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As our society becomes increasingly diverse, medical practitioners and psychologists alike have to take into account the patient’s gender, age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic (SES) status, and culture and how these factors shape the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Additionally, we need to understand how the various groups, whether defined by race, culture, or gender, differ from one another. This approach is called multicultural psychology. | Multicultural psychology involves taking into account the patient's gender, age, race, ethnicity, SES, and culture to understand their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. | 927 |
The avoidance of pain and the obtainment of pleasure. | The avoidance of pain. The obtainment of pleasure. | 457 |
Analgesia, euphoria, depression of respiration (the main cause of death with overdose), sedation/anxiolysis, constipation, and reduced secretion of sexual related hormones. | Analgesia. Euphoria. Depression of respiration. Sedation/anxiolysis. Constipation. Reduced secretion of sexual related hormones. | 452 |
A link is similar to a shortcut. The link is a pointer to another file or directory. You can delete the link without deleting the original. | A link is similar to a shortcut to another file or directory. You can delete the link without deleting the original. | 1,110 |
As suggestive of its title, delusional disorder requires the presence of at least one delusion that lasts for at least one month in duration. It is important to note that if an individual experiences hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized or catatonic behavior, or negative symptoms—in addition to delusions—they should not be diagnosed with delusional disorder as their symptoms are more aligned with a schizophrenia diagnosis. Unlike most other schizophrenia-related disorders, daily functioning is not overly impacted due to the delusions. Additionally, if symptoms of depressive or manic episodes present during delusions, they are typically brief compared to the duration of the delusions. The DSM-V (APA, 2013) has identified five main subtypes of delusional disorder to better categorize the symptoms of the individual's disorder. | As suggestive of its title, delusional disorder requires the presence of at least one delusion that lasts for at least one month in duration.Unlike most other schizophrenia-related disorders, daily functioning is not overly impacted due to the delusions. | 13 |
The vector 2-norm (or L2 norm) represents the Euclidean distance from some _n_-dimensional point (a vector) to the origin. Try calculating the Euclidean distance and the 2-norm for a 2D point (ex. `(2, 2)`). What do you notice? | The 2-norm is the Euclidean distance from a vector to its origin. | 841 |
Closer examination of the word abnormal indicates a move away from what is normal, or the mean (i.e., what would be considered average and in this case in relation to behavior), and so is behavior that infrequently occurs (sort of an outlier in our data). Our culture, or the totality of socially transmitted behaviors, customs, values, technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and other products that are particular to a group, determines what is normal. Thus, a person is said to be deviant when he or she fails to follow the stated and unstated rules of society, called social norms. | A person is said to be deviant when he or she fails to follow the stated and unstated rules of society, called social norms. | 65 |
Each input should only be matched with one output. On a graph, the relation must pass the vertical line test to be classified as a function. | Each input should only be matched with one output. | 906 |
The most frequently identified explanations for the positive effects of marriage are that marriage provides its participants with (1) economic resources; (2) social integration, including socioemotional support and attachment; and (3) a sense of meaning and purpose. | Marriage provides economic resources, social integration, and a sense of meaning and purpose to its participants. | 898 |
Personality and social psychology go hand-in-hand and so we should define personality psychology too. Simply, personality psychology is the scientific study of individual differences in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and how these come together as a whole. A social psychologist may investigate whether an individual helped another person due to a situational or personal factor, while a personality psychologist would examine whether a certain personality type is more likely to make situational or dispositional attributions or look for traits that govern helping behavior. | Personality psychology is the scientific study of individual differences in people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and how these come together. | 988 |
Psychology can also utilize a detailed description of one person or a small group based on careful observation. This was the approach the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, took to develop his theories. The advantage of this method is that you arrive at a detailed description of the investigated behavior, but the disadvantage is that the findings may be unrepresentative of the larger population, and thus, lacking generalizability. Again, bear in mind that you are studying one person or a tiny group. Can you possibly make conclusions about all people from just one person, or even five or ten? The other issue is that the case study is subject to researcher bias in terms of what is included in the final narrative and what is left out. Despite these limitations, case studies can lead us to novel ideas about the cause of abnormal behavior and help us to study unusual conditions that occur too infrequently to analyze with large sample sizes and in a systematic way. | A case study in psychology is a detailed description of one person or a small group. The advantage of this method is that you arrive at a detailed description of the investigated behavior. The disadvantage is that the findings may be unrepresentative of the larger population. | 7 |
Consider that negative aspects of a person’s behavior or personality stand out more and are attended to more, even when equally extreme positive information is present. This is called the negativity effect. We have a tendency to evaluate people positively, called the positivity bias. | The negative aspects of a person’s behavior or personality stand out more even when equally extreme positive information is present. The positivity bias is the fact that we have a tendency to evaluate people positively. | 592 |
Parallel transmission sends multiple signals at one time (like traffic on a multilane freeway) as compared to serial transmission which sends one signal at a time. | Parallel transmission sends multiple signals at one time as compared to serial transmission which sends one signal at a time. | 663 |
Individuals with mild neurocognitive disorder demonstrate a modest decline in one of the listed cognitive domains. The decline in functioning is not as extensive as that seen in major neurocognitive disorder, and the individual does not experience difficulty independently engaging in daily activities. | Mild neurocognitive disorder has modest cognitive decline, but no difficulty engaging in daily activities. | 949 |
Steven Pinker makes the argument that language acquisition is an instinctual process because it has existed in all human cultures in history, is acquired by children without formal instruction, and humans can speak without awareness of the underlying logic of language. The "wug" test, an experiment created by Jean Berko Gleason in 1958, provides further evidence of language being instinctual, as this experiment determined that even very young children have internalized systemic aspects of the linguistic system that enable them to produce plurals, past tenses, possessives, and other forms of made-up words. | Language acquisition is an instinctual process, acquired by children without formal instruction and without awareness of the underlying logic. | 315 |
The social exchange theory is the idea that we utilize a minimax strategy whereby we seek to maximize our rewards all while minimizing our costs. | The social exchange theory is the idea that we utilize a minimax strategy whereby we seek to maximize our rewards all while minimizing our costs. | 825 |
To effectively treat a mental disorder, we have to understand its cause. This could be a single factor such as a chemical imbalance in the brain, relationship with a parent, socioeconomic status (SES), a fearful event encountered during middle childhood, or the way in which the individual copes with life’s stressors. This single factor explanation is called a uni-dimensional model. | A uni-dimensional model is used to explain the cause of a mental disorder, which can be a single factor such as a chemical imbalance, relationship with a parent, socioeconomic status, or fearful event. | 704 |
The prevalence rates for somatic disorders are often difficult to determine; however, overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%.
