Datasets:

lin99
/

ProBench

id stringlengths 7 20	domain stringclasses 5 values	question_title stringlengths 18 158	question_body stringlengths 154 4.32k	question_score int64 12 1.3k	question_tags listlengths 1 5	choices dict	answer stringclasses 4 values	distractor_source stringclasses 1 value	source stringclasses 1 value	license stringclasses 1 value	url stringlengths 66 138
cybersecurity_181328	cybersecurity	Did I just get DNS Hijacked?	I went online on my Macbook today and noticed my iTunes complaining that it couldn't connect to Apple, I tried logging out and in of my account but weirdly it said it couldn't log in; I didn't think much of it at first as I thought maybe it was iTunes just being more buggy than usual. However then I noticed something r...	140	[ "dns", "router" ]	{ "A": "Yes, your router's primary DNS entry was pointed to a rogue DNS server to make devices in your network resolve apple.com and other domains to phishing sites instead. The router possibly got compromised through an unpatched vulnerability in its firmware. I have an Asus AC87U, FW Version 3.0.0.4.380.7743 (1 rel...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/181328/did-i-just-get-dns-hijacked
law_84309	law	Can Prince Harry wear the uniforms of his former units?	It's been in the news recently that Prince Harry has been banned from wearing a military uniform at the events surrounding the late Queen's funeral, since he was stripped of his honorary military titles when he stopped being a working royal. However, he is a veteran who served ten years in the British military and was ...	34	[ "united-kingdom", "military" ]	{ "A": "By Army regulations, no, he's not allowed to wear that uniform. Prince Harry technically isn't a \"retired officer\". Rather, he resigned his commission in the Army, effective 19 June 2015. See the London Gazette for 11 August 2015, Supplement 61319, page 14838 , under \"Captain H. C. A. D. WALES 564673\". Ac...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/84309/can-prince-harry-wear-the-uniforms-of-his-former-units
law_78970	law	Can I get reimbursed if police shot the window of my car during a standoff?	My car was parked in the parking lot of a large chain grocery store, upon returning to my car I found the police in a standoff with a suspect with my vehicle right at the center. I asked if I could move my car but the officers got angry and started ignoring me. SWAT team got called in and it ended with them firing and ...	35	[ "police", "property", "texas", "vehicle", "governmental-liability" ]	{ "A": "Most leases have a provision allowing a landlord to make entry without notice in an emergency, but the better course of action, as noted in a comment by @BlueDogRanch, is to call the police and ask them to make a \"welfare check.\" You would ordinarily be permitted to cooperate with police by unlocking doors ...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/78970/can-i-get-reimbursed-if-police-shot-the-window-of-my-car-during-a-standoff
finance_8843	finance	What are modern algorithms for trade classification?	When dealing with trade data, for example from TAQ, a common problem is that of determining whether a trade was a buy or a sell . The most commonly used classifier is the Lee-Ready algorithm ( Inferring trade direction from intraday data , 1991). Unfortunately, this method is known to be inaccurate: Lee and Radhakrishn...	26	[ "market-microstructure" ]	{ "A": "The risk-neutral measure $\\mathbb{Q}$ is a mathematical construct which stems from the law of one price , also known as the principle of no riskless arbitrage and which you may already have heard of in the following terms: \"there is no free lunch in financial markets\". This law is at the heart of securitie...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/8843/what-are-modern-algorithms-for-trade-classification
law_683	law	USA: Is "I am not a lawyer" disclaimer generally necessary?	Is it legally necessary to disclaim "I am not a lawyer" when engaging in casual conversation, writing Internet posts, etc. to avoid civil or criminal liability for one's comments? Specifically, in the absence of: claims to be a lawyer or implied claims (i.e. posing) accepting payment or other compensation for legal adv...	39	[ "united-states", "liability", "unlicensed-practice" ]	{ "A": "Short Answer Applicants are required by military regulation to have a percentile score on a standardized test called the ASVAB that is 31 or more, which is roughly comparable to an IQ score on the Stanford-Binet scale of a little bit less than 92, for high school graduates seeking to enter the Army or Navy (o...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/683/usa-is-i-am-not-a-lawyer-disclaimer-generally-necessary
cybersecurity_183658	cybersecurity	4-dial combination padlock: Is it more secure to zero it out or to blindly spin the dials after locking?	I am partially responsible for some resources protected by a 4-dial combination lock like this one : There are two things that people will usually do after they've locked it: reset all the digits to 0, so that the combination reads 0000, or mash around on the dials a bit so that the combination reads something else. I ...	156	[ "physical", "locks", "padlocks" ]	{ "A": "TL;DR - You can store the salt in plaintext without any form of obfuscation or encryption, but don't just give it out to anyone who wants it. The reason we use salts is to stop precomputation attacks, such as rainbow tables . These attacks involve creating a database of hashes and their plaintexts, so that ha...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/183658/4-dial-combination-padlock-is-it-more-secure-to-zero-it-out-or-to-blindly-spin
medicine_357	medicine	Do vaccines cause autism?	It seems the question of vaccine harm has been around at least as long as vaccines 1 . Specifically, the claim that vaccines can cause or contribute to autism has been hotly debated in the last decade. Many claim that there is a dangerous (possibly hidden) link. What is the current state of medical research on this top...	41	[ "vaccination", "autism" ]	{ "A": "I believe that those lines are craze lines. \"Craze lines are merely cracks in the enamel that do not extend into the dentin.\" They occur because of stress in your teeth, ie: grinding your teeth, biting your nails, and even routine use of your teeth. What you've said also matches up with craze lines in that ...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/357/do-vaccines-cause-autism
