternative interpretations). Each character is shown with a potential Unicode equivalent and its decimal code, however, sources differ in the recommended translations for some of the codes even among definitions from Hewlett-Packard and IBM.\n\nSection::::Character set.:Modified Roman-8.\n", "In the algorithm, each sequence of concatenated strong characters is called a \"run\". A \"weak\" character that is located between two \"strong\" characters with the same orientation will inherit their orientation. A \"weak\" character that is located between two \"strong\" characters with a different writing direction, will inherit the main context's writing direction (in an LTR document the character will become LTR, in an RTL document, it will become RTL).\n\nSection::::Scripts using bidirectional text.\n\nSection::::Scripts using bidirectional text.:Egyptian hieroglyphs.\n", "Alphabetum has an almost complete coverage of MUFI 2.0 and some coverage of version 3.0, in addition to a complete coverage of MUFI 1.0. \n\nTITUS Cyberbit covers all of MUFI 1.0 and includes some additional characters at different places, as it predates the MUFI project.\n\nThere is a project to make available MUFI characters, including version 4.0 ones, in LaTeX.\n\nSection::::Private Use Area.\n", "In the Unicode Standard v. 5.1 (4 April 2008), 152 medieval and classical glyphs were given specific locations outside of the Private Use Area. Specifically, they are located in the charts \"Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement\" (26 characters), \"Latin Extended Additional\" (10 characters), \"Supplemental Punctuation\" (15 characters), \"Ancient Symbols\" (12 characters) and especially \"Latin Extended-D\" (89 characters).\n\nThese consist in both precomposed characters and modifiers for other characters, called combining diacritical marks (such as writing in LaTeX or using overstrike in MS Word).\n", "Section::::Staff.:Yosyp Kazakov.\n", "Opera Mini supports only one font, which can be set to \"Small\", \"Medium\", or \"Large\" size. If a web page uses Courier or a generic monospaced font, the one font is still used, but the characters are spaced out so that each character takes up the same amount of space.\n\nSection::::Features.:Browsing tools.\n\nOpera Mini's address bar is capable of using several pre-configured search engines. The user can add more search engines. The default search engines are Google and Wikipedia.\n", "Latin script in Unicode\n\nMany Unicode characters belonging to the Latin script are encoded in the Unicode Standard. As of version 12.0 of the Unicode Standard, 1,366 characters in the following blocks are classified as belonging to the Latin script:\n\nBULLET::::- Basic Latin, 0000–007F. This block corresponds to ASCII.\n\nBULLET::::- Latin-1 Supplement, 0080–00FF\n\nBULLET::::- Latin Extended-A, 0100–017F\n\nBULLET::::- Latin Extended-B, 0180–024F\n\nBULLET::::- IPA Extensions, 0250–02AF\n\nBULLET::::- Spacing Modifier Letters, 02B0–02FF\n\nBULLET::::- Phonetic Extensions, 1D00–1D7F\n\nBULLET::::- Phonetic Extensions Supplement, 1D80–1DBF\n\nBULLET::::- Latin Extended Additional, 1E00–1EFF\n\nBULLET::::- Superscripts and Subscripts, 2070–209F\n\nBULLET::::- Letterlike Symbols, 2100–214F\n\nBULLET::::- Number Forms, 2150–218F\n", "BULLET::::- Greek and Coptic (00370 – 003FF) (135)\n\nBULLET::::- Cyrillic (00400 – 004FF) (256)\n\nBULLET::::- Cyrillic Supplement (00500 – 00520) (48)\n\nBULLET::::- Armenian (00530 – 0058F) (89)\n\nBULLET::::- Hebrew (00590 – 005FF) (87)\n\nBULLET::::- Samaritan (00800 – 0083F) (61)\n\nBULLET::::- Thai (00E00 – 00E7F) (87)\n\nBULLET::::- Georgian (010A0 – 010FF) (83)\n\nBULLET::::- Cherokee (013A0 – 013FF) (85)\n\nBULLET::::- Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics (01400 – 0167F) (640)\n\nBULLET::::- Ogham (01680 – 0169F) (29)\n\nBULLET::::- Runic (016A0 – 016FF) (87)\n\nBULLET::::- Tagalog (01700 – 0171F) (20)\n\nBULLET::::- Hanunoo (01720 – 0173F) (23)\n\nBULLET::::- Buhid (01740 – 0175F) (20)\n", "Further information on the encoding and annotation of Medieval Nordic sources will be found on the site of the Medieval Nordic Text Archive. Since the texts have been transcribed on a diplomatic level, some special characters are needed for the display of the texts. The encoding of these characters follow the recommendations of the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative, and several suitable fonts can be downloaded free of charge from the website of this project.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Text corpus\n\nBULLET::::- Dependency grammar\n\nBULLET::::- Part-of-speech tagging\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval Nordic Text Archive website\n\nBULLET::::- Medieval Unicode Font Initiative website\n", "To prevent the possibility of corruption of the source texts, the eventual goal of the MUFI is to create a consensus on which characters to encode, and then present a completed proposal to the Unicode. In the meantime, a part of the Private Use Area has been assigned for encoding, so these characters can be placed in typefaces for testing and to speed up the later transition to the final encodings (if the project is accepted). This was originally based upon work done by the TITUS project, which also deals with Greek, Cyrillic, Georgian, Arabic and Devanagari characters, As of Unicode 5.1, this proposal has been made, covering 152 characters, and most of these (89 in all) have been encoded in the Latin Extended-D block. Others are in the Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement (26 chars.), Latin Extended Additional (10 chars.), Supplemental Punctuation (15 chars.) and Ancient Symbols (12 chars.).\n", "The encyclopedia had a total of approximately 3,700 pages and 46,000 words. There were about 6000 illustrations and over 200 charts and maps.\n\nSection::::Contributors.\n" ]

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[ "The resulting lack of blood flow to the brain is responsible for the faint.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nStokes-Adams attacks may be diagnosed from the history, with paleness prior to the attack and flushing after it particularly characteristic. The ECG will show asystole, an AV block, or ventricular fibrillation during the attacks.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "People with panic attacks often report a fear of dying or heart attack, flashing vision, faintness or nausea, numbness throughout the body, heavy breathing and hyperventilation, or loss of body control. Some people also suffer from tunnel vision, mostly due to blood flow leaving the head to more critical parts of the body in defense. These feelings may provoke a strong urge to escape or flee the place where the attack began (a consequence of the \"fight-or-flight response\", in which the hormone causing this response is released in significant amounts). This response floods the body with hormones, particularly epinephrine (adrenaline), which aid it in defending against harm.\n", "Hyperventilation syndrome may occur when a person breathes from the chest, which can lead to overbreathing (exhaling excessive carbon dioxide in relation to the amount of oxygen in one's bloodstream). Hyperventilation syndrome can cause respiratory alkalosis and hypocapnia. This syndrome often involves prominent mouth breathing as well. This causes a cluster of symptoms, including rapid heart beat, dizziness, and lightheadedness, which can trigger panic attacks.\n", "Most people with Wenckebach (Type I Mobitz) do not show symptoms. However, those that do usually display one or more of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Light-headedness\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Syncope (fainting)\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are two non-distinct types of second-degree AV block, called \"Type 1\" and \"Type 2\". In both types, a P wave is blocked from initiating a QRS complex; but, in Type 1, there are increasing delays in each cycle before the omission, whereas, in Type 2, there is no such pattern.\n", "Moreover, this hypocapnia and release of adrenaline during a panic attack cause vasoconstriction resulting in slightly less blood flow to the head which causes dizziness and lightheadedness. A panic attack can cause blood sugar to be drawn away from the brain and toward the major muscles. Neuroimaging suggests heightened activity in the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and brainstem regions including the periaqueductal gray, parabrachial nucleus, and Locus coeruleus. In particular, the amygdala has been suggested to have a critical role. The combination of high arousal in the amygdala and brainstem along with decreased blood flow and blood sugar in the brain can lead to dramatically decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex region of the brain. There is evidence that having an anxiety disorder increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Those affected also have a reduction in heart rate variability.\n", "It is not unusual to experience only one or two symptoms at a time, such as vibrations in their legs, shortness of breath, or an intense wave of heat traveling up their bodies, which is not similar to hot flashes due to estrogen shortage. Some symptoms, such as vibrations in the legs, are sufficiently different from any normal sensation that they clearly indicate panic disorder. Other symptoms on the list can occur in people who may or may not have panic disorder. Panic disorder does not require four or more symptoms to all be present at the same time. Causeless panic and racing heartbeat are sufficient to indicate a panic attack.\n", "A panic attack is a response of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The most common symptoms include trembling, dyspnea (shortness of breath), heart palpitations, chest pain (or chest tightness), hot flashes, cold flashes, burning sensations (particularly in the facial or neck area), sweating, nausea, dizziness (or slight vertigo), light-headedness, hyperventilation, paresthesias (tingling sensations), sensations of choking or smothering, difficulty moving, and derealization. These physical symptoms are interpreted with alarm in people prone to panic attacks. This results in increased anxiety and forms a positive feedback loop. \n", "Psychiatric syndromes Dizziness and spinning vertigo are the second most common symptom of panic attacks, and they can also present as a symptom of major depression. Migraine is a risk factor for developing major depression and panic disorder and vice versa.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment of migraine-associated vertigo is the same as the treatment for migraine in general.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nThe behavioral symptoms are similar to those of an amphetamine, cocaine or caffeine overdose. Overstimulation of the central nervous system results in a state of hyperkinetic movement and unpredictable mental status including mania, rage and suicidal behavior.\n\nPhysical symptoms are more serious and include heart arrhythmias as well as outright heart attack or stroke in people who are at risk of coronary disease. Breathing is rapid and shallow while both pulse and blood pressure are dangerously elevated.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::8. Hot and cold flushes\n\nBULLET::::9. Faintness\n\nBULLET::::10. Trembling or shaking\n\nBULLET::::11. Difficult breathing\n\nBULLET::::12. Sweating\n\nPanic attacks can also be accompanied by disturbance in heart action and feelings of desperation and angst. Being closely related, phobophobia and panic attacks, the first one can be treated like a panic attack with psychological therapy. Moreover, in combination with phobophobia, a patient might be more susceptible to believe that their continuing anxiety symptoms will eventually culminate in a much more severe mental disorder, such as schizophrenia.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Breath holding – creates sensation of being out of breath\n\nBULLET::::- Running in place – creates increased heart rate, respiration, perspiration\n\nBULLET::::- Body tensing – creates feelings of being tense and vigilant\n", "The essential feature is recurrent attacks of severe anxiety (panic), which are not restricted to any particular situation or set of circumstances and are therefore unpredictable. \n\nThe dominant symptoms include: \n\nBULLET::::- sudden onset of palpitations\n\nBULLET::::- chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- choking sensations\n\nBULLET::::- dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- feelings of unreality (depersonalization or derealization)\n\nBULLET::::- secondary fear of dying, losing control, or going mad\n\nPanic disorder should not be given as the main diagnosis if the person has a depressive disorder at the time the attacks start; in these circumstances, the panic attacks are probably secondary to depression.\n", "Biological causes may include obsessive compulsive disorder, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome, post traumatic stress disorder, hypoglycemia, hyperthyroidism, Wilson's disease, mitral valve prolapse, pheochromocytoma, and inner ear disturbances (labyrinthitis). Dysregulation of the norepinephrine system in the locus ceruleus, an area of the brain stem, has been linked to panic attacks.\n", "The symptoms of a panic attack may cause the person to feel that their body is failing. The symptoms can be understood as follows. First, there is frequently the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of adrenaline (epinephrine) which brings about the fight-or-flight response when the body prepares for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (tachycardia), rapid breathing (hyperventilation) which may be perceived as shortness of breath (dyspnea), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), causing compensatory metabolic acidosis activating chemosensing mechanisms which translate this pH shift into autonomic and respiratory responses. The person him/herself may overlook the hyperventilation, having become preoccupied with the associated somatic symptoms.\n", "In addition to recurrent unexpected panic attacks, a diagnosis of panic disorder requires that said attacks have chronic consequences: either worry over the attacks' potential implications, persistent fear of future attacks, or significant changes in behavior related to the attacks. As such, those suffering from panic disorder experience symptoms even outside specific panic episodes. Often, normal changes in heartbeat are noticed by a panic sufferer, leading them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. In some cases, a heightened awareness (hypervigilance) of body functioning occurs during panic attacks, wherein any perceived physiological change is interpreted as a possible life-threatening illness (i.e., extreme hypochondriasis).\n", "The neuroanatomy of panic disorder largely overlaps with that of most anxiety disorders. Neuropsychological, neurosurgical, and neuroimaging studies implicate the insula, amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), lateral prefrontal cortex, and periaqueductal grey. During acute panic attacks, viewing emotionally charged words, and rest, most studies finding elevated blood flow or metabolism. However, the observation of amygdala hyperactivity is not entirely consistent, especially in studies that evoke panic attacks chemically. Hippocampus hyperactivity has been observed during rest and viewing emotionally charged pictures, which has been hypothesized to be related to memory retrieval bias towards anxious memories. Insula hyperactivity during the onset of and over the course of acute panic episodes is thought to be related to abnormal introceptive processes; the perception that bodily sensations are \"wrong\" is a transdiagnostic finding(i.e. found across multiple anxiety disorders), and may be related to insula dysfunction. Rodent and human studies heavily implicate the periaqueductal grey in generating fear responses, and abnormalities related to the structure and metabolism in the PAG have been reported in panic disorder. The frontal cortex is implicated in panic disorder by multiple lines of evidence. Damage to the dorsal ACC has been reported to lead to panic disorder. Elevated ventral ACC and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during symptom provocation and viewing emotional stimuli have also been reported, although findings are not consistent.\n", "BULLET::::3. Emphasise they are not suspected of \"putting on\" the attacks\n\nBULLET::::4. They are not 'mad'\n\nBULLET::::5. Triggering \"stresses\" may not be immediately apparent.\n\nBULLET::::6. Relevance of aetiological factors in their case\n\nBULLET::::7. Maintaining factors\n\nBULLET::::8. May improve after correct diagnosis\n\nBULLET::::9. Caution that anticonvulsant drug withdrawal should be gradual\n\nBULLET::::10. Describe psychological treatment\n", "Limited symptom attacks are similar to panic attacks, but have fewer symptoms. Most people with PD experience both panic attacks and limited symptom attacks.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Interoceptive.\n\nStudies investigating the relationship between interoception and panic disorder have shown that people with panic disorder feel heartbeat sensations more intensely when stimulated by pharmacological agents, suggesting that they experience heightened interoceptive awareness compared to healthy subjects.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Psychological models.\n", "Certain cold and flu medications containing decongestants may also contain pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, phenylephrine, naphazoline and oxymetazoline. These may be avoided by the use of decongestants formulated to prevent causing high blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Substance misuse.:Alcohol and sedatives.\n", "Dopamine’s role in anxiety is not well understood. Some antipsychotic medications that affect dopamine production have been proven to treat anxiety. However, this may be attributed to dopamine’s tendency to increase feelings of self-efficacy and confidence, which reduce anxiety in an indirect way.\n\nMany physical symptoms of anxiety, such as rapid heart rate and hand tremors, are regulated by norepinephrine. Drugs that counteract norepinephrine’s effect may be effective in reducing physical symptoms of a panic attack.\n", "Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte abnormality during acute attacks, occurring in 40% of patients and presenting as SIADH. Hypomagnesemia is also common. There are no pathognomonic signs or symptoms.\n\nThe most common identified triggers for acute attacks are medications, weight loss diets, and surgery. Many medications have been associated with AIP including antibiotics, hormonal contraceptives, seizure medications, anesthetics, and HIV treatment drugs.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Because the adrenergic storm overlaps with so many other similar conditions, such as hypertensive crises, stimulant intoxication or overdose, or even panic attack, and because the treatments for these overlapping conditions are largely alike, it is not necessary to obtain a differential and definitive diagnosis before initiating treatment. However, analysis of the patient's medical history, checked against the possible causes of the adrenergic storm such as those above, should be done, because some adrenergic storms can be caused by serious underlying conditions. If a patient has an adrenergic storm and all or most of the other factors are ruled out, the adrenergic storm could lead to the discovery of a pheochromocytoma, which can become malignant. However, not all cases of adrenergic storm have an identifiable cause. Like a seizure, sometimes a patient has a single one, or perhaps a few, and then does not for the rest of their life. The mechanisms of idiopathic adrenergic storm are very poorly understood.\n", "Panic attacks can occur due to a number of disorders including panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder, drug use disorder, depression, and medical problems. They can either be triggered or occur unexpectedly. Smoking, caffeine, and psychological stress increase the risk of having a panic attack. Before diagnosis, conditions that produce similar symptoms should be ruled out, such as hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, heart disease, lung disease, and drug use.\n", "Some or all of these symptoms can be found in the presence of a pheochromocytoma.\n\nScreening tools such as the Panic Disorder Severity Scale can be used to detect possible cases of disorder and suggest the need for a formal diagnostic assessment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks of fear or nervousness, lasting several minutes. During these panic attacks, the response is out of proportion to the situation. The racing thoughts may feel catastrophic and intense, but they are a symptom of the panic attack and must be controlled in order to soothe the panic and minimize the panic attack.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "George Preti\n\nDr. George Preti is an analytical organic chemist currently working at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. For more than four decades, his research has focused on the nature, origin and functional significance of human odors. Dr. Preti's laboratory has identified characteristic underarm odorants, and his current studies center upon a bioassay-guided approach to the identification of human pheromones, odors diagnostic of human disease, human malodor identification and suppression and examining the “odor-print” of humans.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Micrococci have been isolated from human skin, animal and dairy products, and beer. They are found in many other places in the environment, including water, dust, and soil. \"M. luteus\" on human skin transforms compounds in sweat into compounds with an unpleasant odor. Micrococci can grow well in environments with little water or high salt concentrations, including sportswear made with synthetic fabrics. Most are mesophiles; some, like \"Micrococcus antarcticus\" (found in Antarctica) are psychrophiles.\n", "Another aspect of bacteria is the generation of body odor. Sweat is odorless however several bacteria may consume it and create byproducts which may be considered putrid by man (as in contrast to flies, for example, that may find them attractive/appealing).\n\nSeveral examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Propionibacteria\" in adolescent and adult sebaceous glands can turn its amino acids into propionic acid.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\" creates body odor by breaking sweat into isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bacillus subtilis\" creates strong foot odor.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.:Antimicrobial peptides.\n", "The skin acts as a barrier to deter the invasion of pathogenic microbes. The human skin contains microbes that reside either in or on the skin and can be residential or transient. Resident microorganism types vary in relation to skin type on the human body. A majority of microbes reside on superficial cells on the skin or prefer to associate with glands. These glands such as oil or sweat glands provide the microbes with water, amino acids, and fatty acids. In addition, resident bacteria that associated with oil glands are often Gram-positive and can be pathogenic.\n\nSection::::Anatomical areas.:Conjunctiva.\n", "The researchers at North Carolina State University discovered that while it was difficult to predict every strain of bacteria in the microbiome of the navel that they could predict which strains would be prevalent and which strains of bacteria would be quite rare in the microbiome. It was found that the navel microbiomes only contained a few prevalent types of bacteria (Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Actinobacteria, Clostridiales, and Bacilli) and many different types of rare bacteria. Other types of rare organisms were discovered inside the navels of the volunteers including three types of Archaea (an organism that usually lives in only extreme environments) and two of the three types of Archaea were found in one volunteer who claimed not to have bathed or showered for many years.\n", "The skin supports its own ecosystems of microorganisms, including yeasts and bacteria, which cannot be removed by any amount of cleaning. Estimates place the number of individual bacteria on the surface of one square inch (6.5 square cm) of human skin at 50 million, though this figure varies greatly over the average of human skin. Oily surfaces, such as the face, may contain over 500 million bacteria per square inch (6.5 cm²). Despite these vast quantities, all of the bacteria found on the skin's surface would fit into a volume the size of a pea. In general, the microorganisms keep one another in check and are part of a healthy skin. When the balance is disturbed, there may be an overgrowth and infection, such as when antibiotics kill microbes, resulting in an overgrowth of yeast. The skin is continuous with the inner epithelial lining of the body at the orifices, each of which supports its own complement of microbes.\n", "Osmidrosis or bromhidrosis is defined by a foul odor due to a water-rich environment that supports bacteria, which is caused by an abnormal increase in perspiration (hyperhidrosis). This can be particularly strong when it happens in the axillary region (underarms). In this case, the condition may be referred to an axillary osmidrosis.\n\nTrimethylaminuria (TMAU), also known as fish odor syndrome or fish malodor syndrome, is a rare metabolic disorder where trimethylamine is released in the person's sweat, urine, and breath, giving off a strong fishy odor or strong body odor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Butyric acid\n\nBULLET::::- Drug resistance\n", "Any bacteria that incidentally find their way to the culture medium will also multiply. For example, if the skin is not adequately cleaned before needle puncture, contamination of the blood sample with normal bacteria that live on the surface of the skin can occur. For this reason, blood cultures must be drawn with great attention to sterile process. The presence of certain bacteria in the blood culture, such as S\"taphylococcus aureus\", \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", and \"Escherichia coli\" almost never represent a contamination of the sample. On the other hand, contamination may be more highly suspected if organisms like \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\" or \"Cutibacterium acnes\" grow in the blood culture.\n", "There has been a significant amount of research on the role that microbes play in various odors in the built environment. For example, Diekmann et al. examined the connection between volatile organic emissions in automobile air conditioning units. They reported that the types of microbes found were correlated to the bad odors found. Park and Kim examined which microbes found in an automobile air conditioner could produce bad smelling volatile compounds and identified candidate taxa producing some such compounds.\n\nSection::::Methods Used.\n", "Two blood cultures drawn from separate sites of the body are often sufficient to diagnose bacteremia. Two out of two cultures growing the same type of bacteria usually represents a real bacteremia, particularly if the organism that grows is not a common contaminant. One out of two positive cultures will usually prompt a repeat set of blood cultures to be drawn to confirm whether a contaminant or a real bacteremia is present. The patient's skin is typically cleaned with an alcohol-based product prior to drawing blood to prevent contamination. Blood cultures may be repeated at intervals to determine if persistent — rather than transient — bacteremia is present.\n", "Section::::Distribution.\n\nThe distribution of \"M. nanum\" is worldwide, including North and South Americas, Canada, Europe, the Middle East, Australia, and Asia. \"Microsporum nanum\" and several other dermatophytes were isolated from eleven soil samples of hospitals and public places at Gulbarga, India. Keratinous wastes such as human dander and feathers of birds were suspected to provide a growth medium for these keratinophilic fungi. \"Microscporum nanum\" was observed much more frequently in hospital soil than in public places; the percentage was 45.4% and 33.3% of the total number of the observed keratinophilic fungi respectively.\n\nSection::::Pathogenicity.\n", "While \"Corynebacterium\" infections are not common, when they have been observed it is in individuals with prosthetic devices or those who are immunosuppressed. When detected under these conditions it is considered a true pathogen. Non-diphtheria Corynebacterium types are also being recognised for their impact on those suffering from long term respiratory disease.\n\nSection::::Disease.:Infection.\n", "It is commonly thought that those exuding an unpleasant body odor will be unattractive to others. But studies have shown that a person who is exposed to a particular unpleasant odor can be attracted to others who have been exposed to the same unpleasant odor. This includes smells associated with pollution.\n\nWhat causes a substance to smell unpleasant may be different from what one perceives. For example, perspiration is often viewed as having an unpleasant odor, but it is odorless. It is the bacteria in the perspiration that cause the odor.\n", "The bioburden quantification is expressed in colony forming unit (CFU). There are generally established guidelines for the maximum CFU that a drug product can contain. Contact plates or sterile swabs can also be used to test for microbes on a surface when compounding sterile products to ensure compliance with USP 797.\n", "Both biochemical and molecular identification is accompanied by physical characterisation. Culturing the bacteria on blood cultures and gram staining to confirm morphology are integral additions to the process of identification.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Physical.\n", "Investigations into reproductive-associated microbiomes began around 1885 by Theodor Escherich. He wrote that meconium from the newborn was free of bacteria. This was interpreted as the uterine environment was sterile. Other investigations used sterile diapers for meconium collection. No bacteria were able to be cultured from the samples. Bacteria were detected and were directly proportional to the time between birth and the passage of meconium.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Bioaugmentation\n\nBiological augmentation is the addition of archaea or bacterial cultures required to speed up the rate of degradation of a contaminant. Organisms that originate from contaminated areas may already be able to break down waste, but perhaps inefficiently and slowly.\n\nBioaugmentation usually requires studying the indigenous varieties present in the location to determine if biostimulation is possible. If the indigenous variety do not have the metabolic capability to perform the remediation process, exogenous varieties with such sophisticated pathways are introduced.\n", "A \"biosafety level\" (BSL) is the level of the biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed laboratory facility. The levels of containment range from the lowest biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) to the highest at level 4 (BSL-4). In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have specified these levels. In the European Union, the same biosafety levels are defined in a directive.\n\nSection::::Guidelines.\n", "Populations of microbes (such as bacteria and yeasts) inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. Their role forms part of normal, healthy human physiology, however if microbe numbers grow beyond their typical ranges (often due to a compromised immune system) or if microbes populate (such as through poor hygiene or injury) areas of the body normally not colonized or sterile (such as the blood, or the lower respiratory tract, or the abdominal cavity), disease can result (causing, respectively, bacteremia/sepsis, pneumonia, and peritonitis).\n", "The rapid contraction and slow re-extension of the colonies causes a flow of both sulfide-rich water for the feeding of the bacteria and normal oxygenated seawater for the respiration of \"Z. niveum\". Through the beating of its cilia at the oral apparatus of \"Zoothamnium\" is the mixing regulated. When there is a low supply of sulfur compounds, the bacteria use the sulfur that is stored inside their cells. They eventually appear pale and transparent after four hours because the stored sulfur has been consumed. However, if the sulfide concentration is too high, it can be toxic to the \"Zoothamnium\" colonies and kill the ciliates despite the bacteria.\n", "Section::::Interactions with other organisms.\n\nDespite their apparent simplicity, bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism, mutualism and commensalism. Due to their small size, commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface. However, their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat, and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odour.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other organisms.:Predators.\n", "Serratia\n\nSerratia is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are typically 1–5 μm in length and do not produce spores. The most common and pathogenic of the species in the genus, \"S. marcescens\", is normally the only pathogen and usually causes nosocomial infections. However, rare strains of \"S. plymuthica\", \"S. liquefaciens\", \"S. rubidaea\", and \"S. odoriferae\" have caused diseases through infection. \"S. marcescens\" is typically found in showers, toilet bowls, and around wetted tiles.\n", "Section::::Biomonitoring equivalents.\n\nScientists performing biomonitoring testing are able to detect and measure concentrations of natural and manmade chemicals in human blood and urine samples at parts-per-billion to parts-per-quadrillion levels. A 2006 U.S. National Research Council report found that while scientists were capable of detecting the chemicals at these levels, methods for interpreting and communicating what their presence meant regarding potential health risks to an individual or population were still lacking. The report recommended that scientific research be done to improve the interpretation and communication of biomonitoring results through the use of existing risk assessments of specific chemicals.\n", "Wearing closed-toe shoes (\"e.g.\", ballet flats or pumps) without socks leads to accumulation of sweat, dead skin cells, dirt, and oils, further contributing to bacterial growth. Momentarily slipping off shoes whenever feet start to feel \"hot\" or sweaty can help prevent odor.\n\nSection::::Odor qualities.\n\nThe quality of foot odor is often described as being thick and resembling that of cheese, malt vinegar, or ammonia.\n", "Historically, public health regulations have been based on theoretical risk calculations according to known levels of chemical substances in air, water, soil, food, other consumer products and other sources of potential exposure. Human biomonitoring offers the opportunity to analyze the actual internal levels of bodily substances from all potential routes of exposure at one time, which may contribute to improving risk assessments.\n" ]

[ "Showering gets rid of all bactieria on your body." ]

[ "Bacteria on our bodies are layers deep and showering does not get rid of all of the bacteria." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Showering gets rid of all bactieria on your body.", "Showering gets rid of all bactieria on your body." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bacteria on our bodies are layers deep and showering does not get rid of all of the bacteria.", "Bacteria on our bodies are layers deep and showering does not get rid of all of the bacteria." ]

[ "As a result of the new prosperity, consumer expenditures rose by nearly 50%, from $61.7 billion at the start of the war to $98.5 billion by 1944. Individual savings accounts climbed almost sevenfold during the course of the war. The share of total income held by the top 5% of wage earners fell from 22% to 17% while the bottom 40% increased their share of the economic pie. In addition, during the course of the war the proportion of the American population earning less than $3,000 (in 1968 dollars) fell by half.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the world's industrial output. The US, of course, had been spared industrial and civilian devastation. Further, much of its pre-war industry had been converted to wartime usage. As a result, with its industrial and civilian base in much better shape than most of the world, the US embarked on an economic expansion unseen in human history. US Gross Domestic Product increased from $228 billion in 1945 to just under $1.7 trillion in 1975.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bretton Woods system\n\nBULLET::::- Baby Boomers\n\nBULLET::::- Western Union\n", "All economic sectors grew during the war. Farm output went from an index (by volume) of 106 in 1939 to 128 in 1943. Coal output went from 446 million tons in 1939 to 651 in 1943; oil from 1.3 billion barrels to 1.5 billion. Manufacturing output doubled, from a volume index of 109 in 1939 to 239 in 1943. Railroads strained to move it all to market, going from an output of 13.6 billion loaded car miles in 1939 to 23.3 in 1943.\n", "The main contributions of the U.S. to the Allied war effort comprised money, industrial output, food, petroleum, technological innovation, and (especially 1944–45), military personnel. Much of the focus in Washington was maximizing the economic output of the nation. The overall result was a dramatic increase in GDP, the export of vast quantities of supplies to the Allies and to American forces overseas, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian consumption even as 40% of the GDP went to the war effort. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low-productivity occupations to high efficiency jobs, improvements in productivity through better technology and management, and the move into the active labor force of students, retired people, housewives, and the unemployed, and an increase in hours worked.\n", "Section::::Case studies.:World War II.\n\nOne stark illustration of the effect of war upon economies is the Second World War. The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations increased their production of war materials to serve the war effort. The financial cost of World War II is estimated at about a $1.944 trillion U.S. dollars worldwide, making it the most costly war in capital as well as lives.\n", "Using these cost-plus contracts in 1941–1943, factories hired hundreds of thousands of unskilled workers and trained them, at government expense. The military's own training programs concentrated on teaching technical skills involving machinery, engines, electronics and radio, preparing soldiers and sailors for the post-war economy.\n", "Replying to DeLong et al. in the \"Journal of Economic History\", J. R. Vernon argues that deficit spending leading up to and during World War II still played a large part in the overall recovery, according to his study \"half or more of the recovery occurred during 1941 and 1942\".\n", "Many controls were put on the economy. The most important were price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production.\n", "When the United States entered the war in 1941, it finally eliminated the last effects from the Great Depression and brought the U.S. unemployment rate down below 10%. In the US, massive war spending doubled economic growth rates, either masking the effects of the Depression or essentially ending the Depression. Businessmen ignored the mounting national debt and heavy new taxes, redoubling their efforts for greater output to take advantage of generous government contracts.\n\nSection::::Socio-economic effects.\n", "Without a strong European market for U.S. goods and services, most policymakers believed, the U.S. economy would be unable to sustain the prosperity it had achieved during the war. In addition, U.S. unions had only grudgingly accepted government-imposed restraints on their demands during the war, but they were willing to wait no longer, particularly as inflation cut into the existing wage scales with painful force. (By the end of 1945, there had already been major strikes in the automobile, electrical, and steel industries.)\n", "The war had created an atmosphere of high prices for agricultural products as European nations demand for exports surged. Farmers had enjoyed a period of prosperity as US farm production expanded rapidly to fill the gap left as European belligerents found themselves unable to produce enough food. When the war ended, supply increased rapidly as Europe's agricultural market rebounded.\n", "The extent to which the spending for relief and public works provided a sufficient stimulus to revive the U.S. economy, or whether it harmed the economy, is also debated. If one defines economic health entirely by the gross domestic product, the U.S. had gotten back on track by 1934, and made a full recovery by 1936, but as Roosevelt said, one third of the nation was ill fed, ill-housed and ill-clothed. See Chart 3. GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than 1932, and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. The economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940 in 8 years of peacetime, and then grew another 56% from 1940 to 1945 in 5 years of wartime. The unemployment rate fell from 25.2% in 1932 to 13.9% in 1940 when the draft started. During the war the economy operated under so many different conditions that comparison is impossible with peacetime, such as massive spending, price controls, bond campaigns, controls over raw materials, prohibitions on new housing and new automobiles, rationing, guaranteed cost-plus profits, subsidized wages, and the draft of 12 million soldiers.\n", "Gasoline, meat, and clothing were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated of gasoline a week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like cars, new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war.\n\nSection::::Controls and taxes.\n", "A 2017 review of the published scholarship summarized the findings of researchers as follows:The studies find that public works and relief spending had state income multipliers of around one, increased consumption activity, attracted internal migration, reduced crime rates, and lowered several types of mortality. The farm programs typically aided large farm owners but eliminated opportunities for share croppers, tenants, and farm workers. The Home Owners' Loan Corporation's purchases and refinancing of troubled mortgages staved off drops in housing prices and home ownership rates at relatively low ex post cost to taxpayers. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation's loans to banks and railroads appear to have had little positive impact, although the banks were aided when the RFC took ownership stakes.\n", "High productivity growth from before the war continued after the war and until the early 1970s. Manufacturing was aided by automation technologies such as feedback controllers, which appeared in the late 1930s were a fast-growing area of investment following the war. Wholesale and retail trade benefited from new highway systems, distribution warehouses, and material handling equipment such as forklifts and intermodal containers. Oil displaced coal in many applications, particularly in locomotives and ships. In agriculture, the post WW II period saw the widespread introduction of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical fertilizers\n\nBULLET::::- Tractors\n\nBULLET::::- Combine harvesters\n\nBULLET::::- High-yielding variety\n\nBULLET::::- Pesticides\n", "The only major powers whose infrastructure had not been significantly harmed in World War II were the United States and Canada. They were much more prosperous than before the war but exports were a small factor in their economy. Much of the Marshall Plan aid would be used by the Europeans to buy manufactured goods and raw materials from the United States and Canada\n\nSection::::Initial post-war events.\n\nSection::::Initial post-war events.:Slow recovery.\n", "The need for these war materials created a huge spurt in production, thus leading to promising amount of employment in America. Moreover, Britain chose to pay for their materials in gold. This stimulated the gold inflow and raised the monetary base, which in turn, stimulated the American economy to its highest point since the summer of 1929 when the depression began.\n\nBy the end of 1941, before American entry into the war, defense spending and military mobilization had started one of the greatest booms in American history thus ending the last traces of unemployment.\n\nSection::::Facts and figures.\n", "As the war drew to an end, most economists and New Deal policy makers assumed that without continued massive government spending, the pre-war Great Depression and its huge unemployment would return. The economist Paul Samuelson warned that unless government took immediate action, \"there would be ushered in the greatest period of unemployment and industrial dislocation which any economy has faced.\" The prevailing Keynesian economic wisdom predicted economic disaster when the war ended.\n", "To encourage long-term adjustment, the United States promoted European and Japanese trade competitiveness. Policies for economic controls on the defeated former Axis countries were scrapped. Aid to Europe and Japan was designed to rebuild productivity and export capacity. In the long run it was expected that such European and Japanese recovery would benefit the United States by widening markets for U.S. exports, and providing locations for U.S. capital expansion.\n\nSection::::Readjustment.:Cold War.\n", "Agriculture was the largest single industry and it prospered during the war. Prices were high, pulled up by a strong demand from the army and from Britain, which depended on American wheat for a fourth of its food imports.\n", "With the start of full-scale war mobilization in the summer of 1940, the cities revived. The war economy pumped massive investments into new factories and funded round-the-clock munitions production, guaranteeing a job to anyone who showed up at the factory gate.\n\nSection::::History.:Decline and fall.\n", "The American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the economy, and may have hastened the end of the Great Depression in the United States. Government-financed capital spending accounted for only 5 percent of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67 percent of U.S. capital investment.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n", "Section::::Financing.\n", "During World War 2 the United States hired hundreds of thousands of workers put them all in 4 major factories and had a government budget of over 3 billion dollars which would be have been 50,024,489,795.92 dollars in 2017. The B-29 project required the US Army Air Forces to have unprecedented organizational capabilities as this project included several major private contractors and labor unions. American aircraft production was the single largest sector of the war economy, costing $45 billion (almost a quarter of the $183 billion spent on war production), employing a staggering two million workers, and, most importantly, producing over 125,000 aircraft.\n", "But on the other hand, the depression led the area governments to develop new local industries and expand consumption and production. Following the example of the New Deal, governments in the area approved regulations and created or improved welfare institutions that helped millions of new industrial workers to achieve a better standard of living.\n\nSection::::Socio-economic effects.:Netherlands.\n" ]

[ "WW2 saved the American economy.", "WW2 saved the economy." ]

[ "WW2 helped accelerate the economy's recovery but wasn't solely responsible.", "WW2 just helped contribute to a faster recovery by increasing jobs and demand." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "WW2 saved the American economy.", "WW2 saved the economy." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "WW2 helped accelerate the economy's recovery but wasn't solely responsible.", "WW2 just helped contribute to a faster recovery by increasing jobs and demand." ]

[ "Specific gravity can be measured in a number of value ways. The following illustration involving the use of the pycnometer is instructive. A pycnometer is simply a bottle which can be precisely filled to a specific, but not necessarily accurately known volume, \"V\". Placed upon a balance of some sort it will exert a force.\n", "Further manipulation and finally substitution of \"SG\", the true specific gravity (the subscript V is used because this is often referred to as the specific gravity \"in vacuo\"), for gives the relationship between apparent and true specific gravity.\n\nIn the usual case we will have measured weights and want the true specific gravity. This is found from\n", "True specific gravity can be expressed mathematically as:\n\nwhere \"ρ\" is the density of the sample and \"ρ\" is the density of water.\n\nThe apparent specific gravity is simply the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of sample and water in air:\n\nwhere \"W\" represents the weight of the sample measured in air and \"W\" the weight of water measured in air.\n\nIt can be shown that true specific gravity can be computed from different properties:\n", "This is called the Apparent Specific Gravity, denoted by subscript A, because it is what we would obtain if we took the ratio of net weighings in air from an analytical balance or used a hydrometer (the stem displaces air). Note that the result does not depend on the calibration of the balance. The only requirement on it is that it read linearly with force. Nor does \"SG\" depend on the actual volume of the pycnometer. \n", "Although the size of an object may be reflected in its mass or its weight, each of these is a different concept. In scientific contexts, mass refers loosely to the amount of \"matter\" in an object (though \"matter\" may be difficult to define), whereas weight refers to the force experienced by an object due to gravity. An object with a mass of 1.0 kilogram will weigh approximately 9.81 newtons (newton is the unit of force, while kilogram is the unit of mass) on the surface of the Earth (its mass multiplied by the gravitational field strength). Its weight will be less on Mars (where gravity is weaker), more on Saturn, and negligible in space when far from any significant source of gravity, but it will always have the same mass. Two objects of equal size, however, may have very different mass and weight, depending on the composition and density of the objects. By contrast, if two objects are known to have roughly the same composition, then some information about the size of one can be determined by measuring the size of the other, and determining the difference in weight between the two. For example, if two blocks of wood are equally dense, and it is known that one weighs ten kilograms and the other weighs twenty kilograms, and that the ten kilogram block has a volume of one cubic foot, then it can be deduced that the twenty kilogram block has a volume of two cubic feet.\n", "The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the object's weight using a spring scale, rather than balance scale comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass. This is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that (along with gravity) determines the strength of this force.\n\nSection::::Phenomena.\n", "If the actual force of gravity on the object is needed, this can be calculated by multiplying the mass measured by the balance by the acceleration due to gravity – either standard gravity (for everyday work) or the precise local gravity (for precision work). Tables of the gravitational acceleration at different locations can be found on the web.\n", "Given the specific gravity of a substance, its actual density can be calculated by rearranging the above formula:\n\nOccasionally a reference substance other than water is specified (for example, air), in which case specific gravity means density relative to that reference.\n\nSection::::Measurement: apparent and true specific gravity.\n\nSection::::Measurement: apparent and true specific gravity.:Pycnometer.\n", "Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance; equivalently, it is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of a reference substance for the same given volume. \"Apparent\" specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance for liquids is nearly always water at its densest (at ); for gases it is air at room temperature (). Nonetheless, the temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is nearly always . \n", "BULLET::::- Inline continuous measurement : Slurry is weighed as it travels through the metered section of pipe using a patented, high resolution load cell. This section of pipe is of optimal length such that a truly representative mass of the slurry may be determined. This representative mass is then interrogated by the load cell 110 times per second to ensure accurate and repeatable measurement of the slurry.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Helium gas has a density of 0.164 g/L; it is 0.139 times as dense as air.\n\nBULLET::::- Air has a density of 1.18 g/L.\n", "Knowing the specific volumes of two or more substances allows one to find useful information for certain applications. For a substance X with a specific volume of 0.657 cm/g and a substance Y with a specific volume 0.374 cm/g, the density of each substance can be found by taking the inverse of the specific volume; therefore, substance X has a density of 1.522 g/cm and substance Y has a density of 2.673 g/cm. With this information, the specific gravities of each substance relative to one another can be found. The specific gravity of substance X with respect to Y is 0.569, while the specific gravity of Y with respect to X is 1.756. Therefore, substance X will not sink if placed on Y.\n", "In a different gravitational field, for example, on the surface of the Moon, an object can have a significantly different weight than on Earth. The gravity on the surface of the Moon is only about one-sixth as strong as on the surface of the Earth. A one-kilogram mass is still a one-kilogram mass (as mass is an intrinsic property of the object) but the downward force due to gravity, and therefore its weight, is only one-sixth of what the object would have on Earth. So a man of mass 180 pounds weighs only about 30 pounds-force when visiting the Moon.\n", "The concept of amount is very old and predates recorded history. Humans, at some early era, realized that the weight of a collection of similar objects was directly proportional to the number of objects in the collection:\n\nwhere \"W\" is the weight of the collection of similar objects and \"n\" is the number of objects in the collection. Proportionality, by definition, implies that two values have a constant ratio:\n", "One device for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a \"scale\". A spring scale measures force but not mass, a balance compares weight, both require a gravitational field to operate. Some of the most accurate instruments for measuring weight or mass are based on load cells with a digital read-out, but require a gravitational field to function and would not work in free fall.\n\nSection::::Units and systems.:Economics.\n", "times that of Earth. Without using the Earth as a reference body, the surface gravity may also be calculated directly from Newton's law of universal gravitation, which gives the formula\n\nwhere \"M\" is the mass of the object, \"r\" is its radius, and \"G\" is the gravitational constant. If we let \"ρ\" = \"M\"/\"V\" denote the mean density of the object, we can also write this as\n\nso that, for fixed mean density, the surface gravity \"g\" is proportional to the radius \"r\".\n", "of the Earth’s total mass. The self energy of the Moon is smaller yet, about of its mass. (The contribution for any object of laboratory size is negligible, about , so only measurements of planet-sized or bigger objects have any hope of seeing this effect.)\n", "Being a ratio of densities, specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity independent of the systems of units used to make measurements. Specific gravity varies with temperature and pressure; reference and sample must be compared at the same temperature and pressure or be corrected to a standard reference temperature and pressure. Substances with a specific gravity of 1 are neutrally buoyant in water. Those with SG greater than 1 are denser than water and will, disregarding surface tension effects, sink in it. Those with an SG less than 1 are less dense than water and will float on it. In scientific work, the relationship of mass to volume is usually expressed directly in terms of the density (mass per unit volume) of the substance under study. It is in industry where specific gravity finds wide application, often for historical reasons.\n", "Section::::Mass.\n\nThe force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth's average density can be determined through gravimetric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums.\n\nThe mass of Earth is about .\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "where \"g\" is the local acceleration due to gravity, \"V\" is the volume of the sample and of water (the same for both), \"ρ\" is the density of the sample, \"ρ\" is the density of water and \"W\" represents a weight obtained in vacuum.\n", "If the bodies in question have spatial extent (as opposed to being point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become \"infinitely small\", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies.\n", "Another possible way for an intermediate mass ratio inspiral is for an intermediate mass black hole in a globular cluster to capture a stellar mass compact object through one of the processes described above. Since the central object is much smaller, these systems will produce gravitational waves with a much higher frequency, opening the possibility of detecting them with the next generation of Earth-based observatories, such as Advanced LIGO and Advanced VIRGO. Although the event rates for these systems are extremely uncertain, some calculations suggest that Advanced LIGO may see several of them per year.\n\nSection::::Modelling.\n", "To the extent that an object's internal distribution of mass differs from a symmetric model, we may use the measured surface gravity to deduce things about the object's internal structure. This fact has been put to practical use since 1915–1916, when Roland Eötvös's torsion balance was used to prospect for oil near the city of Egbell (now Gbely, Slovakia.) In 1924, the torsion balance was used to locate the Nash Dome oil fields in Texas.\n", "In common usage, the mass of an object is often referred to as its weight, though these are in fact different concepts and quantities. In scientific contexts, mass is the amount of \"matter\" in an object (though \"matter\" may be difficult to define), whereas weight is the force exerted on an object by gravity. In other words, an object with a mass of 1.0 kilogram weighs approximately 9.81 newtons on the surface of the Earth, which is its mass multiplied by the gravitational field strength. The object's weight is less on Mars, where gravity is weaker, and more on Saturn, and very small in space when far from any significant source of gravity, but it always has the same mass.\n", "Another definition of the RVE was proposed by Drugan and Willis: \n\nBULLET::::- \"It is the smallest material volume element of the composite for which the usual spatially constant (overall modulus) macroscopic constitutive representation is a sufficiently accurate model to represent mean constitutive response.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hydrostatic pressure-based instruments : This technology relies upon Pascal's Principle which states that the pressure difference between two points within a vertical column of fluid is dependent upon the vertical distance between the two points, the density of the fluid and the gravitational force. This technology is often used for tank gauging applications as a convenient means of liquid level and density measure.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Two of the chief architectural concerns for the design of venues for mass audiences are speed of egress and safety. The speed at which the venue empty is important both for amenity and safety, because large crowds take a long time to disperse from a badly designed venue, which creates a safety risk. The Hillsborough disaster is an example of how poor aspects of building design can contribute to audience deaths. Sightlines and acoustics are also important design considerations in most theatrical venues.\n", "The large numbers of people involved in demography are often difficult to comprehend. A useful visualisation tool is the audience capacity of large sports stadiums (often about 100,000). Often the capacity of the largest stadium in a region serves as a unit for a large number of people. For example, Uruguay's Estadio Centenario is often used in Uruguay, while in parts of the United States, Michigan Stadium is used in this manner. In Australia, the capacity of the Melbourne Cricket Ground (about 100,000) is often cited in this manner. Hence the Melbourne Cricket Ground serves as both a measure of people and a unit of volume.\n", "A researcher from Harvard University discovered in a study that some football referees appeared to be impacted by crowd noise. His studies revealed that a home team acquired an additional 0.1 goal advantage for every 10,000 fans in the stadium.\n", "Due to the number of people congregating in stadiums and the frequency of events, many notable accidents have occurred in the past, some causing injury and death. For example, the Hillsborough disaster was a human crush at Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield, England on 15 April 1989. The resulting 96 fatalities and 766 injuries makes this the worst disaster in British sporting history.\n", "Crushes are very often referred to as stampedes but, unlike true stampedes, they can cause many deaths. Crowd density is more important than size. A density of four people per square meter begins to be dangerous, even if the crowd is not very large.\n", "Section::::Methodology.\n\nCrowd density refers to the number of objects within a unit area, such as people per square meter. Density is important to determine the maximum occupancy of a room or building to address safety concerns. Analyzing areas which become more densely packed than others is essential for designing buildings and evacuation routes. Addressing such concerns involve the management and optimization of the crowd and its predict movement patterns.\n", "It is believed that most major crowd disasters can be prevented by simple crowd management strategies. Human stampedes can be prevented by organization and traffic control, such as barriers. On the other hand, barriers in some cases may funnel the crowd towards an already-packed area, such as in the Hillsborough disaster. Hence barriers can be a solution in preventing or a key factor in causing a crush. One problem is lack of feedback from people being crushed to the crowd pressing behind – feedback can instead be provided by police, organizers, or other observers, particularly raised observers, such as on platforms or horseback, who can survey the crowd and use loudspeakers to communicate and direct a crowd.\n", "However, experts have said that the density of the crowds is very likely to lead to a crowd collapse in such circumstances. Edwin Galea of the University of Greenwich said: \"If you’re designing an event to handle that crowd density, it's inherently dangerous.\" He pointed out that the 500,000 people an hour who could cross the Jamarat bridge after it was widened in 2004 is equivalent to the largest-ever football crowd once every 24 minutes or the population of Germany in a week. One possible solution would be to spread the Hajj over a longer period.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::1. Noise: Because participants gather in the streets and other public areas, the noise can disturb surrounding residents and citizens. Also, loud music contributes to the amount of noise, which is one reason why participants have begun moving to less populated areas in cities.\n", "Many stadiums make luxury suites or boxes available to patrons at high prices. These suites can accommodate fewer than 10 spectators or upwards of 30 depending on the venue. Luxury suites at events such as the Super Bowl can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars.\n\nSection::::The modern stadium.:Spectator areas and seating.:Safety and security.\n", "BULLET::::- An estimated more than 1 million attended the funeral of Italian Communist Party leader Enrico Berlinguer on 13 June 1984 in Rome\n\nBULLET::::- An estimated 1 million gathered in London, United Kingdom for the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales on 6 September 1997.\n\nBULLET::::- An estimated 1 million gathered in London, United Kingdom for the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton on 29 April 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- An estimated 1 million people gathered in The Mall outside Buckingham Palace in London, United Kingdom for the Golden Jubilee celebrations of Elizabeth II on 4 June 2002.\n", "The presence of fans can have a profound impact on how the teams perform, an element in the home advantage. Namely, the home team fans would like to see their team win the game. Thus these fans will often create loud sounds or chant in hopes of distracting, demoralizing and confusing the opposing team while they have possession of the ball; or to persuade a referee to make a favorable decision. Noises are made by shouting, whistling, stomping and various other techniques.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Much effort has been spent to avoid the recurrence of such events, both in design and legislation. Especially where there is a perceived risk of terrorism or violence attention remains high to prevent human death and keep stadiums as places where families can enjoy a public event together.\n\nIn Europe and South America, during the twentieth century, it was common for violent bands of supporters to fight inside or close to association football stadiums. In the United Kingdom they are known as hooligans.\n", "BULLET::::- Keep your message simple: \"It is a mistake to make propaganda many-sided…The receptivity of the great masses is very limited, their intelligence is small, but their power of forgetting is enormous.\"\n", "BULLET::::- An estimated 1.3 million people attended the 2015–2016 Cleveland Cavaliers Basketball NBA Championship Parade 22 June 2016. The victory ended a 52-year drought of no major professional sport championships for the City of Cleveland.\n\nBULLET::::- An estimated 1.25 million people attended a papal mass given by Pope John Paul II in the Phoenix Park, Dublin, Ireland on 29 September 1979. The estimated attendance was about one third of the population of Ireland gathered in one expansive public area.\n", "One of the major reasons is the stadium's design. Originally built in a shallow sinkhole, the playing surface is below ground level. Expansions have enclosed the playing area on all sides with steep stands, and the fans are within a few feet of the action. This traps crowd noise inside the stadium, which results in sound levels on the field which have been measured at 115 decibels—just short of the threshold of pain.\n", "Section::::Theories developed to explain.\n\nSocial scientists have developed theories to explain crowd behavior.\n", "At the University of Chicago, Robert Park and Herbert Blumer agreed with the speculations of LeBon and other that crowds are indeed emotional. But to them a crowd is capable of any emotion, not only the negative ones of anger and fear.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Human Swarming.\n", "Where a crowd assembles also provides opportunities to manipulate thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Location, weather, lighting, sound, and even the shape of an arena all influence a crowd's willingness to participate.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "An \"all-seater\" stadium has seats for all spectators. Other stadiums are designed so that all or some spectators stand to view the event. The term \"all-seater\" is not common in the U.S., as very few American stadiums have sizeable standing-only sections. Poor stadium design has contributed to disasters, such as the Hillsborough disaster and the Heysel Stadium disaster. Since these, all Premier League, UEFA European Championship and FIFA World Cup qualifying matches require all spectators to be seated.\n", "The term \"crowd\" is sometimes defined in contrast to other group nouns for collections of humans or animals, such as aggregation, audience, group, mass, mob, populous, public, rabble and throng. Opinion researcher Vincent Price compares masses and crowds, saying that \"Crowds are defined by their shared emotional experiences, but masses are defined by their interpersonal isolation.\"\n", "A number of authors modify the common-sense notion of the crowd to include episodes during which the participants are not assembled in one place but are dispersed over a large area. Turner and Killian refer to such episodes as \"diffuse\" crowds, examples being Billy Graham's revivals, panics about sexual perils, witch hunts and Red scares. Their expanded definition of the crowd is justified if propositions which hold true among compact crowds do so for diffuse crowds as well.\n", "The current naturally loudest football stadium is the Turk Telecom Arena, in Turkey, host of the Galatasaray team. As a prepared attempt, the current world record for crowd noise at an athletic event was set on September 29, 2014, when the Kansas City Chiefs hosted the New England Patriots. Noise during that event reached a high of 142.2 decibels during a timeout.\n\nSection::::Texas A&M trademark.\n" ]

[ "Crowds of people should only be so loud as the loudest person in the crowd." ]

[ "Loudness adds up, which makes the group louder than the loudest person in the group." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Crowds of people should only be so loud as the loudest person in the crowd.", "Crowds of people should only be so loud as the loudest person in the crowd." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Loudness adds up, which makes the group louder than the loudest person in the group.", "Loudness adds up, which makes the group louder than the loudest person in the group." ]

[ "Although hashish is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with boiling water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when combined with butter and other lipids or, less so, dissolved in ethanol. Chocolates, brownies, space cakes, and majoon are popular methods of ingestion. The time to onset of effects depends strongly on stomach content, but is usually 1 to 2 hours, and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking or vaporizing cannabis are almost immediate, lasting a shorter length of time.\n", "Later, in 1958, South African physician Frances Ames studied the effects of cannabis extract, noting the \"disordered time perception\" experienced by her subjects where \"brief periods seemed immensely long\". American poet Allen Ginsberg's \"First Manifesto to End the Bringdown\" (1966) noted that \"the vast majority all over the world who have smoked the several breaths necessary to feel the effect, adjust to the strangely familiar sensation of Time slow-down.\" American physician Jerome Groopman of Harvard Medical School, reported that the \"perception of time is altered, generally with perceived time faster than clock time\" in people who have ingested cannabis. Multiple review studies have confirmed these reports.\n", "Some users seem to be able to perform risk compensation by driving slower or other behaviors, and some users appear to develop a physiological tolerance, making determining a standard impairment dose difficult. A 2010 study found \"cannabis and alcohol acutely impair several driving‐related skills in a dose‐related fashion, but the effects of cannabis vary more between individuals because of tolerance, differences in smoking technique, and different absorptions of THC\". A 2014 study found \"no correlation between degree of impairment and THCA-A blood concentration\". Because of these findings, some safety organizations have advocated that police use behavioral impairment tests instead of metabolite testing. \n", "Ingestion of edible cannabis products lead to a slower onset of effect than the inhalation of it because the THC travels to the liver first through the blood before it travels to the rest of the body. Inhaled cannabis can result in THC going directly to the brain, where it then travels from the brain back to the liver in recirculation for metabolism. Eventually, both routes of metabolism result in the metabolism of psychoactive THC to inactive 11-COOH-THC.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Excretion.\n", "The first pass effect (also known as first-pass metabolism or presystemic metabolism) is a phenomenon of drug metabolism whereby the concentration of a drug is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. It is the fraction of drug lost during the process of absorption which is generally related to the liver and gut wall. Notable drugs that experience a significant first-pass effect are imipramine, morphine, propranolol, buprenorphine, diazepam, midazolam, pethidine, cannabis, cimetidine, lidocaine, and nitroglycerin. In contrast some drugs are enhanced in potency: for example, the effect of the most commonly considered active ingredient in cannabis, THC, is enhanced by transformation of a significant portion into 11-hydroxy-THC that more readily crosses the blood brain barrier and thus achieves greater potency than the original THC. [Cannabis edible]\n", "Section::::Legal standards.:Americas.:United States.:State.:Colorado.\n\nColorado has a \"permissive inference\" DUI law; Colorado statute § 42-4-1301(6)(a)(IV) provides that if \"the driver's blood contained five nanograms or more of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol per mililiter in whole blood, as shown by analysis of defendant's blood, such fact gives rise to a permissible inference that the defendant was under the influence of one or more drugs.\"\n\nSection::::Legal standards.:Americas.:United States.:State.:Delaware.\n", "Like other states, driving while impaired by any drug is illegal in Colorado, though it took the legislature six attempts and three years to pass marijuana intoxication measures. Ultimately the legislators decided on a nanogram limit in the bloodstream, though the number they picked was scoffed at by activists. Today Colorado law states that juries may convict a person of marijuana intoxication if they have five or more nanograms of THC per milliliter of blood, but defendants are allowed to argue that they were not intoxicated despite having such levels of THC in their bloodstream.\n\nTesting Impairment \n", "Comparing effects of eating cannabis products and smoking them is difficult because there are large margins of error due to variability in how different people smoke, with the number, duration, and spacing of puffs, the hold time and the volume of the person's lungs all affecting the dosing. With regard to eating, different vehicles in which cannabinoids are dissolved for oral intake affect the availability of the cannabinoids, and different people metabolize differently. Generally, however, because oral doses are processed by the digestive system and the liver before entering the bloodstream, cannabinoids that are ingested are absorbed more slowly and have delayed and lower peak concentrations, and are cleared more slowly, compared to inhaling them in the aerosol that is formed when cannabis is burnt. Oral administration generally leads to two peaks of concentration, due to enterohepatic circulation.\n", "Inhaled and vaporized THC have similar absorption profiles to smoked THC, with a bioavailability ranging from 10 to 35%. Oral administration has the lowest bioavailability of approximately 6%, variable absorption depending on the vehicle used, and the longest time to peak plasma levels (2 to 6 hours) compared to smoked or vaporized THC.\n\nSimilar to THC, CBD has poor oral bioavailability, approximately 6%. The low bioavailability is largely attributed to significant first-pass metabolism in the liver and erratic absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. However, oral administration of CBD has a faster time to peak concentrations (2 hours) than THC.\n", "BULLET::::2. Variability of composition, both qualitative and quantitative. The composition of a plant-based drug is often subject to wide variations due to a number of factors such as seasonal differences in concentrations, soil type, climatic changes or the existence of different varieties or chemical races within the same plant species that have variable compositions of the active ingredient. On occasion, an interaction can be due to just one active ingredient, but this can be absent in some chemical varieties or it can be present in low concentrations, which will not cause an interaction. Counter interactions can even occur. This occurs, for instance, with ginseng, the \"Panax ginseng\" variety increases the Prothrombin time, while the \"Panax quinquefolius\" variety decreases it.\n", "A report from the University of Colorado, Montana State University, and the University of Oregon found that on average, states that have legalized medical cannabis had a decrease in traffic-related fatalities by 8–11%. The researchers hypothesized \"it’s just safer to drive under the influence of marijuana than it is drunk...Drunk drivers take more risk, they tend to go faster. They don’t realize how impaired they are. People who are under the influence of marijuana drive slower, they don’t take as many risks\". Another consideration, they added, was the fact that users of marijuana tend not to go out as much.\n", "Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer. However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.\n\nVarious forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil which, because of appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.\n", "Nonetheless, policymakers in the United States have generally dealt with cannabis-and-driving criminalization by importing the alcohol DUI regime into the cannabis context. This has led to complications down the road when cannabis-driving cases land in criminal court because cannabis detection science differs vastly from alcohol detection science. For example, blood alcohol content (BAC) has similar rates of absorption, distribution, and elimination across all humans, and there is also a fairly good correlation between BAC and level of impairment (in other words, impairment increases when BAC increases, and impairment decreases when BAC decreases). This has allowed law enforcement to use tools like breathalyzers and blood tests in criminal court because alcohol concentration is a relatively reliable indicator of how recently and how much alcohol was consumed. In contrast, THC levels can vary widely depending on the means of ingestion, THC is metabolized at an exponentially declining rate (as opposed to the steady metabolization rate for alcohol), and there is very poor correlation of THC blood levels with impairment. As stated in a report to Congress produced by the U.S. Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, \"[I]n contrast to the situation with alcohol, someone can show little or no impairment at a THC level at which someone else may show a greater degree of impairment.\" The report also noted that, in some studies, THC was detectable as late as 30 days after ingestion--even though the acute psychoactive effects of cannabis last only for a few hours.\n", "Section::::Detection of impairment.:False indications of driving impairment.\n\nTesting for metabolites of THC, versus the actual THC intoxicant, can result in DUID convictions of users who aren't actually impaired. According to National Institute on Drug Abuse, \"the role played by marijuana in crashes is often unclear because it can be detected in body fluids for days or even weeks after intoxication\".\n\nSection::::Detection of impairment.:False positives.\n", "A study by Block and Ghoneim (2000) found that, relative to a matched group of healthy, non-drug-using controls, heavy marijuana use is associated with small but significant impairments in memory retrieval.cannabis induces loss of internal control and cognitive impairment, especially impairment of attention and memory, for the duration of the intoxication period.\n", "However, every individual is different, and detection times can vary due to metabolism or other factors. It also depends on whether actual THC or THC metabolites are being tested for, the latter having a much longer detection time than the former. THC (found in marijuana) may only be detectable in saliva/oral fluid for 2–24 hours in most cases.\n", "BULLET::::- Combining low doses of alcohol and cannabis has a more severe effect on driving performance than either cannabis or alcohol in isolation, or\n\nBULLET::::- Taking recommended doses of several drugs together, which individually do not cause impairment, may combine to bring on drowsiness or other impairment. This could be more pronounced in an elderly person whose renal function is less efficient than a younger person's.\n", "Section::::In music.\n", "Like cannabinoid absorption, distribution is also dependent on route of administration. Smoking and inhalation of vaporized cannabis have better absorption than do other routes of administration, and therefore also have more predictable distribution. THC is highly protein bound once absorbed, with only 3% found unbound in the plasma. It distributes rapidly to highly vascularized organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys, as well as to various glands. Low levels can be detected in the brain, testes, and unborn fetuses, all of which are protected from systemic circulation via barriers. THC further distributes into fatty tissues a few days after administration due to its high lipophilicity, and is found deposited in the spleen and fat after redistribution.\n", "Section::::Legal standards.:Americas.:United States.:State.:Washington.\n\nRevised Code of Washington § 46.61.502 provides that a person is guilty of driving under the influence if, within two hours of driving, they have a THC concentration of 5.00 or higher as shown by analysis of their blood. The state legalized cannabis for recreational use in 2014. The research director of the Washington Traffic Safety Commission has called the 5.00-nanogram threshold \"completely arbitrary,\" saying that it \"wasn't backed by scientific theories then, and it's not backed by scientific theories now.\"\n\nSection::::Legal standards.:Americas.:United States.:State.:Wisconsin.\n", "BULLET::::- F10.0 alcohol intoxication (drunk)\n\nBULLET::::- F11.0 opioid intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F12.0 cannabinoid intoxication (high)\n\nBULLET::::- F13.0 sedative and hypnotic intoxication (see benzodiazepine overdose and barbiturate overdose)\n\nBULLET::::- F14.0 cocaine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F15.0 caffeine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F16.0 hallucinogen intoxication (See for example Lysergic acid diethylamide effects)\n\nBULLET::::- F17.0 tobacco intoxication (See for example Nicotine Poisoning)\n\nSection::::Classification.:Contact high.\n\nThe term contact high is sometimes used to describe intoxication without direct administration, either by second-hand smoke (as with cannabis), or by placebo in the presence of others who are intoxicated.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The immediate euphoria and subsequent impairment from THC-OH, as suggested by older studies may last about 6 hours, with some limited studies showing impairment lasting as long as 24 to 48 hours Specific studies that assess driving and impairment show a return to \"...nonimpaired state within 3-6 hours“\n\nQuickly sequestered into fat tissues therefore decreasing blood concentration\n\nIngesting cannabis has much longer magnified effect of the drug\n\nThe method of testing cannabis in urine can be misleading, due to the potential for interpreting a positive result for THC-COOH, as an indicator of acute impairment.\n", "Ohio Statute § 4511.19 makes it unlawful to drive with a concentration of cannabis of at least 10 ng/ml in their urine or 2 ng/ml in their blood or blood serum or plasma. If the person is the under the influence of alcohol, a drug of abuse, or a combination of them, then it is unlawful to drive with a concentration of cannabis \"metabolite\" of at least 15 ng/ml in their urine, or 5 ng/ml in their blood or blood serum or plasma. It is also unlawful to drive with a concentration of cannabis \"metabolite\" of 35 ng/ml in their urine or 50 ng/ml in their blood or blood serum or plasma.\n", "Section::::Medicines.:Medical cannabis.\n", "Marijuana is the world's most commonly abused illicit drug. The effects of cannabis are associated with deficits in memory, learning, decision-making, and speed of processing. Montgomery et al. (2012) conducted a study on twenty cannabis-only users and 20 non-illicit drug users to test the effect of cannabis on prospective memory. Cannabis users found it more difficult to perform an action at a certain time than nonusers. The results provide support for the cannabis-related deficits in prospective memory.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting prospective memory.:Substance use.:Ecstasy.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "In many respects, nicotine acts on the nervous system in a similar way to caffeine. Some writings have stated that smoking can also increase mental concentration; one study documents a significantly better performance on the normed Advanced Raven Progressive Matrices test after smoking.\n", "Smokers often report that cigarettes help relieve feelings of stress. However, the stress levels of adult smokers are slightly higher than those of nonsmokers. Adolescent smokers report increasing levels of stress as they develop regular patterns of smoking, and smoking cessation leads to reduced stress. Far from acting as an aid for mood control, nicotine dependency seems to exacerbate stress. This is confirmed in the daily mood patterns described by smokers, with normal moods during smoking and worsening moods between cigarettes. Thus, the apparent relaxant effect of smoking only reflects the reversal of the tension and irritability that develop during nicotine depletion. Dependent smokers need nicotine to remain feeling normal.\n", "Tobacco smoking increases the risk of developing panic disorder with or without agoraphobia and panic attacks; smoking started in adolescence or early adulthood particularly increases this risk of developing panic disorder. While the mechanism of how smoking increases panic attacks is not fully understood, a few hypotheses have been derived. Smoking cigarettes may lead to panic attacks by causing changes in respiratory function (e.g. feeling short of breath). These respiratory changes in turn can lead to the formation of panic attacks, as respiratory symptoms are a prominent feature of panic. Respiratory abnormalities have been found in children with high levels of anxiety, which suggests that a person with these difficulties may be susceptible to panic attacks, and thus more likely to subsequently develop panic disorder. Nicotine, a stimulant, could contribute to panic attacks. However, nicotine withdrawal may also cause significant anxiety which could contribute to panic attacks.\n", "The other fact is the influence of cigarette smoking: the research suggests that smoking does indeed \"calm the nerves\". Non-smoking patients have lower PPI compared to smokers, and heavy smokers have the highest PPI. This finding runs in accord with the high rates of smoking among schizophrenic patients, estimated at 70%, with many patients smoking more than 30 cigarettes a day. Some studies show association of schizophrenia with the CHRNA7 and CHRFAM7A genes, which code for alpha7 subunit of nicotinic receptors, but other studies are negative. Contrary to the predictions, nicotine receptor alpha7 subunit knockout mice do not show disruptions in PPI.\n", "The use of cocaine or an amphetamine with cigarettes can result in chain smoking. Many people chain-smoke when drinking alcoholic beverages, because alcohol potentiates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, leading to re-sensitization and hence inducing a craving.\n\nThe extent to which chain smoking is driven by nicotine dependence has been studied. It does not seem that the amount of nicotine delivered is a significant factor, as the puff volume correlates poorly with the frequency of cigarette consumption.\n\nSection::::Clinical use.\n", "Some smokers argue that the depressant effect of smoking allows them to calm their nerves, often allowing for increased concentration. However, according to the Imperial College London, \"Nicotine seems to provide both a stimulant and a depressant effect, and it is likely that the effect it has at any time is determined by the mood of the user, the environment and the circumstances of use. Studies have suggested that low doses have a depressant effect, while higher doses have stimulant effect.\"\n\nSection::::Psychology.:Patterns.\n", "In a flash forward following the introductory scenes of \"Mabel\", \"Gene\" collapses at the Cinnabon in Omaha, Nebraska and is taken to the hospital. The doctors affirm that Gene did not suffer a heart attack and is fit to leave. Gene is nervous when the hospital receptionist appears to have problems verifying his drivers' license and Social Security numbers, but she figures out her error and processes them correctly. On his taxi ride home, Gene becomes more uneasy when the driver makes lingering eye contact with him and he sees an Albuquerque Isotopes air freshener hanging from the rear view mirror. Gene gets out of the taxi before reaching his home and quickly walks away, around the corner and out of the driver's sight.\n", "Inhaling the vaporized gas form of substances into the lungs is a quick and very effective way of delivering drugs into the bloodstream (as the gas diffuses directly into the pulmonary vein, then into the heart and from there to the brain) and affects the user within less than a second of the first inhalation. The lungs consist of several million tiny bulbs called alveoli that altogether have an area of over 70 m² (about the area of a tennis court). This can be used to administer useful medical as well as recreational drugs such as aerosols, consisting of tiny droplets of a medication, or as gas produced by burning plant material with a psychoactive substance or pure forms of the substance itself. Not all drugs can be smoked, for example the sulphate derivative that is most commonly inhaled through the nose, though purer free base forms of substances can, but often require considerable skill in administering the drug properly. The method is also somewhat inefficient since not all of the smoke will be inhaled. The inhaled substances trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings in the brain due to being similar to naturally occurring substances such as endorphins and dopamine, which are associated with sensations of pleasure. The result is what is usually referred to as a \"high\" that ranges between the mild stimulus caused by nicotine to the intense euphoria caused by heroin, cocaine and methamphetamines.\n", "More unprotonated nicotine in tobacco smoke increases smoke \"strength\", \"impact\", or \"kick\". However, the irritation and harshness of smoke at higher pH makes it harder for smokers to inhale it. Cigarette design ensures that the smoke has enough unprotonated nicotine to rapidly transfer nicotine into the brain but not so much of it as to be too harsh for the smoker. Variability in the acid-base nature of tobacco leaf is considerable. Flue-cured (\"bright\") tobacco typically produces acidic smoke, whereas air-cured (\"burley\") tobacco typically produces basic smoke. The natural acids in tobacco smoke (e.g., formic acid, acetic acid, and propionic acid) can protonate nicotine, while the natural bases (e.g., ammonia) tend to neutralize the acids and keep more nicotine in the unprotonated form. Acidic tobacco additives such as levulinic acid are used as \"smoothing\" agents to reduce smoke harshness.\n", "The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream by absorption through the alveoli in the lungs. The lungs contain some 300 million alveoli, which amounts to a surface area of over 70 m (about the size of a tennis court). This method is not completely efficient as not all of the smoke will be inhaled, and some amount of the active substances will be lost in the process of combustion, pyrolysis. Pipe and Cigar smoke are not inhaled because of its high alkalinity, which are irritating to the trachea and lungs. However, because of its higher alkalinity (pH 8.5) compared to cigarette smoke (pH 5.3), non-ionized nicotine is more readily absorbed through the mucous membranes in the mouth. Nicotine absorption from cigar and pipe, however, is much less than that from cigarette smoke. Nicotine and cocaine activate similar patterns of neurons, which supports the existence of common substrates among these drugs.\n", "Section::::Receptors.:Ionotropic receptors.:Nicotinic ACh receptors.\n\nNicotinic receptors bind the acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter to produce non-selective cation channel flow that generates excitatory postsynaptic responses. Receptor activity, which can be influenced by nicotine consumption, produces feelings of euphoria, relaxation, and inevitably addiction in high levels.\n\nSection::::Receptors.:Metabotropic receptors.\n", "With regard to nicotine use, chronic nicotine consumption is associated with lower cortisol responses to the TSST than in nonsmokers. It has been suggested that this may be related to the chronic stimulation of CRH-containing neurons in the hypothalamus by nicotine.\n\nThere is also evidence that genetic factors contribute to the variability in cortisol response as well. The cortisol response to psychosocial stress is moderate to high. For example, carriers of the Bcll polymorphism have reduced salivary cortisol response to the TSST, while carriers of the N363S polymorphism have enhanced response.\n", "In dependent smokers, withdrawal causes impairments in memory and attention, and smoking during withdrawal returns these cognitive abilities to pre-withdrawal levels. The temporarily increased cognitive levels of smokers after inhaling smoke are offset by periods of cognitive decline during nicotine withdrawal. Therefore, the overall daily cognitive levels of smokers and non-smokers are roughly similar.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.\n\nOn a scientific level, attentional bias often seen in eye tracking movements is thought to be an underlying issue of addiction. Smokers linger on smoking cues compared with neutral cues. Researchers found higher activation in the insular cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala when presented with smoking cues. The orbitofrontal cortex is known to be coordinated with drug-seeking behavior and the insular cortex and amygdala are involved in the autonomic and emotional state of an individual.\n", "\"American Psychologist\" stated, \"Smokers often report that cigarettes help relieve feelings of stress. However, the stress levels of adult smokers are slightly higher than those of nonsmokers, adolescent smokers report increasing levels of stress as they develop regular patterns of smoking, and smoking cessation leads to reduced stress. Far from acting as an aid for mood control, nicotine dependency seems to exacerbate stress. This is confirmed in the daily mood patterns described by smokers, with normal moods during smoking and worsening moods between cigarettes. Thus, the apparent relaxant effect of smoking only reflects the reversal of the tension and irritability that develop during nicotine depletion. Dependent smokers need nicotine to remain feeling normal.\"\n", "Since Hank couldn’t smoke when he was singing he liked Lum to stand next to him to play. Lum would light up a cigarette, take a draw, and start playing, then Hank would take the cigarette and finish it. Lum commented, \"I was lighting a half a pack of cigs a night and hardly getting a smoke. I told Hank to leave my cigs alone, but as usual, he did the same thing and I kicked his hand. He went ahead and smoked it and grinned. However, I don’t recall him smoking another one of my cigs.\"\n", "In the human nervous system nicotinic cholinergic signals are extended throughout the system, where the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) plays a key role in activating ligand-gated ion channels. The cholinergic system is a vital nervous pathway, where cholinergic neurons synthesize, store and release the neurotransmitter ACh. The main receptors that convert the ACh messages are the cholinergic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, neuronal and muscular nAChRs. When looking back at evolutionary history, ACh is considered to be the oldest transmitter molecule and became present before the nervous cell. In the nervous system cholinergic stimulation mediated through nAChRs controls pathways such as release of transmitters and cell sensitivity, which can influence physiological activity including sleep, anxiety, processing of pain and cognitive functions.\n", "Then we fade to Goofy, in the role of George Geef, who is an extreme nicotine addict, smoking various cigarettes, cigars and pipes, as we watch him smoke during the evening and as he goes to bed (as a huge cloud of smoke covers his head), when he wakes up in the morning, as he shaves, as he drinks coffee and at work. But soon his throat tickles and his eyes get irritated and he cannot blow out his matches. So he throws away all of his smoking products and decides to quit. It works fine at first, and feels he can do it.\n", "Tobacco smoking has also been associated with the development and emergence of agoraphobia, often with panic disorder; it is uncertain how tobacco smoking results in anxiety-panic with or without agoraphobia symptoms, but the direct effects of nicotine dependence or the effects of tobacco smoke on breathing have been suggested as possible causes. Self-medication or a combination of factors may also explain the association between tobacco smoking and agoraphobia and panic.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Attachment theory.\n", "Meanwhile, Peggy Olson (Elisabeth Moss) starts work at Sterling Cooper as Don's secretary, where she experiences some sexual harassment. She seems excited to be working in Manhattan, but perhaps overwhelmed by her new surroundings. Office manager Joan Holloway (Christina Hendricks) advises Peggy on how to be appealing to the men of the office so as to achieve both success in her career and possibly an advantageous marriage. Junior account executive Pete Campbell (Vincent Kartheiser) makes boorish comments about Peggy's appearance and clothing, for which Don rebukes him. On her break, Peggy attends a doctor's appointment arranged by Joan, during which she undergoes a vaginal examination and is given a prescription for the recently introduced oral contraceptive, Enovid, which at the time was only supposed to be prescribed to married women with their husband's consent. Later in the day, Peggy makes a sexually inviting gesture to Don, which he rejects.\n", "Don meets Rachel for dinner to make amends for the meeting. During the dinner, Don says he is living life to extract the maximum amount of pleasure as there is no tomorrow, while Rachel recognizes in Don the element of the disconnected outsider, for whom the world is laid out like a puzzle waiting to be solved. The two of them begin to bond, and she agrees to give Sterling Cooper another shot. Meanwhile, Pete and some of his co-workers go to a gentlemen's club to celebrate Pete's impending wedding. There, a woman rejects Pete's advances. Dejected from this rejection and Don's recent criticisms, Pete arrives drunk at Peggy's apartment, and she allows him in. Don takes a train to a large house in the suburbs, where he is greeted by his loving wife Betty (January Jones), whom he has made no mention of thus far in the episode. He checks on their two sleeping children as she watches admiringly from the doorway.\n", "Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine), attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.\n\nAccording to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. However, cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.\n", "Historically, all pyroligneous acid products, Wright's product and many other condensates have been made as byproducts of charcoal manufacturing, which was of greater value. Chemicals such as methanol, acetic acid and acetone have been isolated from these condensates and sold. With the advent of lower cost fossil fuel sources, today these and other wood derived chemicals retain only small niches. In 1959 the era of modern condensed smoke based products began with the establishment of Red Arrow Products Company in Manitowoc, Wisconsin. The important distinction marking this era from the past is the production of modern condensates to be used industrially as a replacement for smoking food directly with non-condensed smoke. Today there are many manufacturing locations around the world, most of which pyrolyze wood primarily to generate condensates which are further processed to make hundreds of derivative products. These are now referred to less as liquid smoke products, and instead as smoke flavorings, smoke flavors, and natural condensed smokes.\n", "Neural activity is also known to decrease upon the beginning of smoking, focusing the smokers' attention on their upcoming cigarette. Therefore, when smoking cues are nearby it is harder for a smoker to concentrate on other tasks. This is seen in the activation of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, known for focusing attention on relevant stimuli.\n", "The nicotine molecule contains two nitrogen atoms with basic properties. The nicotine molecule can thus add one proton to form a monoprotonated species or two protons to form the diprotonated species. Nicotine in tobacco smoke exists in either a protonated or unprotonated form, depending on the presence of natural acids and bases, the tobacco blend, tip ventilation, and the use of additives. Whereas protonated nicotine is positively charged and not volatile, unprotonated nicotine (\"free-base nicotine\") from tobacco smoke is volatile and readily passes into lipid cell membranes. More unprotonated nicotine in a puff delivers more nicotine to the brain. The same holds true for other (tobacco and non-tobacco) alkaloids. The approximate dividing line between dominance by protonated forms or by the unprotonated form is a pH of 8. At pH 8, the two fractions are present in equal parts. At any lower pH, the fraction of protonated nicotine is greater.\n" ]

[ "Nicotine use calms a nervous person down." ]

[ "Nicotine stimulation counteracts stimulation from nervousness." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Nicotine use calms a nervous person down.", "Nicotine use should stimulate, not calm down, a person." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Nicotine stimulation counteracts stimulation from nervousness.", "Nicotine stimulation counteracts stimulation from nervousness." ]

