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请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

找一堵墙，双手手掌平放在距离墙根约15到25厘米的地面上，双手与肩同宽。手臂尽量伸直，蹬起成靠墙倒立姿势（第三式）。你现在应该处于标准的靠墙倒立姿势——手臂伸直，身体收紧，背部略微向内弓，脚跟与墙壁轻轻接触。这是半倒立撑的起始姿势（图113）。

Approach a solid wall. Place your palms flat on the floor six to ten inches from the base of the wall, at about shoulder width apart. Keeping your arms as straight as possible, assume the position and kick up into a wall handstand (Step 3). You should now be in the classic wall handstand starting posture; your torso should be braced, your arms straight, and your body should curve backwards slightly to the point where your heels make a gentle contact with the wall. This is the start position for the half handstand pushup (fig. 113).

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

突发的技术变化如第五章所讨论过的，突发的技术变化增加了智胜领导者竞争优势的可能性。例如，在轮胎行业中，径向轮胎的出现提供给米其林（Michelin）公司挑战固特异（Goodyear）和火石（Firestone）公司的突发性技术变化。又如在打字机行业中，电子技术导致了安德伍德（Underwood）公司的衰败且正威胁着SCM公司。

Discontinuous technological change raises the possibility that a leader's competitive advantage can be circumvented, as discussed in Chapter 5. In tires, for example, the radial tire provided the discontinuity that allowed Michelin to challenge Goodyear and Firestone. In typewriters, electronics proved the undoing of Underwood and is threatening SCM.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在野生动植物保护领域已经制定了有关北极熊、海豹、国际决定的珍稀物种交易的专门协议，还有关于沼泽地、候鸟和南极生态系统的专门协议。最引人注目的是已签订的一系列国际及跨境条约和协议，如关于国际污染性垃圾的转移（1989年的巴塞尔协议）、控制含氯氟烃放射的空气污染（1985年和1987年的维也纳和蒙特利尔草案）以及欧洲和北美的控制跨国酸雨的系列条约。

In the field of wildlife protection, specific agreements were made on polar bears, seals and trade in internationally determined rare species, as well as on wetlands, migratory birds and the Antarctic ecosystem. Most dramatically, major conventions were signed on the international movement of hazardous wastes (the Basel convention in 1989), air pollution controlling the emission of CFCs (the Vienna and Montreal Protocols in 1985 and 1987) as well as a range of treaties regulating transboundary acid rain in Europe and North America.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这类研究最重要的早期成就，是由英国东方学者威廉·琼斯（William Jones, 1746—1794)于1786年提出的对印欧语系的辨识（G. Cannon 1990)。这一发现标志着比较语言学的起点。

The most important early accomplishment of this sort of research was the identification of the Indo-European language family initiated by the British orientalist William Jones (1746–1794) in 1786 (G. Cannon 1990). This discovery marked the beginning of comparative philology.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在实践中，自1973年以来的可变汇率制实际上并不是清洁浮动制度，而是有管理的即肮脏浮动汇率制。在有管理的浮动汇率制下，中央银行是干预外汇买卖，试图影响汇率的。因此，在有管理的浮动汇率制下，官方储备交易量并不为零。

In practice, the flexible rate system, in effect since 1973, has not been one of clean floating. Instead, the system has been one of managed, or dirty floating. Under managed floating, central banks intervene to buy and sell foreign currencies in attempts to influence exchange rates. Official reserve transactions are, accordingly, not equal to zero under managed floating.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果每一部文本只有一种意义，那倒还有可能争辩说这意义是文本固有的，与一般文学系统无关，然而事实却是存在着全然开放的一组意义，这本身就说明，我们所面对的阐释过程具有相当的力量，需要作一番研究。看来，我们不得不作出这样的结论，《如是》派的理论以及他们提出的反对文学系统和文学能力的论点，其本身却早已包含了他们扬言所摈弃的那些观念。

If each text had a single meaning, then it might be possible to argue that this meaning was inherent to it and depended upon no general system, but the fact that there is an open set of possible meanings indicates that we are dealing with interpretive processes of considerable power which require study. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the theories of the Tel Quel group and the arguments which they might bring to bear against the notions of a literary system and literary competence do, in fact, presuppose these notions which they claim to have rejected.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

那么无论有没有包含性分区制，开发商获得的经济利润均为零（正常的会计利润），因此隐性税收被转嫁给了消费者（房价上涨）和土地所有者（空地的价格下降）。换句话说，房屋消费者和土地所有者为包含性分区付费。

