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请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

理解两种类型的投资十分重要。第一种是固定投资，即工商企业用于设备（机器、计算机、飞机等）、建筑物（工厂、办公楼、购物中心等）方面的支出以及对居民住宅的计划支出。第二种投资是存货投资，即工商企业用于增加原材料、零部件和成品等持有量上的支出，存货投资是按一定时期（比如说1年）内这些物品持有量的变动来加以计算的。

It is important to understand that there are two types of investment. The first type, fixed investment, is the spending by firms on equipment (machines, computers, airplanes) and structures (factories, office buildings, shopping centers) and planned spending on residential housing. The second type, inventory investment, is spending by firms on additional holdings of raw materials, parts, and finished goods, calculated as the change in holdings of these items in a given time period-say a year.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

新石器时代的农业革命对后世产生了深远的影响。由于人们安顿到村落和城镇里，他们需要建造作为庇身之所的房屋和用来储藏东西的建筑。当这种有组织的共同体储藏食物和其他物品的时候，贸易活动开始了。在某些手工行业中人们还开始了专业分工，劳动分工也就产生了。

The Neolithic Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Once people settled in villages or towns, they built permanent houses for protection and other structures for the storage of goods. As organized communities stockpiled food and accumulated material goods, they began to engage in trade. People also began to specialize in certain crafts, and a division of labor developed.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

矫饰主义最终为一股新的潮流，即巴洛克艺术所取代，此后主导艺术领域长达一个半世纪。巴洛克风格于16世纪下半叶在意大利发起，后在欧洲迅速蔓延。

Mannerism was eventually replaced by a new movement -- the Baroque -- that dominated the artistic world for another century and a half. The Baroque began in Italy in the last quarter of the sixteenth century and spread to the rest of Europe.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

百年来的国学论争和振兴中华、实现现代化的时代主题密切相关。国学论争的实质是中国如何实现现代化以及实现什么样的现代化。国学反映着时代精神，时代精神推动着国学，引领着国学。不能把国学当成包医百病的灵药，更要反对用国学等同、取代当代新型文化建设的企图和做法。国学的研究和应用，应当在改革创新的时代精神的引领之下进行，并且在时代精神的烛照下焕发新的生命。简单否定、排斥国学，固然不妥；而盲目推崇、迷信国学，也缺乏理性。

The debates on the studies of Chinese ancient civilization in the past century have been closely related to the theme of the times—to rejuvenate Chinese nation and achieve modernization. The debates are essentially on how to realize modernization and what kind of modernization is supposed to be pursued. The studies of Chinese ancient civilization reflects the spirit of the times, while the latter offers some impetus and guides the former. However, neither can the studies of Chinese ancient civilization be used as a cure-all medicine nor be treated as a replacement of the new cultural construction. The spirit of innovation should direct the traditional Chinese studies and it is irrational to reject or accept the studies of Chinese ancient civilization blindly.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

不仅是图腾的分类逻辑而且是任何分类方案——植物分类、人名、宗教地理、宇宙论、奥马哈印第安人中的发型，或是澳大利亚牛吼者的设计主题——都可能在原则上得到揭示。

Not just the logic of totemic classifications but of any classificatory scheme at all—plant taxonomies, personal names, sacred geographies, cosmologies, hair styles among the Omaha Indians, or design motifs on Australian bull-roarers—can, en principe, be exposed.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

建立“红旗”机制。我们生活在一个信息时代，拥有更多更好的信息的人据说占有了优势。可当你环顾各种组织的盛衰时，就不难发现很少有公司是因为缺乏信息而垮台的。

Build "red flag" mechanisms. We live in an information age, when those with more and better information supposedly have an advantage. If you look across the rise and fall of organizations, however, you will rarely find companies stumbling because they lacked information.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

跪在地板上，双手撑地，双腿向后蹬直。双手与肩同宽，并处于上胸部的正下方。双腿双脚并拢，使支撑肌肉绷紧，使后背、髋部和双腿成一条直线。先伸直手臂，然后降低身体到大约一半臂长的高度，或者直到肘部弯成直角。控制下降高度的绝佳方式就是使用篮球或橄榄球——该动作处于最高点时，将身体置于球之上。这是半俯卧撑的起始姿势（图7）。

From the kneeling position, place your palms on the floor and stretch your legs out behind you. Your hands should be shoulder width apart, and directly below your upper chest. Your feet and legs should be kept together. Tighten your supporting muscles, so that your back, hips and legs stay locked in line. Starting with the arms straight, lower yourself approximately half the length of your extended arms, or until your elbows form a right angle. An excellent way to establish how far to descend is to use a standard basketball or soccer ball. Position yourself over the ball at the top of the movement, so that the ball is directly below your hips. This is the start position of the half pushup (fig. 7).

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

根据第六章所介绍的,偏态系数与峰度系数主要是用以描述资料分布特性的咨询。这边所采用的Z分数的方式来呈现，0.0 则表示为常态分布。在肱二头肌皮下脂肪资料中，偏态系数大于1表示资料的分布是倾向右偏分布，峰值系数接近2，表示资料的分布是较集中的；而在前臂皮下脂肪的部分，资料的偏度一样是呈现右偏的分布情况，在峰度系数的部分，其资料分布呈现更集中的分布，由此可知两个数量似乎都不是常态的分布。

Recall from chapter 6 that skewness and kurtosis provide information about the nature of the distribution. Here they are given in the form of a z score, where 0.0 indicates a normal distribution. For the biceps skinfold, the skewness is above +1.0, indicating that the hump of the curve is shifted to the left. The kurtosis is nearly +2.0, indicating that the distribution is very peaked. For the forearm skinfold, the hump of the curve is also shifted left, and the curve is extremely peaked. Neither data set seems to be normal in its distribution.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

LDL含量高可能是因为吃了很多诸如麦克拉德排骨或牛角面包等富含胆固醇的食品，如单一碳水化合物、反式脂肪和饱和脂肪。遗传因素也是出现这种现象的部分原因，有的人所有家族成员体内可能都有LDL含量偏高的趋势。

High LDL levels can be the result of eating a lot of foods like McLard Ribs or croissants— foods laden with cholesterol, simple carbohydrates, and trans and saturated fats. Or it can be partially determined by genetics: a tendency to have high LDL can run in families.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在国家环境与企业竞争的关系上，还有“机会”和"政府"等两个变数。产业发展的机会通常要等基础发明、技术、战争、政治环境发展、国外市场需求等方面出现重大变革与突破。“机会”通常非企业、甚至政府所能控制的。这些“机会”因素可能调整产业结构，提供一个的企业超越另一个企业的机会。

Two additional variables can influence the national system in important ways, and are necessary to complete the theory. These are chance and government. Chance events are developments outside the control of firms (and usually the nation’s government), such as pure inventions, breakthroughs in basic technologies, wars, external political developments, and major shifts in foreign market demand.They create discontinuities that can unfreeze or reshape industry structure and provide the opportunity for one nation’s firms to supplant another’s.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

最近，在威廉·吉布森（William Gibson）、布鲁斯·斯特林（ Bruce Sterling）等人的赛伯朋克（Cyberpunk）式的小说——詹姆逊把这些作品看作后现代主义或晚期资本主义的“最佳的文学表述 ”以及从《刀锋》到《终结者》和《 母体基质》的一代故事片和 迪斯尼的《玩具故事》中，波德里雅的过真实和幻象的观念获得了深刻的表现（参见布鲁克尔编选的文集，1997）。

More recently, the implications of hyperreality and the simulacra have been explored in the cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson, Bruce Sterling and others – for Jameson ‘the supreme literary expression’ of postmodernism or late-capitalism – as well as in a generation of feature films, from Blade Runner to the Terminator and Matrix films (see Brooker and Brooker, 1997).