[ "When compared with the diesel engines normally used to power buses, the Bio bus produces 20-30% less carbon dioxide, 80% fewer nitrogen oxides and is low in particulates. One tank of the gas will power the bus for ; however this means that the bus has to make a significant journey to refuel, making it less economic to run.\n", "In the United States, Navistar was the sole diesel engine manufacturer to pursue the use of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to control diesel emissions rather than selective catalytic reduction (SCR). The company claimed EGR posed an advantage in overall fluid economy (measuring combined diesel + urea consumption), although separate testing resulted in an advantage with SCR. \n\nIn 2015, IC debuted its first alternative-fuel vehicle, showing a propane-powered CE-Series with a PSI 8.8L V8 engine. In 2016, the same engine was introduced in a gasoline-fueled configuration. \n\nSection::::Products.\n\nSection::::Products.:School/commercial buses.\n\nBULLET::::- Model designations\n", "Hybrid technology for buses has seen increased attention since recent battery developments decreased battery weight significantly. Drivetrains consist of conventional diesel engines and gas turbines. Some designs concentrate on using car engines, recent designs have focused on using conventional diesel engines already used in bus designs, to save on engineering and training costs. , several manufacturers were working on new hybrid designs, or hybrid drivetrains that fit into existing chassis offerings without major re-design. A challenge to hybrid buses may still come from cheaper lightweight imports from the former Eastern block countries or China, where national operators are looking at fuel consumption issues surrounding the weight of the bus, which has increased with recent bus technology innovations such as glazing, air conditioning and electrical systems. A hybrid bus can also deliver fuel economy though through the hybrid drivetrain. Hybrid technology is also being promoted by environmentally concerned transit authorities.\n", "BULLET::::- †Bedford CA\n\nBULLET::::- †Bedford CF\n\nBULLET::::- †Bedford Chevanne\n\nBULLET::::- Vauxhall Combo see Opel\n\nBULLET::::- Vauxhall Corsavan\n\nBULLET::::- †Vauxhall Astravan\n\nBULLET::::- †Vauxhall Rascal\n\nBULLET::::- Vauxhall Vivaro\n\nBULLET::::- Vauxhall Movano\n\nVolkswagen Commercial Vehicles\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Caddy\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Routan\n\nBULLET::::- †(T4) Transporter / Kombi / Caravelle / Eurovan / Mutlivan\n\nBULLET::::- (T5) Transporter / Eurovan / Kombi / Caravelle / Mutlivan\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen California\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen LT\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Crafter\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Type 2 (\"VW Bus\")\n\nThis is not a complete list\n\nSection::::Alternative propulsion.\n\nSince light trucks are often operated in city traffic, hybrid electric models are very useful:\n", "The most common power source since the 1920s has been the diesel engine. Early buses, known as trolleybuses, were powered by electricity supplied from overhead lines. Nowadays, electric buses often carry their own battery, which is sometimes recharged on stops/stations to keep the size of the battery small/lightweight. Currently, interest exists in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses, and ones powered by compressed natural gas or biodiesel. Gyrobuses, which are powered by the momentum stored by a flywheel, were tried in the 1940s.\n\nSection::::Design.:Dimensions.\n\nUnited Kingdom:\n\nUnited States:\n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n", "BULLET::::- AG300 articulated bus, also available as diesel-electric hybrid\n\nBULLET::::- AGG300 bi-articulated bus\n\nBULLET::::- A330T trolleybus\n\nBULLET::::- AG300T articulated trolleybus\n\nBULLET::::- AG300 CNG articulated bus\n\nBULLET::::- ExquiCity 18 articulated BRT bus (diesel electric hybrid, trolley, fuel cell or electric)\n\nBULLET::::- ExquiCity 24 bi-articulated BRT bus (diesel electric hybrid, trolley, fuel cell or electric\n\nBULLET::::- A308E Electric bus\n\nSection::::Products.:Transit buses.:North America.\n\nBULLET::::- newA300K bus, shortened A300L\n\nBULLET::::- newA300L full low floor bus, side-mounted midship engine\n\nBULLET::::- newA330 full low floor bus, side-mounted rear engine\n\nBULLET::::- newAG300 articulated full low floor bus, side-mounted midship engine\n\nSection::::Products.:Touring coaches.\n\nSection::::Products.:Touring coaches.:Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- T915 Atlon\n", "Section::::Uses.:Goods transport.\n\nIn some sparsely populated areas, it is common to use brucks, buses with a cargo area to transport both passengers and cargo at the same time. They are especially common in the Nordic countries.\n\nSection::::Health risks of diesel buses.\n\nDiesel powered buses are predicted to lose almost all their market share during the 2020s, in part due to their health risks such as cancer, and many cities are phasing them out in favor of cleaner alternatives such as electric buses.\n\nSection::::Around the world.\n", "Compressed natural gas was first introduced for school buses in the early 1990s (with Blue Bird building its first CNG bus in 1991 and Thomas building its first in 1993). As of 2018, CNG is offered by two full-size bus manufacturers (Blue Bird, Thomas) along with Ford and General Motors Type A chassis.\n\nIn a reversal from the 1990s, gasoline-fuel engines entered production in 2016. Over diesel engines, gasoline-fuel engines offer simpler emissions equipment and a widely available fuel infrastructure (a drawback of LPG/CNG vehicles). \n\nSection::::School buses and the environment.:Electric school buses.\n", "BULLET::::- Rhode Island Public Transit Authority (Providence, Rhode Island) 1 gas and 1 diesel for testing use only, diesel wqs converted gas was hybrid from factory\n\nBULLET::::- Roaring Fork Transportation Authority (Aspen, Colorado)\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Metropolitan Transit System/San Diego Transit (San Diego, California)\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco MUNI (San Francisco, California)\n\nBULLET::::- San Joaquin Regional Transit District (Stockton, California)\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority - VTA (Santa Clara County, California)\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Rosa CityBus (Santa Rosa, California)\n\nBULLET::::- Sarasota County Area Transit (Sarasota County, Florida)\n\nBULLET::::- Sound Transit (Puget Sound region, Washington)\n\nBULLET::::- Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)\n", "BULLET::::- 1 Ikarus 260 (nostalgia bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Ikarus 280 (nostalgia articulated bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 5 Enterprise Plasma midi bus (low-floor bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 6 MAN NL 223 (low-floor bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 20 MAN SL 223\n\nBULLET::::- 42 MAN SG 263 (articulated bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 35 Neoplan Centroliner N4522 (articulated low-floor bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 1 MAN RH-413 (not in regular service)\n\nBULLET::::- 40 MAN Lion's City A21 CNG (low-floor bus)\n\nBULLET::::- 35 MAN Lion's City GL A40 CNG (articulated low-floor bus)\n", "The first battery buses were mostly small, mini- or midi- buses. The improvement of battery technology from around 2010 led to the emergence of the battery bus, including heavier units such as twelve-meter standard buses and articulated wagons.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2009, Shanghai catenary bus lines began switching to battery buses.\n\nBULLET::::- In September 2010, Chinese automobile company BYD Auto began manufacturing the BYD K9.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2011, bus manufacturer Contrac Cobus Industries from Wiesbaden announced the Cobus 2500e.\n", "Between April and May 2016, 40 new 40' Gillig LF clean diesel buses (4000-4039), 1 29' Gillig LF clean diesel bus (2000) and 16 40' Gillig LF CNG buses (4040-4055) entered service. And with the new buses came the new five-digit numbering system for Ride On, along with the addition of suffixes denoting engines with a (\"C\" for compressed natural gas, \"D\" for diesel and \"H\" for hybrid).\n", "City driving is majorly accelerating and braking. Due to this, the battery electric bus is superior to diesel bus as it can recharge most of the kinetic energy back into batteries in braking situations. This reduces brake wear on the buses and the use of electric over diesel reduces noise, air and greenhouse gas pollution in cities.\n", "Section::::School buses and the environment.:Alternative fuels.\n\nAlthough diesel fuel is most commonly used in large school buses (and even in many smaller ones), alternative fuel systems such as LPG/propane and CNG have been developed to counter the emissions drawbacks that diesel and gasoline-fueled school buses pose to the public health and environment.\n", "In France, the electric bus phenomenon is in development, but some buses are already operating in numerous cities. PVI, a medium-sized company located in the Paris region, is one of the leaders of the market with its brand Gepebus (offering Oreos 2X and Oreos 4X).\n\nIn the United States, the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, California since September 2010 at Foothill Transit. The Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes.\n\nIn 2012, heavy-duty trucks and buses contributed 7% of global warming emissions in California. \n", "Due to the high number of high-profile urban operations, transit buses are at the forefront of bus electrification, with hybrid electric bus, all-electric bus and fuel cell bus development and testing aimed at reducing fuel usage, shift to green electricity and decreasing environmental impact.\n\nDevelopments of the transit bus towards higher capacity bus transport include tram-like vehicles such as guided buses, longer bi-articulated buses and tram-like buses such as the Wright StreetCar, often as part of Bus Rapid Transit schemes. Fare collection is also seeing a shift to off-bus payment, with either the driver or an inspector verifying fare payments.\n", "As with the rest of the automotive industry, into the 20th century, bus manufacturing increasingly became globalized, with manufacturers producing buses far from their intended market to exploit labour and material cost advantages. As with the cars, new models are often exhibited by manufacturers at prestigious industry shows to gain new orders. A typical city bus costs almost US$450,000.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Public transport.\n", "In the Auto Expo 2010 at Delhi, Ashok Leyland launched India's first plug-in CNG hybrid bus, HYBUS. The hybrid bus offered 20–30% fuel saving over conventional buses powered by internal combustion engine, and were more eco-friendly than regular CNG buses, as a result of its hybrid technology that combined conventional CNG engine with electric propulsion system. The propulsion system was powered by lithium-ion battery.\n", "IC offers hybrid diesel-electric powertrains in the CE conventional school bus as an option. The buses provide a claimed approximately 40% to 65% better fuel economy but cost about two and a half times more than a standard diesel bus ($210,000 versus $80,000).\n", "The arrival of the Capstone Microturbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and DesignLine Corporation in New Zealand (and later the United States). AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide, and order for several hundred being delivered to Baltimore, and New York City.\n", "Section::::Powertrain.:Tribrid Bus.\n\nBULLET::::- Tribrid buses have been developed by the University of Glamorgan, Wales. They are powered by hydrogen fuel or solar cells, batteries and ultracapacitors.\n\nSection::::Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.\n\nA report prepared by Purdue University suggests introducing more hybrid Diesel-electric buses and a fuel containing 20% biodiesel (BD20) would further reduce greenhouse emissions and petroleum consumption.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.\n", "One of the most popular types of electric buses nowadays are battery electric buses. Battery electric buses have the electricity stored on board the vehicle in a battery. such buses can have a range of over 280 km with just one charge, however extreme temperatures and hills may reduce range. These buses are usually used as city buses due to particularities in limited range.\n", "Solar buses are to be distinguished from conventional buses in which electric functions of the bus such as lighting, heating or air-conditioning, but not the propulsion itself, are fed by solar energy. Such systems are more widespread as they allow bus companies to meet specific regulations, for example the anti-idling laws that are in force in several of the US states, and can be retrofitted to existing vehicle batteries without changing the conventional engine.\n\nSection::::Land.:Single-track vehicles.\n", "The construction of battery buses focused until 2015 exclusively on city bus used in short-distance traffic with the usually reduced level of comfort in these vehicles. With the presentation of BYD C9 in January 2015 at the bus fair \"UMA Motorcoach EXPO\" in New Orleans, for the first time an electric touring coach was introduced, which is also suitable for urban traffic.\n", "At the 2008 American Public Transportation Association Expo trade show, Navistar announced its intention to enter the intercity motorcoach segment by 2010, unveiling two prototypes produced by IC Bus. Using the MaxxForce 13 powerplant, IC Bus produced a 40-foot long prototype alongside a 45-foot prototype. Using wind-tunnel design, the company predicted similar fuel-efficiency gains that were seen with the streamlined International ProStar semitractor.\n\nFollowing the two prototypes, IC Bus abandoned its efforts in the motorcoach segment, concentrating its commercial buses on school bus derivatives and the HC-Series (a cutaway variant of the International DuraStar).\n\nSection::::Prototype vehicles.:Electric bus.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Biocontrol agent.:Enzymes.\n\nMany enzymes produced by \"P. lilacinum\" have been studied. A basic serine protease with biological activity against \"Meloidogyne hapla\" eggs has been identified. One strain of \"P. lilacinum\" has been shown to produce proteases and a chitinase, enzymes that could weaken a nematode egg shell so as to enable a narrow infection peg to push through.\n\nSection::::Biocontrol agent.:Egg infection.\n", "Stage 1 is characterized by the penetration of the skin by the female chigoe flea. Running along the body, the female uses its posterior legs to push its body upward by an angle between 45–90 degrees. Penetration then starts, beginning with the proboscis going through the epidermis.\n", "Plants respond to parasite attack with a series of chemical defences, such as polyphenol oxidase, under the control of the jasmonic acid-insensitive (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) signalling pathways. The different biochemical pathways are activated by different attacks, and the two pathways can interact positively or negatively. In general, plants can either initiate a specific or a non-specific response. Specific responses involve recognition of a parasite by the plant's cellular receptors, leading to a strong but localised response: defensive chemicals are produced around the area where the parasite was detected, blocking its spread, and avoiding wasting defensive production where it is not needed. Nonspecific defensive responses are systemic, meaning that the responses are not confined to an area of the plant, but spread throughout the plant, making them costly in energy. These are effective against a wide range of parasites. When damaged, such as by lepidopteran caterpillars, leaves of plants including maize and cotton release increased amounts of volatile chemicals such as terpenes that signal they are being attacked; one effect of this is to attract parasitoid wasps, which in turn attack the caterpillars.\n", "The other major mechanism of resistance to \"T. circumcincta\" is the and mediated control of worm establishment and survival. Again, this association is so strong and consistent that it is likely to be causal rather than acting as a marker for some other response. IgE activity against third-stage larvae seems to be most important. The number of molecules recognised by IgE seems to be relatively small; identified only 9 molecules, although there is evidence for at least two other . For comparison, 155 molecules were recognised by IgA on third-stage larvae.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "In \"Ancylostoma braziliensis\" as the larvae are in an abnormal host, they do not mature to adults but instead migrate through the skin until killed by the host's inflammatory response. This migration causes local intense itching and a red serpiginous lesion. Treatment with a single dose of oral ivermectin results in cure rates of 94–100%.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThe infection is usually contracted by people walking barefoot over\n\ncontaminated soil. In penetrating the skin, the larvae may cause an allergic\n\nreaction. It is due to the itchy patch at the site of entry that the early\n", "Medea's selfish behavior gives it a selective advantage over normal genes. If introduced into a population at sufficiently high levels, the \"Medea\" gene will spread, replacing entire populations of normal beetles with beetles carrying \"Medea\". Because of this, \"Medea\" has been proposed as a way of genetically modifying insect populations. By linking the \"Medea\" construct to a gene of interest - for instance, a gene conferring resistance to malaria - \"Medea\"'s unique dynamics could be exploited to drive both genes into a population. These findings have dramatic implications for the control of insect-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.\n", "Section::::Examples of plants exhibiting thigmonasty.:In the Droseraceae.\n\nThe Venus Flytrap (\"Dionaea muscipula\") presents a spectacular example of thigmonasty; when an insect lands on a trap formed by two curved lobes of a single leaf, the trap rapidly switches from an open to a closed configuration. Investigators have observed an action potential and changes in leaf turgor that accompany the reflex; they trigger the rapid elongation of individual cells. The common term for the elongation is acid growth although the process does not involve cell division.\n\nSection::::Examples of plants exhibiting thigmonasty.:In the Fabaceae.\n", "In insects (as in other non-mammalian animals), egg maturation begins with vitellogenesis, the deposition of yolk proteins triggered by the release of juvenile hormones. In anautogenous mosquitoes, yolk production genes are strongly activated after a blood meal through a process involving the target of rapamycin signal pathway. In particular, certain amino acids found in the blood proteins seem to be necessary for the activation of the vitellogenin gene.\n\nSection::::Autogeny.\n", "Central to Huffaker’s investigations is the concept of predator–prey interactions. In general, predation is believed to reduce prey populations. However, there are notable exceptions to this rule. For example, some plants have been shown to increase growth rates in response to herbivory.\n", "\"Ageratum\" has evolved a unique method of protecting itself from insects: it produces a methoprene-like compound which interferes with the normal function of the corpus allatum, the organ responsible for secreting juvenile hormone during insect growth and development. This chemical triggers the next molting cycle to prematurely develop adult structures, and can render most insects sterile if ingested in large enough quantities.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Toxicity.\n\n\"Ageratum houstonianum\" is toxic to grazing animals, causing liver lesions. It contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids.\n\nSection::::Weed risk.\n", "One study has postulated that the water flea \"Daphnia magna\" eats the spores of the fungus.\n\nSection::::Interactions with pesticides.\n\nThe hypothesis that pesticide use has contributed to declining amphibian populations has been suggested several times in the literature. Interactions between pesticides and chytridiomycosis were examined in 2007, and sublethal exposure to the pesticide carbaryl (a cholinesterase inhibitor) was shown to increase susceptibility of foothill yellow-legged frogs (\"Rana boylii\") to chytridiomycosis. In particular, the skin peptide defenses were significantly reduced after exposure to carbaryl, suggesting pesticides may inhibit this innate immune defence, and increase susceptibility to disease.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito's saliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions (types I and III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (type IV) to mosquito bites. Both reactions result in itching, redness and swelling. Immediate reactions develop within a few minutes of the bite and last for a few hours. Delayed reactions take around a day to develop, and last for up to a week.\n\nSection::::Bites.:Treatment.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Cellular compatibility of wasp within host.\n\nThe morula-stage embryo of \"C. floridanum\" invades the embryo of the host, utilizing adherent junctions to host cells. This is an effective evolutionary strategy, as other approaches could leave obvious wounds on the host cells, alerting competitors to the presence of this wasp species. As a result, these embryos can invade a phylogenetically distant host embryo (the moth) by taking advantage of the compatibility of its cells with host tissues.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Kin discrimination.\n", "One proposed mechanism implicates the nerve and its branches. At the cellular level, this hypothesis postulates that abnormal branching of neurons occurs during embryogenesis. During development, the branch of an afferent article may travel unusually far in the nervous system. Thus, in an individual with a fully developed nervous system, the stimulus at the end of one branch may be interpreted as coming from a point of ending in another, distant, part of the body. Again, research has not been done to prove this hypothesis as valid or invalid.\n", "The process of moulting in insects begins with the separation of the cuticle from the underlying epidermal cells (apolysis) and ends with the shedding of the old cuticle (ecdysis). In many species it is initiated by an increase in the hormone ecdysone. This hormone causes:\n\nBULLET::::- apolysis – the separation of the cuticle from the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- secretion of new cuticle materials beneath the old\n\nBULLET::::- degradation of the old cuticle\n", "During damp summers any disturbance of taller plants - e.g. clearing lantana, can produce a shower of tick larvae. When large numbers of larvae attach to a sensitized person, severe allergic dermatitis may result. The maddening rash that results is commonly referred to as 'scrub-itch'. Such outbreaks are seasonal in southeast Queensland and occur most commonly during January, February and March when larval populations are at their peak. Dermatitis is most commonly encountered in rural workers.\n\nSection::::Allergy.:Allergic reactions to nymphs and adults.\n", "Expression of the \"flb\" gene can be seen as early as four hours into the development of \"Drosophila melanogaster\". At four hours the gene is facilitating the retraction of the germ band as well as structuring the beginnings of the CNS. At six hours the gene is used to differentiate epidermal cells to secrete denticle belts which begin segmentation of the larva. At nine hours the gene is used for the differentiation of midline glial cells. When this gene is mutated or any of its interactions are altered phenotypes such as fused commissures can be seen as a result of improper segregation.\n", "The pathogen enters its host with assistance from the Scolytid beetle, and will colonize the tunnels, or breeding galleries, made by the insect. The greatest impact of this disease is seen in urban settings and in trees that have previously been impaired by drought or insects.\n", "Pathogen organisms can be introduced into the bite. Some of the pathogens can originate from the mouth of the 'biter', the substrate onto which the injured person or animal can fall or from the naturally occurring microorganisms that are present on the skin or hair of the animal. The advent of antibiotics improved the outcome of bite wound infections.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Rabies.\n", "Several case reports have found individuals with chronic lymphocytic leukemia are predisposed to develop severe skin reactions to mosquito and other insect bites. However, there are reports that chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients can develop similarly severe skin reactions in the absence of an insect bite history. The pathology of the insect bite sites in these cases resembles those seen in the MBA lesions of eosinophilic cellulitis but the mechanism behind these reactions is unknown. There are too few reports to establish treatment recommendations for MBA I chronic lymphocytic leukemia beyond those generally used to treat other types of MBA.\n", "\"A. braziliense\" larvae can cause accidental infection in humans called cutaneous larval migration or creeping eruption, which produces severe itching in the skin. It is the most common skin infection in tropical region, particularly along the beaches of the Caribbean.\n\nSection::::Discovery and history.\n", "Oral use of ivermectin, an antiparasitic avermectin medicine, has proved to be an effective and noninvasive treatment that leads to the spontaneous emigration of the larva. This is especially important for cases where the larva is located at inaccessible places like inside the inner canthus of the eye.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cordylobia anthropophaga\"\n\nBULLET::::- Myiasis\n\nBULLET::::- Botfly\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Case Report: Insect Bite Reveals Botfly Myiasis in an Older Woman\n\nBULLET::::- Young botfly larvae (about 3 weeks old) just minutes after having been extracted from an arm\n", "Plant volatiles are emitted from plants as a defense against herbivory. The volatiles emitted attract parasitic wasps that in turn, attack the herbivores. Hyperparasitoids are known to find their victims through herbivore-induced plant volatiles emitted in response to attack by caterpillars that in turn had been parasitized by primary parasitoids. The larvae of parasitic wasps developing inside the caterpillar alter the composition of the oral secretions of their herbivorous host and thereby affect the cocktail of volatiles the plant produces. The pupae of primary parasitoid species are parasitized by many hyperparasitoid species.\n\nSection::::Number of levels.\n", "The insecticide Dipterex is able to kill both adult and larval stages of \"Argulus japonicus\"; however, eggs are unaffected by this treatment, meaning an initial application of the compound must be repeated after 2 weeks (after which any eggs laid will have hatched) in order to achieve an effective reduction of the parasite.\n", "Section::::Transmission of disease.\n\nNormally, the bite mark causes local swelling or welts, but in more serious cases it causes dermatitis. The mite can be infected with a disease called scrub typhus in Asia and the Pacific by carrying saliva directly to the blood stream, but mites in North America have not been known to transmit Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia or any other disease. \n" ]

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[ "Simulated ticker displays, named after the original machines, still exist as part of the display of television news channels and on some websites — see news ticker. One of the most famous outdoor displays is the simulated ticker scrolling marquee located at One Times Square in New York City.\n", "A ticker may also be used as an unobtrusive method by businesses in order to deliver important information to their staff. The ticker can be set to reappear, stay on screen, or be put into a retractable mode (where a small tab is left visible on-screen).\n", "The most famous news ticker display is the \"zipper\" that circles One Times Square in New York City. \"The New York Times\" erected the first such display in 1928, with similar tickers having since been incorporated onto several buildings in midtown Manhattan; these include a similar display located on the exterior of the Fox News/News Corporation headquarters in the west extension of Manhattan's Rockefeller Center, as well as one that displays delayed stock market data that is located in Times Square.\n", "Most tickers are traditionally displayed in the form of scrolling text running from right to left across the screen or building display (or in the opposite direction for right-to-left writing systems such as Arabic script and Hebrew), allowing for headlines of varying degrees of detail; some used by television broadcasters, however, display stories in a static manner (allowing for the seamless switching of each story individually programmed for display) or utilize a \"flipping\" effect (in which each individual headline is shown for a few seconds before transitioning to the next, instead of scrolling across the screen, usually resulting in a relatively quicker run through of all of the information programmed into the ticker). Since the growth in usage of the World Wide Web, some news tickers have syndicated news stories posted largely on websites of broadcasters or by other independent news agencies.\n", "Section::::Current uses.:On personal computers.\n\nVarious applications have been developed over time (such as MyTikka, ReTickr and Snackr) to install news tickers on personal computer desktops using RSS feeds from news organizations, which are displayed in a fashion similar to those used by television channels but enable the user to access to underlying news stories, a feature not offered by traditional television channels.\n", "A quotation board is a large vertical electronic display located in a brokerage office, which automatically gives current data on stocks chosen by the local broker. In 1929 the Teleregister Corporation installed the first such display, and by 1964 over 650 brokerage offices had them.\n", "Section::::Ticker-tape reading.\n\nUntil the mid-1960s, tape reading was a popular form of technical analysis. It consisted of reading market information such as price, volume, order size, and so on from a paper strip which ran through a machine called a stock ticker. Market data was sent to brokerage houses and to the homes and offices of the most active speculators. This system fell into disuse with the advent of electronic information panels in the late 60's, and later computers, which allow for the easy preparation of charts.\n\nSection::::Quotation board.\n", "The New York Stock Exchange is known as the \"Big Board\", perhaps because of these large chalk boards. Until recently, in some countries such chalkboards continued in use. Morse code was used in Chicago until 1967 for traders to send data to clerks called \"board markers\".\n\nSection::::History.:Newspapers.\n\nFrom 1797 to 1811 in the United States, the \"New York Price Current\" was first published. It was apparently the first newspaper to publish stock prices, and also showed prices of various commodities.\n", "In the United Kingdom, broadcasters have stopped using this technology as other forms of communications have become available and increased in popularity. BBC News and Sky News discontinued their respective desktop tickers in March 2011 and 2012 to focus on other products, such as smartphone applications, to deliver updated information on breaking news and sport stories.\n\nSection::::Current uses.:Building news tickers.\n", "BULLET::::- Some programs, including news-based programs emphasizing viewer interactivity, or special events, may also use tickers to display messages and reactions from viewers and others that relate to the program. In the present day, these comments are often sourced from social networking services such as Facebook and Twitter (typically curating comments from a specific page or hashtag.\n", "Most of the news tickers used in the country are structured as scrolls. One such exception is with CNN-IBN, which uses both a \"flipper\" ticker for headlines and a scrolling ticker for stock quotes. During breaking news coverage, CNN-IBN places an alternating \"BREAKING NEWS\" text and headline title on the upper band, with news updates regarding the news event on the bottom band.\n\nSection::::By country.:Asia.:Indonesia.\n", "BULLET::::- News networks commonly use a setup in which news headlines are scrolled across the bottom half of the screen, though some variations have formed, such as CNN International presenting them without a scrolling effect, and showing one headline at a time.\n\nBULLET::::- Usage of the scroller has also grown in use by a number of local stations for their newscasts, used during severe weather events to provide information on areas affected by storms, in addition to other uses, such as presented school delays and cancellations during winter weather in some regions, and the presentation of national headlines.\n", "BULLET::::- The first online stock quote engine. CNNfn worked with S&P Comstock and Townsend to convert what was then a special direct connection to the stock market into a real-time data feed that could be used by the CNNfn.com website. Prior to this, ticker symbol lookups were typically reserved for private firms and not generally available.\n", "CNBC and forerunner network Financial News Network also debuted a ticker featuring stock prices during business hours. However prior to 1996, these stock tickers could only show preselected stock quotes making the system highly manual and clumsy. The first fully automated stock ticker to appear on television was in 1996 on CNNfn.\n", "The Reuters buildings at Canary Wharf and in Toronto have news and stock tickers; the latter type features market data for the New York Stock Exchange, NASDAQ and London Stock Exchange, while the Toronto building's ticker also includes quotes from the Toronto Stock Exchange.\n", "Paper ticker tape became obsolete in the 1960s, as television and computers were increasingly used to transmit financial information. The concept of the stock ticker lives on, however, in the scrolling electronic tickers seen on brokerage walls and on news and financial television channels.\n\nTicker tape stock price telegraphs were invented in 1867 by Edward A. Calahan, an employee of the American Telegraph Company.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Previously, stock prices had been hand-delivered via written or verbal messages. Since the useful time-span of individual quotes is very brief, they generally had not been sent long distances; aggregated summaries, typically for one day, were sent instead. The increase in speed provided by the ticker allowed for faster and more exact sales. Since the ticker ran continuously, updates to a stock's price whenever the price changed became effective much faster and trading became a more time-sensitive matter. For the first time, trades were being done in what is now thought of as near real-time.\n", "Traders can use this information to predict the short-term movement of a share or security in conjunction with volume traded, and attempt to profit from this information, which is usually legal as the information is in the public domain. The reason for this is that market makers sit “behind” such a screen by being obliged to both buy and sell the share at the posted price up to what is known as normal market size.\n\nFor certain market centers such as NASDAQ, a full depth-of-book (DOB) is available, whereby every quotation for every market participant is displayed.\n\nSection::::Equities.:UK Level 2.\n", "In the late 1860s, in New York, young men called “runners” prices between the exchange and broker’s offices, and often these prices were posted by hand on large chalk boards in the offices. Updating a chalk board was an entry point for many traders getting into financial markets and as mentioned in the book Reminiscences of a Stock Operator those updating the boards would wear fur sleeves so they wouldn't accidentally erase prices.\n", "The traditional scrolling ticker was brought back on February 18, 2013, specifically at the insistence of new network president Jeff Zucker, which originally displayed with white text on a dark blue background, before switching the next day to blue text on a shadowed white and grey background. During breaking news coverage, the entire ticker is displayed with a dark red background (though sometimes the regular colors remain), while the ticker uses a blue background for network promotions. On August 11, 2014 (as part of an update to the network's graphics package), the ticker was changed to a white text on a black background. As of 2013, the ticker is only deactivated entirely during special event coverage and primetime programming. During federal election coverage, the ticker is replaced by a larger pane showing more detailed information (such as responses to live polling during debates and speeches, and results from various states, counties and congressional districts). Holiday travel weekends feature the bottom-third filled with a graphic of major cities, their temperatures and current flight delays, while severe snowstorm and hurricane coverage has the same information, along with current average wind speed and a tracking map of a storm's path.\n", "In Brazil, news tickers were introduced in the early 2000s and are often used by all pay news channels, such as Globo News, Band News and Record News (the latter is free-to-air as well). In 2015, two pay sports channels, ESPN Brasil and Fox Sports Brasil, introduced their news tickers in some programs and games. Sometimes they are also used in a few free-to-air channels, usually to show breaking news or Twitter messages sent by the viewers.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Market profile\n\nA Market Profile is an intra-day charting technique (price vertical, time/activity horizontal)\n\ndevised by J. Peter Steidlmayer, a trader at the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), ca 1959-1985.\n", "News tickers have been used in Europe in countries such as United Kingdom, Germany and Ireland for some years; they are also used in several Asian countries and Australia. In the United States, tickers were long used on a special event basis by broadcast television stations to disseminate weather warnings, school closings, and election results. Sports telecasts occasionally used a ticker to update other contests in progress before the expansion of cable news networks and the internet for news content. In addition, some ticker displays are used to relay continuous stock quotes (usually with a delay of as much as 15 minutes) during trading hours of major stock market exchanges.\n", "A red-LED ticker was added to the perimeter of 10 Rockefeller Center in 1994, as the building was being renovated to accommodate the studios for NBC's \"Today\". Placed at the juncture of the first and second floors, the ticker is visible to spectators in Rockefeller Plaza and passersby on West 49th Street and updates continuously, even at times when \"Today\" is not being produced and broadcast. As of 2015, the ticker strip is only a small part of a large two-floor LCD video display that is placed within the window of the studio showing promotional information.\n", "CNNfn, a now-defunct business news network spun-off from CNN, was the first to create a fully automated stock ticker for television. Until the network launched in 1996, computers were not able to maintain the entire stock feed in memory to enable delaying all quotes and commodity summaries in 15-minute intervals. Tickers previously implemented for the purpose of disseminating stock data were preselected subsets of the feed and could not automatically select stocks of interest without manual intervention. Working with SGI and Standard & Poor's data feed, Nils B. Lahr, a developer at CNNfn, developed the first system that could provide delayed stock market quotes in a dynamic television display as a ticker. This was a major advancement, as the viewers, for the first time, understood that the ticker represented all available stocks and thus would reflect any vital changes without manual intervention or pre-selected stock quotes.\n" ]

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[ "A 3% margin of error means that if the same procedure is used a large number of times, 95% of the time the true population average will be within the sample estimate plus or minus 3%. The margin of error can be reduced by using a larger sample, however if a pollster wishes to reduce the margin of error to 1% they would need a sample of around 10,000 people. In practice, pollsters need to balance the cost of a large sample against the reduction in sampling error and a sample size of around 500–1,000 is a typical compromise for political polls. (Note that to get complete responses it may be necessary to include thousands of additional participators.)\n", "However, often only one margin of error is reported for a survey. When results are reported for population subgroups, a larger margin of error will apply, but this may not be made clear. For example, a survey of 1000 people may contain 100 people from a certain ethnic or economic group. The results focusing on that group will be much less reliable than results for the full population. If the margin of error for the full sample was 4%, say, then the margin of error for such a subgroup could be around 13%.\n", "In cases where the sampling fraction exceeds 5%, analysts can adjust the margin of error using a \"finite population correction\" (FPC), to account for the added precision gained by sampling close to a larger percentage of the population. FPC can be calculated using the formula:\n", "As an example of the above, a random sample of size 400 will give a margin of error, at a 95% confidence level, of 0.98/20 or 0.049 - just under 5%. A random sample of size 1600 will give a margin of error of 0.98/40, or 0.0245 - just under 2.5%. A random sample of size 10,000 will give a margin of error at the 95% confidence level of 0.98/100, or 0.0098 - just under 1%.\n\nSection::::Concept.:Maximum and specific margins of error.\n", "To adjust for a large sampling fraction, the FPC factored into the calculation of the margin of error, which has the effect of narrowing the margin of error. It holds that the FPC approaches zero as the sample size (\"n\") approaches the population size (\"N\"), which has the effect of eliminating the margin of error entirely. This makes intuitive sense because when \"N\" = \"n\", the sample becomes a census and sampling error becomes moot.\n\nAnalysts should be mindful that the samples remain truly random as the sampling fraction grows, lest sampling bias be introduced.\n\nSection::::Concept.:Other statistics.\n", "The formula above for the margin of error assume that there is an infinitely large population and thus do not depend on the size of the population of interest. According to sampling theory, this assumption is reasonable when the sampling fraction is small. The margin of error for a particular sampling method is essentially the same regardless of whether the population of interest is the size of a school, city, state, or country, as long as the sampling fraction is less than 5%.\n", "In some situations, the increase in precision for larger sample sizes is minimal, or even non-existent. This can result from the presence of systematic errors or strong dependence in the data, or if the data follows a heavy-tailed distribution.\n", "Confidence intervals can be calculated, and so can margins of error, for a range of statistics including individual percentages, differences between percentages, means, medians, and totals.\n\nThe margin of error for the difference between two percentages is larger than the margins of error for each of these percentages, and may even be larger than the maximum margin of error for any individual percentage from the survey.\n\nSection::::Comparing percentages.\n", "Like confidence intervals, the margin of error can be defined for any desired confidence level, but usually a level of 90%, 95% or 99% is chosen (typically 95%). This level is the confidence that a margin of error around the reported percentage would include the \"true\" percentage. Hence, for example, we can be confident, at the 95% level, that out of every 100 simple random samples taken from a given population, 95 of them will contain the true percentage or other statistic under investigation, within the margin of error associated with each. Along with the confidence level, the sample design for a survey, and in particular its sample size, determines the magnitude of the margin of error. A larger sample size produces a smaller margin of error, all else remaining equal.\n", "Polls based on samples of populations are subject to sampling error which reflects the effects of chance and uncertainty in the sampling process. Sampling polls rely on the law of large numbers to measure the opinions of the whole population based only on a subset, and for this purpose the absolute size of the sample is important, but the percentage of the whole population is not important (unless it happens to be close to the sample size). The possible difference between the sample and whole population is often expressed as a margin of error - usually defined as the radius of a 95% confidence interval for a particular statistic. One example is the percent of people who prefer product A versus product B. When a single, global margin of error is reported for a survey, it refers to the maximum margin of error for all reported percentages using the full sample from the survey. If the statistic is a percentage, this maximum margin of error can be calculated as the radius of the confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50%. Others suggest that a poll with a random sample of 1,000 people has margin of sampling error of ±3% for the estimated percentage of the whole population.\n", "Sample sizes may be evaluated by the quality of the resulting estimates. For example, if a proportion is being estimated, one may wish to have the 95% confidence interval be less than 0.06 units wide. Alternatively, sample size may be assessed based on the power of a hypothesis test. For example, if we are comparing the support for a certain political candidate among women with the support for that candidate among men, we may wish to have 80% power to detect a difference in the support levels of 0.04 units.\n\nSection::::Estimation.\n\nSection::::Estimation.:Estimation of a proportion.\n", "Another way to reduce the margin of error is to rely on poll averages. This makes the assumption that the procedure is similar enough between many different polls and uses the sample size of each poll to create a polling average. An example of a polling average can be found here: 2008 Presidential Election polling average. Another source of error stems from faulty demographic models by pollsters who weigh their samples by particular variables such as party identification in an election. For example, if you assume that the breakdown of the US population by party identification has not changed since the previous presidential election, you may underestimate a victory or a defeat of a particular party candidate that saw a surge or decline in its party registration relative to the previous presidential election cycle.\n", "A common problem faced by statisticians is calculating the sample size required to yield a certain power for a test, given a predetermined Type I error rate α. As follows, this can be estimated by pre-determined tables for certain values, by Mead's resource equation, or, more generally, by the cumulative distribution function:\n\nSection::::Required sample sizes for hypothesis tests.:Tables.\n", "A relatively simple situation is estimation of a proportion. For example, we may wish to estimate the proportion of residents in a community who are at least 65 years old.\n", "Many people may not realize that the randomness of the sample is very important. In practice, many opinion polls are conducted by phone, which distorts the sample in several ways, including exclusion of people who do not have phones, favoring the inclusion of people who have more than one phone, favoring the inclusion of people who are willing to participate in a phone survey over those who refuse, etc. Non-random sampling makes the estimated error unreliable.\n", "In the example above, if said college town has a small population and mostly consists of students, and that particular student chooses a graduation party for survey, then his sample has a fair chance to represent the population. Larger sample size will reduce the chance of sampling error occurring.\n", "Assume that we need to estimate average number of votes for each candidate in an election. Assume that country has 3 towns: Town A has 1 million factory workers, Town B has 2 million office workers and Town C has 3 million retirees. We can choose to get a random sample of size 60 over the entire population but there is some chance that the random sample turns out to be not well balanced across these towns and hence is biased causing a significant error in estimation. Instead if we choose to take a random sample of 10, 20 and 30 from Town A, B and C respectively then we can produce a smaller error in estimation for the same total size of sample.This method is generally used when population is not a homogeneous group.\n", "However, systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the interval used, the sample is especially likely to be \"un\"representative of the overall population, making the scheme less accurate than simple random sampling.\n", "A single sampling plan for attributes is a statistical method by which the lot is accepted or rejected on the basis of one sample. Suppose that we have a lot of size formula_1; a random sample of size formula_2 is selected from the lot; and an acceptance number formula_3 is determined. If it is found the number of nonconforming is less than or equal to formula_3, the lot is accepted; and if the number of nonconforming is greater than formula_3, the lot is not accepted. The design of a single sampling plan requires the selection of the sample size formula_6 and the acceptance number formula_3.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced variability: When estimates are being considered by any other method, reduced variability in results are observed. This may not be an ideal situation every time.\n\nMajor use: when sampling frame of all elements is not available we can resort only to the cluster sampling.\n\nSection::::Disadvantage.\n\nBULLET::::- Higher sampling error, which can be expressed in the so-called \"design effect\", the ratio between the number of subjects in the cluster study and the number of subjects in an equally reliable, randomly sampled unclustered study.\n", "Because of the impracticality of carrying out an evenly distributed survey, particularly during a war, Roberts' surveys use \"cluster sampling\", dividing the area into a number of randomly selected, approximately equally populated regions; a random point is chosen within each region, and a fixed number of the households closest to that point are surveyed as a \"cluster\". While not as accurate as an evenly distributed survey of the same number of households, this technique is more accurate than merely surveying one household for each selected point.\n", "In most statistical studies, the goal is to generalize from the observed units to a larger set consisting of all comparable units that exist but are not directly observed. For example, if we randomly sample 100 people and ask them which candidate they intend to vote for in an election, our main interest is in the voting behavior of all eligible voters, not exclusively on the 100 observed units.\n", "BULLET::::- using a confidence level, i.e. the larger the required confidence level, the larger the sample size (given a constant precision requirement).\n\nSection::::Introduction.\n\nLarger sample sizes generally lead to increased precision when estimating unknown parameters. For example, if we wish to know the proportion of a certain species of fish that is infected with a pathogen, we would generally have a more precise estimate of this proportion if we sampled and examined 200 rather than 100 fish. Several fundamental facts of mathematical statistics describe this phenomenon, including the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.\n", "can be solved for \"n\", yielding \"n\" = 4/\"W\" = 1/\"B\" where \"B\" is the error bound on the estimate, i.e., the estimate is usually given as \"within ± B\". So, for \"B\" = 10% one requires \"n\" = 100, for \"B\" = 5% one needs \"n\" = 400, for \"B\" = 3% the requirement approximates to \"n\" = 1000, while for \"B\" = 1% a sample size of \"n\" = 10000 is required. These numbers are quoted often in news reports of opinion polls and other sample surveys. However, always remember that the results reported may not be the exact value as numbers are preferably rounded up. Knowing that the value of the \"n\" is the minimum number of samples needed to acquire the desired result, the number of respondents then must lie on or above the minimum.\n", "Polls basically involve taking a sample from a certain population. In the case of the \"Newsweek\" poll, the population of interest is the population of people who will vote. Because it is impractical to poll everyone who will vote, pollsters take smaller samples that are intended to be representative, that is, a random sample of the population. It is possible that pollsters sample 1,013 voters who happen to vote for Bush when in fact the population is evenly split between Bush and Kerry, but this is extremely unlikely (\"p\" = 2 ≈ 1.1 × 10) given that the sample is random.\n" ]

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[ "In ancient history, messages were hand-delivered using a variety of methods, including runners, homing pigeons and riders on horseback. Before the introduction of mechanized courier services, foot messengers physically ran miles to their destinations. Xenophon attributed the first use of couriers to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger.\n\nFamously, the Ancient Greek courier Pheidippides is said to have run 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to bring the news of the Greek victory over the Persians in 490 BCE. The long-distance race known as a marathon is named for this run.\n\nSection::::Before the industrial era.:Anabasii.\n", "In Roman Britain, Rufinus made use of anabasii, as documented in Saint Jerome's memoirs (\"adv. Ruffinum\", l. 3. c. 1.): \"Idcircone Cereales et Anabasii tui per diversas provincias cucurrerunt, ut laudes meas legerent?\" (\"Is it on that account that your Cereales and Anabasii circulated through many provinces, so that they might read my praises?\")\n\nSection::::Before the industrial era.:Middle Ages.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, royal courts maintained their own messengers who were paid little more than common labourers.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Forwarding agent (philately)\n\nA forwarding agent was an intermediary who facilitated the routing of international mail before the development of the modern postal system.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn the early days of postal communications it was often necessary for international mail to pass through a number of hands before reaching its eventual destination. At each stage the agent would add their own mark. For instance, a letter might pass first through the sender's domestic post office's hands, then to a forwarder for a sea journey and then to the post office of the destination country.\n", "It is a sad fact that during war battlefield casualties invariably produce large quantities of undeliverable mail. In the field, such mail that comes to hand in the units was checked against unit records and disposed of appropriately. \n", "BULLET::::- Zeppelin mail is a popular topic for the mail carried on the German Zeppelin airships between 1908 and 1939. Much mail exists because up to 12 tons was carried on each flight. Mail from within Germany and from the several trans-Atlantic flights are extant however mail from the famous Hindenburg disaster are very scarce.\n\nSection::::Possible areas of study.:Subject based studies.\n", "BULLET::::- Registered mail are often used to mail items, or documents, considered valuable and need a chain of custody that provides more control than regular mail. The letters have their details recorded in a register to enable their location to be tracked and offer many distinctive handstamps. Many countries have issued special postal stationery for Registered mail expanding the possible areas being studied beyond regular registered letters. Earlier similar services were known as \"Money Letters\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of postal history\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "The distribution list eventually included some — but not all — military intelligence leaders in Washington and elsewhere, and some — but, again, not all — civilian policy leaders in Washington. The eventual routine for distribution included the following steps:\n\nBULLET::::- the duty officer (Army or Navy, depending on the day) would decide which decrypts were significant or interesting enough to distribute\n\nBULLET::::- they would be collected, locked into a briefcase, and turned over to a relatively junior officer (not always cleared to read the decrypts) who would 'make the rounds' to the appropriate offices.\n", "Occasionally, it may be practical to transfer a courier to other, more challenging duties. Once that transfer is made, however, the individual should never be reassigned to courier duty, as the probability of that person having become known to counterintelligence is much higher.\n\nThere may be occasions where diplomats, or even members of diplomats' families who have diplomatic immunity, may serve as couriers. Their value in the diplomatic service must be weighed against the near certainty that if discovered, they will be expelled as persona non grata.\n", "However, in 2008, Janet Barrett from the UK, received a RSVP to a party invitation addressed to 'Percy Bateman', from 'Buffy', originally posted on 29 November 1919. It had taken 89 years to be delivered by the Royal Mail. However, Royal Mail denied this, saying that it would be impossible for a letter to have remained in their system for so long, as checks are carried out regularly. Instead, the letter dated 1919 may have \"been a collector's item which was being sent in another envelope and somehow came free of the outer packaging\".\n\nSection::::Kinds of letters.\n", "The practice of communication by written documents carried by an intermediary from one person or place to another almost certainly dates back nearly to the invention of writing. However, the development of formal postal systems occurred much later. The first documented use of an organized courier service for the diffusion of written documents is in Egypt, where Pharaohs used couriers for the diffusion of their decrees in the territory of the State (2400 BC). The earliest surviving piece of mail is also Egyptian, dating to 255 BC.\n\nSection::::History.:Persia (Iran).\n", "William Dockwra's 1680s London Penny Post also recorded all details on letters accepted for onward transmission, but unlike the General Post Office, gave compensation for losses.\n", "Some of the earliest official mail were the messages sent by kings, emperors and other rulers. The Cursus publicus was the official mail courier (and transportation) system created by the Roman Emperor, Augustus. Much later, one of the functions of the Thurn-und-Taxis-Post postal system was to carry the mail of Emperor Maximilan I in the Holy Roman Empire.\n", "Timeline of postal history\n\nThis is a partial timeline of significant events in postal history, including dates and events relating to postage stamps.\n\nSection::::First century.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cursus publicus\", the state-run courier (and transportation) service of the Roman Empire was established by Augustus.\n\nSection::::Fifteenth century.\n\nBULLET::::- 1497 - Franz von Taxis established a postal service on behalf of Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire\n\nSection::::Sixteenth century.\n\nBULLET::::- 1516 – Henry VIII established a \"Master of the Posts\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1520 - Manuel I creates the public mail service of Portugal, the Correio Público-Public Post Office.\n\nSection::::Seventeenth century.\n", "BULLET::::- - 1 July 1878\n\nBULLET::::- - 30 September 1976\n\nBULLET::::- - 28 June 1961\n\nBULLET::::- - 23 June 1961\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 April 1881\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 March 1914\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 April 1877\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 July 1881\n\nBULLET::::- - 29 July 1976\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 January 1886\n\nBULLET::::- - 5 July 1961\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 January 1883\n\nBULLET::::- - 23 May 1961\n\nBULLET::::- - 20 July 1992\n\nBULLET::::- - 4 October 1902\n\nBULLET::::- - 23 November 1961\n\nBULLET::::- - 18 March 1993\n\nSection::::D.\n\nBULLET::::- - 1 July 1875\n\nBULLET::::- - 6 June 1978\n", "Section::::History.:India.\n\nThe economic growth and political stability under the Mauryan empire (322–185 BC) saw the development of impressive civil infrastructure in ancient India. The Mauryans developed early Indian mail service as well as public wells, rest houses, and other facilities for the common public. Common chariots called \"Dagana\" were sometimes used as mail chariots in ancient India. Couriers were used militarily by kings and local rulers to deliver information through runners and other carriers. The postmaster, the head of the intelligence service, was responsible for ensuring the maintenance of the courier system. Couriers were also used to deliver personal letters.\n", "Section::::Life.:Recruitment of a courier.\n", "The earliest reference to a mail registration system dates to July 1556, during the reign of Mary Tudor, of England. In that example, \"the poste between this and the Northe should eche of them keepe a booke and entrye of every letter that he shall receive, the tyme of the deliverie thereof unto his hands with the parties names that shall bring it unto him, whose handes he shall also take to his booke, witnessing the same note to be trewe.\" This was likely for state security rather than mail security. In 1603, another Order of Council was made whereby all letters had to be recorded. This system was, in effect, a registration system, although it applied to all items sent via the post.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Philately\n\nBULLET::::- Philatelic literature\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Edith M. Faulstich's, Life History, Her Philatelic Articles & Historic Resources\n\nBULLET::::- Edith Margaret Faulstich\n\nBULLET::::- Library of Congress Archives, Newspaper and Periodical Room, MicroFilm # 1290\n\nBULLET::::- Hoover Institution, 434 Galvez Mall, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-6010\n\nBULLET::::- Edith M. Faulstich collection, 1918–1975, Location: Hoover Arch.: Stacks, Call Number: XX(4089165.1), Collection Name: Faulstich, Edith M. d. 1972, collector, 27 ms. boxes, 18 envelopes, 7 album boxes.\n", "Agentes in rebus\n\nThe agentes in rebus (, or , \"magistrianoí\", 'magister's men') were the late Roman imperial courier service and general agents of the central government from the 4th to the 7th centuries.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "For some time a department called the GPO Special Investigations Unit was responsible for intercepting letters (\"postal interception\") as part of British intelligence service operations. The unit had branches in every major sorting office in the UK and in St Martin's Le Grand GPO, near St Paul's Cathedral. Letters targeted for interception by the Special Investigations Unit were steamed open and the contents photographed, and the photographs were then sent in unmarked green vans to MI5.\n\nSection::::Military links.\n", "NSA reported that (according to the serial numbers of the Venona cables) thousands of cables were sent, but only a fraction were available to the cryptanalysts. Approximately 2,200 messages were decrypted and translated; about half of the 1943 GRU-Naval Washington to Moscow messages were broken, but none for any other year, although several thousand were sent between 1941 and 1945. The decryption rate of the NKVD cables was as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- 1942 1.8%\n\nBULLET::::- 1943 15.0%\n\nBULLET::::- 1944 49.0%\n\nBULLET::::- 1945 1.5%\n", "BULLET::::- Military mail is mail associated with any of the armed services or peacekeeping forces, or formed around any particular military campaign, like the First and Second Opium Wars, Spanish Civil War, World War I and II, or even the recent conflicts in Afghanistan or Iraq. Covers mailed from navy vessels are also widely sought, the cover usually having a distinctive postmark bearing the ship's name and date of mailing, the date often being of particular historical significance and interest. Many older letters from these sources, when available, provide insight into the conditions of the people involved.\n", "In ancient times the kings (or Raja), emperors (or Maharaja), rulers, zamindars (or the feudal lords) protected their land through the intelligence services of specially trained police or military agencies and courier services to convey and obtain information through runners, messengers and even through pigeons in most parts of India. The chief of the secret service, known as the Daakpaal (postmaster), maintained the lines of communication ... The people used to send letters to [their] distant relatives through their friends or neighbors.\n", "Basically, Courier 1B would receive messages or photographs, store them, and then re-transmit them. Courier 1B was: \n\n\"an experimental system to demonstrate the feasibility of using satellites for providing a solution to global communications problems. It was designed to store teletype messages and transmit them at high speed while the satellite is in view of a ground station ... orbiting Earth at 690 miles.\" \n", "BULLET::::- Marcophily is the study of postmarks, cancellation and postal markings applied by hand or machine. Though not strictly speaking a postal history topic can be collected as such. It offers vast areas to select a topic for study or collection as the marcopholist is more interested in the details, style and design of the markings than the reason why and where a letter was sent. Large cities that have many post offices offer great study opportunities due to the vast range of handstamps or machine cancellations in use over any time period.\n" ]

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[ "Butternut squash and Acorn squash have been known to cause an allergic reaction in many individuals, especially in food preparation where the squash skin is cut and exposed to the epidermis. Food handlers and kitchen workers often take precautions to wear rubber or latex gloves when peeling butternut and acorn squash to avoid temporary Butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata) dermatitis\n\nA contact dermatitis reaction to butternut or acorn squash may result in orange and cracked skin, a sensation of \"tightness\", \"roughness\" or \"rawness\".\n", "The English verb \"to blet\" was coined by John Lindley, in his \"Introduction to Botany\" (1835). He derived it from the French \"poire blette\" meaning 'overripe pear'. \"After the period of ripeness\", he wrote, \"most fleshy fruits undergo a new kind of alteration; their flesh either rots or blets.\"\n", "Lenticels are also present on many fruits, quite noticeably on many apples and pears. On European pears, they can serve as an indicator of when to pick the fruit, as light lenticels on the immature fruit darken and become brown and shallow from the formation of cork cells Certain bacterial and fungal infections can penetrate fruits through their lenticels, with susceptibility sometimes increasing with its age.\n", "Once the process is complete, the medlar flesh will have broken down enough that it can be spooned out of the skin. The taste of the sticky, mushy substance has been compared to sweet dates and dry applesauce, with a hint of cinnamon. In \"Notes on a Cellar-Book\", the great English oenophile George Saintsbury called bletted medlars the \"ideal fruit to accompany wine.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- , the final stage of fruit ripening in many, but not all fruits\n\nBULLET::::- , whose \"tamr\" (ripe, sun-dried) stage is similar to bletting\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pears\"- new shoots die back in spring, fruits develop hard brown flecks in the skin.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Strawberries\"- Stunted growth, foliage small, yellow and puckered at tips. Fruits are small and pale.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Swede (rutabaga)\" and \"turnip\"- brown or gray concentric rings develop inside the roots.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arecaceae\" (\"Palm Tree\") - brown spots on fronds & lower productivity.\n\nSection::::Soil conditions.\n", "As late as 1957, a single tree was said to be still standing on the site of the Bailey family orchard (which had since been replaced with a hospital).\n\nSection::::In apple breeding.\n", "Extensive necrosis of fruits that resemble in premature dropping is called shelling.\n\nSection::::Necroses.:Necrosis in woody tissues.\n\nNecrosis of woody tissue often brings about various types of die-back symptoms. Dieback is the extensive necrosis of a shoot from its tip downwards.\n\nRestricted necrosis of the bark and cortical tissue of stems and roots is termed as a canker. In cankers, necrotic tissue in the sunken lesions is sharply limited, usually by a callus from adjacent healthy tissue.\n", "Sclereids in fruits vary in form and use. In pears, sclereids from concentric clusters that grow about earlier formed sclereids. These pear sclereids, as well as sclereids within quince fruit, often form bordered pits when the cell wall increases in thickness during sclerification. In apples, layers of elongated sclereids form the endocarp that encloses the seeds.\n\nSection::::Seed sclereids.\n", "Climacteric (botany)\n\nThe climacteric is a stage of fruit ripening associated with increased ethylene production and a rise in cellular respiration. Apples, bananas, melons, apricots, and tomatoes, among others, are climacteric fruits; citrus, grapes, and strawberries are not climacteric (i.e., they ripen without ethylene and respiration bursts). However, non-climacteric melons and apricots do exist, and grapes and strawberries harbor several active ethylene receptors.\n", "When a newly hatched larva burrows under the skin of the fruit it leaves a characteristic ribbon scar; if the larva dies before it tunnels to the core, the fruit can continue to grow and later be harvested. More seriously damaged fruitlets fall from the tree. Certain varieties of dessert apple such as Discovery and Worcester Pearmain are particularly susceptible. Pears are unaffected. Sticky traps can be used to catch adult sawflies to monitor the levels of attack and assess whether pesticides would be economical to apply.\n\nSection::::Control.\n", "Russeting\n\nRusseting or russetting is an abnormality of fruit skin which manifests in russet-colored (brownish) patches that are rougher than healthy skin. It is a common feature in apples and pears. Russeting is typically an undesirable trait, which reduces the storage life of fruits and makes their appearance unattractive to consumers, although some cultivars, so-called russet apples, are appreciated for the feature. \n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "When the fruit is soft-ripe/fresh-ripe and still has the fresh, fully mature greenish/greenish-yellowish skin color, the texture is like that of a soft-ripe pear and papaya. If the skin is allowed to turn fully brown, yet the flesh has not fermented or gone \"bad\", then the texture can be custard-like. Often, when the skin turns brown at room temperature, the fruit is no longer good for human consumption. Also, the skin turns brown if it has been under normal refrigeration for too long - a day or two maybe.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Nutritional value.\n", "\"Mespilus germanica\" fruits are hard and acidic, but become edible after being softened, 'bletted', by frost, or naturally in storage given sufficient time. Once softening begins, the skin rapidly takes on a wrinkled texture and turns dark brown, and the inside reduces to the consistency and flavour reminiscent of apple sauce. This process can confuse those new to medlars, as a softened fruit looks as if it has spoiled.\n", "As a teenager in the 1870s, the horticulturist Liberty Hyde Bailey grafted Surprise onto a tree in his father's orchard in South Haven, Michigan, using scion wood that had come from Charles Downing. Years later, in his 1928 book \"The Garden Lover\", he wrote: \n\nI set those scions, and for many a year made pilgrimage to the tree and opened the green fruits to be surprised again and again at the pink flesh 'stained with red' as the original \"The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America\" has it.\n", "Sun scald on fruit appears when a fruit is exposed to direct sunlight after being in the shade for an extended period of time. The damage to fruit will often lead to the death of the fruit by consumption from insects, animals, bacteria, or fungi. This is the case if the defenses of the fruit are rendered useless, which is the case when the outer skin is damaged to the point that the cell walls are either gone, or so thin that the plant’s enemies can get through it. Some times the sun scalding is a more internal damage and, although it destroys the fruit in a productive sense, the fruit is able fend off attacks and recover if placed back into an ideal setting.\n", "Ripening\n\nRipening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green (typically \"redder\"), and softer as it ripens. Even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio.\n\nSection::::Ripening agents.\n\nRipening agents speed up the ripening process.\n", "Bletting\n\nBletting is a process of softening that certain fleshy fruits undergo, beyond ripening. There are some fruits that are either sweeter after some bletting, such as sea buckthorn, or for which most varieties can be eaten raw only after bletting, such as medlars, persimmons, quince, service tree fruit, and wild service tree fruit (\"chequers\"). The rowan or mountain ash fruit must be bletted and cooked to be edible, to break down the toxic parasorbic acid (hexenollactone) into sorbic acid.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The apple skin is a yellow, flushed orange, streaked red with russet at the base and apex. The yellow flesh is firm, fine-grained, and sweet with a pear taste. Irregularly shaped and sometimes lopsided, the apple is usually round to conical in shape and flattened at the base with distinct ribbing. Weather conditions during ripening cause a marbling or water coring of the flesh, and in very hot weather, the fruit will ripen prematurely.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "Surprise (apple)\n\n'Surprise' is a pink-fleshed apple that is the ancestor of many of the present-day pink/red-fleshed apples bred by American growers.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As mentioned previously, the term lenticel is usually associated with the breakage of periderm tissue that is associated with gas exchange; however, lenticels also refer to the lightly colored spots found on apples (a type of pome fruit). \"Lenticel\" seems to be the most appropriate term to describe both structures mentioned in light of their similar function in gas exchange. Pome lenticels can be derived from (1) no longer functioning stomata, (2) epidermal breaks from the removal of trichomes, and (3) other epidermal breaks that usually occur in the early development of young pome fruits. The closing of pome lenticels can arise when the cuticle over the stomata opening or the substomatal layer seals. Closing can also begin if the substomatal cells become suberized, like cork. The number of lenticels usually varies between the species of apples, where the range may be from 450 to 800 or from 1500 to 2500 in Winesap and Spitzenburg apples, respectively. This wide range may be due to the water availability during the early stages of development of each apple type.\n", "Climacteric is the final physiological process that marks the end of fruit maturation and the beginning of fruit senescence. Its defining point is a sudden rise in respiration of the fruit, and normally takes place without any external influences. After the climacteric period, respiration rates (noted by carbon dioxide production) return to or dip below the pre-climacteric rates. The climacteric event also leads to other changes in the fruit, including pigment changes and sugar release. For those fruits raised as food, the climacteric event marks the peak of edible ripeness, with fruits having the best taste and texture for consumption. After the event, fruits are more susceptible to fungal invasion and begin to degrade by cell death.\n", "Plum curculio beetles can cause irreparable damage to a fruit harvest. In badly damaged fruit, one can identify large scars and bumps due to feeding. Most internally damaged fruit (through burrowing into the fruit) drops prematurely.\n\nSection::::Control.\n", "In common language usage, \"fruit\" normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet or sour, and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. On the other hand, in botanical usage, \"fruit\" includes many structures that are not commonly called \"fruits\", such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains. The section of a fungus that produces spores is also called a fruiting body.\n\nSection::::Botanic fruit and culinary fruit.\n", "They are found on unripe fruit and are difficult to observe later in the season. Unlike hard spot lesions, no pycnidia are present.\n\nSection::::Fruit Symptoms and Signs.:Cracked Spot Lesions.\n\nThese lesions occur on both unripe and ripe fruit. They are large, slightly raised, dark brown spots. Cracked spot lesions do not contain pycnidia. They create raised cracks on the fruit surface that can be difficult to see later in the season. Studies have suggested a possible interaction between cracked spot lesions and rust mite colonization.\n\nSection::::Fruit Symptoms and Signs.:Freckle Spot Lesions.\n", "This is an incomplete list of fruits that are ripening and non-ripening after picking.\n\nSection::::Ripening regulation.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Foundations.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:CCD camera technique.:Optimal beam size on the CCD detector.\n", "Section::::Colors and wavelengths.:Yellow.\n\nNew 589 nm yellow laser pointers have been introduced using a more robust and of harmonic generation from a DPSS laser system. This \"sodium\" wavelength, although only 4.5 nm away from the older 593.5 nm, appears more gold in colour compared to the more amber appearance of the 593.5 nm wavelength. Astronomical observatories use a specially tuned dye laser at 589.2 nm (yellow) to create a laser guide star for use with astronomical adaptive optics.\n\nSection::::Colors and wavelengths.:Green.\n", "as a consumer product that displays images and videos measuring 100 inches (254 centimeters) with a full high-definition resolution of 1920 x 1080 pixels. It can project images onto the screen at a distance of 22 inches (56 centimeters).\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nLasers may become an ideal replacement for the UHP lamps which are currently in use in projection display devices such as rear projection TV and front projectors. LG claims a lifetime of 25,000 hours for their laser projector, compared to 10,000 hours for a UHP.\n", "The first laser tracker was invented in 1987 by Dr. Kam Lau, CEO of API (Automated Precision, Inc.) while at NIST and made commercially available by API in 1988 with its first production unit being made available to Boeing under a 9 month lease agreement. Tennessee Technology University received an API 6-D laser tracker in 1989. Instruments were later produced by Kern in 1991 following a technology agreement with API. Currently, there are three well known manufacturers of Laser Trackers; API, Faro, and Leica.\n\nSection::::References and sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Bridges. “How Laser Trackers Work.” \"Quality Digest\", June 25, 2009.\n", "By directing the sampled light in the higher order(s) onto a detector, it is possible to monitor, in real time, not only the power levels of a laser beam, but also its profile, and other laser characteristics.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:CCD camera technique.:Attenuation techniques.:Optical wedges.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:CCD camera technique.:Attenuation techniques.\n\nSince CCD sensors are highly sensitive, attenuation is almost always needed for proper beam profiling. For example, 40 dB (ND 4 or 10) of attenuation is typical for a milliwatt HeNe laser. Proper attenuation has the following properties:\n\nBULLET::::- It does not result in multiple reflections leaving a ghost image on the CCD sensor\n\nBULLET::::- It does not result in interference fringes due to reflections between parallel surfaces or diffraction by defects\n", "The Laserex P90 laser systems have a weight of 131 g (0.29 lb), and they are activated by means of a green pressure switch located on the underside of the weapon's pistol grip. The lasers can be configured for three different internal settings: \"Off\" – disabled to prevent accidental activation, \"Training\" – low intensity for eye safety and extended battery life in training, or \"Combat\" – high intensity for maximum visibility. The Laserex P90 laser systems have a battery life of 250 hours when used on the \"Training\" setting, or a life of 50 hours when used on the \"Combat\" setting.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Semi-automatic models.\n", "The laser beam is fanned to produce a thin plane beam accurately horizontal or vertical, rather than a pinpoint beam. The axis of the laser is offset from the wall, so that a pinpoint beam would be parallel to and offset from the wall, and would not illuminate it; the fanned beam will intersect the wall, creating an accurately horizontal (or vertical) illuminated line along it.\n", "The machine is set up using the built-in spirit level or plumb bob, and the line along the surface is then guaranteed to be accurately horizontal or vertical to within a certain tolerance, specified either in millimetres per metre or fractions of an inch over a specified distance in feet. A more advanced device may be accurate to within 0.3 mm/m; while lower-end models may be closer to 1.5 mm/m.\n\nThe illuminated line is necessarily absolutely straight, so that the line level can be used as a straightedge; for example, to see if a shelf is warped, even if not horizontal.\n", "In addition to the safety hazards of unfiltered IR from DPSS lasers, the IR component may be inclusive of total output figures in some laser pointers.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Due to the special features of laser projectors, such as a high depth of field, it is possible to project images or data onto any kind of projection surface, even non-flat. Typically, the sharpness, color space, and contrast ratio are higher than those of other projection technologies. For example, the on-off contrast of a laser projector is typically 50,000:1 and higher, while modern DLP and LCD projectors range from 1000:1 to 40,000:1. In comparison to conventional projectors, laser projectors provide a lower luminous flux output, but because of the extremely high contrast the brightness actually appears to be greater.\n", "Each beamline contains two main glass amplifiers, which are optically pumped using xenon flashlamps. In order to extract more power from the amplifiers, which are not particularly efficient in transmitting power to the beam, the laser pulse is sent through the amplifiers twice by an optical switch in front of a mirror.\n", "From there, the laser light is fed into a very long spatial filter to clean up the resulting pulse. The filter is essentially a telescope that focuses the beam into a spot some distance away, where a small pinhole located at the focal point cuts off any \"stray\" light caused by inhomogeneities in the laser beam. The beam then widens out until a second lens returns it to a straight beam again. It is the use of spatial filters that lead to the long beamlines seen in ICF laser devices. In the case of HiPER, the filters take up about 50% of the overall length. The beam width at exit of the driver system is about 40 cm × 40 cm.\n", "The laser receiver detects the height of laser plane with an array of photo diodes, generally a series of photo diodes in 9\" strip with a gap between diodes equal to the width of the beam. the receiver reads the height with the sensors and convert to a usable analog or digital signal and sends to the machine control unit. Modern systems use CAN protocol for the output signals where old systems use a 4/5/6 channel analog current signal.\n\nSection::::System Components.:Control unit.\n", "Furthermore, usual laser sources start lasing at a voltage between 1-2 volts and reach their full brightness at voltages between 3.5-4V, and the power/voltage curve between these points are usually not perfectly linear. Consequently, the dynamics of the color palette in a real lasershow use is decreased to only a few thousands of different colors.\n\nSection::::Typical terminology.:TTL Modulation.\n", "Point-to-point laser technology\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nMost commonly used for as-built and existing conditions documentation or converting the built environment into a digital format.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "An analog signal is used to control the intensity of the output beam. This signal is usually a voltage in the range of 0 V to 5 V. With an RGB laser and analog modulation there are, with an 8 bit system, 16.7 million colours at one's disposal.\n\nHowever, since most laser show software uses a 0-100% control for laser brightness modulation (so 100 steps instead of 255), the total of available colours at disposal is 1'000'000.\n", "At the same time, a few higher-powered (120 mW) 404–405 nm \"violet\" laser pointers have become available that are not based on GaN, but use DPSS frequency-doubler technology from 1-watt 808 nm GaAlAs infrared diode lasers. As with infrared-driven green laser pointers above, such devices are able to pop balloons and light matches, but this is as a result of an unfiltered high-power infrared component in the beam.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Pointing.\n", "BULLET::::- Phase-front technique: The beam is passed through a 2D array of tiny lenses in a Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor. Each lens will redirect its portion of the beam, and from the position of the deflected beamlet, the phase of the original beam can be reconstructed.\n\nBULLET::::- Historical techniques: These include the use of photographic plates and burn plates. For example, high-power carbon dioxide lasers were profiled by observing slow burns into acrylate blocks.\n", "A rapidly rotating polygonal mirror gives the laser beam the horizontal refresh modulation. It reflects off of a curved mirror onto a galvanometer-mounted mirror which provides the vertical refresh. Another way is to optically spread the beam and modulate each entire line at once, much like in a DLP, reducing the peak power needed in the laser and keeping power consumption constant.\n\nSection::::Assembly.:Display characteristics.\n\nBULLET::::- Maintain full power output for the lifespan of the laser; the picture quality will not degrade\n", "The three major components are the \"Spectrometer Unit\", the \"Control and Excitation Unit\" (includes the power converters), and \"Optical head\".\n\nSection::::Principle and operation.\n", "Near the \"waist\" (or focal region) of a laser beam, it is highly \"collimated\": the wavefronts are planar, normal to the direction of propagation, with no beam divergence at that point. However, due to diffraction, that can only remain true well within the Rayleigh range. The beam of a single transverse mode (gaussian beam) laser eventually diverges at an angle which varies inversely with the beam diameter, as required by diffraction theory. Thus, the \"pencil beam\" directly generated by a common helium–neon laser would spread out to a size of perhaps 500 kilometers when shone on the Moon (from the distance of the earth). On the other hand, the light from a semiconductor laser typically exits the tiny crystal with a large divergence: up to 50°. However even such a divergent beam can be transformed into a similarly collimated beam by means of a lens system, as is always included, for instance, in a laser pointer whose light originates from a laser diode. That is possible due to the light being of a single spatial mode. This unique property of laser light, spatial coherence, cannot be replicated using standard light sources (except by discarding most of the light) as can be appreciated by comparing the beam from a flashlight (torch) or spotlight to that of almost any laser.\n", "Section::::Types of tunability.:Narrowband tuning.\n\nFor some types of lasers the laser's cavity length can be modified, and thus they can be continuously tuned over a significant wavelength range. \n" ]

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[ "Sugar is added to ingredients lists under dozens of different names, which, where ingredients lists are in order from largest to smallest quantity, can let sugars appear spuriously lower on the ingredients list.\n\nSection::::Labelling.:2016 US nutritional labelling changes.\n\nIn 2016, the FDA enacted new requirements for US nutrition labels, which include calorie count in larger type and a separate line for added sugars. By July 2018 most manufacturers will need to use the new label.\n", "Danone Actimel plain 0% contains 3.3 g of sugar, original plain contains 10.5 g of sugar, multifruit contains 12.0 g of sugar for every serving (100 g). None of those concentrations is higher than the level defined as \"HIGH\" by the UK Food Standards Agency (described for concentrations of sugar above 15 g per 100 g). As a comparison, Coca-Cola and orange juices are also in the range of 10 g of sugar per 100 g, but with a serving size usually higher than 250 ml the total sugar quantity is much higher.\n", "BULLET::::- Nutritional Information– Although it is not a legal requirement to declare Nutritional information on the product, if the manufacturer makes claims that the product is 'Low in Sugar', it must be supported with nutritional information (normally in tabulated form). However, as a rule, it is recommended to declare nutritional information as consumers, more than ever, are investigating this information before making a purchase. Moreover, there are two European nutritional labelling standards which must be adhered to if nutritional information is shown.\n", "Each pack weighs 15–18 g and contains about 38 Tic Tacs. New packs in Australia and Canada weigh 24 g and contain 50 Tic Tacs, and the Tic Tac \"100 pack\" weighs 49 g and contains 100 Tic Tacs. The \"Big Pack\" weighs 29 grams (1 ounce) and contains 60 pieces. The \"Bottle Pack\" weighs 98 grams (3.4 ounce) and contains 200 pieces.\n\nEach Tic Tac weighs just under 0.5 g. US Federal regulations state that if a single serving contains less than 0.5 g of sugars it is allowable to express the amount of sugar in a serving as zero.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Smint\n\nBULLET::::- Certs\n", "Sugarwise\n\nSugarwise is the international certification authority for sugar claims on food and drink. It assesses foods and beverages on the basis of their sugar claims.\n\nThe authority certifies and allows use of its logo on products with no more than 5g of free sugars in 100g in a food or 2.5g of free sugars in 100ml in a beverage, that can also carry a sugar claim. The low free sugar standard is derived from the World Health Organisation guidelines for daily intake of free sugars.\n\nSection::::The Sugarwise Test.\n", "The Sugarwise test distinguishes between free sugars and intrinsic sugars in a food or drink product for the first time and was developed by Cambridge University Scientists.\n\nSugarwise adheres to the WHO guidelines on free sugar content: \"Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates.\"\n\nSection::::Policy and Public Affairs.\n\nSection::::Policy and Public Affairs.:#DontTaxHealthy.\n", "The inclusion of such a definition caused issues for the WHO with sugar companies, who attempted to get the US government to remove funding from the WHO for suggesting that consumption of free sugars within the food pyramid should only amount to a maximum of 10% of the total energy intake, and that there should be no minimum (i.e. there is no requirement for any free sugars in the human diet) on the basis that the report did not take into account the evidence supplied by the sugar industry. The report in question specifically includes references to the evidence, but was unable to use it for a health basis, as the studies did not offer effective evidence of an impact on health, and referred to such studies as \"limited\".\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nThe principal definition of free sugars was to split the term \"carbohydrate\" into elements that relate more directly to the impact on health rather than a chemical definition, and followed on from meta-studies relating to chronic disease, obesity, and dental decay. It also led to the WHO and FAO to publish a revised food pyramid that splits up the classic food groups into more health-directed groups, which appears, as yet, to have had little impact on the food pyramids in use around the world.\n", "A typical sugar packet in the United States contains 2 to 4 grams of sugar. Some sugar packets in countries such as Poland contain 5 to 10 grams of sugar. Sugar packet sizes, shapes, and weights differ by brand, region, and other factors. Because a gram of any carbohydrate contains 4 nutritional calories (also referred to as \"food calories\" or kilo-calories), a typical four gram sugar packet has 16 nutritional calories.\n", "On May 20, 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list \"Added sugars\" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the World Health Organization. To put this in context, most 12 ounce (335 mL) cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and 99 g/day.\n", "Proposed changes included a new design requiring serving sizes to more accurately reflect how many servings the average individual is actually consuming. The new recommendation also proposed removing “calories from fat”, and instead focusing on total calories and type of fats being consumed in a product. The proposed labels were to also list how much sugar is added (rather than inherent) to a product, as well as declaring the amount of Vitamin D and potassium in a product. Some of these changes sparked a major debate between the food industry and public health agencies. The proposal to indicate sugar added during food production, in particular, was brought forward by the FDA as a measure to counter the increase in per capita sugar consumption in the US, which over the last decades exceeded the limits recommended by scientific institutions and governmental agencies. Major American food associations opposed the label change, indicating \"lack of merit\" and \"no preponderance of evidence\" to justify the inclusion of sugar added in the new label.\n", "Free sugars are defined by the World Health Organization and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization in multiple reports as \"all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook, or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, and fruit juices\". The term is used to distinguish between the sugars that are naturally present in fully unrefined carbohydrates such as brown rice, wholewheat pasta, fruit, etc. and those sugars (or carbohydrates) that have been, to some extent, refined (normally by humans but sometimes by animals, such as the sugars in honey). They are referred to as \"sugars\" since they cover multiple chemical forms, including sucrose, glucose, fructose, dextrose, etc.\n", "The new FDA requirements were initially proposed in 2014, they met with strong opposition from sugar and sugary food producers. Industry claimed the new rule lacked any scientific justification. Many specific companies also wrote letters requesting certain products to be exempt from the rule. The head of Ocean Spray Cranberries wrote a letter to the FDA explaining that cranberries without sugar are \"unpalatable\" and claimed that they needed to be an exception to the bill. The American Beverage Association wanted the measurement on the back of their labels to be in grams instead of teaspoons, saying that teaspoon measurements would carry a negative connotation that misrepresents the factual nature of nutritional information.\n", "GDAs are guidelines for healthy adults and children about the approximate amount of calories, fat, saturated fat, total sugars, and sodium/salt. The GDA labels have the percentage of daily value per serving and the absolute amount per serving of these categories. The front-of-packages (FOP) GDAs must at least have calories listed, but the back-of-package (BOP) GDAs must list, at a minimum, these five key nutrients: Energy, Fat, Saturates, Sugar and Salt\n", "Here are some deceptive practices:\n\nBULLET::::- Distribute sugar amounts among many ingredients\n\nBULLET::::- Include \"healthy\" ingredients to make it appear to be healthy\n\nBULLET::::- Use scientific names of ingredients to mask their nutritional value\n\nBULLET::::- Use advertising or catch phrases to sell their product\n\nBULLET::::- Not including contaminants (heavy metal, toxic substances)\n\nBULLET::::- Using phrases like \"zero grams of trans fat\" because there is less than one gram in the serving size. This means there can be more than a gram of trans fat in the product though.\n", "Pure beet sugar is difficult to find, so labelled, in the marketplace. Although some makers label their product clearly as \"pure cane sugar\", beet sugar is almost always labeled simply as sugar or pure sugar. Interviews with the 5 major beet sugar-producing companies revealed that many store brands or \"private label\" sugar products are pure beet sugar. The lot code can be used to identify the company and the plant from which the sugar came, enabling beet sugar to be identified if the codes are known.\n\nSection::::Production.:Types.:Culinary sugars.\n\nSection::::Production.:Types.:Culinary sugars.:Mill white.\n", "All percentages are \"percentages of calories\", not of weight or volume. To understand why, consider the determination of an amount of \"10% free sugar\" to include in a day's worth of calories. For the same amount of calories, free sugars take up less volume and weight, being refined and extracted \"from the competing carbohydrates in their natural form\". In a similar manner, all the items are in competition for various categories of calories.\n\nThe representation as a pyramid is not precise, and involves variations due to the alternative percentages of different elements, but the main sections can be represented.\n", "In addition to using the “healthy” food label to draw customers to low nutrition foods, food marketers have used a variety of “low content,” like low fat, low calorie, etc claims to assuage consumer’s health concerns and to potentially mislead them. “Low content” claims are labels or other advertised claims that appear on packages and or in advertisements are used so that consumers perceive the products they buy as being healthier or more nutritious. Misleading food health assertions of this nature are both widespread in food marketing and also not reflective of the actual nutritional or health quality of the food or beverage in question. These claims are not consistent among all food and beverage groups, although some of them do accurately represent the nutritional and or health benefits of a certain food or beverage, often this does not guarantee that all claims across all beverages and foods are reflective of actual nutrition. Additionally, even if a certain product is in fact low fat or any one of the different types of “low content” claims, consumers often focus on the claim and neglect other health considerations like added sugars, calories, and other unhealthy ingredients.\n", "Though sucralose contains no calories, products that contain fillers, such as maltodextrin and/or dextrose, add about 2–4 calories per teaspoon or individual packet, depending on the product, the fillers used, brand, and the intended use of the product. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allows for any product containing fewer than five calories per serving to be labeled as \"zero calories\".\n", "With regards to health claims and nutrition (composition) claims, these are harmonised in the EU through Regulation 1924/2006, amended. In November 2012, the European Commission published two new regulations: Regulation (EC) No. 1047/2012 and Regulation (EC) No.1048/2012.\n\nCertain nutrition claim groups as of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 had to be changed. Moreover, the health claims associated to barley beta-gluten were amended (e.g. lowering blood cholesterol).\n\nWithin Regulation 1924, there are legal definitions of terms such as \"low fat\", \"high fibre\", \"reduced calories\".\n", "Producers of honey and maple syrup have objected to the proposed Federal regulatory requirement that honey and maple syrup include the term \"added sugar\" on product labeling, despite the fact that no additional sugar is added to these products. This regulatory requirement follows from the recommendation in the 2015–2020 Guidelines that added sugars be limited to less than 10% of calories and that honey and maple syrup are themselves considered by federal regulators to be added sugars.\n", "Minimal nutritional value\n\nMinimal nutritional value, in United States law, refers to foods that may not be sold in competition with the school lunch and breakfast programs. These are foods that USDA has determined contain little to no nutritional value. For example, sugar candy, soda pop without fruit juices, and chewing gum are considered to be foods of minimal nutritional value. Candy containing nuts or chocolate is considered to have some nutritional value.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe USDA defines these categories of food as having minimal nutritional value:\n\nBULLET::::- Soda water, including diet soda\n", "BULLET::::- Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620 kg/m^3)\n\nBULLET::::- Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL\n\nBULLET::::- Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "Furthermore EFSA is searching for comments (Open Consultation) by 15 October, in order to validate its assumptions on the need to have:\n\nBULLET::::- carbohydrates comprising 45%–60% of the overall daily caloric intake\n\nBULLET::::- fats being comprised among 20%–35% of the overall caloric intake\n\nBULLET::::- fibre needs: complying with 25 grams/day\n\nEFSA considers that there are not sufficient data to set DRVs for sugars, and not systematic scientific substantiation linking diseases such as stroke or diabetes (DMT1 or DMT2) to an increased intake of sugars (glycemic load/glycemic index).\n", "Manufacturers and marketers are only allowed to use COSMOS terms and signatures for products authorized by the certification body. The certification body must be identified on product labels if it is not clearly mentioned anywhere else on the product. In cases in which the label size restricts product labeling, the certification body may allow flexibility as long as the product maintains the general principles of the Labeling Guide. The firm must at least mention the nature of the certification (such as organic or natural) and the identity of the certification body.\n\nSection::::Product Identification.\n" ]