cybersecurity_32917	cybersecurity	How is an ATM secure?	I'm curious why an ATM computer is considered secure. The general adage of "If an attacker has physical access to my machine, all bets are off," seems to not apply in this circumstance (since everyone has physical access to the machine). Why is this? I thought of the fact that many have security cameras placed over the...	182	[ "attack-prevention", "physical", "atm" ]	{ "A": "I think the assumption here is wrong. They don't have physical access to the machine. They have supervised access to a very limited control panel for a machine which is built into a bomb-proof safe, bolted to the ground and hooked up to an alarm system with an armed response force. Get the machine out of the ...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/32917/how-is-an-atm-secure
cybersecurity_159331	cybersecurity	How is the "WannaCry" Malware spreading and how should users defend themselves from it?	There's a new strain of attacks which is affecting a lot of systems around the world (including the NHS in the UK and Telefonica in Spain) which is being called "WannaCry" amongst other names. It seems to be a both a standard phishing/ransomware attack but it's also spreading like a worm once it gets into a target netw...	250	[ "malware", "ransomware", "wannacry" ]	{ "A": "What do I do now? How do I get rid of the virus? The best option is what is referred to as \" nuke it from orbit .\" The reference is from Aliens : The idea behind this is that you wipe your hard drive and reinstall your OS. Before you do this, you should make sure you have the following: A way to boot your c...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/159331/how-is-the-wannacry-malware-spreading-and-how-should-users-defend-themselves-f
cybersecurity_20129	cybersecurity	How and when do I use HMAC?	I was reading HMAC on wikipedia and I was confused about a few points. Where do I use HMAC? Why is the key part of the hash? Even if someone successfully used a "length-extension attack", how would that be useful to the attacker?	191	[ "hmac" ]	{ "A": "This attack is supposed to be presented 10 days from now, but my guess is that they use compression . SSL/TLS optionally supports data compression. In the ClientHello message, the client states the list of compression algorithms that it knows of, and the server responds, in the ServerHello , with the compress...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/20129/how-and-when-do-i-use-hmac
finance_44	finance	What methods do you use to improve expected return estimates when constructing a portfolio in a mean-variance framework?	One of the main problems when trying to apply mean-variance portfolio optimization in practice is its high input sensitivity. As can be seen in ( Chopra , 1993) using historical values to estimate returns expected in the future is a no-go, as the whole process tends to become error maximization rather than portfolio op...	31	[ "modern-portfolio-theory", "mean-variance", "expected-return", "estimation" ]	{ "A": "Wavelets are just one form of \"basis decomposition\". Wavelets in particular decompose in both frequency and time and thus are more useful than fourier or other purely-frequency based decompositions. There are other time-freq decompositions (for instance the HHT) which should be explored as well. Decompositi...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/44/what-methods-do-you-use-to-improve-expected-return-estimates-when-constructing-a
engineering_7344	engineering	Why is Mach 0.3 the threshold separating compressible and incompressible flow?	I've read that Mach 0.3 is pretty much the upper limit for treating air as an incompressible fluid. The sources I've read seem to treat this as a given, without proof or justification. Why is this the limit? Is there a mathematical justification for this? Also, does this limit only apply to air? If not, then what does ...	14	[ "fluid-mechanics" ]	{ "A": "Water meets the low compressibility requirement, but there are many other considerations in the design of a hydraulic system: Boiling point/vapor pressure: If the system warms up during operation, the fluid may boil, which results in high compressibility and thus decreased effectiveness of the hydraulic syste...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/7344/why-is-mach-0-3-the-threshold-separating-compressible-and-incompressible-flow
engineering_89	engineering	Additional jacking force to overcome stiction/dry friction	It is common to lift bridges to replace bearings, etc. In an ideal world the lifting capacity required of the jacks would be the self-weight of the bridge divided by the number of jacks (+ allowances for wind/snow, etc.). From my (limited) experience, however, bridges begin to 'stick' to their bearings, and an addition...	13	[ "civil-engineering", "structures", "bridges", "maintenance", "friction" ]	{ "A": "So there's an incorrect assumption underlying your question. In an ideal world the lifting capacity required of the jacks would be the self-weight of the bridge divided by the number of jacks (+ allowances for wind/snow, etc.). And the assumption there is that the lifting capacity is equivalent only to the we...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/89/additional-jacking-force-to-overcome-stiction-dry-friction
engineering_7536	engineering	Why would you launch a large ship by dropping it sideways?	I'm referring to the process shown in this video: https://youtu.be/Quyr5R1Rbfw?t=20 Or this image from Wikipedia: In it, a large warship is launched into the water by essentially dropping it sideways down some ramps and off of a pier. The ship rolls hard to one side, and then oscillates back to the other, making the pr...	25	[ "mechanical-engineering", "structural-engineering", "safety", "naval-engineering", "ships" ]	{ "A": "Some ideas: Wheel Load Distribution : The load is greater on the rear wheels providing the power; more force on the front ones bring no benefit and would provide less traction. Better manoeuvrability from having a shorter wheelbase. Better Ground Clearance in some conditions, especially for bumps and or up a ...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/7536/why-would-you-launch-a-large-ship-by-dropping-it-sideways
engineering_207	engineering	How do engineers really use numerical simulation?	Disclaimer I'm an applied mathematician by training, not an engineer. My work research primarily focuses on creating new "methods" to solve different PDE's related to solid deformation (elasticity) and fluid mechanics. In this sense, i know how to solve a pde problem computationally. From my perspective, engineers use ...	21	[ "modeling" ]	{ "A": "Biggest advantage is that when connecting to trailers, there are no bleeding issues. Imagine having to connect hydraulic pipes and remove the air bubbles... As for the amount of air - the compressor and receiving tanks are designed for normal use. However if you wish to accompany AC/DC with the air brakes you...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/207/how-do-engineers-really-use-numerical-simulation