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

鸦片战争爆发后，西方侵略者们一手执枪，一手执《圣经》，用炮火强行轰开了中国的大门，给屮国人民带来了近百年的屈辱与贫困。在不平等条约的庇护下，西方传教士们肆意宣传基督教义、开办教堂及学校，藐视中国的教育主权，这是无可争议的史实。然而，也需客观地承认来华传教士们在中国近代教育事业发展中不可抹灭的作用。中国盲文由基督教新教传教士率先创制，由康熙盲字到大卫·希尔等诸种盲文法。

After the First Opium War, the western invaders held guns in one hand, and "Bible" on the other hand to open the door of China forcibly, bringing humiliation and poverty to Chinese for nearly a hundred years. In the shelter of unequal treaties, Western missionaries propagated Christian doctrine and established churches and schools, despising the Chinese educational sovereignty, which is an undisputed fact. However, we need to admit objectively that Western missionaries played an indelible role in the development of modern education in China. Chinese braille was created by Christian protestant missionaries firstly, from Kangxi braille to David Hill, etc.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在一些社会，置办嫁妆成了一个相当大的经济负担。与女儿出嫁相关的费用是导致印度的杀死女婴高比率的一个主要原因。在许多社会，尤其是非洲，彩礼（有时被叫做聘金）比嫁妆更为常见。在此，新郎的家族不得不转让一些资源给新娘的家族，作为对拥有新娘的劳动力和生殖力的一种回报。彩礼的给付使男人对女人及其孩子拥有了权利。

In some societies, the payment of dowry entails a considerable economic burden. The costs associated with daughters getting married are a main cause of the high rates of female infanticide in India. Bridewealth (sometimes spoken of as "bride-price") is more common than dowry in many societies, particularly in Africa. Here the groom's kin is obliged to transfer resources to the bride's kin in return for his rights to her labour and reproductive powers. The payment of bridewealth establishes the rights of the man in the woman and her children.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

孔子作为儒家美学的奠基人，终生以"克己复礼"作为自己的神圣使命，并提出了一套较完整的具有鲜明民族特色的人格美育思想体系，即：美善统一，把"仁者爱人"作为人格美育的最高标准；质、文并重，把"文质彬彬"作为行为美育的基本要求；情礼兼融，把"诗乐相辅"作为情感美育的重要手段；学思结合，把"知行合一"作为人格美育的具体实践途径和方法。

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. He was devoted into restraining himself and resuming the Rites of the Zhou dynasty in his lifetime, and brought out a suit of aesthetic thoughts about personality with distinct national features: Beauty is equal to Good, meaning "Benvolence" is the topmost criterion of aesthetic education of personality; Quality and Form are equally important, meaning "Gentle" is the basic request of aesthetic education of behavior; Sentiment is merged with Manners, meaning both Poetry and Music are important means in sentimental aesthetic education; Learning is combined with Thinking, meaning "Knowledge combined with Action" is the idiographic ways and means of aesthetic education of personality. Today, these theories are still provided with far-reaching practical meaning.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

外汇市场有一套特定的术语。当以一种或所有其他货币表示的某种货币的价格下降时，称为贬值；而另一种货币表示而另一种货币的价格的上升称为升值。在上面的例子中，当美元价格由100日元/1美元上升到200日元/1美元时，就是美元升值，同时克制日元发生了贬值。

Foreign exchange markets have a special vocabulary. By definition, a fall in the price of one currency in terms of one or all others is called a depreciation. A rise in the price of a currency in terms of another currency is called an appreciation. In our example above, when the price of the dollar rose from JPY¥100/$ to JPY¥200/$, the dollar appreciated. We also know that the yen depreciated.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他们发现碾碎的火烧贝壳孱和物会比粗沙或非火烧的贝壳更能提高黏土的抗热能力，其次是细沙。孱和物越好，陶器就越坚硬。新大陆的一些考古材料清楚地说明了孱和物由劣向优演化的趋势。

They found that crushed burnt shell makes clay more resistant to heat shock and impact than do coarse sand or unburnt shell; fine sand is the next best. The finer the temper, the stronger the pot; and the archaeological record in parts of the New World certainly shows a steady trend toward finer tempers.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

虽然战后军备控制谈判涉及到全球性军备控制（比如核不扩散条约NPT），但是大多数的创议主要关注区域问题（比如（欧洲的）《中程核武器条约》或《太平洋无核区》等）或者专门问题，如《全面禁止核试验条约》。虽然其中的一些协议得到几乎全球性的认可，例如1925年的《日内瓦条约》和《生物武器权公约》。但是大多数协议如《非人道武器公约》和《南极洲条约》只得到有限的国际支持。

Although the process of postwar arms control has involved the negotiation of global arms restraints and prohibitions, such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the majority of initiatives have been focused on regions, such as the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (in Europe) Treaty or the Pacific Nuclear Weapons Free Zone, or specific functional issues, such as the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty(CTBT). And while some agreements have acquired almost universal ratification, such as the 1925 Geneva Protocol and the Biological Weapons Convention, many others,such as the Inhumane Weapons Convention or the Antarctica Treaty, have attracted very limited international support.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

点燃悉尼奥运火炬台的过程并没有如计划中那样进行。一个反常的电讯信号导致控制从观众升起的火炬台的电脑出现运转失灵，这220秒能让组织者感到就像是永远那么长。火炬台在弗里曼的头顶卡住了，乐队不得不一遍一遍反复演奏柏辽兹的“赞主曲”（TeDeum），直到在体育场腹部工作的工程师们找到问题所在，启动备用救急装置。

The lighting of the Sydney Olympic cauldron did not go exactly as planned. A freak telecommunications signal caused a glitch in the computer that controlled the raising of the cauldron through the crowd. For 220 seconds, what would seem to the organisers like an eternity, the cauldron was stuck above Cathy Freeman's head, with the band playing the same musical chord of Berlioz’s Te Deum over and over again, until the engineers working in the bowels of the stadium were able to track the problem and override the safety mechanisms.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

最后，所估计方程的误差项中或许存在着异方差性。可利用第8章的方法来处理这个问题。但这里有一个有意思的区别：误差方程即使不随着educ，age，balck而变，还可能随时间而变。然而，异方差-稳健标准误及其检验统计量仍是确当的。通过将OLS残差的平方对表13.1中的所有自变量（包括年度虚拟变量）回归，就能得到布罗施-帕甘检验。

Finally, there may be heteroskedasticity in the error term underlying the estimated equation. This can be dealt with using the methods in Chapter 8. There is one interesting difference here: now, the error variance may change over time even if it does not change with the values of educ, age, black, and so on. The heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors and test statistics are nevertheless valid. The Breusch-Pagan test would be obtained by regressing the squared OLS residuals on all of the independent variables in Table 13.1, including the year dummies.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

当人类学者开始认识田野时，他的认识来自于对以往著述的阅读以及他期望自己的作品对其他人产生怎样的影响（参照Rabinow 1977；Clifford 1986；Campbell 1989)。而且人类学者的描述只有跟读者逬行交谈才能达到效果，成为有意识的积极表述而非劝说，因为劝说常常被枇评为存在方法论上的错误和职业道德问题，这样就只能指望读者通过文本本身带来的召唤去体验了（参照 Bruner 1986；Tyler 1986；Brady l991b)。

As the anthropologist makes sense of the field so his sense-making is informed by accounts he has read before, and mediated by the effect he would wish his writing to have on others (cf. Rabinow 1977; Clifford 1986; Campbell 1989). Finally, it is anticipated that the anthropological account achieves its effect only through engaging in conversation with its reader; as objective and positivistic representation no longer persuades—is denigrated as epistemologically mistaken and morally questionable—so the reader is expected to make sense through an evocation and performance of the text (cf. Bruner 1986; Tyler 1986; Brady 1991b).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

《民族报》曾警告道：“把富有者的土他分给无地者……会冲击整个社会政治体制，不丧失自由，恐怕就难以从这个冲击中恢复过来。”土地改革的失败是决定性的失败，它使激进纲领离开了原来的宗旨。没有土地政策，根据人们不同的观点，这个纲领的其余部分只不过是姑息或是纵容。说土地改革的失败为南方拥有土地的白人和其他有产势力最终获得最高权力扫清了道路，也许有些夸张。激进派其实根本就没有设法去挡住这条道。他们这时的失败，反映了美国社会体现在革命动力上的局限性。

The Nation warned that "A division of rich men’s lands amongst the landless ... would give a shock to our whole social and political system from which it would hardly recover without the loss of liberty.” The failure of land reform was a decisive defeat and removed the heart of the Radical program. Without land reform the rest of the program could be no more than palliatives or irritants, depending on one's viewpoint. To say that this failure cleared the way for the eventual supremacy of Southern white landholders and other propertied interests may nevertheless be an exaggeration. The Radicals had never even really managed to bar the way. Their failure at this moment revealed the limits American society imposed upon the revolutionary impulse.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

L-肉毒碱是一种氨基酸，它促进了人体细胞间能量的传递。在动物试验中，L-肉毒碱已被证实能抵抗动脉老化，提高记忆能力。对于60岁以上的人士，我们建议每日补充1500毫克L-肉毒碱。