[ "Seeing Sugars 0g should eliminate the possibility of sugar in the ingredient list." ]

[ "Labeling laws are complex and allow for some room for sugar in sugar free labelled items. .5g of sugar can be in sugar free items by law. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Seeing Sugars 0g should eliminate the possibility of sugar in the ingredient list." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Labeling laws are complex and allow for some room for sugar in sugar free labelled items. .5g of sugar can be in sugar free items by law. " ]

[ "The main difference between a vegan and vegetarian diet is that vegans exclude dairy products and eggs. Ethical vegans avoid them on the premise that their production causes animal suffering and premature death. In egg production, most male chicks are culled because they do not lay eggs. To obtain milk from dairy cattle, cows are made pregnant to induce lactation; they are kept lactating for three to seven years, then slaughtered. Female calves can be separated from their mothers within 24 hours of birth, and fed milk replacer to retain the cow's milk for human consumption. Most male calves are slaughtered at birth, sent for veal production, or reared for beef.\n", "During a simulated dinosaur encounter in the third episode of \"Prehistoric Park\", Marven declared himself a vegetarian. Throughout the series he applies the same term to naturally herbivorous animals. In the second episode of \"Untamed China\" series he says the team cooked vegetarian food especially for him. Nigel confirms he is a vegetarian on his official website by stating that the Peregrine falcon is his favourite animal and that he would love to be such a bird, but because he is a vegetarian eating raw pigeon would make that hard. In \"Panda Adventure\" Marven states that he is \"usually teetotal\" when having a celebratory drink with a team of Chinese trackers who led him to see pandas close-up in the wild.\n", "Section::::Dietary pattern.\n\nAll semi-vegetarians could accurately be described as people who eat a plant-based diet, but there is no firm consensus how infrequently someone would have to eat meat and fish for their diet to be considered a semi-vegetarian diet rather than a regular plant-based diet. The average American consumed an estimated of meat in 2018, so comparatively a semi-vegetarian would have to eat much less. Once someone is able to consistently forgo meat for 5+ days a week, they can be considered a flexitarian. \n", "Vegetarianism may be defined as the practice of consuming foods that are primarily derived from plants, with or without dairy products, eggs, and/or honey. Veganism is a subset of vegetarianism, in which all animal-derived food products are entirely excluded from the diet. Those who choose to practice veganism beyond vegetarianism typically do so because of moral, ethical, and animal welfare concerns. For this reason, people who practice veganism may wish to reflect their morals by having their pet maintained on a vegan diet as well.\n\nSection::::History of plant-based dog diets.\n", "Individuals sometimes label themselves \"vegetarian\" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet, as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish, or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat, while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh. In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as \"flexitarian\".\n\nThese diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:\n", "Similar to Australia, in New Zealand the term \"vegetarian\" refers to individuals who eat no animal meat such as pork, chicken, and fish; they may consume animal products such as milk and eggs. In contrast, the term \"vegan\" is used to describe those who do not eat or use any by-products of animals. In 2002 New Zealand's vegetarians made up a minority of 1-2% of the country’s 4.5 million people. By 2011 Roy Morgan Research claimed the number of New Zealanders eating an \"all or almost all\" vegetarian diet to be 8.1%, growing to 10.3% in 2015 (with men providing the most growth, up 63% from 5.7% to 9.3%). In New Zealand there is a strong enough movement for vegetarianism that it has created significant enough demand for a number of vegetarian and vegan retailers to set up.\n", "Section::::Ethics and diet.:Dairy and eggs.\n\nOne of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering or a premature death.\n", "Vegetarian and vegan dog diet\n\nLike the human practice of veganism, vegan dog foods are those formulated with the exclusion of ingredients that contain or were processed with any part of an animal, or any animal byproduct. Vegan dog food may incorporate the use of fruits, vegetables, cereals, legumes, nuts, vegetable oils, soya, as well as any other non-animal based foods. The omnivorous domestic canine has evolved to metabolize carbohydrates and thrive on a diet lower in protein, and therefore, a vegan diet may be substantial if properly formulated and balanced.\n\nSection::::Vegetarian vs. vegan diet.\n", "There are many other methods currently used and under development. However, to be certified DEMETER BIODYNAMIC the regular BD preparations must be used. Because the BD preparations require the slaughtering of deer and cows and BD preps must be used in the compost for soil amendments, sprayed on the fields, the DEMETER certified products cannot claim to be vegan or vegetarian.\n\nSection::::Practices.\n", "The annual Vegan PlantFest was held on February 24, 2018, at Tanaka Farms in Irvine, California.\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:California.:Long Beach.\n", "The term \"vegetarian\" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable regimen or diet. Modern dictionaries based on scientific linguistic principles explain its origin as an irregular compound of \"vegetable\" and the suffix \"-arian\" (in the sense of \"supporter, believer\" as in \"humanitarian\"). The earliest-known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble, in her \"Journal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838–1839\".\n\nSection::::Origins.:History.\n", "Vegetarianism by country\n\nVegetarianism by country is the comparison of vegetarian and vegan dietary practices among countries. It identifies food standards, laws, and general cultural attitudes of vegetarian diets. Some countries have strong cultural or religious traditions that promote vegetarianism, such as India, while other countries have secular ethical concerns, including animal rights, environmental protection, and health concerns. In many countries, food labelling laws make it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.\n\nSection::::Demographics.\n", "Section::::Vegan diet.\n\nVegan diets are based on grains and other seeds, legumes (particularly beans), fruits, vegetables, edible mushrooms, and nuts.\n\nSection::::Vegan diet.:Soy.\n\nMeatless products based on soybeans (tofu), or wheat-based seitan are sources of plant protein, commonly in the form of vegetarian sausage, mince, and veggie burgers.\n", "Non-vegetarian\n\nNon-vegetarian is an Indian English word that is used to refer to a person who is not a vegetarian i.e. someone who consumes meat, especially as a major source of protein.\n\nAlthough the meaning is readily understood, this term is not common parlance in most English-speaking countries where meat consumption is the norm and vegetarianism or veganism is rare.\n\nA related word is Eggetarian, that refers to a vegetarian who consume egg-based products but not meat.\n\nSection::::In popular usage.\n", "The Erie VegFest of the Erie Vegan and Vegetarian Society happens in the fall in Erie.\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:Pennsylvania.:Johnstown.\n\nThe annual NAVS Vegan Summerfest was held at the University of Pittsburgh-Johnstown from July 4–8, 2018, in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. About 600 registered for the 5-day annual event. The event will be held at UP until further notice. Vegan cookbook author and culinary celebrity Chef AJ was admitted to The Vegan Hall of Fame, previously The Vegetarian Hall of Fame, and given the annual award.\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:Pennsylvania.:Lancaster.\n", "In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases. According to a 2006 report it is responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as estimated in 100-year CO equivalents. Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents. This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.\n", "According to a 2015 poll by the newspaper \"Globe\" and Channel 2, 8% of the Israeli population were vegetarians and 5% were vegans. 13% consider turning vegan or vegetarian. Tel Aviv beat out Berlin, New York and Chennai as U.S. food website The Daily Meal's top destination for vegan travelers.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Malaysia.\n\nVegetarian diets are categorized as lacto vegetarianism, ovo-lacto vegetarianism, and veganism in general. The reasons for being vegetarian include influence from friends and family members, concern about global warming, health issues and weight management, religion and mercy for animals, in descending order of significance.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Singapore.\n", "Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. \"Dietary vegans\" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term \"ethical vegan\" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is \"environmental veganism\", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n", "Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats, on an infrequent basis. Those with diets containing fish or poultry may define \"meat\" only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as \"fish but no other meat\". The common-use association between such diets and vegetarianism has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to state that diets containing these ingredients are not vegetarian, because fish and birds are also animals.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "\"Animal Ingredients A to Z\" (2004) and \"Veganissimo A to Z\" (2013) list which ingredients might be animal-derived. The British Vegan Society's sunflower logo and PETA's bunny logo mean the product is certified vegan, which includes no animal testing. The Leaping Bunny logo signals no animal testing, but it might not be vegan. The Vegan Society criteria for vegan certification are that the product contain no animal products, and that neither the finished item nor its ingredients have been tested on animals by, or on behalf of, the manufacturer or by anyone over whom the manufacturer has control. Its website contains a list of certified products, as does Australia's Choose Cruelty Free (CCF).\n", "It is referred to by the English word \"vegetarian\"; however, though it rejects meat, eggs, and milk, this diet may include oysters and oyster products or otherwise be pescetarian for some believers. Many lay Taoists who follow modern sects such as that of Yi Guan Dao or Master Ching Hai are vegan or strictly vegetarian. \n\nSection::::Other religions.:Faithist/Oahspe.\n", "Section::::Vegan diet.:Health research.\n\n, few studies were rigorous in their comparison of omnivore, vegetarian, and vegan diets, making it difficult to discern whether health benefits attributed to veganism might also apply to vegetarian diets or diets that include moderate meat intake.\n", "Section::::Environmental impact of animal products.\n\nFour-fifths of agricultural emissions arise from the livestock sector.\n", "Vegan permaculture (also known as veganic permaculture, veganiculture, or vegaculture) avoids the use of domesticated animals. It is essentially the same as permaculture except for the addition of a fourth core value; \"Animal Care.\" Zalan Glen, a raw vegan, proposes that \"vegaculture\" should emerge from permaculture in the same way veganism split from vegetarianism in the 1940s. Vegan permaculture recognizes the importance of free-living animals, not domesticated animals, to create a balanced ecosystem.\n\nSection::::Types.:Veganic gardening.\n", "Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of all animal products, particularly in diet. Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects and the flesh of any other animal and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter). Vegetarians, however, may consume eggs, dairy products and honey.\n\nSection::::Alternatives and reactions.:Ahimsa.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Commonly-used long-acting opioids and their parent compound:\n\nBULLET::::- OxyContin (oxycodone)\n\nBULLET::::- Hydromorph Contin (hydromorphone)\n\nBULLET::::- MS Contin (morphine)\n\nBULLET::::- M-Eslon (morphine)\n\nBULLET::::- Exalgo (hydromorphone)\n\nBULLET::::- Opana ER (oxymorphone)\n\nBULLET::::- Duragesic (fentanyl)\n\nBULLET::::- Nucynta ER (tapentadol)\n\nBULLET::::- Metadol/Methadose (methadone)*\n\nBULLET::::- Hysingla ER (hydrocodone bitartrate)\n\nBULLET::::- Zohydro ER (hydrocodone bicarbonate)\n\n*Methadone can be used for either treatment of opioid addiction/detoxification when taken once daily or as a pain medication usually administered on an every 12-hour or 8-hour dosing interval.\n\n*The long-lasting version of OxyContin was a major contributor of the opioid epidemic.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.\n", "Mild sufferers may find sufficient pain relief with tramadol or amitriptyline. Sufferers of more severe and widespread EM symptoms, however, may obtain relief only from opioid drugs. Opana ER has been found to be effective for many in the USA, whilst in the UK slow-release morphine has proved to be effective. These powerful and potentially-addictive drugs may be prescribed to patients only after they have tried almost every other type of analgesia to no avail. (This delay in appropriate pain management can be a result of insurer-mandated or legally-required step therapy, or merely overly-cautious prescribing on the part of sufferers' doctors.)\n", "For moderate pain, tramadol, codeine, dihydrocodeine, and hydrocodone are used, with nicocodeine, ethylmorphine and propoxyphene and dextropropoxyphene less commonly.\n\nDrugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain, for example, amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it and/or with an NSAID.\n\nWhile opiates are often used in the management of chronic pain, high doses are associated with an increased risk of opioid overdose.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Opioids.\n", "Opioids such as oxycodone, morphine, hydrocodone, and fentanyl are effective in reducing pain. These drugs must be prescribed and monitored under close supervision of a physician, as these drugs may be addictive. Thus far, no long-term studies of oral opioid use in treating neuropathic pain, including CRPS, have been performed. Even without solid scientific support, though, most experts believe that opioids should be given as part of a comprehensive pain treatment program for CRPS. Opioids should be prescribed immediately if other medications do not provide sufficient analgesia.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.:Spinal cord stimulators.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Functional selectivity.\n\nA new strategy of drug development takes receptor signal transduction into consideration. This strategy strives to increase the activation of desirable signalling pathways while reducing the impact on undesirable pathways. This differential strategy has been given several names, including functional selectivity and biased agonism. The first opioid that was intentionally designed as a biased agonist and placed into clinical evaluation is the drug oliceridine. It displays analgesic activity and reduced adverse effects.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Opioid comparison.\n", "Opioid medications can provide short, intermediate or long acting analgesia depending upon the specific properties of the medication and whether it is formulated as an extended release drug. Opioid medications may be administered orally, by injection, via nasal mucosa or oral mucosa, rectally, transdermally, intravenously, epidurally and intrathecally. In chronic pain conditions that are opioid responsive a combination of a long-acting (OxyContin, MS Contin, Opana ER, Exalgo and Methadone) or extended release medication is often prescribed in conjunction with a shorter-acting medication (oxycodone, morphine or hydromorphone) for breakthrough pain, or exacerbations.\n", "Delivery of an opioid such as morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl, sufentanyl or meperidine directly into the subarachnoid cavity (the space between the spinal cord's inner, waterproof sheath and its outer protective sheaths) provides enhanced analgesia with reduced systemic side effects, and has reduced the level of pain in otherwise intractable cases. The anxiolytic clonidine, or the nonopioid analgesic ziconotide, and local anesthetics such as bupivacaine, ropivacaine or tetracaine may also be infused along with the opioid.\n\nSection::::Epidural infusion.\n", "Opioids are being used more frequently in the management of non-malignant chronic pain. This practice has now led to a new and growing problem with addiction and misuse of opioids. Because of various negative effects the use of opioids for long-term management of chronic pain is not indicated unless other less risky pain relievers have been found ineffective. Chronic pain which occurs only periodically, such as that from nerve pain, migraines, and fibromyalgia, frequently is better treated with medications other than opioids. Paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs including ibuprofen and naproxen are considered safer alternatives. They are frequently used combined with opioids, such as paracetamol combined with oxycodone (Percocet) and ibuprofen combined with hydrocodone (Vicoprofen), which boosts the pain relief but is also intended to deter recreational use.\n", "Diversion of prescribed opioid drugs for illicit recreational use is also a particular concern in this field, as the drugs which are most effective for relieving suffering in palliative care also tend to be those most sought after by drug abusers. The choice of what opioid drug to use in which patient thus tends to be a balance between many different factors that must be considered, and the need for opioid rotation in chronic pain patients makes it advantageous for a wide range of different opioid drugs to be available, even though they may be broadly equivalent in action when used in shorter term treatment. Additionally, newer studies may explore which patient populations can benefit the most from opioid rotation and which populations can have their pain managed by other means.\n", "BULLET::::- Recommended to start at low dose and titrate up to effect\n\nBULLET::::- General adverse effects for opioids:\n\nBULLET::::- Constipation\n\nBULLET::::- Hives\n\nBULLET::::- Nausea\n\nBULLET::::- Vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- Pruritus\n\nBULLET::::- Respiratory depression\n\nThe frequency of prescribing for these pain medications has more than doubled from 1990 to 2010 with 20-50% of adolescents who complain of headache, back pain, or joint pain receiving a prescribed opioid.\n", "Some routes of administration such as nasal sprays and inhalers generally result in faster onset of high blood levels, which can provide more immediate analgesia but also more severe side effects, especially in overdose. The much higher cost of some of these appliances may not be justified by marginal benefit compared with buccal or oral options. Intranasal fentanyl appears to be as equally effective as IV morphine and superior to intramuscular morphine for management of acute hospital pain.\n", "Section::::Deep brain stimulation.\n\nOngoing electrical stimulation of structures deep within the brain – the periaqueductal gray and periventricular gray for nociceptive pain, and the internal capsule, ventral posterolateral nucleus and ventral posteromedial nucleus for neuropathic pain – has produced impressive results with some patients but results vary and appropriate patient selection is important. One study of seventeen patients with intractable cancer pain found that thirteen were virtually painless and only four required opioid analgesics on release from hospital after the intervention. Most ultimately did resort to opioids, usually in the last few weeks of life.\n\nSection::::Hypophysectomy.\n", "BULLET::::- Opioids – This class of drugs are used to suppress pain by acting on various opioid receptors, primarily Mu, in within the nervous system. They will cause some dose dependent cardiopulmonary suppression. They have addictive properties and have led to the Opioid epidemic. When used for procedural sedation these are started at low dose then titrated to reach the desired effect.\n", "Post-procedural treatment in children is primarily prescription opioids. Morphine is effective and relatively safe, and is often used with moderate to severe pain. Codeine and tramadol should be avoided especially in children younger than 12 years old since metabolism varies due to genetic differences between individuals. However, other interventions include medications classified as non-opioid analgesics, which are useful in post surgical treatment. For example, acetaminophen or ibuprofen can be used as a non-opioid analgesics. Unlike acetaminophen, ibuprofen has anti-inflammatory property which can be useful for pain in inflammatory conditions. Aspirin is not used in pediatric population due to its association with Reye's syndrome.\n", "The WHO guidelines recommend prompt oral administration of drugs when pain occurs, starting, if the person is not in severe pain, with non-opioid drugs such as paracetamol, dipyrone, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or COX-2 inhibitors. Then, if complete pain relief is not achieved or disease progression necessitates more aggressive treatment, mild opioids such as codeine, dextropropoxyphene, dihydrocodeine or tramadol are added to the existing non-opioid regime. If this is or becomes insufficient, mild opioids are replaced by stronger opioids such as morphine, while continuing the non-opioid therapy, escalating opioid dose until the person is painless or the maximum possible relief without intolerable side effects has been achieved. If the initial presentation is severe cancer pain, this stepping process should be skipped and a strong opioid should be started immediately in combination with a non-opioid analgesic. However, a 2017 Cochrane Review found that there is no high-quality evidence to support or refute the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) alone or in combination with opioids for the three steps of the three-step WHO cancer pain ladder and that there is very low-quality evidence that some people with moderate or severe cancer pain can obtain substantial levels of benefit within one or two weeks.\n", "The WHO guidelines recommend prompt oral administration of drugs (\"by the mouth\") when pain occurs, starting, if the patient is not in severe pain, with non-opioid drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) or aspirin, with or without \"adjuvants\" such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) including COX-2 inhibitors. Then, if complete pain relief is not achieved or disease progression necessitates more aggressive treatment, a weak opioid such as codeine, dihydrocodeine or tramadol is added to the existing non-opioid regime. If this is or becomes insufficient, a weak opioid is replaced by a strong opioid, such as morphine, diamorphine, fentanyl, buprenorphine, oxymorphone, oxycodone, or hydromorphone, while continuing the non-opioid therapy, escalating opioid dose until the patient is pain free or at the maximum possible relief without intolerable side effects. If the initial presentation is severe pain, this stepping process should be skipped and a strong opioid should be started immediately in combination with a non-opioid analgesic.\n", "BULLET::::- Etorphine – non-selective\n\nBULLET::::- Levallorphan\n\nBULLET::::- Levomethorphan\n\nBULLET::::- Levorphanol\n\nBULLET::::- Morphine – alkaloid\n\nBULLET::::- Nalbuphine – partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Nalfurafine – full agonist, atypical agonist (possibly biased or subtype-selective)\n\nBULLET::::- Nalmefene – partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Nalodeine\n\nBULLET::::- Nalorphine – partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Norbuprenorphine – partial agonist, peripherally-selective metabolite of buprenorphine\n\nBULLET::::- Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide – likely partial agonist, peripherally-selective metabolite of buprenorphine\n\nBULLET::::- Oxilorphan – partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Oxycodone – selective for κ subtype\n\nBULLET::::- Proxorphan – partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Samidorphan – non-selective, weak partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Xorphanol – partial agonist\n\nBULLET::::- Arylacetamides\n\nBULLET::::- Asimadoline – peripherally-selective\n\nBULLET::::- BRL-52537\n\nBULLET::::- Eluxadoline\n", "BULLET::::- Herkinorin\n\nBULLET::::- ICI-199,441\n\nBULLET::::- Noribogaine\n\nBULLET::::- Oliceridine\n\nBULLET::::- RB-64\n\nBULLET::::- TRV734\n\nSection::::Receptor heteromer targeting ligands.\n\nBULLET::::- 6'-GNTI (δ-κ)\n\nBULLET::::- CYM-51010 (δ-μ)\n\nBULLET::::- NNTA (κ-μ)\n\nBULLET::::- IBNtxA (μ1G-NOP)\n\nSection::::Uncategorized opioids.\n\nBULLET::::- ADL-5859\n\nBULLET::::- Alimadol\n\nBULLET::::- Amentoflavone\n\nBULLET::::- Anilopam +HCl\n\nBULLET::::- Asimadoline\n\nBULLET::::- Cyproterone acetate\n\nBULLET::::- FE 200665\n\nBULLET::::- Fedotozine\n\nBULLET::::- HZ-2\n\nBULLET::::- Kolokol-1\n\nBULLET::::- Matrine\n\nBULLET::::- MCOPPB\n\nBULLET::::- Menthol\n\nBULLET::::- MT-7716\n\nBULLET::::- Nalfurafine\n\nBULLET::::- Nalorphine\n\nBULLET::::- Nalorphine dinicotinate\n\nBULLET::::- PZM21\n\nBULLET::::- Proglumide\n\nBULLET::::- Ro65-6570\n\nBULLET::::- SoRI-9409\n\nBULLET::::- Spiradoline\n\nBULLET::::- SR-8993\n\nBULLET::::- SR-16435\n\nSection::::Combination drug formulations containing opioids.\n\nBULLET::::- Buprenorphine/naloxone\n\nBULLET::::- Buprenorphine/samidorphan (ALKS-5461)\n\nBULLET::::- Bupropion/naltrexone\n\nBULLET::::- Co-codamol (codeine phosphate/paracetamol)\n", "Section::::Selective antagonists.\n\nAll of the centrally active opioid antagonists used widely in medicine are non-selective, either blocking multiple opioid receptors, or blocking the MOR but activating the KOR. However, for scientific research, selective antagonists are needed which can block one of the opioid receptors but without affecting the others. This has led to the development of antagonists which are highly selective to one of the four receptors:\n\nBULLET::::- Cyprodime is a selective MOR antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Naltrindole is a selective DOR antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Norbinaltorphimine is a selective KOR antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- J-113,397 is a selective nociceptin receptor (NOP) antagonist\n", "A panel, including the American Pain Society and American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, recommends multimodal analgesia, which they define as a combination of pharmacological agents and non-pharmacological techniques to treat postoperative pain. A significant benefit of this technique is that non-opioid analgesics used in combination with opioids can decrease the amount of opioids required and reduce the risk of opioid-related side effects. Medications can be delivered as needed or around-the-clock depending on the patient’s needs. For children, intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (IV-PCA) an be used when parenteral administration is preferred. IV-PCA allows for consistent opioid levels, which can be a better alternative to scheduled intramuscular injections. In addition, studies have shown that children as young as 6 years old can use the IV-PCA correctly.\n", "The following agents have longer onset and duration of action and are frequently used for post-operative pain relief:\n\nBULLET::::- Buprenorphine\n\nBULLET::::- Butorphanol\n\nBULLET::::- Diamorphine, also known as heroin, not available for use as an analgesic in any country but the UK.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydromorphone\n\nBULLET::::- Levorphanol\n\nBULLET::::- Pethidine, also called meperidine in North America.\n\nBULLET::::- Methadone\n\nBULLET::::- Morphine\n\nBULLET::::- Nalbuphine\n\nBULLET::::- Oxycodone, not available intravenously in U.S.\n\nBULLET::::- Oxymorphone\n\nBULLET::::- Pentazocine\n\nSection::::Muscle relaxants.\n", "Mirroring the positive trend in the volume of opioid pain relievers prescribed is an increase in the admissions for substance abuse treatments and increase in opioid-related deaths. This illustrates how legitimate clinical prescriptions of pain relievers are being diverted through an illegitimate market, leading to misuse, addiction, and death. With the increase in volume, the potency of opioids also increased. By 2002, one in six drug users were being prescribed drugs more powerful than morphine; by 2012, the ratio had doubled to one-in-three. The most commonly prescribed opioids have been oxycodone and hydrocodone.\n", "While each of the ingredients combat pain and other problems that occur with it in those who may be nauseated from effects of chemotherapy, radiation, and/or high and escalating doses of morphine (which can also cause somnolence or sleepiness, hence the stimulant), it is also anecdotally acknowledged that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts with the various active ingredients all potentiating the morphine or other opioid in their own ways. The synergy between opioid analgesics and centrally-acting stimulants is widely reported and commonly used: for example, the caffeine content of many codeine-based pain relievers, and prescription of dextroamphetamine or methylphenidate to patients on high doses of opioids both to combat the somnolence from the painkillers and to boost their pain-killing ability. However, a 1979 study in the \"Canadian Medical Association Journal\" found no statistically significant advantage in pain suppression, confusion, nausea, or drowsiness to the Brompton mixture versus a solution of morphine.\n", "Although opioids are strong analgesics, they do not provide complete analgesia regardless of whether the pain is acute or chronic in origin. Opioids are efficacious analgesics in chronic malignant pain and modestly effective in nonmalignant pain management. However, there are associated adverse effects, especially during the commencement or change in dose. When opioids are used for prolonged periods drug tolerance, chemical dependency, diversion and addiction may occur.\n", "Section::::Research.:Opioids.\n\nIsbell and associates published a number of studies on morphine, methadone and assorted analgesics; much of this work was motivated by the search for a \"nonaddicting analgesic\" (that is, a compound with the pain-relieving capabilities of morphine, but without the opioid dependence issues). \n\nMany opiate derivatives and synthetic opioids were tested for addiction and abuse potential.\n" ]

[ "Hospital grade pain killers (morphine, etc) are always more effective than over the counter painkillers such as ibuprofen.", "Hospital grade pain killers (morphine, etc) are more effective than over the counter painkillers such as ibuprofen." ]

[ "There is evidence that for some types of pain, over-the-counter painkillers might be more effective than opioids.", "Over-the-counter meds might be more effective than opioids and other Rx painkillers for some kinds of pain." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Hospital grade pain killers (morphine, etc) are always more effective than over the counter painkillers such as ibuprofen.", "Hospital grade pain killers (morphine, etc) are more effective than over the counter painkillers such as ibuprofen." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "There is evidence that for some types of pain, over-the-counter painkillers might be more effective than opioids.", "Over-the-counter meds might be more effective than opioids and other Rx painkillers for some kinds of pain." ]

[ "A largely intact example of a 'Victorian' era water pump survives next to the Dusk water within the clachan. This pump was powered via a small waterwheel and a sluice and weir arrangement once directed water to it. drinking water did nor usually come from water courses due to the risk of pollution by stock, etc and it is not clear what the water from the burn was used for.\n\nSection::::The history of the lands of Hessilhead.:Balgray.\n", "Between 1900 and 1908, a group of seven wells was dug. These averaged about 18 feet (5.5 metres) in diameter and varied in depth from 46 to 102 feet. In some years, their yield was not consistent and it was evident that a more adequate supply was needed for the rapidly increasing city population.\n", "Hand pumps were previously used for drawing drinking water, but most people have now shifted to electric-motor pumps. Traditionally, these pumps were fitted on the bore to a depth of 65 feet and the water quality was very high. However, good drinking water is no longer available at that depth, and people drill three hundred feet to get better quality water. The poor quality of drinking water has caused many illnesses. Now clean drinking water is available to every inhabitant of Kathala Chenab. The education rate is very high; there are doctors, lawyers, army officers, police officers, and bankers.\n", "A similar situation was occurring in the US. Water consumption was increasing, for example in Chicago the per capita water consumption was 33 gallons per day in 1856 to 144 gallons in 1882 (although this figure also includes industrial sources). This increased water consumption and the growing use water closets overloaded the existing cesspool system and served to contaminate the surrounding soil and watercourses.\n\nSection::::Disease.\n", "Neither the river or creeks are perennial and even if they were it would still be too long a distance to the centre of the run to make it useful. The average rainfall is , but at irregular times, so water was a priority. The station manager set to work and constructed many dams and tanks to capture as much rainfall as practicable. 48 reservoirs with a volume of were excavated. Several bores were sunk as far to find water, giving a regular supply of 1.3 million gallons.\n", "BULLET::::4. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimize the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely been discontinued.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Pretreatment.:pH adjustment.\n", "BULLET::::- St Ann's Well – Great Malvern\n\nThe Walms Well dating from around 250 BC is one of the earliest to be documented.\n\nSection::::Medicinal use.\n", "The same men could dig an unlined well in one day, basically a pit in the ground, but the irrigation capacity was only one fifth of that of the brick-lined well.\n\nSection::::Comparison to other linings.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1988, many people were poisoned in Camelford, when a worker put 20 tonnes of aluminium sulphate in the wrong tank.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1993, a fluoride poisoning outbreak resulting from overfeeding of fluoride, in Mississippi\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThroughout history, people have devised systems to make getting and using water more convenient. Living in semi-arid regions, ancient Persians in the 1st millennium BC used qanat system to gain access to water in the mountains. Early Rome had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of aqueducts and pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use.\n", "The 1940s were years of austerity and difficulty. Mains electricity arrived just after the Second World War but the need to collect water in buckets from nearby wells and springs continued until 1961. Only then were clean piped water and underground sewage and drainage systems available for most householders.\n", "Wells were covered to keep them free from fouling by animals. This involved blocking the well with dead branches and uprooted trees. When the wells fell into disrepair, people would bail the well, using the coolamon to throw slush against the wall. This would set like a cement wash and help to hold loose sand, preventing it from falling into the water.\n\nWells could be up to fifteen feet deep, with small toe holds cut into the walls.\n\nSection::::Recording well locations.\n\nDonald Thomson writes:\n\nSection::::White explorers and the wells.\n", "Many incidents in the Bible take place around wells, such as the finding of a wife for Isaac in Genesis and Jesus's talk with the Samaritan woman in the Gospels.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Abraham's well\n\nBULLET::::- Baptist well drilling\n\nBULLET::::- Brick-lined well\n\nBULLET::::- Castle well\n\nBULLET::::- Drainage by wells\n\nBULLET::::- Fossil water\n\nBULLET::::- History of water supply and sanitation\n\nBULLET::::- Self-supply of water and sanitation\n\nBULLET::::- Spring supply\n\nBULLET::::- Step well\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Sustainable Groundwater Development theme of the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN)\n\nBULLET::::- Water Portal - Akvopedia\n\nBULLET::::- Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management Toolbox\n", "There was no sewerage system in Swansea until 1857 and the water supply in areas above the reservoir level was \"\"in many cases of a questionable character\"\" (contemporary report quoted by Dean). The Lliw reservoir of 1863 helped provide clean water, but drainage of dirty water was still a problem.\n", "It was not until nearly the end of the 19th century that mains water was provided to rural south Pembrokeshire by means of a reservoir at Rosebush and cast iron water pipes being laid throughout the district.\n\nSection::::History.:20th century.\n", "Stepwells were often used for leisure, providing relief from daytime heat. This led to the building of some significant ornamental and architectural features, often associated with dwellings and in urban areas. It also ensured their survival as monuments.\n\nSection::::Modern tank management.\n\nThe development of large-scale water management methods and hydroelectric generation have replaced much of the local efforts and community management of water. For example, the state of Karnataka has about 44,000 artificial wetlands locally constructed over many centuries. At least 328 are threatened today.\n", "History of municipal treatment of drinking water\n\nThe development of water treatment and filtration technologies went through many stages. The greatest level of change came in the 19th century as growth of cities forced new methods of distributing and treating water in cities and the problems of water contamination became more pronounced.\n\nSection::::Pre-19th-century water treatment.\n", "A for sale advertisement in The Scotsman published on April 15, 1871 cites \"an abundance of beautiful spring water\" to The Kirna. It is likely that the water tank positioned upstream from The Kirna on Kirna Burn provided that source of fresh water from 1867 until when local authorities were required by law to provide water to communities in 1946.It is unclear whether this particular tank functioned as an intake or a storage tank that continued to feed a group of houses at the west end of Walkerburn until at least 1961.\n\nSection::::Nearby Structures.:Kirnie Law Reservoir.\n", "In Sri Lanka large reservoirs were created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to save the water for irrigation. The famous Sri Lankan king Parākramabāhu I of Sri Lanka said \"Do not let a drop of water seep into the ocean without benefiting mankind\". He created the reservoir named Parakrama Samudra (sea of King Parakrama). Vast artificial reservoirs were also built by various ancient kingdoms in Bengal, Assam and Cambodia.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Direct water supply.\n", "\"By the end of the last 19th century, San Diego County could accurately be described as one of the major focal points of dam construction in the world, and by 1923 every major drainage system in the county included at least one reservoir,\" writes geographer Philip Pryde in his book, “San Diego: An Introduction to the Region.\"\n\nDespite some temporary shortages, this system of local reservoirs provided sufficient water for the county until World War II, when a vastly expanded military presence practically doubled the population in six years.\n", "The earliest known records of activity concerning a public water supply in Glasgow date from 1805, when the civil engineer Thomas Telford produced a report on schemes for supplying Glasgow and its suburbs with water. In 1806 he produced a second report and an Act of Parliament was obtained to create the Glasgow Company. They took advice from the Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, and plans for a water treatment works on the north bank of the River Clyde were drawn up by Telford. The company constructed filtering beds and ponds, and bought two Boulton and Watt steam engines, but the system did not work well, and a new works was constructed on the south bank. In order to filter water from the river, they constructed a tunnel below river level, with open joints between the bricks, which allowed water to seep through the river bank, which was formed of sand, and to be drawn off from the tunnel. Although the filtering was not particularly efficient, the system lasted for 30 years, and provided per day on average, with the amount available depending on the river level.\n", "The summer of 1884 was, however, one of prolonged drought. At the start of July, after three months with little rain, there was still 107 days' supply in the reservoirs; by the start of October there was no more than 21 days': \"The great reservoirs… are, with one or two exceptions, empty - literally dry. The banks are parched, the beds of the huge basins are in many places sufficiently hard owing to the long continued absence of water to enable one to walk from one side to the other, or from end to end, almost without soiling one's boots.\"\n", "Water was taken from the River Esk, north of Longtown, through a diameter pipe to a pump house. From there it was pumped through a main to a reservoir. A filtration/treatment works could handle up to ten million gallons a day.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The two wells covered by the pumphouse were operating by 1891. They were sunk 32 feet apart using 6-inch pipe about 400 feet deep. Water mains were made of iron strapped pine wood from Puget Sound. The wells provided a combined water flow of 1,600,000 gallons per day at a temperature of about 170 °F.\n", "The first residents of the Denver area drank water directly from the creek and river. Surface wells and buckets of water sufficed for a while as a delivery system, but they soon proved inadequate. Irrigation ditches were the next step forward.\n", "Today, passers-by can drink from a marble water fountain supplying city water that sits in the center of the Old Well. Campus tradition dictates that a drink from the Old Well on the first day of classes will bring good luck (or straight A's). \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In general, executives loved the voice mail systems, however time revealed some downsides:\n\nBULLET::::- While executive productivity may have improved, many secretarial and administrative jobs were eliminated;\n\nBULLET::::- Paper notices about calls were eliminated, but VM did not necessarily improve call-backs by recipients;\n\nBULLET::::- Information technology (IT) employees were needed to maintain the VM system.\n\nBULLET::::- By 1990, articles in the popular press complained about, \"...\"voice mail jail\" - being trapped in a labyrinthine series of telephone prompts that never seemed to lead to a human.\n", "In the second half of the 20th century, fax and data became important secondary applications of the network created to carry voices, and late in the century, parts of the network were upgraded with ISDN and DSL to improve handling of such traffic.\n", "BULLET::::- Computerworld: Now we're talking: speech technologies are moving far beyond call centers and into critical corporate applications such as search and security, by Drew Robb, October 2, 2006\n\nBULLET::::- Associated Press: Orphan baby finds love in Miami hospital,\n\nBULLET::::- Sun Sentinel - Fort Lauderdale: The Ashley Phillips Story.\n\nBULLET::::- Documentary: The life of a Congenital Heart Surgeon, by Photographer Jon Kral on Jon Kral Photography\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco Chronicle: Orphan finds love in Miami hospital\n\nBULLET::::- CBS News: Hundreds Gather to Celebrate Life\n\nBULLET::::- ABC News: Stem Cells to the Rescue: Fixing Heart Defects in Children\n", "Computer manufacturers, telephone equipment manufacturers, and software firms began developing more sophisticated solutions as more powerful and less expensive computer processors and storage devices became available. This set the stage for a creation of a broad spectrum of computer based Central Office and Customer Premises Equipment that would eventually support enhanced voice solutions such as voicemail, audiotex, interactive voice response (IVR) and speech recognition solutions that began emerging in the 1980s. However, broad adoption of these products and services would depend on the global proliferation of touch tone phones and mobile phone services which would not occur until the late 1980s.\n", "On the hardware level, there was a paradigm shift since 1993, with emerging standards from IETF, which led to several new players like Dialogic, Brooktrout (now part of Dialogic), Natural MicroSystems (also now part of Dialogic) and Aculab offering telephony interfacing boards for various networks and elements.\n", "The use of an electrolarynx can cause social issues, for instance difficulty ordering food, drinks, or other items in noisy environments; or, when answering a telephone, having the caller respond, \"Am I talking to a computer?\"\n\nHowever, quality-of-life improvements due to electrolarynx usage are generally significant. One user states: \n", "The use of callback in most developed countries has declined, owing to the liberalization of telecommunication services, which allow more direct access to low-cost international calls, without the need for a time-consuming process like callback. Also, the advent of Voice over Internet Protocol services has allowed many people to make international calls via their computer connected to the Internet, although sound quality can be poorer on slower dial-up connections than on broadband ones.\n", "Technical Problems\n\nUntil the early 1980s a called party could instantly recognize an incoming long-distance call by its hiss or low level, due to the inherent signal loss and introduction of noise. The deployment of digital technologies such as pulse-code modulation and T-carrier circuits in the 1970s and 1980s let long-distance calls match the high voice quality of local calls.\n", "This issue was not new, as analog copper based networks had been transitioning to digital telephony technology for 25 years (via fiber buildout by telephone companies), and to IP technology methods for the last 10 years (via broadband buildout by telco, cable, and competitive local exchange carriers). What was new was that copper based analog phone service was not even an option anymore in many areas, as it was being completely replaced by digital and IP based phone service.\n", "BULLET::::- Landline telephone service continues to be divided between incumbent local exchange carriers and several competing long distance companies. As of 2005, some of the Baby Bells are beginning to merge with long distance phone companies. A small number of consumers are currently experimenting with Voice over Internet Protocol phone service.\n\nBULLET::::- Most local loop service to homes is provided through old-fashioned copper wire, although many of the providers have upgraded the so-called \"last mile\" to fiber optic.\n\nBULLET::::- Early in the 21st century the number of wire lines in use stopped growing and in some markets began to decline.\n", "Starting in the 2000s, voice response became more common and cheaper to deploy. This was due to increased CPU power and the migration of speech applications from proprietary code to the VXML standard.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nDTMF decoding and speech recognition are used to interpret the caller's response to voice prompts. DTMF tones are entered via the telephone keypad.\n", "Accordingly, by the end of 2011, for under US$3000 it was possible to build an office VoIP system based entirely on cordless technology capable of several hundred meteres reach and on Power over Ethernet dedicated wired phones, with up to 8 DID lines and 3 simultaneous conversations per base station, with 24 handsets each capable of communicating on any subset of the 8 lines, plus an unlimited number of softphones running on computers and laptops and smartphones. This compared favourably to proprietary PBX technology especially as VoIP cordless was far cheaper than PBX cordless.\n", "Until 2011, it was the makers of telephone systems that implemented CTI technologies such as TAPI and CSTA. But after this time, a wave of handsets become popular that were independently made. These handsets would connect to the telephone systems using standards such as SIP and consumers could easily buy their telephone system from one vendor and their handsets from another. However, this situation led to poor quality CTI since the protocols (ie SIP) were not really suitable for third-party control.\n", "BULLET::::- Due to the major success of broadband Internet connections, Voice over IP (VoIP) began to gain popularity as a replacement for traditional telephone lines. Major telecommunications carriers began converting their networks from TDM to VoIP.\n\nBULLET::::- Unusually for a development heralded by science fiction, videophones were cheap and abundant, yet even by mid-decade, they had not received much attention, perhaps due to the high cost of video calls relative to ordinary calls.\n", "BULLET::::- in-band signaling vs. out-of-band signaling\n\nBULLET::::- the problem of bit-robbing\n\nBULLET::::- development of SS7\n\nBULLET::::- emergence of fiber optic networking allows greater reliability and call capacity\n\nBULLET::::- transition from plesiochronous transmission to synchronous systems like SONET/SDH\n\nBULLET::::- optical self-healing ring networks further increase reliability\n\nBULLET::::- digital/optical systems revolutionize international long-distance networks, particularly undersea cables\n\nBULLET::::- digital telephone exchanges eliminate moving parts, make exchange equipment much smaller and more reliable\n\nBULLET::::- separation of exchange and concentrator functions\n\nBULLET::::- roll-out of digital systems throughout the PSTN\n\nBULLET::::- provision of intelligent network services\n\nBULLET::::- digital speech coding and compression\n", "Quality of service is particularly important for the transport of traffic with special requirements. In particular, developers have introduced Voice over IP technology to allow computer networks to become as useful as telephone networks for audio conversations, as well as supporting new applications with even stricter network performance requirements.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n", "Commercial VoIP services are often competitive with traditional telephone service in terms of call quality even without QoS mechanisms in use on the user's connection to their ISP and the VoIP provider's connection to a different ISP. Under high load conditions, however, VoIP may degrade to cell-phone quality or worse. The mathematics of packet traffic indicate that network requires just 60% more raw capacity under conservative assumptions.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:IP and Ethernet efforts.\n", "In the 1970s and early 1980s, the cost of long distance calling decreased and more business communications were conducted by telephone. As corporations grew and labor rates increased, the ratio of secretaries to employees decreased. With more communication by phone, multiple time zones, and fewer secretaries, real-time phone communications were hampered by callers being unable to reach people. Some early studies showed that only 1 in 4 phone calls resulted in a completed call and half the calls were one-way in nature (that is, they did not require a conversation). This happened because people were either not at work (due to time zone differences, being away on business, etc.), or if they were at work, they were on the phone, away from their desks in meetings, on breaks, etc. This bottleneck hindered the effectiveness of business activities and decreased both individual and group productivity. It also wasted the caller's time and created delays in resolving time-critical issues.\n", "BULLET::::- speech compression on international digital trunks\n\nBULLET::::- phone tapping in the digital environment\n\nBULLET::::- introduction of digital mobile telephony, specialized compression algorithms for high bit error rates\n\nBULLET::::- direct digital termination to customers via ISDN; PRI catches on, BRI mostly does not, except in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- the effects of digital telephony, and digital termination at the ISP, on modem performance\n\nBULLET::::- voice over IP as a carrier strategy\n\nBULLET::::- emergence of ADSL leads to voice over IP becoming a consumer product, and the slow demise of dial-up Internet access\n\nBULLET::::- expected convergence of VoIP, mobile telephony, etc.\n", "The opportunity created by the Greene decision, plus Voicemail International's abandonment of its market lead for carrier grade systems, created a new opportunity for competing manufacturers and those who had been focusing on the corporate market. Unisys, Boston Technology, and Comverse Technology were quick to address the BOC and PTT marketplace. Octel, who had high capacity systems in use interally by all seven Regional Bell Operating companies, launched a new generation of its large system specifically designed for carriers and was compliant with \"NEBS standards\", the tight standard required by phone companies for any equipment located in their central offices.\n", "Starting in the early part of the 2000s, IP based voice services began being offered by non-traditional providers such as cable television service providers and Internet voice service providers. The demand for these services grew due to competitive pricing and value added services not offered by the traditional telephone providers. The use of these non-traditional telephone methods for security and life safety communications was not well understood, so use was discouraged and in some cases not allowed by local authorities. There was no distinction between voice services provided over the \"best-effort\" Internet and voice services provided over managed facilities. It became clear that only managed facilities based providers could assure reliability end to end. Only facilities based providers could monitor and maintain the expected quality of service (call quality, operation during power failure, wiring procedures that guaranteed pre-emption of existing calls for emergency calls, and local disaster recovery capabilities).\n", "High speed services from mobile operators using EVDO rev A or HSPA may have better audio quality and capabilities for metropolitan-wide coverage including fast handoffs among mobile base stations, yet may cost more than Wi-Fi-based VoIP services.\n\nAs device manufacturers exploited more powerful processors and less costly memory, smartphones became capable of sending and receiving email, browsing the web (albeit at low rates) and allowing a user to watch TV. Mobile VoIP users were predicted to exceed 100 million by 2012 and InStat projects 288 million subscribers by 2013.\n", "Around 2011, Siri emerged on Apple iPhones as the first voice assistant accessible to consumers. This innovation led to a dramatic shift to building voice-first computing architectures. PS4 was released by Sony in North America in 2013 (70+ million devices), Amazon released the Amazon Echo in 2014 (30+ million devices), Microsoft released Cortana (2015 - 400 million Windows 10 users), Google released Google Assistant (2016 - 2 billion active monthly users on Android phones), and Apple released HomePod (2018 - 500,000 devices sold and 1 billion devices active with iOS/Siri). These shifts, along with advancements in cloud infrastructure (e.g. Amazon Web Services) and codecs, have solidified the voice computing field and made it widely relevant to the public at large.\n", "At the same time, the IVR - Interactive Voice Response, became increasingly popular and used hardware and software tools to quickly develop new telephony applications. It became evident that the previous development models that led to the development of complex systems such as automation of directory inquiry service or Automatic Information Service Stations were too rigid and would not easily allow the development of new applications.\n", "The local press in London, particularly the Evening Standard, were initially very critical of Metcall, often citing concerns about the perceived increase in the time taken to answer telephone calls and to deploy police officers to incidents.The reality since 2009 is that the MPS performance in answering emergency and non emergency telephony has seen significant improvement, particularly with non emergency telephony.\n" ]

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[ "The trajectory requires high launch energy, so the probe was launched on a Delta IV Heavy class launch vehicle and an upper stage based on the STAR 48BV solid rocket motor. Interplanetary gravity assists will provide further deceleration relative to its heliocentric orbit, which will result in a heliocentric speed record at perihelion. As the probe passes around the Sun, it will achieve a velocity of up to , which will temporarily make it the fastest man-made object, almost three times as fast as the current record holder, Helios-B. Like every object in an orbit, due to gravity the spacecraft will accelerate as it nears perihelion, then slow down again afterward until it reaches its aphelion.\n", "BULLET::::- The fastest fixed-wing aircraft, and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, a rocket-glider hybrid, which has re-entered the atmosphere as a fixed-wing glider at more than Mach 25 — ver 25 times the speed of sound, about 17,000 mph at re-entry to Earth's atmosphere.\n", "The current women's absolute record was set by Kitty O'Neil, in the jet-powered \"SMI Motivator\", set at the Alvord Desert in 1976. Held back by her contract with a sponsor and using only 60 percent of her car's power, O'Neil reached .\n\nSection::::Records.\n\nSection::::Records.:1963–present (jet and rocket propulsion).\n", "BULLET::::- Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), launched 1997\n\nBULLET::::- List of vehicle speed records\n\nBULLET::::- \"MESSENGER\", Mercury orbiter (2011–2015)\n\nBULLET::::- Sun observation spacecraft\n\nBULLET::::- Solar Dynamics Observatory \"SDO\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Helios\", a pair of spacecraft launched in the 1970s to approach the Sun inside the orbit of Mercury,\n\nBULLET::::- Solar Orbiter (planned for 2020),\n\nBULLET::::- STEREO, launched 2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"WIND\", launched 1994\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ulysses\", solar polar orbiter (1990–2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Spacecraft design\n\nBULLET::::- Spacecraft thermal control\n\nBULLET::::- Sunshield (JWST)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Parker Probe Plus at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHUAPL)\n\nBULLET::::- Solar Probe Plus (Mission Engineering Report; JHUAPL)\n", "BULLET::::- The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducts the first test of the Low-Density Supersonic Decelerator (LDSD), a space vehicle designed to create atmospheric drag in order to decelerate during entry through a planet's atmosphere. Launched from the United States Navys Pacific Missile Range facility in Kauai, Hawaii, the LDSD is lifted to an altitude of 120,000 feet (36,576 meters) by a balloon, then uses a rocket motor to ascend to 180,000 feet (54,865 meters) before parachuting into the Pacific Ocean, where it and its flight recorder are recovered the same day.\n\nBULLET::::- 29 June\n", "At that speed, a craft would reach Pluto, a very distant dwarf planet in the solar system, in less than five years, although in practice the acceleration of a sail drops dramatically as the spacecraft gets farther from the Sun. However, in the vicinity of Earth, a solar sail's acceleration is larger than that of some other propulsion techniques; for example, the ion thruster-propelled SMART-1 spacecraft has a maximum acceleration of 2×10 m/s², which allowed SMART-1 to achieve lunar orbit in November 2004 after launch in September 2003.\n\nSection::::Other aspects.\n", "In 2007 \"Ulysses\" passed through the tail of comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught). The results were surprisingly different from its pass through Hyakutake's tail, with the measured solar wind velocity dropping from approximately 700 kilometers per second (1,566,000 mph) to less than 400 kilometers per second (895,000 mph).\n\nSection::::Mission.:Extended mission.\n", "To attain and maintain such high speeds, Reaction Engines Limited would need to develop its newly designed concept engine called the Scimitar, which exploits the thermodynamic properties of liquid hydrogen. The engine is theoretically capable of powering the A2 to a sustained Mach 5 throughout flight with an effective exhaust velocity of 40,900 m/s or specific impulse of 4170 s, SFC .\n\n\"Results so far show the Mach 5 vehicle from Reaction Engines can avoid later technology pitfalls and could travel from Brussels to Sydney,\" says ESA's LAPCAT project coordinator Johan Steelant.\n\nSection::::Results.:Mach eight vehicle.\n", "A memory card containing the names of over 1.1 million people was mounted on a plaque and installed below the spacecraft's high-gain antenna on May 18, 2018. The card also contains photos of Parker and a copy of his 1958 scientific paper predicting important aspects of solar physics.\n\nOn 29 October 2018 at about 1:04 p.m. EDT, the spacecraft became the closest ever artificial object to the Sun. The previous record, 26.55 million miles from the Sun's surface, was set by the \"Helios 2\" spacecraft in April 1976.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Photo-Diary by John Coppinger – including the aerial photo by Richard Meredith-Hardy showing the shock wave as Thrust SSC narrowly exceeds the speed of sound\n\nBULLET::::- Thrust SSC the car and the run\n\nBULLET::::- Thrust SSC Photos Pictures from Blackrock, Nevada – 15 October 1997\n\nBULLET::::- Speed Record Club – The Speed Record Club seeks to promote an informed and educated enthusiast identity, reporting accurately and impartially to the best of its ability on record-breaking engineering, events, attempts and history.\n", "In May 2013 an unmanned X-51A WaveRider reached 4828 km/h (Mach 5.1) during a three-minute flight under scramjet power. The WaveRider was dropped at 50,000 feet from a B-52 bomber, and then accelerated to Mach 4.8 by a solid rocket booster which then separated before the WaveRider's scramjet engine came into effect.\n", "No independent authority sanctioned the performance, although United States Air Force radar tracked the vehicle and recorded the azimuth, elevation, timing, and range data from which a top speed solution was calculated. This, along with the on-board accelerometer data was used to produce the estimated top speed of 739.666 miles per hour, or Mach 1.01. This data, however, has never been publicly released.\n", "The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, which won a Kremer Prize of £20,000 for sustaining a speed of over over a triangular course.\n\nSection::::Modes.:Human-powered vehicles (HPVs).:Aircraft.:Helicopters.\n", "BULLET::::- On 13 December 2010, \"Voyager 1\" determined that the velocity of the solar wind, at its location 10.8 billion miles (17.4 billion km) from Earth had slowed to zero. \"We have gotten to the point where the wind from the Sun, which until now has always had an outward motion, is no longer moving outward; it is only moving sideways so that it can end up going down the tail of the heliosphere, which is a comet-shaped-like object,\" said Voyager project scientist Edward Stone.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Deep Space Climate Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- Dyson–Harrop satellite\n\nBULLET::::- Electric sail\n", "BULLET::::- Fast missions (50 km/s or 10 AU/year) out of the Solar system and heliosphere with small or modest payload\n\nBULLET::::- As a brake for a small interstellar probe which has been accelerated to high speed by some other means such as laser lightsail\n\nBULLET::::- Inward-spiralling missions to study the Sun at a closer distance\n\nBULLET::::- Two-way missions to inner Solar System objects such as asteroids\n\nBULLET::::- Off-Lagrange point solar wind monitoring spacecraft for predicting space weather with a longer warning time than 1 hour\n\nSection::::Applications.:Fast missions to planet Uranus.\n", "However, it is not the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System. , this record is held by \"Voyager 1\", traveling at relative to the Sun. \"Voyager 1\" attained greater hyperbolic excess velocity than \"New Horizons\" thanks to gravity assists by Jupiter and Saturn. When \"New Horizons\" reaches the distance of , it will be travelling at about , around slower than \"Voyager 1\" at that distance. The Parker Solar Probe can also be measured as the fastest object, because of its orbital speed relative to the Sun at perihelion: . Because it remains in solar orbit, its specific orbital energy relative to the Sun is lower than \"New Horizons\" and other artificial objects escaping the Solar System.\n", "Her most recent project was the Parker Solar Probe spacecraft, which launched on August 12, 2018. It became the first satellite to fly as close to the sun as Helios 2 did in 1976.\n\nSection::::Public engagement.\n", "BULLET::::- The Nike Recruit has an apogee of 5 km, a liftoff thrust of 217 kN, a total mass of 1100 kg and a total length of 8.00 m.\n", "Note that the values in the table only give the Δv needed to get to the orbital distance of the planet. The speed relative to the planet will still be considerable, and in order to go into orbit around the planet either aerocapture is needed using the planet's atmosphere, or more Δv is needed.\n\nThe New Horizons space probe to Pluto achieved a near-Earth speed of over 16 km/s which was enough to escape from the sun. (It also got a boost from a fly-by of Jupiter.)\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. Air Force Major William J. Knight flew the North American X-15 to a record speed of Mach 6.33 (4,250 mph, 6,840 km/h). Major Knight began the flight after he had climbed to an altitude of 98,000 feet, after the X-15 had been released by a B-52 over Mud Lake, Nevada, and covered a distance of 637 miles in nine minutes.\n", "BULLET::::- The 199th and last mission of the fastest airplane in history, the X-15 rocket plane, was completed by NASA test pilot William H. Dana, who landed at California's Vandenberg Air Force Base at 10:14 a.m. local time, a little more than 11 minutes after the X-15 was launched from a B-52. During his flight, on re-entry, Dana reached a maximum speed of Mach 5.38, or .\n", "Preliminary testing up to 40 mph took place in January at Oceano County Airport on California's Central Coast.\n\nMounted on a specially modified truck, it was tested at up to 70 mph across a dry lakebed at Edwards Air Force Base later in 2015.\n", "BULLET::::- The probe successfully performed the first of the seven planned Venus flybys on 3 October 2018, where it came within about of Venus in order to reduce the probe's speed and orbit closer to the Sun.\n\nBULLET::::- The first scientific observations were transmitted in December 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- NASA announced that on January 19, 2019, the Parker Solar Probe reached its first aphelion, thus completing its first full orbit. According to the Horizons system, on January 20, 2019 at 01:12 UTC, the space ship reached a distance of 0.9381 AU.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Living With a Star\n", "BULLET::::- Died: Carl Van Vechten, 84, American photographer\n\nSection::::December 22, 1964 (Tuesday).\n\nBULLET::::- At Palmdale, California, the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird made its first flight. Lockheed's chief test pilot, Bob Gilliland, took the plane up to 50,000 feet and pushed it to a speed of Mach 1.5, then returned without incident.\n", "BULLET::::- New Horizons – launched in 2006, the probe flew past Jupiter in 2007 and Pluto on 14 July 2015. It flew past the Kuiper belt object (nicknamed Ultima Thule) on January 1, 2019, as part of the Kuiper Belt Extended Mission (KEM).\n\nAlthough other probes were launched first, \"Voyager 1\" has achieved a higher speed and overtaken all others. \"Voyager 1\" overtook \"Voyager 2\" a few months after launch, on 19 December 1977. It overtook \"Pioneer 11\" in 1983, and then \"Pioneer 10\"—becoming the probe farthest from Earth—on February 17, 1998.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Dilatant fluids.\n\nDilatant, or \"shear-thickening\" fluids increase in apparent viscosity at higher shear rates. They are rarely encountered, but one common example is an uncooked paste of cornstarch and water, sometimes known as oobleck. Under high shear rates the water is squeezed out from between the starch molecules, which are able to interact more strongly.\n", "Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal resistance to flow is named \"viscosity\". In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as its \"thickness\". Thus, water is \"thin\", having a lower viscosity, while honey is \"thick\", having a higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.\n", "The viscosity of a shear thickening fluid, or dilatant fluid, appears to increase when the shear rate increases. Corn starch dissolved in water (\"oobleck\", see below) is a common example: when stirred slowly it looks milky, when stirred vigorously it feels like a very viscous liquid.\n\nSection::::Types of non-Newtonian behaviour.:Shear thinning fluid.\n", "Section::::Contact angle.:Measuring contact angle.:Wilhelmy method.\n", "\"A common household example of a strongly shear-thinning fluid is styling gel, which primarily composed of water and a fixative such as a vinyl acetate/vinylpyrrolidone copolymer (PVP/PA). If one were to hold a sample of hair gel in one hand and a sample of corn syrup or glycerine in the other, they would find that the hair gel is much harder to pour off the fingers (a low shear application), but that it produces much less resistance when rubbed between the fingers (a high shear application).\" \n", "Strictly speaking, this is not a sessile drop technique, as we are using a small submerging pool, rather than a droplet. However, the calculations described in the following sections, which were derived for the relation of the sessile drop contact angle to the surface energy, apply just as well.\n\nSection::::Determining surface energy.\n", "Let us now consider the relevant situation where the probe and the substrate interact. Let us denote by \"F\"(\"h\") the force between the probe and the substrate. This force depends on the surface separation \"h\".\n\nIn equilibrium, this force is compensated by the restoring force of the spring, which is given by the Hooke's law\n", "The Schultz theory (after D. L. Schultz) is applicable only for very high energy solids. Again, it is similar to the theories of Owens, Wendt, Fowkes, and Wu, but is designed for a situation where conventional measurement required for those theories is impossible. In the class of solids with sufficiently high surface energy, most liquids wet the surface completely with a contact angle of zero degrees, and thus no useful data can be gathered. The Schultz theory and procedure calls to deposit a sessile drop of probe liquid on the solid surface in question, but this is all done while the system is submerged in yet another liquid, rather than being done in the open air. As a result, the higher “atmospheric” pressure due to the surrounding liquid causes the probe liquid droplet to compress so that there is a measurable contact angle.\n", "A common misconception is that Coandă effect is demonstrated when a stream of tap water flows over the back of a spoon held lightly in the stream and the spoon is pulled into the stream (for example, Massey in \"Mechanics of Fluids\" uses the Coandă effect to explain the deflection of water around a cylinder). While the flow looks very similar to the air flow over the ping pong ball above (if one could see the air flow), the cause is not really the Coandă effect. Here, because it is a flow of water into air, there is little entrainment of the surrounding fluid (the air) into the jet (the stream of water). This particular demonstration is dominated by surface tension. (McLean in \"Understanding Aerodynamics\" states that the water deflection \"actually demonstrates molecular attraction and surface tension.\")\n", "The earliest liquid-driven escapement was described by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC) in his technical treatise \"Pneumatics\" (chapter 31) as part of a washstand. A counterweighted spoon, supplied by a water tank, tips over in a basin when full, releasing a spherical piece of pumice in the process. Once the spoon has emptied, it is pulled up again by the counterweight, closing the door on the pumice by the tightening string. Remarkably, Philo's comment that \"its construction is similar to that of clocks\" indicates that such escapement mechanisms were already integrated in ancient water clocks.\n", "BULLET::::- When shaken, the particles move in vibration-induced convection flow; individual particles move up through the middle, across the surface, and down the sides. If a large particle is involved, it will be moved up to the top by convection flow. Once at the top, the large particle will stay there because the convection currents are too narrow to sweep it down along the wall.\n\nThe phenomenon is related to Parrondo's paradox in as much as the Brazil nuts move to the top of the mixed nuts against the gravitational gradient when subjected to random shaking.\n", "Most large commercial extractors are radial and rely on the upward slope of the comb cells. When bees build their comb, the cells are sloped upward from the center rib at an angle of 10 to 14 degrees. By leveraging this slope angle, it is easier to extract the honey. In addition, the amount of work during extraction is reduced in the radial type because the frames do not have to be turned over to extract the honey from the other side of the comb (however some extractors are capable of turning combs automatically).\n\nSection::::Alternative Methods.\n", "Section::::Scraping a power-law fluid.\n\nSince scraping applications are important for Non-Newtonian fluid (for example, scraping paint, nail polish, cream, butter, honey, etc.,), it is essential to consider this case. The analysis was carried out by J. Riedler and Wilhelm Schneider in 1983 and they were able to obtain self-similar solutions for power-law fluids satisfying the relation for the apparent viscosity\n\nwhere formula_41 and formula_42 are constants. The solution for the streamfunction of the flow created by the plate moving towards right is given by\n\nwhere\n\nand\n", "This can be demonstrated at home. Partly fill a circular bowl or cup with water and sprinkle a little sand, rice or sugar into the water. Set the water in circular motion with a hand or spoon. The secondary flow will quickly sweep the solid particles into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. The primary flow (the vortex) might be expected to sweep the solid particles to the perimeter of the bowl or cup, but instead the secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup sweeps the particles toward the center.\n", "In his \"Pneumatics\" (chapter 31) Philo describes an escapement mechanism, the earliest known, as part of a washstand. A counterweighted spoon, supplied by a water tank, tips over in a basin when full releasing a pumice in the process. Once the spoon has emptied, it is pulled up again by the counterweight, closing the door on the pumice by the tightening string. Remarkably, Philo's comment that \"its construction is similar to that of clocks\" indicates that such escapements mechanism were already integrated in ancient water clocks.\n\nSection::::Life and works.:Mathematics.\n", "The viscosity of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the water percentage, the more easily honey flows. Above its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, the composition of honey also has little effect on viscosity, with the exception of a few types. At , honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400 poise, while a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20 poise. Viscosity increase due to cooling occurs very slowly at first. A honey containing 16% water, at , has a viscosity around 2 poise, while at , the viscosity is around 70 poise. As cooling progresses, honey becomes more viscous at an increasingly rapid rate, reaching 600 poise around . However, while honey is very viscous, it has rather low surface tension of 50–60 mJ/m, thus the wettability of honey is on the same order as water, glycerin, or most other liquids. The high viscosity and wettability of honey lead to the phenomenon of stickiness, which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass-transition temperature (T) and the crystalline-melting temperature.\n", "Workers in the grain can become entrapped in three different ways. An apparently stable surface may in fact be a \"grain bridge\" over an area beneath which the grain has already settled. A vertical mass of grain settled against a wall may suddenly give way while being cleared. Moving grain will not support the weight of an average person.\n", "For example, if a child slides up a frictionless slide, the work done by the gravitational force on the child from the down of the slide to the up will be the same no matter what the shape of the slide; it can be straight or it can be a spiral or conical. The amount of work done only depends on the vertical displacement of the child.\n\nSection::::Mathematical description.\n", "To do this, one can simply reverse the procedure by testing the probe liquid against a standard reference solid that is not capable of polar interactions, such as PTFE. If the contact angle of a sessile drop of the probe liquid is measured on a PTFE surface with:\n\nthe principle equation reduces to:\n\nSince the total surface tension of the liquid is already known, this equation determines the dispersive component, and the difference between the total and dispersive components gives the polar component.\n\nSection::::Determining surface energy.:Two component theories.:The Owens/Wendt theory.:Accuracy/precision.\n", "Surface tension\n\nSurface tension is the tendency of fluid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than water, to float and slide on a water surface.\n", "BULLET::::- Mercury beating heart — a consequence of inhomogeneous surface tension\n\nBULLET::::- Microfluidics\n\nBULLET::::- Sessile drop technique\n\nBULLET::::- Sow-Hsin Chen\n\nBULLET::::- Specific surface energy — same as surface tension in isotropic materials.\n\nBULLET::::- Spinning drop method\n\nBULLET::::- Stalagmometric method\n\nBULLET::::- Surface pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Surface science\n\nBULLET::::- Surface tension biomimetics\n\nBULLET::::- Surface tension values\n\nBULLET::::- Surfactants — substances which reduce surface tension.\n\nBULLET::::- Szyszkowski equation — Calculating surface tension of aqueous solutions\n\nBULLET::::- Tears of wine — the surface tension induced phenomenon seen on the sides of glasses containing alcoholic beverages.\n", "The sessile drop technique has various applications for both materials engineering and straight characterization. In general, it is useful in determining the surface tension of liquids through the use of reference solids. There are various other specific applications which can be subdivided according to which of the above theories is most likely to be applicable to the circumstances:\n", "One of the first devices for the preparation of such cuts was invented in 1770 by George Adams, Jr. (1750–1795) and further developed by Alexander Cummings. The device was hand operated, and the sample held in a cylinder and sections created from the top of the sample using a hand crank.\n\nIn 1835, Andrew Prichard developed a table based model which allowed for the vibration to be isolated by affixing the device to the table, separating the operator from the knife.\n\nOccasionally, attribution for the invention of the microtome is given to the anatomist Wilhelm His, Sr. (1865),\n", "In the field of engineering, the hydrophobicity (or dewetting ability) of a flat surface (e.g., a counter top in kitchen or a cooking pan) can be measured by the contact angle of water droplet. A University of Nebraska-Lincoln team recently devised a computational approach that can relate the molecular hydrophobicity scale of amino-acid chains to the contact angle of water nanodroplet. The team constructed planar networks composed of unified amino-acid side chains with native structure of the beta-sheet protein. Using molecular dynamics simulation, the team is able to measure the contact angle of water nanodroplet on the planar networks (caHydrophobicity).\n", "BULLET::::- On machines with pivoting steam wands, the wand should be between 10° and 30° from vertical. However, some baristas tilt the jug relative to the steam wand, whilst keeping the wand almost vertical.\n\nBULLET::::- If milk has been over-aerated (i.e. the froth is too thick), it may be \"groomed\" by running the tip of a spoon through it.\n\nBULLET::::- As a supplementary method of mixing, a barista may swirl the pitcher just before pouring it. This method is also used to assess whether grooming is necessary (see above), and is intended to delay separation of the milk.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Much more of a concern is the LCD backlight. Earlier screens used fluorescent lamps which flickered at 100 or 120 Hz; most modern screens use an electronic ballast that flickers at 25–60 kHz which is far outside the human perceptible range. LED backlights should not flicker at all, though some designs may \"dim\" themselves by switching on and off rapidly and noticeably.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, modern LCD monitors are not flicker free, since most of them use pulse-width modulation (PWM) for brightness control. As the brightness setting is lowered, the flicker becomes more noticeable, since the period when the backlight is active in each PWM duty cycle shortens. The problem is much more pronounced on modern LED backlit monitors, because LED backlight reacts faster to changes in current. \n\nSection::::Implementation.\n\nThe goal is to display images sufficiently frequently to exceed the human flicker fusion threshold, and hence create the impression of a constant (non-flickering) source.\n", "Flatscreen Plasma displays have a similar effect. The plasma pixels fade in brightness between refreshes.\n", "Flicker is used intentionally by developers on low-end systems to create the illusion of more objects or colors/shades than are actually possible on the system, or as a speedy way of simulating transparency. While typically thought of as a mark of older systems like 16-bit game consoles, the flicker technique continues to be used on new systems, such as the temporal dithering used to fake true color on most new LCD monitors.\n\nVideo hardware outside the monitor can also cause flicker through many different timing and resolution-related artifacts such as screen tearing, z-fighting and aliasing.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Other display technologies do not flicker noticeably, so the frame rate is less important. LCD flat panels do not \"seem\" to flicker at all, as the backlight of the screen operates at a very high frequency of nearly 200 Hz, and each pixel is changed on a scan rather than briefly turning on and then off as in CRT displays. However, the nature of the back-lighting used can induce flicker – LEDs cannot be easily dimmed, and therefore use pulse-width modulation to create the illusion of dimming, and the frequency used can be perceived as flicker by sensitive users.\n\nSection::::Technological considerations.:Lighting.\n", "Flicker of a CRT monitor can cause various symptoms in those sensitive to it such as headaches in migraine sufferers and seizures in epileptics.\n", "As the flicker is most clearly seen at the edge of our vision there is no obvious risk in using a CRT, but prolonged use can cause a sort of retinal shock where the flickering is seen even when looking away from the monitor. This can create a sort of motion sickness, a discrepancy between the movement detected by the fluid in the inner ear and the motion we can see. Symptoms include dizziness, fatigue, headaches and (sometimes extreme) nausea. The symptoms usually disappear in less than a week without CRT use, and usually only last a few hours unless the exposure has been over a long period.\n", "In computer displays this consists of changing the frame rate of the produced signal in the video card (and in sync with this, the displayed image on the display). This is limited by the clock speed of the video adapter and frame rate required of the program – for a given pixel clock speed, higher refresh rates require lower resolution or color depth, and higher frame rates require that the program producing the video recalculate the screen more frequently. For these reasons, refresh rates above 90–100 Hz to reduce flicker are uncommon on computers – these rates are sufficient to eliminate flicker.\n", "The human eye is most sensitive to flicker at the edges of the human field of view (peripheral vision) and least sensitive at the center of gaze (the area being focused on). As a result, the greater the portion of our field of view that is occupied by a display, the greater is the need for high refresh rates. This is why computer monitor CRTs usually run at 70 to 90 Hz, while TVs, which are viewed from further away, are seen as acceptable at 60 or 50 Hz (see Analog television Standards).\n", "Flicker occurs on CRTs when they are driven at a low refresh rate, allowing the brightness to drop for time intervals sufficiently long to be noticed by a human eye – see persistence of vision and flicker fusion threshold. For most devices, the screen's phosphors quickly lose their excitation between sweeps of the electron gun, and the afterglow is unable to fill such gaps – see phosphor persistence. A refresh rate of 60 Hz on most screens will produce a visible \"flickering\" effect. Most people find that refresh rates of 70–90 Hz and above enable flicker-free viewing on CRTs. Use of refresh rates above 120 Hz is uncommon, as they provide little noticeable flicker reduction and limit available resolution.\n", "Section::::Use with the Commodore Amiga.\n", "Chewing something crunchy such as tortilla chips or granola can induce flicker perception due to the vibrations from chewing synchronizing with the flicker rate of the display.\n\nSection::::Software artifacts.\n\nSoftware can cause flicker effects by directly displaying an unintended intermediate image for a short time. For example, drawing a page of text by blanking the area to white first in the frame buffer, then drawing 'on top' of it, makes it possible for the blank region to appear momentarily onscreen. Usually this is much faster and easier to program than to directly set each pixel to its final value.\n", "Flicker\n\nFlicker may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Flickers, woodpeckers of the subgenus \"Colaptes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker (screen), a change in brightness between frames that occurs on a cathode-ray screen at low refresh rates\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker (light), is a directly visible change in brightness of a light source\n\nBULLET::::- Power-line flicker, a fluctuation in the voltage of AC power lines, whose compliance is regulated by IEC61000-3-3\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker noise, electrical noise with a 1/f spectrum.\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker, a guitar tremolo made by ESP Guitars in the late 1970s and early 1980s\n\nPeople\n\nBULLET::::- Tal Flicker (born 1992), Israeli judoka\n", "In LCD screens, the LCD itself does not flicker, it preserves its opacity unchanged until updated for the next frame. However, in order to prevent accumulated damage LCD displays quickly alternate the voltage between positive and negative for each pixel, which is called 'polarity inversion'. Ideally, this wouldn't be noticeable because every pixel has the same brightness whether a positive or a negative voltage is applied. In practice, there is a small difference, which means that every pixel flickers at about 30 Hz. Screens that use opposite polarity per-line or per-pixel can reduce this effect compared to when the entire screen is at the same polarity, sometimes the type of screen is detectable by using patterns designed to maximize the effect.\n", "When it is not feasible to set each pixel only once, double buffering can be used. This creates an off-screen drawing surface, drawing to it (with as much flicker as you want), and then copying it all at once to the screen. The result is the visible pixels only change once. While this technique cuts down on software flicker, it can also be very inefficient.\n", "Flicker (screen)\n\nFlicker is a visible change in brightness between cycles displayed on video displays. It applies especially to the refresh interval on Cathode ray tube (CRT) televisions and computer monitors, as well as Plasma based computer screens and televisions.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "The flicker fusion threshold also is lower for a fatigued observer. Decrease in the critical fusion frequency has often been used as an index of central fatigue.\n\nSection::::Technological considerations.\n\nSection::::Technological considerations.:Display frame rate.\n", "The flicker fusion threshold does not prevent indirect detection of a high frame rate, such as the phantom array effect or wagon wheel effect, as human-visible side effects of a finite frame rate were still seen on an experimental 480Hz display.\n\nSection::::Technological considerations.:Display refresh rate.\n\nCRT displays usually by default operated at a vertical scan rate of 60 Hz, which often resulted in noticeable flicker. Many systems allowed increasing the rate to higher values such as 72, 75 or 100 Hz to avoid this problem. Most people do not detect flicker above 400 Hz.\n", "Televisions operating at these frequencies are often labelled as being 100 or 120 Hz without using the words \"flicker-free\" in the description.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n\nThe term is primarily used for CRTs, especially televisions in 50 Hz countries (PAL or SECAM) and computer monitors from the 1990s and early 2000s – the 50 Hz rate of PAL/SECAM video (compared with 60 Hz NTSC video) and the relatively large computer monitors and close viewing distances of 1990s/2000s computer monitors (hence making more of the screen in the viewer's peripheral vision) make flicker most noticeable on these devices.\n", "Televisions use interlaced video so the screen flickers at twice the rate (50 or 60 Hz) that the image changes (25 or 30 Hz). This was considered necessary even in the very first televisions which used very slow phosphors.\n\nThe exact refresh rate necessary to prevent the perception of flicker varies greatly based on the viewing environment. In a completely dark room, a sufficiently dim display can run as low as 30 Hz without visible flicker. At normal room and TV brightness this same display rate would produce flicker so severe as to be unwatchable.\n", "The cause of this tendency is unclear. It might be due to accumulation of ionic impurities inside the LCD, electric charge building up near the electrodes, parasitic capacitance, or \"a DC voltage component that occurs unavoidably in some display pixels owing to anisotropy in the dielectric constant of the liquid crystal\".\n\nSection::::Prevention/Treatment.\n\nAccording to an instruction manual of an LCD monitor by NEC Display Solutions, \n", "BULLET::::- As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display, which makes the screen flicker more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people. Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM. This problem is worse on many LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.\n", "In some cases, it is possible to see flicker at rates beyond 2000 Hz (2 kHz) in the case of high-speed eye movements (saccades) or object motion, via the \"phantom array\" effect. Fast-moving flickering objects zooming across view (either by object motion, or by eye motion such as rolling eyes), can cause a dotted or multicolored blur instead of a continuous blur, as if they were multiple objects. Stroboscopes are sometimes used to induce this effect intentionally. \n", "BULLET::::- Flicker can be noticed except at very high refresh rates, as each eye is effectively receiving only half of the monitor's actual refresh rate. However, modern LC glasses generally work in higher refresh rates and eliminate this problem for most people.\n\nBULLET::::- Until recently, the method only worked with CRT monitors; some modern flat-panel monitors now support high-enough refresh rates to work with some LC shutter systems. Many projectors, especially DLP-based ones, support 3D out of the box.\n", "It is recommended to calculate the value of \"P\" using a light waveform recorded for at least three minutes. This enables proper assessment of flicker occurring at low repetition frequencies. \n\nSection::::Objective assessment of flicker.:Matlab toolbox.\n\nA Matlab light flicker assessment toolbox including a function for calculating \"P\" and some application examples are available on the Matlab Central via the Mathworks Community. \n\nSection::::Objective assessment of flicker.:Acceptance criterion.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Computer screen flickers when not looking directly at it." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "It is actually an artifiact of how your eyes work that causes the screen to appear to be flickering. " ]