engineering_49207	engineering	What is the lowest point below sealevel that we have built where a human can go?	According to google searches, the Jinping Underground Laboratories are the "deepest" building or buildings constructed, reaching 7900 feet (2400 metre) below the surface.... However, the surface in question is a mountain. While that does classify as underground, it highlights a flaw in the question of the deepest under...	31	[ "civil-engineering", "architecture" ]	{ "A": "Trees increase the turbulence of the air that reaches the turbines. That creates all sorts of uneven, rapidly-shifting loads on the blades and structure. That increases the maintenance costs, decreases availability, decreases the capacity factor, and decreases the life expectancy of the turbine. So, higher co...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/49207/what-is-the-lowest-point-below-sealevel-that-we-have-built-where-a-human-can-go
cybersecurity_200243	cybersecurity	All 0s (zeros) in a bank card's CVC code	My bank card recently expired. I got a new one and this one turned out to be "lucky": its CVC code was 000 . For a few months I used it extensively, both online and offline, without any difficulties - until the day when I entered my card details on Booking.com. I filled in the form, clicked "submit" - only to see the p...	239	[ "credit-card" ]	{ "A": "I was curious about the same thing, so I put Gbt3fC79ZmMEFUFJ into Google, and lo! and behold it found something that wasn't just a paraphrase of \"Don't use this password\" advice — the password itself was embedded in example source code that showed how you could send a password to a server! ( link to page ,...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/200243/all-0s-zeros-in-a-bank-cards-cvc-code
medicine_6	medicine	What should I consider when deciding to remove a blister or not?	While playing indoor soccer a couple days ago, I was fouled and fell forwards so that my hand skidded across the court a bit. It left the blister as you see in the image here: What should I consider when deciding to remove this blister? I could open and drain this blister, removing the excess skin afterwards, or leave ...	26	[ "wound", "removal" ]	{ "A": "In the blister shown, the likelihood of rupture is decreased because of the thickness of the epidermis on the palm of the hand, so you can leave it alone until the underlying area re-epithelializes. You'll know this is happening because of the decreased pain and the slow reabsorption of the fluid. Eventually ...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/6/what-should-i-consider-when-deciding-to-remove-a-blister-or-not
law_43764	law	What if a restaurant suddenly cannot accept credit cards, and the customer has no cash?	If a restaurant normally accepts credit cards, and a customer eats a meal there, then tries to pay with his valid credit card, and the cashier says the credit card system is down and they can only accept cash today, and the customer has no cash, and no easy way to get cash, can the customer legally leave without ever p...	39	[ "united-states", "debt" ]	{ "A": "There is no intention to commit theft, so there is no criminal act on the part of the customer. Even if there was a criminal act, the ability of the restaurant to detain the cusomer (citizen's arrest) is very limited in most jurisdictions. The restaurant can ask the customer for his name and address, but ther...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/43764/what-if-a-restaurant-suddenly-cannot-accept-credit-cards-and-the-customer-has-n
finance_8274	finance	How to estimate real-world probabilities	In the world of finance, Risk-neutral pricing allow us to estimate the fair value of derivatives using the risk free rate as the expected return of the underlyings. However, the behavior of financial assets in the real-world might be substantially different to the evolution used in a risk-neutral context. For instance,...	42	[ "derivatives", "risk-neutral-measure", "forecasting", "stochastic-discount", "real-world-measure" ]	{ "A": "In general there are two basic ways to make money out of your option pricing models: Sell side (market maker, risk neutral): You use these models to calculate your greeks to hedge your portfolio, so that you live on the spread. Buy side (market/risk taker): You use your model to find mispriced options in the ...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/8274/how-to-estimate-real-world-probabilities
medicine_26258	medicine	Is SM-102 a safe ingredient in the Moderna vaccine, despite these safety warnings?	I recently saw a post online which called into question the safety of the Moderna vaccine through an interesting argument. One of the ingredients in the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine is the ionizable amino lipid SM-102. [Source] Information about this chemical can be found on this website . As expected, the description of t...	21	[ "covid-19", "vaccination", "safety", "lipids" ]	{ "A": "The MSDS linked to is for a product sold as a solution of 10% SM-102 in 90% chloroform. It's listed as \"SM-102\" because that's the interesting/useful thing that the company is selling. It's common for chemicals to be sold packaged with solvents to make a solution. Sometimes that solvent is just water, but i...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/26258/is-sm-102-a-safe-ingredient-in-the-moderna-vaccine-despite-these-safety-warning
finance_3284	finance	Is "eoddata" a good data source?	Not sure if this is a relevant question for site, but I am looking to move to www.eoddata.com as my data source. If anyone has used it, can you tell me how the data quality is ? I am currently parsing yahoo for my prices but its not a very efficient process. What are the other sources of equity data out there ( afforda...	24	[ "data", "market-data" ]	{ "A": "Yahoo rounds the adjusted price to 2 decimals even though dividend amounts often have 3 decimal places. Since they apply the adjustment formula to adjusted prices, if you go far enough back in time, the value they give for Adjusted Price will be different than it would be if there were no rounding. edit: For ...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/3284/is-eoddata-a-good-data-source