Seeing as illness anxiety disorder is a newer diagnosis (replacing hypochondriasis), prevalence rates are largely based on the previous disorder. Previous findings suggest that illness anxiety disorder occurs in 1.3% to 10% of the general population and is equal among males and females.
Prevalence rates of factitious disorder are largely unknown, likely due to the use of deception in individuals diagnosed with the disorder.
And like the other somatic symptom disorders, the prevalence of functional neurological symptom disorder is unknown, even though transient functional neurological symptoms are common. | Overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%Seeing as illness anxiety disorder is a newer diagnosis prevalence rates are largely based on the previous disorder.
Prevalence rates of factitious disorder are largely unknown, likely due to the use of deception in individuals diagnosed with the disorder. | 123 |
- Be responsible with medications. Use antibiotics only when they are prescribed for you, and take them only for the disease for which they are intended. Ask your doctor whether there is an older-generation antibiotic that still works to treat the illness, and save the newer drugs for the most difficult problems.
- Finish the entire course of a drug as prescribed. Antibiotic regimens are designed to kill entire colonies of bacteria if taken exactly as prescribed. If you stop early, the hardiest bacteria may survive, leading to increased chances of drug-resistant pathogens.
- Use regular soap when washing your hands. Research suggests that antibacterial agents contained in soaps may actually kill normal bacteria found on the skin that does not cause disease, thus creating an environment for resistant, mutated bacteria that are impervious to antibacterial cleaners and antibiotics to colonize the skin.
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- Avoid food that has been treated with antibiotics. Buy organic meat and poultry, particularly products with labels that say that they have not been fed antibiotics or hormones. If you buy farmed fish, choose fish grown in U.S. coastal waters, where there is less likelihood of questionable fish-feeding practices and less chance of contaminated water and antibiotics or growth hormones. | Be responsible with medications. Finish the entire course of a drug as prescribed.Use regular soap when washing your hands.Avoid food that has been treated with antibiotics. | 38 |
\(O(b)\)
Try some example inputs:
- If `a=1` and `b=10`, we reach the *else* part of our conditional, and return `a * raiseAToPowerB(1, 9)`. We recurse back into our function, reach the else part of our conditional again, and return `a * raiseAToPowerB(1, 8)`. This continues until `b==0`, and we can break out of the recursion.
- If `a=10` and `b=1`, we reach the *else* part of our conditional, and return `a * raiseAToPowerB(10, 0)`. We recurse back into our function, and now `b==0`, and we break out of the recursion.
The complexity here only depends on the value of `b`. And the larger `b` is, the more times we will recurse back into the `raiseAToPowerB(a, b)` function. | (O(b) | 1,420 |
One party will know the values of P, G, and A. The other party will know the values of P, G, and B. | One party will know the values of P, G, and A. The other party will know the values of P, G, and B. | 1,165 |
Using Part II of the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, it was found that for Cluster B personality disorders prevalence rates were: 0.6% for antisocial, 1.4% for borderline, 0.0% for histrionic, and 0.0% for narcissistic. It should be noted that the prevalence of histrionic personality disorder was 1.8% and narcissistic was 6.2% in the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions.
As for sex-and gender-related differences, antisocial personality disorder is three times more common in men and they present with irritability/aggression and reckless disregard for the safety of others more often than women. Borderline personality disorder is more common among women in clinical samples while community samples show no difference in prevalence, likely due to the tendency of women to seek help leading them to clinical settings. Histrionic personality disorder is more predominant in females in clinical settings, though some studies using structured assessments point to no difference in prevalence rates across the genders. Narcissistic personality disorder occurs more in men than women. | Cluster B personality disorders prevalence rates were: 0.6% for antisocial, 1.4% for borderline, 0.0% for histrionic, and 0.0% for narcissistic. Antisocial personality disorder is three times more common in men and they present with irritability/aggression and reckless disregard for the safety of others more often than women.Borderline personality disorder adn Histronic disorder show no difference in prevelance between men and women.Narcissistic personality disorder occurs more in men than women. | 114 |
Grice's Maxims describe unspoken rules for conversation, which are known altogether as "the cooperative principle." They are the maxims of quality, quantity, manner, and relevance (or 'relation'). The maxim of quality says, try to say things that are true and supported by evidence. The maxim of quantity says, try to give as much information as needed, and no more. The maxim of manner says try to be as clear, brief, and orderly as you can. The maxim of relevance, says try to say only things that are relevant. These rules are used not only by being followed; they are also used, very often, by breaking them, such as to create humor, or to imply unspoken messages. This is called conversational implicature. | Grice's Maxims describe unspoken rules for conversation, such as quality, quantity, manner, and relevance. These rules can be followed or broken to create humor or imply unspoken messages. | 665 |
These include observational research, case studies, surveys, correlational designs, and experiments. | Observational research. Case studies. Surveys. Correlational designs. Experiments. | 380 |
`git diff` uses a tool called `diff` to show you the differences between your current working version of a file and the last version you checked in to the repository. | git diff uses a tool called diff to show you the differences between your current working version of a file and the last version you checked in to the repository. | 596 |
While there is no evidenced-based treatment for dissociative amnesia, both hypnosis and phasic therapy have been shown to produce some positive effects in patients with dissociative amnesia. | There is no evidenced-based treatment for dissociative amnesia.Both hypnosis and phasic therapy have been shown to produce some positive effects in patients with dissociative amnesia. | 615 |
Psychology worked with the disease model for over 60 years, from about the late 1800s into the middle part of the 19th century. The focus was simple – curing mental disorders – and included such pioneers as Freud, Adler, Klein, Jung, and Erickson. These names are synonymous with the psychoanalytical school of thought. In the 1930s, behaviorism, under B.F. Skinner, presented a new view of human behavior. Simply, human behavior could be modified if the correct combination of reinforcements and punishments were used. This viewpoint espoused the dominant worldview of the time – mechanism – which presented the world as a great machine explained through the principles of physics and chemistry. In it, human beings serve as smaller machines in the larger machine of the universe. Moving into the mid to late 1900s, we developed a more scientific investigation of mental illness, which allowed us to examine the roles of both nature and nurture and to develop drug and psychological treatments to “make miserable people less miserable.”