[ "But prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes been proved to be incorrect. For instance, much of the O. J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate. \"Newsweek\" retracted a story about a Qur'an being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East; the Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 was based upon one unnamed military source. The \"Los Angeles Times\" retracted an article that implicated Sean \"Diddy\" Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur. The original article was based on documents and several unnamed sources. When reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that \"[n]one of the sources was named\".\n", "After the embarrassment, a news organization will often \"clamp down\" on the guidelines for using unnamed sources, but those guidelines are often forgotten after the scandal dies down. One study found that large newspapers' use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004. The Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group, found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004, following widespread embarrassment of media after the Bush administration claims that Iraq had WMD were found to be without basis.\n\nSection::::Not on tape.\n", "The use of anonymous sources has always been controversial. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the only way to obtain certain information, while others prohibit the use of unnamed sources at all times. News organizations may impose safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by a second source before it can be printed.\n", "OG.NR Editors filter for spam, fact check for authenticity and assign an authentication status to each news report (Confirmed, Corroborated, Unconfirmed). Once a report is published, other members can add context, and interact with the news by verifying, updating, commenting, or adding media such as pictures and video.\n", "BULLET::::- Misinformation and propaganda. Anonymous sources may be reluctant to be identified because the information they are sharing is uncertain or known to them to be untrue, but they want attention or to spread propaganda via the press, such as in the case of the Iraqi aluminum tubes, where tubes known to be useless for uranium refinement were presented as evidence of Saddam Hussein's nuclear weapons program by anonymous sources in the U.S. intelligence community in order to build public support for an attack on Iraq. It may also be used to attack political enemies and present opinions as facts. Several journalists, including Paul Carr, have argued that if an off-the-record briefing is a deliberate lie journalists should feel permitted to name the source. The Washington Post identified a source who had offered a story in an attempt to discredit media and to distract from the issue at hand with respect to a case of sexual impropriety.\n", "Divulging the identity of a confidential source is frowned upon by groups representing journalists in many democracies. In many countries, journalists have no special legal status, and may be required to divulge their sources in the course of a criminal investigation, as any other citizen would be. Even in jurisdictions that grant journalists special legal protections, journalists are typically required to testify if they bear witness to a crime.\n\nJournalists defend the use of anonymous sources for a variety of reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- Access. Some sources refuse to share stories without the shield of anonymity, including many government officials.\n", "In May 2019, OANN published a report claiming that the \"terrorist-linked\" White Helmets had admitted to staging fake chemical weapons attacks, which were intended to put blame on the Assad regime. \"The Daily Beast\" characterized the story as a \"smear\" that could be traced directly as Russian disinformation.\n\nSection::::Content.:Hiring of Jack Posobiec.\n\nIn 2018, OANN hired far-right conspiracy theorist Jack Posobiec as a political correspondent.\n\nSection::::Content.:False story about Bible ban.\n", "April 2013 draft report published: \"CleanGovBiz Integrity in Practice, Investigative Media\" argued that forcing a journalist to reveal a source in such cases would be a short sighted approach in many cases: \"...once a corruption case has been brought to light by a journalist, law enforcement has an incentive to discover the anonymous source(s). While the source might indeed be valuable for the case in question either by providing additional information or through being a witness in court forcing the journalist to reveal the source would often be short-sighted.\"\n", "The identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organization's lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality as the journalist. (Lawyers are generally protected from subpoena in these cases by attorney–client privilege.) Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent anonymous sources and to provide a second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how to or how not to identify sources, and whether other options should be pursued.\n", "Anonymous sources are double-edged—they often provide especially newsworthy information, such as classified or confidential information about current events, information about a previously unreported scandal, or the perspective of a particular group that may fear retribution for expressing certain opinions in the press. The downside is that the condition of anonymity may make it difficult or impossible for the reporter to verify the source's statements. Sometimes news sources hide their identities from the public because their statements would otherwise quickly be discredited. Thus, statements attributed to anonymous sources may carry more weight with the public than they might if they were attributed.\n", "In 1982, \"The New York Times\" reporter Raymond Bonner broke the story of the El Mozote massacre in El Salvador. The report was strongly criticized by AIM and the Reagan administration, and Bonner was pressured into business reporting, later deciding to resign. Although the report was embarrassing to the Reagan administration, which was heavily aiding the right-wing junta at the time, skeletons unearthed a decade later confirmed the original story's veracity. AIM was critical of journalist Helen Marmor, who in 1983 produced a documentary for NBC concerning the Russian Orthodox Church. AIM contended that \"it ignored the repressive religious policies of the Soviet state.\"\n", "A study of the impact of the internet on value orientations in mainland China by Jonathan Zhu and Zhou He (University of Hong Kong) revealed that credibility of the internet was far more important than conventional media to Chinese citizens. This may be because conventional media has a historical record of being credible whereas internet sources, especially user-generated content, can be questionable.\n", "In November 2018, when a video circulated by Infowars' Paul Joseph Watson appeared to prove that CNN's Jim Acosta's contact with a White House intern was a physical blow, Storyful was able to prove that the 15-second-long clip had been doctored. \n", "New media, such as blogs, are changing journalism. One study found that random citizens who contributed to a blog increased their credibility over time, to the point that traditional media outlets quoted them as sources.\n\nSection::::Media credibility.:Education.\n\nLess educated people trust media content more than more educated people.\n\nSection::::Media credibility.:Media Credibility Index (from the International Council for Press and Broadcasting).\n", "BULLET::::- Unreliability. It is difficult for a reader to evaluate the reliability and neutrality of a source they cannot identify, and the reliability of the news as a whole is reduced when it relies upon information from anonymous sources.\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Vincent Foster conspiracy theory.\n", "Regardless of whether the right to source confidentiality is protected by law, the process of communicating between journalists and sources can jeopardize the privacy and safety of sources, as third parties can hack electronic communications or otherwise spy on interactions between journalists and sources. News media and their sources have expressed concern over government covertly accessing their private communications. To mitigate these risks, journalists and sources often rely on encrypted messaging. \n\nSection::::Relevance.\n", "A former supporter, the philosopher Rupert Read has criticised their use of \"extremely dubious\" source material including Michel Chossudovsky, whom he calls a conspiracy theorist, \"Not unusually, one has to go to media such as\" RT and Press TV \"to find any coverage\", Cromwell wrote in September 2016 (he was considering coverage of the Yemeni Civil War), which are \"so often bitterly denigrated as 'propaganda' operations by corporate journalists\".\n", "In 2009, a BtS spokesman had written that the NGO verified its information by cross-referencing the testimonies it collected, and that BtS would provide additional information to \"any official and independent investigation\", including the personal identity of the soldiers, so long as the names were kept confidential.\n\nSection::::Reaction of government.:Reliability of testimonies.\n", "While it is very imperative that the authorship be determined for every website during Internet research, who authored or sponsored a website is essential culture when one cares about the accuracy and reliability of the information, bias, and/or web safety. For example, a website about civil rights that is authored by a member of an extremist group most likely will not contain accurate or unbiased information.\n", "\"To view the 2011 and 2012 reports in full, please follow the link: Media Credibility Index\"\n\nSection::::The Internet.\n", "Verifying the legitimacy of leaked documents is common journalism practice, as is protecting third parties who may be harmed incidentally by the leak being published. However, professional media outlets who receive documents or recordings from confidential sources do not, as a practice, share the unfiltered primary evidence with a federal agency for review or verification, as it is known that metadata and unique identifiers may be revealed that were not obvious to the journalist, and the source exposed.\n", "The Washington press has been criticized in recent years for excessive use of anonymous sources, in particular to report information that is later revealed to be unreliable. The use of anonymous sources increased markedly in the period before the 2003 invasion of Iraq.\n\nSection::::Ethics and standards in practice.:Examples of ethical dilemmas.\n", "Ruddy operates a conservative news website, NewsMax, and, as of 2004, continued to assert that there was a conspiracy and faulted the media.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:United Nations.\n", "Another particular case of misattribution is the Matthew effect: a quotation is often attributed to someone more famous than the real author. This leads the quotation to be more famous, but the real author to be forgotten (see also: obliteration by incorporation).\n\nIn Jewish biblical studies, an entire group of falsely-attributed books is known as the pseudepigrapha.\n\nSuch misattributions may originate as a sort of fallacious argument, if use of the quotation is meant to be persuasive, and attachment to a more famous person (whether intentionally or through misremembering) would lend it more authority.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fake news\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Where N(M) is number of planetary nebula, having absolute magnitude M. M* is equal to the nebula with the brightest magnitude.\n\nSection::::Extragalactic distance scale.:Surface brightness fluctuation method.\n\nThe following method deals with the overall inherent properties of galaxies. These methods, though with varying error percentages, have the ability to make distance estimates beyond 100 Mpc, though it is usually applied more locally.\n", "BULLET::::- The Sun is located in the disk of the Milky Way Galaxy, in the northern edge of the \"thin disk\" and on the inner edge of a spiral arm called the Orion–Cygnus Arm. There is good reason to believe that stars in the galaxy's thin disk are different from thicker part of the disk, and from the bulge and the halo. Some stars are obviously more common in spiral arms than in the disk in between the arms.\n", "Knowing that these effects create bias, astronomers analyzing star counts attempt to find how much bias each effect has caused and then compensate for it as well as they can.\n\nSection::::Inherent luminosity complications.\n\nThe greatest problem biasing star counts is the extreme differences in inherent brightness of different sizes.\n", "Where C is a constant which depends on the distance to the galaxy clusters.\n\nThis method has the potential to become one of the strongest methods of galactic distance calculators, perhaps exceeding the range of even the Tully–Fisher method. As of today, however, elliptical galaxies aren't bright enough to provide a calibration for this method through the use of techniques such as Cepheids. Instead, calibration is done using more crude methods.\n\nSection::::Overlap and scaling.\n", "BULLET::::- ()\n\nAn accurate determination of the distance to the Galactic Center as established from variable stars (e.g. RR Lyrae variables) or standard candles (e.g. red-clump stars) is hindered by countless effects, which include: an ambiguous reddening law; a bias for smaller values of the distance to the Galactic Center because of a preferential sampling of stars toward the near side of the Galactic bulge owing to interstellar extinction; and an uncertainty in characterizing how a mean distance to a group of variable stars found in the direction of the Galactic bulge relates to the distance to the Galactic Center.\n", "BULLET::::- Largest stars are usually expressed in units of the solar radius (), where equals 695,700 kilometres.\n\nBULLET::::- Stellar radii or diameters are usually only approximated using Stefan–Boltzmann law for the deduced stellar luminosity and effective surface temperature;\n\nBULLET::::- Stellar distances, and their errors, for most, remain uncertain or poorly determined;\n\nBULLET::::- Many supergiant stars have extended atmospheres and many are embedded within opaque dust shells, making their true effective temperatures highly uncertain;\n", "The surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) method takes advantage of the use of CCD cameras on telescopes. Because of spatial fluctuations in a galaxy's surface brightness, some pixels on these cameras will pick up more stars than others. However, as distance increases the picture will become increasingly smoother. Analysis of this describes a magnitude of the pixel-to-pixel variation, which is directly related to a galaxy's distance.\n\nSection::::Extragalactic distance scale.:D–σ relation.\n", "BULLET::::- Stars vary far more in brightness than they do in distance.\n\nBULLET::::- Our line of sight through the Milky Way Galaxy is interrupted by great clouds of gas and dust, which block our view of stars more than a few thousand light-years away.\n", "As detected thus far, NGC 3370, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Leo, contains the farthest Cepheids yet found at a distance of 29 Mpc. Cepheid variable stars are in no way perfect distance markers: at nearby galaxies they have an error of about 7% and up to a 15% error for the most distant.\n\nSection::::Extragalactic distance scale.:Supernovae.\n\nThere are several different methods for which supernovae can be used to measure extragalactic distances.\n\nSection::::Extragalactic distance scale.:Supernovae.:Measuring a supernova's photosphere.\n", "This section discusses and attempts to list the best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation.\n\nSection::::Estimates.:Current estimates.:Rate of star creation in our galaxy,.\n\nLatest calculations from NASA and the European Space Agency indicate that the current rate of star formation in our galaxy is about of material per year. To get the number of stars per year, this must account for the initial mass function (IMF) for stars, where the average new star mass is about . This gives a star formation rate of about 1.5–3 stars per year.\n\nSection::::Estimates.:Current estimates.:Fraction of those stars that have planets,.\n", "Section::::Distance and brightness.\n\nAt least two methods have been used to measure the distance to the Sombrero Galaxy.\n\nThe first method relies on comparing the measured fluxes from planetary nebulae in the Sombrero Galaxy to the known Luminosity of planetary nebulae in the Milky Way. This method gave the distance to the Sombrero Galaxy as .\n", "When performing star counts, astronomers consider many different categories that have been created to classify a few stars that have been well studied. One of the hopes of studying the results of star counts is to discover new categories. Different counts typically seek to categorize stars for only a few of the qualities listed below, and determine how common each considered quality is and how stars of that kind are distributed.\n", "Section::::Extragalactic large stars.\n\nIn this list are some examples of more distant extragalactic stars, which may have slightly different properties and natures than the currently largest known stars in the Milky Way:\n\nBULLET::::- Some red supergiants in the Magellanic Clouds are suspected to have slightly different limiting temperatures and luminosities. Such stars may exceed accepted limits by undergoing large eruptions or change their spectral types over just a few months.\n\nBULLET::::- A survey of the Magellanic Clouds has catalogued many red supergiants, where many of them exceed . Largest of these is about 1,200–1,300 .\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The intensity of the 21 cm line gives the density and number of atoms in the cloud\n\nBULLET::::- The temperature of the cloud can be calculated\n\nUsing this information the shape of the Milky Way has been determined to be a spiral galaxy, though the exact number and position of the spiral arms is the subject of ongoing research.\n\nSection::::Interstellar medium.:Complex molecules.\n", "BULLET::::- Multiplicity: Most stars are members of double star, or triple star, or even double-double star systems. Our own sun appears to be unusual for \"not\" having a companion star.\n\nThere are many finer subdivisions in all of the above categories.\n\nSection::::Bias.\n\nThere are many unavoidable problems in counting stars for the purpose of getting an accurate picture of the distribution of stars in space. The effects of our point of view in the galaxy, the obscuring clouds of gas and dust in the galaxy, and especially the extreme range of inherent brightness, create a biased view of stars.\n", "Expansion parallaxes in particular can give fundamental distance estimates for objects that are very far, because supernova ejecta have large expansion velocities and large sizes (compared to stars). Further, they can be observed with radio interferometers which can measure very small angular motions. These combine to provide fundamental distance estimates to supernovae in other galaxies. Though valuable, such cases are quite rare, so they serve as important consistency checks on the distance ladder rather than workhorse steps by themselves.\n\nSection::::Standard candles.\n", "As well as the optical images from the SDSS, measurements from the GALEX survey were used to determine the ultraviolet values. This survey is well matched in depth and area, and 139 of the sampled 251 GPs are found in GALEX Release 4 (G.R.4). For the 56 of the 80 star-forming GPs with GALEX detections, the median luminosity is ~30,000 million formula_1 (~30,000 million solar luminosities).\n\nWhen compiling the Cardamone paper, spectral classification was made using Gas And Absorption Line Fitting (GANDALF). This sophisticated computer software was programmed by Marc Sarzi, who helped analyze the SDSS spectra.\n", "A succession of distance indicators, which is the distance ladder, is needed for determining distances to other galaxies. The reason is that objects bright enough to be recognized and measured at such distances are so rare that few or none are present nearby, so there are too few examples close enough with reliable trigonometric parallax to calibrate the indicator. For example, Cepheid variables, one of the best indicators for nearby spiral galaxies, cannot yet be satisfactorily calibrated by parallax alone, though the Gaia space mission is expected to solve that specific problem. The situation is further complicated by the fact that different stellar populations generally do not have all types of stars in them. Cepheids in particular are massive stars, with short lifetimes, so they will only be found in places where stars have very recently been formed. Consequently, because elliptical galaxies usually have long ceased to have large-scale star formation, they will not have Cepheids. Instead, distance indicators whose origins are in an older stellar population (like novae and RR Lyrae variables) must be used. However, RR Lyrae variables are less luminous than Cepheids, and novae are unpredictable and an intensive monitoring program—and luck during that program—is needed to gather enough novae in the target galaxy for a good distance estimate.\n", "Estimates of the distance to the Triangulum galaxy range from (or 2.38 to 3.07 Mly), with most estimates since the year 2000 lying in the middle portion of this range, making it slightly more distant than the Andromeda Galaxy (at 2,540,000 light-years). At least three techniques have been used to measure distances to M 33. Using the Cepheid variable method, an estimate of was achieved in 2004. In the same year, the tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) method was used to derive a distance estimate of .\n", "After novae fade, they are about as bright as the most luminous Cepheid variable stars, therefore both these techniques have about the same max distance: ~ 20 Mpc. The error in this method produces an uncertainty in magnitude of about ±0.4\n\nSection::::Extragalactic distance scale.:Globular cluster luminosity function.\n\nBased on the method of comparing the luminosities of globular clusters (located in galactic halos) from distant galaxies to that of the Virgo Cluster, the globular cluster luminosity function carries an uncertainty of distance of about 20% (or 0.4 magnitudes).\n", "Section::::Accuracy of astronomical figures.\n\nThe lyrics include a number of astronomical quantities, the vast majority of which are accurate to within one or two significant figures. A few statements are only approximately correct or have liberties with definitions, likely to fit within the meter of the song.\n", "Like the GCLF method, a similar numerical analysis can be used for planetary nebulae (note the use of more than one!) within far off galaxies. The planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF) was first proposed in the late 1970s by Holland Cole and David Jenner. They suggested that all planetary nebulae might all have similar maximum intrinsic brightness, now calculated to be M = −4.53. This would therefore make them potential standard candles for determining extragalactic distances.\n\nAstronomer George Howard Jacoby and his colleagues later proposed that the PNLF function equaled:\n", "Globe at Night observations identify the dimmest stars that are visible given the surrounding conditions. Assuming normal visible acuity and clear skies, it is possible to approximately convert Globe at Night naked eye limiting maximum estimates into other units:\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- RR Lyrae variables — used for measuring distances within the galaxy and in nearby globular clusters.\n\nBULLET::::- The following four indicators all use stars in the old stellar populations (Population II):\n\nBULLET::::- Tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) distance indicator.\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF)\n\nBULLET::::- Globular cluster luminosity function (GCLF)\n\nBULLET::::- Surface brightness fluctuation (SBF)\n", "Section::::Distance.\n\nThe distance to the LMC has been calculated using a variety of standard candles, with Cepheid variables being one of the most popular. Cepheids have been shown to have a relationship between their absolute luminosity and the period over which their brightness varies. However, Cepheids appear to suffer from a metallicity effect, where Cepheids of different metallicities have different period–luminosity relations. Unfortunately, the Cepheids in the Milky Way typically used to calibrate the period–luminosity relation are more metal rich than those found in the LMC.\n" ]

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[ "In 2005 Ponting began using cricket bats with a graphite covering over the wooden blade of the bat, as did other players contracted to Kookaburra Sport. This was ruled by the MCC to have contravened Law 6.1, which states that bats have to be made of wood, although they may be \"covered with material for protection, strengthening or repair not likely to cause unacceptable damage to the ball\". Ponting and Kookaburra agreed to comply, before the series against South Africa.\n", "After the two Test series there was a triangular World Series Cup One Day series between Australia, New Zealand and India, who were the current World Champions, and Australia and India made it into the best out of three finals. Matthews was part of the Australian squad throughout the summer.\n\nMatthews played a key role in several Australian victories including 46 in a game against India and 1-27 against New Zealand.\n", "Using spit and/or sweat is common and, for practitioners of swing bowling, integral. The moisture gained from spit or sweat when combined with polishing, smooths out one half of the ball which in turn allows air to pass over one side of the ball more quickly than over the other. When bowled correctly, a bowler can get the ball to move from one side to the other through the air. Also, it is common for bowlers to rub the ball against their clothing to dry or polish it, as seen in most cricket matches.\n\nSection::::Sanction.\n", "Section::::Response.:Disputing the charges and sanctions.\n\nIn the press release announcing the findings and sanctions, Cricket Australia summarised the review process.\n\n\"The Code of Conduct process in this instance is as follows: \n\nBULLET::::- A report is lodged by the CEO with the Head of Integrity;\n\nBULLET::::- A review is completed by the Head of Integrity; A Notice of Charge (in conjunction with the report) is provided to the player which includes a specific charge under the Code of Conduct and offers the proposed sanctions;\n\nBULLET::::- If the player accepts the charge and proposed sanctions, the matter is completed;\n", "Because a single ball is used for an extended period of play, its surface wears down and becomes rough. The bowlers may polish it whenever they can, usually by rubbing it on their trousers, producing the characteristic red stain that can often be seen there. However, they will usually only polish one side of the ball, in order to create 'swing' as it travels through the air. They may apply saliva or sweat to the ball as they polish it.\n", "This incident followed speculation by Australian Test batsman David Warner in February 2014 over the South African team's practices in altering the state of the ball during Australia's tour to South Africa. Speaking to Sky Sports Radio, Warner commented on the South African fielders' more \"obvious\" use of throwing the ball into the ground on return throws after fielding, and South African wicket-keeper AB de Villiers' habit of getting \"the ball in his hand and with his glove wipe the rough side every ball.\"\n", "Bancroft arrived in Perth on 29 March 2018, and gave a press conference at the WACA. An emotional Bancroft expressed disappointment, regret and remorse, admitting that he had failed as a role model and in the eyes of the broader community, and that when confronted on the field by the umpires and media about his actions he panicked. He asked for forgiveness and said that he would be contributing back to the community.\n", "Section::::Coaching career.:Pakistan.:2006 ball-tampering row.\n", "In the first Test, Sri Lanka notified match referee Chris Broad that Australian bowler Peter Siddle may have been raising the seam of the ball during Sri Lanka's first innings. Peter Siddle collected 5/54. He was later cleared by the ICC.\n\nSection::::Examples and allegations.:Faf du Plessis, 2013.\n", "It was reported on 31 March 2018 that Bancroft had sought legal advice and is considering his options. It was further reported on 1 April 2018 that all three had sought legal advice and are considering their actions, and importantly that while they all acknowledge erring in Cape Town, they had not formally accepted or challenged their charges or their sanctions issued by CA. \n", "An extensive ICC study, the results of which were released in November 2004, was conducted to investigate the \"chucking issue\". A laboratory kinematic analysis of 42 non-Test playing bowlers done by Ferdinands and Kersting (2004) established that the 5° limit for slow and spin bowlers was particularly impractical.\n", "Section::::Warner–Woodfull incident.:Warner's visit to the dressing room.\n", ", Australia was ranked fifth in the ICC Test Championship, sixth in the ICC ODI Championship and fourth in the ICC T20I Championship.\n\nSection::::History.:1970s and onward.:2018 ball-tampering controversy.\n", "Later that afternoon, Warner related the incident to Jardine, who replied that he \"couldn't care less\". The England captain then locked the dressing room doors and told the team what Woodfull had said and warned them not to speak to anyone concerning the matter. Warner later wrote to his wife that Woodfull had made \"a complete fool of himself\" and had been \"fanning the flames\".\n\nSection::::Leak.\n", "The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid, with a circumference of . The ball has a \"seam\": six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior. The seam on a new ball is prominent, and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner. During matches, the quality of the ball deteriorates to a point where it is no longer usable, and during the course of this deterioration its behaviour in flight will change and can influence the outcome of the match. Players will therefore attempt to modify the ball's behaviour by modifying its physical properties. Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva is legal, even when the polishing is deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball's swing through the air, but the acts of rubbing other substances into the ball, scratching the surface or picking at the seam is illegal ball tampering.\n", "The trouble began on the fourth ball of the day, when Lillee straight drove a ball from Ian Botham. The ball went for three runs, and nothing appeared untoward. However, Australian captain Greg Chappell thought that the ball should have gone for a four, and instructed twelfth man Rodney Hogg to deliver a conventional wooden bat to Lillee. As this was happening, English captain Mike Brearley complained to umpires Max O'Connell and Don Weser that the metallic bat was damaging the soft, leather cricket ball.\n", "BULLET::::- Ray Lindwall: Like Trueman Lindwall's action was a text book model, but he was known for his heavy drag, and Rorke was described as having \"an even more phenomenal drag than Lindwall\". Even so, \"When Australia blooded some fast bowlers with distinctly dubious actions against England in 1958, it was a pleasure to avert the eyes from the bent elbows and feast on the purity and beauty of Lindwall's action\".\n", "Under Law 41, subsection 3 of the Laws of Cricket, the ball may be polished without the use of an artificial substance, may be dried with a towel if it is wet, and have mud removed from it under supervision; all other actions which alter the condition of the ball are illegal. These are usually taken to include rubbing the ball on the ground, scuffing with a fingernail or other sharp object, or tampering with the seam of the ball.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n", "The chief executive of the ICC, Dave Richardson, addressed a news conference on 27 April 2018 about harsher punishments for ball-tampering and other misbehaviour.\n\nSection::::Responses to the investigation and sanctions.\n", "However, there have been a number of high-profile instances of alleged ball tampering, particularly in international cricket due to the increase in television coverage.\n\nSection::::Examples and allegations.:Chris Pringle, 1990.\n\nDuring a tour of Pakistan, New Zealand bowler Chris Pringle used a bottle cap to rough up one side of a ball. The New Zealand team had suspected that the Pakistan team had done this in the series, but there is no evidence beyond their claimed observations during the matches. \n\nSection::::Examples and allegations.:Michael Atherton, 1994.\n", "This ensured Matthew's selection on another short tour to Sharjah to play one day games against India, England and Pakistan. He and Peter Taylor would be the spinners. Matthews ended the Australian summer with a century for NSW against Victoria.\n\nAround this time Matthews revealed he turned down two approaches to tour South Africa despite being offered $200,000 because \"I didn't think $200,000 would make me happy and I had other things in life to do.\" He defended his former teammates who had decided to go and opposed the sporting boycott:\n", "On 1 February 2009, the ICC reversed their earlier decision, and changed the match result back to a win for England.\n\nSection::::Examples and allegations.:James Anderson and Stuart Broad, 2010.\n\nIn January 2010, England bowlers Stuart Broad and James Anderson were accused of ball tampering by stopping the ball with the spikes of their boots in the third Test Match against South Africa.\n\nBroad maintained that he was just being lazy, because it was 40 degrees Celsius in Cape Town that day.\n\nAndy Flower said in his defence that \"the scoreline suggested that there was obviously no ball tampering.\"\n", "On 29 March 2018, the Australian Cricketers' Association (ACA), who represents the professional first-class cricketers of Australia, released a statement setting out \"a number of glaring and clear anomalies in the process to date which causes the ACA to query the severity and proportionality of the proposed sanctions.\" It went on to say that \"The ACA continues to provide welfare and legal support to all players\" and that \"All Australians would understand the right of the players to receive advice from their advisers, peers and family and the time necessary to ensure the sanctions are fair and proportional.\" Some see this as the ACA foreshadowing a challenge to CA over the process and sanctions.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Cutters work especially well on pitches that are rough, or when the ball lands on cracks on the surface. Such surfaces grip the seam and stop the reverse rotation, leading to considerable deviation as well as causing the ball to keep low after pitching. In the latter case, the balls are also called 'shooters'. Lance Klusener used this tactic in matches in the West Indies and the Indian subcontinent, particularly in one match in Calcutta towards the end of his career when he had lost some of his speed.\n" ]

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[ "Some filling stations are totally unattended and only allow customers to purchase fuel by paying at the pump.\n\nSection::::Fraud.\n\nThose who use the pay at the pump feature could be putting themselves at risk for fraud, as thieves attach skimmers to the pumps that can steal the information off the cards used to make purchases. Many debit cards can be used to make the purchase either as debit or credit. But those who make the purchases as debit are potentially feeding their information into the skimmers.\n", "NPCA on the other hand has developed their niche in c-store petroleum. The programs offer consumers an instant price rollback at the pump of anywhere between 3 cents and 10 cents off per gallon of fuel purchased. \n", "Without the human interaction, there is no verification system when credit cards are used to make purchases, and no signature is required. This enables those in possession of stolen or cloned credit cards, or those who are otherwise making unauthorized use of another's card to purchase gasoline without a signature. Many stations now require customers making credit-based transactions to enter their zip code (United States) or equivalent (other countries) in order to be allowed to make a fuel purchase.\n", "Section::::Commercial use in business.\n\nCommercial fuel cards are designed with fleets in mind and seek to avoid both the percentage up-charges of credit card companies as well as the theft risk retail credit cards expose a business to due to their focus on convenience over financial security. \n", "In late 2008, Giant Eagle and Citizens Financial Group (which already had Citizens Bank locations inside Pennsylvania Giant Eagle locations) launched a program in which Citizens Bank debit card holders earned an additional $.1 off/gallon in Fuelperks! for every $50 spent anywhere when their Citizens Bank debit card was used. In addition, Citizens cardholders earned an extra $.3 off/gallon when used at Giant Eagle in addition to the $.10 off already earned there. The program is only open to new or existing Citizens Bank customers with a checking account and a Giant Eagle Advantage Card, and must have the debit card synced with the Advantage Card at Citizens branches before it can be used for additional Fuelperks!.\n", "In contrast to bunkered, retail fuel cards operate by way of allowing the customer to draw fuel at almost any fuelling station (in same method as credit card). Often providers will levy a surcharge in addition to the retail price as advertised at the fuelling station. The retail price given is often considerably higher than that of the bunkered. The majority of fuel cards provide weekly (advance) notification of fuel price generally applicable nationwide.\n", "Filling stations sell items that have nothing to do with refuelling a motor vehicle, (eg milk, newspapers, cigarettes) but purchasing at that location can save the consumer time compared to making a separate journey to a supermarket. Conveniences such as direct deposit can save companies and consumers money, though this may or may not be passed along to the consumer.\n", "During 2008, market maturity has led to users increasingly expecting more from fuel cards than discount pricing, with the demand for service, savings and security leading to the appearance of dedicated account management. While most fuel card suppliers handle customer queries via random-operator call centres, customer preference is increasingly for a named individual to handle their business. Respected publication \"Fleet News\" reported in July 2008 that more than a quarter of fleet managers are unhappy with the level of service offered by their fuel card supplier.\n\nSection::::Origins.:United States.\n", "Pay at the pump\n\nPay at the pump is a system used at some filling stations where customers can pay for their fuel by inserting a credit or debit card or fuel card into a slot on the pump, bypassing the requirement to make the transaction with the station attendant or to walk away from one's vehicle. A few areas have gas stations that use electronic tolling transponders as a method of payment, such as Via Verde in Portugal.\n", "According to the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC), fees for using a white-label ATM can add up to over $6.00 per transaction. The same agency states that private operators are \"not required to adhere to a minimum or maximum limit\", meaning that the fee amount is up to the operator. The operator is obliged, however, to disclose the fee to be charged and give the consumer the option of cancelling the transaction.\n", "There currently is litigation in the State of Florida that alleges that some gas stations do not adequately inform their customers that a certain fixed dollar amount (usually between $75 and $100) will be requested as a pre-authorization in connection with a customer's purchase of self-service gasoline at the pump using a debit card and that this practice violates various Florida consumer protection and civil laws. The lawsuit was filed by Florida attorneys Cameron Moyer and James Staack in November, 2007. Class certification was granted by the Circuit Court in February, 2009. The defendant is currently appealing the Class Certification Order.\n", "In most cases, fuel cards can provide fuel at a wholesale price as opposed to standard retail. This way, discount fuel can be purchased without needing to buy in bulk.\n\nFurthermore, the management and security concerning fuel purchases is greatly improved via the use of fuel cards. These features often prove themselves attractive to businesses, especially with those operating large fleets which can sometimes be in the thousands of vehicles.\n", "For example, if an individual makes a fuel purchase by swiping a check card or credit card at the pump without using the PIN, the pump has no way of knowing how much fuel will be used. The pump typically authorizes a fixed amount, usually $1 but sometimes up to $100, to verify that the card is legitimate and that the customer has funds available. When the transaction is settled, it will actually post for the value of the purchase.\n", "Bunkered fuel card companies sometimes also offer customers their own fuel bunker to under the premise of further benefiting from a discounted price. Furthermore, a customer can also hope to achieve a saving by way of avoiding any market increases in the standard market price for that particular fuel. In short, customer fuel bunkering has many pros & cons:\n\nPros:\n\nBULLET::::- new-start businesses given a vital boost by using fuel cards if credit insurance cannot be obtained (due to lack of company history)\n", "Retailers reap swipe fee savings when they have a National Payment Card program when compared to what they pay in swipe fees for accepting Visa, MasterCard, AMEX, etc. The savings are used to fund rewards to the retailer’s customers which provides the incentive to the consumer to carry another payment card in their wallet.\n", "Additionally, although fees for debit card ATM usage are very rare in countries such as the UK, this is not the case in some other countries. In Canada and the United States, fees of $1~4 are typical when using an ATM from a different bank than the one with which the customer has an account, from both the bank and the atm owner. The fees in some other countries are even higher. In Germany, for instance, usual fees are €4~5 when using an ATM of another bank network than the one of his bank. This gives rise to another potential cashback advantage for the consumer: by making use of the cashback procedure, this ATM fee can be avoided for the cardholder.\n", "In states such as Oregon and New Jersey, where pumping your own gas is outlawed, automated cash handling has played an important role as a crime deterrent and economical sound system. Gas attendants now do not have to worry about being burglarized. With automated cash systems in place at these gas stations, everything is used by computer, making transactions faster than ever. These systems also allow petroleum companies to save money and ensure a higher level of security.\n\nSection::::Effect on banking jobs.\n", "Section::::Payment methods.:United Kingdom.\n\nA large majority of stations allow customers to pay with a chip and pin payment card or pay in the shop. Many have a pay at the pump system, where customers can enter their PIN prior to refuelling.\n\nSection::::Payment methods.:United States.\n", "In some countries, credit and debit cards are only processed via payment terminals. Thus one may see quite a number of such terminals for different cards cluttering up a sale counter. This inconvenience is however offset by the fact that credit and debit card data is far less vulnerable to hackers, unlike when payment cards are processed through the POS system where security is contingent upon the actions taken by end-users and developers.\n", "The check-out problem was one of the reasons the Rotterdam public transport operator RET began an experiment in March 2014 with travelling-on-account, whereby OV-chipkaart users do not need to pre-load credit or maintain a minimum balance for the deposit to be deducted, but instead receive a bill for their journeys at the end of the month.\n\nSection::::Issues and criticisms.:Privacy concerns.\n", "As of 2007, only 50% or so of fuel cards on offer utilise the smartchip technology.\n\nSection::::Security.:Smartchip benefits.:Added features of smartchip technology.\n\nFuelling limits can also be programmed into a fuel card using smartchip technology to specify the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Volume allowed per transaction\n\nBULLET::::- Volume allowed per day\n\nBULLET::::- Volume allowed per week\n\nBULLET::::- Number of transactions allowed per day\n\nBULLET::::- Number of transactions allowed per week\n\nBULLET::::- Days of the week card can be used\n\nBULLET::::- Times of the day card can be used\n\nBULLET::::- Number of incorrect PIN entries allowed\n\nBULLET::::- Card lock-out period after incorrect PINs\n", "In the alternate, some prefer to buy their currency before they travel, either just for a sense of security against credit card fraud typically achieved by tampered card readers or hackers, or because they speculate the exchange rate is better at that time than it will be when they make their trip. As well, some places may only take cash or have credit card terminals down.\n\nIn 2002, many bureaux reported substantial reductions in profit due to the replacement of many European currencies with the euro.\n\nSection::::Illegal activity.\n", "Changing money at a bureau is often more expensive than withdrawing it from an automatic teller machine at one’s destination or paying directly by debit or credit card, but this varies depending on the card issuer and the type of account. Fees from multiple ATM withdrawals should also be considered. Some people may feel uncomfortable carrying a lot of cash and so prefer to use a card and carry minimal cash for tipping cabs, hotels, and restaurants. Hotels and rental cars many times also need cards for temporary holds.\n", "Following the 2008 financial crisis and legislation passed by Congress, banks have modified many credit card agreements with customers sometimes increasing interest rates or reducing credit limits.\n\nSection::::Renting.\n\nLike an activation fee, a setup fee is often charged by places that rent space or other things. In the case of self-storage businesses, this negates claims of \"only one dollar for the first month\" made by Public Storage and others. Apartment complexes often charge fees for pets (mainly dogs and cats). Some complexes euphemistically call these a non-refundable deposit, ignoring the definition of a deposit as inherently being refundable.\n\nSection::::Real estate.\n", "U.S. Federal law caps the liability of a U.S. debit card user in case of loss or theft at US$50 if the loss or theft is reported to the issuing bank in two business days after the customer notices the loss. Most banks will, however, set this limit to $0 for debit cards issued to their customers which are linked to their checking or savings account.\n" ]

[ "Gas stations make you go inside when you have less than 200 dollars.", "Gas stations require you to pay inside if you have less than 200$ on your account." ]

[ "This doesn't happen to everyone.", "From personal experience, it has never happened before, meaning there are gas stations that don't require you to go inside if there is less than 200$ on your debit card." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Gas stations make you go inside when you have less than 200 dollars.", "Gas stations require you to pay inside if you have less than 200$ on your account." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "This doesn't happen to everyone.", "From personal experience, it has never happened before, meaning there are gas stations that don't require you to go inside if there is less than 200$ on your debit card." ]

[ "George Klir, reviewing the book in the \"International Journal of General Systems\", writes that \"This book, full of beautiful pictures of plants of great variety, is a testimony of the genius of Aristid Lindenmayer, who invented in 1968 systems that are now named by him -- \"Lindenmayer systems\" or \"L-systems\". It is also a testimony of the power of current computer technology. The pictures in the book are not photographs of real plants. They are all generated on the computer by relatively simple algorithms based upon the idea of L-systems.\" Klir goes on to explain the mathematics of L-systems, involving replacement of strings of symbols with further strings according to production rules, adding that \"high computer power is essential since the generation of realistic forms requires tremendous numbers of replacements and the geometric interpretation of the generated strings requires a highly sophisticated computer graphics\".\n", "\"A. thaliana\" is well suited for light microscopy analysis. Young seedlings on the whole, and their roots in particular, are relatively translucent. This, together with their small size, facilitates live cell imaging using both fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy. By wet-mounting seedlings in water or in culture media, plants may be imaged uninvasively, obviating the need for fixation and sectioning and allowing time-lapse measurements. Fluorescent protein constructs can be introduced through transformation. The developmental stage of each cell can be inferred from its location in the plant or by using fluorescent protein markers, allowing detailed developmental analysis.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "Thorn mimicry of two types has been observed in plants. The first, a special case of intra-oranismic Batesian mimicry characteristic of Aloe sp. (Liliaceae), \"W. filifera\" (Palmaceae), and dozens of species of Agave, including \"A. applanta, A. salmiana,\" and \"A. obscura\". These plants develop thorn-like imprints or colorations on the face of their leaves due to the teeth along the margins of that leaf (or another leaf) pressing sustained indentations into the flesh of the non-spiny parts.\n", "Some plants are capable of rapid movement: the so-called \"sensitive plant\" (\"Mimosa pudica\") responds to even the slightest physical touch by quickly folding its thin pinnate leaves such that they point downwards, and carnivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap (\"Dionaea muscipula\") produce specialized leaf structures that instantaneously snap shut when touched or landed upon by insects. In the Venus flytrap, touch is detected by cilia lining the inside of the specialized leaves, which generate an action potential that stimulates motor cells and causes movement to occur.\n\nIn plants, the mechanism responsible for adaptation is signal transduction. Adaptive responses include:\n", "In September 2011 participants on a trip to a remote mountain on south-eastern Mindanao, Stewart McPherson sighted epiphytically growing black Nepenthes truncata-like plants and photos were taken from a distance; it was stated by some of the participants on this same trip that this was evidence of the then newly described N. robcantleyi in habitat. However, due to the distance and foggy surroundings, no real distinguishing features could be observed in the photo except for superficial similarities to both N. truncata.\n", "An illuminance of 6400–8600 lx (600–800 fc) proved to be optimal when plants were grown under sunlight, high pressure sodium, and metal halide lamps. However, specimens placed under an even combination of Gro-Lux and cool white fluorescent lamps at 5400–7500 lx (500–700 fc) exhibited the most vibrant colours (although growth rates remained the same). Plants moved from the former to the latter light set up showed a significant change in pigmentation; green leaf blades turned bronzy and speckles on the pitchers darkened markedly.\n", "Adrian Bell, reviewing the book in \"New Phytologist\", writes that it demands respect for three reasons, namely that it is the first book to explain the algorithms behind virtual plants, it \"unashamedly\" connects art and science, and is unusual in being a real book on a computer-based subject. Each chapter, writes Bell, is an introductory manual to the simulation of an aspect of plant form, resulting \"eventually\" in a 3-D image of a plant architecture.\n", "For maximum benefit in the garden, insectary plants can be grown alongside desired garden plants that do not have this benefit. The insects attracted to the insectary plants will also help the other nearby garden plants.\n", "Botany in a Day\n\nBotany in a Day: The Patterns Method of Plant Identification is a book by Thomas J. Elpel published by HOPS Press, LLC. The book emphasizes family characteristics for plant identification. Related plants typically have similar floral features and often similar uses. For example, plants of the mustard family (Brassicaceae) have four petals with six stamens (4 tall, 2 short), and most or all of the 3,200 species are considered edible.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Identifying host plants.\n\nGiant swallowtail butterflies must correctly identify their host plants by antennal sensitivity to the specific volatile compounds in the plants. A study found that antennal response to these volatiles depends upon the concentration of the volatiles, the host plant of origin (whether it is a primary or secondary host), and the sex of the butterfly. This last dependency is thought to be because the females, not the males, must identify the correct host plant for egg laying.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Flight.\n", "Section::::A comparative science.\n\nA plant morphologist makes comparisons between structures in many different plants of the same or different species. Making such comparisons between similar structures in different plants tackles the question of \"why\" the structures are similar. It is quite likely that similar underlying causes of genetics, physiology, or response to the environment have led to this similarity in appearance. The result of scientific investigation into these causes can lead to one of two insights into the underlying biology:\n\nBULLET::::1. Homology - the structure is similar between the two species because of shared ancestry and common genetics.\n", "Section::::Classification.:Defensive.\n\nDefensive or protective mimicry takes place when organisms are able to avoid harmful encounters by deceiving enemies into treating them as something else.\n\nThe first three such cases discussed here entail mimicry of animals protected by warning coloration:\n\nBULLET::::- Batesian mimicry, where a harmless mimic poses as harmful.\n\nBULLET::::- Müllerian mimicry, where two or more harmful species mutually advertise themselves as harmful.\n\nBULLET::::- Mertensian mimicry, where a deadly mimic resembles a less harmful but lesson-teaching model.\n\nThe fourth case, Vavilovian mimicry, where weeds resemble crops, involves humans as the agent of selection.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Defensive.:Batesian.\n", "Types of plant mimicry include Bakerian, where female flowers imitate males of the same species, Müllerian mimicry of the flower or fruit, where a plant mimics a rewarding flower (Dodsonian), luring pollinators by mimicking another species of flower, or fruit where feeders of the other species are attracted to a fake fruit to distribute seeds, Vavilovian, where a weed is unintentionally artificially selected to resemble a crop plant, Pouyannian, in which a flower imitates a female mate for a pollinating insect, Batesian, where a harmless species deter predators by mimicking the characteristics of a harmful species, and leaf mimicry, where a plant resembles a nearby plant to evade the attention of herbivores. \n", "BULLET::::- \"Helictotrichon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heliocereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heliophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heliopsis\" (ox eye)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heliotropium\" (heliotrope)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Helleborus\" (hellebore)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heloniopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hemerocallis\" (daylily)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hemigraphis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hepatica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heptacodium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heracleum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Herbertia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hereroa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hermannia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hermodactylus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hesperaloe\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hesperantha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hesperis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hesperocallis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heterocentron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heterotheca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heuchera\" (coral flower)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heucherella\" (hybrid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hibbertia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hibiscus\" (rose of Sharon)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hieracium\" (hawkweed)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Himalayacalamus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hippeastrum\" (amaryllis)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hippocrepis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hippophae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hohenbergia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hohenbergiopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hoheria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holboellia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holcus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holmskioldia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holodiscus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homalocladium\" (ribbon bush)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homeria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hoodia\"\n", "The most startling adaptation of \"Lithops\" is the colouring of the leaves. The leaves are fenestrated, and the epidermal windows are patterned in various shades of cream, grey, and brown, with darker windowed areas, dots, and red lines, according to species and local conditions. The markings function as remarkable camouflage for the plant in its typical stone-like environment. As is typical of a window plant, the green tissue lines the inside of the leaves and is covered with translucent tissue beneath the epidermal windows.\n", "Plants respond to environmental stimuli by movement and changes in morphology. They communicate while actively competing for resources. In addition, plants accurately compute their circumstances, use sophisticated cost–benefit analysis, and take tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control diverse environmental stressors. Plants are also capable of discriminating between positive and negative experiences and of learning by registering memories from their past experiences. Plants use this information to adapt their behaviour in order to survive present and future challenges of their environments.\n", "Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.\n", "BULLET::::- Plant morphology\n\nBULLET::::- Plant physiology\n\nBULLET::::- Pollen DNA barcoding\n\nBULLET::::- Taxonomy\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Jones' (2013) - \"A visual identification key utilizing both gestalt and analytic approaches to identification of Carices present in North America (Plantae, Cyperaceae)\" in the \"Biodiversity Data Journal\" \n\nBULLET::::- John Shaffner's key (1911) in the \"Ohio Naturalist\" \n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Shoot (over 19,000 plants listed)\n\nBULLET::::- Visual Interactive Kingdom Plantae to division (Louisiana State University)\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive Plant Identifier (University of Wisconsin)\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive Plant Identifier (Auburn University)\n\nBULLET::::- Image-based plant identification system (French Flora, Pl@ntNet project)\n", "Other flower traits that hybridizers developed include height, scent, ruffled edges, contrasting \"eyes\" in the center of a bloom, and an illusion of glitter which is called \"diamond dust.\" Sought-after improvements include foliage color and variegation and plant disease resistance and the ability to form large, neat clumps. Hybridizers also seek to make less-hardy plants hardier in Canada and the Northern United States by crossing evergreen and semi-evergreen plants with those that become dormant and by using other methods. Many kinds of daylilies form clumps of crowded shoots. \n", "Plant identification\n\nPlant identification is the process of matching a specimen plant to a known taxon. It uses various methods, most commonly single-access keys or multi-access keys.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nPlant identification has evolved over hundreds of years and depends to a large extent on what criteria and whose system is used. Plant identification implies comparisons of certain characteristics and then assigning a particular plant to a known taxonomic group, ultimately arriving at a species or infraspecific name.\n\nIn the history of botany many large systems, useful at the time, were widely used for decades until superseded as taxonomic knowledge progressed.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Parkinsonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parnassia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parochetus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parodia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paronychia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parrotia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parrotiopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parthenocissus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Passiflora\" (granadilla, passionflower)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patersonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patrinia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paulownia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paurotis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pavonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pedilanthus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pediocactus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pelargonium\" (geranium)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pellaea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peltandra\" (arrow arum)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peltoboykinia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peltophorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peniocereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pennisetum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pentachrondra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pentaglottis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pentas\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peperomia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peraphyllum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pereskia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Perezia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pericallis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Perilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Periploca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Perovskia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pernettya\" (now included in \"Gaultheria\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Persea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Persicaria\" (fleeceflower, knotweed)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petasites\" (butterbur, sweet coltsfoot)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petrea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petrocosmea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petrophile\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petrophytum\"\n", "The color of the anthocyanins will be controlled using circadian rhythms, an internal clock system found in many organisms that works to control gene expression over time. Using the principles of synthetic biology, the company will control the expression of a gene that modifies pH. Connecting these systems genetically can potentially create plants that change color throughout the day.\n\nSection::::Synbio Axlr8r.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Angulocaste\" (a hybrid orchid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anigozanthos\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anisacanthus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anisodontea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Annona\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anoda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anomatheca\" (See \"Freesia\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anredera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antennaria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthemis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthericum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthocleista\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthotroche\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthriscus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthurium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthyllis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antidesma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antigonon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antirrhinum\" (snapdragon)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphelandra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphyllanthes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apocynum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aponogeton\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apophyllum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apodytes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aponogeton\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aporocactus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aporoheliocereus\" (hybrid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aprevalia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aptenia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aquilegia\" (columbine)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arabis\" (rock cress)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arachis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arachniodes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arachnis\" (scorpion orchid) (orchid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Araeococcus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Araiostegia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aralia\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nepenthes\" (pitcher plant)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nepeta\" (catmint)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nephrolepis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nerine\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nerium\" (oleander)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nertera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nicandra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nicotiana\" (tobacco)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nidularium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nierembergia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nigella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nipponanthemum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nomocharis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nopalxochia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nothofagus\" (southern beech)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Notholirion\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nothoscordum\" (false garlic)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Notospartium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nuphar\" (spatterdock)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nymania\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nymphaea\" (waterlily)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nymphoides\" (floating heart)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nyssa\" (tupelo)\n\nSection::::O.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Obregonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ochagavia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ochna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ocimum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odontioda\" (hybrid orchid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odontocidium\" (hybrid orchid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odontoglossum\" (an orchid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odontonema\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odontonia\" (hybrid orchid genus)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oemleria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oenanthe\" (water dropwort)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Leucospermum\" (pincushion)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leucothoe\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lewisia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leycesteria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leymus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liatris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Libertia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Libocedrus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligustrum\" (privet)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lilium\" (lily)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Limnanthes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Limnocharis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Limonium\" (sea lavender)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Linanthus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Linaria\" (toadflax)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lindelofia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lindera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lindheimeria\" (star daisy)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Linnaea\" (twinflower)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Linospadix\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Linum\" (flax)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liquidambar\" (sweetgum)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liriodendron\" (tulip tree)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liriope\" (lilyturf)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lithocarpus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lithodora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lithophragma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lithops\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Littonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Livistona\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loasa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lobelia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lobularia\" (sweet alyssum)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lodoicea\" (coco de mer)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loiseleuria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lomandra\" (mat rush)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lomatia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lomatium\"\n" ]

[ "Plants must know how insects look to be able to mimic them.", "Plants that mimic how insect look, know and understand what an insect looks like." ]

[ "Plants do not know what insects look like - successful mimicry designs were refined related to the success of the plant's reproduction results.", "The plants don't know, but the most successful variation of plant is the one that reproduced the most, which is why there are more plants that look identical to insects." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Plants must know how insects look to be able to mimic them.", "Plants that mimic how insect look, know and understand what an insect looks like." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Plants do not know what insects look like - successful mimicry designs were refined related to the success of the plant's reproduction results.", "The plants don't know, but the most successful variation of plant is the one that reproduced the most, which is why there are more plants that look identical to insects." ]

[ "Circumcision was also adopted by some Semitic peoples living in or around Egypt. Herodotus reported that circumcision is only practiced by the Egyptians, Colchians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, the 'Syrians of Palestine', and \"the Syrians who dwell about the rivers Thermodon and Parthenius, as well as their neighbours the Macronians and Macrones\". He also reports, however, that \"the Phoenicians, when they come to have commerce with the Greeks, cease to follow the Egyptians in this custom, and allow their children to remain uncircumcised.\"\n", "Christopher Columbus reported circumcision being practiced by Native Americans. It was also practiced by the Incas, Aztecs, and Mayans. It probably started among South American tribes as a blood sacrifice or ritual mutilation to test bravery and endurance, and its use later evolved into a rite of initiation.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern times.\n", "Flavius Josephus in Jewish Antiquities book 20, chapter 2 records the story of King Izates who having been persuaded by a Jewish merchant named Ananias to embrace the Jewish religion, decided to get circumcised so as to follow Jewish law. Despite being reticent for fear of reprisals from his non-Jewish subjects he was eventually persuaded to do it by a Galileean Jew named Eleazar on the grounds that it was one thing to read the Law and another thing to practice it. Despite his mother Helen and Ananias's fear of the consequences, Josephus said that God looked after Izates and his reign was peaceful and blessed.\n", "Cultural pressures to circumcise operated throughout the Hellenistic world: when the Judean king John Hyrcanus conquered the Idumeans, he forced them to become circumcised and convert to Judaism, but their ancestors the Edomites had practiced circumcision in pre-Hellenistic times.\n", "Section::::Ancient world.:Decline in Christianity.\n", "First Maccabees tells us that the Seleucids forbade the practice of \"brit milah\", and punished those who performed it – as well as the infants who underwent it – with death.\n", "Section::::Africa.\n\n\"The distribution of circumcision and initiation rites throughout Africa, and the frequent resemblance between details of ceremonial procedure in areas thousands of miles apart, indicate that the circumcision ritual has an old tradition behind it and in its present form is the result of a long process of development.\"\n", "Section::::History.:Indigenous peoples.\n\nCircumcision is practiced by some groups amongst Australian Aboriginal peoples, Polynesians, and Native Americans. Little information is available about the origins and history of circumcision among these peoples, compared to circumcision in the Middle East.\n\nFor Aboriginal Australians and Polynesians, circumcision likely started as a blood sacrifice and a test of bravery and became an initiation rite with attendant instruction in manhood in more recent centuries. Often seashells were used to remove the foreskin, and the bleeding was stopped with eucalyptus smoke.\n", "Europeans, with the exception of the Jews, did not practice circumcision. A rare exception occurred in Visigothic Spain, where during the armed campaign king Wamba ordered circumcision of everyone who committed atrocities against the civilian population.\n", "The history of the migration and evolution of the practice of circumcision is followed mainly through the cultures and peoples in two separate regions. In the lands south and east of the Mediterranean, starting with Sudan and Ethiopia, the procedure was practiced by the ancient Egyptians and the Semites, and then by the Jews and Muslims, with whom the practice travelled to and was adopted by the Bantu Africans. In Oceania, circumcision is practiced by the Australian Aborigines and Polynesians. There is also evidence that circumcision was practiced among the Aztec and Mayan civilizations in the Americas, but little detail is available about its history.\n", "According to “National Hospital Discharge Survey” in United States, as of 2008, the rate of circumcision of infant boys in hospitals in United States was 55.9%.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n\nThe origin of circumcision is not known with certainty. It has been variously proposed that it began \n\nRemoving the foreskin can prevent or treat a medical condition known as phimosis. It has been suggested that the custom of circumcision gave advantages to tribes that practiced it and thus led to its spread.\n", "Sixth Dynasty (2345 - 2181 BC) tomb artwork in Egypt is thought to be the oldest documentary evidence of circumcision, the most ancient depiction being a bas-relief from the necropolis at Saqqara (ca. 2400 B.C) with the inscription reading \"Hold him and do not allow him to faint\". In the oldest written account, by an Egyptian named Uha, in the 23rd century B.C, he describes a mass circumcision and boasts of his ability to stoically endure the pain: \"When I was circumcised, together with one hundred and twenty men...there was none thereof who hit out, there was none thereof who was hit, and there was none thereof who scratched and there was none thereof who was scratched.\"\n", "History of circumcision\n\nCircumcision has ancient roots among several ethnic groups in sub-equatorial Africa, and is still performed on adolescent boys to symbolize their transition to warrior status or adulthood. Circumcision and/or subincision, often as part of an intricate coming of age ritual, was a common practice among Australian Aborigines and Pacific islanders at first contact with Western travellers. It is still practiced in the traditional way by a proportion of the population.\n", "Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BCE) tomb artwork in Egypt has been thought to be the oldest documentary evidence of circumcision, the most ancient depiction being a bas-relief from the necropolis at Saqqara (c. 2400 BCE) with the inscriptions reading: \"The ointment is to make it acceptable.\" and \"Hold him so that he does not fall\". In the oldest written account, by an Egyptian named Uha, in the 23rd century BCE, he describes a mass circumcision and boasts of his ability to stoically endure the pain: \"When I was circumcised, together with one hundred and twenty men ... there was none thereof who hit out, there was none thereof who was hit, and there was none thereof who scratched and there was none thereof who was scratched.\"\n", "Circumcision in East Africa is a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood, but is only practiced in some nations (tribes). Some peoples in East Africa do not practice circumcision (for example the Luo of western Kenya).\n", "The origins of circumcision date back to 2400 B.C.E. in Egypt, where an engraving of an adult male being circumcised was found in the tomb of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara. It is believed that the Egyptians practiced circumcision for hygiene and also because of their obsession with purity, which was associated with intellectual and spiritual development. During the 4th millennium B.C., circumcision was practiced by the Sumerians and Semites in the Arabian Peninsula. Circumcision features in the narrative of Genesis Chapter 17 of the Hebrew Bible, where the circumcision of Abraham and his relatives is described. The practice is thought to have been brought to Africa by the Bantu-speaking tribes.\n", "Evidence suggests that circumcision was practiced in the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, when the Sumerians and the Semites moved into the area that is modern-day Iraq. The earliest historical record of circumcision comes from Egypt, in the form of an image of the circumcision of an adult carved into the tomb of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara, dating to about 24002300 BCE. Circumcision was done by the Egyptians possibly for hygienic reasons, but also was part of their obsession with purity and was associated with spiritual and intellectual development. No well-accepted theory explains the significance of circumcision to the Egyptians, but it appears to have been endowed with great honor and importance as a rite of passage into adulthood, performed in a public ceremony emphasizing the continuation of family generations and fertility. It may have been a mark of distinction for the elite: the Egyptian \"Book of the Dead\" describes the sun god Ra as having circumcised himself.\n", "Section::::Religious and cultural conflicts.\n\nSection::::Religious and cultural conflicts.:Ancient Near East.\n\nThe Book of Genesis explains circumcision as a covenant with God given to Abraham, but some scholars reject the historicity of these accounts and look elsewhere for the origin of Jewish circumcision. One explanation, dating from Herodotus, is that the custom was acquired from the Egyptians, possibly during the period of enslavement. A competing hypothesis, based on linguistic/ethnographic work begun in the 19th century, suggests circumcision was a common tribal custom among Semitic tribes (Jews, Arabs, and Phoenicians).\n", "An estimated one-third of males worldwide are circumcised. The procedure is most common among Muslims and Jews (among whom it is near-universal for religious reasons), and in parts of Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is relatively rare for non-religious reasons in Europe, Latin America, parts of Southern Africa, and most of Asia. In the United States rates of circumcision decreased from 64% in 1979 to 58% in 2010. The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty; the oldest documented evidence for it comes from ancient Egypt. Various theories have been proposed as to its origin including as a religious sacrifice and as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood. It is part of religious law in Judaism and is an established practice in Islam, Coptic Christianity, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The word circumcision is from Latin \"circumcidere\", meaning \"to cut around\". \n", "According to Genesis, God told Abraham to circumcise himself, his household and his slaves as an everlasting covenant in their flesh, see also Abrahamic Covenant. Those who were not circumcised were to be \"cut off\" from their people. Covenants in biblical times were often sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate. In Hebrew, the verb meaning to seal a covenant translates literally as \"to cut\". It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant. Moses might not have been circumcised; one of his sons was not, nor were some of his followers while traveling through the desert.. Moses's wife Zipporah circumcised their son when God threatened to kill Moses.\n", "African cultural history is conveniently spoken of in terms of language group. The Niger–Congo speakers of today extend from Senegal to Kenya to South Africa and all points between. In the historic period, the Niger–Congo speaking peoples predominantly have and have had circumcision that occurred in young warrior initiation schools, the schools of Senegal and Gambia being not so very different from those of the Kenyan Gikuyu and South African Zulu. Their common ancestor was a horticultural group five, perhaps seven, thousand years ago from an area of the Cross River in modern Nigeria. From that area a horticultural frontier moved outward into West Africa and the Congo Basin. Certainly the warrior schools with circumcision were a part of the ancestral society's cultural repertoire.\n", "The Bible contains several narratives in which circumcision is mentioned. There is the circumcision and massacre of the Shechemites (), the hundred foreskin dowry () and the story of the Lord threatening to kill Moses, and being placated by Zipporah's circumcision of their son (), and the circumcision at Gilgal of .\n", "Circumcision is the world's oldest planned surgical procedure, suggested by anatomist and hyperdiffusionist historian Grafton Elliot Smith to be over 15,000 years old, pre-dating recorded history. There is no firm consensus as to how it came to be practiced worldwide. One theory is that it began in one geographic area and spread from there; another is that several different cultural groups began its practice independently. In his 1891 work \"History of Circumcision\", physician Peter Charles Remondino suggested that it began as a less severe form of emasculating a captured enemy: penectomy or castration would likely have been fatal, while some form of circumcision would permanently mark the defeated yet leave him alive to serve as a slave.\n", "In Judaism, circumcision has traditionally been practised among males on the eighth day after birth. The Book of Genesis records circumcision as part of the Abrahamic covenant with Yahweh (God). Circumcision was common, although not universal, among ancient Semitic people. Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BCE, lists the Colchians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, and Syrians as circumcising cultures. In the aftermath of the conquests of Alexander the Great, however, Greek dislike of circumcision (they regarded a man as truly \"naked\" only if his prepuce was retracted) led to a decline in its incidence among many peoples that had previously practiced it. The writer of 1 Maccabees wrote that under the Seleucids, many Jewish men attempted to hide or reverse their circumcision so they could exercise in Greek gymnasia, where nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of brit milah (Jewish circumcision), and punished those who performed it, as well as the infants who underwent it, with death.\n", "Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BCE, wrote that the Egyptians \"practise circumcision for the sake of cleanliness, considering it better to be cleanly than comely.\" Gollaher (2000) considered circumcision in ancient Egypt to be a mark of passage from childhood to adulthood. He mentions that the alteration of the body and ritual of circumcision were supposed to give access to ancient mysteries reserved solely for the initiated. (See also Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis 1.15) The content of those mysteries are unclear but are likely to be myths, prayers, and incantations central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptian \"Book of the Dead\", for example, tells of the sun god Ra cutting himself, the blood creating two minor guardian deities. The Egyptologist Emmanuel vicomte de Rougé interpreted this as an act of circumcision. Circumcisions were performed by priests in a public ceremony, using a stone blade. It is thought to have been more popular among the upper echelons of the society, although it was not universal and those lower down the social order are known to have had the procedure done. The Egyptian hieroglyph for \"penis\" depicts either a circumcised or an erect organ.\n" ]

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[ "Atlantic City casinos in the US state of New Jersey are forbidden from barring card counters as a result of a New Jersey Supreme Court decision. In 1979 Ken Uston, a Blackjack Hall of Fame inductee, filed a lawsuit against an Atlantic City casino, claiming that casinos did not have the right to ban skilled players. The New Jersey Supreme Court agreed, ruling that \"the state's control of Atlantic City's casinos is so complete that only the New Jersey Casino Control Commission has the power to make rules to exclude skillful players.\" The Commission has made no regulation on card counting, so Atlantic City casinos are not allowed to ban card counters. As they are unable to ban counters even when identified, Atlantic City casinos have increased the use of countermeasures.\n", "In the United States, stand-alone cardrooms are typically the result of local or state laws and regulations, which often prohibit full-fledged casino gambling. This was typically the case in California until the advent of casino gambling offered by Native American tribes in the 1990s, though card rooms continue to flourish and even expand there.\n", "BULLET::::- The use of an automatic shuffle machine or in rare cases, a dealer dedicated solely to shuffling a new shoe while another is in play, will eliminate the need for the dealer to shuffle the shoe prior to dealing a new one, increasing game speed.\n\nSection::::Devices.\n\nA range of card counting devices are available but are deemed to be illegal in most U.S. casinos. Card counting with the mind is legal.\n\nSection::::Legal status.\n", "Card counting is legal and is not considered cheating as long as the counter is not using an external device, but if a casino realizes a player is counting, the casino might inform them that they are no longer welcome to play blackjack. Sometimes a casino might ban a card counter from the property.\n\nThe use of external devices to help counting cards is illegal in all US states that license blackjack card games.\n\nSection::::Blackjack strategy.:Advantage play.:Shuffle tracking.\n", "BULLET::::- Flat betting a player or making it so they cannot change the amount they bet during a shoe.\n\nBULLET::::- Cancelling comps earned by counters.\n\nBULLET::::- Confiscation of chips.\n\nBULLET::::- Detention (backrooming).\n\nSome jurisdictions (e.g. Nevada) have few legal restrictions placed on these countermeasures. Other jurisdictions such as New Jersey limit the countermeasures a casino can take against skilled players. Casinos have resorted to physical assaults to deter card counters. Assaults are less common than in the early days of card counting.\n", "Advantage play techniques are not cheating. Card counting, for example, is a legitimate advantage play strategy that can be employed in blackjack and other card games. In almost all jurisdictions, casinos are permitted to ban from their premises customers they believe are using advantage play, regardless of whether they are in fact doing so and even though it is not cheating, though this practice of barring law-abiding citizens from public places is subject to judicial review. So far, courts in New Jersey and North Las Vegas, Nevada have found the practice of barring law-abiding citizens to be illegal.\n", "Card counting is not illegal under British law, nor is it under federal, state, or local laws in the United States provided that no external card counting device or person assists the player in counting cards. Still, casinos object to the practice, and try to prevent it, banning players believed to be counters. In their pursuit to identify card counters, casinos sometimes misidentify and ban players suspected of counting cards even if they do not.\n", "In the 1970s and 1980s, as computing power grew, more advanced (and more difficult) card-counting systems came into favor. Many card counters agree, however, that a simpler and less advantageous system that can be played flawlessly for hours earns an overall higher return than a more complex system prone to user error.\n\nSection::::History.:Teams.\n", "It is considered that the number of high and low limit tables are unique to each casino. For example, in Las Vegas Neighborhood and Downtown casinos usually have lower limit tables than Strip casinos. Locals point, that The El Cortez on Fremont Street has plenty of low-limit games, plus blackjack from a single or double-deck shoe.\n", "Some countermeasures result in disadvantages for the casino. Frequent or complex shuffling, for example, reduces the amount of playing time and consequently the house winnings. Some casinos use automatic shuffling machines to counter the loss of time, with some models of machines shuffling one set of cards while another is in play. Others, known as continuous shuffle machines (CSMs), allow the dealer to simply return used cards to a single shoe to allow playing with no interruption. Because CSMs essentially force minimal penetration, they greatly reduce the advantage of traditional counting techniques. In most online casinos the deck is shuffled at the start of each new round, ensuring the house always has the advantage.\n", "Non-banked card games such as poker have always been legal in the state. The California Penal Code, enacted in 1872, prohibited several casino games by name, as well as all house-banked games, but did not outlaw poker. Statewide cardroom regulations were enacted in 1984. \n\nSection::::Charitable gaming.\n\nEligible nonprofit organizations may operate bingo games, raffles, and poker nights. Organizations are limited to one poker night per year.\n", "There are several disadvantages to back-counting. One is that the player frequently does not stay at the table long enough to earn comps from the casino. Another disadvantage is that some players may become irritated with players who enter in the middle of a game, and superstitiously believe that this interrupts the \"flow\" of the cards. Lastly, a player who hops in and out of games may attract unwanted attention from casino personnel, and may be detected as a card-counter.\n\nSection::::Back-counting.:Group counting.\n", "Monitoring player behavior to assist with detecting the card counters falls into the hands of the on-floor casino personnel (\"pit bosses\") and casino-surveillance personnel, who may use video surveillance (\"the eye in the sky\") as well as computer analysis, to try to spot playing behavior indicative of card counting. Early counter-strategies featured the dealers learning to count the cards themselves to recognize the patterns in the players. Many casino chains keep databases of players that they consider undesirable. Casinos can also subscribe to databases of advantage players offered by agencies like Griffin Investigations, Biometrica and OSN (Oregon Surveillance Network). Griffin Investigations filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 2005 after losing a libel lawsuit filed by professional gamblers. In 2008 all Chapter 11 payments were said to be up to date and all requirements met, and information was being supplied using data encryption and secure servers. If a player is found to be in such a database, he will almost certainly be stopped from play and asked to leave regardless of his table play. For successful card counters, therefore, skill at \"cover\" behavior, to hide counting and avoid \"drawing heat\" and possibly being barred, may be just as important as playing skill.\n", "Detection of card counters will be confirmed after a player is first suspected of counting cards; when seeking card counters, casino employees, whatever their position, could be alerted by many things that are most common when related to card counting but not common for other players. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- Large buy-ins\n\nBULLET::::- Dramatic bet variation especially with larger bets being placed only at the end of a shoe\n\nBULLET::::- Playing only a small number of hands during a shoe\n\nBULLET::::- Refusal to play rated\n\nBULLET::::- Table hopping\n\nBULLET::::- Playing multiple hands\n\nBULLET::::- Lifetime win\n\nBULLET::::- Racial profiling\n", "Jones saw card-counting as a way to put his math skills to good use, and does not consider it gambling. In an interview with the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, he claimed, “I’ve never gambled in my life. I’ve only been in casinos since I knew how to beat the game.”\n\nSection::::The Church Team: Card-Counting as a Business.\n", "Historically, blackjack played with a perfect basic strategy offered a house edge of less than 0.5%. As more casinos have switched games to dealer hits soft-17 and blackjack pays 6:5, the average house edge in Nevada has increased to 1%. A typical card counter who ranges bets appropriately in a game with six decks will have an advantage of approximately 1% over the casino. Advantages of up to 2.5% are possible at normal penetrations from counting 6-deck Spanish 21, for the S17 or H17 with redoubling games. This amount varies based on the counter's skill level, penetration (1 – fraction of pack cut off), and the betting spread (player's maximum bet divided by minimum bet). The variance in blackjack is high, so generating a sizable profit can take hundreds of hours of play. The deck will only have a positive enough count for the player to raise bets 10%-35% of the time depending on rules, penetration and strategy.\n", "Automated card-reading technology has known abuse potential in that it can be used to simplify the practice of \"preferential shuffling\"—having the dealer reshuffle the cards whenever the odds favor the players. To comply with licensing regulations, some blackjack protection systems have been designed to delay access to real-time data on remaining cards in the shoe. Other vendors consider real-time notification to surveillance that a shoe is \"hot\" to be an important product feature.\n\nWith card values, play decisions, and bet decisions conveniently accessible, the casino can analyze bet variation, play accuracy, and play variation.\n", "Card marking is often used to cheat when gambling or for card tricks. Many casinos, particularly those in Las Vegas alter the decks of cards they sell to tourists – either by punching holes through the middle of cards or trimming their edges – to prevent cheaters from returning to the game tables after buying the cards and then slipping the favorable cards into their hands when playing.\n", "In 2011, The Church Team disbanded when it became “less fun and less profitable.” Eventually many casinos caught on, and banned members from playing their tables.\n\nSection::::Documentary Release.\n", "Card counters may make unique playing strategy deviations not normally used by non-counters. Plays such as splitting tens, doubling soft 18/19/20, standing on 15/16, and surrendering on 14, when basic strategy says otherwise, may be a sign of a card counter.\n\nExtremely aggressive plays such as splitting tens and doubling soft 19 and 20 are often called out to the pit to notify them because they are telltale signs of not only card counters but hole carding.\n\nSection::::Casino reactions.:Technology for detecting card counters.\n", "Casinos sometimes take measures to thwart players who they believe pose a threat to them, especially card-counters or hole-card players. However, some casinos tolerate card-counters who do not bet large amounts, who are not good at counting, or who do not use a large betting spread. \n", "Contrary to the popular myth, card counters do not need unusual mental abilities to count cards, because they are not tracking and memorizing specific cards. Instead, card counters assign a point score to each card they see that estimates the value of that card, and then they track the sum of these values – a process called keeping a \"running count.\" The myth that counters keep track of every card was portrayed in the 1988 film \"Rain Man\", in which the savant character Raymond Babbitt counts through six decks with ease and a casino employee erroneously comments that it is impossible to count six decks.\n", "Historically the attitude has changed about table limits. In the early 1990s in downtown Vegas, quarter minimum bets were common. The low minimums created a general excitement in the casinos as hundreds of people would jostle to play table games. However, casinos floors generally had twice as many employees as they do today. It also made it much easier to introduce new gamblers to table games. Most casinos today would prefer that the low rollers play slot machines which do not require as much oversight.\n", "Cheating can be reduced by employing \"proper procedure\" - certain standardized ways of shuffling cards, dealing cards, storing, retrieving and opening new decks of cards.\n", "The \"Trade and Change\" expanded game limits players to one Counting House (one card is from the base set, the other from the expansion).\n\nSection::::Playing with expansions.:\"Politics and Intrigue\".\n" ]

[ "Counting cards is illegal." ]

[ "Counting cards is legal, however the casino still retains the right as a business to refuse service to anyone for any reason. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Counting cards is illegal." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Counting cards is legal, however the casino still retains the right as a business to refuse service to anyone for any reason. " ]

