INDUS: Effective and Efficient Language Models for Scientific Applications
Paper • 2405.10725 • Published • 35
id stringlengths 1 3 | question stringlengths 16 182 | is_impossible bool 2
classes | answers dict | context stringclasses 29
values |
|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | What issue causes environmental degradation? | false | {
"text": [
"Pollution"
],
"answer_start": [
51
],
"answer_end": [
60
]
} | The environmental degradation depletes ecosystems. Pollution is the main cause of environmental degradation. Pollution comes from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, agricultural runoff, chemical release, and poorly managed harvesting of natural resources. |
1 | What is Pollution is created from? | false | {
"text": [
"vehicle emissions, agricultural runoff, chemical release, and poorly managed harvesting of natural resources"
],
"answer_start": [
162
],
"answer_end": [
270
]
} | The environmental degradation depletes ecosystems. Pollution is the main cause of environmental degradation. Pollution comes from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, agricultural runoff, chemical release, and poorly managed harvesting of natural resources. |
2 | What depletes ecosystems? | false | {
"text": [
"Environmental degradation"
],
"answer_start": [
4
],
"answer_end": [
29
]
} | The environmental degradation depletes ecosystems. Pollution is the main cause of environmental degradation. Pollution comes from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, agricultural runoff, chemical release, and poorly managed harvesting of natural resources. |
3 | Which pollution source increases phosphorus and nitrite levels? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The environmental degradation depletes ecosystems. Pollution is the main cause of environmental degradation. Pollution comes from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, agricultural runoff, chemical release, and poorly managed harvesting of natural resources. |
4 | What is a pollution source? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The environmental degradation depletes ecosystems. Pollution is the main cause of environmental degradation. Pollution comes from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, agricultural runoff, chemical release, and poorly managed harvesting of natural resources. |
5 | How would you characterize HSLC environments across the West? | false | {
"text": [
"Drier lower troposphere and a surface triple-point or upslope setup"
],
"answer_start": [
751
],
"answer_end": [
818
]
} | High-shear, low-CAPE (HSLC) severe convection remains a forecasting challenge across time scales ranging from days to minutes in advance. These environments compose a majority of the EF1 or greater tornado and significant wind report population during the cool season, especially during the overnight hours. This populat... |
6 | Where do the majority of significant tornadoes and winds occur? | false | {
"text": [
"Southeast"
],
"answer_start": [
682
],
"answer_end": [
691
]
} | High-shear, low-CAPE (HSLC) severe convection remains a forecasting challenge across time scales ranging from days to minutes in advance. These environments compose a majority of the EF1 or greater tornado and significant wind report population during the cool season, especially during the overnight hours. This populat... |
7 | What is similar across all regions? | false | {
"text": [
"Middle and upper-tropospheric synoptic scale features"
],
"answer_start": [
1028
],
"answer_end": [
1081
]
} | High-shear, low-CAPE (HSLC) severe convection remains a forecasting challenge across time scales ranging from days to minutes in advance. These environments compose a majority of the EF1 or greater tornado and significant wind report population during the cool season, especially during the overnight hours. This populat... |
8 | When do high-shear, low-CAPE environments tend to occur? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | High-shear, low-CAPE (HSLC) severe convection remains a forecasting challenge across time scales ranging from days to minutes in advance. These environments compose a majority of the EF1 or greater tornado and significant wind report population during the cool season, especially during the overnight hours. This populat... |
9 | What is a surface triple-point? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | High-shear, low-CAPE (HSLC) severe convection remains a forecasting challenge across time scales ranging from days to minutes in advance. These environments compose a majority of the EF1 or greater tornado and significant wind report population during the cool season, especially during the overnight hours. This populat... |
10 | What was the most significant finding of the study? | false | {
"text": [
"the arrangement of ζ and w maxima within each MV progresses in a common fashion as the MVs are located in various regions of the hurricane eyewall"
],
"answer_start": [
51
],
"answer_end": [
197
]
} | The most significant finding of this study is that the arrangement of ζ and w maxima within each MV progresses in a common fashion as the MVs are located in various regions of the hurricane eyewall. After Ike's center crossed the Bolivar Peninsula, MVs continued to persist and even initiate. The MVs forming after landf... |
11 | For this case, did mesovortices (MVs) form after the TC made landfall? | false | {
"text": [
"after"
],
"answer_start": [
309
],
"answer_end": [
314
]