L-carnitine is an amino acid that helps transfer energy between our cells; and in animal studies, it s been shown to decrease arterial aging and improve memory. For people over sixty, we recommend 1,500 milligrams daily of L-carnitine.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

IS-LM模型的重要之处在于它不仅能用于经济预测，并且它还有助于深入理解政府的经济政策是如何影响社会经济活动的。在第21章我们将会利用这一模型，详细考察货币政策与财政政策对经济的影响，探讨有关货币政策最优实施方式的一些经验。

The ISLM model is valuable not only because it can be used in economic forecasting, but also because it provides a deeper understanding of how government policy can affect aggregate economic activity. In Chapter 2l we use it to evaluate the effects of monetary and fiscal policy on the economy and to learn some lessons about how monetary policy might best be conducted.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因为高斯-马尔可夫定理要求误差的同方差性和序列无关性，所以，在出现序列相关时，OLS便不再是BLUE的了。更为重要的是，通常的OLS标准误和检验统计量也不再确当，而且连渐近确当都谈不上。在前4个高斯-马尔可夫假定和误差项的AR（1）序列相关模型下，通过计算OLS估计量的方差便可看出这一点。

Because the Gauss-Markov Theorem requires both homoskedasticity and serially uncorrelated errors, OLS is no longer BLUE in the presence of serial correlation. Even more importantly, the usual OLS standard errors and test statistics are not valid, even asymptotically. We can see this by computing the variance of the OLS estimator under the first four Gauss-Markov assumptions and the AR(1) serial correlation model for the error terms.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

俄国和以色列的语言学家曾提出一个有争议的主张，他们认为，旧大陆西部的几种主要语言（即印欧、亚非、乌拉尔、阿尔泰、Dravdian及Kartvelian语族）可以归属于一个包含更广（也更古老）的超语族——Nostratic语。

Russian and Israeli linguists have made the controversial proposal that a number of major language families in the western part of the Old World (namely the Indo-European, Afroasiatic, Uralic, Altaic, Dravidian, and Kartvelian families) can be classified in a single, more embracing (and more ancient) macrofamily, to which the term “Nostratic” has been given.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这使得人们对此两个层位的划分提出质疑，也推翻了原发掘者提出的这些燧石是由两个不同的人群制造的结论。这些拼对或缀合的实践一方面在澄清层位问题，另一方面也在改变对早期工艺的考古研究（参见第8章）。

This cast doubt on the stratigraphic separation of the two layers, and demolished the original excavator’s argument that the flints had been made by two different groups of people. As well as clarifying questions of stratification, these refitting or conjoining exercises are transforming archaeological studies of early technology (Chapter 8).

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

a. 画出AOA网络图。b. 画出AON网络图。c. 找出关键路径。d. 找出每项作业活动的总松弛时间和自由松弛时间。e. 假设作业活动A、C、I受不确定性影响，并且只有如下的时间估计值:

a. Draw an early-start Gantt chart.b. Draw the AON network for this project.c. Draw the AOA network.d. Generate all possible paths for the AOA network, calculate their duration, and analyze the findings.e. Calculate ES, EF, LF, and LS for each activity.f. Calculate the slacks for the activities.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

现在或多或少地直立的、小容量大脑的人科动物，它们的双手因两足直立行走而自由，制造工具也许还捕猎小动物。但是它们还不可能发展出一种与今天的澳大利亚土著文化相当的文化，或者以五百立方厘米容量的大脑有了一种具有现代意义词汇的语言。

Now, these more-or-less erect, small-brained hominids, their hands freed from locomotion, manufactured tools and probably hunted small animals. But that they could have had a developed culture comparable to that of, say, the Australian aborigine or possessed a language in the modern sense of the term with 500 cubic centimeters of brain is unlikely.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

请注意图3-3中生产函数的形状。资本增加则产出提高（资本的边际产出为正），但在资本处于高水平时产出提高得比低水平时要少（资本的边际产出递减）。追加的每台机器都增加产出，但比先前的机器增加的产出要少。下面我们将看到，边际产出递减是解释为什么经济达到稳态而不是无限增长的关键。

Note the shape of the production function in Figure 3-3. As capital rises, output rises (the marginal product of capital is positive), but output rises less at high levels of capital than at low levels (diminishing marginal product of capital). Each additional machine adds to production, but adds less than did the previous machine. We will see later that diminishing marginal product is the key explanation of why the economy reaches a steady state rather than growing endlessly.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

贝特认为，即便在转向意识形态的整个时期，传记的、历史的、目录学的、版本的文学研究依然在理论闹嚷的轰动中静静地继续进行着。因此，他倡议，批评家、教师和学生们首要把握的是文学的“基础和基本功”，不是那些理论的种种“主义”，而是文学传记和版本目录学。

The mirror and the lamp : romantic theory and the critical tradition

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

布鲁姆使用了六个古典词语来表达父辈诗人与子辈诗人之间的六种关系（修正率）：克利纳门、苔莎拉、克诺西斯、达门奈扎逊、阿斯克西斯、阿波弗拉迪斯。

Bloom uses six classical words to describe the six kinds of relationship between the texts of fathers and sons (revisionary ratios): clinamen, tessera, kenosis,daemonization, askesis and apophrades.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在物价水平迅速上升的通货膨胀时期，货币的价值也在迅速流失，人们就不愿以货币形式来储藏财富。在月通货膨胀率超过50%的极端通货膨胀时期，即恶性通货膨胀时期，情况尤其如此。

During inflation, when the price level is increasing rapidly, money loses value rapidly, and people will be more reluctant to hold their wealth in this form. This is especially true during periods of extreme inflation, known as hyperinflation, in which the inflation rate exceeds 50% per month.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

美国出现了白人至上主义的复兴，这种至上主义是白人对非法移民采取的一种越来越苛刻的态度，也是对受到60年代社会剧变挑战的祖先是英国新教徒的美国人的文化至上主义的重申。1997年，加利福尼亚关于减少国家对不受官方认可的外侨的福利和服务的公民投票取得成功，这暗示着人们接受了一种极其苛刻且排他的公民身份模式。

America has seen a revival of white supremacism, an increasingly strident attitude towards illegal immigrants and reassertion of the supremacy of the WASP culture challenged by the upheavals of the 1960s. The success of the Californian 1997 referendum on reducing state benefits and services for undocumented aliens indicates a new acceptance of a very draconian and exclusionary model of citizenship.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是，请注意，列维－斯特劳斯对于为什么阿兰达人（和其他土著群体）中存在一种有限交换制度的解释是与事实相悖的。他的解释基于这样一种观点：即所有实行有限交换的群体中都存在 “不和谐的制度”一—也就是说，它们不是具有从父居制和母系继嗣制，就是具有从母居制和父系继嗣制。

However, note that Levi-Strauss's explanation as to why the Aranda (and other groups) have a restricted exchange system is countcrfactual. His explanation rests on the notion that all groups with restricted exchange have "disharmonic regimes"— that is, they have either patrilocal residence and matrilineal descent or matrilocal residence and patrilineal descent.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

到目前为止，有关顿悟认知机制的认识仍然没有达成共识。在早期研究和观察的基础上，我国学者张庆林提出的“原型启发”理论认为，顿悟可以被看成是实验室条件下的创造性思维。在解决顿悟问题的时候，“原型事件”对顿悟问题解决具有启发作用的。除此以外，在许多与情绪和竞争对创造性思维的影响相关的前期研究中，揭示了相矛盾的研究结果。目前的主要研究是以原型启发理论为基础，以传统汉字字谜为材料，考察不同竞争水平情境下诱发的情绪效价对解决顿悟问题机制中的影响。

The cognitive mechanism of insight remains largely unknown and there are different theories to explain it. On the basis of previous studies and observations, Zhang Qinglin proposed "prototype elicitation" theory which regarded insight as creative thinking under experimental conditions. Prototypal matters play a heuristic role in insight problem solving. In addition, many previous relevant studies have revealed inconsistent results of the impact of competition and emotion on creative thinking. Based on the "prototype elicitation" theory, the present study was designed to explore the dynamic effects of competition and emotion on the mechanism of insight problem solving by using traditional Chinese logogriphs.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如方程（26）所描述的一个变量，通过差分化能使其静止，就称为差分静止（difference stationary）。差分静态过程由永久性冲击占支配地位；趋势静止过程由暂时性冲击占主导地位。