The developer makes zero economic profit (normal accounting profit) with or without inclusionary zoning, so the implicit tax is passed on to consumers (housing prices increase) and landowners (the price of vacant land decreases). In other words, housing consumers and landowners pay for inclusionary zoning.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在早期接触阶段，工会确定雇员对组织工会的兴趣，并成立组织委员会。工会与雇员间的早期接触的主动方可能是雇员，己经代表了本公司其他雇员的工会，或代表其他地方的雇员的工会。有时，工会化努力是从与地方工会接触从而掌握怎样组织自己所在工作地的雇员的不满者开始的。有时，工会竞选运动的动力在于工会希望扩大自己代表的雇员的范围，或因为在公司组织工会比较容易。不论何种情况，都存在工会代表与雇员的早期接触。

During the initial contact stage, the union determines the employees interest in organizing, and establishes an organizing committee. The initiative for the first contact between the employees and the union may come from the employees, from a union already representing other employees of the firm, or from a union representing workers elsewhere. In any case, there is an initial contact.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

巴霍芬的证据主要包括（从母权制阶段留存下来的）女性神观念的残存，以及田野民族志实例中（从男权推翻女权时开始的）南美土著”产翁”习俗。这个法语词表示一种孕妇的丈夫假装他们自己怀孕的习俗。

Bachofen’s evidence involved mainly survivals of notions about female deities (from the matriarchal phase) and the ethnographic discovery of South American couvade (from the male overthrow of female authority). This French word designates the custom in which husbands of pregnant wives act as if they are pregnant themselves.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

安全需求（safety needs):人们在生理上的需求得到保证的同时，保护自己免受生理和情感伤害的需要。

Safety needs: A person’s needs for security and protection from physical and emotional harm, as well as assurance that physical needs will continue to be met.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

政策制定者的早期选择必须预期以下的步骤，而它们本身也取决于早期的选择。决策者从末期开始并向原出发点推进，以做出他们的选择。这种选择方法是动态规划的一个简单例子。

Early choices by the policymaker must anticipate later stages, which themselves depend on the choices made earlier. Decision makers work out their choices by starting at the end and working backward. This choice method is a simple example of dynamic programming.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

我们中那些来自东部和中西部所谓“真正”城市的人过去还嘲笑洛杉矶。而现在事实是，我们大多数人出于非常实际的目的也在类似洛杉矶的环境中生活和工作。我在波士顿地区的大多数朋友在为128公路附近的高技术公司工作；他们每天从近郊的公寓出发到波士顿周围那些“边缘城市”上班，在美国每一个古老的大都市周围，都出现了这样一些“边缘城市”。

Those of us from the "real" cities of the East and Midwest used to scoff at Los Angeles. Nowadays, however, the fact is that most of us for all practical purposes live and work in LA-like environments. Most of my friends in the Boston area work for the high-technology companies along Route 128; they commute outward from their inner-suburb homes to the "edge cities" that have grown up around Boston, as they have around every old U.S. metropolis.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

很多在智力方面有残疾的人，尽管丧失了某些方面的能力，却在其他一些方面表现出卓越的才能。有些顶级的音乐家和艺术家却没有简单的生活自理能力。这样的人通常被称为白痴天才。有些非常出名的白痴天才是速算高手，算术演算的速度惊人，或者是算日历的高手，他们能不假思索地告诉你上个世纪或下个世纪的任何一天是星期几。

There are numerous cases of intellectually handicapped individuals who, despite their disabilities in certain spheres, show remarkable talents in others. There are superb musicians and artists who lack the simple abilities required to take care of themselves. Such people are referred to as savants. Some of the most famous savants are human calculators who can perform arithmetic computations at phenomenal speed, or calendrical calculators who can tell you without pause on which day of the week any date in the last or next century falls.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

陈景元是北宋著名道教学者，其哲学从认识论角度可分为"慧解"、"智照"与"体冥"三层次，"道"在"慧解"视域下，由存有论和宇宙论的"道"转为与主体关涉的境界论的"道"；"德"在"智照"视域下成为长养万物的"德用"；"性"在"体冥"视域下开显为体用一如的"自然"境界。这三重境界为体、用、体用一如的境界，通过"气"贯通为一"冲和"整体，落实于"治身"、"治天下"的实践中。