} | The most significant finding of this study is that the arrangement of ζ and w maxima within each MV progresses in a common fashion as the MVs are located in various regions of the hurricane eyewall. After Ike's center crossed the Bolivar Peninsula, MVs continued to persist and even initiate. The MVs forming after landf... |
12 | What occurred that changed the processes that generate and maintain mesovortices (MVs)? | false | {
"text": [
"the storm moved inland and began weakening"
],
"answer_start": [
446
],
"answer_end": [
488
]
} | The most significant finding of this study is that the arrangement of ζ and w maxima within each MV progresses in a common fashion as the MVs are located in various regions of the hurricane eyewall. After Ike's center crossed the Bolivar Peninsula, MVs continued to persist and even initiate. The MVs forming after landf... |
13 | What is the typical arrangement of potential vorticity (ζ) and vertical motion (w) maxima for tropical cyclone eyewall mesovortices (MVs)? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The most significant finding of this study is that the arrangement of ζ and w maxima within each MV progresses in a common fashion as the MVs are located in various regions of the hurricane eyewall. After Ike's center crossed the Bolivar Peninsula, MVs continued to persist and even initiate. The MVs forming after landf... |
14 | Do mesovortices (MVs) generated well after landfall exhibit the same kinematic signatures as MVs that formed well prior to landfall? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The most significant finding of this study is that the arrangement of ζ and w maxima within each MV progresses in a common fashion as the MVs are located in various regions of the hurricane eyewall. After Ike's center crossed the Bolivar Peninsula, MVs continued to persist and even initiate. The MVs forming after landf... |
15 | What additional parameters are used to evaluate time lag in this study? | false | {
"text": [
"Dm and Ze"
],
"answer_start": [
394
],
"answer_end": [
403
]
} | Comparing instantaneous GPM sensor precipitation measurements above the surface with ground observations should involve some time lag due to fall delay. Therefore, this study conducts a time lag comparison of R to surface platforms, similar to past studies (e.g., Amitai et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2018), but with two addit... |
16 | Why are DPR and GMI observations extracted at heights at least 1 km below the melting level and above the LCFH? | false | {
"text": [
"to avoid ground clutter contamination"
],
"answer_start": [
576
],
"answer_end": [
613
]
} | Comparing instantaneous GPM sensor precipitation measurements above the surface with ground observations should involve some time lag due to fall delay. Therefore, this study conducts a time lag comparison of R to surface platforms, similar to past studies (e.g., Amitai et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2018), but with two addit... |
17 | Is a consistent interval of time lag observed in the present case? | false | {
"text": [
"no"
],
"answer_start": [
888
],
"answer_end": [
890
]
} | Comparing instantaneous GPM sensor precipitation measurements above the surface with ground observations should involve some time lag due to fall delay. Therefore, this study conducts a time lag comparison of R to surface platforms, similar to past studies (e.g., Amitai et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2018), but with two addit... |
18 | Did the satellite-based precipitation estimates in this case compare well to the ground-based observations? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Comparing instantaneous GPM sensor precipitation measurements above the surface with ground observations should involve some time lag due to fall delay. Therefore, this study conducts a time lag comparison of R to surface platforms, similar to past studies (e.g., Amitai et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2018), but with two addit... |
19 | What amount of time lag fall delay was observed in the Tan et al. (2008) study? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Comparing instantaneous GPM sensor precipitation measurements above the surface with ground observations should involve some time lag due to fall delay. Therefore, this study conducts a time lag comparison of R to surface platforms, similar to past studies (e.g., Amitai et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2018), but with two addit... |
20 | What time of the year do asian dust storms frequently occur? | false | {
"text": [
"nearly every spring"
],
"answer_start": [
246
],
"answer_end": [
265
]
} | Asian sand and dust storms (SDSs) are a very important environmental issue, and one of the major natural hazards in the Mongolian regions and northern China [1], [2]. Major dust storms, usually from the Mongolian desert, occur over these regions nearly every spring. Due to the limited ground environmental and climatic ... |
21 | Can airborne dust from asia reach US? | false | {
"text": [
"Asian dust could transport across the Pacific Ocean and reach as far as the western U.S."
],
"answer_start": [
907
],
"answer_end": [
995
]
} | Asian sand and dust storms (SDSs) are a very important environmental issue, and one of the major natural hazards in the Mongolian regions and northern China [1], [2]. Major dust storms, usually from the Mongolian desert, occur over these regions nearly every spring. Due to the limited ground environmental and climatic ... |
22 | What factors contribute in the formation of dust storms? | false | {
"text": [
"weather system, short-term precipitation, soil moisture, and extent of deforestation, long-term increased drought, land use/land coverage changes, as well as other human activities."