engineering_5570	engineering	How was Volkswagen able to trick the lab pollution test?	The recent Volkswagen pollution test cheating scandal has shocked many people with its widespread extent as well as how it was hidden for so many years. Last year, the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) in Washington DC contracted scientists from the Center for Alternative Fuels Engines and Emissions ...	52	[ "automotive-engineering", "product-testing", "air-quality", "emissions" ]	{ "A": "After the 2014 ICCT report revealed that these light-duty passenger diesel vehicles were emitting too much NOx and US regulators confronted VW about the results, VW did some testing and proposed a voluntary software recall to recalibrate the various emissions control devices on the affected vehicles. From the...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/5570/how-was-volkswagen-able-to-trick-the-lab-pollution-test
medicine_120	medicine	Why do doctors prescribe steroid tablets even though they know the side effects?	Sometimes doctors prescribe steroid tablets to suppress pain for diseases, such as arthritis . Why do they prescribe it even though they know the side effects?	29	[ "medications", "steroids", "side-effects" ]	{ "A": "I think a missing bit of information that might help you get a better sense of this practice is: steroids are miracle drugs. OK, that was in jest - no miracles here. Truth be told, though, if there is a single class of drugs that has added more quality-adjusted life-years to human history than any other, ster...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/120/why-do-doctors-prescribe-steroid-tablets-even-though-they-know-the-side-effects
finance_334	finance	Does mean-variance portfolio optimization provide a real edge to those who use it?	Mean-variance optimization (MVO) is a 50+ year concept, and perhaps the first seminal idea of quantitative finance. Still, as far as I know, less than 25% of AUM in the US is quantitatively managed. While a small minority of fundamental managers use MVO, that is counterbalanced by statistical arbitrage and HF strategie...	24	[ "mean-variance", "optimization" ]	{ "A": "I would offer the distinctions are i) pure statistical approach, ii) equilibrium based approach, and iii) empirical approach. The statistical approach includes data mining. Its techniques originate in statistics and machine learning. In its extreme there is no a priori theoretical structure imposed on asset r...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/334/does-mean-variance-portfolio-optimization-provide-a-real-edge-to-those-who-use-i
law_2223	law	Why does browser cache not count as copyright infringement?	My browser is saving a copy of the web pages I visit on my computer. How is that not copyright infringement? in this answer I read: I would hazard a guess that displaying an HTML webpage online is implicitly allowing others to read that code How does that imply that you can make a local copy, when a web page includes a...	40	[ "united-states", "copyright", "european-union" ]	{ "A": "If you are not a member of the Bar of Maryland, you may not \"practice, attempt to practice, or offer to practice law in the State unless admitted to the Bar.\" Maryland Business Occupations and Professions § 10-601 . \"Practicing law\" includes \"representing another person before a unit of the State governm...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/2223/why-does-browser-cache-not-count-as-copyright-infringement
medicine_4058	medicine	Are there any side effects to cracking knuckles?	I constantly crack (or pop) my knuckles. Are there any negative (or positive) side effects to it? I like to crack my knuckles, but I want to stop if it can have negative effects. What have scientific studies said about this subject?	16	[ "musculoskeletal-system" ]	{ "A": "A common medical myth is that cracking your knuckles causes arthritis, but is has been shown that cracking your knuckles, and popping your joints in general, will not raise your risk for developing arthritis. 1 It has also been shown to not cause degenerative joint disease in your hand joints in old age. 2 Ho...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/4058/are-there-any-side-effects-to-cracking-knuckles
engineering_531	engineering	What is a reason that handlebars fit to a motorcycle and steering wheel fit to a car?	What is the reason that handlebars are installed on motorcycles and steering wheels are installed on cars? Notice that the way to use both handlebars and steering wheels are quite similar, but a steering wheel allows for much more rotation than a handle bar when you control a vehicle. Please give me a reason why a mass...	22	[ "mechanical-engineering" ]	{ "A": "The turbulence model can make a big difference in your simulation . There are many turbulence models around. It becomes a tough job to select one out of them. There is no perfect turbulence model. It all depends on several parameters like Reynold's number, whether the flow is separated, pressure gradients, bo...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/531/what-is-a-reason-that-handlebars-fit-to-a-motorcycle-and-steering-wheel-fit-to-a
law_87343	law	Does Elon Musk have any grounds for legal action against people who track his plane?	Most airplanes, including Elon Musk's private jet, are required by law to broadcast their location throughout a flight in a well-documented, unencrypted digital format called ADS-B. This system is a critical part of aviation safety infrastructure. Several services, such as FlightAware, FlightRadar24, and ADS-B Exchange...	41	[ "united-states", "privacy", "freedom-of-speech", "first-amendment", "air-travel" ]	{ "A": "Specifically, the threatened action is about stalking and implicit threats to his family. I'm not suggesting that there is a lot of merit to the claim, but that is how he is presenting the argument. The question would be where there is an intentional, repeated following of a person for the purpose of harassin...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/87343/does-elon-musk-have-any-grounds-for-legal-action-against-people-who-track-his-pl
cybersecurity_185908	cybersecurity	Why is Mother’s Maiden Name still used as a security question?	From time to time, some web sites asks to enter a security question and an answer for it. The question list is standard and it usually includes "What is your mother's maiden name?". Some people use their mother's real maiden name so that they are sure they can remember what to provide when asked (e.g. as part of the pr...	164	[ "authentication", "secret-questions" ]	{ "A": "Diffie-Hellman is a way of generating a shared secret between two people in such a way that the secret can't be seen by observing the communication. That's an important distinction: You're not sharing information during the key exchange, you're creating a key together. This is particularly useful because you ...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/185908/why-is-mother-s-maiden-name-still-used-as-a-security-question