Starting in the 1960s, figures such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers sought to overcome the limitations of psychoanalysis and behaviorism by establishing a “third force” psychology, also known as humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology instead addressed the full range of human functioning and focused on personal fulfillment, valuing feelings over intellect, hedonism, a belief in human perfectibility, emphasis on the present, self-disclosure, self-actualization, positive regard, client centered therapy, and the hierarchy of needs. | Psychology worked with the disease model for over 60 years, focusing on curing mental disorders. In the 1930s, behaviorism presented a new view of human behavior, which espoused the dominant worldview of the time. In the mid to late 1900s, more scientific investigations of mental illness allowed us to examine the roles of nature and nurture. In the 1960s, humanistic psychology was establised. | 240 |
Setting criteria before an evaluation is conducted (whether formative or summative) is important because it holds program leadership and key stakeholders accountable to a more objective assessment of the program. Without pre-set criteria, program leaders and stakeholders may come to believe that acceptable performance is whatever the data tells them. In other words, the results would determine what is acceptable, not the expectations and wisdom held by the leaders going into the process. | Setting criteria before an evaluation is important to hold program leaders and stakeholders accountable to an objective assessment of the program. | 1,111 |
Among its treatment options, the most efficacious treatments include antidepressant medications, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, Behavioral Activation, and Interpersonal Therapy. | Antidepressant medications. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. Behavioral Activation. Interpersonal Therapy. | 403 |
Relationships can take on a few different forms. In what are called communal relationships, there is an expectation of mutual responsiveness from each member as it relates to tending to member’s needs while exchange relationships involve the expectation of reciprocity in a form of tit-for-tat strategy. This leads to what are called intimate or romantic relationships in which you feel a very strong sense of attraction to another person in terms of their personality and physical features. Love is often a central feature of intimate relationships. | Relationships can take on different forms, such as communal and exchange relationships, which involve mutual responsiveness and reciprocity. | 363 |
ezBIDS is a secure online tool for converting DICOM data to BIDS. ezBIDS is friendly adn offers data discovery. | ezBIDS is a secure online tool for converting DICOM data to BIDS. ezBIDS is friendly and offers data discovery. | 1,342 |
they don’t take body composition (a person’s ratio of fat to lean muscle) or fat distribution into account.
People who are extremely muscular may fall into the overweight category on weight charts,
More accurate measures of evaluating healthy weight and health risks might be by assessing “overfatness” and how fat is distributed in a person’s body.
Although useful measures, BMI levels don’t include water, muscle, and bone mass or account for the fact that muscle weighs more than fat.
BMI levels can be inaccurate for people who are under 5 feet tall, are highly muscled, or are older and have little muscle mass. | BMI levels don't take body composition or fat distribution into account. BMI doesn't account for water, muscle, and bone mass. | 1,358 |
1. regulation of vital functions (breathing, heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, vomiting, sleep/wake cycle) and
2. Production sites of many neurotransmitters
Damage to this brain region will likely result in death. | Regulation of vital functions (breathing, heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, vomiting, sleep/wake cycle).
Production sites of many neurotransmitters.
Damage to this brain region will likely result in death. | 904 |
These are public values to be used by both parties in the Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange. *P* represents the modulus and *G* represents the base. | P represents the modulus. G represents the base. | 1,056 |
The problem that plagues social psychology is who makes up our samples. Many social psychological studies are conducted with college students working for course credit. They represent what is called a convenience sample. The issue is that we cannot generalize to the larger population from this specific sample. | Sample size is limited by convenience sample, making it difficult to generalize to larger population. | 270 |
Because medical conditions can explain urinary incontinence, careful consideration for specific bladder conditions or medical conditions that can impact urinary continence (e.g., neurogenic bladder or untreated diabetes) must accounted for (APA, 2013). Additionally, some medication can make it difficult to remain continent
Similar to enuresis, fecal incontinence can be caused by other medical conditions. For example, spina bifida and chronic diarrhea can lead to fecal incontinence. | Medical conditions can cause urinary and fecal incontinence, and some medications can make it difficult to remain continent. Additionally, spina bifida and chronic diarrhea can lead to fecal incontinence. | 1,347 |
"If P and Q then not P and not Q." | If P and Q then not P and not Q. | 1,462 |
Simultaneous Bilingualism is when an individual acquires two different languages at the same time from birth.
Early Sequential Bilingualism is when an individual acquires their first language from birth and acquires their second language throughout their early childhood years
Late Sequential Bilingualism is when an individual acquires their first language from birth and only learns their second language during their adolescence or later on in life | Simultaneous Bilingualism is when an individual acquires two different languages at the same time from birth.