],
"answer_start": [
1383
],
"answer_end": [
1564
]
} | Asian sand and dust storms (SDSs) are a very important environmental issue, and one of the major natural hazards in the Mongolian regions and northern China [1], [2]. Major dust storms, usually from the Mongolian desert, occur over these regions nearly every spring. Due to the limited ground environmental and climatic ... |
23 | Can you monitor asian dust storms using GOES sensor? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Asian sand and dust storms (SDSs) are a very important environmental issue, and one of the major natural hazards in the Mongolian regions and northern China [1], [2]. Major dust storms, usually from the Mongolian desert, occur over these regions nearly every spring. Due to the limited ground environmental and climatic ... |
24 | what is the only way to monitor airborne dust storms? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Asian sand and dust storms (SDSs) are a very important environmental issue, and one of the major natural hazards in the Mongolian regions and northern China [1], [2]. Major dust storms, usually from the Mongolian desert, occur over these regions nearly every spring. Due to the limited ground environmental and climatic ... |
25 | Which MODIS bands have spatial resolution of 500 m? | false | {
"text": [
"bands 3-7"
],
"answer_start": [
82
],
"answer_end": [
91
]
} | MODIS has three different spatial resolutions including 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), and the 1-km (bands 8-36). There are a total of 20 solar reflectance bands (SRBs) (1-19 and 26) from 0.41-2.13 μm [11]. There are spectral signatures for hundreds of materials in the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Re... |
26 | Which MODIS spectral band has the maximum reflectance for sand? | false | {
"text": [
"band 7 (2.13 μm)"
],
"answer_start": [
1016
],
"answer_end": [
1032
]
} | MODIS has three different spatial resolutions including 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), and the 1-km (bands 8-36). There are a total of 20 solar reflectance bands (SRBs) (1-19 and 26) from 0.41-2.13 μm [11]. There are spectral signatures for hundreds of materials in the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Re... |
27 | Where can you find spectral signatures for different materials useful for remote sensing? | false | {
"text": [
"Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) spectrum library"
],
"answer_start": [
277
],
"answer_end": [
364
]
} | MODIS has three different spatial resolutions including 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), and the 1-km (bands 8-36). There are a total of 20 solar reflectance bands (SRBs) (1-19 and 26) from 0.41-2.13 μm [11]. There are spectral signatures for hundreds of materials in the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Re... |
28 | Can a single MODIS spectral band can identify airborne dust? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | MODIS has three different spatial resolutions including 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), and the 1-km (bands 8-36). There are a total of 20 solar reflectance bands (SRBs) (1-19 and 26) from 0.41-2.13 μm [11]. There are spectral signatures for hundreds of materials in the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Re... |
29 | Is it possible to distinguish between airborne dust and cirrus clouds using MODIS data? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | MODIS has three different spatial resolutions including 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), and the 1-km (bands 8-36). There are a total of 20 solar reflectance bands (SRBs) (1-19 and 26) from 0.41-2.13 μm [11]. There are spectral signatures for hundreds of materials in the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Re... |
30 | What impacts historical precipitation observations? | false | {
"text": [
"non-climatic biases"
],
"answer_start": [
57
],
"answer_end": [
76
]
} | Historical precipitation observations can be impacted by non-climatic biases that must be assessed and minimized. Problems with 19th century precipitation data can include conversion of snowfall to liquid equivalent, high placement of the rain gauge that can cause lower liquid accumulation with higher wind speed, infre... |
31 | When do most problems of undercounted precipitation occur in historical precipitation records? | false | {
"text": [
"cold season"
],
"answer_start": [
760
],
"answer_end": [
771
]
} | Historical precipitation observations can be impacted by non-climatic biases that must be assessed and minimized. Problems with 19th century precipitation data can include conversion of snowfall to liquid equivalent, high placement of the rain gauge that can cause lower liquid accumulation with higher wind speed, infre... |
32 | Why was this study restricted to the warm season? | false | {
"text": [
"Most of the undercount problem occurs in the cold season"
],
"answer_start": [
715
],
"answer_end": [
771
]
} | Historical precipitation observations can be impacted by non-climatic biases that must be assessed and minimized. Problems with 19th century precipitation data can include conversion of snowfall to liquid equivalent, high placement of the rain gauge that can cause lower liquid accumulation with higher wind speed, infre... |
33 | What does the estimate of effective moisture not account for? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Historical precipitation observations can be impacted by non-climatic biases that must be assessed and minimized. Problems with 19th century precipitation data can include conversion of snowfall to liquid equivalent, high placement of the rain gauge that can cause lower liquid accumulation with higher wind speed, infre... |
34 | What threshold value was used to minimize the undercount biases in the precipitation data during the warm season? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Historical precipitation observations can be impacted by non-climatic biases that must be assessed and minimized. Problems with 19th century precipitation data can include conversion of snowfall to liquid equivalent, high placement of the rain gauge that can cause lower liquid accumulation with higher wind speed, infre... |
35 | What is a major source of PM2.5 emissions in the US? | false | {
"text": [
"Wildland fires"
],
"answer_start": [
0
],
"answer_end": [
14
]
} | Wildland fires are a major source of particulate matter with diameters smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in the United States (US). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2011 National Emissions Inventory (NEI), wildland fires emit 25% of primary PM 2.5 in the US.1 In the southeastern US, wildland fire burn a... |
36 | What type of wildland fires dominate in the southeastern US? | false | {
"text": [
"human-ignited prescribed burns or agricultural burns"
],
"answer_start": [
340
],
"answer_end": [
392
]
} | Wildland fires are a major source of particulate matter with diameters smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in the United States (US). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2011 National Emissions Inventory (NEI), wildland fires emit 25% of primary PM 2.5 in the US.1 In the southeastern US, wildland fire burn a... |