law_85905	law	Why does it matter that a group of January 6 rioters went to Olive Garden for dinner after the riot?	CNN has an article pointing out that the rioters went to Olive Garden for dinner and spent $400 after the riot. The article implies that where they went for dinner, and how much they spent, is relevant to their trial. Why does it matter where they go for dinner and how much they spend? What they did at the Capitol was ...	35	[ "united-states", "jan-6" ]	{ "A": "Legally speaking, very many nations grant asylum, and religious persecution is one of the most basic grounds for granting asylum, following the 1951 Refugee Convention . This newspaper article compares asylum statistics in Ireland versus other parts of Europe. The Irish immigration authorities spell out the d...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/85905/why-does-it-matter-that-a-group-of-january-6-rioters-went-to-olive-garden-for-di
cybersecurity_49234	cybersecurity	Why are chips safer than magnetic stripes?	After the recent Target hack there has been talk about moving from credit cards with magnetic stripes to cards with a chip. In what ways are chips safer than stripes?	183	[ "credit-card", "smartcard" ]	{ "A": "I was curious about the same thing, so I put Gbt3fC79ZmMEFUFJ into Google, and lo! and behold it found something that wasn't just a paraphrase of \"Don't use this password\" advice — the password itself was embedded in example source code that showed how you could send a password to a server! ( link to page ,...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/49234/why-are-chips-safer-than-magnetic-stripes
cybersecurity_116139	cybersecurity	What is DROWN and how does it work?	There is a new recent attack "on TLS" named "DROWN" . I understand that it appears to use bad SSLv2 requests to recover static (certificate) keys. My question is: How? How can you recover static encryption or signature keys using SSLv2? Bonus questions: How can I prevent the attack from applying to me as a server admin...	161	[ "tls", "openssl", "attack-prevention" ]	{ "A": "This is commonly known as a capability URL / secret URL. It's secure in modern websites but not suitable for all applications and requires significant care to use . You can find an excellent overview of their advantages, risks and best practices in this page by W3C . It's meaningless to talk about security wi...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/116139/what-is-drown-and-how-does-it-work
law_91096	law	Can you make the police department pay for damage done to your property if you get swatted?	For purposes of conjecture, say some nameless online troll decides that they hate you. Perhaps you said you don't worship the members of a K-Pop band they like. As a result, they do some research and find your address. They then proceed to call your local police department, reporting a (fictional) hostage situation / h...	39	[ "united-states" ]	{ "A": "There is precedent for the idea that double jeopardy need not apply when the initial trial was a sham because the judge and/or jury had been bribed. See Aleman v. Judges of Cook County Circuit Court , 138 F.3d 302 (7th Cir. 1998) . This case was very similar to your hypothetical: Aleman was initially acquitte...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/91096/can-you-make-the-police-department-pay-for-damage-done-to-your-property-if-you-g
law_80245	law	Can I use my own Stack Exchange answer in a book?	I’ve seen some similar questions, but was wondering about a more specific case. I wrote a Stack Exchange answer, and would like to use it in one section of a book I’m writing (which will be commercially sold). I also modified the answer, and added to it, but some original passages remain. I’m wondering if, as the autho...	37	[ "united-states", "copyright" ]	{ "A": "Through the legal doctrine of \"transferred intent\", wherein if one intends to murder A, and undertake actions to kill A, but one's actions kill B, one has murdered B. Whatever crimes one would have committed, had one performed them on one's intended target, are considered committed against the individual on...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/80245/can-i-use-my-own-stack-exchange-answer-in-a-book
cybersecurity_50878	cybersecurity	ECDSA vs ECDH vs Ed25519 vs Curve25519	Among the Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) algorithms available in OpenSSH (ECDH, ECDSA, Ed25519, Curve25519), which offers the best level of security, and (ideally) why?	198	[ "encryption", "ssh", "ecc" ]	{ "A": "Chrome not only stores your password text, it will show it to you. Under settings -> advanced -> manage passwords you can find all your passwords for all your sites. Click show on any of them and it will appear in the clear. Hashed passwords work for the site authenticating you. They are not an option for pas...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/50878/ecdsa-vs-ecdh-vs-ed25519-vs-curve25519
finance_10359	finance	Is there an intuitive explanation for the Feynman-Kac-Theorem?	The Feynman-Kac theorem states that for an Ito-process of the form $$dX_t = \mu(t, X_t)dt + \sigma(t, X_t)dW_t$$ there is a measurable function $g$ such that $$g_t(t,x) + g_x(t, x) \mu(t,x) + \frac{1}{2} g_{xx}(t,x)\sigma(t,x)^2 = 0$$ with an appropriate boundary condition $h$: $g(T,x) = h(x)$. We also know that $g(t,x...	37	[ "brownian-motion", "differential-equations" ]	{ "A": "There are some cases where you can blend your portfolios using weights directly. One case involves corner portfolios . In this case a linear combination of weights is also efficient. Another case is where you can treat the two separate weights you have produced each as distinct portfolio under the assumption ...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/10359/is-there-an-intuitive-explanation-for-the-feynman-kac-theorem
law_4755	law	What if I say "this statement is false" while under oath?	Let's say I am in a court proceeding, and then make swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. I tell the judge I would like to make an opening remark, he says yes, and I say "My opening remark is a false statement." What happens to me? If they claim that my statement is false and try to prose...	38	[ "rules-of-court" ]	{ "A": "This aspect (and many others) of contract law is applicable in the US and various countries of the EU. can they renege after the candidate has begun their journey, thus saddling the candidate with the travel cost? No. The company would incur breach of contract. There is no need for a formal contract. The cand...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/4755/what-if-i-say-this-statement-is-false-while-under-oath