Chen Jingyuan is a famous Taoist scholar in the Northern Song dynasty.There are three aspects in Chen's philosophy named "Huijie""Zhizhao""Timing".In the view of "Huijie", the ontological and cosmological "Tao" is changed to the subjective "Tao".In the view of"Zhizhao", "Morality"has the function of promoting the growth of all things.In the view of"Timing", "Nature"combines the metaphysical world and the experiencial world. This three aspects are integrated to an unity by"Qi"and then realized in the practice of governing body and country.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

消费者能避免在坏光景下被迫大量削减其消费的一种办法，就是储蓄起资产的缓冲库存，那会使他们能在紧急情况下抽出资金。另一方面，许多消费者是缺乏耐心的，他们宁愿现在就支出，而不愿为将来进行储蓄。在这些情况下，消费者将会有一个“目标”财富水平。该目标就是缺乏耐心恰恰能够平衡储蓄的预防性（或储蓄的缓冲库存）动机之点。

One way consumers can avoid having to cut their consumption sharply in bad times is to save up a buffer stock of assets, which they can draw on in emergencies. On the other hand, most consumers are impatient; they would prefer to spend now rather than save for the future. Under these conditions, consumers will have a “target” wealth level. The target will be the point where impatience exactly balances the precautionarysaving (or buffer-stock saving) motive.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因而在一九五七年的大选中，甚至比一九五二年的大选还要严重，国大党发现自己要在多条战线上作战，在不同的邦进行不同的选举战斗，要对付利用各种不满的对手——在喀拉拉邦、盂加拉邦及安得拉邦对付共产党人；在旁遮普邦、北方与中央邦及拉贾斯坦邦对付宗教群团政党；在阿萨姆邦及比哈尔邦对付部落联盟；在孟买反对普拉贾社会主义者党等。

Thus, in the 1957 elections, even more than in those of 1952, the Congress found itself engaged in a multifront war, fighting different election battles in the various states, against different sorts of opponents capitalizing on different sorts of discontents-against the Communists in Kerala, Bengal, and Andhra; against communal religious parties in Punjab, Uttar and Madhya Pradesh, and Rajahstan; against tribal unions in Assam and Bihar; against the Praja Socialists in Bombay.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

B细胞制造的抗体像子弹一样摧毁入侵细菌。当他们完成任务，多余的白细胞将会杀死它们自己（细胞自杀机制），以使它们不会误杀我们自身健康的细胞，造成自体免疫们疾病。

The B cells create antibodies that act like bullets to destroy the invaders. When done, the excess white blood cells kill themselves (apoptosis) so that they won't kill our own healthy cells by mistake and cause an autoimmune disease.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果说在当时动乱的社会中有过一个中心的话，那就是阿拉维特王国了。但是即便是在鼎盛时期，这个王国也不过是花园中最大的熊罢了。

Insofar as this unsettled society had a center, it was the Alawite monarchy. But even in the best times the monarchy was hardly more than the largest bear in the garden.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

国子学是中国历代王朝培植贵胃子弟的机构，是封建国家的最高学府。元朝统治者入主中原后，也因袭了汉族旧制，创建了国子学，在国子学中国子祭酒"掌学之教令"，是国子监的最高行政官员。学者们认为通过元朝对国子学主要官员国子监的任命，也能够反映出元朝国子学的办学情况。

Guozixue (one imperial academy in ancient China) was the top learning institution where the descendants of noble families were trained in feudal dynasties. After they seized control of Central Plains, the rulers of the Yuan dynasty followed the old systems of Han nationality and created Guozixue, where the chancellor was the highest executive official. Scholars believe that the appointment of Chancellor of Guozixue can also reflect the educational development in the Yuan dynasty.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

由于任何一种不稳定同位素的衰变都是一个随机的过程，因此就不会有一个稳定的衰变速率。但是，如果可能的话，可以计算出统计概率——在一个给定时间内同位素哀变的比例(图7.7)。这一速率通常被表示为该同位素的半衰期(half-life)——也就是一半的不稳定原子衰变形成稳定的子同位素(daughter isotope)所需要的时间。我们还必须记住：任何放射性同位素的半衰期所代表的不是一个固定的速率，而是一个统计学上的平均值——它是带有一定程度的误差的。

Since the decay of any unstable isotope is a random process, it does not produce a steady rate of decay; it is possible, however, to calculate the statistical probability that a certain proportion of the isotope will decay within a given time (Fig. 7.7). This rate is usually expressed as the half-life of the isotope—the period required for one half of the unstable atoms to decay and form a stable daughter isotope. The half-life of any radioactive isotope represents not a fixed rate, but rather a statistical average with a specified range of error.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