37 | When do most wildland fire emissions occur in the western US? | false | {
"text": [
"in the summer"
],
"answer_start": [
687
],
"answer_end": [
700
]
} | Wildland fires are a major source of particulate matter with diameters smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in the United States (US). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2011 National Emissions Inventory (NEI), wildland fires emit 25% of primary PM 2.5 in the US.1 In the southeastern US, wildland fire burn a... |
38 | What trace gases do wildland fires emit? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Wildland fires are a major source of particulate matter with diameters smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in the United States (US). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2011 National Emissions Inventory (NEI), wildland fires emit 25% of primary PM 2.5 in the US.1 In the southeastern US, wildland fire burn a... |
39 | What are the health effects of emissions from wildland fires? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Wildland fires are a major source of particulate matter with diameters smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in the United States (US). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2011 National Emissions Inventory (NEI), wildland fires emit 25% of primary PM 2.5 in the US.1 In the southeastern US, wildland fire burn a... |
40 | Which are important factors for high-impact weather events? | false | {
"text": [
"gust fronts and other wind discontinuities"
],
"answer_start": [
121
],
"answer_end": [
163
]
} | Unlike continental storms that exhibit strong diurnal variability in energy exchanges, maritime storms have less variable fluxes that reach lower peaks. Therefore, gust fronts and other wind discontinuities are of key importance in high-impact weather events, as they focus moisture convergence and lead to the developme... |
41 | What is the use of scatterometers? | false | {
"text": [
"Scatterometers have the ability to retrieve the surface winds"
],
"answer_start": [
761
],
"answer_end": [
822
]
} | Unlike continental storms that exhibit strong diurnal variability in energy exchanges, maritime storms have less variable fluxes that reach lower peaks. Therefore, gust fronts and other wind discontinuities are of key importance in high-impact weather events, as they focus moisture convergence and lead to the developme... |
42 | How is the wind and precipitation related? | false | {
"text": [
"The authors found a significant correlation between the wind speed and precipitation"
],
"answer_start": [
1506
],
"answer_end": [
1590
]
} | Unlike continental storms that exhibit strong diurnal variability in energy exchanges, maritime storms have less variable fluxes that reach lower peaks. Therefore, gust fronts and other wind discontinuities are of key importance in high-impact weather events, as they focus moisture convergence and lead to the developme... |
43 | What is the effect of rain on scatterometer measurements? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Unlike continental storms that exhibit strong diurnal variability in energy exchanges, maritime storms have less variable fluxes that reach lower peaks. Therefore, gust fronts and other wind discontinuities are of key importance in high-impact weather events, as they focus moisture convergence and lead to the developme... |
44 | What is the name of a ku-band scatterometer? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Unlike continental storms that exhibit strong diurnal variability in energy exchanges, maritime storms have less variable fluxes that reach lower peaks. Therefore, gust fronts and other wind discontinuities are of key importance in high-impact weather events, as they focus moisture convergence and lead to the developme... |
45 | Which area of the cyclone has the highest rainfall when the cyclone's translation speed increases? | false | {
"text": [
"Forward sector of the TC"
],
"answer_start": [
1050
],
"answer_end": [
1074
]
} | Using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission rain estimates the relationship between rainfall and intensity changes in tropical cyclones (TCs) over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) based on 71 TCs during 1997-2017 is investigated. The axisymmetric analyses revealed that climatologically the Bay of Bengal (BoB) TCs produce ext... |
46 | Where do cyclones originate more frequently out of Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal? | false | {
"text": [
"Bay of Bengal"
],
"answer_start": [
285
],
"answer_end": [
298
]
} | Using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission rain estimates the relationship between rainfall and intensity changes in tropical cyclones (TCs) over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) based on 71 TCs during 1997-2017 is investigated. The axisymmetric analyses revealed that climatologically the Bay of Bengal (BoB) TCs produce ext... |
47 | Which cyclone's sector or quadrant experiences the most rainfall in the North Indian Ocean ? | false | {
"text": [
"Left-forward sector"
],
"answer_start": [
562
],
"answer_end": [
581
]
} | Using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission rain estimates the relationship between rainfall and intensity changes in tropical cyclones (TCs) over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) based on 71 TCs during 1997-2017 is investigated. The axisymmetric analyses revealed that climatologically the Bay of Bengal (BoB) TCs produce ext... |
48 | Why does the Bay of Bengal experience more cyclones than the Arabian Sea? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission rain estimates the relationship between rainfall and intensity changes in tropical cyclones (TCs) over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) based on 71 TCs during 1997-2017 is investigated. The axisymmetric analyses revealed that climatologically the Bay of Bengal (BoB) TCs produce ext... |
49 | Why there is a calm weather or no rainfall at the core of the cyclone ? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | Using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission rain estimates the relationship between rainfall and intensity changes in tropical cyclones (TCs) over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) based on 71 TCs during 1997-2017 is investigated. The axisymmetric analyses revealed that climatologically the Bay of Bengal (BoB) TCs produce ext... |
50 | What's values of Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential ( TCHP) favors the most for intensification of cyclones ? | false | {
"text": [
"40-80 kJ/cm"
],
"answer_start": [
601
],
"answer_end": [
612
]
} | The Bay of Bengal (BoB) exhibits notable seasonal variations in tropical cyclone heat potential (TCHP), barrier layer thickness (BLT) and sea-surface temperature (SST). These parameters also undergo profound changes in the presence of tropical cyclones (TCs). The composite structures of these ocean parameters as a func... |