cybersecurity_988	cybersecurity	Is BASIC-Auth secure if done over HTTPS?	I'm making a REST-API and it's straight forward to do BASIC auth login. Then let HTTPS secure the connection so the password is protected when the api is used. Can this be considered secure?	457	[ "tls", "authentication", "web-application", "http", "http-basic-auth" ]	{ "A": "The reason password expiration policies exist, is to mitigate the problems that would occur if an attacker acquired the password hashes of your system and were to break them. These policies also help minimize some of the risk associated with losing older backups to an attacker. For example, if an attacker wer...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/988/is-basic-auth-secure-if-done-over-https
engineering_1785	engineering	Why doesn't a lightning strike destroy the lightning rod?	Lightning strikes have been known to cause massive amounts of damage . The stats on a lightning bolt are: current levels sometimes in excess of 400 kA, temperatures to 50,000 degrees F., and speeds approaching one third the speed of light These are massive numbers, but lightning protection systems are designed to draw ...	25	[ "electrical-engineering" ]	{ "A": "As it happens, I just recently went through that calculation myself for a different site. Given the following facts from a quick web search, it isn't difficult to work out the numbers. The maximum efficiency of a (large) windmill is about 40%. The density of air is 1.225 kg/m 3 You need about 50 mW (10 mA at ...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/1785/why-doesnt-a-lightning-strike-destroy-the-lightning-rod
law_42984	law	Is it legal for a supermarket to refuse to sell an adult beer if an adult with them doesn’t have their ID?	Today I went with my dad grocery shopping at a supermarket in New York (ShopRite) and he put a six-pack of beer in the cart. They then wouldn’t let him buy the beer because they couldn’t ID me (21, but I dress for work so I look more like 25). Even when I left the store to wait in the car they made him check out at a d...	44	[ "united-states", "new-york-state", "alcohol", "is-x-legal", "identification" ]	{ "A": "Technically anyone can sit on a jury. Lawyers are not automatically excluded from juries anymore, as being called for jury duty is a right and a duty that the law abhors automatically excluding people from. That is the official line on this. However, in reality, lawyers will always be stricken from serving by...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/42984/is-it-legal-for-a-supermarket-to-refuse-to-sell-an-adult-beer-if-an-adult-with-t
cybersecurity_21168	cybersecurity	How does Amazon bill me without the CVC / CVV / CVV2?	The card in question is a VISA, if that's of any importance. I've noticed this only on Amazon. All other sites I've purchased something from, ever , have needed the CVC code for the card. However, I know I never entered the CVC on Amazon when I added my card to it, and this has been bugging me ever since. How do they s...	167	[ "credit-card" ]	{ "A": "General SSL (and its successor, TLS ) is a protocol that operates directly on top of TCP (although there are also implementations for datagram based protocols such as UDP). This way, protocols on higher layers (such as HTTP) can be left unchanged while still providing a secure connection. Underneath the SSL l...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/21168/how-does-amazon-bill-me-without-the-cvc-cvv-cvv2
finance_11556	finance	Why is the VIX futures market usually in a state of contango?	I'm a VIX newbie and I'm trying to understand why the VIX futures market is usually in a state of contango. All I can figure is that the sellers of VIX futures contracts demand high "prices" (because the seller is the holder of the short position and makes money when the price falls), and since there are willing buyers...	28	[ "volatility", "futures", "vix" ]	{ "A": "Your questions about contango in VIX futures have close analogies in options too. The Black & Scholes model suggests that all time frames and all strikes should have the same implied volatility, but they don't. I think one of the reasons is that the B&S model assumes that stock returns are distributed in a no...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/11556/why-is-the-vix-futures-market-usually-in-a-state-of-contango
engineering_18806	engineering	What limits the speed of a car?	From an engineering perspective, what limits the maximum speed you can reach with a regular car? I understand that some of the faster cars are for safety reasons limited to not run faster than say 250 km/h, but that's not my question. I can think of several reasons, but not sure which of these is relevant: Is the limit...	17	[ "mechanical-engineering", "car" ]	{ "A": "Water meets the low compressibility requirement, but there are many other considerations in the design of a hydraulic system: Boiling point/vapor pressure: If the system warms up during operation, the fluid may boil, which results in high compressibility and thus decreased effectiveness of the hydraulic syste...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/18806/what-limits-the-speed-of-a-car
cybersecurity_180561	cybersecurity	Is "Have I Been Pwned's" Pwned Passwords List really that useful?	My understanding of Have I Been Pwned is that it checks your password to see if someone else in the world has used it. This really doesn't seem that useful to me. It seems equivalent to asking if anyone in the world has the same front door key as me. Statistically, I would assume yes, but without knowing where I live.....	159	[ "passwords", "have-i-been-pwned" ]	{ "A": "Let's hope and assume that Facebook stores only hashes of current password (and potentially previous passwords). Here is what they can do: user sets first password to \"first\" and fb stores hash(\"first\"). later on, users resets password and is asked to provide new password \"First2\" Facebook can generate ...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/180561/is-have-i-been-pwneds-pwned-passwords-list-really-that-useful