"知者乐水，仁者乐山’是一个深刻的哲学命题。"知者达于事理而周流无滞"，"仁者安于义理而厚重不迁；"山"壮美，象征着稳重、宽厚和刚毅，"水"柔美，象征着灵活、周流和顺达；"乐水"者善于权变，"乐山"者善于坚守。它们都是对立的统一体，是"和谐"世界的组成部分。

That an intelligent person likes water and an benevolent person likes mountains is a profound philosophy proposition. The intelligent person has a deep understanding of the worldly wisdom so that he does not have the barrier when solving the problem. The benevolent person solves problems according to the righteousness principle. The mountain is sublime and symbolizes steadiness, generosity and resolution, while water is gentle and symbolizes flexibilty, smoothness and obedience. A person who likes water is good at adapation, while a person who perfers mountains is good at sticking to the moral priciple. They are the two opposites of an entity, and are the constituents of a harmonious society.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

内部文化模型描述了某一个特定文化内部的变化发生机制。在这些机制中，最为常见的是必然变异(inevitable variation)，其前提是所有的文化随着时间流逝不可避免地发生变化。

Internal cultural models describe mechanisms of change within a given culture. The most general of these mechanisms is inevitable variation, which follows the simple premise that all cultures inevitably change over time.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

威格利提供了一个有趣的案例，他研究了文艺复兴时期阿尔贝蒂的建筑原则和实践。他认为，阿尔贝蒂从色诺芬那里吸取了如下观点：妇女的性欲不可能自我控制，“因为她的流动性欲无止无尽地泛滥并破坏着”她自己以及男性的边界，“不是质疑就是干扰着”后者的身份（注意流动和永恒之间的关系辩证法）。

Wigley provides an interesting case study through consideration of the architectural principles and practices laid out in Alberti's foundational renaissance texts. Alberti, Wigley (1992: 342) argues, took from Xenophon, the idea that the sexuality of the woman cannot be self-controlled "because her fluid sexuality endlessly overflows and disrupts" her own boundaries as well as the boundaries of men, "disturbing ... if not calling it into question" the latter's identity (note the relational dialectic of flow and permanence).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在欧洲范围内，只有4个国家已经建立了具有相当经济重要性的国际性媒体跨国公司。以英国为基地的百代、兰克集团、英国广播公司、培生公司和路透社都获得了全球性地位。欧洲大陆国家已经建立了更大、更集中的公司；贝塔斯曼集团以德国为基地；Matra-Hachette和Havas来自法国；而爱思唯尔和宝丽金来自荷兰。尤其是贝塔斯曼集团和Hachette，它们通过利用来自欧洲市场的收入进入美国市场，从而在全球范围内进行扩张，贝塔斯曼集团购买了RCA唱片公司、双日出版集团和兰登书屋， Hachette获得了规模较大的Diamandis出版集团。

Within Europe only four states have generated media MNCs of any considerable economic weight and international scope. Based in the UK, Thorn-EMI, Rank, BBC, Pearson and Reuters have all acquired a global presence. Continental European countries have produced larger and more concentrated firms; Bertelsmann based in Germany; Matra-Hachette and Havas from France; and Elsevier and Polygram from the Netherlands. Bertelsmann and Hachette, in particular, have expanded globally by using revenues from European markets to buy into the American market, Bertelsmann purchasing RCA records, Doubleday Books and Random House, Hachette acquiring the large Diamandis publishing group.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

半月板是在膝部中心的一块软骨，它不仅对外部沖击起到缓冲作用，还有其他一些功能。通过扩大软骨表面积，半月板有助于润滑关节。

Your meniscus, which is a piece of cartilage in the middle of your knee, not only acts as a shock absorber but also has several other functions. It helps lubricate the joint by increasing the surface.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

罗马共和国还举行许多不同层次的民众大会。最重要的是百人大会，其实质上是罗马军队在政治上的作用。百人大会由基于财富多寡的各个阶级组成，这样的构成方式，结果常常是最富有的公民占据多数。百人大会的职责是选举主要官员和通过法律条令。另一种类型的大会，即作为秩序斗争结果的平民院，形成于公元前471年。

The Roman Republic possessed a number of popular assemblies. The most important was the centuriate assembly, essentially the Roman army functioning in its political role. Organized by classes based on wealth, it was structured in such a way that the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. The centuriate assembly elected the chief magistrates and passed laws. Another assembly, the council of the plebs, came into being in 471 B.C. as a result of the struggle of the orders (see next section).