A variable that behaves as described by equation (26), that can be made stationary by differencing, is called difference stationary. A difference-stationary process is dominated by permanent shocks; a trend-stationary process is dominated by transitory shocks.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

布鲁姆使用了六个古典词语来表达父辈诗人与子辈诗人之间的六种关系（修正率）：克利纳门、苔莎拉、克诺西斯、达门奈扎逊、阿斯克西斯、阿波弗拉迪斯。

Bloom uses six classical words to describe the six kinds of relationship between the texts of fathers and sons (revisionary ratios): clinamen, tessera, kenosis,daemonization, askesis and apophrades.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对反思论者和其他不太以自我为中心的后期阐释主义者来说，普遍性规律的和表意的内容（参见Reddiffe-Brownl952: 1)混合为一种无限的综合物。田野民族志和理论、观察者和被观察者（或集体自我和集体他人）在一个人类学文本的过程中变得几乎没有区别。

For reflexivists and other, less self-centred late interpretivists, the nomothetic and the ideographic (see Radcliffe-Brown 1952: 1) blend to form an unbounded mix. Ethnography and theory, and observer and observed (or collective self and collective other), become almost indistinguishable in the course of an anthropological text.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在印度，这类统计是很不可靠的，其原因我们早已指出过了。但一般来说，约有一半的土地掌握在少于占农业总人口1/8的人手中，这或许没有多少错误。官方的农业政策带有一种平均主义色彩，这更多的是口头宣言，而不是实际行动。《社会发展纲要》也同样是如此，我们现在来进行分析。

Such statistics are highly unreliable in India, for reasons that have already been indicated. But the general conclusion, that about half the total area was held by less than an eighth of the agricultural population, is probably not too misleading. Official agrarian policy has an equalitarian tinge that comes out more strongly in speeches than in results. This has been equally true of the "Community Development Program" to which we may now turn.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是同样也有必要指出，即使是富于活力的对立群体，在他们的一般生活方式中也可能几乎没有差异，如印度的印度教的古吉拉特人和马哈拉什特利安人、乌干达的巴干达人和布尼奥罗人、印度尼西亚的爪哇人和巽他人。相反的例子也有：巴厘人的生活习俗模式与其他印度尼西亚人相去甚远，但是他们始终没有任何原生性不满的感觉，这点值得注意。

But it is important also to point out that even vitally opposed groups may differ rather little in their general style of life: Hindu Gujeratis and Maharashtrians in India; Baganda and Bunyoro in Uganda; Javanese and Sundanese in Indonesia. And the reverse holds also: the Balinese have far and away the most divergent pattern of customs in Indonesia, but they have been, so far, notable for the absence of any sense of primordial discontent at all.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

当然，文学本质的一个最重要的特征是，体裁这个概念对消费者和生产者一样有用。事实上，正如乔纳森·卡勒指出的那样，体裁的概念提供了“指导读者同文本遭遇时的标准或期望”。写在书籍封面上的“小说”、“诗歌”、“悲剧”这些标明体裁的词，把我们对它的阅读“纳入规划”，减少了它的复杂性，或确切地说，给它以可知的形式，使我们严格地按照它的原意来“阅读”，赋予它以语境和框架，允许整齐划一和错综复杂的现象出现。

Of course one of the most significant features of the nature of literature is the fact that the concept of genre is as useful to the consumer as to the producer. In fact, as Jonathan Culler points out, the concept of genre offers a ‘norm or expectation to guide the reader in his encounter with the text’. A genre-word, ‘novel’, ‘poem’, ‘tragedy’ placed on the cover of a book ‘programmes’ our reading of it, reduces its complexity, or rather gives it a knowable shape, enabling us literally to ‘read’ it, by giving it a context and a framework which allows order and complexity to appear.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

唐代科举制度总的来说是较为公平合理的，但也存在某些弊病，如奔竞钻营、受贿请托、试官判卷取人不公、名人权势人物干扰主司等。这些弊病的产生与当时的公荐、通榜、等第有很大关系。

The Tang imperial examination system was fair in general, but there were also some flaws including unethical scramble for personal power and bribery from examinees, examiners' partiality and interference of the elite, which has much to do with Tang's talents selection systems like official recommendation, virtue-based and gradation-based selection.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

第二类防御策略是增加挑战者可感知的报复威胁。预期企业会进行的报复，可降低挑战者的收入或增加其成本，因而损害挑战者的预期收益性。

The second type of defensive tactic is those that increase the threat of retaliation perceived by challengers. Expected retaliation by the firm will lower a challenger’s revenues or raise its costs, and thus erode the challenger's expected profitability.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在这些阶段的每个时期，军事革新、经济逻辑、国际政论和强权争夺等共同决定着欧洲文明的地域扩张。这种扩张主义并非是预先注定的，因为中世纪欧洲文明在世界军事力量平衡方面处于不确定的状态。由于受到奥斯曼帝国、蒙古帝国和伊斯兰国家的遏制，基督教的欧洲在十字军东征后一直处于一种防御性军事状态。另外，欧洲的主权受到国内和洲内权力争夺的干扰。但值得注意的是，在18世纪末，欧洲列强总共获得了对世界35%陆地面积的政治控制（Headrick，1981，第3页）。

During each of these phases a combination of military innovation, economic logic, domestic politics and great power rivalry conditioned the territorial expansion of European civilization. This expansionism was never preordained; for in the Middle Ages European civilization was somewhat precariously situated in respect of the balance of world military power. Contained by the considerable military might of the Ottoman Empire, the Mongols and Islam, Christian Europe had adopted a largely defensive military posture in the aftermath of the Crusades. Moreover, Europe's sovereigns were significantly exercised by domestic and continental power struggles. Yet, remarkably, by the close of the eighteenth century the major European powers together had acquired political control of 35 per cent of the world's land area (Headrick, 1981, p. 3).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

4世纪一个主要的异教是阿里乌斯派，他们是埃及亚历山大城修道士阿里乌斯的一群追随者。阿里乌斯认为耶稣是人，因此不是个真神。阿里乌斯遭到了亚历山大主教阿散纳修斯的反对，他认为耶稣是人也是真神。

One of the major heresies of the fourth century was Arianism, which was a product of the followers of Arius, a priest from Alexandria in Egypt. Arius believed that Jesus Christ had been human and thus not truly God. Arius was opposed by Athanasius, a bishop of Alexandria, who argued that Jesus was human but also truly God.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

德国的人文主义者受到温克尔曼著作的启发，将智慧、创造性、热爱自由以及对古希腊的美学观念看做人类精神最高境界的表现。他们也相信，希腊成就的精髓能以符合现代世界的方式意义重建（Marchand 1996：16)。

German humanists had been inspired by Winckelmann’s publications to regard the genius, creativity,love of freedom,and sense of beauty of the ancient Greeks as the highest expression of the human spirit. They also believed that the essence of Greek achievements could be recreated in forms suitable for the modern world (Marchand 1996: 16).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

自诞生起，民族国家就利用贸易保护政策增加收入，克服收支平衡的困难，促进国内工业繁荣。到20世纪后期，制度化约束以及成本约束大大限制了国内保护主义的范围。今天，不仅关税和配额限制，支持本国工业的政策以及关于贸易竞争和安全标准的本国法律都必须接受国际审查和管理。

From its inception the nation-state has used trade protection to raise revenues, manage balance of payments difficulties and promote domestic industry. By the late twentieth century institutional constraints, as well as economic costs, have severely limited the scope for national protectionism. Today, not only tariffs and quota restrictions, but also policies supporting domestic industry and even domestic laws with respect to business competition and safety standards are subject to growing international scrutiny and regulation.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

据A·N·鲍斯讲，这些前后矛盾使人怀疑正统的印度教义在后来时期中遭到篡改，被加进了反对吃牛肉的内容，《阿纽善萨纳巴瓦》(Anusbasanapar-va)中专门讲述母牛神圣的13章肯定是这种情况。

According to A. N. Bose, these inconsistencies raise the suspicion that orthodox Hindu interpolations against eating beef were made in later periods, and this is definitely the case for the thirteen chapters devoted to the greatness of the cow which occur in the Anushasanaparva (Bose, 1961: fn. 1,113).