medicine_1253	medicine	Can an antipyretic (I.e. Aspirin) lower normal body temperature?	Is it possible for an antipyretic medication taken when not experiencing fever to cause a person's body temperature to drop below normal? I found one article that seems to say yes, but only for large doses (in mg/kg) in mice.	14	[ "medications", "body-temperature", "anti-inflammatory" ]	{ "A": "Assuming the person is not taking anticoagulants, it's actually quite difficult to bleed to death from dismemberment of small members (hands, feet, penis, ears, nose, etc). Even large members such as arms and legs are often survivable because the body is very good at protecting itself from blood loss. For exa...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/1253/can-an-antipyretic-i-e-aspirin-lower-normal-body-temperature
finance_1177	finance	Why is volatility mean-reverting?	We all know it does mean revert. The question is why. What's making volatility mean-revert? Is it some sort of cyclical behaviour of option traders? The way it's calculated? Why?	27	[ "volatility" ]	{ "A": "One starts with the Black-Scholes equation $$\\frac{\\partial C}{\\partial t}+\\frac{1}{2}\\sigma^2S^2\\frac{\\partial^2 C}{\\partial S^2}+ rS\\frac{\\partial C}{\\partial S}-rC=0,\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad(1)$$ supplemented with the terminal and boundary conditions (in the case of a European call) $...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://quant.stackexchange.com/questions/1177/why-is-volatility-mean-reverting
cybersecurity_188208	cybersecurity	Do I need to encrypt connections inside a corporate network?	Provided that I have a decent level of physical security in the office, I monitor the physical addresses of devices connected to the network and only give VPN access to trusted parties, do I need to encrypt access to intranet resources over HTTP? There is an employee complaining that he doesn't like sending his credent...	149	[ "encryption", "credentials", "identity-theft", "intranet" ]	{ "A": "Yes encrypt, it is easy. Plus according to a 2014 Software Engineering Institute study 1 in 4 hacks was from someone inside the company with an average damage 50% higher than an external threat actor. Link to source: https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/insider-threat/2017/01/2016-us-state-of-cybercrime-highlights.ht...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/188208/do-i-need-to-encrypt-connections-inside-a-corporate-network
medicine_3658	medicine	Risks of blood donation with autoimmune diseases	People with autoimmune diseases are generally either forbidden or discouraged from donating blood. Example: People who have autoimmune diseases (such as autoimmune thyroid disease, ankylosing spondylitis) are advised not to donate blood. This is because there is a small risk of causing immune system disturbance and sym...	15	[ "blood", "autoimmune-disease", "blood-donation" ]	{ "A": "I think a missing bit of information that might help you get a better sense of this practice is: steroids are miracle drugs. OK, that was in jest - no miracles here. Truth be told, though, if there is a single class of drugs that has added more quality-adjusted life-years to human history than any other, ster...	C	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/3658/risks-of-blood-donation-with-autoimmune-diseases
engineering_121	engineering	Determining Drill Speed	How are spindle speeds calculated for a drill bit? I've seen dozens of charts that highlight the rpm that should be used for specific drill bit types, bit diameter, and material. However, what if my chart doesn't have the particular type of material or bit that I am using? I'd also like to have some intuition to know i...	12	[ "machining", "mechanical-engineering" ]	{ "A": "For long freight trains and those that will be climbing to stations at higher altitudes, an extra or two locomotives are attached to the front. I've always wondered why. As usual there are multiple issues. Most important is landscape. If more power than a single locomotive can provide is not needed for the wh...	B	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/121/determining-drill-speed
engineering_226	engineering	How different are dc motor designs from dc generator designs?	Some dc motors can be used as generators as well by applying mechanical torque to the output shaft to induce a current. However, even if a dc motor can do this, I imagine they were not designed for this purpose and thus perform less efficiently when used as a generator rather than as a motor. In my admittedly naive und...	13	[ "mechanical-engineering", "electrical-engineering" ]	{ "A": "The current limit specification for a wire is limited by the heat that current will produce, and how much heat the wire can dissipate before getting too hot. \"Too hot\" depends on the circumstances. You will see higher current ratings for the same type of wire in chassis wiring applications than the electric...	D	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://engineering.stackexchange.com/questions/226/how-different-are-dc-motor-designs-from-dc-generator-designs
medicine_21337	medicine	How accurate are coronavirus tests?	As of time of writing it's quite common to see headlines about so-and-so who have tested positive for Covid-19, e.g. Canadian PM Justin Trudeau's wife, Sophie, tests positive for coronavirus, officials say However, these articles don't usually say how reliable the testing is. I couldn't find any recent information on i...	20	[ "covid-19" ]	{ "A": "Short answer: Sophie Trudeau's positive test may still mean 3 : 1 odds of not having contracted Covid-19, but the odds could also be far more towards having Covid-19. Justin Trudeau's negative test almost certainly means he was negative when tested. Of course, should Sophie be positive, that may have changed ...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/21337/how-accurate-are-coronavirus-tests
law_268	law	What is the legal status of "warrant canaries"?	A warrant canary is a repeated claim by an individual or organization that they have not been served any warrants with an attached gag order. The idea is that you can say whatever you like if you have not been served such a warrant, but if you are ever served a warrant you simply stop publishing your warrant canary. At...	40	[ "united-states", "freedom-of-speech" ]	{ "A": "The question actually asked, \"what legal theories would support or harm...\", is somewhat unclear. But what the questioner seems to be asking is, basically, what would happen if you tried it? The answer, it seems to me, is pretty straightforward. In the hypothetical case, you have been publishing a notice fo...	A	same_domain_answer_pool	stackexchange	CC-BY-SA 4.0	https://law.stackexchange.com/questions/268/what-is-the-legal-status-of-warrant-canaries