51 | Which sector of the tropical cyclone experiences significant changes in TCHP anomaly (TCHPA) as the intensity increases. | false | {
"text": [
"Right-rear sector"
],
"answer_start": [
830
],
"answer_end": [
847
]
} | The Bay of Bengal (BoB) exhibits notable seasonal variations in tropical cyclone heat potential (TCHP), barrier layer thickness (BLT) and sea-surface temperature (SST). These parameters also undergo profound changes in the presence of tropical cyclones (TCs). The composite structures of these ocean parameters as a func... |
52 | Which season sees a greater amount of cooling for cyclones? | false | {
"text": [
"pre-monsoon season"
],
"answer_start": [
1710
],
"answer_end": [
1728
]
} | The Bay of Bengal (BoB) exhibits notable seasonal variations in tropical cyclone heat potential (TCHP), barrier layer thickness (BLT) and sea-surface temperature (SST). These parameters also undergo profound changes in the presence of tropical cyclones (TCs). The composite structures of these ocean parameters as a func... |
53 | How does TCHP change affect the cyclone intensity change? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The Bay of Bengal (BoB) exhibits notable seasonal variations in tropical cyclone heat potential (TCHP), barrier layer thickness (BLT) and sea-surface temperature (SST). These parameters also undergo profound changes in the presence of tropical cyclones (TCs). The composite structures of these ocean parameters as a func... |
54 | Why slow moving tropical cyclone produce maximum TCHPA cooling in the rear sector ? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The Bay of Bengal (BoB) exhibits notable seasonal variations in tropical cyclone heat potential (TCHP), barrier layer thickness (BLT) and sea-surface temperature (SST). These parameters also undergo profound changes in the presence of tropical cyclones (TCs). The composite structures of these ocean parameters as a func... |
55 | What cyclone intensity should the model be initialized at to obtain the more accurate forecast? | false | {
"text": [
"stronger intensity (SCS and VSCS) stages"
],
"answer_start": [
962
],
"answer_end": [
1002
]
} | The hydrological extremes due to the landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) pose a severe threat to the coastal communities over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region. Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting (ARW) model is obscure in rainfall prediction, while it is extensively evaluated for track and intensity p... |
56 | Where does the model produce the least error—the inner or outer core of the cyclone? | false | {
"text": [
"TC environment (200-400 km)"
],
"answer_start": [
1181
],
"answer_end": [
1208
]
} | The hydrological extremes due to the landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) pose a severe threat to the coastal communities over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region. Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting (ARW) model is obscure in rainfall prediction, while it is extensively evaluated for track and intensity p... |
57 | How much of the RMSE has been decreased following the CRA correction? | false | {
"text": [
"3-15%"
],
"answer_start": [
1999
],
"answer_end": [
2004
]
} | The hydrological extremes due to the landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) pose a severe threat to the coastal communities over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region. Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting (ARW) model is obscure in rainfall prediction, while it is extensively evaluated for track and intensity p... |
58 | What is the difference between the pattern and displacement error? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The hydrological extremes due to the landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) pose a severe threat to the coastal communities over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region. Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting (ARW) model is obscure in rainfall prediction, while it is extensively evaluated for track and intensity p... |
59 | Why the landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) pose a severe threat to the coastal communities over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The hydrological extremes due to the landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) pose a severe threat to the coastal communities over the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region. Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting (ARW) model is obscure in rainfall prediction, while it is extensively evaluated for track and intensity p... |
60 | Which approach relates the NRCS measurements to the surface friction velocity and wind stress? | false | {
"text": [
"Bragg scattering"
],
"answer_start": [
172
],
"answer_end": [
188
]
} | The physical modeling of the relationship between sea-surface wind speeds from 5 to 15 m/s and microwave radar backscatter has advanced to a mature area of knowledge [18]. Bragg scattering is the generally accepted interpretation of observations made by scatterometers under these wind conditions and incidence angles ty... |
61 | When does the elementary relationship between surface roughness and wind breaks down? | false | {
"text": [
"higher wind regimes"
],
"answer_start": [
1234
],
"answer_end": [
1253
]
} | The physical modeling of the relationship between sea-surface wind speeds from 5 to 15 m/s and microwave radar backscatter has advanced to a mature area of knowledge [18]. Bragg scattering is the generally accepted interpretation of observations made by scatterometers under these wind conditions and incidence angles ty... |
62 | How is the increase of wind speeds approximated to the growth of the wave spectrum? | false | {
"text": [
"By closed-form mathematical functions"
],
"answer_start": [
650
],
"answer_end": [
687
]
} | The physical modeling of the relationship between sea-surface wind speeds from 5 to 15 m/s and microwave radar backscatter has advanced to a mature area of knowledge [18]. Bragg scattering is the generally accepted interpretation of observations made by scatterometers under these wind conditions and incidence angles ty... |
63 | In what frequency does QuickSCAT operate? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The physical modeling of the relationship between sea-surface wind speeds from 5 to 15 m/s and microwave radar backscatter has advanced to a mature area of knowledge [18]. Bragg scattering is the generally accepted interpretation of observations made by scatterometers under these wind conditions and incidence angles ty... |
64 | What is an example of scatterometer? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The physical modeling of the relationship between sea-surface wind speeds from 5 to 15 m/s and microwave radar backscatter has advanced to a mature area of knowledge [18]. Bragg scattering is the generally accepted interpretation of observations made by scatterometers under these wind conditions and incidence angles ty... |
65 | The depletion of landscapes create unfamiliarity and stops the utilization of what? | false | {
"text": [