[ "One of the most unusual modern American fountains is the Civil Rights Memorial (1989) at the Southern Poverty Law Center in Montgomery, Alabama, designed by Maya Lin, the designer of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington D.C. The \"Civil Rights Memorial\" fountain features a low elliptical black granite table, with a thin surface of water flowing over the surface, over the inscribed names of civil rights leaders who lost their lives, illustrating the quotation from Martin Luther King Jr.: \"...Until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.\" Visitors are invited to touch the names through the water. \"The water is as slow as I could get it,\" Lin wrote. \"It remains very still until you touch it. Your hand carves ripples, which transform and alter the piece, just as reading the words completes the piece.\"\n", "Other United States based companies such as Waltzing Waters Inc, owned by Przystawik's family, WET (Water Entertainment Technologies), Fontana Fountains, Atlantic Fountains, Fountain People, Formosa Fountains, Hall Fountains, and Waterworks International have built fully computer controlled musical fountains since 1980. These include two to six meter wide systems available to the homeowner as well as large corporate, municipal and show fountains in excess of fifty meters in length—and in the case of WET's Fountains of Bellagio, in size. These include proportional, interactive and audio spectral control that bring musical fountains to a wide audience. Fountain shapes are not limited to linear layout stage shows but include geometric and freeform shapes as well. Moreover, latest technology allows the construction of Floating watershows. Fontana Fountains first introduced the use of Stainless Steel floaters allowing bigger water show applications even in coasts and lakes.\n", "Section::::Later water fountains.:Blackpool Pleasure beach fountains.\n\nThe Blackpool fountains, created by French company Aquatique Show International, are located at a well known theme park Blackpool Pleasure beach UK. The fountains dance every 30 minutes to a wide range of music. They opened in 2009 letting people run through them. In 2010 they stopped peopled going in them due to health and safety so now they have security guards when the show is on round the fountain. The fountain has 25 jets which can shoot up to 100 ft.\n\nSection::::Later water fountains.:Multimedia fountain Roshen.\n", "Musical fountains create a theatrical spectacle with music, light and water, usually employing a variety of programmable spouts and water jets controlled by a computer.\n", "WET has pioneered many of the technologies that have since become common in fountains built around the world, by others as well as WET. These technologies include laminar flow fountains, fountains that arise from the open-jointed paving instead of from pools, fountains powered by compressed air instead of pumps, and fountains employing sophisticated underwater robots. Hallmarks of WET fountains are that the water itself is the element of interest (no statuary covered by water); there are few if any boundaries between the fountain and viewers; the fountains display novel and surprising water forms not seen in traditional fountains; and many WET fountains take choreographic movement of the individual water elements to a level of precision and variable motion that approaches those of human performers. The company is also known for using multiple natural elements in its designs, like fog, fire, and ice; accompanying its sophisticated water forms, or alone.\n", "The poor are not the only beneficiaries of these installations. Even if the aim of the fountains was to allow people of modest means to have access to drinking water, they are not the only ones who use them. Anyone passing by may quench his thirst, fulfilling this vital need. There was already a programme of constructing temperance fountains in both the United States and in the United Kingdom.\n\nNot only did the fountains accomplish Wallace's philosophy of helping the needy, but they also beautified Paris.\n\nSection::::Conception.\n", "Most of the 100 grand model Wallace fountains currently in Paris function and distribute perfectly potable water. Once, these fountains were rare points of free water in the city, much to the relief of the homeless and poor. Today, they are among more than 1,200 points of free, clean drinking water dispensed to citizens and visitors by the city water company, Eau de Paris. Sir Richard Wallace has achieved his goal. \n", "In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers, a trio of Persian Inventors, were commissioned by the Caliph of Baghdad to summarize the engineering knowledge of the ancient Greek and Roman world. They wrote a book entitled the \"Book of Ingenious Devices\", describing the works of the 1st century Greek Engineer Hero of Alexandria and other engineers, plus many of their own inventions. They described fountains which formed water into different shapes and a wind-powered water pump, but it is not known if any of their fountains were ever actually built.\n", "This musical fountain is unique and has 150 channels available for water and light effects – old fountain had 20 channels for water. The concept of three-tier fountain pool, with musical fountain in the upper pool surrounded by architectural and dynamic fountains in the intermediate and lower pools, is quite unique in this subcontinent.\n", "Fountains in Portland, Oregon\n\nSection::::Benson Bubblers.\n\nMore than fifty drinking fountains called Benson Bubblers, named after Simon Benson and designed by A. E. Doyle, are located in and around downtown Portland.\n\nSection::::Portland Parks & Recreation.\n", "Section::::The earliest choreographed musical fountains.\n\nSection::::The earliest choreographed musical fountains.:The Bodor Fountain.\n\nPéter Bodor was a Hungarian gadgeteer and mechanical engineer (born on June 22, 1788, died August 17, 1849) who built a musical or chiming fountain in the Transylvanian town of Marosvásárhely (now Târgu Mureş, Romania) between 1820 and 1822.\n", "The CESC Fountain of Joy has a centre-fed circular water screen of 6 metre height and 18 metre width. In the upper pool, the CESC Fountain of Joy will have 99 water effects, while the intermediate pool will have 20 water effects and another 30 special water effects in the lower pool. There will be a large water cascading area – more than 80 metre long from upper pool to the intermediate pool.\n", "Section::::Description and function.\n", "From the Middle Ages onwards, fountains in villages or towns were connected to springs, or to channels which brought water from lakes or rivers. In Provence, a typical village fountain consisted of a pipe or underground duct from a spring at a higher elevation than the fountain. The water from the spring flowed down to the fountain, then up a tube into a bulb-shaped stone vessel, like a large vase with a cover on top. The inside of the vase, called the \"bassin de répartition\", was filled with water up to a level just above the mouths of the canons, or spouts, which slanted downwards. The water poured down through the canons, creating a siphon, so that the fountain ran continually.\n", "Section::::Later water fountains.:Mancakea Bay No.1.\n\nThe fountain are through in Underground Base, this fountain are compeleted in June 2010, then make the fountains used for event.\n\nSection::::Later water fountains.:International Fountain.\n", "Installations can be large scale, employing hundreds of water jets and lights, and costing into the millions of dollars, or in smaller household forms, where a budget of one thousand dollars is feasible. Musical features tend to be complex, and require a degree of mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, and electronic components out of view that might be as impressive to its audience as the show itself.\n\nSection::::Fountains that are choreographed to music.\n", "In the nineteenth century, the development of steam engines allowed the construction of more dramatic fountains. In the middle of the century the Earl of Stamford built the Great Fountain, Enville, which jetted water 150 feet above the surface of a lake on his estate. He used two steam engines to pump water to a reservoir at the top of the hill above his estate. The fountain could spout water for several minutes, until the reservoir was empty.\n", "In 1859, The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain and Cattle Trough Association was established to promote the provision of drinking water for people and animals in the United Kingdom and overseas. More recently, in 2010, the FindaFountain campaign was launched in the UK to encourage people to use drinking fountains instead of environmentally damaging bottled water. A map showing the location of UK drinking water fountains is published on the FindaFountain website.\n\nSection::::How fountains work.\n", "The cloister of a monastery was supposed to be a replica of the Garden of Eden, protected from the outside world. Simple fountains, called lavabos, were placed inside Medieval monasteries such as Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence and were used for ritual washing before religious services.\n\nFountains were also found in the enclosed medieval \"jardins d'amour\", \"gardens of courtly love\" – ornamental gardens used for courtship and relaxation. The medieval romance The \"Roman de la Rose\" describes a fountain in the center of an enclosed garden, feeding small streams bordered by flowers and fresh herbs.\n", "By the middle Renaissance, fountains had become a form of theater, with cascades and jets of water coming from marble statues of animals and mythological figures. The most famous fountains of this kind were found in the Villa d'Este (1550–1572), at Tivoli near Rome, which featured a hillside of basins, fountains and jets of water, as well as a fountain which produced music by pouring water into a chamber, forcing air into a series of flute-like pipes. The gardens also featured \"giochi d'acqua\", water jokes, hidden fountains which suddenly soaked visitors.\n", "History of fountains in the United States\n\nThe first decorative fountain in the United States was dedicated in Philadelphia in 1809. Early American fountains were used to distribute clean drinking water, had little ornamentation, and copied European styles.\n", "Drinking fountains in the United States\n\nThis is a history and list of drinking fountains in the United States. A drinking fountain, also called a water fountain or bubbler, is a fountain designed to provide drinking water. It consists of a basin with either continuously running water or a tap. The drinker bends down to the stream of water and swallows water directly from the stream. Drinking water fountains are most commonly found in heavy usage areas like public amenities, schools, airports, and museums. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Beginning in the 19th century, fountains ceased to be used for drinking water and became purely ornamental. By the beginning of the 20th century, cities began using steam pumps and later electric pumps to send water to the city fountains. Later in the 20th century, urban fountains began to recycle their water through a closed recirculating system. An electric pump, often placed under the water, pushes the water through the pipes. The water must be regularly topped up to offset water lost to evaporation, and allowance must be made to handle overflow after heavy rain.\n", "In modern fountains a water filter, typically a media filter, removes particles from the water—this filter requires its own pump to force water through it and plumbing to remove the water from the pool to the filter and then back to the pool. The water may need chlorination or anti-algal treatment, or may use biological methods to filter and clean water.\n\nThe pumps, filter, electrical switch box and plumbing controls are often housed in a \"plant room\".\n", "While all pre-programmed musical fountain shows involve computerized show control systems, the use of computer technology to spontaneously \"self-choreograph\" a fountain to random musical input is novel. Possibly the most sophisticated full-scale implementations in use are at the Miracle Mile Shops in Las Vegas, Washington Park (Cincinnati, Ohio), and Washington Harbour in the District of Columbia, using a system developed by H2Oarts.com. Unlike conventional musical fountains, which must be manually pre-programmed moment-to-moment, the H2Oarts' Musical Water Feature Automation System uses the venue's own live background music to animate the water and lights in real time. Beyond basic light organ-style responses to loudness, bass, and treble, H2Oarts employs rhythm, dynamic range, transient (acoustics), and other subtler components of music to control water and light.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- 850 BC. Homer (Greek), reputedly a blind poet, wrote the epics Iliad and Odyssey. Both contain animals as monsters and metaphors (gross soldiers turned into pigs by the witch Circe), but also some correct observations on bees and fly maggots. Both epics make reference to mules. The ancient Greeks considered horses so highly that they \"hybridized\" them with humans, to form boisterous centaurs. At any rate, animals are used as metaphors and moral symbols by Homer to make a timeless story.\n", "Animals, often mammals but including fish and insects among other groups, have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at Lascaux and other sites in the Dordogne, France and elsewhere. Major animal paintings include Albrecht Dürer's 1515 \"The Rhinoceros\", and George Stubbs's c. 1762 horse portrait \"Whistlejacket\".\n\nSection::::Symbolic uses.:In literature and film.\n", "BULLET::::- 563? BC. Buddha (Indian, 563?–483 BC) had gentle ideas on the treatment of animals. Animals are held to have intrinsic worth, not just the values they derive from their usefulness to man.\n\nBULLET::::- 500 BC. Empedocles of Agrigentum (Greek, 504–433 BC) reportedly rid a town of malaria by draining nearby swamps. He proposed the theory of the four humors and a natural origin of living things.\n", "From the Neolithic onwards, images of zoophilia are slightly more common. Examples are found at \"Coren del Valento\", a cave in Val Camonica, Italy, containing rock art dating from 10,000 BCE to as late as the Middle Ages, one depicting a man penetrating a horse, and Sagaholm, a Bronze Age cairn in Sweden where several petroglyphs have been found with similar scenes.\n\nSection::::Classical antiquity.\n", "Animals have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at Lascaux. Major animal paintings include Albrecht Dürer's 1515 \"The Rhinoceros\", and George Stubbs's c. 1762 horse portrait \"Whistlejacket\".\n", "Animals have been used for the purposes of entertainment for millennia. They have been hunted for entertainment (as opposed to hunted for food); displayed while they hunt for prey; watched when they compete with each other; and watched while they perform a trained routine for human amusement. The Romans, for example, were entertained both by competitions involving wild animals and acts performed by trained animals. They watched as \"lions and bears danced to the music of pipes and cymbals; horses were trained to kneel, bow, dance and prance ... acrobats turning handsprings over wild lions and vaulting over wild leopards.\" There were \"violent confrontations with wild beasts\" and \"performances over time became more brutal and bloodier\".\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 BC. Domestication of the silkworm in China.\n\nBULLET::::- 1100 BC. Won Chang (China), first of the Chou emperors, stocked his imperial zoological garden with deer, goats, birds and fish from many parts of the world. Like zoos today, the animals may have been seen as exotic, alien, and possibly threatening. The emperor also enjoyed sporting events with the use of animals.\n", "BULLET::::- 460 BC. Hippocrates (Greek, 460?–377? BC), the \"Father of Medicine\", used animal dissections to advance human anatomy. Fifty books attributed to him were assembled in Alexandria in the 3rd century BC. These probably represent the works of several authors, but the treatments given are usually conservative.\n\nBULLET::::- 440 BC. Herodotus of Halikarnassos (Greek, 484–425 BC) treated exotic fauna in his \"Historia\", but his accounts are often based on tall tales. He explored the Nile, but much of ancient Egyptian civilization was already lost to living memory by his time.\n", "In 1933, Leo Frobenius, discussing cave paintings in North Africa, pointed out that many of the paintings did not seem to be mere depictions of animals and people. To him, it seemed as if they were acting out a hunt before it began, perhaps as a consecration of the animal to be killed. In this way, the pictures served to secure a successful hunt. While others interpreted the cave images as depictions of hunting accidents or of ceremonies, Frobenius believed it was much more likely that \"...what was undertaken [in the paintings] was a consecration of the animal effected not through any real confrontation of man and beast but by a depiction of a concept of the mind.\"\n", "Pre-Columbian societies were agricultural societies, their knowledge was therefore principally based on the observation of the sky (of the stars, the rain, the climate changes …), of the earth (for the agriculture), and of the subterranean world (for the medicinal plants and roots). Their way of thinking the world was therefore organized according to those three levels of the world. They adored the animals that represented those three levels: the bird for the sky and the upper world, the world of the gods, the feline for the earth and the world of here, the human world, and the reptiles (that are snakes most of the time) for the subterranean world, the underworld, the world of death.\n", "Psychologist Richard Ryder, former Mellon Professor at Tulane University and chairman of the RSPCA in 1977, writes that it is in 6th century BCE Greek philosophy that we first find concern for the treatment of animals.\n\nFour schools of thought were influential in ancient Greece: animism, vitalism, mechanism, and anthropocentrism. The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras ( c. 580–c. 500 BCE) was the central figure within animism. He urged respect for animals, because he believed that humans and non-humans had the same kind of soul, one spirit that pervades the universe and makes us one with animals.\n", "Mammals have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at Lascaux and other sites in the Dordogne, France and elsewhere. Major animal paintings include Albrecht Dürer's 1515 \"The Rhinoceros\", George Stubbs's c. 1762 horse portrait \"Whistlejacket\", Edwin Landseer's 1851 \"The Monarch of the Glen\", and Henri Rousseau's 1891 tiger in an imaginary landscape, \"Surprised!\".\n\nSection::::Symbolic uses.:In literature and film.\n\nMammals from mice and foxes to elephants play a wide variety of roles in literature and media including photography and film.\n\nSection::::Symbolic uses.:In mythology and religion.\n", "Among both the Continental and Insular Celts, the behaviour of certain animals and birds were observed for omens, and certain spirits were closely associated with particular animals. The names of Artio the ursine goddess and Epona the equine goddess are based on Celtic words for 'bear' and 'horse', respectively. In Ireland, the Morrígan is associated with crows, wolves and horses, among other creatures, and in Scotland Brighid's animals include snakes and cattle. Certain creatures were observed to have particular physical and mental qualities and characteristics, and distinctive patterns of behaviour. An animal like a stag or horse could be admired for its beauty, speed or virility. Dogs were seen to be keen-scented, good at hunting, guarding and healing themselves. Snakes were seen to be emblematic of long (possibly eternal) life, being able to shed their skin and renew themselves. Deer (who shed antlers) suggest cycles of growth; in Ireland they are sacred to the goddess Flidais, while in Scotland they are guarded by the Cailleach. Beavers were seen to be skillful workers in wood. Thus admiration and acknowledgment for a beast's essential nature led easily to reverence of those qualities and abilities which humans did not possess at all or possessed only partially.\n", "Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the people that made them. Prehistoric artists may have painted animals to \"catch\" their soul or spirit in order to hunt them more easily or the paintings may represent an animistic vision and homage to surrounding nature. They may be the result of a basic need of expression that is innate to human beings, or they could have been for the transmission of practical information.\n", "Animals as varied as bees, beetles, mice, foxes, crocodiles and elephants play a wide variety of roles in literature and film, from \"Aesop's Fables\" of the classical era to Rudyard Kipling's \"Just So Stories\" and Beatrix Potter's \"little books\" starting with the 1901 \"Tale of Peter Rabbit\".\n\nA genre of films has been based on oversized insects, including the pioneering 1954 \"Them!\", featuring giant ants mutated by radiation, and the 1957 \"The Deadly Mantis\".\n", "Anthropomorphism, also referred to as personification, is a well established literary device from ancient times. The story of \"The Hawk and the Nightingale\" in Hesiod's \"Works and Days\" preceded Aesop's fables by centuries. Collections of linked fables from India, the \"Jataka Tales\" and \"Panchatantra\", also employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate principles of life. Many of the stereotypes of animals that are recognized today, such as the wily fox and the proud lion, can be found in these collections. Aesop's anthropomorphisms were so familiar by the first century CE that they colored the thinking of at least one philosopher:\n", "Some classical era creatures, such as the (horse/human) centaur, chimaera, Triton and the flying horse, are found also in Indian art. Similarly, sphinxes appear as winged lions in Indian art and the Piasa Bird of North America.\n", "As did Alexander Marshack, but earlier, Levy made an observation to the effect that in the earliest known representations of humans and animals together, the humans are shown without weapons. To the theory of hero archetypes, she contributed in \"The Sword from the Rock\" a three-phase evolutionary pattern, considered neglected by Brown and Fishwick: creation narratives, then quest pattern, then fraternal conflict. Theodore Ziolkowski states that Levy included much of ancient epic in the works that can be traced back to ritual. Eleazar M. Meletinsky writes \n", "Human-Animal relationships and interactions were diverse during Prehistory from being a food source to playing a more intimate role in society. Animals have been used in non-economical ways such as being part of a human burial. However, the major zooarchaeology has focused on who was eating what by looking at various remains such as bones, teeth, and fish scales. In the twenty-first century researchers have begun to interpret animals in prehistory in wider cultural and social patterns, focusing on how the animals have affected humans and possible animal agency. There is evidence of animals such as the Mountain Lion or the Jaguar being used for ritualistic purposes, but not being eaten as a food source.\n", "Anthropology has done more to study ethnozoology in terms of the history of the function of animals in non-industrialized societies and the role that animals play symbolically and religiously in different cultures around the world. The domestication process has been a chief concern for anthropologists, whose interests are in the history of human desire to understand animals, enslave them, and harness their power. Animal-derived products have been used especially for food, but also for clothing, tools, toys, and for medicinal and magic-religious purposes. Many cultures associate strong supernatural powers between the animal and human worlds, including mythologies and connections with totemic, ancestral, or magical animals and animal-gods.\n", "Section::::Egyptian beliefs about animals.:Religious purposes.:Sacred animals.:Bulls.\n", "Mammals including cattle, deer, horses, lions and wolves, along with creatures derived from them, such as werewolves, figure in mythology and religion. Jacques Cauvin has argued that Neolithic animal symbols, with early art depicting figures such as bull gods, derive from the critical importance of domesticated mammals in that period.\n\nSection::::Symbolic uses.:As toys.\n", "Section::::Egyptian beliefs about animals.:Religious purposes.:Votive offerings.:Ibises.\n", "Section::::Egyptian beliefs about animals.:Religious purposes.\n", "Anthropomorphism is the innate psychological tendency to attribute human traits, emotions, and intentions to animals, most commonly to mammals, and it is an important part of the way that people relate to mammals. Attitudes and behaviour to animals ranges from cruel to sentimental.\n\nSection::::Attitudes towards animals.:In popular culture and the arts.\n" ]

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[ "Dish Network's Hopper digital video recorder, announced in January 2012, led to controversy over a feature, called \"AutoHop\", which allows viewers to watch some programming without commercials, subject to time restrictions.\n", "Early portable video systems recorded at a lower quality than broadcast studio cameras, which made them less desirable than non portable video systems. When the Portapak video camera was introduced in 1967, it was a new method of video recording, forever shifting ENG. \n", "Section::::Controversial Use.\n", "BULLET::::- Perlroth, Nicole. Cameras May Open Up the Board Room to Hackers, \"The New York Times online\", January 22, 2012. A version of this article appeared in print on January 23, 2012, on page B1 of the New York edition with the headline: \"Conferences Via the Net Called Risky\".\n\nBULLET::::- ProAV Magazine. Being There, \"ProAV Magazine\", November 7, 2008.\n", "Section::::Benefits.\n\nAn industry expert described some benefits of telepresence: \"There were four drivers for our decision to do more business over video and telepresence. We wanted to reduce our travel spend, reduce our carbon footprint and environmental impact, improve our employees' work/life balance, and improve employee productivity.\".\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In the past many outside broadcasting applications have relied on using satellite uplinks to broadcast live audio and video back to the studio. While this has its advantages such as the ability to set up anywhere covered by the respective geostationary satellite, satellite uplinking is relatively expensive and the round trip latency is in the range of 240 to 280 milliseconds.\n", "At the same time, WUEV engineers investigated new ways of bringing the experience to the Internet listener. Webcams were purchased and taken to every home basketball game. It was little more than a half-court shot of the action due to the bandwidth, but it was progress towards something new. A Diamond Rio MP3 player was purchased and taken to every remote broadcast, and once the signal was switched from terrestrial to remote feed, Clark or the field engineer would run the commercial breaks live in the field. It became possible to run an entire broadcast from the field without the assistance of the control booth or the station.\n", "BULLET::::- February 5, 1989 – Sky News is launched as Europe's first 24-hour news channel.\n\nBULLET::::- November 9, 1989 – Live coverage of the abolition of travel restrictions and the opening of the border to West Berlin after mass panic and jubilation from East Germans.\n\nBULLET::::- June 17, 1994 – The O. J. Simpson murder case slow-speed car chase of a Ford Bronco vehicle containing American football star and murder suspect O. J. Simpson was broadcast live throughout the U.S., with NBC interrupting its coverage of the 1994 NBA Finals to do so.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Wayner, Peter. Jerky Pictures and Sound Are History. Videoconferencing Is All Grown Up., \"The New York Times\", June 16, 2005.\n\nSection::::Further reading.:General.\n\nBULLET::::- Adeshina, Emmanuel. In-Person Visits Fade as Jails Set Up Video Units for Inmates and Families, \"The New York Times\" website, August 7, 2012, pg. A15 of the New York Edition.\n\nBULLET::::- Bajaj, Vikas. Transparent Government, Via Webcams in India, \"The New York Times\", July 18, 2011, pg.B3. Published online: July 17, 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- Davis, Andrew W.; Weinstein, Ira M. The Business Case for Videoconferencing, Wainhouse Research, March 2005.\n", "However, since many live events became available via social media in the late 2000s, tape delays have become increasingly irrelevant because of live television's resurgence as a broadcast format. Since the mid-2010s, several high-profile entertainment programs with huge live global audiences like the Academy Awards, Primetime Emmy Awards and Grammy Awards, yearly specials like the Miss Universe and Miss World pageants, and major sporting events like the Olympic Games, FIFA World Cup and the National Football League's Super Bowl, air to totality live on both television and the internet virtually all across the world's time zones in and out of their countries of origin, with mandated prime time rebroadcasts (featuring edits as desired by broadcasters) for regions that previously and solely relied on delayed telecasts on prime time among these otherwise live events.\n", "BULLET::::- O'Brien, Kevin. Stranded Travelers Turn to Videoconferencing, \"The New York Times\", April 19, 2010. Article discusses the increased use of videoconferencing due to the eruption of an Icelandic volcano which severely curtailed air travel for several months.\n\nBULLET::::- Ramirez, Anthony. More Than Just a Phone Call; Video Conferencing And Photocopies, Too, \"The New York Times\", September 15, 1993. Discusses the deployment of videoconferencing rooms in several hundred Kinkos locations.\n\nBULLET::::- Shannon, Victoria. Videoconferencing's virtual leap forward, \"The New York Times\", August 29, 2007.\n", "Sky News correspondent Alex Crawford used BGAN equipment to provide live coverage, from a moving truck, of the news network's coverage of the liberation of Tripoli, Libya, in August 2011. This was done by the producer continuously readjusting the BGAN terminal to track the BGAN satellite. In-Motion BGAN satellite terminals are often used by media outlets for streaming video on the move. Another advantage to in-motion BGAN systems are for saving precious minutes when arriving at a live event. A media vehicle equipped with an in-motion system does not require pointing time since the in-motion BGAN terminal is already locked on satellite.\n", "In 2016, NBC began to offer 4K content on a delayed basis through participating service providers (particularly DirecTV, Dish Network, and Xfinity), downconverted from 8K footage filmed by NHK and OBS, with HDR and Dolby Atmos support. 86 hours of event footage was offered. \n", "The vehicle on which the electronic equipment is fitted it is called DSNG (digital satellite news gathering).\n\nSection::::Beginnings.\n\nSection::::Beginnings.:Shortcomings of film.\n", "Press videoconferencing permits international press conferences via videoconferencing over the Internet. Journalists can participate on an international press conference from any location, without leaving their offices or countries. They need only be seated by a computer connected to the Internet in order to ask their questions to the speaker.\n", "The U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA), which oversees the world's largest administrative judicial system under its Office of Disability Adjudication and Review (ODAR), has made extensive use of videoconferencing to conduct hearings at remote locations. In Fiscal Year (FY) 2009, the U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA) conducted 86,320 videoconferenced hearings, a 55% increase over FY 2008. In August 2010, the SSA opened its fifth and largest videoconferencing-only National Hearing Center (NHC), in St. Louis, Missouri. This continues the SSA's effort to use video hearings as a means to clear its substantial hearing backlog. Since 2007, the SSA has also established NHCs in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Baltimore, Maryland, Falls Church, Virginia, and Chicago.\n", "International tape delays of live global events, intended by major television networks, dominated world television until the early 2010s. For example, during the Sydney Olympics in 2000 and the Beijing Olympics in 2008, daytime events were occurring at early morning hours in the Americas, Africa, and Europe but were aired in the afternoon and evening hours live entirely in Asia, Australia, and Oceania. That made some broadcasters show high-profile events twice (live and then rebroadcast during prime time), but others withheld the same event to be broadcast solely during prime time. Often, tape-delaying of those events would mean editing them down for time considerations, highlighting what the broadcaster feels are the most interesting portions of the event, or advertising.\n", "To commemorate 25 years of taking viewer telephone calls, in 2005, C-SPAN had a 25-hour \"call-in marathon\", from 8:00 pm. Eastern Time on Friday, October 7, concluding at 9:00 pm. Eastern Time on Saturday, October 8. The network also had a viewer essay contest, the winner of which was invited to co-host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPAN's Capitol Hill studios.\n\nSection::::History.:Scope and limitations of coverage.\n", "On November 30, 1956, the program became the first to use the new technology of videotape to time delay the broadcast (which originated in New York City) for the western United States.\n\nSection::::History.:Walter Cronkite (1962–1981).\n", "In some cases where digital frequencies moved, people have been advised not only to re-scan but to \"double-scan\", in order to clear outdated information from the digital TV or converter box memory.\n\nCalls to the FCC decreased from 43,000 a day in the week ending June 15 to 21,000 the next week. Reception problems, representing nearly a third of calls at first, were down to one-fifth.\n", "Because insert studios frequently take advantage of terrestrial communications circuits, there is reduced latency when compared with traditional satellite uplink from remote locations. This often allows for a faster exchange between program host and contributor/guest, and has led to a new breed of programming that utilize pundits and a rapid fire exchange of ideas as a staple of content.\n\nSection::::Economic considerations.\n", "Still, with dissatisfaction with the system and the quality of NBC's overall coverage, there was an increase in the use of virtual private network (VPN) services to access the more comprehensive online coverage of the Games being provided by broadcasters in Canada (CTV in London, CBC in Sochi) and the United Kingdom (BBC), which only used geoblocking and did not require TV Everywhere authentication.\n", "Researchers also find that attendees of business and medical videoconferences must work harder to interpret information delivered during a conference than they would if they attended face-to-face. They recommend that those coordinating videoconferences make adjustments to their conferencing procedures and equipment.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Impact on media relations.\n\nThe concept of press videoconferencing was developed in October 2007 by the PanAfrican Press Association (APPA), a Paris France-based non-governmental organization, to allow African journalists to participate in international press conferences on developmental and good governance issues.\n" ]

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[ "LNG storage pressures are typically around 50-150 psi, or 3 to 10 bar. At atmospheric pressure, LNG is at a temperature of -260 °F (-162 °C), however, in a vehicle tank under pressure the temperature is slightly higher (see saturated fluid). Storage temperatures may vary due to varying composition and storage pressure. LNG is far denser than even the highly compressed state of CNG. As a consequence of the low temperatures, vacuum insulated storage tanks typically made of stainless steel are used to hold LNG.\n", "There are four cases: either the substance remains a gas at standard temperature but increased pressure, the substance liquefies at standard temperature but increased pressure, the substance is dissolved in a solvent, or the substance is liquefied at reduced temperature and increased pressure. In the last case the bottle is constructed with an inner and outer shell separated by a vacuum (dewar flask) so that the low temperature can be maintained by evaporative cooling.\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case I.\n\nThe substance remains a \"gas\" at \"standard temperature\" and \"increased pressure\", its critical temperature being below standard temperature. Examples include:\n", "Extra heat is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place inside the barrel. In fact, if an extrusion line is running certain materials fast enough, the heaters can be shut off and the melt temperature maintained by pressure and friction alone inside the barrel. In most extruders, cooling fans are present to keep the temperature below a set value if too much heat is generated. If forced air cooling proves insufficient then cast-in cooling jackets are employed.\n", "Propane is generally stored and transported in steel cylinders as a liquid with a vapor space above the liquid. The vapor pressure in the cylinder is a function of temperature. When gaseous propane is drawn at a high rate, the latent heat of vaporization required to create the gas will cause the bottle to cool. (This is why water often condenses on the sides of the bottle and then freezes). Since lightweight, high-octane propane vaporize before the heavier, low-octane propane, the ignition properties change as the cylinder empties. For these reasons, the liquid is often withdrawn using a dip tube.\n", "The density of liquid propane at 25 °C (77 °F) is 0.493 g/cm, which is equivalent to 4.11 pounds per U.S. liquid gallon or 493 g/L. Propane expands at 1.5% per 10 °F. Thus, liquid propane has a density of approximately 4.2 pounds per gallon (504 g/L) at 60 °F (15.6 °C).\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Maintenance cycles of cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the gas type and pressure that they are operated in. Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with substantial organic components, such as pump oil fractions, can result in the growth of delicate carbon films and shards within the gauge that eventually either short-circuit the electrodes of the gauge or impede the generation of a discharge path.\n\nSection::::Dynamic transients.\n", "The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where products do not return to standard state, for example where the hot gases including water vapor exit a chimney, (known as lower heating value) is −2043.455 kJ/mol. The lower heat value is the amount of heat available from burning the substance where the combustion products are vented to the atmosphere; for example, the heat from a fireplace when the flue is open.\n\nSection::::Properties and reactions.:Density.\n", "BULLET::::- air\n\nBULLET::::- argon\n\nBULLET::::- fluorine\n\nBULLET::::- helium\n\nBULLET::::- hydrogen\n\nBULLET::::- krypton\n\nBULLET::::- nitrogen\n\nBULLET::::- oxygen\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case II.\n\nThe substance \"liquefies\" at \"standard temperature\" but \"increased pressure\". Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- ammonia\n\nBULLET::::- butane\n\nBULLET::::- carbon dioxide (also packaged as a cryogenic gas, Case IV)\n\nBULLET::::- chlorine\n\nBULLET::::- nitrous oxide\n\nBULLET::::- propane\n\nBULLET::::- sulfur dioxide\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case III.\n\nThe substance is \"dissolved\" at \"standard temperature\" in a solvent. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- acetylene\n", "In order to facilitate transport, natural gas is cooled down to approximately at atmospheric pressure, at which point the gas condenses to a liquid. The tanks on board an LNG carrier effectively function as giant thermoses to keep the liquid gas cold during storage. No insulation is perfect, however, and so the liquid is constantly boiling during the voyage.\n", "BULLET::::- From d to a. The lp valve is closed and the hp valve opened with fixed position of the displacer. The gas, now in the hot end of the cold head, is compressed and heat is released to the surroundings. In the end of this step we are back in position a.\n\nSection::::Pulse-tube refrigerators.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Refrigeration.:In motor vehicles.\n\nSuch substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.\n\nVendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Motor fuel.\n", "BULLET::::- Load due to Thermal movement of Equipment\n\nA pipe may experience expansion or contraction once it is subjected to temperatures higher or lower respectively as compared to temperature at which it was assembled. The secondary loads are often cyclic but not always. For example, load due to tank settlement is not cyclic. The load due to vessel nozzle movement during operation is cyclic because the displacement is withdrawn during shut-down and resurfaces again after fresh start-up. A pipe subjected to a cycle of hot and cold fluid similarly undergoes cyclic loads and deformation.\n\nSection::::Types of pipe supports.\n", "The outside of the tank has a thick layer of foam insulation that is either fitted in panels or in more modern designs wound round the tank. Over this insulation is a thin layer of \"tinfoil\" which allows the insulation to be kept dry with a nitrogen atmosphere. This atmosphere is constantly checked for any methane that would indicate a leak of the tank. Also the outside of the tank is checked at 3 month intervals for any cold spots that would indicate breakdown in the insulation.\n", "According to internal GM documents, the ultimate culprit appears to be operating vehicles for long periods of time with low coolant levels. The low coolant is caused by pressure caps that fail in the open position. (The new caps and recovery bottles were introduced at the same time as DEX-COOL). This exposes hot engine components to air and vapors, causing corrosion and contamination of the coolant with iron oxide particles, which in turn can aggravate the pressure cap problem as contamination holds the caps open permanently.\n", "The final part of the assembly is the thermocouple itself, whose wires are insulated from one another and from the material of the assembly by a tube made of mullite.\n\nSection::::Components.:Capsules.\n\nThe sample capsule must contain the sample and prevent reaction between the sample and the other materials of the sample assembly and not, itself, react with the sample. It must also be weak so as not to interfere with pressure transmission during the run. For this purpose the materials most used are: Au, Pt, AgPd alloys, Ni and graphite.\n", "Care must be taken, especially during long burns, to avoid excessive cooling of the pressurizing gas due to adiabatic expansion. Cold helium won't liquify, but it could freeze a propellant, decrease tank pressures, or damage components not designed for low temperatures. The Apollo Lunar Module Descent Propulsion System was unusual in storing its helium in a supercritical but very cold state. It was warmed as it was withdrawn through a heat exchanger from the ambient temperature fuel.\n\nSpacecraft attitude control and orbital maneuvering thrusters are almost universally pressure-fed designs.\n", "In addition, cryogenic storage dewars are usually pressurized, and they may explode if pressure relief valves are not used.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.\n\nThe rate of heat (energy) loss through a vacuum flask can be analyzed thermodynamically, starting from the second relation:\n\nAssuming constant pressure throughout the process,\n\nRearranging the equation in terms of the temperature of the outside surface of the vacuum flask's inner wall,\n\nWhere\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is the temperature of the surrounding air\n\nBULLET::::- Δ\"S\" is the change in specific entropy of stainless steel\n\nBULLET::::- \"c\" is the specific heat capacity of stainless steel\n", "The substance is \"liquefied\" at \"reduced temperature\" and \"increased pressure\". These are also referred to as cryogenic gases. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- liquid nitrogen (LN)\n\nBULLET::::- liquid hydrogen (LH)\n\nBULLET::::- liquid oxygen (LO)\n\nBULLET::::- carbon dioxide (also packaged as a liquefied gas, Case II)\n\nSection::::Expansion and volume.\n", "BULLET::::- Overheating windings typically lead to thermal decomposition of the cellulose insulation. In this case DGA results show high concentrations of carbon oxides (monoxide and dioxide). In extreme cases methane and ethylene are detected at higher levels.\n\nBULLET::::- Oil overheating results in breakdown of liquid by heat and formation of methane, ethane and ethylene.\n\nBULLET::::- Corona is a partial discharge and detected in a DGA by elevated hydrogen.\n\nBULLET::::- Arcing is the most severe condition in a transformer and indicated by even low levels of acetylene.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Application.\n", "• An air drying phase. Depending on the test, this may be conducted at ambient temperature, or at an elevated temperature, with or without control over the relative humidity and usually by introducing a continuous supply of relatively fresh air around the test samples at the same time. It is generally required that the samples under test should be visibly ‘dry’ at the end of this test phase.\n", "Charging an empty dive cylinder also causes a temperature rise as the gas inside the cylinder is compressed by the inflow of higher pressure gas, though this temperature rise may initially be tempered because compressed gas from a storage bank at room temperature decreases in temperature when it decreases in pressure, so at first the empty cylinder is charged with cold gas, but the temperature of the gas in the cylinder then increases to above ambient as the cylinder fills to the working pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- Four 1,200m spherical vessels used for propane storage\n\nBULLET::::- Four 2,000m pressure vessels used for propane storage\n\nBULLET::::- Two 150m horizontal bullet pressure vessels used for propane and butane\n\nBULLET::::- Ten 2,500m and 6500m floating roof tanks used for the storage of finished grade petrol and kerosene\n", "BULLET::::- Cryogenic propellants, such as liquid oxygen, freeze atmospheric water vapour into ice. This can damage or block seals and valves and can cause leaks and other failures. Avoiding this problem often requires lengthy \"chilldown\" procedures which attempt to remove as much of the vapour from the system as possible. Ice can also form on the outside of the tank, and later fall and damage the vehicle. External foam insulation can cause issues as shown by the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Non-cryogenic propellants do not cause such problems.\n", "One hazard associated with propane storage and transport is known as a BLEVE or boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion. The Kingman Explosion involved a railroad tank car in Kingman, Arizona in 1973 during a propane transfer. The fire and subsequent explosions resulted in twelve fatalities and numerous injuries.\n\nSection::::Comparison with natural gas.\n", "Section::::Polymer-solvent mixtures.\n\nSome polymer solutions have an LCST at temperatures higher than the UCST. As shown in the diagram, this means that there is a temperature interval of complete miscibility, with partial miscibility at both higher and lower temperatures.\n" ]

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[ "Certification according to a GFSI recognized scheme can be achieved through a successful third party audit against any of the following schemes recognized by the GFSI:\n\nBULLET::::- BRC Global Standard for Food Safety (Seventh Edition)\n\nBULLET::::- BRC-IOP Global Standard for Packaging and Packaging Materials Issue 5\n\nBULLET::::- BRC Global Standard for Storage and Distribution\n\nBULLET::::- BRC Global Standard for Food Safety, Issue 8 (as of February 1, 2019)\n\nBULLET::::- CanadaGAP (Canadian Horticultural Council On-Farm Food Safety Program)\n\nBULLET::::- FSSC 22000 (Food Safety Systems Certification Scheme) Food Products\n\nBULLET::::- Global Aquaculture Alliance Seafood - BAP Seafood Processing Standard\n", "BULLET::::- packer/filler: 37% Putting a product into packaging or applying packaging to a product, e.g. the company which fills the can with baked beans.\n\nBULLET::::- seller: 48% Supplying the packaging to the end user of that packaging, e.g. the supermarket which sells the baked bean can to the consumer. OR The wholesaler who sells boxed cans of beans would have the selling obligation on the boxes removed by the supermarket.\n", "To establish substantial equivalence, the modified product is tested by the manufacturer for unexpected changes to a targeted set of components such as toxins, nutrients, or allergens, that are present in a similar unmodified food. The manufacturer's data is then assessed by a regulatory agency. If regulators determine that there is no significant difference between the modified and unmodified products, then there will generally be no further requirement for food safety testing. However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or shows significant differences from the unmodified food, or for other reasons that regulators may have (for instance, if a gene produces a protein that has not been a food component before), further safety testing may be required.\n", "BULLET::::2. The container material shall not potentially become a source of toxic contamination through usage (degeneration). This is assured by estimating and regulating the \"migration limits\" of the material. In EU regulation, the overall migration is limited to 10 mg of substances/dm² of the potential contact surface. The specific migration for various materials would be different for different temperature levels (of food as well as storage) and for different food items depending on variables such as pH of the food stuff. The toxicity considerations of a specific material may include the carcinogenity of the substance. The regulations governing these aspects may vary in different nations.\n", "Note that the \"food safe\" symbol doesn't guarantee food safety under all conditions. The composition of materials contacting foodstuffs aren't the only factor controlling carcinogen migration into foodstuffs, there are other factors that can have a significant role in food safety. Examples include: the temperature of food products, the fat content of the food products and total time of contact with a surface. The safety of foam food containers is currently debated and is a good example of all three of these factors at play. Polystyrene may melt when in contact with hot or fatty foods and may pose a safety risk. In the United States, materials in contact with food may not contain more than 1% polystyrene by weight (0.5% for fatty foods).\n", "BULLET::::- ISO 45001:2018, Occupational health and safety management systems - Requirements with guidance for use\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 50001:2018, Energy management systems - Requirements with guidance for use\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 55001:2014, Asset management - Management systems - Requirements\n\nSector specific to ISO 9001\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 15378:2017, Primary packaging materials for medicinal products — Particular requirements for the application of ISO 9001:2015, with reference to good manufacturing practice (GMP)\n", "For unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of package testing can often be a business decision. Risk management may involve factors such as\n\nBULLET::::- costs of packaging\n\nBULLET::::- costs of package testing\n\nBULLET::::- value of contents being shipped\n\nBULLET::::- value of customer’s good will\n\nBULLET::::- product liability exposure\n\nBULLET::::- other potential costs of inadequate packaging\n\nBULLET::::- etc.\n", "BULLET::::4. Only after full approval of the labeling is granted by the certification body can the manufacturer print the labelling. The certification process must be completed before the labels can be used commercially.\n\nBULLET::::5. If the manufacturer needs to make changes to the product or labeling after gaining certification, they must notify the certification body and wait for written approval or a certificate update. Further approval from the certification body will be needed if the manufacturer makes changes to the organic percentage of the ingredients. The vendor will also have to make an amendment to the ingredients.\n", "Guideline Daily Amount\n\nA Guideline Daily Amount (GDA) is a nutrition facts label that originally began in 1998 as a collaboration between the UK government, the food industry and consumer organizations. The process was overseen by the Institute of Grocery Distribution (IGD). To help consumers make sense of the nutrition information provided on food labels, they translate science into consumer friendly information, providing guidelines on pack that help consumers put the nutrition information they read on a food label into the context of their overall diet.\n", "The estimated sign indicates that the average quantity of product in a batch of packages shall not be less than the nominal quantity stated on the label.\n\nWhen using the table, the values of the tolerable negative errors shown as percentages in the table, calculated in units of weight or volume, shall be rounded up to the nearest 0.1 g or 0.1 ml.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Evertype article\n\nBULLET::::- Council Directive of 20 January 1976 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the making-up by weight or by volume of certain prepackaged products\n", "With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the packaging. For example, any package components that may contact foods are designated food contact materials.\n\nToxicologists and food scientists need to verify that such packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations. Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended shelf life with normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be validated to assure that they comply with regulations that have the well being of the consumer in mind.\n", "Section::::Scope.\n\nAll food companies in the United States that are required to register with the FDA under the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, as well as firms outside the US that export food to the US, must have a written FSMA-compliant Food Safety Plan in place by the deadlines listed below:\n\nBULLET::::- Very small businesses of less than $1 million in sales per year are exempt, but must provide proof to the FDA of their very small status by January 1, 2016.\n", "BULLET::::- Beverages, (other than dairy and fruits & vegetables based)\n\nBULLET::::- Other food product and ingredients\n\nBULLET::::- Proprietary food\n\nBULLET::::- Irradiation of food\n\nThe development of standards is a dynamic process based on the latest developments in food science, food consumption pattern, new food products and additives, changes in the processing technology leading to changed specifications, advancements in food analytical methods, and identification of new risks or other regulatory options.\n", "Standards framed by FSSAI are prescribed under Food Safety and Standards (Food Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulation, 2011, Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulation, 2011 and Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and Residues) Regulations, 2011.\n\nThe FSSAI has prescribed standards for following food products:\n\nBULLET::::- Dairy products and analogues\n\nBULLET::::- Fats, oils and fat emulsions\n\nBULLET::::- Fruits and vegetable products\n\nBULLET::::- Cereal and cereal products\n\nBULLET::::- Meat and meat products\n\nBULLET::::- Fish and fish products\n\nBULLET::::- Sweets & confectionery\n\nBULLET::::- Sweetening agents including honey\n\nBULLET::::- Salt, spices, condiments and related products\n", "Another approach commonly used by FCD compilers is to ‘borrow’ or ‘adopt’ nutrient values that were originally generated by another organisation. Possible sources for borrowed data: are FCD from other countries, nutrient analyses from scientific literature or manufacturers’ data (e.g. from food labels). Compilers will need to evaluate the data in terms of both data quality and applicability of foods before incorporating it from any of these sources into their FCDBs. For example, fortification values can differ between countries so a fortified breakfast cereal for one country’s FCD might not be appropriate for another country.\n\nSection::::Data evaluation and quality.\n", "BULLET::::- ISO/TS 22002 Prerequisite programmes on food safety\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/TS 22002-1:2009 Part 1: Food manufacturing\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/TS 22002-2:2013 Part 2: Catering\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/TS 22002-3:2011 Part 3: Farming\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/TS 22002-4:2013 Part 4: Food packaging manufacturing\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/TS 22002-6:2016 Part 6: Feed and animal food production\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/TS 22003:2013 Food safety management systems – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of food safety management systems\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 22004:2014 Food safety management systems – Guidance on the application of ISO 22000\n", "Full membership of the association is open to any organisation involved in the sandwich industry – including retailers, suppliers, sandwich bars, manufacturers etc. – provided that they can prove that they at least match the minimum standards required by the association in its Codes of Practice. In the case of manufacturers and high risk suppliers, the association requires that its own auditor inspects the production facilities and systems of the organisation.\n\nIn the case of lower risk suppliers, evidence of appropriate standards from a recognised independent source may, in some cases, suffice.\n", "BULLET::::- GLOBALG.A.P. Integrated Farm Assurance Scheme Version 5, Product Safety Standard Version 4 and Harmonized Produce Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- Global Red Meat Standard (GRMS) 4th Edition 4.1\n\nBULLET::::- IFS Food Version 6\n\nBULLET::::- IFS Logistics Version 2.1\n\nBULLET::::- IFS PACsecure, Version 1\n\nBULLET::::- PrimusGFS Standard (v.2.1 - December 2011)\n\nBULLET::::- SQF Safe Quality Food Code 7th Edition Level 2 (Expired as of January 2, 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- SQF Safe Quality Food Code 8th Edition (as of January 2, 2018)\n\nSection::::Market influence.\n", "Health risks of materials and chemicals used in food packaging need to be carefully controlled. Carcinogens, toxic chemicals, mutagens etc. need to be eliminated from food contact and potential migration into foods.\n\nSection::::Food safety and public health.:Manufacturing.\n\nPackaging lines may have a variety of equipment types: integration of automated systems can be a challenge. All aspects of food production, including packaging, are tightly controlled and have regulatory requirements. Uniformity, cleanliness and other requirements are needed to maintain Good Manufacturing Practices.\n", "The Codex Alimentarius Commission \"...was created in 1963 by the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The main purposes of this Programme are protecting health of the consumers and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations.\"\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"About Risk Analysis in Food\" World Health Organization. Available online.\n", "In plastic containers, over and above the prescribed resin identification codes (viz; , , , ), the food safe assurance is required because the resin identification codes do not explicitly communicate the food safe property (or more significantly, the lack of it). \n\nEven though the legal requirement in various nations would be different, the food safe symbol generally assures that:\n\nBULLET::::1. The container surface is free of any toxic contaminants which could be contacted from the manufacturing process.\n", "GFSI has recognized a number of food safety management schemes that fulfill the criteria of the GFSI Guidance Document. The GFSI Guidance Document is regularly revised by GFSI to reflect improvements in best practices. GFSI is not a scheme in itself and does not carry out any accreditation or certification activities.\n\nThe status of recognition is achieved through a comprehensive benchmarking process. Once a standard has gained formal recognition by the GFSI Board of Directors, this standard is deemed to meet all of the requirements in the Guidance Document.\n", "BULLET::::- ISO 22715 provides guidelines to be followed in how that information should appear on the packaging. If applicable, requirements are provided for primary and secondary packaging.\n\nSection::::Relevance of ISO standards.\n\nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was formed in 1947. It is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The ISO has 162 members and the organization represents the interest of international standards of 196 countries. This represents almost 97 percent of the world’s population.\n", "Section::::Concentration ratios in United Kingdom.\n\nUK industries with the highest five-firm concentration ratios (CR) include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar: 99%\n\nBULLET::::- Tobacco products: 99%\n\nBULLET::::- Gas distribution: 82%\n\nBULLET::::- Oils and fats: 88%\n\nBULLET::::- Confectionery: 81%\n\nBULLET::::- Man-made fibres: 79%\n\nBULLET::::- Coal extraction: 79%\n\nBULLET::::- Soft drinks and mineral waters: 75%\n\nBULLET::::- Pesticides: 75%\n\nBULLET::::- Weapons and ammunition: 77%\n\nUK industries with the lowest five-firm concentration ratios include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Metal forging, pressing etc.: 4%\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic products: 4%\n\nBULLET::::- Furniture: 5%\n\nBULLET::::- Construction: 5%\n\nBULLET::::- Structural metal products: 6%\n\nBULLET::::- Wholesale distributions: 6%\n\nBULLET::::- General purpose machinery: 8%\n", "BULLET::::- A FOOD that because of its pH or A value, or interaction of A and pH values, is designated as a non-TCS FOOD in Table A or B of this definition;\n\nBULLET::::- A FOOD that is designated as Product Assessment Required (PA) in Table A or B of this definition and has undergone a Product Assessment showing that the growth or toxin formation of pathogenic microorganisms that are reasonably likely to occur in that FOOD is precluded due to:\n\nBULLET::::- Intrinsic factors including added or natural characteristics of the FOOD such as preservatives, antimicrobials, humectants, acidulants, or nutrients,\n" ]

[ "One source of information is not accurate and should not be trusted.", "You should only trust one figure on the nutritional labels of food." ]

[ "Both sources of information are accurate because they refer to different stages of the cooking process. ", "You should trust both labels of the nutritional values of food." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "One source of information is not accurate and should not be trusted.", "You should only trust one figure on the nutritional labels of food." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Both sources of information are accurate because they refer to different stages of the cooking process. ", "You should trust both labels of the nutritional values of food." ]

[ "The eye's lens is normally tinted yellow. This reduces the intensity of blue light reaching the retina. When the lens is removed because of cataract, it is usually replaced by an artificial intraocular lens; these artificial lenses are clear, allowing more intense blue light than usual to fall on the retina, leading to the phenomenon.\n", "Van Gogh described to his brother Theo how he composed a sky: \"The dark blue sky is spotted with clouds of an even darker blue than the fundamental blue of intense cobalt, and others of a lighter blue, like the bluish white of the Milky Way ... the sea was very dark ultramarine, the shore a sort of violet and of light red as I see it, and on the dunes, a few bushes of prussian blue.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Blue suit.\n", "In the words of Duco Schreuder,\n\nThe effect of switching from cones to rods in processing light is called the \"Purkinje shift\". During photopic vision, people are most sensitive to light that is greenish-yellow. In scotopic vision, people are more sensitive to light which would appear greenish-blue.\n\nThe traditional method of measuring light assumes photopic vision and is often a poor predictor of how a person sees at night. Typically research in this area has focused on improving street and outdoor lighting as well as aviation lighting.\n", "Section::::Painting description.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- Stygian colors: these are simultaneously dark and impossibly saturated. For example, to see \"stygian blue\": staring at bright yellow causes a dark blue afterimage, then on looking at black, the blue is seen as blue against the black, but due to lack of the usual brightness contrast it seems to be as dark as the black.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Life stages.\n", "Section::::Dye.\n\nBromophenol blue is also used as a dye. At neutral pH, the dye absorbs red light most strongly and transmits blue light. Solutions of the dye, therefore, are blue. At low pH, the dye absorbs ultraviolet and blue light most strongly and appears yellow in solution. \n", "\"Lampropelma violaceopes\" was first described by H. C. Abraham in 1924, under the name \"Lampropelma violaceopedes\". However, specific names under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature cannot be plural, so \"violaceopedes\" was corrected to \"violaceopes\".\n", "Blue light, principally around , suppresses melatonin biosynthesis, proportional to the light intensity and length of exposure. Until recent history, humans in temperate climates were exposed to few hours of (blue) daylight in the winter; their fires gave predominantly yellow light. The incandescent light bulb widely used in the 20th century produced relatively little blue light. Light containing only wavelengths greater than 530 nm does not suppress melatonin in bright-light conditions. Wearing glasses that block blue light in the hours before bedtime may decrease melatonin loss. Use of blue-blocking goggles the last hours before bedtime has also been advised for people who need to adjust to an earlier bedtime, as melatonin promotes sleepiness.\n", "The first recorded use of \"electric blue\" as a color name in English was in 1845. The color electric blue (the version shown below as \"medium electric blue\") was in vogue in the 1890s.\n\nSection::::Variations of electric blue.\n\nSection::::Variations of electric blue.:Deep electric blue (French electric blue).\n\nThe deep tone of electric blue displayed at right is the color called \"bleu électrique\" in the Pourpre.com color list, a color list widely popular in France.\n\nSection::::Variations of electric blue.:Iridescent electric blue.\n\nThis shade of electric blue reflects the kind which is only metaphorically \"electric\". Its iridescence is also metaphoric.\n", "Section::::Visibly blue moon.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Humans are sensitive to light with a short wavelength. Specifically, melanopsin is sensitive to blue light with a wavelength of approximately 480 nanometers. The effect this wavelength of light has on melanopsin leads to physiological responses such as the suppression of melatonin production, increased alertness and alterations to the circadian rhythm.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Secondary.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Recordings by other artists.\n", "Most work suggests that the peak spectral sensitivity of the receptor is between 460 and 484 nm. Lockley et al. in 2003 showed that 460 nm (blue) wavelengths of light suppress melatonin twice as much as 555 nm (green) light, the peak sensitivity of the photopic visual system. In work by Zaidi, Lockley and co-authors using a rodless, coneless human, it was found that a very intense 481 nm stimulus led to some conscious light perception, meaning some rudimentary vision was realized.\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n", "In March 2008 the group left E-Klectrik Music Group and parted ways with guitarist Adam Schulman. Upon Schulman's departure, Rick Garitta began playing guitar in addition to continuing to provide lead vocals. Schulman was the only member of the band to not perform barefoot.\n\nSection::::Promotional videos.\n", "Section::::Tints of blue.:Ice blue.\n\nDisplayed at right is the color ice blue.\n\nSection::::Tints of blue.:Morning blue.\n\nDisplayed at right is the color morning blue. It is a representation of the color of the morning sky.\n\nThe year the first recorded use of \"morning blue\" as a color name in English is unknown.\n\nSource of color: ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955)--Color Sample of Morning Blue (color sample #149)\n\nSection::::Computer web color blue.\n\nSection::::Computer web color blue.:Blue (RGB) (X11 blue).\n", "Andy Warhol described making \"Blue Movie\" as follows: \"I'd always wanted to do a movie that was pure fucking, nothing else, the way [my film] \"Eat\" had been just eating and [my film] \"Sleep\" had been just sleeping. So in October '68 I shot a movie of Viva having sex with Louis Waldon. I called it just \"Fuck\".\"\n\nThe film itself acquired a blue/green tint because Warhol used the wrong kind of film during production. He used film meant for filming night-scenes, and the sun coming through the apartment window turned the film blue.\n", "BULLET::::- A 20-year-old alternative solar cell design using dye-sensitized nanocrystal cells (DSC) could lead to cheap, printable cells, revolutionising solar power use worldwide, according to a new study. (KurzweilAI)\n\nBULLET::::- 5 November\n\nBULLET::::- An American doctor claims that brown eyes can safely and permanently be turned blue by using short laser pulses to destroy pigment in the iris. (BBC)\n", "The sense of this colour may have been first used in 1585 in a book by Nicolas de Nicolay where he stated \"the tulbant of the merchant must be \"skie coloured\"\".\n\nDisplayed at right is the web colour \"sky blue\".\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Celeste.\n", "Section::::Biology.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Taxonomy and systematics.\n\n\"Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis\", is a subspecies of the \"G. lygdamus\" (silvery blue) species of butterfly found throughout North America. There are currently 11 subspecies of silvery blue. \"G. lygdamus palosverdesensis\" was first described in the 1970s and was distinguished from other \"G. lygdamus\" by its faster and early flight, wing color and wing spot patterns.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Morphology.\n", "Section::::Connections with other vitreous material and with metals.\n", "While some blue blocking sunglasses (see above) are produced as regular sunglasses for exposure to bright sunlight, others—especially for macular degeneration patients—do not block light or other colors in order to function well in regular daylight and even dim sunlight. The latter allow the passage of enough light so normal evening activities can continue, while blocking the light that prevents production of the hormone melatonin. Blue-blocking tinted glasses, i.e. amber or yellow, are sometimes recommended to treat insomnia; they are worn in artificial lighting after dark, to reestablish the circadian rhythm and treat delayed sleep phase disorder.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Jars rely on the principle of stretching a pipe to build elastic potential energy such that when the jar trips it relies on the masses of the drill pipe and collars to gain velocity and subsequently strike the anvil section of jar. This impact results in a force, or blow, which is converted into energy.\n\nSection::::Stuck drill string.:History of Surface Resonant Vibrators.\n", "This behavior was given the name \"jamming avoidance response\" several years later in 1972, in a paper by Theodore Bullock, Robert Hamstra, Jr., and Henning Scheich.\n\nThe JAR was discovered in the distantly-related \"Gymnarchus niloticus\" by Walter Heiligenberg in 1975, showing that the behavior had convergently evolved in two separate lineages.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "\"Butter in a Lordly Dish\" remains one of Christie's least-known works. The title comes from the Bible, at Judges, 5:25 – \"He asked water, and she gave him milk; she brought forth butter in a lordly dish\", where \"he\" refers to Sisera, \"she\" is Jael, and Jael kills Sisera by hammering a nail through his head. The same fate awaits Sir Luke Enderby in Christie's play at the hands of Julia Keene. Jack Malvern, of \"The Times\" called it \"one of Agatha Christie’s most gruesome murder plots.\" \n", "In a 1963 essay collection, \"Computer Simulation of Personality: Frontier of Psychological Theory\", Silvan Tomkins wrote about \"the tendency of jobs to be adapted to tools, rather than adapting tools to jobs\". He wrote: \"If one has a hammer one tends to look for nails, and if one has a computer with a storage capacity, but no feelings, one is more likely to concern oneself with remembering and with problem solving than with loving and hating.\" In the same book, Kenneth Mark Colby explicitly cited the law, writing: \"The First Law of the Instrument states that if you give a boy a hammer, he suddenly finds that everything needs pounding. The computer program may be our current hammer, but it must be tried. One cannot decide from purely armchair considerations whether or not it will be of any value.\"\n", "determined by how rapidly you can impact weight into the jars. When jarring without a compounder or accelerator you rely only on pipe stretch to lift the drill collars upwards after the jar releases to create the upwards impact in the jar. This accelerated upward movement will often be reduced by the friction of the working string along the sides of the well bore, reducing the speed of upwards movement of the drill collars which impact into the jar. At shallow depths jar impact is not achieved because of lack of pipe stretch in the working string.\n", "Tom sets out a simple mouse trap. Jerry, however, succeeds in freeing the cheese without setting the trap off. Shocked at the trap's failure, Tom tests it, and the trap snaps Tom's finger, which causes the cat to yell in pain as soon as he touches it. Tom then sets a snare trap around a piece of cheese and gets ready to pull the string but is distracted by a bowl of cream substituted for the cheese by Jerry, who activates the trap, sending the cat out to the tree himself.\n", "Though the TAP has been criticized for its lack of standardization among all its forms, its variability is inconsequential as all forms of the task stay true to its original design and aim.\n\nSection::::Design.:Variations.:mTAP.\n", "When pipe stretch alone cannot provide enough energy to free a fish, compounders or accelerators are used. Compounders or accelerators are energized when you over pull on the working string and compress a compressible fluid through a few feet of stroke distance and at the same time activate the fishing jar. When the fishing jar releases the stored energy in the compounder/acclerator lifts the drill collars upwards at a high rate of speed creating a high impact in the jar.\n\nSection::::Stuck drill string.:System Dynamics of Jars.\n", "Sölve\n\nSölve was a sea-king who conquered Sweden by burning the Swedish king Östen to death inside his hall.\n", "The behavior has been most intensively studied in the South American species \"Eigenmannia virescens\". The behavior is also present in other Gymnotiformes such as \"Apteronotus\", as well as in the African species \"Gymnarchus niloticus\". The JAR was one of the first complex behavioral responses in a vertebrate to have its neural circuitry completely specified. As such, the JAR holds special significance in the field of neuroethology.\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n", "Three methods to quench the PJTE have been documented: changing the electronic charge of the molecule, sandwiching the molecule with other ions and cyclic molecules, and manipulating the environment of the molecule. \n", "The creators of the jar, Michael Bissette, Stephen Smith, Spencer Vaughn, and Sean Echevarria, developed the concept for the jar during a senior design project while at North Carolina State University. Their original plan was to create a squeegee knife that never got dirty below the handle, but soon realized that the primary problem was in retrieving peanut butter from nearly empty containers. Their concept was feasibility-tested using PVC pipe and a makeshift plug, and then prototyped utilizing the university's 3D printers; the team exhausted many prototypes and spent thousands of dollars in the process. A patent was filed for the finished concept in June 2013. The university newspaper, \"Technician\", described the finished product:\n", "The side knife may be used as a light froe, for splitting small billets of wood. It is driven through the billet using a hammer. Unlike a froe's extended handle, the side knife does not permit twisting to lever the split open and so it must be driven through all the way.\n", "imparting an impact load.\n\nIn addition to the mechanical and hydraulic versions, jars are classified as drilling jars or fishing jars. The operation of the two types is similar, and both deliver approximately the same impact blow, but the drilling jar is built such that it can better withstand the rotary and vibrational loading associated with drilling. Jars are designed to be reset by simple string manipulation and are capable of repeated operation or firing before being recovered from the well. Jarring effectiveness is\n", "After he is released, Ian confronts Julie at a book reading in Oxford, intent on killing her; he believes that double jeopardy will keep him out of prison, as he has already been found guilty of killing his wife and cannot be tried twice for the same crime. When a member of the audience tells him that this is incorrect, he puts the guns down, only for Julie to pick them up. They then shoot each other dead.\n", "In the Stevens technique, the mallets are held loosely. The two outside mallets are gripped with the little and ring fingers; the inside mallets are cantilevered between the flesh of the palm at the base of the thumb and the tip of the middle finger.\n", "Mechanical jar and hydraulic jar hitting power is affected by the length of the jars (the longer the length, they faster they can travel before they stop), the mass of the weight above them (the more the mass, the harder they will hit), and the tension of the line pulling on them.\n", "During a 1964 episode of the NBC game show \"Say When!!\", host Art James performed a commercial for Peter Pan, during which he unintentionally broke the glass jar he used as a prop. Before air time, James did a series of run-throughs, dropping a table knife into the near-empty Peter Pan jar, each time without incident. But when he did the actual commercial live on the air, the knife broke out the bottom of the jar and fell through onto his podium. Amid scattered laughter from the audience, James continued the spot as the bottom part of the jar came \"unglued\" from the peanut butter. At the end of the commercial, James finally lost his composure and stated that \"It's great peanut butter; the jar is something else\". The incident has been replayed on many TV blooper specials through the years.\n", "In Season 5, Episode 14 of \"The Amazing World of Gumball\" (2017), Darwin can be seen playing the knife game using a fork.\n\nIn Season 1, Episode 2 of \"SuperMansion\" (2015), Black Saturn, Jewbot, Brad, American Ranger, and Cooch take turns failing at the game in the kitchen (with Cooch shoving the knife directly in to her thigh).\n\nIn season 1, episode 6 of the HBO series \"Boardwalk Empire\" (2010) features a young WWI veteran, Jimmy Darmody, playing \"Five Finger Fillet,\" and requesting the young Al Capone to join in.\n", "In the European tradition, the butter churn was primarily a device used by women, and the churning of butter was an essential responsibility along with other household chores. In earlier traditions of butter making, nomadic cultures placed milk in skin bags and produced butter either by shaking the bag manually, or possibly by attaching the bag to a pack animal, and producing butter simply through the movement of the animal. Some theorists believe this is how the butter creation process was discovered. Some cultures still use a process similar to this, whereby a bag is filled with milk, tied to a stick, and vigorously shaken.\n", "In observational attacks, the drill hole allows the safecracker to view the internal state of the combination lock. Drill-points are often located close to the axis of the dial on the combination lock, but observation may sometimes require drilling through the top, sides or rear of the safe. While observing the lock, the locksmith manipulates the dial to align the lock gates so that the fence falls and the bolt is disengaged.\n\nBypass attacks involve physical manipulation of the bolt mechanism directly, bypassing the combination lock.\n", "Locked out, Tom decides to charge through the door at full force to break it down. Jerry quickly flees as an unaware Topsy opens the door. After Tom flattens Topsy, Jerry stretches an innertube across two posts on the backyard deck, stopping Tom in his tracks as he is sent flying back through the house and crashing through the mailbox with his head sticking out one end and his legs, tail, and bum sticking out the other end with his hands pinned by his sides. With Tom completely helpless, Jerry decides to take revenge on Tom for what he has done. Deciding that a good spanking is in order, Jerry grabs a piece of wood and prepares to paddle Tom. Topsy stops him. He decides to give every bit as good as he was given by paddling Tom. Topsy takes the paddle and pats down the fur on Tom's bum and gives Tom a moment to think about the painful, bare butt blistering that he is prepared to face as he hits Tom's defenseless bum...hard. He gives Tom a solid, blistering whack, bending the mailbox and breaking the paddle. With his revenge complete, he then gives Tom's teacher hat to Jerry and the two buddies walk away holding hands as friends, proving Jerry's theory correct and leaving the poor cat stranded in the mailbox.\n", "Section::::Build-up.\n", "Riddle sieves were not unique to England, skin winnowing sieves were used across Europe, the Middle East and India, however no tradition of using them as musical instruments is recorded in any other country. Two paintings of bodhran in Ireland, \"a Halloween party,\" painted by Scottish artist Daniel Maclise, around 1842 and also in 1842, \"A Shebeen in Listowel,\" attributed to Bridget Maria Fitzgerald, both show the Bodhran being played Middle Eastern style with hands as was the Medieval tradition in Europe.\n", "\"Exactly, the Castle Market, and passing near one of the stalls, I beheld a brawny butcher brandishing a sharp gleaming knife. A calf he was about to slay was standing, awaiting the deathstroke, when at that moment—that critical moment—a lovely little girl came bounding along in all her sportive mirth from her father's stall. Before a moment had passed the butcher had plunged his knife into the breast of—\"\n\n\"Good God! His child!\" sobbed the judge, deeply affected. Curran carried on:\n\n\"No, the calf, but your Lordship often anticipates.\"\n" ]

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[]

[ "Unlike spectral colors, which may be implemented, for example, by the nearly monochromatic light of a laser, with precision much finer than human chromaticity resolution, colors on the line are more difficult to depict. The sensitivity of each type of human cone cell to \"both\" spectral red and spectral violet, being at the opposite endpoints of the line and at the extremes of the visible spectrum, is very low. (See luminosity function) Therefore, common purple colors are not highly bright.\n", "Another class of UV fluorescent bulb is designed for use in \"bug zapper\" flying insect traps. Insects are attracted to the UV light, which they are able to see, and are then electrocuted by the device. These bulbs use the same UV-A emitting phosphor blend as the filtered blacklight, but since they do not need to suppress visible light output, they do not use a purple filter material in the bulb. Plain glass blocks out less of the visible mercury emission spectrum, making them appear light blue-violet to the naked eye. These lamps are referred to by the designation \"blacklight\" or \"BL\" in some North American lighting catalogs. These types are not suitable for applications which require the low visible light output of \"BLB\" tubes lamps.\n", "UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles either to enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and aesthetic applications.\n\nAmusement parks often use UV lighting to fluoresce ride artwork and backdrops. This often has the side effect of causing rider's white clothing to glow light-purple.\n", "A second type of lamp produces ultraviolet but does not have the filter material, so it produces more visible light and has a blue color when operating. These tubes are made for use in \"bug zapper\" insect traps, and are identified by the industry designation \"BL\". \n", "Using additive colors such as those on computer screens, it is possible to create a much brighter purple than with pigments where the mixing subtracts frequencies from the component primary colors. The equivalent color on a computer to the pigment color red-violet shown above would be this electric purple, i.e. the much brighter purple you can see reproduced on the screen of a computer. This color is pure purple conceived as computer artists conceive it, as the color on the color wheel halfway between color wheel violet and electric magenta. Thus, electric purple is the purest and brightest purple that it is possible to display on a computer screen. Its RGB code is (191, 0, 255).\n", "The color heliotrope is a brilliant tone of purple; it is a pink-purple tint that is a representation of the color of the heliotrope flower.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"heliotrope\" as a color name in English was in 1882.\n\nSection::::Additional variations.:Psychedelic purple (phlox).\n", "The pure essence of purple was approximated in pigment in the late 1960s by mixing fluorescent magenta and fluorescent blue pigments together to make \"fluorescent purple\" to use in psychedelic black light paintings. This tone of purple was very popular among hippies and was the favorite color of Jimi Hendrix. Thus it is called psychedelic purple. Psychedelic purple is the color halfway between electric purple and magenta.\n", "In the RGB color model, named for the colors red, green, and blue, used to create all the colors on a computer screen or television, the range of purples is created by mixing red and blue light of different intensities on a black screen. The standard HTML color purple is created by red and blue light of equal intensity, at a brightness that is halfway between full power and darkness.\n", "On a chromaticity diagram, the straight line connecting the extreme spectral colors (red and violet) is known as the line of purples (or 'purple boundary'); it represents one limit of human color perception. The color magenta used in the CMYK printing process is near the center of the line of purples, but most people associate the term \"purple\" with a somewhat bluer tone, such as is displayed by the color \"electric purple\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names \"purple\" and \"violet\". Purple is a mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the stars in the Pleiades, called Pleione, is sometimes called \"Purple Pleione\" because, being a fast spinning star, it has a purple hue caused by its blue-white color being obscured by a spinning ring of electrically excited red hydrogen gas.\n\nBULLET::::- The Purple Forbidden enclosure is a name used in traditional Chinese astronomy for those Chinese constellations that surround the North Celestial Pole.\n\nSection::::In science and nature.:Geography.\n", "Blacklight\n\nA blacklight (or often black light), also referred to as a UV-A light, Wood's lamp, or ultraviolet light, is a lamp that emits long-wave (UV-A) ultraviolet light and very little visible light.\n\nOne type of lamp has a violet filter material, either on the bulb or in a separate glass filter in the lamp housing, which blocks most visible light and allows through UV, so the lamp has a dim violet glow when operating. Blacklight lamps which have this filter have a lighting industry designation that includes the letters \"BLB\". This stands for \"blacklight blue\".\n", "Because of safety concerns and tighter regulation, consumer products such as clocks and watches now increasingly use phosphorescent rather than radioluminescent substances. Radioluminescent paint may still be preferred in specialist applications, such as diving watches.\n\nSection::::Radioluminescent paint.:Radium.\n", "BULLET::::- Since the mid-1960s, water based fluorescent magenta paint has been available to paint psychedelic black light paintings. (Fluorescent cerise, fluorescent chartreuse yellow, fluorescent blue, and fluorescent green.)\n\nSection::::In science and culture.:In astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Astronomers have reported that spectral class T brown dwarfs (the ones with the coolest temperatures except for the recently discovered Y brown dwarfs) are colored magenta because of absorption by sodium and potassium atoms of light in the green portion of the spectrum.\n\nSection::::In science and culture.:In botany.\n", "A purple hue in terms of color theory, magenta is evoked by light having less power in green wavelengths than in blue/violet and red wavelengths (complements of magenta have wavelength 500–530 nm).\n\nIn the Munsell color system, magenta is called \"red–purple\".\n", "Blacklight paint\n\nBlack light paint or black light fluorescent paint is luminous paint that glows under a black light. It is based on pigments that respond to light in the ultraviolet segment of the electromagnetic spectrum. The paint may or may not be colorful under ordinary light. Black light paint should not be confused with phosphorescent (glow-in-the-dark) or daylight fluorescent paint.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nUltraviolet radiation is invisible to the human eye, but illuminating certain materials with UV radiation causes the emission of visible light, causing these substances to glow with various colors. This is called \"fluorescence\", and has many practical uses. Black lights are required to observe fluorescence, since other types of ultraviolet lamps emit visible light which drowns out the dim fluorescent glow.\n", "By the 1970s, because of the advent of psychedelic art, artists became used to brighter pigments, and pigments called \"purple\" or \"bright purple\" that are the pigment equivalent of became available in artists pigments and colored pencils. Reproducing electric purple in pigment requires adding some white pigment and a small amount of blue pigment to red-violet pigment. Even then, the reproduction will not be exact because it is impossible for pigment colors to be so bright as colors displayed on a computer. \n\nSection::::Variations of red-violet.\n\nSection::::Variations of red-violet.:Kobi.\n\nAt the right is displayed the color kobi.\n", "At sunrise and sunset, the light is passing through the atmosphere at a lower angle, and traveling a greater distance through a larger volume of air. Much of the green and blue is scattered away, and more red light comes to the eye, creating the colors of the sunrise and sunset and making the mountains look purple.\n\nA Crayola crayon called Purple Mountains' Majesty (or Purple Mountain Majesty) is named after this natural phenomenon. It was first formulated in 1993.\n\nSection::::Mythology.\n", "While the two colors look similar, from the point of view of optics there are important differences. Violet is a spectral color – it occupies its own place at the end of the spectrum of light first identified by Isaac Newton in 1672, and it has its own wavelength (approximately 380–420 nm) – whereas purple is a combination of two spectral colors, red and blue. There is no such thing as the \"wavelength of purple light\"; it only exists as a combination. See Line of purples.\n", "'Royal purple' (shown above) or the dark violet color known as \"generic purple\" is the common layman's idea of purple, but professional artists, following Munsell color system (introduced in 1905 and widely accepted by 1930), regard purple as being synonymous with the red-violet color shown at right, represented by the web color medium violet red, in order to clearly distinguish purple from violet and thus have access to a larger palette of colors. This red-violet color, called artist's purple by artists, is the pigment color that would be on a pigment color color wheel between pigment violet and pigment (process) magenta. In the Munsell color system, this color at its maximum chroma of 12 is called Red-Purple, or more specifically Munsell 5RP.\n", "These lamps are used mainly for theatrical purposes and concert displays. They are more efficient UVA producers per unit of power consumption than fluorescent tubes.\n\nSection::::Types.:LED.\n\nUltraviolet light can be generated by some light-emitting diodes, but wavelengths below 380 nm are uncommon and the emission peaks are broad, so only the very lowest energy UV photons are emitted, within predominant not visible light.\n\nSection::::Medical applications.\n", "In color theory, a \"purple\" is defined as any non-spectral color between violet and red (excluding violet and red themselves). The spectral colors violet and indigo are not purples according to color theory, but they are purples according to common English usage since they are perceived to be similar.\n\nIn the traditional color wheel long used by painters, purple is usually placed between crimson and violet. In a slightly different variation, on the color wheel, it is placed between magenta and violet. This shade is sometimes called electric purple (See Shades of purple).\n", "In 3-dimensional color spaces the line, if present, becomes a 2-dimensional shape. For example, in the CIE XYZ it is a planar sector bounded by black–red and black–violet rays. In systems premised on pigment colors, such as the Munsell and Pantone systems, boundary purples might be absent because the maximally possible lightness of a pigment vanishes when its chromaticity approaches the Line, such that purple pigments near the line are indistinguishable from black.\n", "Most film has relatively low sensitivity to colors outside the visible range, so light spread in the near ultraviolet (UV) or near infrared (IR) rarely has a significant impact on the image recorded. However, image sensors used in digital cameras commonly are sensitive to a wider range of wavelengths. Although the lens glass itself filters out much of the UV light, and all digital cameras designed for color photography incorporate filters to reduce red and IR sensitivity, the chromatic aberration can be sufficient for unfocused violet light to tint nearby dark regions of the image. Bright cloudy or hazy skies are strong sources of scattered violet and UV light, so they tend to cause the problem.\n", "An old name for this color, used by Robert Ridgway in his 1912 book on color nomenclature, \"Color Standards and Color Nomenclature\", is true purple.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.:Purple (HTML/CSS color) (patriarch).\n\nThis purple used in HTML and CSS actually is deeper and has a more reddish hue (#800080) than the X11 color purple shown below as \"purple\" (X11 color) (#A020F0), which is bluer and brighter.\n" ]

[ "Black lights should be black.", "Black lights can look purple. " ]

[ "Black lights are just a name, they are ultraviolet which is close in color to violet. ", "Black lights that look purple are not black at all." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Black lights should be black.", "Black lights can look purple. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Black lights are just a name, they are ultraviolet which is close in color to violet. ", "Black lights that look purple are not black at all." ]

[ "So-called \"tit for tat\" exchanges have occurred (whereby ambassadors of countries involved in a dispute each expel the ambassador of the other country), notably during the Cold War. A notable occurrence outside of the Cold War was an exchange between the United States and Ecuador in 2011: the Ecuadorian government expelled the United States ambassador, as a result of diplomatic cables leaking (WikiLeaks), the United States responded by expelling the Ecuadorian ambassador.\n\nSection::::Other usage.\n\nPeople other than diplomats can be declared as \" by a country.\n", "The only remedy the host state has in the face of offences alleged to have been committed by a diplomat is to declare him or her \"persona non grata\", which typically means that the diplomat must leave the territory of the state. In 1999, for example, an attaché of the Russian Embassy in Washington DC was declared \"persona non grata\" for suspected \"bugging\" of the State Department.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1994, four career diplomats at the U.S. Embassy in Dublin sent a dissent memorandum questioning the decision of U.S. Ambassador Jean Kennedy Smith to grant a U.S. visa to Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams. Two of the four signatories received career-damaging performance appraisals from Smith and were \"excluded from Embassy functions relevant to their jobs.\" This led to a yearlong investigation by the State Department Inspector General's office, which issued a \"scathingly critical\" report that found \"inescapable evidence\" that Smith had retaliated against the two diplomats.\n", "The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed. This sanctity has come to be known as diplomatic immunity. While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honour. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights.\n", "In reality, most diplomats are representatives of nations with a tradition of professional civil service, and are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and they suffer severe disciplinary action if they flout local laws. In many nations, a professional diplomat's career may be compromised if they (or members of their family) disobey the local authorities or cause serious embarrassment, and such cases are, at any rate, a violation of the spirit of the Vienna Conventions.\n", "As diplomats by definition enter the country under safe-conduct, violating them is normally viewed as a great breach of honor, although there have been numerous cases in which diplomats have been killed. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often take terrifying vengeance against any state that violated these rights. The Mongols would often raze entire cities in retaliation for the execution of their ambassadors, and invaded and destroyed the Khwarezmid Empire after their ambassadors had been mistreated.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern.\n", "It is also an accepted principle of customary international law and is recognised between countries as a matter of practicality. Diplomatic law is often strictly adhered to by states because it works on reciprocity. For example, if a country expels diplomats from another country, then its diplomats would most likely be expelled from the other country.\n\nSection::::Sources of diplomatic law.\n", "However, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a Chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).\n", "He entrusted his Minister for Foreign Affairs, Edward Natapei, with a clean-up of the selling of diplomatic passports by previous governments. Within the first few days of the Carcasses government, the passports of \"about ten\" diplomats were revoked, with indications that more than two thirds of the country's diplomats could lose their position, as their appointment had not followed proper procedures.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Bribery.\n", "The Vienna Convention is explicit that \"without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State.\" Nevertheless, on some occasions, diplomatic immunity leads to some unfortunate results; protected diplomats have violated laws (including those that would be violations at home as well) of the host country and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (\"persona non grata\"). Diplomatic agents are not, however, exempt from the jurisdiction of their home state, and hence prosecution may be undertaken by the sending state; for minor violations of the law, the sending state may impose administrative procedures specific to the foreign service or diplomatic mission.\n", "Notable violations of embassy extraterritoriality include repeated invasions of the British Embassy, Beijing (1967), the Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981), and the Japanese embassy hostage crisis at the ambassador's residence in Lima, Peru (1996-1997).\n\nSection::::Role.\n", "The private residence, papers, correspondence and property of diplomats are also inviolable. In general, diplomats are immune from civil and administrative jurisdiction of the state in which they are serving, although there are a number of important exceptions.\n\nSection::::Diplomatic immunity.:Waiver of immunity.\n\nAlthough it is unusual, the sending state may expressly waive the immunity from jurisdiction of diplomatic agents and others possessing immunity.\n\nSection::::Diplomatic premises.\n\nIt is an absolute rule that the premises of the mission are inviolable and agents of the receiving state cannot enter them without the consent of the mission.\n", "In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as well as in some cases when the host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy.\n\nSection::::Espionage.\n", "Section::::Incident.:Diplomatic pressure and release.\n", "Certain countries may have agreements to provide limited consular services to the citizens of other countries. This does not necessarily constitute a protecting power relationship, as the host country may not have formally agreed, and there may in fact be diplomatic relations between the host country and the third country, but no physical representation. Without the agreement of the host country, consular officials in this role may not be recognized as representing the interests of another, and be limited to a \"good offices\" role.\n", "The most fundamental rule of diplomatic law is that the person of a diplomatic agent is inviolable. Diplomats may not be detained or arrested, and enjoy complete immunity from criminal prosecution in the receiving state, although there is no immunity from the jurisdiction of the sending state.\n", "In certain cases, a \"chargé d'affaires\" may be appointed for long periods, such as when a mission is headed by a non-resident ambassador who is accredited to multiple countries. In addition, a mission may be downgraded from an ambassadorial to a \"chargé d'affaires\" level to show displeasure, yet avoid taking the extremely serious step of breaking diplomatic relations. For example, Saudi Arabia and Thailand have not exchanged ambassadors since 1989, due to the still-unresolved Blue Diamond Affair.\n", "Effective September 13, 2017, the Department of Homeland Security announced that the State Department would stop issuing certain visas at its consular offices in the following countries due to the lack of cooperation on removal matters: \n\nBULLET::::- – issuance of all B visas for Cambodian Ministry of Foreign Affairs employees, with the rank of Director General and above, and their families.\n\nBULLET::::- – issuance of all B visas.\n\nBULLET::::- – all B, F, J, and M visas to Guinean government officials and their immediate family members.\n", "In April 2012 in Manila, Panamanian diplomat Erick Bairnals Shcks was accused of raping a 19-year-old Filipino woman, but was later released from detention because Shcks \"enjoys protection under the 1961 Vienna Convention.\"\n", "Parties to the convention agree to criminalise the commission of murders or kidnappings of internationally protected persons as well as violent attacks against the official premises, private accommodation, or means of transport of such persons. Parties to the convention also agree to criminalise the attempted commission or threatened commission of such acts. \"Internationally protected persons\" is a term created by the convention, and refers explicitly to heads of state, heads of government, foreign ministers, ambassadors, other official diplomats, and members of their families.\n", "Some countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. The Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations. The United Nations system (including its agencies, which comprise the most recognizable international bodies such as the World Bank and many others) has a relatively standardized form of limited immunities for staff traveling on U.N. laissez-passer; diplomatic immunity is often granted to the highest-ranking officials of these agencies. Consular officials (that do not have concurrent diplomatic accreditation) formally have a more limited form of immunity, generally limited to their official duties. Diplomatic technical and administrative staff also have more limited immunity under the Vienna Convention; for this reason, some countries may accredit a member of technical or administrative staff as an attaché.\n", "However, the diplomatic crisis did not end there. Expulsions of diplomats and suspected spies escalated to the point that by the end of October 1986, 100 Soviets, including a further 80 suspected Soviet intelligence agents, were expelled by the U.S. The Soviets expelled ten U.S. diplomats and withdrew all 260 of the Russian support staff working for the U.S. embassy in Moscow.\n", "There is no right under international law to diplomatic relations, and they exist by virtue of mutual consent. The sending state must ensure that the consent of the receiving state has been given for its proposed head of mission. Similarly, the receiving state may at any time declare any member of the diplomatic mission \"persona non grata\" and thus obtain the removal of that person.\n\nSection::::Diplomatic asylum.\n", "With the protection of mission staff from prosecution for violating civil and criminal laws, depending on rank, under Articles 41 and 42 of the Vienna Convention, they are bound to respect national laws and regulations. Breaches of these articles can lead to a \" declaration being used to punish erring staff. It is also used to expel diplomats suspected of espionage, described as \"activities incompatible with diplomatic status\", or any overt criminal act such as drug trafficking. The declaration may also be a symbolic indication of displeasure.\n", "The \"UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, Including Diplomatic Agents\" was adopted in 1973. It provides that states parties must make attacks upon diplomats a crime in internal law, and obliges them to extradite or prosecute offenders. However, in exceptional cases, a diplomat may be arrested or detained on the basis of self-defence or in the interests of protecting human life.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Extensive technological advances in the 21st century have enabled instant global communication, breaking the barriers of space and time, thereby changing the nature of globalization. With the world turned into an interconnected global system, there is a need for a mutual language. English has fulfilled this need by becoming the global lingua franca of the 21st century. Its presence in large parts of the world due to colonisation has led to it becoming the main language in which global trade, business, and cultural interactions take place. ELF is a unique lingua franca because of its global spread, its highly diverse nature, and its interactions which include native speakers.\n", "Linguaphone's Hong Kong branch was opened in 1961, it gained much popularity during the 1970s and 1980s because its recording system gave a flexible option to those who could not attend language courses at a fixed time and location. It also allowed students to listen to the material repeatedly at any time they preferred during the course, which conventional education methods could not offer at the time in Hong Kong. However, with the advent of the Internet and popularization of computers, which facilitate an online and interactive learning experience, and other rivals such as Wall Street Institute Hong Kong, Linguaphone's Hong Kong branch suffered a steady decline since the early 2000s and eventually announced its liquidation on 17 January 2009.\n", "Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world, and English is the most commonly used language in the sciences with Science Citation Index reporting as early as 1997 that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries.\n\nIn publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world [leclerc 2011] and 30 percent of web content in 2011 (down from 50 percent in 2000).\n", "Given the enormous lead it already enjoys and its increasing use as a \"lingua franca\" in other spheres, English web content may continue to dominate even as English first-language Internet users decline. This is a classic positive feedback loop: new Internet users find it helpful to learn English and employ it online, thus reinforcing the language's prestige and forcing subsequent new users to learn English as well.\n", "English language schools are also among the most numerous in Asian countries such as China, Japan and South Korea, as Western culture influences the rising demand for English in business and cultural contexts.\n\nSection::::Language courses.:Other European languages.\n", "Certain other factors (some predating the medium's appearance) have propelled English into a majority web-content position. Most notable in this regard is the tendency for researchers and professionals to publish in English to ensure maximum exposure. The largest database of medical bibliographical information, for example, shows English was the majority language choice for the past forty years and its share has continually increased over the same period.\n", "Beginning as early as 1759, English language teaching in India has been occurring for more than two hundred and fifty years. After Hindi, English is the most commonly spoken, written and read language of India, as it is used most commonly for inter-state and intrastate communication, acting as a ‘link’ language. In India, it is a very important language in some fields such as law, finance, education, and business.\n", "More recently, high-ranking officials, business people, and shareholders have started to work at their English. This trend looks set to increase as English is due to be included and taught in the field of education too.\n\nSection::::TEFL region and country locations.:Asia.:Middle East and North Africa.\n", "Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, and later the United States, Modern English has been spreading around the world since the 17th century. Through all types of printed and electronic media, and spurred by the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the \"lingua franca\" in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law.\n", "When the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations which had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as an official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. The British Empire established the use of English in regions around the world such as North America, India, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, so that by the late 19th century its reach was truly global, and in the latter half of the 20th century, widespread international use of English was much reinforced by the global economic, financial, scientific, military, and cultural pre-eminence of the English-speaking countries and especially the U.S. Today, more than half of all scientific journals are published in English, while in France, almost one-third of all natural science research appears in English, lending support to English being the lingua franca of science and technology. English is also the lingua franca of international air traffic control and seafaring communications.\n", "Not only in multinational companies is English an important skill, but also in the engineering industry, in the chemical, electrical and aeronautical fields. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl (2002) shows that in South Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However, Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to ensure understanding and cooperation.\n\nSection::::Globalisation.:Europe.\n", "In areas of Europe where English is not the first language, there are many examples of the mandated primacy of English: for example, in many European companies, such as Airbus, Ford, G.M., Philips, Renault, Volvo, etc. have designated English to be the language of communication for their senior management, and many universities are offering education in English. The language is also a required subject in most European countries. Thus, the percentage of English speakers is expected to rise.\n\nSection::::English as \"lingua franca\".\n", "Because of the use of English as a lingua franca, native speakers are outnumbered by non-native speakers of English, which is a situation that is quite atypical for western European languages. A consequence of this is a sense of ownership of the language by different communities, which is reflected in the way English has become ‘multiplex’.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Although falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates.\n\nSection::::English as a global language.\n", "At the height of their popularity, Linguaphone was not only a large, international publishing house with many prestigious representative offices (for books, records, tapes and cassettes) but they also ran fashionable language schools in a number of major cities across the world, such as London, Paris, New York and Tokyo. This chain of Linguaphone Institutes could claim to be the second oldest among the international language teaching establishments (the oldest being Berlitz, founded in 1878 and known today as Berlitz International, with the controversial Berlitz method) and, as such, Linguaphone had, at one time, the privilege of being an almost automatic first choice among the famous of the day, including royalty. \n", "English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n", "Section::::Globalization and ELF.\n", "Meanwhile, English was on its way to becoming the first global lingua franca. By the end of the twentieth century, it had special status in seventy countries, including India. Worldwide, English began to represent modernization and internationalization, with more and more jobs requiring basic fluency in it. In India especially, the language came to acquire a social prestige, 'a class apart of education', which prompted native Indian or South Asian speakers to turn bilingual, speaking their mother tongue at home or in a local context, but English in academic or work environments.\n", "According to the Ethnologue, there are almost 1 billion speakers of English as a first or second language. English is spoken as a first or a second language in a large number of countries, with the largest number of native speakers being in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland; there are also large populations in India, Pakistan, the Philippines and Southern Africa. It \"has more non-native speakers than any other language, is more widely dispersed around the world and is used for more purposes than any other language\". Its large number of speakers, plus its worldwide presence, have made English a common language (\"lingua franca\") \"of the airlines, of the sea and shipping, of computer technology, of science and indeed of (global) communication generally\".\n", "A further adaptation of this school method was then developed with the invention of the portable language laboratory, the so-called minilab, that could be rented for set periods (with cassettes instead of tapes). The minilabs became widely used for in-company language tuition as well as for regular language training at government departments and professional organisations, such as the Ministry of Defence, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Institute of Directors. \n", "By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. England continued to form new colonies, and these later developed their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.\n", "Section::::TEFL region and country locations.:Asia.:Laos.\n\nEnglish language has been increasingly important in education, international trade and cooperation in Laos since the 1990s. The government started to promote foreign direct investment, and the introduction of Laos as an observer at ASEAN in 1992 also increased the necessity of English. Laos was considered as a full member of ASEAN in 1997. From 1992-97, the government had to improve its fluency in English.\n", "English is studied most often in the European Union, and the perception of the usefulness of foreign languages among Europeans is 67 percent in favour of English ahead of 17 percent for German and 16 percent for French (). Among some of the non-English-speaking EU countries, the following percentages of the adult population claimed to be able to converse in English in 2012: 90 percent in the Netherlands, 89 percent in Malta, 86 percent in Sweden and Denmark, 73 percent in Cyprus, Croatia, and Austria, 70 percent in Finland, and over 50 percent in Greece, Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia, and Germany. In 2012, excluding native speakers, 38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English.\n", "Cambodia was ruled by the French from 1863 to 1953, and therefore English was not the primary second language until recently. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Cambodia experienced civil war and political turmoil which had a devastating effect on the national education system and the learning of a second language. By 1979 it was estimated that 90% of schools had been destroyed and 75% of teachers were no longer working and foreign languages were not being taught. However, in Cambodian schools today, English as a foreign language is taught from Grade 7 onwards and is the most popular foreign language studied. Adults are also able to learn English through other non-formal English language education programs.\n", "Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language. In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than the UK, Ireland and Malta). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll, 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.\n" ]