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

从受访者的来信和调査问卷中可以看出，许多女性观众认为好莱坞明星代表着一种标新立异的女性气质，带有令人兴奋的反抗精神。于是，英国女性便通过消费这些明星及相关商品的方式，与保守的英国女性观念相抗衡，大大拓宽了“英国女性气质”的疆域。

Many of the letters and completed questionnaires reveal the extent to which Hollywood stars represented an alternative femininity, exciting and transgressive. In this way, Hollywood stars, and the commodities associated with them, could be used as a means to negotiate with, and to extend the boundaries of, what was perceived as a socially restrictive British femininity.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

中国的国家退休金少得可怜，劳动阶级又几乎都没有私人退休金——濮军的父亲是名退役军人，也曾任村官，每个月的退休金却只有十四美元，而且这个金额已比大多数人来得高。此外，流动人口根本享受不到失业保险与福利，乡村出生的人口也不被城市的最低生活保障制度所涵盖。

State pensions in China are negligibly small, and private pensions don’t exist for most of the working class—Mr. Pu’s father, who is a Korean War veteran and a former Communist Party village official, receives only $14 a month, and his is larger than most. Unemployment insurance and welfare are effectively non-existent for the floating population; the urban program known as the Minimum Living Standard Guarantee Scheme is unavailable to the village-born.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

然而，他仍然相信，民族主义可以是温和的，当然也只有它变成“真正的大众的”才是如此。虽然一个非常相似的有关“爱国主义”的调研显然不能成为拒绝它的依据，但是他拒绝让“世界大同主义”成为“那些在安全的民族-国家里能够确保自己成员地位的人的特权”。

He remains convinced, however, both that nationalism can be benign, and that it can only become so if it "becomes truly civic". He rejects "cosmopolitanism" as being "the privilege of those who can take their own membership in secure nation-states for granted", although a very similar observation about "patriotism" is apparently not sufficient grounds for rejecting it.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

其次，即便我们承认上面谈到过的后现代理论裂变，某些地区依然出现了一种向表面上更传统的立场和偏好的转向。这里的一般判断是“理论失败了”：在具有讽刺意味的后现代扭曲中，“理论的终结”已经在望。

Second, given the postmodern theoretical fission we have suggested above, there has been a turn in some quarters to ostensibly more traditional positions and priorities. The verdict here is that ‘Theory Has Failed’: that, in an ironic postmodern twist, the ‘End of Theory’ is now with us.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

有这样一个规律，远离人类居住地的土壤中的花粉一般反映的是地区环境，而泥炭地中保存的花粉则代表的是一个更加广泛的区域。从较厚的连续堆积的泥炭中获得的结果通常可以证实我们在正文中所提到的那些根据深海和冰芯分析得出的有关气候的长期波动情况。

As a rule, pollen in soils away from human settlement tends to reflect the local vegetation, while peat bogs preserve pollen from a much wider area. Results from pollen in deep peat-bog successions usefully confirm the long-term climatic fluctuations deduced from deep-sea and ice cores mentioned earlier in the main text.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在实验中，我们会使用MAXIC0N原则( MAZICON principle) ：最大化真正的变异数，或增加真正的相关性或解释上的优势；最小化误差变异数，或减少所有在研究中可能会不知不觉地产生而影响真正相关性的错误；以及控制外在变异数，或是确认对立假设并不是该相关性的真正解释。

In research we want to use the MAXICON principle: Maximize truevariance, or increase the odds that the real relationship or explanation will be discovered; minimize error variance, or reduce all the mistakes that could creep into the study to disguise the true relationship; and control extraneous variance, or make sure that rival hypotheses are not the real explanations of the relationship.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

布罗卡失语症患者(又称语法缺失失语症患者)也可能很难理解复杂句：一方面，理解复杂句主要依赖句法结构；另一方面，理解这些句子时，患者对真实世界的知识派不上用场。比如：语法缺失失语症患者可能较难理解下面这类被动句中谁在吻谁的问题：Which girl did the boy kiss?（这个男孩吻了哪个女孩？） 在理解这类句子时，亲吻者是男孩或女孩对患者而言都是说得通的。患者对下列被动句也会感到一头雾水：The cat was chased by the dog.(猫被狗追。)

Broca’s aphasics (also often called agrammatic aphasics) may also have difficulty understanding complex sentences in which comprehension depends exclusively on syntactic structure and where they cannot rely on their real-world knowledge. For example, an agrammatic aphasic may have difficulty knowing who kissed whom in questions like:Which girl did the boy kiss?where it is equally plausible for the boy or the girl to have done the kissing; or might be confused as to who is chasing whom in passive sentences such as:The cat was chased by the dog.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

说话者对句子意义的知识包括对以下内容的了解：什么是陈述句的真值条件；一个句子何时衍推另一个句子；两个句子何时是释义的关系,何时又是矛盾的关系；一个句子何时是重言、矛盾或悖论；句子何时有歧义，等等。

Speakers’ knowledge of sentence meaning includes knowing the truth conditions of declarative sentences; knowing when one sentence entAn introduction to languages another sentence; knowing when two sentences are paraphrases or contradictory; knowing when a sentence is a tautology, contradiction, or paradox; and knowing when sentences are ambiguous, among other things.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

为了完整起见，还要提到半乳糖血症 (galactosaemia)问题。也许，出生前或出生后卵巢功能衰竭是由异常的半乳糖代谢引起的，其后的表现是青春期的延迟。这种疾病在出生时必须及时加以探察，可以通过强制性的筛检程序或围产期的各种症状来发现。与患特纳氏综合征的年轻女子的一样，该病可以采用性类固醇疗法进行治疗。

For completeness, galactosaemia is mentioned. Pre-or postnatal ovarian failure is caused, perhaps, by an abnormal metabolite of galactose, and is later manifested by delayed puberty. This condition should be detected at birth by the mandated screening procedure or by symptoms in the perinatal period. Gonadal steroid hormone treatment is the same as noted for young women with Turner's syndrome.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是头的大小、 脑的重量及大脑皮质（灰质）（在这里可以找到支援心智运算的突触） 的厚度，在出生的头一年还继续不断快速地成长。白质要到出生后9个月才完成成长，而髓鞘（神经的绝缘体，使神经传导速度得以加快）一直成长到童年期结束。

But head size, brain weight, and thickness of the cerebral cortex (gray matter), where the synapses (junctions) subserving mental computation are found, continue to increase rapidly in the year after birth. Long distance connections (white matter) are not complete until nine months, and they continue to grow their speed - inducing myelin insulation throughout childhood.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

同样，习俗差异形成了几乎无处不在的相当数量的民族分裂的基础，而且在有些案例中特别突出，这些案例中知识或技艺特别发达的群体自认为在一个大部分还处于野蛮状态的人群中是“文明”的承担者，应该教化这些野蛮人以他们为样板，如印度的孟加拉人、印度尼西亚的爪哇人、摩洛哥的阿拉伯人（相对于柏柏尔人）、另一个“古老”的新兴国家——埃塞俄比亚的安哈拉人，等等。

Again, differences in custom form a basis for a certain amount of national disunity almost everywhere, and are of especial prominence in those cases in which an intellectually or artistically rather sophisticated group sees itself as the bearer of a "civilization" amid a largely barbarian population that would be well advised to model itself upon it: the Bengalis in India, the Javanese in Indonesia, the Arabs (as against the Berbers) in Morocco, the Amhara in— another "old" new state— Ethiopia, and so forth.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这恰巧是盖登·高特莱博（Gidon Gottlieb）在随后章节所讨论的问题，概述了他的著作《民族反对国家 （Nation Against State）》的论点。他呼吁“创造性地思考有纠纷土地的功能性的领土安排”，以及“一系列新的有关边界、民族发源地、公民、国籍（nationality）和将各民族联系起来的形式等概念”。

This is precisely the theme which Gidon Gottlieb develops in the following chapter, summarising the argument of his book Nation Against State. He calls for "fresh thinking about functional territorial arrangements in disputed lands", as well as ‘new sets of concepts in regard to borders, national homes, citizenship, nationality and forms of association between peoples'.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

首先是沉积前和沉积理论，涵盖人类活动、社会形态和环境因素彼此间的关系，以及它们与保留在考古记录中的材料和遗迹的关系。沉积后理论涉及影响考古记录的自然和人类动力过程，比如侵蚀、朽烂、地面扰动、盗掘、耕作和土地的反复使用。

The first of these was predepositional and depositional theory, covering the relations of human activities, social patterns, and environmental factors with each other and with the samples and traces that are deposited in the archaeological record. Postdepositional theory treated the natural and human processes that affected the archaeological record, such as erosion, decay, groundmovement, plundering, plowing,and the reuse of land.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

它涉及的无论是除要成为米南卡保人还要成为上外岛人，除了成为杜龙人还要当卡奇纳人，既属马龙派教徒也属基督徒，或当约鲁巴人而不仅仅是艾格巴人，这个进程在国际国内各不相同，但都是普遍的。

Whether it involves becoming an Outer Islander in addition to a Minangkabau, a Kachin over and above a Duleng, a Christian as well as a Maronite, or a Yoruba rather than only an Egba, the process, though variously advanced, both as between countries and within them, is general.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

一个表现消费者优越性的观念——地位商品被广泛地接受了。不过，有人认为，在后现代时期已经假设消费活动具有十分重要的意义。地位不再是与生俱来的了：相反，人们能够通过他们消费的商品来选择各种身份。这个过程被描述为消费的美学化（aestheticization of consumption).