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是无论惊恐与否，尼赫鲁、帕特尔与西塔拉姆马亚最终被迫批准安德拉邦作为说泰卢固语邦的要求，薄冰因而打破。

But, horrified or not, Nehru, Patel, and Sitaramayya in the end were forced to endorse the claims of Andhra as a Telugu-speaking state, and the thin ice was broken.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在半深蹲过程中，站立，双脚分开，与肩同宽或略宽。脚尖不要完全平行伸向前方，而要略微向外。双手放在髋部、胸部、肩部都可以——以舒适为前提。弯曲髋部和膝盖，直到膝关节弯曲成90°——换句话说就是大腿与地面平行。刚开始你可以借助一面镜子或是找朋友帮忙，直到能够自如地控制动作幅度。不要求快，也不要借助惯性起身，而要完全在肌肉控制下做整个动作。在最低点（半空中）坚持1秒钟，然后再回到起始姿势。在整个动作过程中，背部始终要挺直，双脚脚跟始终不能抬离地面。膝盖与脚尖应该始终朝向同一方向，深蹲时膝盖绝不要向内转，脚尖指向外有助于你做到这一点。

In the half squats, stand with the feet shoulder width apart, or slightly wider. Don’t keep your feet perfectly in line with one another; allow your toes to point very slightly outwards. Place your hands in a comfortable position—on your hips, chest or shoulders is fine. Now bend at the hips and knees until your knees are angled at ninety degrees, or (in other words) your thighs are parallel to the floor. You can use a mirror or ask a friend the first few times until your body learns the right depth. Don’t rush the technique, and never bounce; pause in mid-air at the bottom position for a one count before returning to the start position under full muscular control. Keep the back straight throughout the motion, and keep your heels flat on the floor. Your knees should always point in the same direction as your feet; don’t ever allow the knees to “track” inwards as you squat. The outwards angle of your toes will assist you with this.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

以这种方式运用生成原理时，波姆和皮特采纳了辩证的人类创造性观点，把艺术和科学统一在某种对立物的互补性之中。这样做，他们接近阿多诺(很明显，他们并不知晓这一点），后者把艺术作品解释成一种“辩证意象”，将之理解成“历史过程的结晶”以及“社会条件在其中呈现自身的客观论点”[转引自威廉斯(1977：103)]。

In setting the generative principles to work in this way, Bohm and Peat embrace a dialectical view of human creativity, one that unifies art and science in a certain complementarity of opposites. In so doing, they come close to embracing (apparently without knowing it) Adorno's interpretation of the work of art as a "dialectical image" understood as "crystallizations of the historical process" and as "objective constellations in which the social condition represents itself" (cited in Williams, 1977: 103).

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

唐代关于受贿罪的主体规定具有鲜明的特点。唐律中受贿罪的主体主要是负有直接管理、监督责任的"监临主司"，并在法定刑上加重处罚。普通官吏不是受贿罪的主要主体，处罚也相对较轻。明律中的受贿罪则不再特别强调"监临主司"，而是对所有官员不加区分地定罪量刑，实际上加重了对普通官吏受贿罪的处罚。

Regulation about the subject of the bribery crime in the Tang dynasty has distinct characteristics. The subject of bribery crime in the Tang dynasty was officials responsible for supervision.They mainly bore direct management and oversight responsibilities of the temporary prison. They were punished more heavily. Common officials were not the main body of the bribery crime suject, so punishment for them was relatively light. Bribery crime in the law of the Ming dynasty no longer emphasized "the official responsible for supervision", but all the officials without distinction in conviction and sentencing, it actually adding to the ordinary official's punishment due to bribery.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

鼓吹署的建立要晚于鼓吹乐的出现。汉代尚未建立专门性的鼓吹乐管理机构，“黄门鼓吹署”此机构并不存在。汉代的黄门鼓吹包括黄门(宴飨)鼓吹和黄门骑吹，其成员分别由来自乐府的黄门倡和来自少府可充当禁军的黄门冗从组成。用于宫廷宴飨部分由小黄令管理，骑吹则由黄门冗从仆射管理，并接受承华令的管理，二者同为隶于九卿的少府管理，构成了后世对鼓吹乐进行管理的初步机制，也为西晋时正式建立鼓吹署管理鼓吹乐和百戏打下了基础。