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[ "The nature of the game is described at length by George Owen of Henllys (1552–1613), an eccentric historian of Pembrokeshire:\n", "In his 1938 book, \"Homo Ludens\", Dutch cultural historian Johan Huizinga argued that games were a primary condition of the generation of human cultures. Huizinga saw the playing of games as something that “is older than culture, for culture, however inadequately defined, always presupposes human society, and animals have not waited for man to teach them their playing.” Huizinga saw games as a starting point for complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art.\n\nSection::::Pre-modern.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 Vintage Yachting Games – O-Jolle\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Vintage Yachting Games – Flying Dutchman\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Vintage Yachting Games – Soling\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Vintage Yachting Games – Dragon\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – Women's Europe\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – Men's Europe\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – O-Jolle\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – Flying Dutchman\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – Tempest\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – Soling\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – Dragon\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Vintage Yachting Games – 5.5 Metre\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Vintage Yachting Games\n", "Various games in the Tables family were also quite popular and are known as \"ifranjiah\" in Arabic (meaning \"Frankish\") and as Nard in Iran. Many of the early Arabic texts which refer to these games often debate the legality and morality of playing them. This debate was settled by the eighth century when all four Muslim schools of jurisprudence declared them to be Haraam (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games included Mancala and Tâb.\n", "Despite the game's discontinuation, the legacy of the game can be seen in some places where it was previously played – an example being the \"Cnapan Hotel\" in Newport, Pembrokeshire.\n\nA simple game is however still played with a silver ball in Cornwall where it is known as hyrlian.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nFurther details about the game can be found in Brian John's book \"The Ancient Game of Cnapan\" (), and there is a description of a cnapan match in the novel \"House of Angels\" ().\n", "Section::::Tafl in archeological finds.\n\nThere have been many archeological discoveries of tafl games and gaming pieces found in various Warrior Burials. One example was a wooden board and a single gaming piece made of horn found in a ship burial at Gokstad in southeastern Norway. Another example was twenty-two gaming pieces made of whalebone found in the Orkneys.\n\nIt is believed that there is a connection between warrior status and the playing of board games. There is also a connection between the value of military strategy and skill to playing a board game.\n", "Ethnographer Ralph Beals reported in the early 1930s that the Acaxee tribe from western Mexico played a ball game called \"\"vatey\" [or] \"batey\"\" on \"a small plaza, very flat, with walls at the sides\".\n", "These examples and others are cited by many researchers who have made compelling arguments that ōllamaliztli served as a way to defuse or resolve conflicts without genuine warfare, to settle disputes through a ballgame instead of a battle. Over time, then, the ballgame's role would expand to include not only external mediation, but also the resolution of competition and conflict within the society as well.\n", "Senet also was played by people in neighboring cultures, and it probably came to those places through trade relationships between Egyptians and local peoples. It has been found in the Levant at sites such as Arad and Byblos, as well as in Cyprus. Because of the local practice of making games out of stone, there are more senet games that have been found in Cyprus than have been found in Egypt.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n", "Some historians believe that Mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found in Jordan that dates around 6000 BCE. The game might have been played by ancient Nabataeans and could have been an ancient version of the modern Mancala game.\n", "History of games\n\nThe history of games dates to the ancient human past. Games are an integral part of all cultures and are one of the oldest forms of human social interaction. Games are formalized expressions of play which allow people to go beyond immediate imagination and direct physical activity. Common features of games include uncertainty of outcome, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, elements of fiction, elements of chance, prescribed goals and personal enjoyment.\n", "During its early history, video games were often single-player-only activities, putting the player against pre-programmed challenges or AI-controlled opponents, which lack the flexibility of human thought.\n\nSection::::Asynchronous multiplayer.\n\nAsynchronous multiplayer is a form of multiplayer gameplay where players do not have to be playing at the same time.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Non-networked.\n", "All of these theories have in common that there is little to no textual or material evidence to back any of them up. In addition to the sparse written sources, a key difficulty is that the tâb types of game were generally made from “ephemeral” materials which do not leave long-lasting material remains: often wood in the North, and in the Middle East the game has often simply been drawn in the sand, using twigs and stones for pieces and dice.\n", "A modified game called \"civil play\" banned boxing as a component of the game. The game was played by passing the ball from hand to hand. To score, a player had to carry the ball through his own goal. Matches were usually for the best of seven or nine goals or \"snotches\" which normally took two or three hours, but a game of fourteen hours had been recorded in a county match.\n", "Ōllamaliztli was a ritual deeply ingrained in Mesoamerican cultures and served purposes beyond that of a mere sporting event. Fray Juan de Torquemada, a 16th-century Spanish missionary and historian, tells that the Aztec emperor Axayacatl played Xihuitlemoc, the leader of Xochimilco, wagering his annual income against several Xochimilco chinampas. Ixtlilxochitl, a contemporary of Torquemada, relates that Topiltzin, the Toltec king, played against three rivals, with the winner ruling over the losers.\n", "Besides the continuous decline due to the existence of persistent world per se (i.e. allowing the repetition of an identical action over time with the same participants to move currency), there is a second group of factors based on characters in game increasing their power due to playing.\n", "Section::::Pre-modern.:Americas.\n\nArchaeologist Barbara Voorhies has theorized that a series of holes on clay floors arranged in c shapes at the Tlacuachero archaeological site in Mexico's Chiapas state may be 5000-year-old dice-game scoreboards. If so this would be the oldest archaeological evidence for a game in the Americas.\n", "Mobile games are another example of products that use FOMO to retain large numbers of engagement. Mobile games are well known for timed exclusives of one sort or another. “If there's a chance a player might miss a one-time event, it generates FOMO.” As an example of a mobile game that utilizes FOMO tactics, Crab Wars has a timed currency booster that lasts for three hours, so any time where it’s not active is time spent “losing” money. Compounded on top of this mechanic is a bonus for stacking three of these boosts together at any given time. There are also daily rewards for logging in, which get more rewarding for consecutive days logged in.\n", "As games and their control inputs evolved, the games started to favor strategy over reaction, early turn-based games being the most prevalent examples. Such games required players to plan each move and anticipate the opponent's moves ahead of time. Not unlike chess, early strategy games focused on setting pieces and then moving them one turn at a time while the opponent did the same. Many of these games were based on tabletop games. The introduction of the internet, and its suitability as a playable medium, facilitated many of the features of today's mainstream games.\n", "There were a total of four Items for the player to pick up: One powered-up the player’s shot strength, one would increase their Circle Bomb stock, one would grant the player various points and the other would grant the player an extra life. Extends were awarded with every 70,000 points.\n\nSection::::Cultural references.\n", "Mobile phone apps such as \"Zombies, Run!\" (2012), \"Run An Empire\" , \"Ingress\" (2013), and \"Pokémon GO\" (2016) have been described as augmented reality exergames.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n\nLaboratory studies have demonstrated that some exergames can provide light to moderate intensity physical activity.\n\nA 2018 systematic review in the Journal of Medical Internet Research of 10 randomized trials studying the \"Social Effects of Exergames on Older Adults\" found that \"the majority of exergame studies demonstrated promising results for enhanced social well-being, such as reduction of loneliness, increased social connection, and positive attitudes towards others\". \n", "Games historian Eddie Duggan (University of Suffolk) provides a brief resume of ideas related to the ancient Egyptian game of senet (together with an overview of the so-called \"Royal Game of Ur\") and a version of rules for play in his teaching notes on ancient games.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mehen – another ancient Egyptian game\n\nBULLET::::- Patolli – a game of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures\n\nBULLET::::- Tâb – a Middle Eastern game that is sometimes confused with senet\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Senet: Review of versions rules speculation at BoardGameGeek\n\nBULLET::::- Variations in the rules at BoardGameGeek\n", "Every player also had their own household. Household was the collective term applied to all the buildings and NPCs owned, employed, and/or run by an individual player. There could be many buildings and NPCs within a household and using the built-in household management interface a player could set entry fees or rent fees on their property, assign NPCs to act as merchants or guards, summon NPCs as an escort, hire and dismiss staff, etc. NPCs were known to cause lag throughout the entire history of Roma Victor, to include significant adverse effects on game performance in the starter towns.\n", "Gamification has been used to some extent by online casinos. For example, the Casumo and Casino Heroes brands use an incremental reward system to extend the typical player lifecycle and to encourage repeat vists and cash deposits at the casino in return for rewards such as free spins and cash match bonuses on subsequent deposits.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Dice games were popular throughout the Americas. Patolli was one of the most popular board games played by mesoamerican peoples such as the Mayans, Toltecs and Aztecs, it was a race game played with beans or dice on square and oval-shaped boards and gambling was a key aspect of it. The Andean peoples also played a dice game which is called by the Quechua word \"pichca\" or \"pisca\".\n" ]

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[ "In March 2018, as a result of the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Salisbury, relations between the countries deteriorated still further, both countries expelling 23 diplomats each and taking other punitive measures against one another. Within days of the incident, the UK government's assessment that it was ″highly likely″ that the Russian state was responsible for the incident received the backing of the EU, the US, and Britain′s other allies. In what the Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson called the \"extraordinary international response\" on the part of the UK's allies, on 26 and 27 March 2018 there followed a concerted action by the U.S., most of the EU member states, Albania, Australia, Canada, Macedonia, Moldova, and Norway, as well as NATO to expel a total of over 140 Russian accredited diplomats (including those expelled by the UK).\n", "Following the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018, the UK responded with bilateral and multilateral diplomatic efforts that led to nations around the world expelling one hundred and fifty Russian diplomats, described by CNN as a \"remarkable diplomatic coup for Britain\". British prime minister Theresa May stated in parliament that the coordinated global response was the \"largest collective expulsion of Russian intelligence officers in history.\" Subsequently, Russia attempted to attribute some of the influence to the United States, this was seen to be a propaganda exercise designed to damage the UK's international prestige and found to be untrue following statements by the various states as well as the entirety of the European Union.\n", "The UK expelled 23 Russian diplomats on 14 March 2018. Three days later, Russia expelled an equal number of British diplomats and ordered closure of the UK consulate in St Petersberg and closure of the British Council in Russia. Nine countries expelled Russian diplomats on 26 March: along with 6 other EU nations, the US, Canada, Ukraine and Albania. The following day, several nations inside and outside of the EU, and NATO responded similarly. By 30 March, Russia expelled an equal number of diplomats of most nations who had expelled Russian diplomats. By that time, Belgium, Montenegro, Hungary and Georgia had also expelled one or more Russian diplomats. Additionally on 30 March, Russia reduced the size of the total UK mission's personnel in Russia to match that of the Russian mission to the UK.\n", "By the end of March 2018 a number of countries and other organisations expelled a total of more than 150 Russian diplomats in a show of solidarity with the UK. According to the BBC it was \"the largest collective expulsion of Russian intelligence officers in history\".\n", "Jens Stoltenberg, NATO Secretary General, announced on 27 March that NATO would be expelling seven Russian diplomats from the Russian mission to NATO in Brussels. In addition, 3 unfilled positions at the mission have been denied accreditation from NATO. Russia blamed the US for the NATO response.\n\nSection::::Response from other countries and organisations.:Joint responses.\n", "Later on 12 March, the British government accused Russia of attempted murder and announced a series of punitive measures against Russia, including the expulsion of diplomats (14 March). The UK's official assessment of the incident was supported by 28 other countries which responded similarly. Altogether, an unprecedented 153 Russian diplomats were expelled. Russia denied the accusations and responded similarly to the expulsions and \"accused Britain of the poisoning.\"\n", "In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained, and since 2014 have grown unfriendly due to the Ukrainian crisis (2013–) and to activities by Russia such as the suspected 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK and by many in the international community. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats.\n\nSection::::Historical background.\n\nSection::::Historical background.:Relations 1553–1792.\n", "The expulsions were seen as \"the biggest rift since the countries expelled each other's diplomats in 1996 after a spying dispute.\" In response to the situation, Putin stated \"I think we will overcome this mini-crisis. Russian-British relations will develop normally. On both the Russian side and the British side, we are interested in the development of those relations.\" Despite this, British Ambassador Tony Brenton was told by the Russian Foreign Ministry that UK diplomats would be given 10 days before they were expelled in response. The Russian government also announced that it would suspend issuing visas to UK officials and froze cooperation on counterterrorism in response to Britain suspending contacts with their Federal Security Service.\n", "On 1 February 2011, for the first time since 1983, the Irish government made a decision to expel a Russian diplomat based in Dublin after an investigation by the Garda SDU (following a tip off from the FBI) found that the identities of six Irish citizens had been stolen and used as cover for Russian spies found to have been working in the United States in June 2010.\n", "Prime Minister May unveiled a series of measures on 14 March 2018 in retaliation for the poisoning attack, after the Russian government refused to meet the UK's request for an account of the incident. One of the chief measures was the expulsion of 23 Russian diplomats which she presented as \"actions to dismantle the Russian espionage network in the UK\", as these diplomats had been identified by the UK as \"undeclared intelligence agents\". The BBC reported other responses, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing checks on private flights, customs and freight\n", "On 13 March, Home Secretary Amber Rudd ordered an inquiry by the police and security services into alleged Russian state involvement in 14 previous suspicious deaths of Russian exiles and businessmen in the UK. May unveiled a series of measures on 14 March 2018 in retaliation for the poisoning attack, after the Russian government refused to meet the UK's request for an account of the incident. One of the chief measures was the expulsion of 23 Russian diplomats which she presented as \"actions to dismantle the Russian espionage network in the UK\", as the diplomats had been identified as \"undeclared intelligence agents\".\n", "2018 in Russia\n\nEvents in the year 2018 in Russia.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nBULLET::::- President: Vladimir Putin\n\nBULLET::::- Prime Minister: Dmitry Medvedev\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nSection::::Events.:February.\n\nBULLET::::- 11 February – Saratov Airlines Flight 703 crashed shortly after take-off, killing all 71 people on board.\n\nSection::::Events.:March.\n\nBULLET::::- 15-17 March – Sergey Lavrov has announced that Russia will expel diplomats from the United Kingdom because of the expulsion of 23 Russian envoys due to the poisoning of Sergei Skripal and Yulia Skripal. The Russian foreign ministry is to expel 23 British diplomats amid tensions over the nerve agent attack in the United Kingdom.\n", "On March 15, 2018, Trump imposed financial sanctions under the Act on the 13 Russian government hackers and front organizations that had been indicted by Mueller's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.\n\nIn March 2018, 29 Western countries and NATO expelled in total at least 149 Russian diplomats, including 60 by the United States, in response to the poisoning of Skripal and his daughter on March 4 in the United Kingdom, which has been blamed on Russia. Other measures were also taken.\n", "On 24 November 2015, Stoltenberg said \"We stand in solidarity with Turkey and support the territorial integrity of our Nato ally\" after Turkey shot down a Russian military jet for allegedly violating Turkish airspace for 17 seconds, near the Syrian border.\n\nIn response to the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, Stolenberg announced on 27 March that NATO would be expelling seven Russian diplomats from the Russian mission to NATO in Brussels. In addition, 3 unfilled positions at the mission were denied accreditation from NATO. Russia blamed the US for the NATO response.\n\nSection::::NATO–Russia Council.\n", "Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and the European Union itself have not expelled any Russian diplomats but have recalled their ambassadors from Russia for consultations. Furthermore, Iceland decided to diplomatically boycott the 2018 FIFA World Cup held in Russia.\n\nNotes\n\nBULLET::::- 4 diplomats expelled. 3 pending applications declined.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 expelled and 3 pending applications declined. Maximum delegation reduced by 10 (from 30 to 20).\n\nBULLET::::- 48 Russian diplomats expelled from Washington D.C. and 12 expelled from New York.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "Albania, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Macedonia, Moldova, Norway and Ukraine expelled a total of 27 Russian diplomats who were believed to have been intelligence officers. The New Zealand Government also issued a statement supporting the actions, noting that it would have expelled any Russian intelligence agents who had been detected in the country.\n\nSection::::Response from other countries and organisations.:NATO.\n", "Norbert Röttgen, a former federal minister in Angela Merkel's government and current chairman of Germany's parliamentary foreign affairs committee, said the incident demonstrated the need for Britain to review its open-door policy towards Russian capital of dubious origin.\n\nSixteen EU countries expelled 33 Russian diplomats on 26 March.\n", "On 10 December 2007, Russia ordered the British Council to halt work at its regional offices in what was seen as the latest round of a dispute over the murder of Alexander Litvinenko; Britain said Russia's move was illegal.\n", "The end of 2006 brought more strained relations in the wake of the death by polonium poisoning of former KGB and FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko in London, who became an MI6 agent in 2003. In 2007, the crisis in relations continued with expulsion of four Russian envoys over Russia's refusal to extradite former KGB bodyguard Andrei Lugovoi to face charges in the murder of Litvinenko. Mirroring the British actions, Russia expelled UK diplomats and took other retaliatory steps.\n", "In June 2010, UK intelligence officials were saying that Russian spying activity in the UK was back at the Cold War level and that MI5 had been for a few years building up its counter-espionage capabilities against Russians; it was also noted that Russia′s focus was ″largely directed on ex-patriots.″ In mid-August 2010, Sir Stephen Lander, Director-General of MI5 (1996–2002), said this of the level of Russian intelligence′s activity in the UK: ″If you go back to the early 90s, there was a hiatus. Then the spying machine got going again and the SVR [formerly the KGB], they've gone back to their old practices with a vengeance. I think by the end of the last century they were back to where they had been in the Cold War, in terms of numbers.″ \n", "BULLET::::- It is reported that all \"Toys R Us\" stores in the UK will close within six weeks following the chain's collapse into administration in February and its failure to find a buyer.\n\nBULLET::::- The government calls for an urgent meeting of the UN Security Council to discuss the poisoning of Sergei Skripal and Yulia Skripal on 4 March. Theresa May announces that 23 Russian diplomats will be expelled from the UK after Russia fails to respond to claims of involvement.\n\nBULLET::::- 15 March\n", "Section::::Role.:Claims of intimidation of foreign diplomats and journalists.\n\nThe FSB has been accused by \"The Guardian\" of using psychological techniques to intimidate western diplomatic staff and journalists, with the intention of making them curtail their work in Russia early. The techniques allegedly involve entering targets' houses, moving household items around, replacing items with similar (but slightly different) items, and even sending sex toys to a male target's wife, all with the intention of confusing and scaring the target. \"Guardian\" journalist, Luke Harding, claims to have been the subject of such techniques.\n\nSection::::Role.:Doping scandal.\n", "On February 1, 2011, Ireland's cabinet made a decision to expel a Russian diplomat from the country – the first time since 1983, after the Irish government, based on an investigation conducted by the Garda Síochána Special Detective Unit (SDU), concluded that the Russian security agent based at the Russian embassy in Rathgar gathered details from six genuine Irish passports that were then effectively cloned in Russia for the US-based spies. Ireland's Department of Foreign Affairs said, \"The Government, by today's action, has once again made clear that it will not tolerate the fabrication and use of forged Irish passports by agents of a foreign State.\" On February 4, 2011, the Irish press identified the expelled diplomat as Alexander Smirnov, first secretary in the Russian embassy's consular section. On February 2, 2011, Russia threatened retaliation.\n", "In December 2016 Fiona Lazareff lost her son, Nicolas in Moscow when he was drugged and robbed and dumped in a remote suburb of the city. It was -15° and he died of hypothermia. The Lazareff family claimed they were offered no help form the British Embassy in Moscow or in London in their search for Nicolas. As a result, Fiona Lazareff started an investigation into the way the FCO reacts to a crisis.\n", "In late 2006, former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned in London by radioactive metalloid, Polonium-210 and died three weeks later. The UK requested the extradition of Andrei Lugovoy from Russia to face charges over Litvinenko's death. Russia refused, stating their constitution does not allow extradition of their citizens to foreign countries. As a result of this, the United Kingdom expelled four Russian diplomats, shortly followed by Russia expelling four British diplomats. The Litvinenko affair remains a major irritant in British-Russian relations.\n" ]

[ "Expelling Russian diplomats from UK can't really be considered a punishment. " ]

[ "It removes the other party's ability to communicate with the other, therefore making it a punishment. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Expelling Russian diplomats from UK can't really be considered a punishment. ", "Expelling Russian diplomats from UK can't really be considered a punishment. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "It removes the other party's ability to communicate with the other, therefore making it a punishment. ", "It removes the other party's ability to communicate with the other, therefore making it a punishment. " ]

[ "BULLET::::- Same crop, different maturity dates: Several varieties are selected, with different maturity dates: early, main season, late. Planted at the same time, the varieties mature one after the other over the season.\n", "Abiu may have several flowering periods a year, with potential for both flowers and fruit on the tree at one time. The development time from flower to ripe fruit is about 3 months. The main crop season varies by climate.\n", "Other studies have put the rate of season creep measured by plant phenology in the range of 2–3 days per decade advancement in spring, and 0.3–1.6 days per decade delay in autumn, over the past 30–80 years.\n\nObservable changes in nature related to season creep include birds laying their eggs earlier and buds appearing on some trees in late winter. In addition to advanced budding, flowering trees have been blooming earlier, for example the culturally-important cherry blossoms in Japan,\n\nand Washington, D.C.\n\nNorthern hardwood forests have been trending toward leafing out sooner, and retaining their green canopies longer.\n", "Section::::Season of planting.:Conventional spring planting with fresh spring-lifted stock.\n", "In the cooler areas of North America, specifically the northern regions of the United States and Canada, the growing season is observed to be between April or May and goes through October. A longer season starts as early as February or March along the lower East Coast from northern Florida to South Carolina, along the Gulf coast in south Texas and southern Louisiana, and along the West Coast from coastal Oregon southward and can continue all the way through November or December. The longest growing season is found in central and south Florida where many tropical fruits are grown year round. These rough timetables vary significantly for areas that are at higher elevations or close to the ocean.\n", "For many perennial plants, such as fruit tree species, a period of cold is needed first to induce dormancy and then later, after the requisite period of time, re-emerge from that dormancy prior to flowering. Many monocarpic winter annuals and biennials, including some ecotypes of \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and winter cereals such as wheat, must go through a prolonged period of cold before flowering occurs.\n\nSection::::History of vernalization research.\n", "Section::::Season of planting.:Conventional fall planting with fresh-lifted stock.\n", "Section::::Season of planting.:Summer planting with fresh-lifted stock.\n", "Season extension techniques are most effective when combined with crop varieties selected for the extended growing conditions. Many approaches are used in large-scale agriculture, as well as in small-scale organic farming, and home gardening.\n\nUsing unheated, unlit methods, depending on the crop, up to several weeks of productivity can be added, where shortened period of sunlight and cold weather end the growing season.\n\nSeason extension can apply to other climates, where conditions other than cold and shortened period of sunlight end the growing year (e.g. a rainy season).\n\nSection::::Growth, harvest, or both.\n", "If the size of the planting program allows, there is little doubt that such scheduling would be advantageous in that it satisfies one, and commonly 2, of the factors essential for success: (1) the use of planting stock that is physiologically capable of responding to a growth environment at planting, and (2) planting when site factors favour tree survival and growth. The 3rd factor a good planting job, and although desirable in all plantings, is probably somewhat less critical in conventional spring plantings than at other times. If, however, a planting program cannot be completed in this way, there are other options: conventional fall planting with fresh-lifted stock; summer planting with fresh-lifted stock; and spring and summer planting with stored spring-lifted or fall-lifted stock.\n", "Since changes in season can coincide with favorable changes in environment, the distinction between seasonal breeder and opportunistic can be muddled. In equatorial climes, the change in seasons is not always perceptible and thus, changes in day length not remarkable. Thus, the tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus) previously categorized as a seasonal breeder is now suspected to be an opportunistic breeder.\n", "Like most temperate-latitude trees, cherry trees require a certain number of chilling hours each year to break dormancy and bloom and produce fruit. The number of chilling hours required depends on the variety. Because of this cold-weather requirement, no members of the genus \"Prunus\" can grow in tropical climates. (See \"production\" section for more information on chilling requirements)\n", "Cannabis grown is induced into flowering by decreasing its photoperiod to at least 10 hours of darkness per day. In order to initiate a flowering response, the number of hours of darkness must exceed a critical point. Generally the more hours of darkness each day, the shorter the overall flowering period but the lower the yield. Conversely, the fewer hours of darkness each day, the longer the overall flowering period and the higher the yield. Traditionally, most growers change their plants lighting cycle to 12 hours on and 12 hours off since this works as a happy medium to which most strains respond well. This change in photoperiod mimics the plant's natural outdoor cycle, with up to 18 hours of light per day in the summer and down to less than 12 hours of light in fall and winter. Some 'semi-autoflowering' strains that have been bred exclusively for outdoor use, particularly in outdoor climates such as that of the UK, will start flowering with as much as 16–17 hours of light per day. Usually they can start flowering in July and finish far earlier than other strains, particularly those that haven't been bred as outdoor strains. Semi-autoflowering strains can be harvested before the weather in northern latitudes becomes very wet and cold (generally October), whereas other strains are just finishing flowering, and may suffer from botrytis (grey mold) caused by wet weather. Alternatively growers may artificially induce the flowering period during the warmer months by blacking out the plants for 12 hours a day i.e. by covering the plants with black plastic for example, which excludes all light during this period so the plant can flower even during long days.\n", "The flowering habit is indeterminate. Under greenhouse conditions, plant growth during winter month (October- March at 49°N) is slow, and flowers senesce and fail to set fruit (Kempler et al., 1993). In Ecuador, the trees begin cropping 10 months after planting and continue bearing for 6 months, producing about 40 fruit/tree with each weighing about 1-1.5 kg, in the greenhouse we produced about 32 kg fruit per square meter in 16 months when planted 0.8 plants per sq. meter, and 25 kg sq. meter after 12 months space at 3 plants sq. meter. Because of the heavy fruit load a support system for the plants was required. Small fruit size can be achieved by growing plants at high densities. Fruit begins to mature with gradual color change from green to yellow and, if harvest it delayed, the fruit stalk will abscise and fruit will drop and bruise. The delicate-skinned fruit is harvested with pruners with a short stalk and handled carefully. In northern climate, ripening begins in November (March planting), and continues until June. During this period new flowers are set (April–September) and the second crop starts to ripen in November, the plant is cut above the last-formed fruit as flowers senesce in October. After the end of the second season, cropping plants can be cut and rejuvenated from the base or replaced with new plants.\n", "Farms with apple orchards open them to the public so consumers can pick their own apples.\n\nCrops ripen at different times of the year according to the cultivar. Cultivar that yield their crop in the summer include 'Gala', 'Golden Supreme', 'McIntosh', 'Transparent', 'Primate', 'Sweet Bough', and 'Duchess'; fall producers include 'Fuji', 'Jonagold', 'Golden Delicious', 'Red Delicious', 'Chenango', 'Gravenstein', 'Wealthy', 'McIntosh', 'Snow', and 'Blenheim'; winter producers include 'Winesap', 'Granny Smith', 'King', 'Wagener', 'Swayzie', 'Greening', and 'Tolman Sweet'.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Storage.\n", "Section::::Season of planting.:Spring and summer planting with stored stock.\n", "Bur oaks primarily grow in a temperate climate, in regions such as (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, etc), where their tree rings are read as one year of growth. This is because the trees grow more in warm wet climates and less in cold dry climates. So, when the season changes so does the amount the tree ring will grow for that year.\n", "Once the seeds to be grown have been chosen, they will require a period of stratification before they will germinate. Stratification is simply the process that imitates the period of dormancy that occurs during the winter after viable seed is produced by a mature tree. Although this can be accomplished by refrigerating moist seeds from 30 to 90 days, most commercial nurseries in the northern United States sow the seeds directly into seed beds in the late fall to allow the seeds to stratify naturally over the winter. This method typically results in a higher percentage of germination than artificially reproduced stratification.\n", "Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit. Traditionally, this has consisted of a division between \"June-bearing\" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and \"ever-bearing\" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season. One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days.\n", "Flowering time varies. Typically \"C. miniata\", \"C. nobilis\" and \"C. caulescens\" flower in late winter and spring; in cultivation, \"C. miniata\" has out of season flowers at almost any time. \"C. gardenii\" and \"C. robusta\" flower in the autumn. Interspecific hybrids and cultivars can flower at almost any time of the year depending on climate and the flowering pattern of their parent species.\n", "The weather, as with other agricultural endeavors, plays a key outcome in the yield of a Christmas tree farm. Severe cold in the winter and extreme hot and dry conditions during and after harvest can cause irreparable damage to the crop. Early snow can make both harvesting and shipping trees difficult or impossible.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Labor and equipment.\n", "BULLET::::- Flowers: male and female flowers are produced on the same inflorescence, averaging 20 male flowers to each female flower, or 10 male flowers to each female flower. The inflorescence can be formed in the leaf axil. Plants occasionally present hermaphroditic flowers.\n\nBULLET::::- Fruits : fruits are produced in winter, or there may be several crops during the year if soil moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. Most fruit production is concentrated from midsummer to late fall with variations in production peaks where some plants have two or three harvests and some produce continuously through the season.\n", "We cannot bid the fruits come in May, nor the leaves to stick on in December. There are of them that will give, that will do justice, that will pardon, but they have their own seasons for all these, and he that knows not them, shall starve before that gift come. Reward is the season of one man, and importunity of another; fear is the season of one man, and favour of another; friendship the season of one man, and natural affection of another; and he that knows not their seasons, nor cannot stay them, must lose the fruits.\n", "Summer and autumn cultivars of \"Pyrus communis\", being climacteric fruits, are gathered before they are fully ripe, while they are still green, but snap off when lifted. In the case of the 'Passe Crassane', long the favored winter pear in France, the crop is traditionally gathered at three different times: the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. The first gathering will come into eating last, and thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Research published in 2001 showed that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These refer to the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of photoperiod that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.\n" ]

[ "Trees planted at different times will have different fruiting seasons." ]

[ "Daylight hours and weather determine when a tree's fruiting season will be." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Trees planted at different times will have different fruiting seasons." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Daylight hours and weather determine when a tree's fruiting season will be." ]

[ "Further to this recognition of nestmates, \"Polistes biglumis\" foundresses discriminate between 'alien' eggs and their own via differential oophagy.\n\nThe mechanism of differentiation is not elucidated, but is thought to be based upon differences in cuticular hydrocarbon odor. \n\nSection::::Species.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes actaeon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes adelphus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes adustus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes affinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes africanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes albicinctus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes albocalcaratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes angulinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes angusticlypeus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes annularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes apachus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes apicalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes aquilinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes arizonensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes arthuri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes assamensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes associus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes asterope\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes aterrimus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes atrimandibularis\"\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In culture.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.:Facehugger.\n\nA facehugger is the second stage in the Alien's life cycle. It has eight long finger-like legs which allow it to crawl rapidly, and a long tail adapted for making great leaps. These particular appendages give it an appearance somewhat comparable to chelicerate arthropods such as arachnids and horseshoe crabs.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Genetics.\n", "Appears in:\n\nSection::::Morphs in the film series.:Planet 4/Protomorph Alien.\n", "Classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly familiar in genetics laboratories (\"Drosophila melanogaster\"), humans (\"Homo sapiens\"), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics (\"Pisum sativum\"), the \"fly agaric\" mushroom \"Amanita muscaria\", and the bacterium \"Escherichia coli\". The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well.\n\nBULLET::::- Table notes:\n", "The \"Cockroach Species File\" includes lists the following (subfamilies marked § are complete list as of end 2017):\n\nBULLET::::- Anaplectinae § Walker, 1868 – all tropical continents\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anaplecta\" Burmeister, 1838\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maraca\" Hebard, 1926\n\nBULLET::::- Attaphilinae §– south America\n\nBULLET::::- \"Attaphila\" Wheeler, 1900\n\nBULLET::::- Blattellinae Karny, 1908 – worldwide\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blattella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ischnoptera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lobopterella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parcoblatta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pseudomops\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saltoblattella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Symploce\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Temnopteryx\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ectobiinae § Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1865 – Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arbiblatta\" Chopard, 1936\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capraiellus\" Harz, 1976\n\nBULLET::::- \"Choristima\" Tepper, 1895\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ectobius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ectoneura\" Shelford, 1907\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luridiblatta\" Fernandes, 1965\n", "Section::::Monsters.:Dr. Cockroach Ph.D.\n\nDr. Cockroach Ph.D (Hugh Laurie in the film, \"B.O.B.'s Big Break\" and \"\", James Horan in \"Night of the Living Carrots\" and video game, and Chris O'Dowd in the TV series) is a brilliant but mad scientist who built a pod-like invention to give humans the survival abilities of a cockroach, experimenting on himself, and now has a giant cockroach's head, the ability to climb up walls, and high resistance to physical damage. He has a tendency to eat garbage and laugh maniacally. He is based on The Fly.\n\nSection::::Monsters.:The Missing Link.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.:Queen.\n", "Individual American cockroaches appear to have consistently different \"personalities\" regarding how they seek shelter. In addition, group personality is not simply the sum of individual choices, but reflects conformity and collective decision-making.\n\nThe gregarious German and American cockroaches have elaborate social structure, chemical signalling, and \"social herd\" characteristics. Lihoreau and his fellow researchers stated:\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Sounds.\n", "List of Alien morphs in the Alien franchise\n\nThe \"Alien\" franchise features several morphs of the Alien creature, which includes various different castes, hybrids, mutants, and genetically engineered forms.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tell you about cockroaches,\" said Clint with intense enthusiasm, leaning forward with a finger pointed. \"Now! The place I live in has a lot of cockroaches, but I don't have trouble with them, understand, I'm on the best terms with them. Tell you how I do this. Some years ago I sat down and thought about the whole matter: I said to myself, cockroaches are human too, just as much as us human beings. Reason for that is this: I've watched them long enough to realize their sense of discretion, their feelings, their emotions, their thoughts, see. But you laugh. You think I'm talking through my hat. You doubt my word. Wait! Wait!\"—Book 4, Chapter 5\n", "P. surinamensis has at least 21 diploid clones, born independently from sexual females, meaning the thelytokous parthenogenesis has evolved repeatedly. There are also 11 known triploid clones, produced by backcrosses between clones and \"P. indicus\". Different clones have established populations throughout the species' range, with at least ten different clone populations present in the United States alone.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In traditional and homeopathic medicine.\n\nIn China, cockroaches are raised in large quantities for medicinal purposes.\n\nTwo species of cockroach were used in homeopathic medicine in the 19th century.\n\nSection::::Relationship with humans.:Conservation.\n", "BULLET::::- Toxic gas roaches - These cockroaches have green gas masks that protect them from the toxic slime. In level 8, the gas they leave behind explodes if ignited by fire ants or buddy bugs, so they may die without Rollie having to fight them.\n\nBULLET::::- Ghost ants - If you kill a spear throwing ant in level 9, he will rise again as a ghost ant. He cannot be kicked but he will die if he is in lava or water. If you hide for a while, he will dissipate.\n", "Addressing the diversity of life on Earth, Dobzhansky asks whether God was joking when he created different species for different environments. This diversity becomes reasonable and understandable, however, if Creation takes place not by the whim of the Creator \"but by evolution propelled by natural selection.\" He further illustrates this diversity from his own investigation of the widely diverse range of species of fruit flies in Hawaii. Either the Creator, \"in a fit of absent mindedness,\" created many species of fruit flies in Hawaii, or the fruit flies that arrived on the islands, diversified to fill a wide range of vacant ecological niches.\n", "BULLET::::- Transferiendo Curachas (Transferring Cockroaches): In two minutes using their mouths, Participantes must transfer cockroaches from one container filled with maggots atop one barrel to an empty container on another barrel. Spitting and shaking the barrels are not allowed, but biting is, although potentially causing to kill a cockroach in the process. The woman and two men with the least live cockroaches gathered will compete in the third stunt. Dead and swallowed cockroaches do not count.\n", "Once the Alien embryo is safely implanted, the facehugger detaches and dies.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:As pests.\n", "Insect biodiversity\n\nInsect biodiversity accounts for a large proportion of all biodiversity on the planet—over half of the estimated 1.5 million organism species described are classified as insects.\n\nSection::::Species diversity.\n\nEstimates of the total number of insect species or those within specific orders are often highly variable. Globally, averages of these predictions estimate there are around 1.5 million beetle species and 5.5 million insect species with around 1 million insect species currently found and described.\n", "Evidence for natural selection driving improvements in information processing is given throughout, including the case of the bombardier beetle, an insect that developed the ability to spray its attackers with harsh chemicals. This, in turn, favored predators via natural selection who had techniques to avoid the spray. As Wright puts it, \"complexity breeds complexity.\" This is the often referred to evolutionary phenomenon of the \"arms race,\" wherein competing organisms stack up their developments in competition with one another.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Beginnings.\n", "Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world. These include dandelions, raccoons, owls, pigs, cattle, rats, snakes, and crows to name but a few. In the human-infested ecosystem, those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered. Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats, a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents, and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage. The story's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows.\n", "When the Earth is made, organisms have been formed by matter. A blue shape was made from small pieces. It has floated in the water and comes up against three small forms of cockroach. The blue form pursues them and they evolve into animals and rise towards the ocean. Now the center has started now.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Oggy Magnon.\n", "BULLET::::- Humans did not evolve from either of the living species of chimpanzees (common chimpanzees and bonobos). Humans and chimpanzees did, however, evolve from a \"common ancestor\". The most recent common ancestor of humans and the other living chimpanzees lived between 5 and 8 million years ago.\n\nBULLET::::- Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. A population can evolve to become simpler, having a smaller genome, but biological \"devolution\" is a misnomer.\n" ]

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[ "If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of the major 3000-meter summits of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of California fourteeners\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain ranges of California\n", "If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of the major 4000-meter summits of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of California fourteeners\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain ranges of California\n", "It is very unlikely that all the heights given are correct to the nearest meter; indeed, problems of definition of sea level can arise when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many meters, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in Wikipedia. Many mountains in the Karakorum differ by over 100 metres on different maps. These discrepancies serve to emphasise the uncertainties in the listed heights.\n\nSection::::Geographical distribution.\n", "List of Hewitt mountains in England, Wales and Ireland\n\nThis is a list of Hewitt mountains in England, Wales and Ireland by height. Hewitts are defined as Hills in England, Wales and Ireland over two thousand feet in height, the general requirement to be called a \"mountain\" in the British Isles, and with a prominence above ; a mix of imperial and metric thresholds.\n", "The following graph ranks the countries by number of mountain peaks over 7,200 metres (23,622 ft) above sea level. Note that 38 peaks are on \"de facto\" borders and two (Jongsong Peak and Sia Kangri) are on tripoints.\n\nSection::::Data plots.:Stem and leaf plot.\n", "Section::::History.:First comparative charts.\n\nIn the 1810s the first formal comparative mountains charts emerged. Early examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Smith's \"Comparative View of the Heights of the Principal Mountains &c. In The World,\" published in London in 1816\n\nBULLET::::- John Thomson's \"A Comparative View of the Heights of the Principal Mountains and other Elevations in the World.\" published in the 1817 edition of Thomson's \"New General Atlas.\"\n", "All elevations in this article include an elevation adjustment from the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). For further information, please see this United States National Geodetic Survey note. If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n", "Section::::Stations worldwide.:United Kingdom.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, trig points are typically concrete pillars and were erected by the Ordnance Survey.\n", "List of Nuttall mountains in England and Wales\n\nThis is a list of Nuttall mountains in England and Wales by height. Nuttalls are defined as peaks above in height, the general requirement to be called a \"mountain\" in the British Isles, and with a prominence above ; a mix of imperial and metric thresholds.\n", "List of the major 4000-meter summits of the United States\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 104 mountain peaks of the United States with at least of topographic elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "BULLET::::- If the highest point in a state, county, etc. is located along a boundary, they must be visited. The highest summit \"within\" an area, being lower, does not count under such circumstances. The most prominent example of this is found in the state of Connecticut, where the highest point is on the slope of a mountain whose summit is actually in Massachusetts.\n\nSection::::State highpoints.\n", "The height of a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby benchmarks in a network extending from a \"fundamental benchmark\". A fundamental benchmark is a point with a precisely known relationship to the vertical datum of the area, typically mean sea level. The position and height of each benchmark is shown on large-scale maps.\n", "BULLET::::- if at least 80% of their territory is situated above ≥ 600 m above sea level, and/or\n\nBULLET::::- if they have an altitudinal difference of 600 m (or more) within their administrative boundaries.\n\nThe United Nations Environmental Programme has produced a map of mountain areas worldwide using a combination of criteria, including regions with\n\nBULLET::::- elevations from 300 to 1000 m and local elevation range a href=\"Greater-than%20sign\"»/a 300 m;\n\nBULLET::::- elevations from 1000 to 1500 m and slope ≥ 5° or local elevation range 300 m;\n\nBULLET::::- elevations from 1500 to 2500 m and slope ≥ 2°;\n", "To measure an unknown slope, the surveyor first sights a target along that slope and then adjusts the angle of the level until the bubble is centered on the cross-hair. Once this is done, the slope may be read from the scale.\n", "It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as to , but appears to be only to . Some mountains differ by on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from to . These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights.\n", "Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails driven into the ground to large beacons that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can set up their instruments on this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall, distinctive feature such as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point that angles can be measured against.\n", "All elevations use the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88), the currently accepted vertical control datum for United States, Canada and Mexico. Elevations are from the National Geodetic Survey when available. Others are from the United States Geological Survey topographic maps when available. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) were interpolated using topographic map contour lines. The true elevation is between that shown and the elevation plus forty feet since the relevant topographic maps all use 40-foot contours.\n", "Section::::Survey operation.\n\nAfter careful setup of the level, the height of the cross hairs is determined by either sighting from a known benchmark with known height determined by a previous survey or an arbitrary point with an assumed height is used.\n", "Mountain peaks of the Wicklow Mountains\n\nThis article comprises a sortable table of major mountain peaks of the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland. This article defines a major mountain peak as a summit with a topographic elevation of at least . Topographic elevation is defined as the vertical distance above the reference geoid, a precise mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface.\n", "Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma, USA, is only from its base to its highest point. Whittow's \"Dictionary of Physical Geography\" states \"\"Some authorities regard eminences above as mountains, those below being referred to as hills.\"\"\n", "Section::::Finding the mountain.\n\nSection::::Finding the mountain.:Chimborazo, 1738.\n", "Modern height surveys also vary, but not by the huge margins seen in the past. A 1993 survey by a scientific party that arrived at the peak's summit with of electronic equipment reported a height of , claimed to be accurate to within .\n\nMany modern sources likewise list as the height.\n\nHowever, numerous others place the peak's height one foot lower, at . Finally, a height of has also been reported.\n\nSection::::Glaciers.\n\nMount Hood is host to 12\n", "List of extreme summits of Mexico\n\nThis article comprises four sortable tables of mountain summits of Mexico that are the higher than any other point north or south of their latitude or east or west their longitude in Mexico.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "List of Graham mountains in Scotland\n\nThis is a list of Graham mountains in Scotland by height. Grahams are defined as Scottish mountains between in height, the general requirement to be called a \"mountain\" in the British Isles, and with a prominence above ; a mix of imperial and metric thresholds. \n", "A few highpointers also ascend Fort Reno Park, the highest point in Washington, D.C., and/or Cerro de Punta, the highest mountain in Puerto Rico. A very few also climb the highpoints of various U.S. territories like Guam.\n\nElevations range from 20,320' on Alaska's Denali to 350' on Florida's Britton Hill. See List of U.S. states by elevation for more information.\n" ]

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[ "Following sporting activity the person with athletic pubalgia will be stiff and sore. The day after a match, getting out of bed or a car will be difficult. Any exertion that increases intra-abdominal pressure, such as coughing, sneezing, or sporting activity can cause pain. In the early stages, the person may be able to continue playing their sport, but the problem usually gets progressively worse.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular infarction: Testicular damage occurs as a consequence of decreased blood flow, and therefore decreased oxygen and nutrient supply, to the testicle. If the testicle is not viable during surgical exploration, it must be removed to prevent further necrosis, or tissue death.\n", "BULLET::::- The testicles are well known to be very sensitive to impact and injury. The pain involved travels up from each testicle into the abdominal cavity, via the spermatic plexus, which is the primary nerve of each testicle. This will cause pain in the hip and the back. The pain usually goes away in a few minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular torsion is a medical emergency.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular rupture is a medical emergency caused by blunt force impact, sharp edge, or piercing impact to one or both testicles, which can lead to necrosis of the testis in as little as 30 minutes.\n", "BULLET::::- abnormal insertion of the rectus abdominis muscle\n\nBULLET::::- tear of the abdominal internal oblique muscle from the pubic tubercle\n\nBULLET::::- entrapment of the ilioinguinal nerve or genitofemoral nerve\n\nSeveral of these lesions may occur simultaneously. Also, many athletes have concomitant weakness or tearing of the adductor muscles or labral tears of the hip.\n\nWhen the adductor muscles are tight post injury, that can be enough to trigger symptoms.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nConservative therapies (gentle stretching and a short period of rest) may temporarily alleviate the pain, but definitive treatment consists of surgical repair followed by a structured rehabilitation.\n", "Evaluation and treatment can be very challenging in this patient population. Exam and imaging to exclude occult recurrence is important. Following that, use of antiinflammatories, nerve blocks, neuromodulators, and pain clinic referrals should be considered. Unless there is evidence of a recurrence, operative intervention should be deferred for at least 1 year since groin pain decreases with time elapsed from surgery.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Triple neurectomy and/or mesh removal.\n", "The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n", "Chronic scrotal pain (pain for greater than 3 months) may occur due to a number of underlying conditions. It occurs in 15-19% of men post vasectomy, due to infections such as epididymitis, prostatitis, and orchitis, as well as varicocele, hydrocele, spermatocele, polyarteritis nodosa, testicular torsion, previous surgery and trauma. In 25% of cases the cause is never determined. The pain can persist for a long and indefinite period of time following the vasectomy, in which case it is termed post-vasectomy pain syndrome (PVPS).\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.\n", "If diagnosis remains unclear after history, examination, and basic investigations as above, then more advanced investigations may reveal a diagnosis. Such tests include:\n\nBULLET::::- Computed tomography of the abdomen/pelvis\n\nBULLET::::- Abdominal or pelvic ultrasound\n\nBULLET::::- Endoscopy and/or colonoscopy\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Chronic groin pain is more common than recurrence, and it may be lower following laparoscopic hernia repair. Pain often resolves with conservative measures. Following complete evaluation of patient and attempts at non surgical treatment, surgery may be considered. Various treatment algorithms exist with promising results.\n\nSection::::Incidence.\n", "Useful tests that may help in the determination of the cause include a urinalysis (usually normal in testicular torsion). Pyuria and bacteriuria (white blood cells and bacteria in the urine) in patients with acute scrotum suggests an infectious cause such as epididymitis or orchitis and specific testing for gonorrhea and chlamydia should be done. All people with chronic pain should be tested for gonorrhea and chlamydia.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic approach.:Imaging.\n", "There is a noticeable enlargement of the epididymides in vasectomized men. This is probably due to increased backpressure within the vas deferens on the testicular side following its blockage by vasectomy. The efferent ducts and seminiferous tubules of the testes are also affected by backpressure, leading to an increase in area and thickness. Backpressure from blockage of the vas deferens causes a rupture in the epididymis, called an \"epididymal blowout\", in 50% of vasectomy patients. Sperm sometimes leak from the vas deferens of vasectomized men, forming lesions in the scrotum known as sperm granulomas. Some sperm granulomas can be painful. The presence of a sperm granuloma at the vasectomy site prevents epididymal pressure build-up, perforation, and the formation of an epididymal sperm granuloma. It thus lessens the likelihood of epididymal discomfort.\n", "One author describes the syndromes of chronic testicular pain thus:\"The complaint is of a squeezing deep ache in the testis like the day after you got kicked there, often bilateral or alternating from one side to the other, intermittent, and, most commonly, associated with lower back pain. Sometimes it feels like the testicle is pinched in the crotch of the underwear but trouser readjustment does not help. There may also be pain in the inguinal area but no nausea or other symptoms. Back pain may be concurrent or absent and some patients have a long history of low back pain. Onset of pain is commonly related to activity that would stress the low back such as lifting heavy objects. Other stresses that might cause low back pain are imaginative coital positions, jogging, sitting hunched over a computer, long car driving, or other such positions of unsupported seating posture that flattens the normal lumbar lordosis curve.\"\n", "Diagnosis of mittelschmerz is generally made if a woman is mid-cycle and a pelvic examination shows no abnormalities. If the pain is prolonged and/or severe, other diagnostic procedures such as an abdominal ultrasound may be performed to rule out other causes of abdominal pain.\n\nThe pain of mittelschmerz is sometimes mistaken for appendicitis and is one of the differential diagnoses for appendicitis in women of child-bearing age.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "As pain in the groin and pelvis can be referred from a number of problems, including injuries to the lumbar spine, the hip joint, the sacro-iliac joint, the abdomen, and the genito-urinary system, diagnosis of athletic pubalgia requires skillful differentiation and pubic examination in certain cases where there is intense groin pain.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Pain or tenderness to palpation usually occurs on the sides of the sternum, affects multiple ribs, and is often worsened with coughing, deep breathing, or physical activity. On physical examination, a physician inspects and feels the patient for swollen or tender areas, and can often produce the pain of costochondritis by moving the patient's rib cage or arms.\n", "One study using ultrasound found that the epididymides of patients suffering from post-vasectomy pain syndrome were enlarged and full of cystic growths.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment depends on the proximate cause. In one study, it was reported that 9 of 13 men who underwent vasectomy reversal in an attempt to relieve post-vasectomy pain syndrome became pain-free, though the followup was only one month in some cases. Another study found that 24 of 32 men had relief after vasectomy reversal.\n", "Symptoms include pain during sports movements, particularly hip extension, and twisting and turning. This pain usually radiates to the adductor muscle region and even the testicles, although it is often difficult for the patient to pin-point the exact location.\n", "BULLET::::- Recurrence of torsion may occur even after surgical fixation, although this is very unlikely.\n\nBULLET::::- Psychological impact of losing a testicle.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nMost of those affected with testicular torsion have no prior underlying health problems or predisposing conditions. However, there are certain factors that may increase risk of testicular torsion. A larger testicle either due to normal variation or testicular tumor increases the risk of torsion. Similarly, the presence of a mass or malignancy involving the spermatic cord can also predispose to torsion.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe symptoms of osteitis pubis can include loss of flexibility in the groin region, dull aching pain in the groin, or in more severe cases, a sharp stabbing pain when running, kicking, changing directions, or even during routine activities such as standing up or getting out of a car. Tenderness on palpation is also commonly present in the adductor longus origin.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnancy/childbirth\n\nBULLET::::- Gynecologic surgery\n\nBULLET::::- Urologic surgery\n\nBULLET::::- Athletic activities (e.g. running, football, American football, ice hockey, tennis)\n\nBULLET::::- Major trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Repeated minor trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Rheumatological disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Unknown cause\n", "For CP/CPPS patients, analysis of urine and expressed prostatic secretions for leukocytes is debatable, especially due to the fact that the differentiation between patients with inflammatory and non-inflammatory subgroups of CP/CPPS is not useful. Serum PSA tests, routine imaging of the prostate, and tests for Chlamydia trachomatis and Ureaplasma provide no benefit for the patient.\n\nExtraprostatic abdominal/pelvic tenderness is present in 50% of patients with chronic pelvic pain syndrome but only 7% of controls.\n", "Treatment is by physically untwisting the testicle, if possible, followed by surgery. Pain can be treated with opioids. Outcome depends on time to correction. If successfully treated within six hours onset, it is often good, however, if delayed for 12 or more hours the testicle is typically not salvageable. About 40% of people require removal of the testicle.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nBULLET::::- Pain, swelling, redness over the lacrimal sac at medial canthus\n\nBULLET::::- Tearing, crusting, fever\n\nBULLET::::- Digital pressure over the lacrimal sac may extrude pus through the punctum\n\nBULLET::::- In chronic cases, tearing may be the only symptom\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used to treat PFPS, however there is only very limited evidence that they are effective. NSAIDs may reduce pain in the short term, overall however, after three months pain is not improved. There is no evidence that one type of NSAID is superior to another in PFPS, and therefore some authors have recommended that the NSAID with fewest side effects and which is cheapest should be used.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Medication.\n\nA number of medications can be used. Alpha blockers or antibiotics appear to be the most effective, with NSAIDs such as ibuprofen providing lesser benefit.\n", "Household remedies such as elevation of the scrotum and cold compresses applied regularly to the scrotum may relieve the pain in acute cases. Painkillers or anti-inflammatory drugs are often used for treatment of both chronic and acute forms. Hospitalisation is indicated for severe cases, and check-ups can ensure the infection has cleared up. Surgical removal of the epididymis is rarely necessary, causes sterility, and only gives relief from pain in approximately 50% of cases. However, in acute suppurating epididymitis (acute epididymitis with a discharge of pus), a epididymotomy may be recommended; in refractory cases, a full epididymectomy may be required. In cases with unrelenting testicular pain, removal of the entire testicle—orchiectomy—may also be warranted.\n" ]

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[]

[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Antecedent moisture conditions are highly affected by preceding rainfall levels. However, preceding rainfall is not the only condition that affects antecedent moisture, and many other variables in the hydrologic process can have a significant impact. For example, air temperature, wind speed, and humidity levels affect evaporation rates, which can significantly change antecedent moisture conditions. Additional effects may include evapotranspiration, presence or absence of tree canopy, and snow and ice melting effects.\n\nSection::::Traditional analysis approaches.\n", "The characteristics of United States rainfall climatology differ significantly across the United States and those under United States sovereignty. Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring Hawaii and the western United States most of their precipitation. Nor'easters moving down the East coast bring cold season precipitation to the Carolinas, Mid-Atlantic and New England states. Lake-effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes, as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season. The snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States averages 13:1, meaning of snow melts down to of water.\n", "Juneau averages over of precipitation a year, while other areas in southeast Alaska receive over . South central Alaska does not get nearly as much rain as the southeast of Alaska, though it does get more snow. On average, Anchorage receives of precipitation a year, with around of snow. The northern coast of the Gulf of Alaska receives up to of precipitation annually. Across western sections of the state, the northern side of the Seward Peninsula is a desert with less than of precipitation annually, while some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around of precipitation. Inland, often less than falls a year, but what precipitation falls during the winter tends to stay throughout the season. La Niña events lead to drier than normal conditions, while El Niño events do not have a correlation towards dry or wet conditions. Precipitation increases by 10 to 40 percent when the Pacific decadal oscillation is positive.\n", "The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed \"ocean-effect\" or \"bay-effect snow\". The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores. This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation, which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour, often resulting in a large amount of total snowfall.\n", "Section::::West.:Lake-effect snow off Great Salt Lake.\n", "Similar snowfall can occur near large inland bays, where it is known as bay-effect snow. Bay-effect snows fall downwind of Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and Massachusetts Bay when the basic criteria are met, and on rarer occasions along Long Island.\n\nThe Finger Lakes of New York are long enough for lake-effect precipitation.\n\nThe Texas twin cities of Sherman and Denison are known, in rare instances, to have experienced lake-effect snow from nearby Lake Texoma due to the lake's size (it is the third-largest lake in Texas or along its borders).\n", "On one occasion in December 2016, lake effect snow fell in central Mississippi from a lake band off Ross Barnett Reservoir.\n\nOklahoma City even saw a band of lake effect snow off of Lake Hefner in February 2018.\n\nThe Truckee Meadows and other parts of Northern Nevada which are normally in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada can, when conditions are right, have severe snowfall as a result of lake effect from Lake Tahoe. Recent severe examples of this phenomenon have occurred as recently as 2004, dumping several feet of snow in the normally dry region.\n", "Snowfall amounts with these systems tend to be small (on the order of 1–3 inches or 2.5–7.5 cm), as the relative lack of moisture and quick movement inhibit substantial snowfall totals. However, several factors could combine to produce higher snow accumulations (6 inches/15 cm or more). These factors include access to more moisture (which raises precipitation amounts), slower system movement (which increases snowfall duration), and colder temperatures (which increases the snow to water ratio). The southern and eastern shores of the Great Lakes often receive enhanced snowfall from Alberta clippers during the winter, due to lake enhancement. The lake-effect snow can add substantially to the overall snowfall total.\n", "Section::::Northeast.\n\n Average precipitation across the region show maxima along the coastal plain and along the mountains of the Appalachians. Between and of precipitation falls annually across the area. Seasonally, there are slight changes to precipitation distribution through the year. For example, Burlington, Vermont has a summer maximum and a winter minimum. In contrast, Portland, Maine has a fall and winter maximum, with a summer minimum in precipitation. Temporally, a maximum in precipitation is seen around three peak times: 3 a.m., 10 a.m., and 6 p.m. During the summer, the 6 p.m. peak is most pronounced.\n\nSection::::Northeast.:Cold season.\n", "Snowfall is rare in Fair Oaks, which is only above sea level. During especially cold winter and spring storms, intense showers do occasionally produce a significant amount of hail, which can create hazardous driving conditions. Snowfall that does fall often melts upon ground contact, with traceable amounts occurring in some years. On average, there are 73 days where the high exceeds , and 14 days where the high exceeds ; On the other extreme, there are 15 days where the temperature does not exceed , and 15 freezing nights per year.\n", "Another significant (but localized) weather effect is lake-effect snow that falls south and east of the Great Lakes, especially in the hilly portions of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and on the Tug Hill Plateau in New York. The lake effect dumped well over of snow in the area of Buffalo, New York throughout the 2006-2007 winter. The Wasatch Front and Wasatch Range in Utah can also receive significant lake effect accumulations from the Great Salt Lake.\n\nSection::::Climate.:Extremes.\n", "The West Coast occasionally experiences ocean-effect showers, usually in the form of rain at lower elevations south of about the mouth of the Columbia River. These occur whenever an Arctic air mass from western Canada is drawn westward out over the Pacific Ocean, typically by way of the Fraser Valley, returning shoreward around a center of low pressure. Cold air flowing southwest from the Fraser Valley can also pick up moisture over the Strait of Georgia and Strait of Juan de Fuca, then rise over the northeastern slopes of the Olympic Mountains, producing heavy, localized snow between Port Angeles and Sequim, as well as areas in Kitsap County and the Puget Sound region.\n", "In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Within the tropics.\n", "On average, annual precipitation is , with 75 days of measurable precipitation annually. The wettest calendar year has been 1897 with and the driest 1974 with , though as much as fell from July 1982 to June 1983. The most precipitation in one month was in April 1900, and the most in 24 hours was on September 26, 1982. Average annual snowfall is , while the most snowfall in one month was in March 1894, and the greatest depth of snow on the ground on January 23, 2010 – though data from neighbouring Elko suggest greater depths in the winters of 1889/1890, 1915/1916 and 1931/1932. An average winter will see a maximum snow cover of , though the severe winter of 1951/1952 had fifty days with snow cover over . The most snowfall in a season has been from July 2010 to June 2011 and the least from July 1950 to June 1951.\n", "Orographic or relief snowfall is caused when masses of air pushed by wind are forced up the side of elevated land formations, such as large mountains. The lifting of air up the side of a mountain or range results in adiabatic cooling, and ultimately condensation and precipitation. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier, warmer air on the descending, leeward side. The resulting enhanced productivity of snow fall and the decrease in temperature with elevation means that snow depth and seasonal persistence of snowpack increases with elevation in snow-prone areas.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.:Cloud physics.\n", "Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. Nor'easters moving up the East coast bring cold season precipitation to the Mid-Atlantic and New England states. During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains. Tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the country, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.\n", "Coastal extratropical cyclones, known as nor'easters, bring a bulk of the wintry precipitation to the region during the cold season as they track parallel to the coastline, forming along the natural temperature gradient of the Gulf stream before moving up the coastline. The Appalachian Mountains largely shield New York City and Philadelphia from picking up any lake-effect snow, though ocean-effect snows are possible near Cape Cod. The Finger Lakes of New York are long enough for lake-effect precipitation. Lake-effect snow from the Finger Lakes occurs in upstate New York until those lakes freeze over. Bay-effect snows fall downwind of Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and Massachusetts Bay when the basic criteria are met. Ocean effect snows are possible downwind of the Gulf Stream across the Southeast.\n", "Precipitation is relatively well spread (though the summer months are slightly wetter), and averages annually, but has historically ranged from in 1925 to in 2018. Snowfall is sporadic, averaging per winter season, but actual seasonal accumulation varies considerably from one winter to the next; accumulation has ranged from trace amounts in 2011–12 to in 1968–69. Freezing rain often occurs, accompanied by significant disruption.\n\nsection begin=\"weather box\" /\n\nSection::::Geography.:Neighborhoods.\n", "Section::::Great Plains.\n", "Mt. Rainier and Mt. Baker in Washington State are the snowiest places in the United States which have weather stations, receiving annually on average. By comparison, the populated place with the highest snowfall in the world is believed to be Sukayu Onsen in the Siberian-facing Japanese Alps. Sukayu Onsen receives (nearly 58 feet) of snow annually. Nearby mountain slopes may receive even more. \n", "The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores. This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation, which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour, often resulting in a large amount of total snowfall.\n", "Snowfall in Oregon is greatest in the Cascade Range. Based on data from ski resorts and a few official weather stations, average annual snowfall in the Cascades can range from . The state's largest annual snowfall on record, , occurred at Crater Lake in the Cascades in 1950. In the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon, snowfall totals can also be large, between . On the other hand, most winter precipitation in the Coast Range falls as rain, though heavy snow sometimes occurs.\n", "Light rains are very frequent in winter, with infrequent rain and heavy thunderstorms in the summer. Snow is an infrequent occurrence, with only a few days of snowfall each year in December, January, and February, however, snowfall can also occur in November or March.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient era.\n", "Accurate climatologies of precipitation amount are more difficult to compile for the Arctic than climatologies of other variables such as temperature and pressure. All variables are measured at relatively few stations in the Arctic, but precipitation observations are made more uncertain due to the difficulty in catching in a gauge all of the snow that falls. Typically some falling snow is kept from entering precipitation gauges by winds, causing an underreporting of precipitation amounts in regions that receive a large fraction of their precipitation as snowfall. Corrections are made to data to account for this uncaught precipitation, but they are not perfect and introduce some error into the climatologies (Serreze and Barry 2005).\n", "BULLET::::- Drifts of 3 to 5 feet were reported in Grand Forks County, near the town of Gilby.\n\nBULLET::::- Officially 7.6 inches of snow at the National Weather Service office in Grand Forks.\n\nSouth Dakota\n\nBULLET::::- Highest snowfall total was 5 inches at Lead, South Dakota located in the Black Hills.\n\nMinnesota\n\nBULLET::::- Highest snowfall was 13.2 inches at Bigfork in northern Minnesota. As much as 11.8 inches at Winona in the southeast part of the state.\n\nBULLET::::- The official Twin Cities snowfall was 9.3 inches at Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport.\n\nIowa\n" ]

[]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "heavy snowfall should lead to a lot of rainfall." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The climate likely causes all the would be rain into snow. " ]

[ "As noted above, the lower part of the spectrum of ultraviolet, called soft UV, from 3 eV to about 10 eV, is non-ionizing. However, the effects of non-ionizing ultraviolet on chemistry and the damage to biological systems exposed to it (including oxidation, mutation, and cancer) are such that even this part of ultraviolet is often compared with ionizing radiation.\n\nSection::::Non-ionizing radiation.:Visible light.\n", "ions when passing through matter, non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state. \"Ionizing radiation\" which has a higher frequency and shorter wavelength than nonionizing radiation, has many uses but can be a health hazard; exposure to it can cause burns, radiation sickness, cancer, and genetic damage. Using ionizing radiation requires elaborate radiological protection measures which in general are not required with nonionizing radiation.\n", "Section::::Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.\n\nSection::::Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.:Near ultraviolet radiation.\n\nUltraviolet light can cause burns to skin\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of interaction with matter, including living tissue.\n", "For example, ultraviolet light, even in the non-ionizing range, can produce free radicals that induce cellular damage, and can be carcinogenic. Photochemistry such as pyrimidine dimer formation in DNA can happen through most of the UV band, including much of the band that is formally non-ionizing. Ultraviolet light induces melanin production from melanocyte cells to cause sun tanning of skin. Vitamin D is produced on the skin by a radical reaction initiated by UV radiation.\n", "Section::::Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.:Radio waves.\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nThe table below shows radiation and dose quantities in SI and non-SI units. The relationships of the ICRP dose quantities are shown in the accompanying diagram.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nIonizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops used X-rays to check a child's shoe size, but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood.\n", "Section::::Ionizing radiation.:Ultraviolet radiation.\n\nUltraviolet, of wavelengths from 10 nm to 125 nm, ionizes air molecules, causing it to be strongly absorbed by air and by ozone (O) in particular. Ionizing UV therefore does not penetrate Earth's atmosphere to a significant degree, and is sometimes referred to as vacuum ultraviolet. Although present in space, this part of the UV spectrum is not of biological importance, because it does not reach living organisms on Earth.\n", "The global average exposure of humans to ionizing radiation is about 3 mSv (0.3 rem) per year, 80% of which comes from nature. The remaining 20% results from exposure to man-made radiation sources, primarily from medical imaging. Average man-made exposure is much higher in developed countries, mostly due to CT scans and nuclear medicine.\n\nNatural background radiation comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, and radon.\n", "Near ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwave, radio waves, and low-frequency radio frequency (longwave) are all examples of non-ionizing radiation. By contrast, far ultraviolet light, X-rays, gamma-rays, and all particle radiation from radioactive decay are ionizing. Visible and near ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation may induce photochemical reactions, or accelerate radical reactions, such as photochemical aging of varnishes or the breakdown of flavoring compounds in beer to produce the \"lightstruck flavor\". Near ultraviolet radiation, although technically non-ionizing, may still excite and cause photochemical reactions in some molecules. This happens because at ultraviolet photon energies, molecules may become electronically excited or promoted to free-radical form, even without ionization taking place.\n", "Most ionizing radiation originates from radioactive materials and space (cosmic rays), and as such is naturally present in the environment, since most rocks and soil have small concentrations of radioactive materials. Since this radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, instruments such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence. In some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case of Cherenkov radiation and radio-luminescence.\n", "The region at which radiation becomes considered as \"ionizing\" is not well defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at different energies. The usual definitions have suggested that radiation with particle or photon energies less than 10 electronvolts (eV) be considered non-ionizing. Another suggested threshold is 33 electronvolts, which is the energy needed to ionize water molecules. The light from the Sun that reaches the earth is largely composed of non-ionizing radiation, since the ionizing far-ultraviolet rays have been filtered out by the gases in the atmosphere, particularly oxygen. The remaining ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes molecular damage (for example, sunburn) by photochemical and free-radical-producing means.\n", "The occurrence of ionization depends on the energy of the individual particles or waves, and not on their number. An intense flood of particles or waves will not cause ionization if these particles or waves do not carry enough energy to be ionizing, unless they raise the temperature of a body to a point high enough to ionize small fractions of atoms or molecules by the process of thermal-ionization (this, however, requires relatively extreme radiation intensities).\n\nSection::::Non-ionizing radiation.:Ultraviolet light.\n", "Section::::Types.:Indirectly ionizing.\n\nIndirect ionizing radiation is electrically neutral and therefore does not interact strongly with matter. The bulk of the ionization effects are due to secondary ionizations.\n\nAn example of indirectly ionizing radiation is neutron radiation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Indirectly ionizing.:Photon radiation.\n", "In radiation protection, radiation is often separated into two categories, \"ionizing\" and \"non-ionizing\", to denote the level of danger posed to humans. Ionization is the process of removing electrons from atoms, leaving two electrically charged particles (an electron and a positively charged ion) behind. The negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions created by ionizing radiation may cause damage in living tissue. Basically, a particle is ionizing if its energy is higher than the ionization energy of a typical substance, i.e., a few eV, and interacts with electrons significantly.\n", "Gamma rays, X-rays, and the higher ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing, whereas the lower ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum and all the spectrum below UV, including visible light (including nearly all types of laser light), infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are considered non-ionizing radiation. The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation that occurs in the ultraviolet is not sharply defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at different energies. Conventional definition places the boundary at a photon energy between 10 eV and 33 eV in the ultraviolet (see definition boundary section below).\n", "Section::::Non-ionizing radiation.\n\nThe kinetic energy of particles of non-ionizing radiation is too small to produce charged ions when passing through matter. For non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation (see types below), the associated particles (photons) have only sufficient energy to change the rotational, vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules and atoms. The effect of non-ionizing forms of radiation on living tissue has only recently been studied. Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.\n", "Section::::Health risks.\n\nNon-ionizing radiation can produce non-mutagenic effects such as inciting thermal energy in biological tissue that can lead to burns. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) from the World Health Organization (WHO) released a statement adding radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.\n\nIn terms of potential biological effects, the non-ionizing portion of the spectrum can be subdivided into:\n\nBULLET::::1. The optical radiation portion, where electron excitation can occur (visible light, infrared light)\n", "This is a reference to the fact that very low doses of radiation have only marginal impacts on individual health outcomes. It is therefore difficult to detect the 'signal' of decreased or increased morbidity and mortality due to low-level radiation exposure in the 'noise' of other effects. The notion of radiation hormesis has been rejected by the National Research Council's (part of the National Academy of Sciences) 16-year-long study on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. \"The scientific research base shows that there is no threshold of exposure below which low levels of ionizing radiation can be demonstrated to be harmless or beneficial. The health risks – particularly the development of solid cancers in organs – rise proportionally with exposure\" says Richard R. Monson, associate dean for professional education and professor of epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston.\n", "chromosomal aberrations or female infertility.\n\nA 2011 research of the cellular repair mechanisms support the evidence against the linear no-threshold model. According to its authors, this study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \"casts considerable doubt on the general assumption that risk to ionizing radiation is proportional to dose\".\n", "It is shown in research from the 60's and 70's that non-ionizing radiation in the microwave range can provide genotoxic mechanisms in germ cells in animals which are then relayed to the offspring, as well as practical examples have shown that radiation have led to infertility in humans, but little recent research supports this. \n", "Its most common impact is the stochastic induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If this linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease.\n", "In space, high energy ionizing particles exist as part of the natural background, referred to as galactic cosmic rays (GCR). Solar particle events and high energy protons trapped in the Earth's magnetosphere (Van Allen radiation belts) exacerbate this problem. The high energies associated with the phenomenon in the space particle environment generally render increased spacecraft shielding useless in terms of eliminating SEU and catastrophic single event phenomena (e.g. destructive latch-up). Secondary atmospheric neutrons generated by cosmic rays can also have sufficiently high energy for producing SEUs in electronics on aircraft flights over the poles or at high altitude. Trace amounts of radioactive elements in chip packages also lead to SEUs.\n", "Radiation with sufficiently high energy can ionize atoms; that is to say it can knock electrons off atoms, creating ions. Ionization occurs when an electron is stripped (or \"knocked out\") from an electron shell of the atom, which leaves the atom with a net positive charge. Because living cells and, more importantly, the DNA in those cells can be damaged by this ionization, exposure to ionizing radiation is considered to increase the risk of cancer. Thus \"ionizing radiation\" is somewhat artificially separated from particle radiation and electromagnetic radiation, simply due to its great potential for biological damage. While an individual cell is made of trillions of atoms, only a small fraction of those will be ionized at low to moderate radiation powers. The probability of ionizing radiation causing cancer is dependent upon the absorbed dose of the radiation, and is a function of the damaging tendency of the type of radiation (equivalent dose) and the sensitivity of the irradiated organism or tissue (effective dose).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAfter the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896, it was generally believed that atmospheric electricity, ionization of the air, was caused only by radiation from radioactive elements in the ground or the radioactive gases or isotopes of radon they produce. Measurements of increasing ionization rates at increasing heights above the ground during the decade from 1900 to 1910 could be explained as due to absorption of the ionizing radiation by the intervening air.\n\nSection::::History.:Discovery.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Euclid tree: The 16th largest tree in the world. It was identified as being a large tree in 1989 by Wendell Flint. This tree is quite tall at for a Giant Sequoia, as the tops of most of the biggest trees have been damaged, and their heights reduced by lightning strikes.\n\nBULLET::::- Adam tree: The 20th largest tree in the world. It was considered the largest tree in the Mountain Home Grove before Wendell Flint in the 1980s began looking for \"big trees.\"br\n", "Groves in the northern half of the range (north of the Kings River) are widely scattered and mostly small, while those south of the Kings River are more numerous. The total area of all the groves combined is approximately 14,416 ha (35,607 acres). The groves are listed from north to south in the list below.\n", "The native range of coast redwood is from the northern California coast north to the southern Oregon Coast. The tree is closely related to the giant sequoia of central California, and more distantly to the dawn redwood which is indigenous to the Sichuan–Hubei region of China. Coast redwoods are the tallest trees on Earth; as of September 2006, the tallest tree in the park was Hyperion at , followed by Helios and Icarus which were and respectively.\n", "Some of the noteworthy trees in Mountain Home Grove are listed below.\n\nBULLET::::- Genesis tree: The 7th largest tree in the world. It was discovered in 1985, by Wendell Flint, co-author of the book \"To Find the Biggest Tree.\"br\n\nBULLET::::- Summit Road tree: The 15th largest tree in the world is another big tree identified by Wendell Flint.\n", "Though not the oldest redwood in the forest, this large tree is over 950 years old, and is currently around tall, though originally it was much taller. It has survived not only the ravages of time but also the 1964 flood of the area, a 1908 attempt at logging, and a direct lightning strike which removed the top of the tree (making its original height close to 300 ft). It is from its age and the perceived hardiness to the fates that the tree derives its name. Markers are visible on the tree, denoting the heights of where the loggers' axes and the floodwaters struck the tree.\n", "Six trial plots of Coast Redwoods, \"Sequoia sempervirens\", were planted between 1929 and 1936. It was hoped that they would be useful in light construction, durable cladding and roof shingles. It was known by local foresters that growth of this species was slow but individual trees could reach prodigious heights and had the reputation, along with native mountain ash, for being amongst the tallest trees in the world.\n", "The Sierra Nevada are home to half of the vascular plant species of California, with 400 species that are endemic to the region. Like many mountain ranges, the plant communities of the Sierra group into biotic zones by altitude, because of the increasingly harsh climate as elevation increases. These biotic zones include montane forest dominated by conifers such as Jeffrey pine and Lodgepole pine, subalpine forest dominated by whitebark pine, up to alpine tundra which cannot support trees. The Sierra are also notable for giant sequoia trees: the most massive on earth.\n", "Section::::North of the Kings River.\n\nListed North to South\n\nSection::::Kings River watershed.\n\nThe 16 groves in the Kings River watershed are in Kings Canyon National Park, the northern section of Giant Sequoia National Monument, or Sequoia National Forest, in southernmost Fresno County and Tulare County (listed alphabetically):\n\nBULLET::::- Note: GSNM = Giant Sequoia National Monument, KCNP = Kings Canyon National Park, and SNF = Sequoia National Forest\n\nSection::::Kaweah River watershed.\n", "Section::::Flora and fauna.:Southern limit of redwood trees.\n\nThe high coastal mountains trap moisture from the clouds: fog in summer, rain and snow in winter, creating a favorable environment for the coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") trees found in the Big Sur region. They are found near the ocean in canyon bottoms or in inland canyons alongside creeks and in other areas that meet its requirements for cooler temperatures and moisture. Due to drier conditions, trees in the Big Sur region only grow about tall, smaller than specimens found to the north.\n", "Heights of the tallest coast redwoods are measured yearly by experts. Even with recent discoveries of tall coast redwoods above , it is likely that no taller trees will be discovered.\n", "Before the discovery of Hyperion, the tallest redwood ever measured was the Dyerville Giant, also in Humboldt Redwoods State Park. It was high when it fell in March 1991. It was estimated to be 1,600 years old. The Dyerville Giant can be seen on Founders Grove Nature Trail, which honors the creators of Save the Redwoods League. Also in this grove is Founders Tree, which is tall with circumference of .\n\nSection::::Recreation.\n", "Section::::Fire limits growth.\n", "List of giant sequoia groves\n\nThe following is a list of giant sequoia groves. All naturally occurring groves of giant sequoias are located in moist, unglaciated ridges and valleys of the west slope of the Sierra Nevada range in California, United States. They occur between 13702000 meters (4500–6500 ft) elevation in the northern half of the range, and 1700–2250 m (5500–7500 ft) in the south.\n", "The State's tallest and third largest California bay laurel tree (\"Umbellularia californica\"), estimated to be over 200 years old, grows in Rancho San Antonio County Park. When it was protected by fencing and removal of a nearby handball court in 2004, height was 126 feet, trunk circumference was 30 feet, and canopy spread was 118 feet. In 1869, the wood of a California Bay Laurel was used for the “Last Tie” connecting North America's first transcontinental railroad. The tree's leaves are highly aromatic and its small yellow flowers bloom between December and April, important to bees at a time when few other plants are in bloom.\n", "Before September 2006, the tallest living specimen known was the Stratosphere Giant, outside the park in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, which was in 2004. For many years, one specimen simply named Tall Tree in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park and within the RNSP was measured at , but the top of the tree was reported to have died in the 1990s. One tree that fell in 1991 was reported to be . Only the giant sequoia has more mass. The largest redwood by volume is the 42,500 cubic foot (1,205 m³) Lost Monarch, located in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park. Mature Coast redwoods live an average of 500–700 years and a few are documented to be 2,000 years old, making them some of the longest-living organisms on earth. They are highly resistant to disease, due to a thick protective bark and high tannin content. Redwoods prefer sheltered slopes, slightly inland and near water sources such as rivers and streams.\n", "One hundred fifty million years ago ancestors of redwood and sequoia trees grew throughout the United States. Today, the \"Sequoia sempervirens\" can be found only in a narrow, cool coastal belt from Monterey County, California, in the south to Oregon in the north.\n\nBefore the logging industry came to California, there were an estimated 2 million acres (8,000 km) of old growth forest containing redwoods growing in a narrow strip along the coast.\n", "BULLET::::- The Navigation (or Blossom Rock) trees were two especially tall sequoias located in the Oakland Hills used as a navigation aid by sailors to avoid the treacherous Blossom Rock near Yerba Buena Island.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the largest redwood stumps ever found (31 ft. diameter) is in the Oakland Hills in the Roberts Regional Recreation Area section of Redwood Regional Park. Only a single old-growth redwood (the Grandfather) remains from the original forest.\n", "This forest region runs along a thin strip of land for three thousand miles, from Kodiak Island in Alaska to the Santa Cruz Mountains near San Francisco is the Pacific Forest. This forest has the most prodigious growth of conifers unequalled anywhere on earth. A combination of temperature, rainfall, and topography creates conditions favorable for growing the largest living organisms - the inland sequoias and the coast redwoods .\n", "To the East, CA route 168 crosses the White Mountains over Westgard Pass to the basin and range province of Nevada, while Death Valley Road leads to Death Valley. The plaque beneath the young giant sequoia (pictured) at the road junction says it was planted in 1913 to commemorate the opening of Westgaard Pass to auto traffic. North from Westgaard Pass lies the Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest, home to the oldest trees in the world.\n", "Giant sequoias occur naturally in only one place on Earth—the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in California, on moist, unglaciated ridges and valleys at an altitude of above mean sea level. There are 65–75 groves of giant sequoias in the Sierra Nevada, depending upon the criteria used to define a grove. The northernmost of these groves is Placer County Grove in the Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, California, while the southernmost grove is Deer Creek Grove in the Giant Sequoia National Monument, Tulare County, California. The combined total area of all groves of giant sequoias is approximately .\n", "In 1792, the English explorer George Vancouver noted on his expedition through the Santa Clara Valley, after seeing an expanse of valley oaks: \"For about twenty miles it could only be compared to a park which had originally been closely planted with the true old English oak; the underwood, that had probably attended its early growth, had the appearance of having been cleared away and left the stately lords of the forest in complete possession of the soil which was covered with luxuriant foliage.\"\n", "P.H. Shaughnessy, Chief Engineer of the San Francisco Fire Department wrote,\n\nIn the recent great fire of San Francisco, that began April 18th, 1906, we succeeded in finally stopping it in nearly all directions where the unburned buildings were almost entirely of frame construction, and if the exterior finish of these buildings had not been of redwood lumber, I am satisfied that the area of the burned district would have been greatly extended.\n", "In the year 1861, William Henry Brewer, the chief botanist for the first California Geological Survey wrote of the valley oaks that he saw in Monterey County: \"First I passed through a wild canyon, then over hills covered with oats, with here and there trees—oaks and pines. Some of these oaks were noble ones indeed. How I wish one stood in our yard at home...I measured one [valley oak] with wide spreading and cragged branches, that was 26.5 feet in circumference. Another had a diameter of over six feet, and the branches spread over 75 feet each way. I lay beneath its shade a little while before going on.\"\n", "Modern Lidar imagery of the forests is being used to find remaining stands of tall trees. The tallest regrowth mountain ash in Victoria is currently named Artemis which can be found near Beenak at 302 feet (92.1 m) while the Ada Tree at 72 metres (236 feet) is thought to be between 350 and 450 years old, but with a senescent crown and is a popular tourist destination in State forest east of Powelltown. Australia's tallest measured living specimen of mountain ash, named Centurion, stands at 99.6 metres (327.5 feet) in Tasmania.\n", "BULLET::::- Methuselah tree: The 27th largest tree in the world. This Sequoia with a broken top has an unusually large diameter at the base, which rivals that of the better known Boole tree in the Converse Basin Grove.br\n\nBULLET::::- Hercules Tree: Jesse Hoskins in the 1890s carved into the center of this tree a diameter by high room that the public can still enter and enjoy. Despite this room cut into its center, and the top of the tree having been burned by an ancient lightning strike, the Hercules tree is still alive and growing.br\n" ]