"resources"
],
"answer_start": [
101
],
"answer_end": [
110
]
} | The depletion of landscapes creates unfamiliarity to inhabiting populations and stops utilization of resources. Unable to experience the landscape destroys identity, sense of place, disturbs the pristine environment, depletes resources, and extinction of animal populations. An example of an issue that can cause environ... |
66 | What is the main cause of environmental degradation? | false | {
"text": [
"pollution"
],
"answer_start": [
342
],
"answer_end": [
351
]
} | The depletion of landscapes creates unfamiliarity to inhabiting populations and stops utilization of resources. Unable to experience the landscape destroys identity, sense of place, disturbs the pristine environment, depletes resources, and extinction of animal populations. An example of an issue that can cause environ... |
67 | Name one source that causes pollution? | false | {
"text": [
"Vehicle emissions"
],
"answer_start": [
470
],
"answer_end": [
487
]
} | The depletion of landscapes creates unfamiliarity to inhabiting populations and stops utilization of resources. Unable to experience the landscape destroys identity, sense of place, disturbs the pristine environment, depletes resources, and extinction of animal populations. An example of an issue that can cause environ... |
68 | Which pollution source causes nitrite and phosphorus levels to exceed? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The depletion of landscapes creates unfamiliarity to inhabiting populations and stops utilization of resources. Unable to experience the landscape destroys identity, sense of place, disturbs the pristine environment, depletes resources, and extinction of animal populations. An example of an issue that can cause environ... |
69 | What pollution source is entirely caused by humans? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The depletion of landscapes creates unfamiliarity to inhabiting populations and stops utilization of resources. Unable to experience the landscape destroys identity, sense of place, disturbs the pristine environment, depletes resources, and extinction of animal populations. An example of an issue that can cause environ... |
70 | What's primary kind of forest disturbance since 2004? | false | {
"text": [
"D/ND"
],
"answer_start": [
530
],
"answer_end": [
534
]
} | The biennial area estimates allow for evaluation of trends over time in undisturbed, regenerating, and secondary forests (Figure 4). Consistent with previous estimates, deforestation in the Amazon Ecoregion decreased significantly after the implementation of PPCDAm in Brazil in 2004 (Aragão et al., 2018; Instituto Naci... |
71 | Which estimate has the largest uncertainty, the area estimate of deforestation or that of D/ND? | false | {
"text": [
"D/ND"
],
"answer_start": [
530
],
"answer_end": [
534
]
} | The biennial area estimates allow for evaluation of trends over time in undisturbed, regenerating, and secondary forests (Figure 4). Consistent with previous estimates, deforestation in the Amazon Ecoregion decreased significantly after the implementation of PPCDAm in Brazil in 2004 (Aragão et al., 2018; Instituto Naci... |
72 | Which has increased more since 2004, deforestation or D/ND? | false | {
"text": [
"D/ND"
],
"answer_start": [
530
],
"answer_end": [
534
]
} | The biennial area estimates allow for evaluation of trends over time in undisturbed, regenerating, and secondary forests (Figure 4). Consistent with previous estimates, deforestation in the Amazon Ecoregion decreased significantly after the implementation of PPCDAm in Brazil in 2004 (Aragão et al., 2018; Instituto Naci... |
73 | Which sampling design was used for the area estimation? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The biennial area estimates allow for evaluation of trends over time in undisturbed, regenerating, and secondary forests (Figure 4). Consistent with previous estimates, deforestation in the Amazon Ecoregion decreased significantly after the implementation of PPCDAm in Brazil in 2004 (Aragão et al., 2018; Instituto Naci... |
74 | Which satellite data source was used for the time series analysis? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The biennial area estimates allow for evaluation of trends over time in undisturbed, regenerating, and secondary forests (Figure 4). Consistent with previous estimates, deforestation in the Amazon Ecoregion decreased significantly after the implementation of PPCDAm in Brazil in 2004 (Aragão et al., 2018; Instituto Naci... |
75 | What are strata? | false | {
"text": [
"discrete, mutually exclusive subsets"
],
"answer_start": [
50
],
"answer_end": [
86
]
} | There is often a desire to partition the ROI into discrete, mutually exclusive subsets or strata (e.g., a global map could be stratified geographically by continents). Stratification is a partitioning of the ROI in which each assessment unit is assigned to a single stratum. The two most common attributes used to constr... |
76 | What are two purposes of a stratification? | false | {
"text": [
"when the strata are of interest for reporting results"
],
"answer_start": [
490
],
"answer_end": [
543
]
} | There is often a desire to partition the ROI into discrete, mutually exclusive subsets or strata (e.g., a global map could be stratified geographically by continents). Stratification is a partitioning of the ROI in which each assessment unit is assigned to a single stratum. The two most common attributes used to constr... |
77 | What are two common attributes used to construct strata? | false | {
"text": [
"the classes determined from the map and geographic subregions within the ROI"
],
"answer_start": [
335
],
"answer_end": [
411
]
} | There is often a desire to partition the ROI into discrete, mutually exclusive subsets or strata (e.g., a global map could be stratified geographically by continents). Stratification is a partitioning of the ROI in which each assessment unit is assigned to a single stratum. The two most common attributes used to constr... |
78 | What is stratified random sampling? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | There is often a desire to partition the ROI into discrete, mutually exclusive subsets or strata (e.g., a global map could be stratified geographically by continents). Stratification is a partitioning of the ROI in which each assessment unit is assigned to a single stratum. The two most common attributes used to constr... |
79 | How many strata should I construct? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | There is often a desire to partition the ROI into discrete, mutually exclusive subsets or strata (e.g., a global map could be stratified geographically by continents). Stratification is a partitioning of the ROI in which each assessment unit is assigned to a single stratum. The two most common attributes used to constr... |
80 | what is Saharan Air Layer? | false | {
"text": [
"intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust. As the air mass propagates westward over the Atlantic, it is undercut by cool, moist marine air. This elevated air mass is often referred to as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL)."