The agency for Guchui music appears much later than Guchui music. The "Huangmen agency for Guchui music" does not exist at all, and there was no such agency for Guchui music in the Han dynasty. The Huangmenguchui music in the Han dynasty falls into party music and travel music, whose members are consisted of Huangmenchang from "Yuefu"department and Huangmenrongcong from "Shaofu" department. And the members for palace banquet music are managed by Xiaohuangling officials, while Qichui music by Pushe officials from Huangmenrongcong department which, in turn, is under the indirect management of Chenghualing organization, both of which are subordinate to Jiuqing office. Jiuqing office constitutes the primary system for managing Guchui music in later dynasties which as well lays solid foundation for formally setting up the agency for Guchui music to manage Guchui music and Baixi drama.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

随机性抽样的住户问卷和对关键答卷者的半组织性访谈就是对这两个要素的简明例子。另一种例子是对小集水区排水中溶质浓度的监测，结合对山坡土壤间隙水中矿物质稳定场的分析，借以解释坡地排水化学的变化。

One simple illustration of these two elements is the randomly-sampled household questionnaire and the semi-structured interview with key respondents. Another is the systematic monitoring of solute concentrations in the discharge of water from a small catchment, combined with analysis of the mineral stability fields for interstitial water in the hillslope soils in order to explain variation in the slope drainage water chemistry.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

备择假设(H1)——备择假设与零假设是对立的。有许多用于备择假设的术语,例如研究假设或实验性假设。

The alternate hypothesis — the alternate hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis. There are a number of other terms that are used for the alternate hypothesis, such as the research hypothesis or the experimental hypothesis ( H1) .

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

奥兰兹伯（1658—1707）开始大规模地迫害印度教徒，并通过扩张性和毁灭性的战争来扩展其帝国疆域。这种好大喜功的区域性扩张政策，可能导因于拥有更多的土地就意味着拥有更多的收入这一事实，暴露出了体制内部的问题。

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) simultaneously persecuted the Hindus on a wide scale and extended the empire by expensive and ultimately ruinous wars. These policies of magnificence and territorial expansion, probably connected through the fact that more land meant greater sources of revenue, brought to the surface inherent structural weaknesses.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

南宋时期的川陕地区:包括成都府路、潼川府路、夔州路和利州路。从高宗建炎二年到理宗端平以前的百余年间，这一地区实行着相对独立的科举取士政策，即"类省试"，简称"类试"。川陕类省试是南宋科举制度中的一个有机组成部分，它不仅具有礼部省试的一般权限和职能，而且更富有独立性与特殊性。

Sichuan and Shaanxi region in the Southern Song dynasty included Chengdu Rd, Tongchuan Rd, the Kuizhou Road and Leezhou Road. During the hundred years from Emperor Gao Zong JianYan to Emperor Li Zong DuanPing, the region implemented a relatively independent examination policy, named "imperial exam at the provincial level", refered to as the "class test". Sichuan and Shaanxi region’s class test was an integral part of the imperial examination system in the Southern Song dynasty. It not only had the general provincial powers and functions of the Ministry of Rites, but also was full of independence and particularity.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

半结构化访谈属于谈话范畴，但采访者事先已就交流关注的主题拟定了问题提纲。这个提纲使得访谈具备了一定结构性，尽管提纲上所讨论的事项的次序可能在访谈中有变动。同非结构化访谈一样， 半结构化访谈本质上具有一定灵活性而且遵循受访者的思维过程。

Semi-structured interviews remain within the genre of a conversation; however, the interviewer has a prompt list of issues that focus the interaction. The list adds some structure to the interview , although the ordering of the discussion about the issues on the list may vary between interviews. As with unstructured interviews, semi-structured interviews are fluid in nature and follow the thinking processes of the interviewee.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

近年来，相对选择性Pr•激动剂 (p2-agoniStS)的发展，具有使支气管平滑肌松弛的作用，而对心脏的作用较小。 这些药物，包括（美国）阿布特罗 (albuterol)或（世界其他地方）沙丁胺醇 (salbutamol),奥西那林（metaproterenol)， 特布他林（terbutaline)，比托特罗 (bitolterol),非诺特罗（fenoterol)和沙米特罗（salmeterol)是治疗急性或慢性哮喘中支气管痉挛的主要药物。