Early Sequential Bilingualism is when an individual acquires their first language from birth and acquires their second language throughout their early childhood years. Late Sequential Bilingualism is when an individual acquires their first language from birth and only learns their second language during their adolescence or later on in life. | 401 |
A survey is a questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some number of questions which assess a psychological construct of interest. Surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data quickly but the actual survey could be tedious for the participant and social desirability. | A questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some questions used to assess a psychological construct of interest. An advantage is that surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data quickly. A disadcantage is that survey could be tedious for the participant and social desirability could be an issue. | 574 |
As a starting point, one way to reduce prejudice and discrimination (or reduce negative feelings rooted in cognitions about another group and negative behavior made in relation to the group) is by teaching tolerance or “respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world’s cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human. Tolerance is harmony in difference.” | Tolerance is a way to reduce prejudice and discrimination by respecting and appreciating diversity. | 979 |
First, identify the "final" aka "accept" states of the automaton. Trace the input through the automaton. If the state where the input terminates is one of the accept states, then the automaton accepts that input, making it part of the automaton's language. If not, the automaton rejects the input. | If the state where the input terminates is one of the accept states, then the automaton accepts that input, making it part of the automaton's language. | 562 |
The stable level of drug concentration in the bloodstream achieved with repeated, regular interval dosing. | The stable level of drug concentration in the bloodstream achieved with repeated, regular interval dosing. | 701 |
When thinking about both disorders, we have three different core areas to consider: adaptive functioning, cognitive/intellectual ability (IQ), and academic achievement. A rudimentarily way to think about this is - with ID we are concerned with adaptive functioning and IQ and with LD we are concerned with IQ (sort of) and academic achievement. Although IQ matters (sort of) in both disorders, the reason they are important vary slightly. | With ID we are concerned with adaptive functioning and IQ. With LD we are concerned with IQ and academic achievement. | 696 |
Biological causes include genetics and neurobiological structures. | Biological causes include genetics and neurobiological structures. | 724 |
It is better to give variables meaningful names that help you understand the source code later:
For example, the variables "image" and “t-stat” are better than x and y. | It is better to give variables meaningful names that help you understand the source code later. | 971 |
In a MEMM, we can build a feature vector with **many** more features than what is available to us in an HMM. For example, we can encode part-of-speech information of the \(n\) previous words, morphological features of the prior & next words, the existence of non-alphanumeric characters within the current word, and so on.
Another advantage is that we can easily deal with unknown words (or "out of vocabulary" words) through the use of general features (ex. word shape features). For example, we can encode whether the given word contains a digit, uppercase letter, special characters, and so on. | MEMMs provide a feature vector with more features than HMMs, such as part-of-speech information, morphological features, non-alphanumeric characters, and word shape features. They can also be used to encode unknown words, such as digits, uppercase letters, special characters, etc. | 1,028 |
Comorbid disorders are very common for children with autism. Specifically, 70% of children with autism have a comorbid diagnosis. Further, 40% of children with autism have two or more additional disorders. Intellectual impairment and language disorders are commonly comorbid with ASD. Moreover, difficulties, sleep problems, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (often due to sensory concerns), epilepsy, and constipation are commonly comorbid with autism. | Comorbid disorders are common for children with autism, including intellectual impairment, language disorders, sleep problems, food intake disorder, epilepsy, and constipation. | 1,381 |
If statements (also referred to as if/else statements or if/elif/else statements) execute conditional events.
As an unplugged example, we have many conditional events in our daily lives. "If it is sunny out today, then I will go to the beach."
If statements work the exact same way in Python. "If (some condition is true), then (evaluate some code)." | If statements execute conditional events. | 788 |
While not literal, metaphors can provide comparative contexts that make the meaning of messages, especially those that are more abstract or complex, easier to interpret and understand. | While not literal, metaphors can provide comparative contexts that make the meaning of messages, especially those that are more abstract or complex, easier to interpret and understand. | 127 |
Functions are for compartmentalizing code and making code easy to reuse.
For instance, let's say you want to write a program that determines if each of the following numbers are prime numbers: 24, 83, 239. Well, you could write code that determines if 24 is prime, then code that determines if 83 is prime, then code that determines if 239 is prime. But re-writing code three times is inefficient and will make your code difficult to read and maintain. Instead, you can write one singular `is_prime(num)` function, and pass in 24, 83, and 239 respectively as parameters.
The `def` keyword declares a function definition in Python. | Functions are for compartmentalizing code and making code easy to reuse. | 577 |
Other anxiety disorders, depressive and bipolar disorders, substance-related disorders, and somatic symptom disorder are typically comorbid with specific phobia. Additionally, personality disorders, in particular dependent personality disorder, are comorbid. Specific phobia is associated with the transition from suicidal ideation to attempt (APA, 2022). | Specific phobia is associated with the transition from suicidal ideation to attempt, and is often comorbid with other disorders. | 621 |
Lower level of dopamine receptors.
Impulsivity.
Poorer environment and less social support. | Lower level of dopamine receptors. Impulsivity. Poorer environment and less social support. | 409 |
The second two components of Berlo's SMCR Model - Channel and Receiver - are associated with decoding. Decoding refers to the process that occurs when the receiver (i.e., audience member) receives and interprets the meaning of a message. | Decoding is the process of receiving and interpreting messages. | 739 |
**Quantitative** data counts or measures something. **Qualitative** data describes or categorizes something. | Quantitative data counts or measures something. Qualitative data describes or categorizes something. | 813 |
When training a Naive Bayes classifier, we want to build a table of probabilities as our model. For instance, consider the task of sentiment analysis with three labels: 'Positive', 'Negative', and 'Neutral'. In our training data, the word "disappointing" may appear 100 times out of 10,000 total words with the class 'Negative', 5 times out of 5,000 total words with the class 'Neutral', and 2 times out of 10,000 total words with the class 'Positive'. Then, in testing, when we run into the word "disappointing," we use the probabilities we built in training to determine a score of likelihood for each of the classes (which can be normalized to show a likelihood percentage for each class), as follows:$$ \hat P(“disappointing”| `Negative`) = {count(“disappointing”, `Negative`) \over \sum_{w \in V} count(w, `Negative`)} = {100 \over 10,000 } = 0.01$$$$ \hat P(“disappointing” | `Neutral`) = {count(“disappointing”, `Neutral`) \over \sum_{w \in V} count(w, `Neutral`)} = {5 \over 5,000 } = 0.001$$$$ \hat P(“disappointing” | `Positive`) = {count(“disappointing”, `Positive`) \over \sum_{w \in V} count(w, `Positive`)} = {2 \over 10,000 } = 0.0002$$Smoothing can be applied to help fix the problem of if certain words appear in the training data, but not as every class (for instance, a word "smart" could appear in 'Positive' and 'Neutral' examples, but not in 'Negative', and thus would cause a probability of 0 for \(\hat P(“smart”| `Negative`)\). | We use the probabilities we built in training to determine a score of likelihood for each of the classes.