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[ "Writing the Initial Plan for PID implies adequate reconsideration of proposed date and detail phases accordingly. Often business stakeholders ask project to be delivered to impossible dates, which requires the highlight of that fact. In that case most of stakeholders are flexible and about to reconsider the launch date or reducing the scope. Relaunching date or reducing the scope need to be supported with justifications, on which stakeholders making a decision of delaying the launch date. The sooner the worker starts building that sort of relationships with stakeholders, the easier will be later on when more pressing concerns regarding scope are raised.\n", "Without timeboxing, projects usually work to a fixed scope, in which case when it becomes clear that some deliverables cannot be completed within the planned timescales, either the deadline has to be extended (to allow more time to complete the fixed scope) or more people are involved (to complete the fixed scope in the same time). Often both happen, resulting in delayed delivery, increased costs, and often reduced quality (as per The Mythical Man-Month principle).\n", "There are no standards for measuring TTM, and measured values can vary greatly. First, there is great variation in how different organizations define the start of the period. For example, in the automotive industry the development period starts when the product concept is approved. Other organizations realize that little will happen until the project is staffed, which can take a long time after approval if developers are tied up on existing projects. Therefore, they consider the start point when the project is fully staffed. The initial part of a project—before approval has been given or full staffing is allocated—has been called the fuzzy front end, and this stage can consume a great deal of time. Even though the fuzzy front end is difficult to measure, it must be included in TTM measurements for effective TTM management.\n", "Street date\n\nIn business, a street date is the date a particular product is to be released for sale to the general public.\n\nTypically, retailers receive shipments of stock prior to its street date release, so that the product can be placed on display shelves for store opening that day. Shipments come marked very clearly with a \"do not sell before release date\" label designating a street date mandated by the distributor. Shipments may sometimes arrive up to three weeks in advance.\n", "Coming Soon\n\nComing Soon may refer to:\n\nSection::::Films.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon\" (1982 film), documentary film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon\" (1999 film), American romantic comedy film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon\" (1999 TV film), three part comedy drama, directed by Annie Griffin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon\" (2008 film), Thai horror film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon\" (2014 film), Turkish film\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- Coming Soon (French band), a French indie band\n\nBULLET::::- Coming Soon (Latvian band), a rock band from Liepaja, Latvia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon\" (song), a track on the 1980 Queen album \"The Game\"\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Soon!!!\", a 2001 novel by John Barth\n", "In October 2014, Marvel held a press event to announce the titles of their Phase Three films. The event, which drew comparisons to Apple's Worldwide Developers Conference, was done because all the information was ready. As Feige explained, \"We wanted to do this at [San Diego] Comic-Con this year. Things were not set ... So the plan has been, since a few weeks before Comic-Con when we realized we weren't going to be able to do everything we wanted to do, is to decide 'let's do either something we haven't done in a long time, or something we've never done.' Which is a singular event, just to announce what we have when it's ready. I thought that might be early August or mid-September, it ended up being [at the end of October].\"\n", "It is only at this stage (of deciding the marketing objectives) that the active part of the marketing planning process begins. This next stage in marketing planning is indeed the key to the whole marketing process.\n\nThe \"marketing objectives\" state just where the company intends to be at some specific time in the future. \n", "Film teasers are usually made for big-budget and popularly themed movies. Their purpose is less to tell the audience about a movie's content than simply to let them know that the movie is coming up in the near future, and to add to the hype of the upcoming release. Teaser trailers are often made while the film is still in production or being edited and as a result they may feature scenes or alternate versions of scenes that are not in the finished film. Often they contain no dialogue and some (notably Pixar films) have scenes made for use in the trailer only. Teaser trailers today are increasingly focused on internet downloading and the fan convention circuit. Some teaser trailers show a quick montage of scenes from the film.\n", "In the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, the standard practice is to display on magazine covers a date which is some weeks or months in the future from the publishing or release date. There are two reasons for this discrepancy: first, to allow magazines to continue appearing \"current\" to consumers even after they have been on sale for some time (since not all magazines will be sold immediately), and second, to inform newsstands when an unsold magazine can be removed from the stands and returned to the publisher or be destroyed (in this case, the cover date is also the pull date).\n", "In some cases a working title may ultimately be used as the official title, as in the case of the films \"Cloverfield\", \"Project X\" (2012), \"High School Musical\", and \"Snakes on a Plane\" (at the insistence of leading man Samuel L. Jackson, who joked that he took the role for the working title alone, after he learned the title was going to be changed to \"Pacific Air Flight 121\" upon release), the television shows \"The Mindy Project\" and \"The Cleveland Show\", and video games \"Quake II\", \"Spore\", \"\" and \"Epic Mickey\".\n", "According to Afolayan, care had to be taken during casting as it is one of the key areas that could make or break a film like \"October 1\". The audition for the film which took place on 6 June 2013 at Golden Effects Studios in Ikeja recorded over 1000 people in attendance.\n", "The process may involve finding a film distributor. A film's marketing may involve the film being shown at a film festival or trade show to attract distributor attention and, if successful, may then be released through a chosen distributor.\n\nSection::::Film.:Delayed release.\n\nA delayed release or late release in the film industry refers to the relatively late release of a film to the public. A release can be postponed due to the sometimes difficult transition of the production or post-production to the sales and distribution phase of the film production cycle. \n", "Desk expediting is also known as telephone expediting. It is an important tool for producing companies to monitor order progress with manufacturers. Especially at milestone of a project, desk expediting can be helpful to check whether the project is still within the agreed schedule. Although desk expediting is a quick and easy way to be informed about the current status of a project, it should always be conducted in combination with field expediting to securely verify the actual status.\n\nSection::::Telephone expediting.\n", "An early example of the teaser trailer was the one for the 1978 \"Superman\" film by Richard Donner. The film was already nearly a year late; it was designed to re-invigorate interest in the release.\n", "Later examples of major motion picture events that used teaser trailers to gain hype are \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogy, the \"Star Wars\" prequels, and the \"Spider-Man\" films. \"The Da Vinci Code\" teaser trailer was released even before a single frame of the movie had been shot. \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\"'s teaser trailer was released surprisingly late, but when it was pushed back from November 21, 2008 to July 17, 2009, the trailer was surprisingly early.\n", "In addition to the editorial process, each type of content has its own creation process that an editorial calendar must accommodate. The steps and effort to conduct, write, and publish an interview are different from those needed to publish an editorial. Understanding the different creation processes involved helps to set realistic dates in an editorial calendar.\n", "In filmmaking and video production, pre-production formally begins once a project has been greenlit. At this stage, finalizing preparations for production go into effect. Financing will generally be confirmed and many of the key elements such as principal cast members, director and cinematographer are set. By the end of pre-production, the screenplay is usually finalized and satisfactory to all the financiers and other stakeholders.\n", "Examples of the former include the film \"Die Hard with a Vengeance\", which was produced under the title \"Die Hard: New York\", and the James Bond films, which are commonly produced under titles such as \"Bond 22\" until an official title is decided upon.\n", "In June 2017, the film's title was changed from \"The Solutrean\" to \"Alpha\". The term Solutrean is derived from Solutré. The film was originally set a release date for September 15, 2017, it was pushed back from its original release date of September 15, 2017 to March 2, 2018. In December 2017, it was again pushed back, this time from March 2, 2018 to September 14, 2018. In April 2018, the release date was moved up from September 14, 2018 to August 17, 2018.\n\nSection::::Home video release.\n", "Worried that \"Star Wars\" would be beaten out by other summer films, such as \"Smokey and the Bandit\", 20th Century Fox moved the release date to May 25, the Wednesday before Memorial Day. However, fewer than 40 theaters ordered the film to be shown. In response, the studio demanded that theaters order \"Star Wars\" if they wanted the eagerly anticipated \"The Other Side of Midnight\" based on the novel by the same name.\n", "A \"Secret Rule\" is announced each year at the same time, placing some extra restriction on films to further ensure adherence to the time constraint. The rules for 2006 and 2007 have been to have a line of dialogue in a language other than English, and to have two characters say a line of dialogue at the same time, respectively.\n\nSection::::Rules.\n\nBULLET::::- All films must be made in the 24-hour period specified.\n\nBULLET::::- All films must be no more than 7 minutes in length.\n", "Daily progress report\n\nA daily progress report is a filmmaking report that is produced at the end of each shooting day by the First Assistant Director (1AD) and passed to the Production Manager for approval.\n\nThe daily progress report contains a record of what scenes were shot that day, the locations used, the number of meals served, the vehicles and equipment utilised and any other notable events or incidents.\n", "Schedule padding\n\nSchedule padding—sometimes called simply padding, or recovery time—is some amount of 'additional' time added to part or all of a schedule, in excess of the expected duration, that allows it to be resilient to anticipated delays and increase the chance that the published schedule will be met. In some cases, excessive padding may be intentionally added to make it unlikely that the schedule won't be met, or to prefabricate an earlier-than-scheduled completion. Padding may have only a temporary positive impact, and many clients perceive this as a deceptive strategy.\n", "About production planning Herrmann (1996) recounts that \"production scheduling started simply also. Schedules, when used at all, listed only when work on an order should begin or when the order is due. They didn't provide any information about how long the total order should take or about the time required for individual operations ...\"\n", "The release date for \"The Losers\" was changed on two occasions; it was originally delayed to June 2010—as it roughly coincided with the release of \"Clash of the Titans\" (2010)—ultimately reverting to an April release. This occurrence was partially attributed to investment purposes as well as to accommodate reshoots for the film—although reshoots were not needed for the film. \"So I think the marketing department decided, 'Let's maybe move to the June date,' but then the April date opened up again and they went back to it. I'm not quite sure how the science of these things work, that's not really my department and I trust the marketing at Warner Bros. to make the best decision for the movie.\"\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Models.:Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory.\n", "Section::::Testing.:In infants.\n", "Section::::Development.\n", "Section::::Semantic vs. episodic.\n", "BULLET::::- In the concept album \"Communications\", the character Nancy Elsner perceives voices as colors, and her song \"Housewife Radio\" revolves around how she can't accept her husband's death because she can still sense the color of his voice playing from her radio.\n\nBULLET::::- In David Baldacci's \"Memory Man\" (Grand Central Publishing 2015, Amos Decker #1/Memory Man Series Book 1), followed by \"The Last Mile, The Fix,\" and \"The Fallen.\" Amos Decker also is unable to forget any detail as a result of a football injury.\n", "Section::::Atypical cases.:Savantism.\n", "These studies are important for psychologists who want to understand how human memory and musical cognition works. For most modes of memory, people do not spontaneously remember facts or ideas throughout their day unless it is pressing to their current situation, however auditory imagery can spontaneously and constantly occur to people so evidence tells that this mode of memory differs from others. For instance, the auditory images that are remembered are usually 10–20 seconds long, however remembering facts or scenes do not necessarily hold time stamps like auditory images do. This insight would hold relevance on understanding the relationship of music and memory.\n", "The pathway of recall associated with the retrieval of sound memories is the auditory system. Within the auditory system is the auditory cortex, which can be broken down into the primary auditory cortex and the belt areas. The primary auditory cortex is the main region of the brain that processes sound and is located on the superior temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe where it receives point-to-point input from the medial geniculate nucleus. From this, the primary auditory complex had a topographic map of the cochlea. The belt areas of the auditory complex receive more diffuse input from peripheral areas of the medial geniculate nucleus and therefore are less precise in tonotopic organization compared to the primary visual cortex. A 2001 study by Trama examined how different kinds of brain damage interfere with normal perception of music. One of his studied patients lost most of his auditory cortex to strokes, allowing him to still hear but making it difficult to understand music since he could not recognize harmonic patterns. Detecting a similarity between speech perception and sound perception, spontaneous recovery of lost auditory information is possible in those patients who have experienced a stroke or other major head trauma. Amusia is a disorder manifesting itself as a defect in processing pitch but also affects one's memory and recognition for music.\n", "Section::::Testing.:Testing.\n", "During auditory verbal imagery, the inferior frontal cortex and the insula were activated as well as the supplementary motor area, left superior temporal/inferior parietal region, the right posterior cerebellar cortex, the left precentral, and superior temporal gyri. Other areas of the brain have been activated during auditory imagery however there hasn’t been an encoding process attributed to it yet such as frontopolar areas, and the subcallosal gyrus.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Anticipatory imagery.\n", "Section::::Lyrical vs. instrumental memory.\n", "Section::::Interference.:Introversion and extroversion.\n", "Section::::Testing.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Absolute pitch.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Auditory imagery.\n", "Section::::Models.:Theoretical model of memory.\n\nThis theoretical model proposed by William Berz (1995) is based on the Baddeley and Hitch model. However, Berz modified the model to include a musical memory loop as a loose addition (meaning, almost a separate loop altogether) to the phonological loop. This new musical perceptual loop contains musical inner speech in addition to the verbal inner speech provided by the original phonological loop. He also proposed another loop to include other sensory inputs that were disregarded in the Baddeley and Hitch model.\n\nSection::::Models.:Koelsch's model.\n", "has shown that short-term memory for the pitch of a tone is subject to highly specific effects produced by other tones, which depend on the pitch relationship between the interfering tones and the tone to be remembered. It appears, therefore, that memory for pitch is the function of a highly organized system that specifically retains pitch information.\n\nAny additional information present at the time of comprehension has the ability to displace the target information from short-term memory. Therefore, there is potential that one's ability to understand and remember will be compromised if one studies with the television or radio on.\n", "The medial prefrontal cortex – one of the last areas affected by Alzheimer’s disease – is the region activated by music.\n\nSection::::Music pattern recognition.:Cognitive mechanisms.\n", "In a study at University of California, Davis mapped the brain of participants while they listened to music. The results showed links between brain regions to autobiographical memories and emotions activated by familiar music. This study can explain the strong response of patients with Alzheimer’s disease to music. This research can help such patients with pattern recognition-enhancing tasks.\n\nSection::::False pattern recognition.\n", "Many aspects of language and musical melodies are processed by the same brain areas. In 2006, Brown, Martinez and Parsons found that listening to a melody or a sentence resulted in activation of many of the same areas including the primary motor cortex, the supplementary motor area, the Brocas area, anterior insula, the primary audio cortex, the thalamus, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum.\n", "Neuroscientific evidence suggests that memory for music is, at least in part, special and distinct from other forms of memory. The neural processes of music memory retrieval share much with the neural processes of verbal memory retrieval, as indicated by functional magnetic resonance imaging studies comparing the brain areas activated during each task. Both musical and verbal memory retrieval activate the left inferior frontal cortex, which is thought to be involved in executive function, especially executive function of verbal retrieval, and the posterior middle temporal cortex, which is thought to be involved in semantic retrieval. However, musical semantic retrieval also bilaterally activates the superior temporal gyri containing the primary auditory cortex.\n", "Music has been shown to improve memory in several situations. In one study of musical effects on memory, visual cues (filmed events) were paired with background music. Later, participants who could not recall details of the scene were presented with the background music as a cue and recovered the inaccessible scene information.\n", "BULLET::::8. They make autobiographical remembering specific.\n\nBULLET::::9. They are recollectively experienced when accessed.\n\nSection::::Cognitive neuroscience.\n\nThe formation of new episodic memories requires the medial temporal lobe, a structure that includes the hippocampus. Without the medial temporal lobe, one is able to form new procedural memories (such as playing the piano) but cannot remember the events during which they happened (See the hippocampus and memory).\n", "Anecdotal evidence, from an amnesic patient named CH who suffered from declarative memory deficits, was obtained supporting a preserved memory capacity for song titles. CH's unique knowledge of accordion music allowed for experimenters to test verbal and musical associations. When presented with song titles CH was able to successfully play the correct song 100% of the time, and when presented with the melody she chose the appropriate title from several distractors with a 90% success rate.\n\nSection::::Interference.\n", "Section::::Interference.:Hemispheric interference.\n", "BULLET::::- played highly expressive music\n\nBULLET::::- come from a family with no particular abilities in music\n\nBULLET::::- never had lessons, he had just listened to others' pieces used improvisation\n\nBULLET::::- an IQ of 132 (two standard deviations above the average)\n\nBULLET::::- an extraordinary memory in all domains\n\nSection::::Amusia.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Finnish Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- French Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Guatemalan Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- International Registry of Mobile Assets, pursuant to the Cape Town Treaty\n\nBULLET::::- Irish Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Isle of Man Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Latvian Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Lebanese Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Luxembourg Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Maltese Aircraft Registration\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Norwegian Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- South African Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Swedish Aircraft Register\n\nBULLET::::- Swiss Aircraft Registry\n\nBULLET::::- United States Aircraft Registry\n\nBULLET::::- Article 20 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation\n", "Although \"nationality\" is not defined under ITAR, it is accepted that the U.S. Government will take country of origin and continued ties or allegiance to a country into account when determining Dual or Third Country Nationality.\n", "Up to the year 2000 the standard AC2 System of the GAF TACCS was ARKONA which had been taken over former the former East German Air Force. In the time to come it had to be replaced by the successor system GIADS. In July 2000 the first GIADS CRC in Schönewalde became operational. Since that time GIADS has been improve, further developed and introduced to the other German CRCs (including Deployable CRC). By the introduction of GIADS III in 2010/11, the probable final GAF AC2 System’s generation might have been procured.\n\nSection::::Prospect.\n", "The process of attacking the basic application or basic registration for this purpose is generally known as 'central attack.' Under the Madrid Protocol, the effects of a successful central attack can be mitigated by transforming the international registration into a series of applications in each jurisdiction designated by the international registration, a process known as 'transformation.' Although transformation is an expensive option of last resort, the resulting applications will receive the registration date of the international registration as their filing date.\n\nIn 1997, less than half of a percent of international registrations were canceled as a result of central attack.\n", "BULLET::::- Receiving a residence permit depends on the directness and closeness of Finnish ancestry. If the ancestry dates back several generations, a residence permit cannot be granted on this basis.\n\nBULLET::::- People who may be granted a residence permit based on Finnish ancestry or close connections with Finland can be divided into the following three groups:\n\nBULLET::::- former Finnish citizens:\n\nBULLET::::- persons of other Finnish origin. This group includes the persons who have at least one parent or grandparent who has been a native Finnish citizen.\n", "By 1943, Donald Barchok filed a patent for a radar system using the acronym IFF in his text with only parenthetic explanation, indicating that this acronym had become an accepted term. In 1945, Emile Labin and Edwin Turner filed patents for radar IFF systems where the outgoing radar signal and the transponder's reply signal could each be independently programmed with a binary codes by setting arrays of toggle switches; this allowed the IFF code to be varied from day to day or even hour to hour.\n\nSection::::Early 21st century systems.\n\nSection::::Early 21st century systems.:NATO.\n", "BULLET::::- Turkish Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- 4 Ana Jet Us based at Akıncı\n\nBULLET::::- 141 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 142 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- Öncel Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 6 Ana Jet Us based at Bandirma\n\nBULLET::::- 161 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 162 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 8 Ana Jet Us based at Diyarbakir\n\nBULLET::::- 181 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 182 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 9 Ana Jet Us based at Balikesir\n\nBULLET::::- 191 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 192 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- 193 Filo\n\nBULLET::::- United States Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- Air Force Systems Command\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School (ARPS) based at Edwards AFB, California\n\nBULLET::::- Tactical Air Command\n", "BULLET::::- - Canadian Army: On lease for operations in Afghanistan.\n\nBULLET::::- - Czech Armed Forces: 3 units\n\nBULLET::::- - Danish Army: Being phased out under the last agreement for the Danish Defence\n\nBULLET::::- - Hellenic Army\n\nBULLET::::- - Italian Army: Initially leased for use in Iraq 2003/2004. In 2009 Italy decided to buy the system which has been in use since at least 2013 in 5 units.\n\nBULLET::::- - Reportedly purchased Mod C in 2007, in 2011 Saab received a follow-up order.\n\nBULLET::::- - British Army: Leased Mod A until Mobile Artillery Monitoring Battlefield Radar becomes available\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "This broad definition addresses the original concerns regarding intrastate \"phone phreakers\" (i.e., hackers who penetrate telecommunications computers). It also specifically includes those computers used in \"foreign\" communications. With the continually expanding global information infrastructure, with numerous instances of international hacking, and with the growing possibility of increased global industrial espionage, it is important that the United States have jurisdiction over international computer crime cases. Arguably, the old definition of \"federal interest computer\" contained in 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2) conferred such jurisdiction because the requirement that the computers used in committing the offense not all be located in the same state might be satisfied if one computer were located overseas. As a general rule, however, Congress's laws have been presumed to be domestic in scope only, absent a specific grant of extraterritorial jurisdiction. E.E.O.C. v. Arabian American Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244 (1991). To ensure clarity, the statute was amended to reference international communications explicitly.\n", "The impact of decolonisation and independence on aircraft registration schemes has varied from place to place. Most countries, upon independence, have had a new allocation granted – in most cases this is from the new country's new ITU allocation, but neither is it uncommon for the new country to be allocated a subset of their former colonial power's allocation. For example, after partition in 1947, India retained the VT designation it had received as part of the British Empire's Vx series allocation, while Pakistan adopted the AP designation from the newly allocated ITU callsigns APA-ASZ. \n", "It is also possible for a person who was born in one country to become a Dual National for the purposes of ITAR without necessarily leaving his country of origin, simply by obtaining a foreign passport (thereby \"holding nationality\" from another country). This is frequently the case where the individual's parent/s were born in a country that grants citizenship to children of its citizens, regardless of where the children were born, for example, a child born in Canada to parents who were born in the UK is able to obtain a UK passport (see British nationality law). Once he has done so, he becomes a Canadian-UK Dual National for the purposes of ITAR.\n", "BULLET::::- on a ship or aircraft registered in another country, or on an unregistered ship or aircraft of a government of a foreign country\n\nBULLET::::- to enemy alien parents (i.e. \"both\" father and mother were enemies \"and\" were not New Zealand, Commonwealth or Irish citizens or British protected persons) in a place occupied by the enemy - though this situation has never occurred\n", "BULLET::::- E:1 is a very short list of \"terrorist-supporting\" countries (as of 2009, includes five countries; previously contained six countries and was also called \"terrorist 6\" or T-6)\n\nThe EAR Supplement No. 1 to Part 738 (Commerce Country Chart) contains the table with \"country restrictions\". If a line of table that corresponds to the country contains an X in the \"reason for control\" column, the export of a controlled item requires a license, unless an \"exception\" can be applied. For the purposes of encryption, the following three reasons for control are important:\n\nBULLET::::- NS1 National Security Column 1\n", "Iceland (24) and Luxembourg (28) are assigned NCB codes of their own but do not use them. All of Luxembourg's transactions are catalogued by Belgium (13) and Iceland uses other nations' NSNs when they make or order any stock items.\n\nSection::::Related Terms.\n\nSection::::Related Terms.:Department of Defense Identification Code (DODIC).\n", "BULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 240 \"Loneship\", in Erndtebrück with GM 406F\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 246 \"Hardwheel\", on Erbeskopf with HADR\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 247 \"Batman\", in Lauda with GM 406F\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 248 \"Coldtrack\", in Freising with GM 406F\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 249 \"Sweet Apple\", in Meßstetten with HADR\n\nBULLET::::- Sensor Platoon II, in Auenhausen\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 241 \"Crabtree\", in Marienbaum with HADR\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 242 \"Backwash\", in Auenhausen with GM 406F\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Radar Post 243 \"Silver Cork\", in Visselhövede with GM 406F\n", "Basler Turbo Conversions offered its BT-67 gunship with FLIR ball sensors and night-vision goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit to the Philippines on 12 October 2016.\n\nSection::::Operators.\n\nSection::::Operators.:Civilian operators.\n\nBULLET::::- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Antarctic Division (operated by Kenn Borek Air)\n\nBULLET::::- North Star Air, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Kenn Borek Air, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Polar Research Institute of China, China (operated by Kenn Borek Air)\n\nBULLET::::- United States Forest Service, United States\n\nSection::::Operators.:Military operators.\n\nBULLET::::- Bolivian Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- Colombian Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- National Police of Colombia \n\nBULLET::::- El Salvador Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- Guatemalan Air Force\n", "A few rare mass naturalization processes have been implemented by nation states. In 1891, Brazil granted naturalization to all aliens living in the country. In 1922, Greece massively naturalized all the Greek refugees coming from Turkey. The second massive naturalization process was in favor of Armenian refugees coming from Turkey, who went to Syria, Lebanon or other former Ottoman countries. Reciprocally, Turkey massively naturalized the refugees of Turkish descent or other ethnic backgrounds in Muslim creed from these countries during a redemption process.\n", "BULLET::::- Indian Army - Recruits Nepalese and Bhutanese citizens, and the refugees from Tibet who intend to permanently settle in India. Recruits of Indian origin who have migrated from Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Thailand, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, and Vietnam with the intention of permanently settling in India may also join.\n\nBULLET::::- Irish Defence Forces - Nationals of the European Economic Area, which includes member states of the European Union along with Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, as well as foreign residents having lived in Ireland for 5 years continuously.\n", "BULLET::::- Pakistan Navy - 7 in service as of December 2015.\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan Naval Air Arm\n\nBULLET::::- Maritime Security Agency\n\nBULLET::::- Philippine Air Force - 1 in service as of December 2015.\n\nBULLET::::- Philippine Navy\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Thai Navy - 4 in service (2 transports and two patrol aircraft) as of December 2015.\n\nBULLET::::- United States Army Parachute Team\n\nBULLET::::- United States Navy\n\nSection::::Former military operators.\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Australian Navy\n\nBULLET::::- Biafran Air Force - 1, seized by the Biafran authorities in April 1967\n\nBULLET::::- Ecuadorian Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- French Air Force\n", "As of 2009, non-military cryptography exports from the U.S. are controlled by the Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security. Some restrictions still exist, even for mass market products, particularly with regard to export to \"rogue states\" and terrorist organizations. Militarized encryption equipment, TEMPEST-approved electronics, custom cryptographic software, and even cryptographic consulting services still require an export license (pp. 6–7). Furthermore, encryption registration with the BIS is required for the export of \"mass market encryption commodities, software and components with encryption exceeding 64 bits\" (). In addition, other items require a one-time review by or notification to BIS prior to export to most countries. For instance, the BIS must be notified before open-source cryptographic software is made publicly available on the Internet, though no review is required. Export regulations have been relaxed from pre-1996 standards, but are still complex. Other countries, notably those participating in the Wassenaar Arrangement, have similar restrictions.\n", "Under the 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation, articles 17–21, all aircraft have the nationality of the state in which they are registered, and may not have multiple nationalities. The law of the aircraft's nationality is applicable on the aircraft. However, nationality laws of any country already apply everywhere, since it is for each country to determine who are its nationals. So this convention has no effect on nationality laws. The convention does not say that a birth on a country's aircraft is to be treated as a birth in that country for the purposes of nationality.\n", "BULLET::::- The , 6,750 nmi Gulfstream G550 was selected for the IAI EL/W-2085 Conformal Airborne Early Warning AESA radar for Italy, Singapore and Israel (which also has IAI Sigint G550s) while L3 Technologies transfers the U.S. Compass Call electronic-attack system to the G550 CAEW-based EC-37B, like the NC-37B range-support aircraft, and will modify others for Australia’s program, Northrop Grumman proposes the G550 for the J-Stars Recap;\n", "In the early days of the Cold War, the U.S. and its allies developed an elaborate series of export control regulations designed to prevent a wide range of Western technology from falling into the hands of others, particularly the Eastern bloc. All export of technology classed as 'critical' required a license. CoCom was organized to coordinate Western export controls.\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Air Force\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1422 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1479 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1480 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1481 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1482 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1483 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1484 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1485 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1566 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1592 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1600 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1602 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1616 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1622 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1623 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1624 Flight RAF\n\nBULLET::::- No. 1631 Flight RAF\n", "Another example is formed by children of foreigners born in countries observing \"jus soli\" (\"right of territory\"), such as was the case in France until 1994 and in Ireland until 2005. In these countries, it was possible to obtain French or Irish nationality (respectively) solely by being born in France before 1994 or in Ireland before 2005 (respectively). At present, a French born child of foreign parents does not automatically obtain French nationality until residency duration conditions are met. Since 1 January 2005, a child born in Ireland does not automatically acquire Irish nationality unless certain conditions are met.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Military systems do not allow backdoors into the code." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Some buyers of military systems are able to negotiate access to source code." ]

[ "Color laser printers use colored toner (dry ink), typically cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). While monochrome printers only use one laser scanner assembly, color printers often have two or more.\n", "2-part Color laser transfers are part of a two-step process whereby the Color laser printers use colored toner (dry ink), typically cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK), however newer printers designed to print on dark t-shirts utilize a special white toner allowing them to make transfers for dark garments or dark business products.\n\nThe CMYK color printing process allows for millions of colors to be faithfully represented by the unique imaging process.\n\nSection::::Color laser printers.:Business model comparison with inkjet printers.\n", "In a color printer, each of the four CMYK toner layers is stored as a separate bitmap, and all four layers are typically preprocessed before printing begins, so a minimum of 4 megabytes is needed for a full-color letter-size page at 300 dpi.\n", "Color printing adds complexity to the printing process because very slight misalignments known as registration errors can occur between printing each color, causing unintended color fringing, blurring, or light/dark streaking along the edges of colored regions. To permit a high registration accuracy, some color laser printers use a large rotating belt called a \"transfer belt\". The transfer belt passes in front of all the toner cartridges and each of the toner layers are precisely applied to the belt. The combined layers are then applied to the paper in a uniform single step.\n", "Section::::Color laser printers.:Anti-counterfeiting marks.\n\nMany modern color laser printers mark printouts by a nearly invisible dot raster, for the purpose of traceability. The dots are yellow and about in size, with a raster of about . This is purportedly the result of a deal between the US government and printer manufacturers to help track counterfeiters. The dots encode data such as printing date, time, and printer serial number in binary-coded decimal on every sheet of paper printed, which allows pieces of paper to be traced by the manufacturer to identify the place of purchase, and sometimes the buyer.\n", "Laser printing differs from other printing technologies in that each page is always rendered in a single continuous process without any pausing in the middle, while other technologies like inkjet can pause every few lines. To avoid a buffer underrun (where the laser reaches a point on the page before it has the dots to draw there), a laser printer typically needs enough raster memory to hold the bitmap image of an entire page.\n", "Color printers usually have a higher cost per page than monochrome printers, even if printing monochrome-only pages.\n\nSection::::Color laser printers.:Color laser transfer printers.\n\nColor laser transfer printers are designed to create transfer media which are transfer sheets designed to be applied by means of a heat press. These transfers are typically used to make custom t-shirts or custom logo products with corporate or team logos on them.\n", "A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics. As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), laser printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.\n\nAnother toner-based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Modern print technology.:Liquid inkjet printers.\n", "The print engine of most All-in-one devices is based either on a home desktop inkjet printer, or on a home desktop laser printer. They may be black-and-white or colour capable. Laser models provide a better result for text while inkjet gives a more convincing result for images and they are a cheaper multifunctional.\n", "Section::::Office printers.:CM8050 / CM8060.\n\nThe CM8050 and CM8060 are high volume office printers that can print an entire A4/Letter page in a single pass, or an A3 page in two passes. To achieve this it uses two carriages with three print heads each, each print head containing 10,560 nozzles. This enables the printer to print up to 71 pages per minute in black and color (CM8060) and 61 ppm (CM8050).\n", "During the printing process the print-shuttle vibrates in horizontal direction with high speed while the print hammers are fired selectively. Each hammer prints a series of dots in horizontal direction for one pass of the shuttle, then paper advances at one step and the shuttle prints the following row of dots\n\nSection::::Line Matrix Printers versus Laser Printers.\n", "Some non-laser printers (LED printers) use an array of light-emitting diodes spanning the width of the page to generate an image, rather than using a laser. \"Exposing\" is also known as \"writing\" in some documentation.\n\nSection::::Printing process.:Developing.\n\nAs the drums rotate, toner is continuously applied in a 15-micron-thick layer to the \"developer roll\". The surface of the photoreceptor with the latent image is exposed to the toner-covered developer roll.\n", "Once the raster image generation is complete, all steps of the printing process can occur one after the other in rapid succession. This permits the use of a very small and compact unit, where the photoreceptor is charged, rotates a few degrees and is scanned, rotates a few more degrees and is developed, and so forth. The entire process can be completed before the drum completes one revolution.\n", "There are typically seven steps involved in the process:\n\nSection::::Printing process.:Raster image processing.\n\nThe document to be printed is encoded in a page description language such as PostScript, Printer Command Language (PCL), or Open XML Paper Specification (OpenXPS). The raster image processor converts the page description into a bitmap which is stored in the printer's raster memory. Each horizontal strip of dots across the page is known as a raster line or scan line.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Laser printers.\n\nLaser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process. It produces high-quality text and graphics by repeatedly passing a laser beam back and forth over a negatively charged cylinder called a \"drum\" to get a charged image. The drum can selectively collect electrically charged powdered ink (toner), and transfers the image to paper.\n\nAs digital photocopiers, laser printers employ a xerographic printing process. However, laser printing differs from analog photocopiers. Because the image is produced by direct scanning of the medium across the printer's photoreceptor, which enables laser printing to copy images more quickly than most photocopiers.\n", "A sheet of paper is then rolled under the photoreceptor drum, which has been coated with a pattern of toner particles in the exact places where the laser struck it moments before. The toner particles have a very weak attraction to both the drum and the paper, but the bond to the drum is weaker and the particles transfer once again, this time from the drum's surface to the paper's surface. Some machines also use a positively charged \"transfer roller\" on the back side of the paper to help pull the negatively charged toner from the photoreceptor drum to the paper.\n", "As the drum completes a revolution, it is exposed to an electrically neutral soft plastic blade which cleans any remaining toner from the photoreceptor drum and deposits it into a waste reservoir. A charge roller then re-establishes a uniform negative charge on the surface of the now clean drum, readying it to be struck again by the laser.\n\nSection::::Printing process.:Continuous printing.\n", "Laser printer speed can vary widely, and depends on many factors, including the graphic intensity of the job being processed. The fastest models can print over 200 monochrome pages per minute (12,000 pages per hour). The fastest color laser printers can print over 100 pages per minute (6000 pages per hour). Very high-speed laser printers are used for mass mailings of personalized documents, such as credit card or utility bills, and are competing with lithography in some commercial applications.\n", "The most common process lays one colour at a time, the dye being stored on a polyester ribbon that has each colour on a separate panel. Each coloured panel is the size of the medium that is being printed on; for example, a 6\" by 4\" dye sub printer would have four 6\" by 4\" panels.\n", "BULLET::::- HP LaserJet Companion \"The LaserJet Companion is a sheet-fed monochrome scanner that connected to the parallel port of a LaserJet and provided copy functionality; as well as software scanning and fax functions.\"\n\nSection::::Models.:Color.\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet Original Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet (September 1994)\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet CP4000 Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet CP4005 Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet 5 Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet 5/5m Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet 1000 Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet 1500 Printer series\n\nBULLET::::- HP Color LaserJet 1600 Printer\n", "Section::::Industrial applications.:Laser engraving of anilox rolls.\n", "Today's digital printing methods do not have the restriction of a single color space that traditional CMYK processes do. Many presses can print from files that were ripped with images using either RGB or CMYK modes. The color reproduction abilities of a particular color space can vary; the process of obtaining accurate colors within a color model is called color matching.\n\nSection::::Modern process.:Screening.\n", "Inkjet printers have traditionally produced better quality output than color laser printers when printing photographic material. Both technologies have improved dramatically over time, although the best quality giclee prints favored by artists use what is essentially a high-quality specialized type of inkjet printer.\n\nSection::::Business model.\n", "Different printers implement these steps in distinct ways. LED printers use a linear array of light-emitting diodes to \"write\" the light on the drum. The toner is based on either wax or plastic, so that when the paper passes through the fuser assembly, the particles of toner melt. The paper may or may not be oppositely charged. The fuser can be an infrared oven, a heated pressure roller, or (on some very fast, expensive printers) a xenon flash lamp. The warmup process that a laser printer goes through when power is initially applied to the printer consists mainly of heating the fuser element.\n", "An emerging method of full-color printing is six-color process printing (for example, Pantone's Hexachrome system) which adds orange and green to the traditional CMYK inks for a larger and more vibrant gamut, or color range. However, such alternate color systems still rely on color separation, halftoning and lithography to produce printed images.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Phonological agraphia is the opposite of lexical agraphia in that the ability to sound out words is impaired, but the orthographical memory of words may be intact. It is associated with a lexicality effect by a difference in the ability to spell words versus nonwords; individuals with this form of agraphia are depending on their orthographic memory. Additionally, it is often harder for these individuals to access more abstract words without strong semantic representations (i.e., it is more difficult for them to spell prepositions than concrete nouns).\n", "SD patients perform poorly on tests of semantic knowledge. Published tests include both verbal and non-verbal tasks, \"e.g.\", The Warrington Concrete and Abstract Word Synonym Test, and The Pyramids and Palm Trees task. Testing also reveals deficits in picture naming (e.g. \"dog\" for a picture of a hippopotamus) and decreased category fluency. The question \"What is a Stapler?\" has been used as a primary diagnostic technique for discerning how SD patients understand word meaning.\n", "The computational theory of mind states that the mind functions as a symbolic operator, and that mental representations are symbolic representations; just as the semantics of language are the features of words and sentences that relate to their meaning, the semantics of mental states are those meanings of representations, the definitions of the ‘words’ of the language of thought. If these basic mental states can have a particular meaning just as words in a language do, then this means that more complex mental states (thoughts) can be created, even if they have never been encountered before. Just as new sentences that are read can be understood even if they have never been encountered before, as long as the basic components are understood, and it is syntactically correct. For example: “I have eaten plum pudding every day of this fortnight.” While it's doubtful many have seen this particular configuration of words, nonetheless most readers should be able to glean an understanding of this sentence because it is syntactically correct and the constituent parts are understood.\n", "Lexical decision tasks have been used for many years to access how the mental lexicon is structured. Participants in this task are required to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to a string of letters presented on a screen to say if the string is a non-word or a real word. Reaction times from this task indicate that certain words are more \"active\" in participants' minds after related words have been presented. An example of this would be to present the word \"bread\" to the participant and then see an decreased reaction time later to the word \"butter\". Since the word \"bread\" had activated all related words, including \"butter\", this decreased reaction time demonstrates that related words are stored closely in the mental lexicon. By doing lexical decision tasks, researchers have been able to analyze what words are stored with what related counterparts, and what can activate these words.\n", "James presented several experiments that demonstrated the operation of the semantic satiation effect in various cognitive tasks such as rating words and figures that are presented repeatedly in a short time, verbally repeating words then grouping them into concepts, adding numbers after repeating them out loud, and bilingual translations of words repeated in one of the two languages. In each case, the subjects would repeat a word or number for several seconds, then perform the cognitive task using that word. It was demonstrated that repeating a word prior to its use in a task made the task somewhat more difficult.\n", "Leon Jakobovits James coined the phrase \"semantic satiation\" in his 1962 doctoral dissertation at McGill University. It was demonstrated as a stable phenomenon that is possibly similar to a cognitive form of reactive inhibition. Prior to that, the expression \"verbal satiation\" had been used along with terms that express the idea of mental fatigue. The dissertation listed many of the names others had used for the phenomenon:\n", "The semantic cuing system is the one in which meaning is constructed. \"So focused is reading on making sense that the visual input, the perceptions we form, and the syntactic patterns we assign are all directed by our meaning construction.\" The key component of the semantic system is context. A reader must be able to attach meaning to words and have some prior knowledge to use as a context for understanding the word. They must be able to relate the newly learned word to prior knowledge through personal associations with text and the structure of text.\n", "Semantic processing is the deepest level of processing and it requires the listener to think about the meaning of the cue. Studies on brain imaging have shown that, when semantic processing occurs, there is increased brain activity in the left prefrontal regions of the brain that does not occur during different kinds of processing. One study used MRI to measure the brain activity of subjects while they made semantic decisions. The participants then took a memory test after a short period of time. When the subjects showed high confidence and correctly retained the information, the fMRI measured increased activity in the left prefrontal regions.\n", "Section::::Language planning.\n\nMinority languages that spread into new domains frequently suffer from semantic overloading by attempting to adapt existing terms to cover new concepts. One such example from Scottish Gaelic is the over-use of the word \"comhairle\" (originally \"advice, counsel\") for concepts such as \"committee\", \"council\", and \"consultation\" as exemplified by Donald MacAulay in \"dh'iarr a' chomhairle comhairle air a’ chomhairle chomhairleachaidh\": \"The committee sought advice from the consultative council\"—a sentence that is opaque in meaning.\n", "The left hemisphere quickly selects the most familiar meaning or response, while suppressing other closely related meanings. In addition, when presented with an ambiguous word with no context, the left hemisphere will prime the most frequent meaning of the word. Studies of patients with left hemisphere damage have demonstrated a disruption of convergent semantic processing, causing subjects to associate words with abstract, non-literal meanings produced by the right hemisphere. For example, a subject with left hemisphere damage may affiliate the word “deep” with “wise” rather than its literal antonym “shallow.”\n\nSection::::Convergent semantic processing.:Examples of convergent processing.\n", "Semantic processing\n\nSemantic processing is the processing that occurs after we hear a word and encode its meaning. Semantic processing causes us to relate the word we just heard to other words with similar meanings. Once a word is perceived, it is placed in a context mentally that allows for a deeper processing. Therefore, semantic processing produces memory traces that last longer than those produced by shallow processing since shallow processing produces fragile memory traces that decay rapidly.\n", "The N400 is sensitive to priming: in other words, its amplitude is reduced when a target word is preceded by a word that is semantically, morphologically, or orthographically related to it.\n", "The left hemisphere activates concepts that are more loosely associated with a stimulus, allowing for production of non-literal and less frequent meanings of words. For example, when presented with an ambiguous word without context, the right hemisphere primes less frequent meaning of the word. Studies of patient with right hemisphere damage have demonstrated a disruption of divergent semantic processing, causing subjects to affiliate words with concrete, literal meanings produced by the left hemisphere. For example, a subject with right hemisphere damage will group the word “deep” with its antonym “shallow,” and have trouble producing the non-literal association of “deep” with “wise.”\n", "One key characteristic of these features is that they reflect variation across languages in their overtness, which became particularly important to GenSLA research. A feature of a word or phrase is said to be overt if there is surface evidence of its existence within that word or phrase. By contrast, a feature of a word or phrase is said to be covert if there is no surface evidence of its existence within that word or phrase. This made interesting predictions about adult L2 learning behaviour, for example, that L2 overt morphology should be easier to acquire if the learner has similar overt features in their L1. In one relevant study it was shown that Russian but not Japanese L2 learners of English were, in line with these predictions, reliably sensitive to English plural errors, (Russian has overt plural morphology while Japanese does not). \n", "Section::::Role of Semantics.\n\nSemantics do not always play a role in encoding specificity; memory, rather, depends upon the context at encoding and retrieval. Early research has shown that semantically related cues should be effective in retrieving a word provided the semantic cue was encoded along with the target word. If the semantically related word is not present at the time of encoding, it will not be efficient at cuing recall for the target word.\n", "Another major difference between this hypothesis and the prior ones mentioned is that it is not limited to words alone but to any \"meaningful stimulus\", in fact non-sensical objects may activate the posterior fusiform cortex in order to extract their meaning from higher-level processes. However, the finding that disruption of the VWFA due to surgical lesions or electrical brain stimulation has little impact on a person's ability to extract meaning from non-word stimuli provides strong evidence that the function of the VWFA is primarily restricted to processing words and not \"any meaningful stimulus.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fusiform gyrus\n\nBULLET::::- Reading\n", "Priming studies indicate that when a word or concept is activated in memory, and then spoken, it will activate other words or concepts which are associatively related or semantically similar to it. This evidence suggests that the order in which words are produced in the fluency task will provide an indirect measure of semantic distance between the items generated. Data from this semantic version of the task have therefore been the subject of many studies aimed at uncovering the structure of semantic memory, determining how this structure changes during normal development, or becomes disorganized through neurological disease or mental illness.\n", "Given that an AI does not inherently have language, it is unable to think about the meanings behind the words of a language. An artificial notion of meaning needs to be created for a strong AI to emerge. AI today is able to capture the syntax of language for many specific problems, but never establishes meaning for the words of these languages, nor is it able to abstract these words to higher-order concepts \n", "Patient JB was able to match spoken words to target pictures almost perfectly when the target was presented with three other dissimilar distractors from the same semantic category. However, when the distractors were similar to each other and from the same semantic category his functioning decreased significantly. His abilities show evidence that the problem may lie in an interaction between processes involved in specification of the object’s visual structural description and access to semantic systems.\n\nSection::::Case studies.:ELM.\n", "Section::::Semantic Hubs.\n\nA semantic hub represents a focal point in the brain where all semantic information pertaining to a specific word is integrated. For example, the color, shape, size, smell, and sound associated with the word “cat” would be integrated at the same semantic hub. Some candidate regions for semantic hubs include:\n\nBULLET::::1. Inferior Frontal Cortex: the anterior part of Broca’s area and adjacent tissue in the left Inferior Frontal Cortex including Brodmann’s areas 44, 45, and 47 are activated for semantic processing and functional changes.\n", "In an extension of this test, after each puzzle solution was generated, participants were asked one of two questions: is this word greater than 3 letters long? (physical judgement) or does this word have a positive connotation? (semantic judgement). Participants then generated lists of solutions as in the first test. While the same correlation of confidence level and error type were seen, participants were much more likely to plagiarize answers after making a physical judgement as compared to a semantic one.\n\nSection::::Experimental research.:False memories.\n", "In a laboratory study, a subject presented with an unrelated word pair is able to recall a target word with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word it was matched with at the time of encoding, than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during the time of encoding. During a recall task, people benefit equally from a weakly related cue word as from a strongly related cue word, provided the weakly related word was present at encoding.\n", "Conceptual priming is based on the meaning of a stimulus and is enhanced by semantic tasks. For example, \"table\", will show priming effects on \"chair\", because \"table\" and \"chair\" belong to the same category.\n\nSection::::Types.:Repetition.\n\n\"Repetition priming\", also called \"direct priming\", is a form of positive priming. When a stimulus is experienced, it is also primed. This means that later experiences of the stimulus will be processed more quickly by the brain. This effect has been found on words in the lexical decision task.\n\nSection::::Types.:Semantic.\n", "Panic disorders appear to modify levels-of-processing by increasing ability to recall words with threatening meanings over positive and neutral words. In one study, both implicit (free recall) and explicit (memory of emotional aspects) memorization of word lists were enhanced by threatening meanings in such patients.\n\nSection::::Mental disorders.:Alzheimer's disease.\n\nModern studies show an increased effect of levels-of-processing in Alzheimer patients. Specifically, there is a significantly higher recall value for semantically encoded stimuli over physically encoded stimuli. In one such experiment, subjects maintained a higher recall value in words chosen by meaning over words selected by numerical order.\n\nSection::::Mental disorders.:Autism.\n", "In autistic patients, levels-of-processing effects are reversed in that semantically presented stimuli have a lower recall value than physically presented stimuli. In one study, phonological and orthographic processing created higher recall value in word list-recall tests. Other studies have explicitly found non-semantically processed stimuli to be more accurately processed by autistic patients than in non-autistic patients. No clear conclusions have been drawn as to the cause of this oddity.\n" ]

[ "If you can't recall the meaning of a word, you should not be able to use it in a sentence." ]

[ "If you have heard the word the word used in context you are able to imitate the word without knowing the meaning of the word." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If you can't recall the meaning of a word, you should not be able to use it in a sentence.", "If you can't recall the meaning of a word, you should not be able to use it in a sentence." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "If you have heard the word the word used in context you are able to imitate the word without knowing the meaning of the word.", "If you have heard the word the word used in context you are able to imitate the word without knowing the meaning of the word." ]

[ "Again in 2011, Richert and Binder (at the University of Hawaii) examined the siphon and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but relies upon gravity and a pressure differential, writing: \"As the fluid initially primed on the long leg of the siphon rushes down due to gravity, it leaves behind a partial vacuum that allows pressure on the entrance point of the higher container to push fluid up the leg on that side\".\n", "Section::::Non-uniform pore effects.\n\nSection::::Non-uniform pore effects.:Odd pore geometries.\n", "The vacuum formed by the presence of the ball bearing keeps water from flowing out of the bottle. An animal can interrupt this vacuum by pressing against the ball bearing and forcing it slightly up the tube—thus an animal can drink from the bottle by licking the metal ball bearing.\n", "BULLET::::- In order to remove any large bubbles from the surface, some baristas tap the jug on a bench before pouring\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally a barista may use less-than-full pressure from the steam wand, if they are steaming a very small amount of milk (variable pressure is usually only a feature on professional machines)\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.\n", "Section::::Non-uniform pore effects.:Hysteresis.\n", "The chain fountain phenomenon, also known as the self-siphoning beads or the Mould effect, is a counterintuitive physical phenomenon observed with a chain of beads placed inside a jar, when one end of the chain is yanked from the jar and is allowed to fall to the floor beneath. This establishes a self-sustaining flow of the chain of beads which rises up from the jar into an arch ascending into the air over and above the edge of the jar with a noticeable gap, and down to the floor or ground beneath it, as if being sucked out of the jar by an invisible siphon.\n", "The secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup can be seen by sprinkling heavy particles such as sugar, sand, rice or tea leaves into the water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor.\n", "Section::::Techniques used for natural gas.:Electrolytic.\n\nThe electrolytic sensor uses two closely spaced, parallel windings coated with a thin film of phosphorus pentoxide (PO). As this coating absorbs incoming water vapor, an electrical potential is applied to the windings that electrolyzes the water to hydrogen and oxygen. The current consumed by the electrolysis determines the mass of water vapor entering the sensor. The flow rate and pressure of the incoming sample must be controlled precisely to maintain a standard sample mass flow rate into the sensor.\n", "The cup consists of a line carved into the interior of the cup, and a small vertical pipe in the center of the cup that leads to the bottom. The height of this pipe is the same as the line carved into the interior of the cup. The cup may be filled to the line without any fluid passing into the pipe in the center of the cup. However, when the amount of fluid exceeds this fill line, fluid will overflow into the pipe in the center of the cup. Due to the drag that molecules exert on one another, the cup will be emptied.\n", "This circulation can either be open-loop, as when the substance in a holding tank is passed in one direction via a heated transfer tube mounted at the bottom of the tank to a distribution point—even one mounted above the originating tank—or it can be a vertical closed-loop circuit with return to the original container. Its purpose is to simplify the transfer of liquid or gas while avoiding the cost and complexity of a conventional pump.\n\nSection::::Simple thermosiphon.\n", "As shown in the diagram, a stoppered reservoir is supplied with an air inlet and a siphon. The pressure at the bottom of the air inlet is always the same as the pressure outside the reservoir, i.e. the atmospheric pressure. If it were greater, air would not enter. If the entrance to the siphon is at the same depth, then it will always supply the water at atmospheric pressure and will deliver a flow under constant head height, regardless of the changing water level within the reservoir.\n", "Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. While some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand (the settable solids), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid.\n", "Section::::Kelvin equation.:Dependence on contact angle.\n", "An example of a very simple tray is a perforated tray. The desired contacting between vapor and liquid occurs as the vapor, flowing upwards through the perforations, comes into contact with the liquid flowing downwards through the perforations. In current modern practice, as shown in the adjacent diagram, better contacting is achieved by installing bubble-caps or valve caps at each perforation to promote the formation of vapor bubbles flowing through a thin layer of liquid maintained by a weir on each tray.\n", "Section::::Real-world applications and problems.:Pore size distribution.\n", "Section::::Devices that are not true siphons.:Self-siphons.\n\nThe term \"self-siphon\" is used in a number of ways. Liquids that are composed of long polymers can \"self-siphon\" and these liquids do not depend on atmospheric pressure. Self-siphoning polymer liquids work the same as the siphon-chain model where the lower part of the chain pulls the rest of the chain up and over the crest. This phenomenon is also called a \"tubeless siphon\".\n", "The father and son researchers, Ramette and Ramette, successfully siphoned carbon dioxide under air pressure in 2011 and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but that: \"The basic explanation of siphon action is that, once the tube is filled, the flow is initiated by the greater pull of gravity on the fluid on the longer side compared with that on the short side. This creates a pressure drop throughout the siphon tube, in the same sense that 'sucking' on a straw reduces the pressure along its length all the way to the intake point. The ambient atmospheric pressure at the intake point responds to the reduced pressure by forcing the fluid upwards, sustaining the flow, just as in a steadily sucked straw in a milkshake.\"\n", "Blood plasma has a good many proteins in it and they exert an inward directed force called the colloid osmotic pressure on the water in hypotonic solutions across a membrane, i.e., in the Bowman's capsule. Because plasma proteins are virtually incapable of escaping the glomerular capillaries, this oncotic pressure is defined, simply, by the ideal gas law:\n\nWhere: \n\nBULLET::::- R is the universal gas constant\n\nBULLET::::- T is the temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- And, c is concentration in mol/L of plasma \"proteins\" (remember the solutes can freely diffuse through the glomerular capsule).\n", "This is the case with certain types of draught beer such as draught stouts. In the case of these draught beers, which before dispensing also contain a mixture of dissolved nitrogen and carbon dioxide, the agitation is caused by forcing the beer under pressure through small holes in a restrictor in the tap. The surging mixture gradually settles to produce a very creamy head.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "A third problem is where the lower end of the liquid seal is simply a U-trap bend in an outflow pipe. During vigorous emptying, the kinetic motion of the liquid out the outflow can propel too much liquid out, causing a loss of the sealing volume in the outflow trap and loss of the trapped air bubble to maintain intermittent operation.\n", "Droplet-to-droplet contamination is a challenge of many injection methods. To combat this, Doonan et al. developed a multifunctional K-channel, which flows reagent streams opposite the path of the droplet stream. Utilizing an interface between the two channels, injection is achieved similarly to picoinjection, but any bilateral contamination washed away through continuous reagent flow. Contamination is avoided at the expense of potentially wasting precious reagent.\n\nSection::::Droplet manipulation.:Droplet incubation.\n", "There is an exception to Archimedes' principle known as the bottom (or side) case. This occurs when a side of the object is touching the bottom (or side) of the vessel it is submerged in, and no liquid seeps in along that side. In this case, the net force has been found to be different from Archimedes' principle, owing to the fact that since no fluid seeps in on that side, the symmetry of pressure is broken. \n\nSection::::Principle of flotation.\n", "Albert Einstein's first paper, which was submitted to \"Annalen der Physik\" in 1900, was on capillarity.\n\nSection::::Phenomena and physics.\n", "This particular design is used for cross-flow filtration. The design involves a pleated membrane which is folded around a perforated permeate core, akin to a spiral, that is usually placed within a pressure vessel. This particular design is preferred when the solutions handled is heavily concentrated and in conditions of high temperatures and extreme pH. This particular configuration is generally used in more large scale industrial applications of microfiltration.\n\nSection::::Process design variables.:Fundamental design equations.\n\nAs separation is achieved by sieving, the principal mechanism of transfer for microfiltration through micro porous membranes is bulk flow.\n", "BULLET::::- The drinking bird toy functions using small ambient temperature gradients and evaporation. It runs until all water is evaporated.\n\nBULLET::::- A capillary action-based water pump functions using small ambient temperature gradients and vapour pressure differences. With the \"Capillary Bowl\", it was thought that the capillary action would keep the water flowing in the tube, but since the cohesion force that draws the liquid up the tube in the first place holds the droplet from releasing into the bowl, the flow is not perpetual.\n" ]