The concept of a positional good --- one that displays the superiority of the consumer --- is well established. However, it is argued that in postmodern society the act of consumption has assumed much greater significance. No longer is position ascribed by birth: rather, people are able to choose various types of identity through the goods they consume. This process has been described as the aestheticization of consumption.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

换句话说，个体化和物、特殊性或事件的定义总是在时空中产生的。但是，哪一种时空呢? 只有定义的样态才是有趣的，对怀特海来说，那种样态总是相关性的。结果便消除了作为基础原则的单一位置观点。时间和空间现在被解释为“只是对包容性统一之总体性的抽象，是彼此在对方之中成形的……时空只不过是把集合体组成统一体的体系”。因而，“事件”这个词便指“这些时空统一体中的一个”。

In other words, individuation and the definition of things, particulars or events always occurs in space-time. But which space-time? It is only the modality of the definition that is interesting and that modality is, for Whitehead, always relational. The effect is to eliminate the idea of simple location as a grounding principle entirely. Space and time are now construed as "simply abstractions from the totality of prehensive unifications as mutually patterned in each other ... space-time is nothing else than a system of pulling together of assemblages into unities." The word "event" is then defined to mean "one of these spatiotemporal unities."

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在整个中国哲学史研究中汉代哲学研究一直比较薄弱，而对董仲舒“天人感应”论思想（又称心灵感应、传心术）的研究尤为薄弱。一说到董仲舒的“天人感应”论，往往就直接判定其为具有明显神学目的性的宗教论，而忽视甚或歪曲了这一理论思想中比较重要和丰富的哲学内涵。实际上，董仲舒的“天人感应”论代表了两汉哲学思想的发展方向和思维水平，它不仅有神学目的性的宗教维度，还有人文性的伦理维度、系统整体性的宇宙结构维度和生成性的宇宙发生维度，它并非神学宗教论，而是产生于西汉具体社会形势下的具有丰富思想内涵的哲学理论。

In the historical study of Chinese philosophy, the philosophical study in the Han dynasty has been a comparatively under-researched field, especially the study about Dong Zhongshu's telepathy between heaven and man. When it comes to Dong Zhongshu's telepathy between heaven and man, it is frequently regarded as a religion obviously having theological purpose and its important and abundant philosophical meanings have been ignored and misrepresented. In fact, Dong Zhongshu's telepathy between heaven and man represents the developing trends and thought ability of philosophical ideas in the Han dynasty, in which there are not only religious dimension of theological purpose, but also ethical dimension of humanity and the dimension of systematic entirety of universal structure as well as the dimension of universe forming. Consequently, Dong Zhongshu's telepathy between heaven and man isn't the theory of theological religion, but rather the philosophical theory having rich thought intention in the specific social situation of the Western Han dynasty.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因此，每一种学科的哲学都既包含某种认识论又包含某种本体论——一个限定着“我们能认识什么”和“我们怎样才能最终认识它”的框架。它们一起被用来限定某种方法论，一套指示研究和争论将如何在学科内进行的规则和程序：即如何才能将信息收集并组织起来。

Every disciplinary philosophy, therefore, contains both an epistemology and an ontology - a framework which defines what we can know and how we can come to know about it. Together these are used to define a methodology, a set of rules and procedures which indicates how research and argument are to be conducted within the discipline.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

一个创造新局面的政治行为，比如独立宣言，和一段力图创造某些新鲜事物，在行为上不是述愿而是述行，比如承诺，这样的文学言语之间是什么关系呢？政治行为和文学行为都建立在述行语和述愿语这个错综、矛盾的联合体上。在这当中，为了成功，行为必须通过所指事态使人信服，但行为的成功又包括创造其所指条件。文学作品声明要向我们讲述这个世界，但如果它成功了，它是通过创造它所讲述的人物和事件得以成功的。在政治领域的首创行为中也有类似的东西在起作用。比如在美国的《独立宣言》中，最关键的句子是“因此，我们……严正声明，并郑重宣布：这些联合起来的殖民地从此是自由独立的国家，并且有权成为自由独立的国家。”宣布这些是独立的州，这是一个述行语，它应该使它所指的局面成为现实。但是在对这个声明的支持中就融进了述愿的语气，说它们应该是独立的州。

What is the relationship between a political act, like a declaration of independence, that creates a new situation, and literary utterances, that try to invent something new, in acts that are not constative statements but are performative, like promises? Both the political and the literary act depend on a complex, paradoxical combination of the performative and constative, where in order to succeed, the act must convince by referring to states of affairs but where success consists of bringing into being the condition to which it refers. Literary works claim to tell us about the world, but if they succeed they do so by bringing into being the characters and events they relate. Something similar is at work in inaugural acts in thepolitical sphere. In the ‘Declaration of Independence’ of the United States, for example, the key sentence runs: ‘We therefore . . . do solemnly publish and declare that these United colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states.’ The declaration that these are independent states is a performative that is supposed tocreate the new reality to which it refers, but to support this claim is joined the constative assertion that they ought to be independent states.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

而要决定边界线应该划到哪里，是否举行投票，在哪儿举行投票，争议都很大。通常认为，自决原则有导致“巴尔干化”的危险。事实上，它正是导致大群体分裂为小群体的主要因素，这也是1945年之后当代国际政治的一个显著特征——总体上不是一个消极的进展。

The question of whether, and where, to hold such plebiscites is extremely controversial. The principle of self-determination is commonly said to lead to the danger of ‘balkanisation’. It has indeed been a major contributory factor in the process of "fission of larger units into smaller ones which has been such a notable feature of international politics in the post-1945 period – not in principle a negative development.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

相反,恩普森的暧昧却从来无法被最终固定：它们括示着这样一些散点,在这里诗的语言动摇不定,渐趋朦胧,或者做出失常姿态,从而意味深长地暗示其某些从潜能上来说不可穷尽的意义关联。

Empsonian ambiguities, on the other hand, can never be finally pinned down: they indicate points where the poem's language falters, trails off or gestures beyond itself, pregnantly suggestive of some potentially inexhaustible context of meaning.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

现在，凯特•康纳利正在监管一项重大的战略变革一一把这些在线游戏放入iPhone手机。她说：“媒介公司需要随时随 地为用户提供体验服务，而我们发现，iPhone手机确实是用户频繁使用的工具。” SWOT分析如何为她提供帮助？

Now, Connelly is overseeing a major strategic change—bringing those online games to the iPhone. She said, “Media companies need to provide experiences wherever their audiences are, and the iPhone is really where we’re seeing the audience go.” How could SWOT analysis help her?

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

首先，介绍四种早期动机理论：马斯洛的需求层次理论，麦格雷戈的x理论和Y理论，赫茨伯格的双因素理论和麦克莱兰的三种需要理论。尽管当今许多更 具说服力的动机理论已经产生，但是这些早期理论仍然至关重要，原因在于：首先，早期动机理论为当代动机理论的发展奠定了基础；其次，许多实践中的管理者仍然在使用这些经典理论。

We begin by looking at four early motivation theories: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, McGregor’s theories X and Y, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s threeneeds theory. Although more valid explanations of motivation have been developed, these early theories are important because they represent the foundation from which contemporary motivation theories were developed and because many practicing managers still use them.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

—般管理理论（general administrative theory)更多地关注管理者做什么以及什么构成了良好的管理行为。我们在第1章介绍了亨利•法约尔，因为他首先确定了管理者实施的五种职能：计划、组织、指挥、协调以及控制

General administrative theory focused more on what managers do and what constituted good management practice. We introduced Henri Fayol in Chapter 1 because he first identified five functions that managers perform: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果每组包含的职位相似就称为类，如果每组包含的职位除复杂度相似以外，其他方面都不同，就称为级（grades)。

We call the groups classes if they contain similar jobs or grades if they contain jobs that are similar in difficulty but otherwise different.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

一个X-bar是由一个主要语，后面跟着任何数暈的角色扮演者所组成。你只要把名词、动词、形容词或介词代入X、Y、Z 的位置，你就得到该短语结构的规则，这种短语结构就称之为X-bar理论。

"An X-bar consists of a head word, followed by any number of role-players." Just plug in noun, verb, adjective, or preposition for X, Y, and Z, and you have the actual phrase structure rules that spell the phrases. This streamlined version of phrase structure is called "the X-bar theory."