Recent years have seen the development of relatively selective(Vagonists, that have potent bronchial smooth muscle relaxant effect, with little cardiacstim ulation. These agents, including albuterol (USA) or salbutam ol (rest of the world), metaproterenol, terbutaline, bitolterol, fenoterol and salmeterol, are the mainstay in the treatment of the bronchospastic component of asthma, be it chronic or acute, including EIA.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这一趋势在其他许多领域同样明显。在政治领域，存在着从绿色和平组织到国际工会联盟（ICTU ） 这样的跨国压力集团和国际间非政府组织；在文化领域存在着像世界穆斯林大会和各种基督教联合会这样的组织；在社会领域，存在着像国际红十字会、天主教海外发展基金会（ CAFOD ）、（英国）牛津饥荒救济委员会（OXFAM）这样为数不少的组织；在科学领域，各种专业性组织像国际营养科学协会、国际政治科学协会等专业性组织大量出现。从50年代以来，在两个以上国家拥有成员（除公司以外）的跨国组织即非政府组织呈爆炸性增长，从1951年的832个增加到了1996年 的5472个 。

But it is evident in many other domains as well. In the domain of politics there exist scores of transnational pressure groups and international non-governmental organizations, from Greenpeace to the International Confederation of Trade Unions (ICTU); in the cultural sphere there are groups such as the World Muslim Congress and diverse Christian associations; in the social domain there are numerous organizations like the International Red Cross, the Catholic Fund for Overseas Development (CAFOD) and OXFAM; and in the scientific domain professional organizations proliferate, such as the International Association of Nutritional Sciences and the International Political Science Association. Since the 1950s the growth of transnational organizations - that is, non-governmental organizations (excluding corporations and companies) which have members in more than two countries - has been explosive: from a total of 832 in 1951 to 5,472 in 1996.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

分清人类学中三种比较类型（参见Sarana 1975):案例比较、 全球比较和控制比较（包括区域比较），是很有用的。案例比较（Illustrative comparison)需要选择一些实例来分析文化差异或相似之处。它是许多人类学导论教学的基础。

It is useful to distinguish three types of comparison in anthropology (see Sarana 1975): illustrative, global, and controlled (which includes regional comparison). Illustrative comparison involves choosing examples to make some point about cultural difference or similarity. This is the basis of much introductory teaching in anthropology.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在劝买高价产品时，对品牌的忠诚以及改变品牌的转换成本，使得两种产品联系起来。在采取“剃刀和刀片”战略时，对品牌的忠诚加上转换成本会使买方购买与刀架同品牌的刀片。

In trade-up, brand loyalty and switching costs are the connection between one product and another. In a razor and blade strategy, brand loyalty and switching costs also may cause the buyer to purchase the blade from the firm that supplies the razor.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

全球债券市场基本是私人组织的，政府对交易几乎不加限制。另一方面，当借款国重新安排或不偿还其贷款时，贷款人所在国政府也很少干预以支持贷款人（虽然19世纪90年代阿根廷债务危机使巴林银行破产，而英国政府确实帮助其摆脱困境）。

The global bond market was essentially privately organized, with governments placing few if any restrictions on trading. On the other hand they rarely intervened to support lenders when borrowing countries rescheduled or defaulted on their loans (although the British government did help rescue Barings Bank when it was bankrupted by the Argentine debt crisis of the 1890s).

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

为什么成本曲线是U形的？从短期看，资本是固定的，而劳动是可变的。在这种情况下，可变要素（劳动） 的边际收益是递减的，因为每新增1单位的劳动所对应 的资本是下降的。因此，产出的边际成本会上升，因为每新增1单位的劳动所能带来的产出增量在降低，即可变要素的边际收益递减意味着短期边际成本的递增。这就说明了为什么边际收益递减导致边际成本在某一点之后上升。

Why is the cost curve U-shaped? Consider the short run in which capital is fixed but labor is variable. In such a situation, there are diminishing returns to the variable factor (labor) because each additional unit of labor has less capital to work with. As a result, the marginal cost of output will rise because the extra output produced by each extra labor unit is going down. In other words, diminishing returns to the variable factor will imply an increasing short-run marginal cost. This shows why diminishing returns lead to rising marginal costs.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在今天，人们常常自觉地且有意识地努力唤起一种地方感和往昔感。但这里面包含着一种危险。对本真性的追逐创造了一些传统和一种商业化的遗产文化。

The effort to evoke a sense of place and of the past is now often deliberate and conscious. But herein lies a danger. The quest for authenticity, invented traditions and a commercialized heritage culture.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