Smoothing can be applied to help fix the problem of if certain words appear in the training data, but not as every class. | 160 |
Factitious disorder, commonly referred to as Munchausen syndrome, differs from the three previously discussed somatic disorders in that there is deliberate falsification of medical or psychological symptoms of oneself or another, with the overall intention of deception. While a medical condition may be present, the severity of impairment related to the medical condition is more excessive due to the individual’s need to deceive those around them. Even more alarming is that this disorder is not only observed in the individual leading the deception— it can also be present in another individual, often a child or an individual with a compromised mental status who is not aware of the deception behind their illness (also known as Munchausen by Proxy). | In factitious disorder, commonly referred to as Munchausen syndrome, there is deliberate falsification of medical or psychological symptoms of oneself or another, with the overall intention of deception. | 55 |
The conditioning perspective, social comparison theory, social identity theory, self-categorization theory, and sociobiological theory explain why groups are important to us. | The conditioning perspective, social comparison theory, social identity theory, self-categorization theory, and sociobiological theory explain why groups are important to us. | 890 |
It finds the greatest common divisor of the two inputs (both integers). | It finds the greatest common divisor of the two inputs (both integers). | 1,449 |
*1*
*a mod a = 0* since \({a \over a} = 1R0\). When you add *1* to *a*, now you will have a remainder of *1*. | 1 | 1,421 |
a set of rituals, beliefs, symbols, and practices intended to enable a feeling of connection to the holy or divine, often represented by specific deities. | A set of rituals, beliefs, symbols, and practices intended to enable a feeling of connection to the holy or divine, often represented by specific deities. | 542 |
Environment variables contain information about your login session (like who you are and what shell you are using).
Add new environment variables to your bash configuration file (e.g., **.bashrc**) by using the export statement, e.g., **export GID="id -g"**
Type **env** to see all of your environment variables.
When you install programs, you will often need to add environment variables. | Environment variables contain information about your login session like who you are and what shell you are using. | 1,047 |
Cosine similarity measures the similarity between two vectors, and is equal to the cosine of the angel between two points in N-dimensional space (hence, "cosine similarity").
Cosine similarity is used frequently in Natural Language Processing tasks. For instance, consider the task of determining how similar two words are to each other. We may represent each word as a vector, then by performing cosine similarity, we can determine that the vector for *house* is more similar to the vector for *apartment* than it is to the vector for *snorkel*.
Cosine similarities can range from -1 (exact opposites, such as [32, -15] and [-32, 15]) to 1 (exactly the same) | Cosine similarity measures the similarity between two vectors. It is equal to the cosine of the angel between two points in N-dimensional space. | 933 |
For social anxiety disorder, the anxiety or fear relates to social situations, particularly those in which an individual can be evaluated by others. More specifically, the individual is worried that they will be judged negatively and viewed as stupid, anxious, crazy, boring, or unlikeable, to name a few. Some individuals report feeling concerned that their anxiety symptoms will be obvious to others via blushing, stuttering, sweating, trembling, etc. These fears severely limit an individual’s behavior in social settings. | For social anxiety disorder, the anxiety or fear relates to social situations, particularly those in which an individual can be evaluated by others. | 601 |
Research shows that BED shares similar comorbidities with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Common comorbidities include major depressive disorder and alcohol use disorder. About 25% of those with BED have shown suicidal ideation (APA, 2022). | BED comorbidities include major depressive disorder, alcohol use disorder, and suicidal ideation. | 938 |
Effects of stigma for those with a mental illness include experiencing work-related discrimination resulting in higher levels of self-stigma and stress Self-stigma has also been shown to affect self-esteem, which then affects hope, which then affects quality of life among people with SMI. Stigma has been shown to lead to health inequities prompting calls for stigma change. | Stigma for those with mental illness can lead to work-related discrimination, self-stigma, stress, self-esteem, hope, quality of life, and health inequities, leading to calls for change. | 1,195 |
When the data is imbalanced, it is possible that the data for some class \(c\) is only included in some of the folds (partitions of the data), and there are other folds that don't have any datapoints with the label \(c\). **stratified** \(k\)-fold cross-validation is used to distribute imbalanced data across each fold at rate reflecting its proportion in the data. | Stratified k fold cross-validation is used to distribute imbalanced data across each fold at rate reflecting its proportion in the data. | 1,170 |
the inability to control drinking due to both a physical and emotional dependence on alcohol. | the inability to control drinking due to both a physical and emotional dependence on alcohol. | 903 |
"Adverb" is a part-of-speech, or more properly, "lexical category." "Adverbial" is a functional category, like subject and predicate; it describes what a phrase does, not what it is. While an adverb phrase must have an adverb for its head, such as in "almost always" or "very quickly," an adverbial phrase does not even need to contain an adverb; it just functions like one. For example, in "He chewed his food with his mouth open," the phrase with his mouth open is a prepositional phrase, but it is an adverbial, because it modifies the verb "chewed." | "Adverb" is a part-of-speech, or more properly, "lexical category." "Adverbial" is a functional category, like subject and predicate; it describes what a phrase does, not what it is. | 737 |
Files all contain two components: a header and data.
A file **header** is information (metadata) at the beginning of the file that describes the file contents. For example, the header may identify the number of pixels in each row of a picture, the resolution etc. and the header contains the magic number.
The **data** is the actual contents of the files, like the values of pixels in an image. | A file header is information (metadata) at the beginning of the file that describes the file contents.