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

每天能量消耗量的主要部分是用于维持生命的基本过程，称为安静能量消耗(resting energy expenditure, REE)或安静代谢率（resting metabolic rate)。这是在没有食物消化时，身体在安静状态下用于进行中的生理过程的能量消耗。

The main component of the daily energy turnover is the energy expenditure for maintaining process, called resting energy expenditure (REE) or resting metabolic rate. This is the energy expenditure used in the ongoing processes of the body in the resting state when no food is digested.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

普遍使用的技术包括在野生薯类再生的季节避免收获（安达曼群岛人）；有意不把野生谷物全收完并在收获时散播种子（梅诺米尼人）；利用火来增加那些在新近烧然的土地上适于移植的植物的产量（奥大利亚西部沙漠的土著居民）；使溶化的雪水改变流向，以灌溉适用于野生芜菁和胡萝卜生长的田野（派尤特人）。

Techniques commonly employed include avoidance of harvesting during the season when wild tubers regenerate (Andaman Islanders); deliberately incomplete harvests of wild grains and scattering of seeds at harvest (Menomini); the use of fire to increase the abundance of plants that are good colonizers of recently burnt land (Western Desert Australian Aborigines); and diversion of melt waters to irrigate favorite fields of wild turnips and carrots (Paiute).

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

就如前已述及，在一系列以高度分层房屋类型和其他财富差异标准为特点的社会里存在清一色的简单墓葬，表明这些墓葬反映了日常生活中没有实现的某种平等主义观念。考古学家以不自觉的方式采用一种背景方法由来已久。

As already discussed, the occurrence of uniformly simple burials in a society characterized by a highly stratified series of housetypes and by other differential wealth criteria suggests that these burials reflect some sort of egalitarian ideal that was not realized in everyday life.Archaeologists have employed the contextual approach in an unselfconscious manner for a long time.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

无视文化唯物主义理论的进化论的上下文致使萨林斯曲解了文化唯物主义对于阿兹特克食人之风的解释（最初是由哈纳在1977年提出的）。

Neglect of the evolutionary context of cultural materialist theories leads Sahlins to misrepresent the cultural materialist explanation of Aztec cannibalism (first proposed by Harner, in 1977).

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

案例研究法（case study method)是指为参加开发计划的学员提供有关一个企业问题的书面描述，然后，让他自己去分析这个案例，诊断问题所在，再与其他受训者一起讨论时提出自己的研究结果和解决问题的一种方法。

As most everyone knows, the case study method presents a trainee with a written description of an organizational problem. The person then analyzes the case, diagnoses the problem, and presents his or her findings and solutions in a discussion with other trainees.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

邓尼斯热衷于诗的宗教题材，他指出，朗吉努斯从非基督教的宗教中引用了许多崇髙的实例，也从《创世纪》中引用了一个例子：“上帝说，要有光啊，于是便出现了光。”

Dennis, an enthusiast for religious subject matter in poetry, pointed out that Longinus had drawn many instances of sublimity from references to pagan religion, as well as one instance from' the Book of Genesis itself: 'God said, Let there be light, and there was light'.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

背景考古学也否认新进化论在文化特殊性和跨文化一般性之间的区别，这是斯图尔特作为科学和历史学之间二分正当性的基础（Hodder l987a)。这为关注文化上特殊的宇宙观、天文学知识、艺术风格、宗教信仰和其他课题提供了正当理由，这些都是在1960和1970年代被过程考古学边缘化的问题。

Contextual archaeology also rejected the validity of the neoevolutionary distinction between what is culturally specific and what is cross-culturally general that constituted the basis of Steward’s dichotomy between science and history (Hodder 1987a). This validated an interest in culturally specific cosmologies,astronomical lore, art styles, religious beliefs, and other topics that had lingered on the fringes of processual archaeology in the 1960s and 1970s.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

抵押品是用于向贷款人承诺偿还的一种财产，一旦借款人无力归还债务，该财产就被用来保证支付。

Collateral is a prevalent feature of debt contracts for both households and businesses. Collateral is property that is pledged to a lender to guarantee payment in the event that the borrower is unable to make debt payments.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

随着70年代一系列垃圾丑闻的出现，界定有害垃圾的法律框架被建立起来。美国的Love Canal事件和瑞典的BT Chemie丑闻迫使一些机构被建立起来，这些机构能追踪有害垃圾的生产，并控制其在环境中的堆放。

It was only with the advent of a series of waste scandals in the 1970s that iegal frameworks for describing toxic waste were created. It required the Love Canal incident in the USA or the BT Chemie scandal in Sweden to force the establishment of agencies that might track the production of hazardous waste and control its emission into the environment.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

健康是人的肉体、精神和社会的康乐的完善状态。随着社会变迁，当代人生活压力逐渐加大，心理疾病也越来越多。作为荀子思想，尤其是化性起伪、养心省身，明分使群、爱民利民，解蔽纠偏、兼陈中衡等思想，对当代人塑造健康人格，创设和谐人际关系，保持心理平衡具有重要借鉴意义。

Health is a completed state of physics, mentality and society. As the society changes, modern people live under escalating pressure which results in more mental illness. Xunzi's ideology, especially the ideas like transforming the nature mind of humans by virtue of rite and morality, nourshing heart and reflecting our own self, the highlight of division of labour in society, the attachment of laborers with benefits to them and harbouring Xunzi's rule of judgement on things, is of paramount significance in shaping sound personality, creating harmonious interactions and maintaining the mental peace.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果软腭不抬起，空气就会同时从鼻子和嘴巴里流出，这样发出的音叫鼻音。[m]是个鼻音，因此可与[b]区别开，后者是口音。

When the velum is not in its raised position, air escapes through both the nose and the mouth. Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds. The sound [m] is a nasal consonant. Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound, whereas [b] is an oral sound.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这个动作需要借助一个篮球或足球来控制动作幅度。坐在地上，把球放在自己身后的地上（靠近自己）。向后躺，只有双肩和双脚在地面上，双脚与肩同宽或略窄，球支撑着腰部。如果你感觉这种姿势不舒服，在开始前可以在球上放上毛巾或坐垫。双手撑在头部两侧的地板上，手指指向脚。然后，用手把双肩和头部推离地板，只用双脚、球和手掌支撑身体。这是该动作的起始姿势（图91）。在这个姿势基础上髋部要尽力向上顶起，伸展手臂和双腿，抬起背部，直到背部完全离开球。继续向上运动，直到背部形成完全的弧形。这是结束姿势（图92）。在最高处暂停一会，然后慢慢放低身体，回到起始姿势。在一组动作过程中，后腰只能轻轻接触球，而不能将整个身体的重量都压在球上。重复练习，尽量保持正常呼吸。

The half bridge will require a basketball or soccer ball to monitor your form. Sit down on the floor,placing the ball on the ground right behind you. Lay back so that you are lying down with only your shoulders and the soles of your feet on the floor. The feet should be shoulder width apart or a little closer, and the ball should be supporting the small of your back. If you find this position uncomfortable, lay a folded towel or cushion over the ball before you begin. Place the hands alongside the head, with the palms flat on the floor and your fingers pointing towards your toes. Now press through the hands, pushing your shoulders and head off the floor so that only the soles of your feet, the ball, and your palms are supporting your bodyweight. This is the start position (fig. 91). From here, push the hips as high as you can, extending the arms and legs and lifting the back up until it is well clear of the ball. Keep going until your back is fully arched. This is the finish position (fig, 92). Pause for a moment at the top, before lowering yourself slowly to the start position. After starting the set, only descend until the small of your back lightly touches the ball—don’t rest your bodyweight on it. Repeat, breathing as normally as possible.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