],
"a... | During summer and early fall, intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust. As the air mass propagates westward over the Atlantic, it is undercut by cool, moist marine air. This elevated air mass is often referred to as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL).... |
81 | What causes the formation of Saharan Air Layer? | false | {
"text": [
"intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust."
],
"answer_start": [
30
],
"answer_end": [
147
]
} | During summer and early fall, intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust. As the air mass propagates westward over the Atlantic, it is undercut by cool, moist marine air. This elevated air mass is often referred to as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL).... |
82 | How does Saharan Air Layer impact Atlantic Tropical Cyclone activity? | false | {
"text": [
"The SAL tends to suppress Atlantic tropical cyclone activity by introducing dry, stable air into the storm, increasing the vertical wind shear and the temperature inversion at lower level."
],
"answer_start": [
683
],
"answer_end": [
871
]
} | During summer and early fall, intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust. As the air mass propagates westward over the Atlantic, it is undercut by cool, moist marine air. This elevated air mass is often referred to as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL).... |
83 | How does Sea Surface Temperature impact Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | During summer and early fall, intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust. As the air mass propagates westward over the Atlantic, it is undercut by cool, moist marine air. This elevated air mass is often referred to as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL).... |
84 | How does dust impact Atlantic Tropical Cyclone activity? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | During summer and early fall, intense heating over the Sahara desert forms a deep mixed atmospheric layer containing hot, dry air and mineral dust. As the air mass propagates westward over the Atlantic, it is undercut by cool, moist marine air. This elevated air mass is often referred to as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL).... |
85 | How much dust is transported across the Atlantic every year? | false | {
"text": [
"It is estimated that 240 ± 80 million tons of Saharan dust are transported from Africa to the Atlantic Ocean every year [Kaufman et al., 2005]."
],
"answer_start": [
0
],
"answer_end": [
143
]
} | It is estimated that 240 ± 80 million tons of Saharan dust are transported from Africa to the Atlantic Ocean every year [Kaufman et al., 2005]. Dust can directly impact the radiative balance of the earth by absorbing and scattering sunlight. Dust, especially those coated with sulfur and other soluble materials [Levin e... |
86 | How does dust impact earth's radiation budget? | false | {
"text": [
"Dust can directly impact the radiative balance of the earth by absorbing and scattering sunlight."
],
"answer_start": [
144
],
"answer_end": [
241
]
} | It is estimated that 240 ± 80 million tons of Saharan dust are transported from Africa to the Atlantic Ocean every year [Kaufman et al., 2005]. Dust can directly impact the radiative balance of the earth by absorbing and scattering sunlight. Dust, especially those coated with sulfur and other soluble materials [Levin e... |
87 | How does does impact cloud formation? | false | {
"text": [
"Dust, especially those coated with sulfur and other soluble materials [Levin et al., 1996], can also affect the cloud development by acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), giant CCN (GCCN) and ice nuclei (IN) [DeMott et al., 2003; van den Heever et al., 2006]"
],
"answer_start": [
242
]... | It is estimated that 240 ± 80 million tons of Saharan dust are transported from Africa to the Atlantic Ocean every year [Kaufman et al., 2005]. Dust can directly impact the radiative balance of the earth by absorbing and scattering sunlight. Dust, especially those coated with sulfur and other soluble materials [Levin e... |
88 | How does Sea Surface Temperature impact Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | It is estimated that 240 ± 80 million tons of Saharan dust are transported from Africa to the Atlantic Ocean every year [Kaufman et al., 2005]. Dust can directly impact the radiative balance of the earth by absorbing and scattering sunlight. Dust, especially those coated with sulfur and other soluble materials [Levin e... |
89 | Do mesoscale convective systems form because of airborne dust? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | It is estimated that 240 ± 80 million tons of Saharan dust are transported from Africa to the Atlantic Ocean every year [Kaufman et al., 2005]. Dust can directly impact the radiative balance of the earth by absorbing and scattering sunlight. Dust, especially those coated with sulfur and other soluble materials [Levin e... |
90 | What role does dust play in the development of tropical cyclones? | false | {
"text": [
"dust as CCN may play a role in a TC's development during its interaction with the SAL"
],
"answer_start": [
42
],
"answer_end": [
127
]
} | This paper presents evidence to show that dust as CCN may play a role in a TC's development during its interaction with the SAL. The simulations of an idealized TC using the RAMS model initialized with a pre-TC MCV have shown that dust in the SAL acting as CCN can influence TC development by inducing changes in the hyd... |
91 | What numerical model can you use to simulate tropical cyclones? | false | {
"text": [
"RAMS model initialized with a pre-TC MCV"
],
"answer_start": [
174
],
"answer_end": [
214
]
} | This paper presents evidence to show that dust as CCN may play a role in a TC's development during its interaction with the SAL. The simulations of an idealized TC using the RAMS model initialized with a pre-TC MCV have shown that dust in the SAL acting as CCN can influence TC development by inducing changes in the hyd... |
92 | What role do environmental conditions play on determining the impact of CCN on storm intensity? | false | {
"text": [
"It has also been shown that the impact of varying CCN on storm intensity evolution is modified by other environmental conditions, such as the ambient GCCN concentration and its vertical profile."