The data is the actual contents of the files, like the values of pixels in an image. | 1,263 |
Body dysmorphic disorder is another obsessive disorder; however, the focus of the obsessions is with perceived defects or flaws in one’s physical appearance. A key feature of these obsessions is that they are not observable or appear slight to others. An individual who has a congenital facial defect or a burn victim who is concerned about their scars are not examples of an individual with body dysmorphic disorder. | Body dysmorphic disorder is another obsessive disorder; however, the focus of the obsessions is with perceived defects or flaws in one’s physical appearance. A key feature of these obsessions is that they are not observable or appear slight to others. | 107 |
Semantic selection restrictions are limitations on what semantic types of entities can play the roles of a verb’s various arguments. For example, the object of “eat” should normally be limited to “edible” entities, and only a living thing can be the subject of “love” (putting aside metaphors). These selection restrictions might be found automatically using the WordNet hierarchy of semantic categories (called ‘synsets’). One can find the relevant synsets in WordNet by looking at the hypernyms of words (the more general categories to which each word belongs). The needed synset could be selected by finding the hypernyms common to all the words that play a particular role with a particular verb. For example, one would probably discover, that “edible” is the lowest common hypernym among all objects of “eat.” One could also assign these categories as semantic features to words, to help with semantic role classification, word-sense disambiguation, and verb frame classification. | Semantic selection restrictions limit the types of entities that can play the roles of a verb's arguments, and can be found using the WordNet hierarchy of semantic categories. Synsets can be assigned to words to help with role classification, word-sense disambiguation, and verb frame classification. | 330 |
We will be more likely to help if we do not expect to experience any type of embarrassment when helping. | We are more likely to help when we don't feel embarrassed. | 690 |
Once we have decided on whether our hypothesis is correct or not, we need to share this information with others so that they might comment critically on our methodology, statistical analyses, and conclusions. Sharing also allows for replication or repeating the study to confirm its results. | We need to share our findings with others to critique our metholodogy and replicate our study. | 721 |
When members of a society endorse negative stereotypes of people with a mental disorder and discriminate against them. They might avoid them altogether, resulting in social isolation. | When members of a society endorse negative stereotypes of people with a mental disorder and discriminate against them. They might avoid them altogether, resulting in social isolation. | 1,176 |
Generalized anxiety disorder, commonly referred to as GAD, is a disorder characterized by an underlying excessive worry related to a wide range of events or activities. While many individuals experience some levels of worry throughout the day, individuals with GAD experience worry of greater intensity and for longer periods than the average person (APA, 2013). Additionally, they are often unable to control their worry through various coping strategies, which directly interferes with their ability to engage in daily social and occupational tasks. Individuals with GAD will also experience somatic symptoms during intensive periods of anxiety. These somatic symptoms may include sweating, dizziness, shortness of breath, insomnia, restlessness, or muscle aches (Gelenberg, 2000). | GAD is a disorder characterized by excessive worry and unable to control it through coping strategies, leading to somatic symptoms such as sweating, dizziness, shortness of breath, insomnia, restlessness, and muscle aches. | 289 |
Scaffolding refers to giving contextual support in the process of language learning by using graphics, visuals, and simplified language. This support is provided by the teacher. The scaffold is gradually removed as students become more proficient. | Scaffolding refers to giving contextual support in the process of language learning by using graphics, visuals, and simplified language. | 1,276 |
Obsessive-compulsive disorder, more commonly known as OCD, requires the presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both. Obsessions are defined as repetitive and persistent thoughts, urges, or images. Compulsions are time-consuming, repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual performs in response to an obsession. | OCD requires the presence of both obsessions and compulsions. They are repetitive thoughts, urges, or images. | 1,270 |
Jupyter is a blended word referring to the three programming languages that notebooks initially supported: Julia, Python and R.
A notebook is an environment (like the picture) for working with Python and several other languages.
You type code into cells and run it in your web-browser without installing anything on your computer.
It can produce sophisticated graphics and incorporate interactive widgets. Google offers a similar tool, Google CoLab which can read Python Jupyter notebooks.
You can save the whole notebook and share it with someone else. It will save as a *.ipynb file and can be easily viewed with Jupyterlab, or Google CoLab.
By using a Jupyter notebook, you can experiment with Python without worrying about installing anything on your computer! | Jupyter is an environment for working with Python and other languages, allowing users to type code into cells and run it in a web-browser without installing anything. | 1,175 |
Languages acquire new words by creating them "out of nothing" (word coinage); if it was not created out of the blue, the speakers of a language may take material from other languages and if this is not the case, one or more of the following processes take place to acquire new words:
- Folk etymology –Less familiar words/morphemes are reanalyzed as familiar ones.
- Backformation–A monomorphemic word is reanalyzed as multimorphemic, resulting in a new morpheme from some
- part of the original word.
- Clipping–A word is shortened to some continuous subset of its speech sounds.
- Acronymization–A phrase is shortened to initial letters, which are read as a word.
- Abbreviation–A phrase is shortened to initial letters; each letter is read individually.
- Conversion–The part of speech of a word is changed without any change in form.
- Affixation–An affix is combined with other morphemes.
- Compounding–Two words are combined into a single word.
- Blending–Two words are compounded after at least one has been clipped. | Word coinage. Folk etymology. Backformation, Clipping. Acronymization. Abbreviation. Conversion. Affixation.Compounding. Blending. | 447 |
Word normalization is the task of converting words to one standard format before processing. For instance, this can include "case folding," which is the conversion of all words into their lowercased equivalents. This can be beneficial to text classification tasks, such as sentiment analysis, because the difference in weighting between "Amazing," "amazing," and "AMAZING" in determining sentiment is likely less significant, and we can essentially combine our data for all three casings (or any other casing variations) in building our model that may be a more accurate representation. To further think about this, "AMAZING" may only include a few examples in a training dataset, so its weights may be much more accurate if we combine this token with all other casings.
Lemmatization is another strategy that can be employed, which converts words to a common root for a model. For instance, "am" and "are" would be considered as "be," and "amazing" and "amazingly" would be considered to be "amaze," which could have similar benefits to a model as case folding. | Word normalization converts words to one standard format before processing.
Case folding converts all words into their lowercased equivalents.
Lemmatization converts words to a common root.