科举制度使得社会各阶层的人都可以通过考试进入统治阶级内部。在封建社会，全国上下都竞相奔走在科举的考试场。许多人挖空心思、想方设法钻制度的空子，并试图通过各种手段跻身于仕途，于是形形色色的科举作弊就出现了，例如割卷和代考。

The imperial examination system provides comparatively equal opportunities for everyone coming from different social strata and gives them the access to the ruling class. In China's feudal society, intellectuals from all over the country devoted themselves to the imperial examination. In order to conquer other candidates, many examinees competed by hook or crook. Therefore, various means of cheating appeared, for instance, paper swap and hiring someone else to take the exam.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

加尔文教的核心教义非常接近路德教。他支持用因信称义原则解释人类如何获得救赎。但是，加尔文同样强调上帝的绝对权威和上帝的“力量、恩赐与荣耀”上。宿命论即来自于他强调上帝绝对权威的观念之一，它赋予加尔文教教义以独特性。加尔文所谓的“永恒教令”意味着上帝已经预定哪些人得救（上帝选民），哪些人受罚（上帝弃民）。

On most important doctrines, Calvin stood very close to Luther. He adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone to explain how humans achieved salvation. But Calvin also placed much emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God or the "power, grace, and glory of God." One of the ideas derived from his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God--predestination---gave a unique cast to Calvin’s teachings. This "eternal decree," as Calvin called it, meant that God had predestined some people to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

非洲的《班珠尔宪章》和美洲的美洲国家组织所属的美洲国家间人权委员会也有相似的功能。各种各样的非政府组织在推动人权方面也同样重要，如大赦国际（又译“国际特赦协会”）、人权联盟和国际法学家委员会。

In Africa, the Banjul Charter, and in the Americas, the Inter-American Committee on Human Rights of the Organization of American States (OAS), have similar functions. But perhaps as significant in promoting human rights, if not more so, are the multiplicity of international non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International, the League of Human Rights and the International Commission of Jurists.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

19世纪80年代，美国同时还发生了第一次“反商业”活动，民粹主义者(populist)兴起并成功地使内布拉斯加州林肯市的地方电力公司实现“社会化”——这是继维也纳之后第二个敢于这样做的西方城市。

The 1880s also brought about the first distinctly "antibusiness" movement in the U.S., the populists, and their successful 'socialization' of the local power company in Lincoln, Nebraska - only the second city in the Western world to do so, after Vienna.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在野生动植物保护领域，人们制定了关于北极熊、海豹、国际决定的珍稀物种交易以及有关沼泽地、候鸟和南极生态系统的专门协议。最引人注目的是签订的一些主要协议，涉及国际污染性垃圾的转移（1989年的《巴塞尔协议》）、控制含氯氟烃放射的空气污染（1985年和1987年的《维也纳和蒙特利尔草案》）以及欧洲和北美的控制跨国酸雨的一系列条约。

In the field of wildlife protection, specific agreements were made on polar bears, seals and trade in internationally determined rare species, as well as on wetlands, migratory birds and the Antarctic ecosystem. Most dramatically, major conventions were signed on the international movement of hazardous wastes (the "Basel convention" in 1989), air pollution controlling the emission of CFCs (the "Vienna and Montreal Protocols" in 1985 and 1987) as well as a range of treaties regulating transboundary acid rain in Europe and North America.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在保证计税基数 (guaranteed tax base，GTB)计划[a. k. a 校区权限平衡（district power equalizing)]下，政府指定每个学生的“保证”计税基数，意味着每个校区具有相同有效的计税基数。

Under a guaranteed tax base (GTB) plan (a.k.a. district power equalizing), a state specifics a "guaranteed" tax base per pupil, meaning that each school district has access to the same effective tax base.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

作为孟子美学思想核心的人格美学是与其哲学思想紧密关联的。意识层面心性论和身体层面气论的一体不二为人格美的形成提供了基础；志、气关系深入地呈现了人格美的内涵；践形观则实为身心层面的人格美超越。只有在此整一性的视域中，孟子人格美学的美、大、圣、神才获得体系性的重新理解。

Personality aesthetics as the core of Mencius'aesthetic thought is closely associated with his philosophy.The mind-nature theory of consciousness and the qi theory of body are of consistency which provides the foundation of his personality aesthetics.The relation between will and qi reveals the implications of personality aesthetics.The Jianxing theory explains the transcendence of personality aesthetics.Only in the perspective of the whole horizon can the beauty, greatness, holiness and divinity of Mencius'personality aesthetics be reinterpreted as a system.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

我们却有不同的观点，在1930年前后，由于官方的干预造成了形式主义运动的终结，在此之前，社会学方法介入的需求却产生了这一时期最好的形式主义著作，特别是“巴赫金学派”的著述，它们成功地结合了形式主义与马克思主义的传统，预示了形式主义后来的发展。

We would argue that, before official disapproval brought an end to the movement in about 1930, the need to take account of the sociological dimension produced some of the best work of the period, especially in the writings of the ‘Bakhtin School’ which drew on formalist and Marxist traditions in fruitful ways that anticipated later developments.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

已故的卡萨武布先生与他的刚果共和国和安哥拉盟友发起的阿巴克(Abako)运动;达罗毗荼斯坦运动，按它所吹嘘的那样，要穿过保克海峡，从南印度进入锡兰;也许至此只是一种不成形的情感，目的是建立一个既独立于印度又独立于巴基斯坦的大孟加拉国.

The Abako movement of the late Mr. Kasuvubu and his Republic of The Congo and Angola allies; the Dravidistan movement, in so far as it comes to see itself as extending across Palk Strait from South India into Ceylon; the movement, or perhaps it is so far only a formless sentiment, for a unified and sovereign Bengal-greater Bangladesh-independent of both India and Pakistan.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

基础货币（又称为高能货币）等于流通中的现金C加上银行体系的准备金总额R。基础货币MB可以表述为MB=C+R。

The monetary base (also called high-powered money) equals currency in circulation C plus the total reserves in banking system R. The monetary base MB can be expressed as MB = C + R.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

只需想一下澳洲土著和非洲丛林人，托拉査人和阿洛尔人，霍皮人和阿帕切人，印度人和罗马人，甚至是意大利人和波兰人，就可以看到宗教的发展程度并不总是一致的，即使是在两个复杂程度相近的社会中。

One need only think of the Australians and the Bushmen, the Toradja and the Alorese, the Hopi and the Apache, the Hindus and the Romans, or even the Italians and the Poles, to see that degree of religious articulateness is not a constant even as between societies of similar complexity.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

一国如果将本国汇率与较大国家的锚货币相挂钩，就会丧失对货币政策的控制。如果大国实施紧缩性的货币政策，减少货币供给，会导致大国预期通货膨胀率下降，进而引起大国货币的升值和小国货币的贬值。

A country that ties its exchange rate to an anchor currency of a larger country loses control of its monetary policy. If the larger country pursues a more contractionary monetary policy and decreases its money supply, this would lead to lower expected inflation in the larger country, thus causing an appreciation of the larger country's currency and a depreciation of the smaller country's currency.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

和如此“浓墨重彩”的描述一样，对创造性的地理著作更密切的关注也采取一种更加试验性的形式，冈纳·奥尔森的著作最好地表明了这一点，他把注意力集中于语言与含义之间的错位。虽然这样的试验性著作显示了含义的不稳定性和含混性，但省略了实验的创造性则因其难以理解而受到批评。

As well as such ‘thick’ description, a closer attention to creative geographical writing also took a more experimental form, best shown in the work of Gunnar Olsson, who focused attention on the slippages between language and meaning. While such experimental writings revealed the instabilities and ambiguities of meaning, they have also been critiqued for their opacity.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

早期的称"儒"者与商周王朝中主管乐舞的官员，在文化上有着一脉相承关系。春秋战国之间形成的儒家学派，以诗书礼乐为教；而以诗书礼乐为教，正是此前的王朝乐官的职责。王朝国学中的要担任舞人的青少年学子，可能就是"儒"的早期形态；而教官乐师则相当于"师儒"。儒家与乐师在文化上的这种传承关系，对儒家思想特征的形成，应有重大影响。

The first people who called themselves "Scholars" in the early times can be traced to the officials in charge of music and dance during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. The Confucianist School formed during the spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods taught mainly poetry and music. This was exactly what the music officials had done before those periods. The young scholars who played the role of dancers in the palace were probably the early form of "Scholars", while their music teachers were in a way "instructors of the Scholars". The cultural heritage between the musicians and Confucianists should exert great influence upon the formation of the characteristics of Confucianist ideology.