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[ "The most common and effective method of woodwind growling is to hum, sing, or even scream into the mouthpiece of the instrument. This method introduces interference within the instrument itself, breaking up the normal quality of sound waves produced. Furthermore, the vibration of the vocal note in the mouth and lips creates rustle noise in the instrument.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1970 Tim Buckley song \"Venice Beach\" includes the lyrics \"White heat of swaying day/ Dark slap of conga cries/ 'Come out and breathe as one'/ Salt sea and fiddles drone/ Out on the dancing stone/ While the Santanas blow/ Sing the music boats in the bay.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The 1983 Randy Newman song I Love L.A. includes the lines \"Santa Ana winds blowin’ hot from the north / And we was born to ride\"\n", "Blow, bonny breeze and bring him to me.\n\nCHORUS\n\nOh, is it not sweet to hear the breeze singing,\n\nAs lightly it comes o'er the deep rolling sea?\n\nBut sweeter and dearer by far when 'tis bringing,\n\nThe barque of my true love in safety to me.\n\nCHORUS\n\n/poem\n", "Stating the efficiency of wind noise reduction is an inexact science, since the effect varies enormously with frequency, and hence with the bandwidth of the microphone and audio channel. At very low frequencies (10–100 Hz) where massive wind energy exists, reductions are important to avoid overloading of the audio chain – particularly the early stages. This can produce the typical “wumping” sound associated with wind, which is often syllabic muting of the audio due to LF peak limiting. At higher frequencies – 200 Hz to ~3 kHz – the aural sensitivity curve allows us to hear the effect of wind as an addition to the normal noise floor, even though it has a far lower energy content. Simple shields may allow the wind noise to be 10 dB less apparent; better ones can achieve nearer to a 50 dB reduction. However the acoustic transparency, particularly at HF, should also be indicated, since a very high level of wind attenuation could be associated with very muffled audio.\n", "The song starts out with a one-note line with children playing in the background. Ferrier then sings the line \"Blow the wind, southerly\". Then Pook says \"Pie Jesu Domine\". Then the line goes to segue into \"Dona eis requiem\" whereas Pappenheim sings faster \"Dona eis requiem\"s. Then Pook, who says \"Domine\", then \"Pie Jesu\". Then Pappenheim says faster \"Pie Jesu Domine\"s. It finally ends with Ferrier saying the line \"Blow the wind, southerly\" which echoes throughout.\n\nThe song consists of many sixteenth notes.\n\nSection::::Samples.\n", "Section::::Strongest winds.\n", "While wind upon that horrid shore did whistle in our ears\n\nThose dreadful beasts upon that land around our cots do roar\n\nMost dismal is our doom upon Van Diemen's shore\n\nFrom \"\"The Female Transport\"\" (Roud V1284).\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Botany Bay/Whitby Lad/Bound for Botany Boy/Adieu to Old England (Roud 261, Laws L16).\n", "The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. Wind shear of 4 m/(s · km) can produce refraction equal to a typical temperature lapse rate of . Higher values of wind gradient will refract sound downward toward the surface in the downwind direction, eliminating the acoustic shadow on the downwind side. This will increase the audibility of sounds downwind. This downwind refraction effect occurs because there is a wind gradient; the sound is not being carried along by the wind.\n", "Section::::Track listing.\n\nBULLET::::- 7\" Single\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Wild Winds Are Blowing\" - 3:43\n\nBULLET::::3. \"One Way Hotel\" - 2:37\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Sound transmission.\n\nThis piece of lore is true in summer but conditionally false in winter. Moisture-laden air is a better conductor of sound than dry air, so moist air carries sounds farther. In winter, temperature also becomes an important factor. If the air is warm and moist, the rule holds. If the air is very cold, it is also very dense and a better sound conductor than warm air, and also likely to be much drier. When sounds carry over a long distance, the cold, clear weather is likely to linger.\n", "Section::::Gold Coast.\n", "If the rider is facing downwind on a surface, like the ocean, the wind window covers roughly all the area the rider can see, from the rider's peripheral vision on one side, along the horizon to the other side, and then directly overhead back to the first side. If the rider somehow puts the kite out of the window — for example, by riding downwind too quickly and sending the kite directly overhead and behind, the kite will stall and often fall out of the sky.\n", "Fanning's voice was heard in \"Rise\", a documentary film commissioned by U.S. Figure Skating to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the crash of Sabena Flight 548 which resulted in the loss of the entire American team and subsequent cancellation of the 1961 World Figure Skating Championships. She read a poem written by U.S. national champion Laurence Owen (who died in the crash) that was said to be an eerie premonition of the afterlife.\n", "Few utterances in recent history have had more grievous consequences...in Kenya the settlers spoke bitterly of a betrayal, and the ministers of the Federation approached the British government with equal suspicion\n", "In George Rippey Stewart's 1941 novel \"Storm\", he names the storm that is the protagonist of his story \"Maria\". In 1947, Stewart wrote a new introduction for a reprint of the book, and discussed the pronunciation of \"Maria\": \"The soft Spanish pronunciation is fine for some heroines, but our Maria here is too big for any man to embrace and much too boisterous.\" He went on to say, \"So put the accent on the second syllable, and pronounce it 'rye'\".\n", "BULLET::::- Los Angeles punk band Bad Religion mentions the winds a few times, using their nickname \"murder winds\", \"St. Anne's skirts are billowing\" and the line \"The fans of Santa Ana are withering\" in their song \"Los Angeles Is Burning\" on their 2004 album \"The Empire Strikes First\". \"When the hills of Los Angeles are burning/ Palm trees are candles in the murder winds/ So many lives are on the breeze/ Even the stars are ill at ease/ And Los Angeles is burning.\"\n", "The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. In the 1862, during the American Civil War Battle of Iuka, an acoustic shadow, believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind, kept two divisions of Union soldiers out of the battle, because they could not hear the sounds of battle only six miles downwind.\n\nSection::::Vertical component.:Planetary boundary layer.:Effects on architecture.\n", "Henri Frankfort suggested that Amun was originally a wind god and pointed out that the implicit connection between the winds and mysteriousness was paralleled in a passage from the Gospel of John: \"The wind blows where it wishes, and you hear the sound of it, but do not know where it comes from and where it is going.\"\n\nA Leiden hymn to Amun describes how he calms stormy seas for the troubled sailor:\n\nSection::::Third Intermediate Period.\n\nSection::::Third Intermediate Period.:Theban High Priests of Amun.\n", "The album was Burrell's first collaboration with his wife, Monkia Larsson, who was a Swedish writer and librettist at the time. Burrell conceived this full-length operatic album as his reply to land development in Hawaii, which was where he was raised. The live performance included various vocal singers, a 21 piece orchestra, dancers and a chorus. At first, Burrell had trouble convincing some vocalists to perform with him because of how fast he played as a jazz pianist; one such example was Hilda Harris of the Metropolitan Opera who told him \"I can sing it, but you're playing much too fast.\"\n", "With clay wind chimes, the higher the final firing temperature, the higher and more ringing the resulting tone. Earthenware clay fired at lower temperatures produces a duller sound than stoneware clay fired at higher temperatures. Stoneware wind chimes are also more durable and able to resist stronger winds without suffering chipping or damage.\n\nSection::::Mathematics of tubular wind chimes.\n\nA wind chime constructed of a circular tube may be modelled as a freely vibrating and the dominant frequency in cycles per second is given by:\n", "Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower atmosphere, where waves can be \"bent\" by refraction phenomenon. The audibility of sounds from distant sources, such as thunder or gunshots, is very dependent on the amount of shear. The result of these differing sound levels is key in noise pollution considerations, for example from roadway noise and aircraft noise, and must be considered in the design of noise barriers. This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s, contributing to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers.\n", "The Wind Blows (poem)\n\n\"The Wind Blows\" is a poem by Georgian poet Galaktion Tabidze. It is a sad poem, full of imagery and sentiments, and is well known in Georgia today. The Georgian version uses alliteration, repetition and rhyme, and like all his poems, is almost musical. It was written in 1920.\n\nSection::::The poem (translation).\n\npoem\n\nBlowing wind, blowing wind, blowing wind,\n\nLeaves are swept along its path…\n\nRows of trees, armies of trees bend and sway\n\nWhere are you, where are you, where are you?\n\nHow it rains, how it snows, how it snows\n", "BULLET::::- Linguistics Handbook Downloads — Audio samples of \"The North Wind and the Sun\" in various languages, from the International Phonetic Association.\n\nBULLET::::- 15th-20th century book illustrations of \"The North Wind and the Sun online\n\nBULLET::::- 15th-20th century book illustrations of \"The Sun and the Wind online\n\nBULLET::::- Librivox Dialect and Accent Collection Vol. 1 — Audio samples of \"The North Wind and the Sun\", from Internet Archive, recorded by LibriVox volunteers\n\nBULLET::::- The North Wind and the Sun in Phonetics on Jo Verhoeven's website (University of London)\n", "BULLET::::- \"De Wind vun Hamborg\" (the breeze of Hamburg) a \"Plattdüütsch\" (Low German) rendering recorded by Ina Müller in 2009 having been a staple of Müller's live act for several years. Müller is herself the lyricist for this rendering radically reinvents the original English song relating the singer's experiences during her travels of Northern Germany and concluding that the most happy times have always been when she felt the breeze of Hamburg blowing, thereby transporting the sentiment of there being no place like home.\n", "Listen! The Wind\n\nListen! The Wind is a 1938 book by the American writer Anne Morrow Lindbergh. It tells the story of Lindbergh's and her husband Charles Lindbergh's 1933 flight from Africa to South America across the Atlantic Ocean. The book focuses on the last ten days of the flight, when weather conditions and illness caused trouble for the couple. The book has a foreword and map drawings by Charles Lindbergh.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- \"One Bachelor to Go\" (Silhouette Romance) - February 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Bowen Bride\" (Silhouette Romance) - November 2004\n\nSection::::List of works.:Young adult novels - Niki Burnham.\n\nSection::::List of works.:Young adult novels - Niki Burnham.:The Valerie Winslow series.\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 — \"Royally Jacked\" — Simon Pulse (UK title: \"Royally Crushed\" )\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 — \"Spin Control\" — Simon Pulse\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 — \"Do-Over\" — Simon Pulse\n", "Firstborn series\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fame\" (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Forgiven\" (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Found\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Family\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Forever\" (2007)\n\nSunrise series\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunrise\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Summer\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Someday\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunset\" (2008)\n\nAbove the Line series\n\nBULLET::::- \"Take One\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Take Two\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Take Three\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Take Four\" (2010)\n\nBailey Flanigan series\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leaving\" (2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Learning\" (2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Longing\" (2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loving\" (2012)\n\nComing Home, The Baxter Family (a standalone work originally planned to end the series)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coming Home\" (2012)\n\nBaxter Family Collection\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Baxter Family Christmas\" (2016)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love Story\" (2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1987-1988 - Romantic Times Magazine Lifetime Achievement Award for Best New Historical Romance Author\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 - Romantic Times Magazine Reviewers' Choice Award for Best Frontier Romance, \"Wildflower\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 - Romance Writers of America RITA Award Finalist for Best Single-Title Historical Romance, \"Rose\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 - Third Place, National Readers' Choice Award, Best Historical Romance, \"Jade\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1991-1992 Romantic Times Magazine Career Achievement Award for Historical Romance \"Love and Laughter\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1992-1993 Romantic Times Magazine Career Achievement Award Nominee for Western Romance\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 - Bookrak Catalogue Bestselling Super Release 1992, \"Come Spring\"\n", "BULLET::::- Lyndon Hardy, (born 1941) author of \"Master of the Five Magics\"\n\nBULLET::::- Charlaine Harris, (born 1951) author of \"The Southern Vampire Mysteries\" series, which HBO adapted as the TV series \"True Blood\"\n\nBULLET::::- Geraldine Harris, (born 1951) Egyptologist and author of \"Prince of the Godborn\"\n\nBULLET::::- Edith Ogden Harrison, (1862–1955) author of \"Prince Silverwings\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kim Harrison (pen name of Dawn Cook), (born 1966) author of the \"Rachel Morgan / The Hollows\" series\n", "BULLET::::- Jingle Bell Rock, with Lori Foster, Donna Kauffman, Susan Donovan, and Janelle Denison, Kensington, 2005\n\nBULLET::::- Real Men Do It Better, with Carrie Alexander, Lora Leigh, and Lori Wilde, St. Martin's Press, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- The Guy Next Door, with Lori Foster and Victoria Dahl, Harlequin, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- A Night to Remember, with Celeste Bradley, St. Martin's Press, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas On Main Street, with Joann Ross, Luann McLane, and Alexis Morgan, Signet Romance, Penguin Group USA, 2013\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shelter in Place\", St. Martin's Press (May 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leverage in Death\", In Death 47, St. Martin's Press (September 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Of Blood & Bone\", Chronicles of the One 2, St. Martin's Press (December 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019\n\nBULLET::::- \"Connections in Death\", In Death 48, St. Martin's Press (February 2019)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Under Currents\", St. Martin's Press (July 2019)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vendetta in Death\", In Death 49, St. Martin's Press (September 2019)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Rise of Magicks\", Chronicles of the One 3, St. Martin's Press (December 2019)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Nora Roberts Official site\n\nBULLET::::- All Romance Writers - Nora Roberts\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 - Romance Writers of America RITA Award finalist for Best Romantic Suspense Novel, \"Bayou Moon\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1993-1994, Romantic Times Nominee for Best Series Romance, \"Tangled Vows\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1995-1996 - Romantic Times Career Achievement Award winner for Series Romantic Mystery\n\nBULLET::::- 1995-1996 - Romantic Times Career Achievement Award Nominee for Series Storyteller of the Year\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 - Washington Romance Writers Outstanding Achievement Award\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 - Romance Writers of America RITA Award finalist for Best Romantic Suspense Novel, \"For Your Eyes Only\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 - Romantic Times Best Intrigue Award winner,\"Nowhere Man\"\n", "In 1987, she began writing single title books for Bantam. Five years later she moved to Putnam to write single title hard covers as well as original paperbacks. She reached the hardcover bestseller lists with her fourth hardcover release, 1996's \"Montana Sky\". Roberts has continued to release single-title novels in paperback. She still occasionally writes shorter category romances. Her attachment to the shorter category books stems from her years as a young mother of two boys without much time to read, as she \"[remembers] exactly what it felt like to want to read and not have time to read 200,000 words.\"\n", "Few novelist become literary celebrities or become very wealthy from sale of their novels alone. Often those authors who are wealthy and successful will produce extremely popular genre fiction. Examples include authors like James Patterson, who was the highest paid author in 2010, making 70 million dollars, topping both other novelists and authors of non-fiction. Other famous literary millionaires include popular successes like J. K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter series, Dan Brown author of \"The Da Vinci Code\", historical novelist Bernard Cornwell, and \"Twilight\" author Stephenie Meyer.\n\nSection::::Personal experience.\n", "BULLET::::- John Flanagan, (born 1944) author of the \"Ranger's Apprentice\" series\n\nBULLET::::- Lynn Flewelling, (born 1958) author of \"The Nightrunner Series\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eric Flint, (born 1947) author of the \"Belisarius series\" and author or coauthor of\"1632 series\"\n\nBULLET::::- John M. Ford, (1957–2006) author of \"The Dragon Waiting\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kate Forsyth, (born 1966) author of \"The Witches of Eileanan\" series\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Dean Foster, (born 1946) author of the \"Humanx Commonwealth\" novels, particularly those involving \"Flinx\"\n\nBULLET::::- Laura Frankos, (born 1960)\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Frankos, author of \"The Wheel Trilogy\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Silent in the Grave\", 2007 (hardcover , mass market )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silent in the Sanctuary\", 2008 (paperback , mass market )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silent on the Moor\", 2009 (paperback , mass market )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dark Road to Darjeeling\", 2010 (paperback )\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Dark Enquiry\", 2011 (paperback )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silent Night\", 2012 (paperback )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Midsummer Night\" novella, 2013 (e-book )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Twelfth Night\" novella, 2014 (e-book )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bonfire Night\" novella, 2014 (e-book )\n\nSection::::Bibliography.:Veronica Speedwell mysteries.\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Curious Beginning\", 2015 (hardcover )\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Perilous Undertaking\", 2017 (hardcover )\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Treacherous Curse\", 2018 (hardcover )\n", "BULLET::::- \"Five Pages A Day: A Writers Journey\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ghost Dog Secrets (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Ghost's Grave (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Horror at the Haunted House\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"I'm Not Who You Think I Am\" (1999)\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Brother Made Me Do It\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Night of terror\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nightmare Mountain\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Runaway Twin\" (Dutton, 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saving Lilly\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Searching for Candlestick Park\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret Journey\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shelter Dogs: Amazing Stories of Adopted Strays\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sisters, Long Ago\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (Morton Grove, IL: Albert Whitman, 1996)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spy Cat\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stolen Children\" (Dutton, 2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Stranger Next Door\"\n", "This is a list of \"Critter Kids\" books with dates originally scheduled for late 2006 but they have yet to be released:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Danger Down Under\" (by Erica Farber and Mercer Mayer) (Date unknown)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Return of the Dinosaurs\" (by Erica Farber and Mercer Mayer) (Date unknown)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Canyon River Camp\" (by Erica Farber and Mercer Mayer) (Date unknown)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secrets of Snowy Mountain\" (by Erica Farber and Mercer Mayer) (Date unknown)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Critter Kids Talent Show\" (by Erica Farber and Mercer Mayer) (Date unknown)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Home for Christmas\" (novella, from \"Silhouette Christmas Stories\" anthology), Silhouette\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lessons Learned\", Great Chefs (2 of 2), Silhouette Special Edition\n\nBULLET::::- \"Second Nature\", Celebrity Magazine (1 of 2), Silhouette Special Edition\n\nBULLET::::- \"Risky Business\", Silhouette Intimate Moments\n\nBULLET::::- \"One Summer\", Celebrity Magazine (2 of 2), Silhouette Special Edition\n\nBULLET::::- \"Treasures Lost, Treasures Found\", Silhouette Intimate Moments\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Will and a Way\", Silhouette Special Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 1987\n\nBULLET::::- \"Command Performance\", Cordina's Royal Family (2 of 4), Silhouette Intimate Moments\n\nBULLET::::- \"For Now, Forever\", The MacGregors (5 of 9), Silhouette Special Edition\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hot Ice\", Bantam\n", "Some writers have had prolific careers with hundreds of their works being published. While some best-selling authors have written a small number of books that have sold millions of copies, others have had lengthy careers and maintained a high level of output year after year. Dame Agatha Christie, the most-published novelist in history, is estimated to have sold 4 billion books, having written 69 novels and 19 plays. Her works were published between 1920 and 1976, equating to around three publications every two years. Dame Barbara Cartland has also sold millions of copies of her books but wrote many more than Christie. She spent 80 years as a novelist with 722 books published, averaging one book released every 40 days of her career. While Cartland wrote a significant number of full-length novels, other authors have been published many more times but have specialised in short stories. Spanish author Corín Tellado wrote over 4,000 novellas, selling 400 million copies of her books.\n", "BULLET::::- Cassandra Clare, (born 1973), author of \"The Mortal Instruments\"\n\nBULLET::::- Susanna Clarke, (born 1959) author of \"Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell\"\n\nBULLET::::- Adrian Cole, (born 1949) author of the \"Dream Lords\" series\n\nBULLET::::- Myke Cole\n\nBULLET::::- Sara Coleridge, (1802–1852) author of \"Phantasmion\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eoin Colfer, (born 1965) author of the \"Artemis Fowl\" series\n\nBULLET::::- John Collier (1901–1980)\n\nBULLET::::- Suzanne Collins, (born 1962) author of \"The Hunger Games\", \"Catching Fire\" and \"Mockingjay\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brendan Connell, (born 1970)\n\nBULLET::::- Storm Constantine, (born 1956) author of the \"Wraeththu\" series\n", "Not all authors work alone. Groups of writers, sometimes led by one central figure, have published under shared pseudonyms. The Stratemeyer Syndicate, started by Edward Stratemeyer in 1905, created numerous book series including 190 volumes of \"The Hardy Boys\" and 175 volumes of \"Nancy Drew\". More than 1,300 books were published by the group, and although Edward L. Stratemeyer wrote several hundred, he also employed ghostwriters to keep up with the demand. These writers were given storylines and strict guidelines to follow to ensure a level of consistency within each series. Amongst the writing team was Howard R. Garis, who contributed several hundred books to the collection, one of the most active authors. Sales were estimated at over two hundred million copies before the syndicate was sold to Simon & Schuster in 1984.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Three Complete Novels\" (compilation: \"True Betrayals\" (1996), \"Montana Sky\" (1996), and \"Sanctuary\" (1997) ), Putnam\n\nBULLET::::- \"Time and Again\" (compilation: \"Time Was\" (1989) and \"Times Change\" (1990) ), Time and Again or The Hornblower Bros. (1 & 2 of 2), Silhouette\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Villa\", Jove\n\nBULLET::::- \"Winter Rose\" (novella, from \"Once Upon A Rose\" anthology), Once Upon novellas (4 of 6), Jove\n\nBULLET::::- 2002\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chesapeake Blue\", Chesapeake Bay or Quinn Bros. (4 of 4), Putnam\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cordina’s Crown Jewel\" (1992), Cordina's Royal Family (4 of 4), Silhouette Special Edition\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Jackson, (co)author of many Fighting Fantasy books\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Jacques, (1939–2011) author of the \"Redwall\" series\n\nBULLET::::- L. Dean James, (born 1947) author of \"Sorcerer's Stone\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tove Jansson, (1914–2001) author of the \"Moomin\" novels\n\nBULLET::::- N. K. Jemisin, (born 1972) author of \"The Hundred Thousand Kingdoms\"\n\nBULLET::::- K. V. Johansen, (born 1968) author of \"Torrie and the Dragon\"\n\nBULLET::::- Carrie Jones, author of the \"Need\" series and \"After Obsession\"\n\nBULLET::::- Diana Wynne Jones, (1934–2011) author of the \"Chrestomanci\" series and \"Howl's Moving Castle\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ivan Jones, author of \"The Ghost Hunter\" series\n", "BULLET::::- Douglas Niles, author of the \"Watershed\" trilogy and other series\n\nBULLET::::- Jenny Nimmo, (born 1944) author of \"Children of the Red King\" and \"The Magician Trilogy\"\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Niven, (born 1938) author of \"The Magic May Return\"\n\nBULLET::::- Garth Nix, (born 1963) author of \"Sabriel\" and sequels\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Nodier (1790–1844)\n\nBULLET::::- Alyson Noël, author of \"Evermore\"\n\nBULLET::::- John Norman, (born 1931) author of the \"Gor\" series\n\nBULLET::::- Andre Norton, (1912–2005) author of \"High Sorcery\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kate Novak, author of the \"Finder's Stone\" trilogy with Jeff Grubb\n\nBULLET::::- Naomi Novik, author of the \"Temeraire\" series\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 - Publishers Weekly Quill Award nominee in the Romance category for \"Crimson Moon\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 - Washington Romance Writers Prolific Pen Award\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 - Daphne du Maurier Award 2nd Place for Paranormal Romantic Suspense,\"Crimson Moon\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 - Romantic Times Best Harlequin Intrigue of the Year, \"The Secret Night\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 - Futuristic, Fantasy, and Paranormal Romance Writers of America Chapter Prism Award 1st Place for Novella, \"Second Chance\" in \"Midnight Magic\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 - New Jersey Romance Writers Golden Leaf Award for Best Novella, \"Huntress Moon\" in \"Elemental Magic\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 Affaire de Coeur, Silver Certificate Winner, \"Night of the Hunter\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 RWA Golden Medallion Finalist, \"Devil's Night\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 RWA RITA Finalist, \"Broken Blossom\", 1991\n\nBULLET::::- 1991–1992 Romantic Times, Reviewers Choice in Series Romantic Suspense Winner - PINK TOPAZ\n\nBULLET::::- 1991–1992 Romantic Times Career Achievement Award Winner - Series Romantic Adventure\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 RWA RITA Finalist, \"Quicksand\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 RWA RITA Winner, \"Single Dad\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 RWA RITA Winner, \"Nobody's Princess\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 RWA Hall of Fame\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 Romantic Times, Career Achievement Award Winner - Storyteller of the Year\n", "In addition to these discrepancies, William Larson, a former Whitman editor, stated that if more than one book in a series was published in a year, they were almost always written by different people. Since two Meg Duncan books were published in both 1967 and 1970 it is probable that multiple authors, with different slants on details, wrote books two through six.\n\nSection::::Book formats.\n\nThe Meg books were originally published from 1967 to 1972 under two of Western Publishing's hardback imprints.\n", "She often writes trilogies, finishing the three books in a row so that she can remain with the same characters. When possible, she does the same with the In Death books, writing three in a row before returning to contemporary romances. Her trilogies are all released in paperback, as Roberts believes the wait for hardcover editions is too long for the reader.\n\nRoberts does much of her research over the Internet, as she has an aversion to flying.\n\nShe is an ardent baseball fan, having been honored by the local minor league baseball team Hagerstown Suns several times.\n", "BULLET::::- David Keck, author of the Durand Col series\n\nBULLET::::- Sylvia Kelso, author of \"The Rihannar Chronicles\"\n\nBULLET::::- Debra A. Kemp, (1957–2015) author of Arthurian novels \"The Firebrand\" and \"The Recruit\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paul S. Kemp, author of \"Twilight Falling\" (set in the world of the Forgotten Realms, and based on the \"Dungeons & Dragons\" role-playing game)\n\nBULLET::::- Katharine Kerr, (born 1944) author of the \"Deverry\" novels and others\n\nBULLET::::- Greg Keyes, (born 1963) author of \"The Kingdoms of Thorn and Bone\" series\n\nBULLET::::- Caitlín R. Kiernan, (born 1964) author of \"Tales of Pain and Wonder\"\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- LFMN (NCE) – Nice Côte d'Azur Airport – Nice\n\nBULLET::::- LFMO (XOG) – Orange Caritat Airport – Orange\n\nBULLET::::- LFMP (PGF) – Perpignan Rivesaltes Airport – Perpignan\n\nBULLET::::- LFMQ (CTT) – Le Castellet Airport – Le Castellet\n\nBULLET::::- LFMR (BAE) – Barcelonnette – Saint-Pons Airport – Barcelonnette\n\nBULLET::::- LFMS (XAS) – Alès Deaux Airport – Alès\n\nBULLET::::- LFMT (MPL) – Montpellier-Méditerranée Airport – Montpellier\n\nBULLET::::- LFMU (BZR) – Béziers-Agde-Vias Airport – Béziers\n\nBULLET::::- LFMV (AVN) – Avignon Caumont Airport – Avignon\n\nBULLET::::- LFMW – Castelnaudary - Villeneuve Airport – Castelnaudary\n\nBULLET::::- LFMX – Château-Arnoux-Saint-Auban Airport – Château-Arnoux-Saint-Auban\n", "BULLET::::- LFHU (AHZ) – L'Alpe d'Huez Airport – L'Alpe d'Huez\n\nBULLET::::- LFHV (XVF) – Villefranche Tarare Airport – Tarare\n\nBULLET::::- LFHW – Belleville Villié-Morgon Airport – Belleville, Rhône\n\nBULLET::::- LFHX – Lapalisse Périgny Airport – Lapalisse\n\nBULLET::::- LFHY (XMU) – Moulins Montbeugny Airport – Moulins\n\nBULLET::::- LFHZ (XSN) – Sallanches Mont-Blanc Airport – Sallanches\n\nBULLET::::- LFIB – Belvès Saint-Pardoux Airport – Belvès\n\nBULLET::::- LFID – Condom Valence-sur-Baïse Airport – Condom\n\nBULLET::::- LFIF – Saint-Affrique Belmont Airport – Saint-Affrique\n\nBULLET::::- LFIG – Cassagnes-Bégonhès Airport – Cassagnes-Bégonhès\n\nBULLET::::- LFIH – Chalais Airport – Chalais\n\nBULLET::::- LFIK – Ribérac Saint-Aulaye Airport – Ribérac\n", "BULLET::::- LFEI – Briare Châtillon Airport – Briare\n\nBULLET::::- LFEJ – Châteauroux Villers Airport – Châteauroux\n\nBULLET::::- LFEK – Issoudun Le Fay Airport – Issoudun\n\nBULLET::::- LFEL – Le Blanc Airport – Le Blanc\n\nBULLET::::- LFEM – Montargis Vimory Airport – Montargis\n\nBULLET::::- LFEN – Tours Sorigny Airport – Tours\n\nBULLET::::- LFEO (XSB) – Saint-Servan Airport – Saint-Malo\n\nBULLET::::- LFEP – Pouilly Maconge Airport – Pouilly-en-Auxois\n\nBULLET::::- LFEQ – Quiberon Airport – Quiberon\n\nBULLET::::- LFER (XRN) – Redon Bains-sur-Oust Airport – Redon\n\nBULLET::::- LFES – Guiscriff Scaer Airport – Guiscriff\n\nBULLET::::- LFET – Til-Châtel Airport – Til-Châtel\n", "BULLET::::- LFTR – Toulon-St. Mandrier Heliport – Saint-Mandrier-sur-Mer\n\nBULLET::::- LFTU (FRJ) – Frejus Saint-Raphael Airport – Fréjus\n\nBULLET::::- LFTW (FNI) – Nîmes-Alès-Camargue-Cévennes Airport (Garons Airport) – Nîmes\n\nBULLET::::- LFTZ (LTT) – La Mole Airport – La Môle\n\nBULLET::::- LFXA – Ambérieu-en-Bugey Air Base – Ambérieu-en-Bugey\n\nBULLET::::- LFXB (XST) – Saintes Thenac Airport – Saintes\n\nBULLET::::- LFXM – Mourmelon Airport – Mourmelon\n\nBULLET::::- LFXN (XNA) – Narbonne Airport – Narbonne\n\nBULLET::::- LFXU – Les Mureaux Airport – Les Mureaux\n\nBULLET::::- LFYG – Cambrai-Niergnies Airport – Cambrai\n\nBULLET::::- LFYR – Romorantin Pruniers Airport – Romorantin\n\nBULLET::::- LFYS – Sainte-Léocadie Airport – Sainte-Léocadie\n", "BULLET::::- LFFI – Ancenis Airport – Ancenis\n\nBULLET::::- LFFJ – Joinville Mussey Airport – Joinville\n\nBULLET::::- LFFK – Fontenay-le-Comte Airport – Fontenay-le-Comte\n\nBULLET::::- LFFL – Bailleau-Armenonville Airport – Bailleau-Armenonville\n\nBULLET::::- LFFM – Lamotte-Beuvron Airport – Lamotte-Beuvron\n\nBULLET::::- LFFN – Brienne-le-Château Airport – Brienne-le-Château\n\nBULLET::::- LFFP – Pithiviers Airport – Pithiviers\n\nBULLET::::- LFFQ – La Ferté-Alais Airport – La Ferté-Alais\n\nBULLET::::- LFFR – Bar-sur-Seine Airport – Bar-sur-Seine\n\nBULLET::::- LFFT – Neufchâteau Airport – Neufchâteau\n\nBULLET::::- LFFU – Châteauneuf-sur-Cher Airport – Châteauneuf-sur-Cher\n\nBULLET::::- LFFV (XVZ) – Vierzon Mereau Airport – Vierzon\n\nBULLET::::- LFFW – Montaigu – Saint-Georges Airport – Montaigu\n", "BULLET::::- FTTD (MQQ) – Moundou Airport – Moundou\n\nBULLET::::- FTTE – Biltine Airport – Biltine\n\nBULLET::::- FTTF – Fada Airport – Fada\n\nBULLET::::- FTTG – Goz Beïda Airport – Goz Beïda\n\nBULLET::::- FTTH (LTC) – Laï Airport – Laï\n\nBULLET::::- FTTI (ATV) – Ati Airport – Ati\n\nBULLET::::- FTTJ (NDJ) – N'Djamena International Airport – N'Djamena\n\nBULLET::::- FTTK (BKR) – Bokoro Airport – Bokoro\n\nBULLET::::- FTTL (OTC) – Bol Airport – Bol\n\nBULLET::::- FTTM (MVO) – Mongo Airport – Mongo\n\nBULLET::::- FTTN (AMC) – Am-Timan Airport – Am-Timan\n\nBULLET::::- FTTP (PLF) – Pala Airport – Pala\n\nBULLET::::- FTTR – Zouar Airport – Zouar\n\nBULLET::::- FTTS (OUT) – Bousso Airport – Bousso\n\nBULLET::::- FTTU (AMO) – Mao Airport – Mao\n\nBULLET::::- FTTY (FYT) – Faya-Largeau Airport – Faya-Largeau\n\nBULLET::::- FTTZ – Zougra Airport – Bardaï\n", "BULLET::::- LFSV – Pont-Saint-Vincent Airport – Pont-Saint-Vincent\n\nBULLET::::- LFSW (XEP) – Épernay Plivot Airport – Épernay\n\nBULLET::::- LFSY – Cessey Airport – Cessey\n\nBULLET::::- LFSZ (VTL) – Vittel Champ-de-Courses Airport – Vittel\n\nBULLET::::- LFTB – Marignane Berre Airport – Marignane\n\nBULLET::::- LFTF – Cuers Pierrefeu Airport – Cuers\n\nBULLET::::- LFTH (TLN) – Toulon–Hyères Airport (Hyères Le Palyvestre Airport) – Toulon\n\nBULLET::::- LFTM – Serres La Batie Montsaleon Airport – Serres-la-Batie\n\nBULLET::::- LFTN – La Grand'Combe Airport – La Grand-Combe\n\nBULLET::::- LFTP – Puimoisson Airport – Puimoisson\n\nBULLET::::- LFTQ – Chateaubriant Pouance Airport – Châteaubriant\n", "BULLET::::- LFCV – Villefranche-de-Rouergue Airport – Villefranche-de-Rouergue\n\nBULLET::::- LFCW – Villeneuve-sur-Lot Airport – Villeneuve-sur-Lot\n\nBULLET::::- LFCX – Castelsarrazin – Moissac Airport – Castelsarrasin\n\nBULLET::::- LFCY (RYN) – Royan – Medis Airport – Royan\n\nBULLET::::- LFCZ – Mimizan Airport – Mimizan\n\nBULLET::::- LFDA – Aire-sur-l'Adour Airport – Aire-sur-l'Adour\n\nBULLET::::- LFDB (XMW) – Montauban Airport – Montauban\n\nBULLET::::- LFDC – Montendre – Marcillac Airport – Montendre\n\nBULLET::::- LFDE – Egletons Airport – Égletons\n\nBULLET::::- LFDF – Sainte-Foy-la-Grande Airport – Sainte-Foy-la-Grande\n\nBULLET::::- LFDG – Gaillac – Lisle-sur-Tarn Airport – Gaillac\n\nBULLET::::- LFDH – Auch – Lamothe Airport – Auch\n", "BULLET::::- LFGV (XTH) – Thionville Yutz Airport – Thionville\n\nBULLET::::- LFGW (XVN) – Verdun-Le-Rozelier Airport – Verdun\n\nBULLET::::- LFGX – Champagnole Crotenay Airport – Champagnole\n\nBULLET::::- LFGY (XTD) – Saint-Dié Remomeix Airport – Saint-Dié\n\nBULLET::::- LFGZ – Nuits-Saint-Georges Airport – Nuits-Saint-Georges\n\nBULLET::::- LFHA – Issoire Le Broc Airport – Issoire\n\nBULLET::::- LFHC – Pérouges Meximieux Airport – Pérouges\n\nBULLET::::- LFHD – Pierrelate Airport – Pierrelatte\n\nBULLET::::- LFHE – Romans Saint-Paul Airport – Romans-sur-Isère\n\nBULLET::::- LFHF – Ruoms Airport – Ruoms\n\nBULLET::::- LFHG – Saint-Chamond L'Horme Airport – Saint-Chamond\n\nBULLET::::- LFHH (XVI) – Vienne Reventin Airport – Vienne\n", "BULLET::::- LSPH – Winterthur Airport – Winterthur\n\nBULLET::::- LSPK – Hasenstrick Airport – Hasenstrick\n\nBULLET::::- LSPL – Langenthal Airport – Langenthal\n\nBULLET::::- LSPM – Ambri Airport – Ambri\n\nBULLET::::- LSPN – Triengen Airport – Triengen\n\nBULLET::::- LSPO – Olten Airport – Olten\n\nBULLET::::- LSPV – Wangen-Lachen Airport – Wangen\n\nBULLET::::- LSTB – Bellechasse Airport – Bellechasse\n\nBULLET::::- LSTO – Môtiers Airport – Môtiers\n\nBULLET::::- LSTR – Montricher Airport – Montricher\n\nBULLET::::- LSTS – St. Stephan Airport – St. Stephan\n\nBULLET::::- LSXB – Balzers Heliport – Balzers\n\nBULLET::::- LSXG – Gsteigwiler Heliport – Gsteigwiler\n\nBULLET::::- LSXI – Interlaken Heliport – Interlaken\n", "BULLET::::- LFGJ (DLE) – Dôle-Tavaux Airport – Dole\n\nBULLET::::- LFGK – Joigny Airport – Joigny\n\nBULLET::::- LFGL (XLL) – Lons-le-Saunier Courlaoux Airport – Lons-le-Saunier\n\nBULLET::::- LFGM – Montceau-les-Mines Pouilloux Airport – Montceau-les-Mines\n\nBULLET::::- LFGN – Paray-le-Monial Airport – Paray-le-Monial\n\nBULLET::::- LFGO – Pont-sur-Yonne Airport – Pont-sur-Yonne\n\nBULLET::::- LFGP – Saint-Florentin Cheu Airport – Saint-Florentin\n\nBULLET::::- LFGQ – Semur-en-Auxois Airport – Semur-en-Auxois\n\nBULLET::::- LFGR – Doncourt-lès-Conflans Airport – Doncourt-lès-Conflans\n\nBULLET::::- LFGS – Longuyon Villette Airport – Longuyon\n\nBULLET::::- LFGT – Sarrebourg Buhl Airport – Sarrebourg\n\nBULLET::::- LFGU – Sarreguemines Neunkirch Airport – Sarreguemines\n", "BULLET::::- LFKB (BIA) – Bastia Poretta Airport – Bastia\n\nBULLET::::- LFKC (CLY) – Calvi Sainte-Catherine Airport – Calvi\n\nBULLET::::- LFKD – Sollières-Sardières Airport – Sollières-Sardières\n\nBULLET::::- LFKE – Saint-Jean-en-Royans Airport – Saint-Jean-en-Royans\n\nBULLET::::- LFKF (FSC) – Figari Sud Corse Airport – Figari\n\nBULLET::::- LFKG – Ghisonaccia Alzitone Airport – Ghisonaccia\n\nBULLET::::- LFKH – Saint-Jean-d'Avelanne Airport – Saint-Jean-d'Avelanne\n\nBULLET::::- LFKJ (AJA) – Ajaccio Campo dell'Oro Airport – Ajaccio\n\nBULLET::::- LFKL – Lyon Brindas Airport – Lyon\n\nBULLET::::- LFKM – Saint-Galmier Airport – Saint-Galmier\n\nBULLET::::- LFKO – Propriano Airport – Propriano\n\nBULLET::::- LFKP – La Tour-du-Pin Cessieu Airport – La Tour-du-Pin\n", "BULLET::::- LFIL – Rion-des-Landes Airport – Rion-des-Landes\n\nBULLET::::- LFIM – Saint-Gaudens Montrejeau Airport – Saint-Gaudens\n\nBULLET::::- LFIO (XYT) – Toulouse-Montaudran Airport – Toulouse-Montaudran\n\nBULLET::::- LFIP – Peyresourde Balestas Airport – Peyresourde\n\nBULLET::::- LFIR – Revel Montgey Airport – Revel\n\nBULLET::::- LFIS - Saint-Inglevert Airfield - Saint-Inglevert\n\nBULLET::::- LFIT – Toulouse Bourg-Saint-Bernard Airport – Toulouse\n\nBULLET::::- LFIV – Vendays-Montalivet Airport – Vendays-Montalivet\n\nBULLET::::- LFIX – Itxassou Airport – Itxassou\n\nBULLET::::- LFIY – Saint-Jean-d'Angély Airport – Saint-Jean-d'Angély\n\nBULLET::::- LFJA – Chaumont Semoutiers Airport – Chaumont\n\nBULLET::::- LFJB – Mauléon Airport – Mauléon\n\nBULLET::::- LFJC – Clamecy Airport – Clamecy\n", "BULLET::::- LFNP – Pézenas Nizas Airport – Pézenas\n\nBULLET::::- LFNQ (QZE) – Mont-Louis La Quillane Airport – Mont-Louis\n\nBULLET::::- LFNR – Berre La Fare Airport – Berre\n\nBULLET::::- LFNS – Sisteron Thèze Airport – Sisteron\n\nBULLET::::- LFNT – Avignon Pujaut Airport – Avignon\n\nBULLET::::- LFNU – Uzès Airport – Uzès\n\nBULLET::::- LFNV – Valréas Visan Airport – Valréas\n\nBULLET::::- LFNW – Puivert Airport – Puivert\n\nBULLET::::- LFNX – Bédarieux La Tour-sur-Orb Airport – Bédarieux\n\nBULLET::::- LFNZ – Le Mazet-de-Romanin Airport – Le Mazet\n\nBULLET::::- LFOA – Avord Air Base – Avord\n\nBULLET::::- LFOB (BVA) – Beauvais Tillé Airport – Beauvais\n", "BULLET::::- Brussels – Brussels Airport (on behalf of Brussels Airlines)\n\nBULLET::::- Cyprus\n\nBULLET::::- Paphos – Paphos International Airport \"charter\"\n\nBULLET::::- Finland\n\nBULLET::::- Kittilä – Kittilä Airport \"charter\"\n\nBULLET::::- France\n\nBULLET::::- Ajaccio – Ajaccio - Campo dell'Oro Airport \"cargo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bastia – Bastia – Poretta Airport \"cargo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bordeaux – Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Brest – Brest Bretagne Airport \"cargo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Clermont-Ferrand – Clermont-Ferrand Auvergne Airport \"cargo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dole – Dole–Jura Airport \"cargo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Grenoble – Grenoble–Isère Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Limoges – Limoges – Bellegarde Airport \"cargo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lyon – Saint Exupéry Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Marseille – Marseille Provence Airport\n", "As a result of the agreement, starting from 1994, when travelling from the UK to France by Eurotunnel (road vehicle trains), French immigration and customs checks both take place before departure from Cheriton, rather than on arrival in France. When travelling from France to the UK by Eurotunnel, travellers have to clear both French exit checks and UK immigration and customs checks in Coquelles before boarding the train.\n\nUnlike the juxtaposed controls for the Eurostar and ferry which only consist of immigration pre-embarkation checks, juxtaposed controls for the Eurotunnel consist of both immigration and customs pre-embarkation checks.\n", "BULLET::::- LFDU – Lesparre – Saint-Laurent-de-Médoc Airport – Lesparre-Médoc\n\nBULLET::::- LFDV – Couhé – Vérac Airport – Couhé\n\nBULLET::::- LFDW – Chauvigny Airport – Chauvigny\n\nBULLET::::- LFDX – Fumel – Montayral Airport – Fumel\n\nBULLET::::- LFDY – Bordeaux – Yvrac Airport – Bordeaux\n\nBULLET::::- LFEA – Belle Île Airport – Belle Île\n\nBULLET::::- LFEB – Dinan Trelivan Airport – Dinan\n\nBULLET::::- LFEC – Ouessant Airport – Ushant\n\nBULLET::::- LFED – Pontivy Airport – Pontivy\n\nBULLET::::- LFEF (XAM) – Amboise Dierre Airport – Amboise\n\nBULLET::::- LFEG – Argenton-sur-Creuse Airport – Argenton-sur-Creuse\n\nBULLET::::- LFEH – Aubigny-sur-Nère Airport – Aubigny-sur-Nère\n", "BULLET::::- LFHI – Morestel Airport – Morestel\n\nBULLET::::- LFHJ – Lyon Corbas Airport – Lyon\n\nBULLET::::- LFHL – Langogne Lesperon Airport – Langogne\n\nBULLET::::- LFHM (MVV) – Megève Airport – Megève\n\nBULLET::::- LFHN (XBF) – Bellegarde - Vouvray Airport – Bellegarde\n\nBULLET::::- LFHO (OBS) – Aubenas Ardèche Méridionale Aerodrome – Aubenas\n\nBULLET::::- LFHP (LPY) – Le Puy – Loudes Airport – Le Puy-en-Velay\n\nBULLET::::- LFHQ – Saint-Flour Coltines Airport – Saint-Flour\n\nBULLET::::- LFHR – Brioude Beaumont Airport – Brioude\n\nBULLET::::- LFHS (XBK) – Bourg – Ceyzériat Airport – Bourg-en-Bresse\n\nBULLET::::- LFHT – Ambert Le Poyet Airport – Ambert\n", "BULLET::::- LFON – Vernouillet Airport – Dreux\n\nBULLET::::- LFOO (LSO) – Les Sables-d'Olonne Talmont Airport – Les Sables-d'Olonne\n\nBULLET::::- LFOP (URO) – Rouen Vallée de Seine Airport – Rouen\n\nBULLET::::- LFOQ (XBQ) – Blois Le Breuil Airport – Blois\n\nBULLET::::- LFOR (QTJ) – Chartres – Champhol Aerodrome – Chartres\n\nBULLET::::- LFOS – Saint-Valery Vittefleur Airport – Saint-Valery\n\nBULLET::::- LFOT (TUF) – Tours Val de Loire Airport – Tours\n\nBULLET::::- LFOU (CET) – Cholet Le Pontreau Airport – Cholet\n\nBULLET::::- LFOV (LVA) – Laval Entrammes Airport – Laval\n\nBULLET::::- LFOW – Saint-Quentin Roupy Airport – Saint-Quentin\n", "BULLET::::- Lille - Lille Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Limoges - Bellegarde Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Lyon - Saint Exupéry Airport base\n\nBULLET::::- Marseille - Marseille Provence Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Montpellier - Méditerranée Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Nice - Nice Côte d'Azur Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Paris - Charles de Gaulle Airport base\n\nBULLET::::- Paris - Orly Airport base\n\nBULLET::::- Pau - Pyrénées Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Perpignan - Perpignan Airport Seasonal\n\nBULLET::::- Poitiers - Biard Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Quimper\n\nBULLET::::- Rennes - Rennes – Saint-Jacques Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Rouen - Rouen Vallée de Seine Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Strasbourg - Strasbourg International Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Toulouse - Blagnac Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Düsseldorf Airport\n\nBULLET::::- Hamburg Airport\n", "BULLET::::- LFMZ – Lézignan-Corbières Airport – Lézignan-Corbières\n\nBULLET::::- LFNA (GAT) – Gap Tallard Airport – Gap\n\nBULLET::::- LFNB (MEN) – Mende Brenoux Airport – Mende\n\nBULLET::::- LFNC – Mont-Dauphin - Saint-Crépin Airport – Mont-Dauphin\n\nBULLET::::- LFND – Pont-Saint-Esprit Airport – Pont-Saint-Esprit\n\nBULLET::::- LFNE – Salon Eyguières Airport – Salon\n\nBULLET::::- LFNF – Vinon Airport – Vinon\n\nBULLET::::- LFNG – Montpellier Candillargues Airport – Montpellier\n\nBULLET::::- LFNH – Carpentras Airport – Carpentras\n\nBULLET::::- LFNJ – Aspres-sur-Buëch Airport – Aspres-sur-Buëch\n\nBULLET::::- LFNL – Saint-Martin-de-Londres Airport – Saint-Martin-de-Londres\n\nBULLET::::- LFNO – Florac Sainte-Enimie Airport – Florac\n", "BULLET::::- LFBG (CNG) – Cognac – Châteaubernard Air Base – Cognac\n\nBULLET::::- LFBH (LRH) – La Rochelle – Île de Ré Airport – La Rochelle\n\nBULLET::::- LFBI (PIS) – Poitiers – Biard Airport – Poitiers\n\nBULLET::::- LFBJ – Saint-Junien Airport – Saint-Junien\n\nBULLET::::- LFBK (MCU) – Montluçon – Guéret Airport – Montluçon\n\nBULLET::::- LFBL (LIG) – Limoges – Bellegarde Airport – Limoges\n\nBULLET::::- LFBM (XMJ) – Mont-de-Marsan Airport – Mont-de-Marsan\n\nBULLET::::- LFBN (NIT) – Niort - Souche Airport – Niort\n\nBULLET::::- LFBO (TLS) – Toulouse - Blagnac Airport – Toulouse\n", "BULLET::::- LFAG (XSJ) – Péronne Saint-Quentin Aerodrome – Péronne\n\nBULLET::::- LFAI – Nangis - Les Loges Aerodrome – Nangis\n\nBULLET::::- LFAJ – Argentan Airport – Argentan\n\nBULLET::::- LFAK (XDK) – Dunkerque – Les Moëres Airport – Dunkirk\n\nBULLET::::- LFAL – La Flèche – Thorée Les Pins Airport – La Flèche\n\nBULLET::::- LFAM – Berck-sur-Mer Airport – Berck\n\nBULLET::::- LFAO – Bagnoles-de-l'Orne Airport – Bagnoles-de-l'Orne\n\nBULLET::::- LFAP – Rethel - Perthes Airport – Rethel\n\nBULLET::::- LFAQ – Albert – Picardie Airport – Albert\n\nBULLET::::- LFAR – Montdidier Airport – Montdidier\n\nBULLET::::- LFAS – Falaise - Monts d'Eraines Airport – Falaise\n", "BULLET::::- LFEU (XBD) – Bar-le-Duc Airport – Bar-le-Duc\n\nBULLET::::- LFEV – Gray Saint-Adrien Airport – Gray\n\nBULLET::::- LFEW – Saulieu Liernais Airport – Saulieu\n\nBULLET::::- LFEX – Nancy Azelot Airport – Nancy\n\nBULLET::::- LFEY (IDY) – Île d'Yeu Airport – Île d'Yeu\n\nBULLET::::- LFEZ – Nancy Malzeville Airport – Nancy\n\nBULLET::::- LFFB – Buno Bonnevaux Airport – Buno\n\nBULLET::::- LFFC – Mantes Cherence Airport – Mantes-la-Jolie\n\nBULLET::::- LFFD – Saint-André-de-l'Eure Airport – Saint-André-de-l'Eure\n\nBULLET::::- LFFE – Enghien Moisselles Airport – Enghien\n\nBULLET::::- LFFG – La Ferté-Gaucher Airport – La Ferté-Gaucher\n\nBULLET::::- LFFH (XCY) – Château-Thierry Belleau Airport – Château-Thierry\n", "BULLET::::- LSMA – Alpnach Air Base – Alpnach (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSMD – Dübendorf Air Base – Dübendorf (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSME (EML) – Emmen Air Base – Emmen (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSMF (ATC) – Mollis Airport - Mollis\n\nBULLET::::- LSML – Lodrino Air Base – Lodrino (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSMM – Meiringen Air Base – Meiringen (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSMP – Payerne Air Base – Payerne (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSMS – Sion Air Base – Sion (military)\n\nBULLET::::- LSPA – Amlikon Airport – Amlikon\n\nBULLET::::- LSPD – Dittingen Airport – Dittingen\n\nBULLET::::- LSPF – Schaffhausen Airport – Schaffhausen\n\nBULLET::::- LSPG – Kägiswil Airport – Kägiswil\n" ]

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[ "The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were miniaturized and adapted to mobile use, although desktop systems increasingly use the same smaller, lower-power parts which were originally developed for mobile use. The design restrictions on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.\n", "2016-era laptops use lithium ion batteries, with some thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance gradually decreases over time; substantial reduction in capacity is typically evident after one to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.\n", "A laptop's battery is charged using an external power supply which is plugged into a wall outlet. The power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. The battery charges in a shorter period of time if laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger typically adds about to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use a smart battery, a rechargeable battery pack with a built-in battery management system (BMS). The smart battery can internally measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and SoH (State of Health) parameters, indicating the state of the cells.\n", "The slice battery adds about 1.5 inches to the laptop's height and 680 g of weight. However, it more than doubles the battery life. The AC adapter is also of considerable size since it must power the laptop and charge both batteries.\n\nSection::::Notebook models.:Discontinued models.:Envy 13.\n", "In general, laptop components are not intended to be replaceable or upgradable, with the exception of components which can be detached, such as a battery or CD/CDR/DVD drive. This restriction is one of the major differences between laptops and desktop computers, because the large \"tower\" cases used in desktop computers are designed so that new motherboards, hard disks, sound cards, RAM, and other components can be added. In a very compact laptop, such as laplets, there may be no upgradeable components at all.\n", "Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually requiring replacement after as little as a year. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for three to five hours, depending on usage, configuration, and power management settings. Yet, as it ages, the battery's energy storage will dissipate progressively until it lasts only a few minutes. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging time. Some laptops (specifically ultrabooks) do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of its manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have its battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive.\n", "BULLET::::- Capacity in mAh: mAh stands for milli Ampere-hour and measures the amount of power flow that can be supplied by a certain power bank at a specific voltage. Many manufacturers rate their products at 3.7 V, the voltage of cell(s) inside. Since USB outputs at 5 V, calculations at this voltage will yield a lower mAh number. For example, a battery pack advertised with a 3000 mAh capacity (at 3.7 V) will produce 2220 mAh at 5 V. Power losses due to efficiency of the charging circuitry also occur.\n", "BULLET::::- Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of VPN. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line.\n\nBULLET::::- Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.\n", "Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries. These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their capacity relatively quickly, but most such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the approach of fill discharge and discontinue equipment use. When stored after charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40-50% charged. As with all battery types, degradation also occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an increased internal battery resistance often due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery. However, if Li-ION cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them dangerous if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now have an \"electronic fuse\" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a set level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the battery, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.\n", "The MacBook and the 13-inch MacBook Pro use a 60 W MagSafe charger, whereas the 15- and 17-inch MacBook Pro use an 85 W MagSafe charger. The MacBook Air has a lower-powered 45 W version of the MagSafe adapter. The power brick is smaller, but the MagSafe connector is the same as on the 60 W and 85 W chargers. According to Apple, an adapter with the same or higher wattage than originally provided may be used without problems.\n", "BULLET::::- Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PC needs an Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to handle short interruptions, blackouts, and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than 20–30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large and expensive UPS.\n", "Traditionally, laptops had a hard disk drive (HDD) as a main non-volatile storage, but these proved inefficient for use in mobile devices due to high power consumption, heat production, and a presence of moving parts, which can cause damage to both the drive itself and the data stored when a laptop is unstable physically, e.g. during its use while transporting it or after its accidental drop. With the advent of flash memory technology, most mid- to high-end laptops opted for more compact, power efficient, and fast solid-state drives (SSD), which eliminated the hazard of drive and data corruption caused by a laptop's physical impacts. Most laptops use 2.5-inch drives, which are a smaller version of a 3.5-inch desktop drive form factor. 2.5-inch HDDs are more compact, power efficient, and produce less heat, while at the same time have a smaller capacity and a slower data transfer rate. Some very compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inch HDDs. For SSDs, however, these miniaturization-related trade-offs are nonexistent, because SSDs were designed to have a very small footprint. SSDs feature a traditional 2.5- or 1.8-inch or a laptop-specific mSATA or M.2 card's form factor. SSDs have a higher data transfer rate, lower power consumption, lower failure rate, and a larger capacity compared to HDDs. However, HDDs have a significantly lower cost.\n", "Section::::Comparison with desktops.:Disadvantages.:Durability.:Battery life.\n", "Inside the laptop, the USB power-supply has to output an additional amount of watts for the USB-powered fan, thus generating a small amount of additional heat. This additional heat generation is usually insignificant in relation to the amount of heat a fan moves away from the laptop.\n\nSection::::Passive coolers.\n", "Section::::Hardware.:Battery and power supply.\n", "Since the release of the MacBook Air, other thinner laptops have been released, such as the Dell Adamo, launched in March 2009, which is a constant thick. Apple subsequently removed the claim of being \"the world's thinnest notebook\" from their marketing materials.\n\nSection::::Second generation (Tapered and dual USB).\n", "Two early production PowerBook 5300s caught fire, one at an Apple employee's house and another at the factory; it turned out that the Sony-manufactured lithium ion batteries had overheated while recharging. Apple recalled the 5300s sold (around a hundred machines) and replaced the batteries on these and all subsequent 5300s with nickel metal hydride batteries that provided only about 70% the endurance. At the time, the media viewed the problems with the PowerBook 5300 series as yet another example of Apple's decline.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Sleep-and-charge USB ports can be used to charge electronic devices even when the computer is switched off. Normally, when a computer is powered off the USB ports are powered down, preventing phones and other devices from charging. Sleep-and-charge USB ports remain powered even when the computer is off. On laptops, charging devices from the USB port when it is not being powered from AC drains the laptop battery faster; most laptops have a facility to stop charging if their own battery charge level gets too low. This feature has also been implemented on some laptop docking stations allowing device charging even when no laptop is present.\n", "Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop, but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small more enough to be called ultra mobile PCs. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it does not have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.\n", "MagSafe, a magnetic charging connector, has been replaced with USB-C charging. Unlike MagSafe, which provided an indicator light within the user's field of view to indicate the device's charging status, the USB-C charger has no visual indicator. Instead, the MacBook Pro emits a chime when connected to power. The Macintosh startup chime that has been used since the first Macintosh in 1984 is now disabled by default. The laptop now boots automatically when the lid is opened.\n\nSection::::Fourth generation (Touch Bar and USB-C).:Battery life.\n", "Apple released a firmware update in October 2010 that it claims resolves this issue. However, the installer for the firmware update will not run on certain older MacBooks, which means that the firmware can not be updated. This, in turn, means that it is not possible to use the new MagSafe power adapter with these MacBooks. However, as of 2017, Apple still sells the older MagSafe power adapter.\n", "The AC EmPower system converts aircraft AC 400 Hz or wild frequency power to standard AC 60 Hz to prevent additional stresses in laptop chargers already stressed by reduced cooling at altitude. Note that laptops on this system will still charge batteries. Modern laptop batteries, however include a temperature sensor that should compensate for the reduced cooling at altitude. This new system accepts various national power plugs and most laptop chargers will function properly at AC 110 V 60 Hz even if sold in AC 230 V 50 Hz markets.\n", "Different security counter-measures are being developed and applied to smartphones, from security in different layers of software to the dissemination of information to end users. There are good practices to be observed at all levels, from design to use, through the development of operating systems, software layers, and downloadable apps.\n\nSection::::Portable computing devices.\n\nSeveral categories of portable computing devices can run on batteries but are not usually classified as laptops: portable computers, PDAs, ultra mobile PCs (UMPCs), tablets and smartphones.\n", "BULLET::::- Touchscreen users easily interact with the units in the field without removing gloves.\n\nBULLET::::- High-temperature battery settings: Lithium ion batteries are sensitive to high temperature conditions for charging. A computer designed for the mobile environment should be designed with a high-temperature charging function that limits the charge to 85% or less of capacity.\n\nBULLET::::- External antenna connections go through the typical metal cabins of vehicles which would block wireless reception, and take advantage of much more capable external communication and navigation equipment.\n\nSection::::Security issues involved in mobile.\n", "List of USB-C Power Delivery chargable laptops\n\nBULLET::::- Most of these laptops accept standard USB-C connectors, but there are exceptions like the Lenovo Yoga 900 or Nuklonas WorkBook B7150 that has its own proprietary connector.\n\nBULLET::::- Some models have older proprietary and newer USB-C versions.\n\nBULLET::::- Some USB-PD charging laptops and USB-PD chargers may not be fully compliant, resulting in undesirable behavior such as: slow charging, refusal to charge, or damage to the laptop or charger in very rare cases\n\nBULLET::::- Google has made explicit efforts to standardize USB-C/USB-PD charging on Chromebooks.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- USB Power Delivery\n\nSection::::External links.\n" ]

[ "If a 20,000mah battery pack is able to charge a 3500mah phone five times, it should be able to charge a 4640mah laptop once." ]

[ "The laptop is likely using energy faster than the battery pack can charge, therefore it is not the capacity of the battery pack, but more so how fast the battery pack can charge. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If a 20,000mah battery pack is able to charge a 3500mah phone five times, it should be able to charge a 4640mah laptop once.", "If a 20,000mah battery pack is able to charge a 3500mah phone five times, it should be able to charge a 4640mah laptop once." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The laptop is likely using energy faster than the battery pack can charge, therefore it is not the capacity of the battery pack, but more so how fast the battery pack can charge. ", "The laptop is likely using energy faster than the battery pack can charge, therefore it is not the capacity of the battery pack, but more so how fast the battery pack can charge. " ]

[ "For the process prior to cake discharge, air blowing is used for cakes that have permeability of 10 to 10 m.\n\nSection::::Pre-treatment.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "A young woman hanging clothes on a line happily points out the arrival of \"manine\" or fluffy poplar seeds floating on the wind. The old man pottering beside her replies, \"When fluff-balls come, cold winter's done.\" In the village square, schoolboys jump around trying to pluck puffballs out of the air. Giudizio (Aristide Caporale), the town idiot, looks into the camera and recites a poem to spring and the \"manine\".\n", "Section::::Stovepiping in global health.\n", "An unstable water jet, similar to the one shown in the flow instability section above, was not disturbed deliberately, but was allowed to rise to a free water surface. On contact with the surface, a slight jet asymmetry caused an unsymmetrical raised surface that fed back to the jet origin and began a process that looked like a weak version of the flow instability figure. If the jet was not powered, but warmer than the surrounding fluid, it would rise and when encountering the surface would generate a similar feedback system.\n", "\"Farfalle\" come in several sizes, but they all have a distinctive \"bow tie\" shape. Usually, the farfalle are formed from a rectangle or oval of pasta, with two of the sides trimmed to a ruffled edge and the center pinched together to make the unusual shape of the pasta. A ridged version of the pasta is known as \"farfalle rigate.\" Though usable with most sauces, farfalle are best suited to cream and tomato sauces.\n", "Blowing Hot and Cold\n\nBlowing Hot and Cold is a 1989 Australian comedy drama film about an Italian who befriends a garage owner whose daughter has run off with a drug dealer.\n\nSection::::Plot synopsis.\n\nTwo people from Italy and Australia set their cultural differences aside to search for a girl who ran off with a drug dealer.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Adams as Jack Phillips\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Dolce as Nino Patrovita\n\nBULLET::::- Kate Gorman as Sally Phillips\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nIt was originally announced the film would be made in 1984 starring Arkie Whiteley directed by Brian Trenchard-Smith.\n", "A second appears in 1839: \"It was not, therefore, until he had left Italy, that Lord Cheveley felt his utter wretchedness and desolation: and London in December was not calculated to lessen it, as it only presents a pea-soup fog, which renders the necessary and natural process of respiration, almost what Dr. Johnson's idea of fine music ought to be, impossible!\", in Lytton, Rosina Bulwer Lytton Baroness (1839). \"Chevely; or, The man of honour\". E. Bull, London, Volume 2, page 106.\n", "Albert Bergesen, in \"The Depth of Shallow Culture\", described Koffing and Weezing as examples of Japanese shinto practices, in this case the embodiment of coughing and wheezing as spiritual representations. IGN called Weezing \"downright hideous\", though questioned \"who DOESN'T have a soft spot\" for it and cited its presence in the anime. GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin praised Koffing as a \"tried-and-true classic\" Pokémon.\n", "He primarily studied surface phenomena in liquids, and the Marangoni effect and the Marangoni number are named after him. He also contributed to meteorology and invented a \"Nefoscopio\" to observe clouds.\n\nSection::::Aspirator and Compressor.\n", "\"So we got this rigged up,\" Tuohy recounted, \"and we had this poor little tube of carbon dioxide and I had absolutely no hope it was going to work.\"\n\nSection::::Accident.:Use of water.\n", "Traditionally, spätzle are made by scraping long, thin strips of dough off a wooden (sometimes wet) chopping board (\"spätzlebrett\") into boiling salted water where they cook until they rise to the surface. Altogether, the dough should thus be as viscous as to slowly flow apart if cut into strips with a knife, yet hold the initial shape for some seconds. If dropped into boiling water, the albumen will congeal quickly in the boiling water, while the yolk will keep the dough succulent. After the pasta has become firm, they are skimmed and put aside.\n", "The reason for the discovery of this phenomenon was an accident: the aerologists working at the marine hydrometeorological stations and watercrafts drew attention to the strange pain that a person experiences when approaching the surface of a standard meteorological probe (a balloon filled with hydrogen). During one of the expeditions, this effect was demonstrated to the Soviet academician V. V. Shuleikin by the chief meteorologist V. A. Berezkin. This phenomenon drew genuine interest among scientists; in order to study it, special equipment was designed to record powerful but low-frequency vibrations that are not audible to human ears.\n", "Rabbi Yihya Saleh (died 1805), while explaining the Yemenite custom in the first series known as TaSHRaT (see \"supra\"), writes in his Commentary \"Etz Hayyim\" on the Baladi-rite Siddur that the short lilting blasts (\"Shevarim\") and the long quavering blast (\"Teru'ah\") are made in two breaths, both, in the series made while sitting and in the series made while standing. In this regard, the Yemenite practice was more lenient than that of the Shulchan Aruch.\n", "The Coandă effect can be induced in any fluid, and is therefore equally effective in water as in air.\n\nSection::::Conditions of existence.\n\nEarly sources provide information, both theoretical and experimental, needed to derive by comparison a detailed explanation of the Coandă effect and its limits. Coandă effect may occur along a curved wall either in a \"free jet\" or a \"wall jet\".\n", "Beginning with the 19th century sherbet powder (soda powder) became popular. \"Put a spoonful of the powder in a cup of water, mix it and drink it as soon as possible, during the time of sparkling. ... Because this way the most of acid of air is lost ... it is more practicable to put the powder into the mouth and flush it with some water.\" 2 g of sodium bicarbonate and 1.5 g of tartaric acid were separately packed in little coloured paper bags.\n", "Cow blowing\n\nCow blowing, Kuhblasen, phooka, or doom dev, is a process used in many countries according to ethnographers, in which forceful blowing of air into a cow's vagina (or sometimes anus) is applied to induce her to produce more milk.\n\nCow blowing was the reason why Gandhi abjured cow milk, saying that \"since I had come to know that the cow and the buffalo were subjected to the process of phooka, I had conceived a strong disgust for milk.\"\n\nSection::::Literature.\n", "An early description of this phenomenon was provided by Thomas Young in a lecture given to The Royal Society in 1800:\n\nThe lateral pressure which urges the flame of a candle towards the stream of air from a blowpipe is probably exactly similar to that pressure which eases the inflection of a current of air near an obstacle. Mark the dimple which a slender stream of air makes on the surface of water. Bring a convex body into contact with the side of the stream and the place of the dimple will immediately\n", "Hot water bottle blowing\n\nHot water bottle blowing is the deliberate inflation of a hot-water bottle by blowing. Air is breathed into the bottle until it stretches beyond its capacity and consequently explodes. It is a challenging feat of strength which is included in the \"Guinness World Records\". The challenge is most commonly undertaken by breathing air from the mouth, though it has also been achieved by blowing through the nose. The activity presents a potential hazard for physical injury to eyes and lungs.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Farfalle\n\nFarfalle () are a type of pasta/noodle commonly known as bow-tie pasta or butterfly pasta. The name is derived from the Italian word \"farfalle\" (butterflies). In the Italian city of Modena, farfalle are known as \"strichetti\". A larger variation of farfalle is known as \"farfalloni\", while the miniature version is called \"farfalline\". Farfalle date back to the 16th century in the Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna regions of Northern Italy.\n\nNote that farfalle are not related to the similar-sounding \"farfel\", an egg-barley pasta used in Jewish cuisine.\n\nSection::::Varieties.\n", "The mandarin and his men hurry aboard the ship. When they are at the middle of the sea, the mandarin tells Ma Liang to give him wind to increase the ship's speed. Ma Liang paints a wind cloud and then continues to paint storm clouds. A horrified mandarin calls out to Ma Liang to ease the weather saying that he and his men and friends would die. But Ma Liang defies orders and continued to paint more storm clouds. Giants waves crash the ship and the vessel breaks then sinks, drowning the mandarin and his friends.\n", "Above a critical ratio of 0.5 only local effects at the origin of the jet are seen extending over a small angle of 18° along the curved wall. The jet then immediately separates from the curved wall. A Coandă effect is therefore not seen here but only a local attachment: a pressure smaller than atmospheric pressure appears on the wall along a distance corresponding to a small angle of 9°, followed by an equal angle of 9° where this pressure increases up to atmospheric pressure at the separation of the boundary layer, subject to this positive longitudinal gradient. However, if the ratio is smaller than the critical value of 0.5, the lower than ambient pressure measured on the wall seen at the origin of the jet continues along the wall (until the wall ends –; see diagram on the right). This is \"a true Coandă effect\" as the jet clings to the wall \"at a nearly constant pressure\" as in a conventional wall jet.\n", "In extremely rare but documented cases, nose-blowing has resulted in unusual conditions, such as in the case of a woman who fractured her left eye socket after blowing her nose.\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n", "On the single's lyrics and song title, Clarke described the song as being \"kitchen inspired\". The title of the song is a reference to water overflowing from a kettle and landing on the hot metal coil heating element of an electric stove, and lyrically the song represents the \"stinging sensation\" that occurs from this event.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship was diminished when the cooks scuttled their greasy water. He studied the effects on a large pond in Clapham Common, London. \"I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water ... though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square.\" He later used the trick to \"calm the waters\" by carrying \"a little oil in the hollow joint of my cane\".\n\nSection::::Musical endeavors.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Body motion.\n\nResearch on body motion in social vision focuses on what information perceivers are able to extract when seeing an individual move. This research is primarily conducted by showing subjects point-light displays of human movement. The underlying premise of body motion research is that a large amount of social information is conveyed when a body is in motion, and the human visual system is fine-tuned to detect such social information.\n\nSection::::Body motion.:Social perception.\n\nSection::::Body motion.:Social perception.:Personality characteristics.\n", "Section::::Body motion.:Detection errors.\n", "A study conducted by the University of Sydney's Vision Centre concluded that when test subjects are presented with limited cues to determine whether or not they are being stared at, they tend to assume that they are, despite having too little information to make that determination. Test subjects asked to determine if an individual wearing dark sunglasses is looking at them, for example, would assume they are indeed being stared at, even though the starer's eyes were obscured and the actual position of their eyes was not known to the subject. Humans, they reason, are \"hard-wired\" to err on the side of caution since the consequences of \"not\" recognizing such a potential threat or important social cue would be more detrimental than a false positive error.\n", "Section::::The oppositional gaze.:Postcolonial gaze.:The male tourist gaze.\n", "Section::::Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- This title comes from the song 'The Ladies Who Lunch', from the 1970 Stephen Sondheim musical, \"Company\". The next line in the song is \"Everybody dies.\"\n\nBULLET::::- This episode included a clip from \"A Spark. To Pierce the Dark.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The song \"I Know What Boys Like\" by the 90s British girl band, Shampoo was featured.\n", "Section::::The gaze in systems of power.\n", "Sensitivity to eye contact is present in newborns. From as early as four months old cortical activation as a result of eye contact has suggested that infants are able to detect and orient towards faces that make eye contact with them . This sensitivity to eye contact remains as the presence of eye contact has an effect on the processing of social stimuli in slightly older infants. For example, a 9-month-old infant will shift its gaze towards an object in response to another face shifting its gaze towards the same object. \n", "Additional research has examined how reliably observers can estimate if individuals are in a romantic relationship. One set of studies provided naïve judges with fifteen-second silent clips of two individuals having a brief discussion side-by-side. Observers were able to reliably predict if the pair were friends, strangers, or involved romantically. Another set of studies had observers examine silent thin-slice clips where two strangers were asked to plan a trip around the world together. Observers were able to reliably predict how close the two individuals felt by the end of the session. When observers were given access to only transcripts, only auditory, or only visual information from the two strangers planning a trip, individuals that were provided silent thin-slice visual recordings remained the most accurate at judging the rapport of the strangers.\n", "Much of the research in social vision is based on the prevailing theory that the visual system is particularly attuned to social cues in the environment. More of the human brain is devoted to vision than all other senses combined, and social vision research seeks to understand how humans are able to use vision to accurately perceive characteristics of other individuals such as age, race, gender, and sexual orientation in a short time frame as well as how individual beliefs may bias the way humans perceive said individuals.\n\nSection::::Historical development.\n", "The looking-glass self comprises three main components that are unique to humans (Shaffer 2005).\n\nBULLET::::1. We imagine how we must appear to others in a social situation.\n\nBULLET::::2. We imagine and react to what we feel their judgment of that appearance must be.\n\nBULLET::::3. We develop our sense of self and respond through this perceived judgments of others.\n", "Writing after another skin conductance test in 2004 showed a negative result, Lobach & Bierman concluded that \"the staring paradigm is not the easily replicable paradigm that it is claimed to be\".\n\nSection::::Gaze detection.\n", "Section::::Scholarly work.:\"Collecting the Gaze\".\n", "Various studies have explored the reliability with which humans can visually detect gazes from other individuals. Brain imaging has shown that the brain cells which are activated when a test subject can see that they are being stared at are distinct from the cells activated when the starer's eyes are averted away from the subject by just a few degrees . It is theorized that the ability to precisely detect the target of a starer's gaze has conferred an evolutionary advantage by improving threat detection capabilities, as well as facilitating nonverbal communication. Compared to the eyes of other animals, the uniquely visible and well-defined sclera and iris of human eyes provides further evidence of its evolutionary importance for the species, and are thought to have developed as humans became more reliant upon complex communication for survival and reproductive success.\n", "There are also experiments in which an illusion of agency is induced in psychologically normal subjects. In Wegner and Wheatley 1999, subjects were given instructions to move a mouse around a scene and point to an image about once every thirty seconds. However, a second person—acting as a test subject but actually a confederate—had their hand on the mouse at the same time, and controlled some of the movement. Experimenters were able to arrange for subjects to perceive certain \"forced stops\" as if they were their own choice.\n\nSection::::Perception not based on a specific sensory organ.:Familiarity.\n", "Section::::Thin-slice vision.:Individual characteristics.\n", "Section::::In psychoanalysis.\n", "Section::::Thin-slice vision.:Predictiveness.:Behavior.\n", "Section::::Tracker types.:Electric potential measurement.\n", "Section::::Factors.:Human behavior.:Familiarity.\n", "The fSTS is involved in recognition of facial parts and is not sensitive to the configuration of these parts. It is also thought that this area is involved in gaze perception. The fSTS has demonstrated increased activation when attending to gaze direction. Recent studies have tried to delineate whether fSTS area lights up while people use gaze of others in order to establish joint attention and not fSTS but another area (the gaze following patch which is still close to fSTS but not overlapping) was found to be the core of the gaze processing system in humans.\n", "Three areas were investigated: assertiveness, firmness, and cooperation. In reference to the three areas respondents were asked the following: how they behave toward the target, how the target behaves toward them, and how they think they are viewed by the target. The study identified the looking glass self as a \"metaperception\" because it involves \"perception of perceptions.\" One of the hypotheses tested in the study was: If \"metaperceptions\" cause self-perceptions they will necessarily be coordinated. The hypothesis was tested at the individual and relationship levels of analysis\n\nSection::::Studies.:Family study.:Findings.\n", "Over the past century, the way the eyes move in human activities as diverse as playing sport, viewing works of art, piloting aircraft, exploring visual scenes, recognizing face or facial expressions, reading language, and sight-reading of music, has revealed some of the ocular and psychological mechanisms involved in the visual system.\n", "Section::::Thin-slice vision.:Individual characteristics.:Attitudes.\n", "Contradicting the last theory, the affective valence in developmental prosopagnosia theory states that individuals may be processing faces on affective dimensions, feelings and emotions, rather than familiarity dimensions, previous occasions and when they met.\n", "Individuals who are intentional in their actions display regularity in their behavior. Individuals locate objects with their eyes, move towards the object, and then use hands to make contact with and manipulate the object. Change in gaze direction is one of several behavioral cues that individuals use in combination with changes in facial and vocal displays and body posture to mark the intention to act on an object. Individuals who seek or follow a joint focus of attention display knowledge that what is in their awareness is also in another's awareness. They believe that they are experiencing the same world as others.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- fire uniformly all over different areas in space as long as monkey is looking at the same area\n\nBULLET::::- ability to maintain their spatial properties for periods of up to several minutes in the dark\n\nBULLET::::- responses depend on where the monkey is looking, by measuring eye position\n\nBULLET::::- spatial representation is allocentric\n\nBULLET::::- responses still occur in some cases even if view details are obscured with curtains\n", "BULLET::::- Induced spatial autocorrelation (or 'induced spatial dependence') arises from the species response to the spatial structure of exogenous (external) factors, which are themselves spatially autocorrelated. An example of this would be the winter habitat range of deer, which use conifers for heat retention and forage.\n", "Some animals use both of the above strategies. A starling, for example, has laterally placed eyes to cover a wide field of view, but can also move them together to point to the front so their fields overlap giving stereopsis. A remarkable example is the chameleon, whose eyes appear as if mounted on turrets, each moving independently of the other, up or down, left or right. Nevertheless, the chameleon can bring both of its eyes to bear on a single object when it is hunting, showing vergence and stereopsis.\n\nSection::::Binocular summation.\n", "All species that have been examined — including mammals and non-mammals — show compartmentalization, but there are some systematic differences in the details of the arrangement. In species with a streak-type retina (mainly species with laterally placed eyes, such as rabbits and deer), the compartments cover the full extent of the SC. In species with a centrally placed fovea, however, the compartmentalization breaks down in the front (rostral) part of the SC. This portion of the SC contains many \"fixation\" neurons that fire continually while the eyes remain fixed in a constant position.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Related structures.\n", "The range of visual abilities is not uniform across the visual field, and varies from animal to animal. For example, binocular vision, which is the basis for stereopsis and is important for depth perception, covers 114 degrees (horizontally) of the visual field in humans; the remaining peripheral 40 degrees on each side have no binocular vision (because only one eye can see those parts of the visual field). Some birds have a scant 10 or 20 degrees of binocular vision.\n", "Monocular vision\n\nMonocular vision is vision in which both eyes are used separately. By using the eyes in this way, as opposed to binocular vision, the field of view is increased, while depth perception is limited. The eyes of an animal with monocular vision are usually positioned on opposite sides of the animal's head, giving it the ability to see two objects at once. The word monocular comes from the Greek root, \"mono\" for single, and the Latin root, \"oculus\" for eye.\n\nSection::::Related medical conditions.\n", "Other animals such as great apes, orangutans, chimpanzees, dogs, and horses also show some elements of joint attention.\n\nSection::::Humans.\n\nSection::::Humans.:Levels of joint attention.\n\nDefining levels of joint attention is important in determining if children are engaging in age-appropriate joint attention. There are three levels of joint attention: triadic, dyadic, and shared gaze.\n", "This crossing is an adaptive feature of frontally oriented eyes, found mostly in predatory animals requiring precise visual depth perception. (Prey animals, with laterally positioned eyes, have little binocular vision, so there is a more complete crossover of visual signals.) Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, the optic nerves become optic tracts. The signals are passed on to the lateral geniculate body, in turn giving them to the occipital cortex (the outer matter of the rear brain).\n\nSection::::Mammalian development.\n", "Also in the 1960s, Horace Barlow, Colin Blakemore, and Jack Pettigrew found neurons in the cat visual cortex that had their receptive fields in different horizontal positions in the two eyes. This established the neural basis for stereopsis. Their findings were disputed by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel, although they eventually conceded when they found similar neurons in the monkey visual cortex. In the 1980s, Gian Poggio and others found neurons in V2 of the monkey brain that responded to the depth of random-dot stereograms.\n", "Chemotactic models posit the existence of axon guidance molecules that direct the initial formation of the ocular dominance columns. These molecules would guide the axons as they develop based on markers specific to the axons from each eye. All chemotactic models must take into account the activity dependent effects demonstrated in later development, but they have been called for because several pieces of evidence make entirely activity dependent formation unlikely. First, it has been shown that the ocular dominance columns in squirrel monkeys have mirror symmetry across the cortex. This is very unlikely to occur by activity dependent means because it implies a correlation between the nasal retina of one eye and the temporal retina of the other, which has not been observed. Furthermore, work in achiasmatic Belgian sheepdogs has shown that columns can form between the projections from the temporal and nasal retina of the same eye, clearly suggesting a nasal-temporal labeling, rather than contralateral vs. ipsilateral, which would be much easier to explain with activity dependent mechanisms. Despite this, a molecular label that directs the formation of the ocular dominance columns has never been found.\n", "Eyes are generally adapted to the environment and life requirements of the organism which bears them. For instance, the distribution of photoreceptors tends to match the area in which the highest acuity is required, with horizon-scanning organisms, such as those that live on the African plains, having a horizontal line of high-density ganglia, while tree-dwelling creatures which require good all-round vision tend to have a symmetrical distribution of ganglia, with acuity decreasing outwards from the centre.\n", "An example of such a simulation is the Boids program created by Craig Reynolds in 1986. Another is the Self Propelled Particle model. Many current models use variations on these rules. For instance, many models implement these three rules through layered zones around each animal. In the zone of repulsion very close to the animal, the focal animal will seek to distance itself from its neighbors in order to avoid a collision. In the slightly further away zone of alignment, a focal animal will seek to align its direction of motion with its neighbors. In the outmost zone of attraction, which extends as far away from the focal animal as it is able to sense, the focal animal will seeks to move towards a neighbor. The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities of the animal. For example, the visual field of a bird does not extend behind its body. Fish, on the other hand, rely on both vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed through its lateral line. Antarctic krill rely on vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed through its antennae.\n", "This idea of differential grouping is also brought up by Aksentijevic, Elliott, and Barber. Their theory is based on different perceptions of geometrical space that can then supply a \"starting point for a systematic exploration of the subjective properties of certain classes of visual and auditory grouping phenomena, such as apparent motion, grouping within static two-dimensional displays and auditory streaming.\" This idea shows how different people perceive geometrical space, which can lead to different auditory and visual streams.\n\nSection::::Proposed models.\n\nSection::::Proposed models.:Temporal.\n", "Some animals - usually, but not always, prey animals - have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view. Examples include rabbits, buffaloes, and antelopes. In such animals, the eyes often move independently to increase the field of view. Even without moving their eyes, some birds have a 360-degree field of view.\n", "Work by Hubel and Wiesel in the 1950s and 1960s showed that cat and monkey visual cortexes contain neurons that individually respond to small regions of the visual field. Provided the eyes are not moving, the region of visual space within which visual stimuli affect the firing of a single neuron is known as its receptive field. Neighboring cells have similar and overlapping receptive fields. Receptive field size and location varies systematically across the cortex to form a complete map of visual space. The cortex in each hemisphere represents the contralateral visual field.\n", "One of the experiments involving VP attempted to investigate systematically the types of visual information that could be transferred via VP's spared splenial fibers. The first experiment was designed to assess VP's ability to make between-field perceptual judgements about simultaneously presented pairs of stimuli. The stimuli were presented in varying positions with respect to the horizontal and vertical midline with VP's vision fixated on a central crosshair. The judgements were based on differences in colour, shape or size. The testing procedure was the same for all three types of stimuli; after presentation of each pair, VP verbally responded \"yes\" if the two items in the pair were identical and \"no\" if they were not. The results show that there was no perceptual transfer for colour, size or shape with binomial tests showing that VP's accuracy was not greater than chance.\n", "When RGCs approach the optic chiasm, the point at which the two optic nerves meet, at the ventral diencephalon around E10-E11 in the mouse, they have to make the decision to decussate to the contralateral optic tract or remain in the ipsilateral optic tract. In the mouse, about 5% of RGCs, mostly those coming from the ventral-temporal crescent (VTc) region of the retina, will remain ipsilateral, while the remaining 95% of RGCs will cross. This is largely controlled by the degree of binocular overlap between the two fields of sight in both eyes. Mice do not have a significant overlap, whereas, humans, who do, will have about 50% of RGCs cross and 50% will remain ipsilateral.\n", "The middle temporal visual area (MT or V5) is a region of extrastriate visual cortex. In several species of both New World monkeys and Old World monkeys the MT area contains a high concentration of direction-selective neurons. The MT in primates is thought to play a major role in the perception of motion, the integration of local motion signals into global percepts, and the guidance of some eye movements.\n\nSection::::Middle temporal visual area (V5).:Connections.\n", "As the eyes of humans and other animals are in different positions on the head, they present different views simultaneously. This is the basis of stereopsis, the process by which the brain exploits the parallax due to the different views from the eye to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects. Animals also use \"motion parallax\", in which the animals (or just the head) move to gain different viewpoints. For example, pigeons (whose eyes do not have overlapping fields of view and thus cannot use stereopsis) bob their heads up and down to see depth.\n", "Typically the animals can see each other, all rewards, and all parts of the apparatus. To assess the role of visual communication, sometimes an opaque divider is placed such that the animals can no longer see each other, but can still see both rewards.\n\nSection::::Method.:Conditions.:Training.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nSpatial view cells can be characterized by the following features:\n\nBULLET::::- respond to a region of visual space being looked at, relatively independently of where the monkey is located\n\nBULLET::::- respond to a small number of visual cues generally within a 30° receptive field\n\nBULLET::::- activated when doing spatial tasks which include active walking in a spatial environment\n\nBULLET::::- fire relatively independent of the place where the monkey is located\n\nBULLET::::- represent the place at which the monkey is looking\n\nBULLET::::- generally stimulated by at least 3 cues present in optimal view\n", "The parafoveal magnification paradigm compensates for how visual acuity drops off as a function of retinal eccentricity. On each fixation and in real time, parafoveal text is magnified to equalize its perceptual impact with that of concurrent foveal text.\n", "In ecology, there are two important sources of spatial autocorrelation, which both arise from spatial-temporal processes, such as dispersal or migration:\n\nBULLET::::- True/inherent spatial autocorrelation arises from interactions among individuals located in close proximity. This process is endogenous (internal) and results in the individuals being spatially adjacent in a patchy fashion. An example of this would be sexual reproduction, the success of which requires the closeness of a male and female of the species.\n", "Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, per eye. Each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell(s). Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, and which can give a full 360° field of vision. Compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have compound eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image, creating vision. With each eye viewing a different thing, a fused image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different, high-resolution images.\n", "If the analogy of the eye's retina working as a sensor is drawn upon, the corresponding concept in human (and much of animal vision) is the visual field. It is defined as \"the number of degrees of visual angle during stable fixation of the eyes\". Note that eye movements are excluded in the definition. Different animals have different visual fields, depending, among others, on the placement of the eyes. Humans have a slightly over 210-degree forward-facing horizontal arc of their visual field, while some birds have a complete or nearly complete 360-degree visual field. The vertical range of the visual field in humans is around 150 degrees.\n" ]

[ "Brains from animals without central vision overlap mesh together images. ", "Animals whose field of view doesn't overlap mesh together their vision." ]

[ "Brains from animals without central overlap do not mesh together images. ", "Animals with zero central overlap do not mesh images together, they bob their heads side to side." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Brains from animals without central vision overlap mesh together images. ", "Animals whose field of view doesn't overlap mesh together their vision." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Brains from animals without central overlap do not mesh together images. ", "Animals with zero central overlap do not mesh images together, they bob their heads side to side." ]

[ "The Great Recession of the late 2000s caused investors to address concerns within their portfolios. For this reason wealth managers have been advised that clients have a greater need to understand, access, and communicate with advisers about their situation.\n\nSection::::Family Wealth Management.\n\nJames E. Hughes Jr., in his book Family Wealth, defines the wealth of a family as the human and intellectual capital of the family, with financial capital being used to support the growth of the family’s human and intellectual capital.\n", "The Influence of Affluence: Because the middle-class millionaire is both willing and able to try new things (products, services, places and ways to live, etc.) they are an important indicator for how the world might be changing in the years to come. As Milton Friedman, the Nobel Prize–winning economist, once suggested, when it comes to innovation, the rich work for the poor.\n\nThe Hierarchy of Values: It’s easy to understand where the new rich are going to have the greatest impact when you understand their hierarchy of values. They share them with the rest of the middle class.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "As Paul Boateng, a British politician, stresses, \"a crisis presents both problems and opportunities.\" The opportunity is to be part of the solution: This industry can create well-paid jobs, benefiting both the shareholders and the companies in which it intervenes. To do this, we need to develop local purchasing policies and local content.\n", "Trump and Kiyosaki advise that these problems create opportunity for investors in the form of a future social class in the United States with only two tiers. The authors assert such a system will mostly benefit wealthy individuals. Trump writes that wealthy individuals are able to spot strategic advantages, \"The rich will spot the opportunities, while the poor will hide their heads and pretend it isn’t happening.\"\n", "Until quite recently, our understanding of the economy was based on the premise that the way forward would depend on traditional values and qualifications such as those for accountants, lawyers, engineers, mathematicians or computer programmers. With the new opportunities resulting from globalization and the internet, the accepted forms of success are losing ground to scenarios drawing on innovative ideas. Here there is an increasing need for artists, designers and creative authors to contribute not only to product design but also to business management and strategic planning.\n\nAreas deserving particular attention are related to three key developments:\n", "In the UK alone, an estimated £5.5 trillion is due to be passed between generations over the next 30 years – according to Kings Court Trust – yet according to the Attitudes Survey 2019, only half of Ultra High Net Worth Individuals have a robust succession plan in place.\n\nPassing on wealth is a major concern for wealthy families. \n\nSection::::Family Wealth Management.:The four dimensions of family wealth.\n\nBULLET::::1. Human: The skill sets, talents, and emotional maturity of everyone in the family.\n", "Written by Lewis Schiff (\"The Armchair Millionaire\") and Russ Allen Prince (\"Cultivating the Middle-class Millionaire: Why Financial Advisors Are Failing Their Wealthy Clients and What They Can Do About It\") the book introduces an entirely new way of understanding why certain trends are gaining momentum and where that momentum will lead to next.\n\nThe book shows us how this subset of America, labeled the Middle-Class Millionaire, manages to thrive with one foot in the world they came from (the middle-class) and one foot in the world they now inhabit (the wealthy).\n", "Privately owned or family-controlled enterprises are not always easy to study. In many cases, they are not subject to financial reporting requirements, and little information is made public about financial performance. Ownership may be distributed through trusts or holding companies, and family members themselves may not be fully informed about the ownership structure of their enterprise. However, as the 21st-century global economic model replaces the old industrial model, government policy makers, economists, and academics turn to entrepreneurial and family enterprises as a prime source of wealth creation and employment.\n", "In the interview Garner described the Not for Profit sector as equally vitally important as the corporate sector and talked about people being the focus in what is a “complex sector”. He said “we are not making widgets, but we are trying to lift somebody out of poverty into a new place – that is very difficult to do.\"\n", "Section::::Private wealth management.\n\nPrivate wealth management is delivered to high-net-worth investors. Generally this includes advice on the use of various estate planning vehicles, business-succession or stock-option planning, and the occasional use of hedging derivatives for large blocks of stock.\n\nTraditionally, the wealthiest retail clients of investment firms demanded a greater level of service, product offering and sales personnel than that received by average clients. With an increase in the number of affluent investors in recent years, there has been an increasing demand for sophisticated financial solutions and expertise throughout the world.\n", "The Economist also explained how an increasingly profitable corporate financial and banking sector caused Gini coefficients to rise in the U.S. since 1980: \"Financial services' share of GDP in America doubled to 8% between 1980 and 2000; over the same period their profits rose from about 10% to 35% of total corporate profits, before collapsing in 2007–09. Bankers are being paid more, too. In America the compensation of workers in financial services was similar to average compensation until 1980. Now it is twice that average.\"\n", "While these retailers and fast-food chains are profitable, their profit \"margins\" are not large, which limits their ability to follow the lead of successful companies in high-growth industries that pay relatively generous salaries, such as Apple Inc.The combined profits of all the major retailers, restaurant chains, and supermarkets in the Fortune 500 are smaller than the profits of Apple alone. Yet Apple employs just 76,000 people, while the retailers, supermarkets, and restaurant chains employ 5.6 million.\n", "A correlation has been shown between increases in income and increases in worker satisfaction. Increasing worker satisfaction, however, is not solely a result of the increase in income: workers in more complex and higher level occupations tend to have attained higher levels of education and thus are more likely to have a greater degree of autonomy in the workplace. Additionally, higher level workers with advanced degrees are hired to share their personal knowledge, to conceptualize, and to consult. Higher-level workers typically suffer less job alienation and reap not only external benefits in terms of income from their jobs, but also enjoy high levels of intrinsic motivation and satisfaction.\n", "The Wharton Global Family Alliance whitepaper was released in 2008 to study the investment strategies of single family offices in the United States and in Europe. The research was segregated into sub-groups representing those with less than $1 billion in assets and those with assets above $1 billion. The study found that U.S. families reported a more aggressive attitude toward investment objectives than their counterparts in Europe. One recommendation of the WGFA study advised the advisors and family offices serving this niche to avoid complexity in the structure of portfolios.\n", "Circa 2000, Wells predicts, the capable productive class will have developed a way of life characterized by a scientific worldview, an ethos of social duty, and an unsentimental view of personal relations that lead it to view \"a childless, sterile life\" as \"essentially failure and perversion.\" Families of this class will live in efficient households with no need for domestic servants. The shareholder class will cultivate opulent, archaic decoration, which Wells clearly deplores, and he also fears that its wealth may enable it not only to \"buy up almost all the available architectural talent\" but also \"in a certain figurative sense—buy up much of the womankind\" that would otherwise belong to the capable class.\n", "BULLET::::- Mazzucato, M. and Shipman, A. (2014), “Accounting for productive investment and value creation,” Industrial and Corporate Change, 23(1): 1-27\n\nBULLET::::- Lazonick, W., Mazzucato, M., and Tulum, O. (2013) “Apple's Changing Business Model: What Should the World's Richest Company Do with All Those Profits?” Accounting Forum. 37: 249-267\n\nBULLET::::- Mazzucato, M. (2013), “Finance, innovation and growth: finance for creative destruction vs. destructive creation,” in special issue of Industrial and Corporate Change, M. Mazzucato (ed.), 22(4): 869-901\n", "Service aspects of the economy are mainly centered on banking, education, transportation and health sectors. Thus, increasing numbers of people are involved in these sectors for their jobs.\n", "Recently, there has been great deal of work being done by various consultants, experts doing research in the social sciences and in neuro-science, and leaders in the field of diversity. After earning a communications degree from Emerson College, Stephen Young entered finance and eventually became senior vice president of JP Morgan Chase, managing the firm's global diversity strategy. Inspired by MIT Professor Mary P. Rowe's 1990 research into what she called \"microinequities\" in colleges and the workplace, he became a consultant and developed seminars to sensitize executives to the full range of what he calls \"micromessages.\" Young's company, Insight Education Systems, founded in 2002, has helped implement his program at Starbucks, Raytheon, Cisco, IBM, Merck, and other Fortune 500 corporations.\n", "Market forces outside of government intervention that can reduce economic inequality include:\n\nBULLET::::- propensity to spend: with rising wealth & income, a person may spend more. In an extreme example, if one person owned everything, they would immediately need to hire people to maintain their properties, thus reducing the wealth concentration.\n", "In a profile in \"The New York Times\", P-Orridge claimed that she was \"forced out [of the neighborhood] by the hipsters\" and that she would relocate to the Lower East Side.\n", "This income inequality a different idea than one where people \"reserve entitlements\" and places for their children and the children of people in their networks. While crony-ism and \"the old boy's network\" still exists, a new, more powerful form of networking is quickly forming, the Wisdom of Crowds made up of individuals, not unlike the individuals making up Wikipedia, who will form the face of 21st Century Revolution. These networks place a high premium on meritocracy, integrity, self-directedness, creativity and transparency. They will share and teach those like themselves, within their networks and virtual and face to face communities with or without money as their motivation.\n", "Or, to change the metaphor slightly, professional investment may be likened to those newspaper competitions in which the competitors have to pick out the six prettiest faces from a hundred photographs, the prize being awarded to the competitor whose choice most nearly corresponds to the average preferences of the competitors as a whole; so that each competitor has to pick, not those faces which he himself finds prettiest, but those which he thinks likeliest to catch the fancy of the other competitors, all of whom are looking at the problem from the same point of view. It is not a case of choosing those which, to the best of one's judgment, are really the prettiest, nor even those which average opinion genuinely thinks the prettiest. We have reached the third degree where we devote our intelligences to anticipating what average opinion expects the average opinion to be. And there are some, I believe, who practise the fourth, fifth and higher degrees.\n", "The 2013 edition of the World Wealth Report also included the inaugural Capgemini, RBC Wealth Management and Scorpio Partnership Global HNW Insights Survey. The survey represents one of the largest and most in-depth surveys of high-net-worth individuals ever conducted, surveying more than 4,400 HNWIs across 21 major wealth markets.\n\nThis survey-driven section of the report aimed to provide perspectives from the world's wealthy. Key findings included:\n\nBULLET::::- In Q1, 2013, around 61% of HNWIs said they have trust and confidence in their wealth managers and firms, an increase of roughly four and three percentage points respectively, from 2012.\n", "Despite their image of powerful entities overshadowing smaller payers, multinational companies often have provided valuable contribution to business clusters through R&D, training and development for local workers and spin off companies. This contribution has recently received a further boost with the emergence of the open innovation model which promotes ideas and knowledge sharing as a means to generate improvement and win-win outcomes.\n\nSection::::Features.:Interpersonal networks.\n", "According to the University of Chicago, the top 1% is primarily made up of owner-managers of small to medium sized businesses of which the most profitable are physician's and dentist's offices, professional and technical services, specialty trade contracting, legal services. The typical business has $7 million in sales and 57 employees. With a 10% profit margin, this will place two business partners in the top 1%. \n\nThe remainder of the top 1% tends to be the classic professions: medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, finance, and corporate executive management. \n" ]

[ "The best paying jobs do not create wealth." ]

[ "There are multiple factors that determine one's wealth and one's profession of choice alone can't be the main determining factor of one's net worth." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The best paying jobs do not create wealth.", "The best paying jobs do not create wealth." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "There are multiple factors that determine one's wealth and one's profession of choice alone can't be the main determining factor of one's net worth.", "There are multiple factors that determine one's wealth and one's profession of choice alone can't be the main determining factor of one's net worth." ]