This can be beneficial to text classification tasks because we can essentially combine our data variations in building our model that may be a more accurate representation. | 248 |
Many scientific tools are complicated to install. They include a complex web of dependencies sometimes called "dependency hell".
In addition, unfortunately, some analyses produce different results just because they are run on different operating systems!
A container is like a small, fast free virtual machine that solves these two problems:
-One benefit of containers is that all the dependencies can be packaged together so you don't have to worry about them.
-Also, by using a container, you can ensure that every time the analysis is run, the results are the same.
On your personal machine you should use Docker. Docker works well on Mac and Linux. With extra effort, you can even install it on a Windows computer.
If you move some of your work to the High Performance Computing cluster, then you must convert your Docker containers to Singularity containers. You are still guaranteed equivalent results, Singularity just addresses some security concerns on the HPC. | A container is like a small, fast free virtual machine | 583 |
Receptor cells in each of the five sensory systems detect energy. This information is passed to the nervous system due to the process of transduction and through sensory or afferent neurons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system. The information is received by brain structures (central nervous system) and perception occurs. Once the information has been interpreted, commands are sent out, telling the body how to respond, also via the peripheral nervous system. | Receptor cells in each of the five sensory systems detect energy. This information is passed to the nervous system due to the process of transduction. The information is received by brain structures and perception occurs. Once the information has been interpreted, commands are sent out, telling the body how to respond. | 63 |
The sociocultural model of dissociative disorders has been primarily influenced by Lilienfeld and colleagues (1999) who argue that the influence of mass media and its publications of dissociative disorders, provide a model for individuals to not only learn about dissociative disorders but also engage in similar dissociative behaviors. These mass media productions are not just suggestive to patients. It has been suggested that mass media also influences the way clinicians gather information regarding dissociative symptoms of patients. | Mass media productions of dissociative disorders provide a model for individuals to learn and engage in dissociative behaviors, both to patients and clinicians. | 1,144 |
1. Metabolizing enzymes: it increases the availability (within the plasma interestingly, not the liver) and efficiency of enzymes that can break down cocaine. This prevents the drug from getting to the brain in sufficient amount to create its positive effects.
2. Antibody vaccines: it involves the injection of an antibody that binds to cocaine and prevents it from crossing the blood-brain-barrier. Doing so prevents it from having its psychoactive and addictive effects.
For more, see textbook: p.246-248 | Metabolizing enzymes increase the availability and efficiency of enzymes that break down cocaine, preventing it from reaching the brain. Antibody vaccines prevent cocaine from crossing the blood-brain barrier, preventing its psychoactive and addictive effects. | 272 |
Suicidality in depressive disorders, particularly bipolar disorder, is much higher than the general public. In depressive disorders, males and those with a history of suicide attempts/threats are most at risk for attempting suicide. Individuals with bipolar disorder are approximately 15 times more likely than the general population to attempt suicide. The prevalence rate of suicide attempts in bipolar patients is estimated to be 33%. Furthermore, bipolar disorder may account for one-quarter of all completed suicides (APA, 2013). | Suicidality in depressive disorders, particularly bipolar disorder, is much higher than the general population, with males and those with a history of suicide attempts/threats most at risk. The prevalence rate of suicide attempts is estimated to be 33%, and bipolar disorder may account for one-quarter of all completed suicides. | 207 |
Research suggests that while psychopharmacological interventions are more effective in rapidly reducing symptoms, psychotherapy, or even a combined treatment approach, are more effective in establishing long-term relief of symptoms. Rates of relapse for major depressive disorder are often associated with individuals whose onset was at a younger age (particularly adolescents), those who have already experienced multiple major depressive episodes, and those with more severe symptomology, especially those presenting with severe suicidal ideation and psychotic features (APA, 2013). | Psychopharmacological interventions are more effective in rapidly reducing symptoms.Psychotherapy, or even a combined treatment approach, are more effective in establishing long-term relief of symptoms. | 30 |
Seeing as though there are strong similarities between OCD and BDD, it should not come as a surprise that the only two effective treatments for BDD are those that are effective in OCD. Exposure and response prevention has been successful in treating symptoms of BDD, as patients are repeatedly exposed to their body imperfections/obsessions and prevented from engaging in compulsions used to reduce their anxiety. (Veale, Gournay, et al., 1996; Wilhelm, Otto, Lohr, & Deckersbach, 1999). The other treatment option, psychopharmacology, has also been shown to reduce symptoms in patients with BDD. Similar to OCD, medications such as clomipramine and SSRIs are generally prescribed. While these are effective in reducing BDD symptoms, once medication is discontinued, symptoms resume nearly immediately suggesting this is not an effective long-term treatment option for those with BDD. | Exposure and response prevention and psychopharmacology are two effective treatments for BDD, but not long term. Psychopharmacology has been unsuccessful. | 305 |
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens, or psychedelics, are substances capable of creating auditory or visual hallucinations and unusual changes in mood, thoughts, and feelings. Major receptor sites for hallucinogens are in the reticular formation (located in the brainstem at the upper end of the spinal cord), which is responsible for interpreting outside stimuli before allowing these signals to travel to other parts of the brain. When a hallucinogen is present at a reticular formation site, messages become scrambled. The user may see wavy walls instead of straight ones or, in a mixing of sensory messages known as synesthesia, may “smell” colors and “hear” tastes. Users may also become less inhibited or recall events long buried in the subconscious mind. | Hallucinogens | 1,286 |
Only the body of the function can access the closure | Only the body of the function can access the closure | 1,090 |
Illness is considered an undesirable circumstance for the individual and/or society.
- For the individual, illness disrupts “normal” biological, psychological, and social functioning.
- For society, illness can undermine the ability of groups and organizations to perform important social functions.
Talcott Parsons (1951) conceptualized illness as deviance primarily because of its threat to the stability of a social system through its impact on role performance.
Parsons puts forwards the sick role theory to explain how illness becomes legitimized in society, allowing individuals who are ill to deviate from normal behavior for a temporary period of time. | Illness is considered an undesirable circumstance for the individual and/or society.