],
"answer_start": [
502
],
"answer_end": [
696
]
} | This paper presents evidence to show that dust as CCN may play a role in a TC's development during its interaction with the SAL. The simulations of an idealized TC using the RAMS model initialized with a pre-TC MCV have shown that dust in the SAL acting as CCN can influence TC development by inducing changes in the hyd... |
93 | What roles does atmospheric dynamics play in the intensification of tropical cyclones? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | This paper presents evidence to show that dust as CCN may play a role in a TC's development during its interaction with the SAL. The simulations of an idealized TC using the RAMS model initialized with a pre-TC MCV have shown that dust in the SAL acting as CCN can influence TC development by inducing changes in the hyd... |
94 | Do a wide range of meteorological conditions impact tropical cyclone development? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | This paper presents evidence to show that dust as CCN may play a role in a TC's development during its interaction with the SAL. The simulations of an idealized TC using the RAMS model initialized with a pre-TC MCV have shown that dust in the SAL acting as CCN can influence TC development by inducing changes in the hyd... |
95 | The geographic distribution of adaptation action challenges what? | false | {
"text": [
"The traditional north-south dichotomy"
],
"answer_start": [
60
],
"answer_end": [
97
]
} | The geographic distribution of adaptation action challenges the traditional north-south dichotomy which often captures climate change discourse. While low income countries are underrepresented in adaptation reporting, there are interesting anomalies including more reporting from Africa than North America, and considera... |
96 | The adaptation deficit appears to be significant to who? | false | {
"text": [
"Middle-income nations"
],
"answer_start": [
423
],
"answer_end": [
444
]
} | The geographic distribution of adaptation action challenges the traditional north-south dichotomy which often captures climate change discourse. While low income countries are underrepresented in adaptation reporting, there are interesting anomalies including more reporting from Africa than North America, and considera... |
97 | middle-income nations who often have similar vulnerability profiles to who? | false | {
"text": [
"Low income countries"
],
"answer_start": [
151
],
"answer_end": [
171
]
} | The geographic distribution of adaptation action challenges the traditional north-south dichotomy which often captures climate change discourse. While low income countries are underrepresented in adaptation reporting, there are interesting anomalies including more reporting from Africa than North America, and considera... |
98 | How long does it take the adaptation deficit to improve? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The geographic distribution of adaptation action challenges the traditional north-south dichotomy which often captures climate change discourse. While low income countries are underrepresented in adaptation reporting, there are interesting anomalies including more reporting from Africa than North America, and considera... |
99 | What improves the adaptation deficit? | true | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": [],
"answer_end": []
} | The geographic distribution of adaptation action challenges the traditional north-south dichotomy which often captures climate change discourse. While low income countries are underrepresented in adaptation reporting, there are interesting anomalies including more reporting from Africa than North America, and considera... |
End of preview. Expand in Data Studio
NASA-QA (Cleaned, SQuAD v2 Format)
This dataset is a cleaned and reformatted derivative of: https://huggingface.co/datasets/nasa-impact/nasa-smd-qa-benchmark
The original dataset is an extractive question answering benchmark in the Earth science domain.
This version modifies the data to ensure compatibility with SQuAD v2-style training and evaluation.
Changes from Original
Compared to the original release, this version:
- converts the nested structure into one example per QA pair
- reformats the dataset into SQuAD v2-style schema
- removes
plausible_answersfrom unanswerable examples - adds explicit
answer_endindices - normalizes answer text (e.g., casing, punctuation, whitespace)
- realigns answer spans to match exact substrings in the context
- fixes incorrect or inconsistent answer offsets
- All answerable examples are aligned such that:
the answer text appears exactly in the context at the specified indices
Dataset Structure
Each example contains:
id: unique identifierquestion: question textcontext: paragraph contextanswers:text: list of answer stringsanswer_start: start indicesanswer_end: end indices
is_impossible: whether the question is unanswerable
Splits:
trainvalidation
Notes
- This dataset is intended for extractive QA tasks using SQuAD v2-style evaluation.
- Unanswerable questions are preserved using empty answer lists.
plausible_answersfrom the original dataset were removed, as they are not required for standard SQuAD v2 training or evaluation.
Attribution
This dataset is derived from the original NASA-QA benchmark:
- NASA SMD & IBM Research
- Paper: https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.10725
Please cite the original work when using this dataset.
License
This dataset inherits the license from the original dataset.
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