End of preview. Expand in Data Studio

ProBench

A 4-choice multiple-choice benchmark of 529 expert-level questions across five professional domains, sourced entirely from Stack Exchange communities (CC-BY-SA 4.0). Designed to evaluate LLMs where standard benchmarks (MMLU, HumanEval, HellaSwag) are now saturated above 90%.

Why ProBench?

Benchmark	Frontier model score	Status
MMLU	>90%	Saturated
HellaSwag	>95%	Saturated
HumanEval	>90%	Saturated
ProBench	TBD	Active

Questions are sourced from real professional practitioners. Correct answers are community-verified (Stack Exchange accepted answers with high vote scores). Distractors are real expert-written text from the same domain — not synthetically generated.

Dataset Structure

Splits

Split	Count
train	370
validation	79
test	80
Total	529

By Domain

Domain	Source Community	Items
Cybersecurity	security.stackexchange.com	148
Law	law.stackexchange.com	121
Medicine	medicalsciences.stackexchange.com	63
Engineering	engineering.stackexchange.com	113
Finance	quant.stackexchange.com	84

Record Format

{
  "id": "cybersecurity_29988",
  "domain": "cybersecurity",
  "question_title": "What is certificate pinning?",
  "question_body": "I've recently seen ...",
  "question_score": 373,
  "question_tags": ["tls", "certificates", "public-key-infrastructure"],
  "choices": {
    "A": "You can roll your own, but you probably will make a major security...",
    "B": "Software is too complex. This is by far the most important factor...",
    "C": "The known_hosts file lets the client authenticate the server...",
    "D": "Typically certificates are validated by checking the signature hierarchy..."
  },
  "answer": "D",
  "distractor_source": "same_domain_answer_pool",
  "source": "stackexchange",
  "license": "CC-BY-SA 4.0",
  "url": "https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/29988/..."
}

Evaluation

Evaluation is exact-match (0 or 1 per question) — fully automated, no human judge required.

from datasets import load_dataset

ds = load_dataset("lin99/ProBench", split="test")

def evaluate(model, dataset):
    correct = 0
    for row in dataset:
        prompt = f"""Domain: {row['domain']}

Question: {row['question_title']}

{row['question_body']}

A. {row['choices']['A']}
B. {row['choices']['B']}
C. {row['choices']['C']}
D. {row['choices']['D']}

Answer (A/B/C/D):"""
        prediction = model(prompt).strip()[0].upper()
        if prediction == row["answer"]:
            correct += 1
    return correct / len(dataset)

accuracy = evaluate(your_model, ds)
print(f"ProBench accuracy: {accuracy:.1%}")

Quality Filters

Filter	Threshold
Minimum question score	10 upvotes
Minimum answer score	5 upvotes
Accepted answers only	Yes
Minimum answer length	30 words
Excluded question types	lifestyle, resource lists, book recommendations, tooling

Data Collection

Source: Stack Exchange API + data dump (archive.org, 2024-12-31 release)
License: CC-BY-SA 4.0 — free to use with attribution
Distractors: Real expert-written answers from other questions in the same domain
No synthetic generation: every word in every answer comes from a real human expert

Citation

@dataset{probench2025,
  title     = {ProBench: Expert-Level MCQ Benchmark across 5 Professional Domains},
  year      = {2025},
  note      = {Sourced from Stack Exchange communities (CC-BY-SA 4.0)},
  url       = {https://huggingface.co/datasets/lin99/ProBench}
}

@misc{stackexchange_dump2024,
  title  = {Stack Exchange Data Dump},
  author = {{Stack Exchange, Inc.}},
  year   = {2024},
  url    = {https://archive.org/details/stackexchange},
  note   = {Licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0}
}

License

All content is from Stack Exchange and licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0. Attribution to Stack Exchange communities is required. Each record includes the original URL.

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