For the individual, illness disrupts “normal” biological, psychological, and social functioning.
For society, illness can undermine the ability of groups and organizations to perform important social functions. | 235 |
*n*
The expressions n and 4n are both evenly divisible by n. n can't be divided by anything larger than itself, so n must be the GCD. | n | 1,411 |
Cognitive theorists have focused on the beliefs regarding the anticipated effects of substance use. Defined as the expectancy effect, drug-seeking behavior is presumably motivated by the desire to attain a particular outcome by ingesting a substance. The expectancy effect can be defined in both positive and negative forms. Positive expectations are thought to increase drug-seeking behavior, while negative experiences would decrease substance use. Several studies have examined the expectancy effect on the use of alcohol. Those with alcohol abuse reported expectations of tension reduction, enhanced sexual experiences, and improved social pleasure. Additionally, observing positive experiences, both in person and through television or social media, also shapes our drug use expectancies. | The expectancy effect of substance use can be both positive and negative, with positive expectations increasing drug-seeking behavior and negative experiences decreasing it. | 174 |
regular exercise | regular exercise. | 1,454 |
Constraint-based grammar is grammar that does not allow any merges, transformations, omissions, or movements that can result in a correct sentence. | Constraint-based grammar is grammar that does not allow any merges, transformations, omissions, or movements that can result in a correct sentence. | 1,051 |
One proposed cognitive theory of dissociative disorders, particularly dissociative amnesia, is a memory retrieval deficit. More specifically, Kopelman (2000) theorizes that the combination of psychological stress and various other biopsychosocial predispositions affects the frontal lobes executive system’s ability to retrieve autobiographical memories (Picard et al., 2013). Neuroimaging studies have supported this theory by showing deficits to several prefrontal regions, which is one area responsible for memory retrieval (Picard et al., 2013). Despite these findings, there is still some debate over which specific brain regions within the executive system are responsible for the retrieval difficulties, as research studies have reported mixed findings.
Specific to DID, neuroimaging studies have shown differences in hippocampus activation between subpersonalities (Tsai, Condie, Wu & Chang, 1999). As you may recall, the hippocampus is responsible for storing information from short-term to long-term memory. It is hypothesized that this brain region is responsible for the generation of dissociative states and amnesia. | Kopelman theorizes that psychological stress and predispositions affect the frontal lobes executive system's ability to retrieve autobiographical memories. Neuroimaging studies have shown deficits to several prefrontal regions, but there is still debate over which brain regions are responsible for the retrieval difficulties. | 161 |
Real-world, unstructured text data is messy. It's often full of typos and inconsistently formatted. If you're scraping data from a website, you may find yourself needing to sift through a soup of broken HTML and JavaScript. Text normalization is a set of techniques designed to increase the uniformity of text. | Real-world, unstructured text data is messy.Text normalization is a set of techniques designed to increase the uniformity of text. | 572 |
The fundamental unit of the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell (See Figure 2.3). It has several structures in common with all cells in the body to include the nucleus and soma. In terms of distinctive structures, these focus on the ability of a neuron to send and receive information. The axon sends signals/information to neighboring neurons while the dendrites, which resemble little trees, receive information from neighboring neurons. | The fundamental unit of the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell. It has several structures in common with all cells in the body to include the nucleus and soma. The axon sends signals/information to neighboring neurons while the dendrites receive information from neighboring neurons. | 511 |
A form is a view of table data. The form need not be based on a single table, but can depend on multiple tables. One way a form is useful is because it allows you to arrange data fields to mimic paper forms. This makes data entry much easier and less error-prone, especially if data is limited by a control of some sort (combo boxes, radio buttons, etc.) and/or values are checked before being accepted. It is actually possible to create a form in MS Excel, though it is less flexible! | A form is a view of table data.One way a form is useful is because it allows you to arrange data fields to mimic paper forms which data entry much easier and less error-prone. | 625 |
The M’Naghten rule states that having a mental disorder at the time of a crime does not mean the person was insane. The individual also had to be unable to know right from wrong, or comprehend the act as wrong. But how do you know what the person’s level of awareness was when the crime was committed?
Dissatisfaction with the M’Haghten rule led some state and federal courts in the U.S. to adopt instead the irresistible impulse test (1887), which focused on the inability of a person to control their behaviors. The issue with this rule is in distinguishing when a person is unable to maintain control rather than choosing not to exert control over their behavior. This meant there were two choices in the U.S. in terms of how insanity was defined – the M’Haghten rule and the irresistible impulse test. A third test emerged in 1954 from the Durham v. United States case, though it was short-lived. The Durham test, or products test, stated that a person was not criminally responsible if their crime was a product of a mental illness or defect. It offered some degree of flexibility for the courts but was viewed as too flexible. Since almost anything can cause something else, the term product is too vague.
In 1962, the American Law Institute (ALI) offered a compromise to the three precepts in use at the time. The American Law Institute standard stated that people are not criminally responsible for their actions if, at the time of their crime, they had a mental disorder or defect that did not allow them to distinguish right from wrong and to obey the law. Though this became the standard, it also became controversial when defense attorneys used it as the basis to have John Hinckley, accused of attempting to assassinate President Ronald Regan, found not guilty by reason of insanity in 1982.
Public uproar led the American Psychiatric Association to reiterate the stance of the M’Naghten test and assert people were only insane if they did not know right from wrong when they committed their crime. The Federal Insanity Defense Reform ACT (IDRA) of 1984 “was the first comprehensive federal legislation governing the insanity defense and the disposition of individuals suffering from a mental disease or defect who are involved in the criminal justice system.” | The M'Naghten rule states that having a mental disorder at the time of a crime does not mean a person is insane. The irresistible impulse test (1887) and the Durham test (1954) offered flexibility, but were viewed as too vague. The Federal Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA) of 1984 was the first comprehensive federal legislation. | 120 |
Motivating with Why vs How can increase employees' personal buy-in to the organizations goals and how their work impacts those goals. | Motivating with Why vs How can increase employees' personal buy-in to the organizations goals and how their work impacts those goals. | 672 |
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