伊斯兰教不仅有一套宗教信条，它还意味着一种生活方式。穆罕默德死后，穆斯林学者起草了一份法典，称为伊斯兰法（即沙里河），用以规定信奉者的日常行为。伊斯兰法的许多内容来自于现存的法规或来自于《穆罕默德言行录》，是《古兰经》经文的增补部分。信奉者必须服从伊斯兰法对行为准则的严格规定。

Islam was not just a set of religious beliefs but a way of life as well. After the death of Muhammad, Muslim scholars drew up a law code, called the Shari’a, to provide believers with a set of prescriptions to regulate their daily lives. Much of the Shari’a was drawn from existing legal regulations or from the Hadith, a collection of the sayings of Muhammad that was used to supplement the revelations contained in the Qur’an. Believers were subject to strict guidelines for their behavior.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他还认为，群氓文化既不是美国土生土长的文化，也不是民主制度的必然结果。在罗森伯格看来，群氓文化在苏联最普遍。其始作俑者不是资本主义，而是科技。

He claims that mass culture is not American by nature, or by example, nor is it the inevitable culture of democracy. Mass culture, according to Rosenberg, is nowhere more widespread than in the Soviet Union. Its author is not capitalism, but technology.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对于汤姆森、沃尔塞甚至斯廷斯特拉普而言，几千年的时间看来已经长得足以涵盖考古记录所揭示的过去。沃尔塞将人类最早抵达丹麦的时间，定在约公元前3000 年左右，青铜时代始于公元前1400年至公元前1000年之间，而铁器时代的开始晚至基督纪年初期。由于纯粹的巧合，在玉木冰期（the Würm glaciation)，斯堪的纳维亚、苏格兰和瑞士都被冰川所覆盖，一直到全新世几乎没有人类栖居的证据。

For Thomsen, Worsaae, and even Steenstrup, several thousand years appeared long enough to encompass the past that was being revealed by the archaeological record. Worsaae dated the first arrival of human beings in Denmark around 3000 bc, the beginning of the Bronze Age between 1400 and 1000 bc, and the start of the Iron Age as late as the early Christian era. By an ironic coincidence, Scandinavia, Scotland, and Switzerland had all been covered by glaciers during the Würm glaciation and to this day have produced little evidence of human habitation prior to the Holocene era.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

成本-收益分析推测，如果所有东西都相等，那么自然选择会为任何特定适应性问题提供一种最佳解决办法。然后，设法对期望目标与实际采用的策略之间的区别做出解释。

Cost-benefit analyses assume that, all things being equal, natural selection will lead to an optimal solution for any particular adaptive problem. An explanation is then sought for the differences between what is expected and the actual strategy that was employed.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

后来，中国政府采用了一套以罗马字母为基础的拼写系统，称为“拼音”，每个符号表示一个音。下面是几个写作汉字和拼音形式的汉语词。（拼音的罗马字母后面的数字是音调标记，可忽略。）

More recently, the Chinese government has adopted a spelling system called pinyin, which is based on the Roman alphabet, and in which each symbol represents a sound. Following are several Chinese words in their character and pinyin forms. (The digit following the Roman letters in pinyin is a tone indicator and may be ignored.)

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

称民族志为虚构（fictions)可能会激怒经验主义者。但是近年的文本理论很普遍地使用的这个词，已经没有了虚假、不过是真理的对立面这样的含义。它表达了文化和历史真理的不完全性（partiality)，暗示出它们是如何成为系统化的和排除了某些事物的。民族志写作可以被很正确地称为虚构，在“制作或塑造出来的东西”——这个词的拉丁文词根“fingere”的主要含义——的意义上。但保存此词中不仅是制造而且是捏造、是发明并非真实的事物这样的意义也是很重要的。（“fingere”的某些用法暗含着一定程度的虚假的意思。）

To call ethnographies fictions may raise empiricist hackles. But the word as commonly used in recent textual theory has lost its connotation of falsehood, of something merely opposed to truth. It suggests the partiality of cultural and historical truths, the ways they are systematic and exclusive. Ethnographic writings can properly be called fictions in the sense of "something made or fashioned," the principal burden of the word's Latin root, fingere. But it is important to preserve the meaning not merely of making, but also of makingup, of inventing things not actually real. (Fingere, in some of its uses, implied a degree of falsehood.)

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

团体的暴力是20世纪90年代印度的特点，带来了持续增长的针对妇女的暴力，以陪葬、殉夫、使用羊水穿刺限制女婴人数的形式表现出来。印度教原教旨主义者描画了一个丰富多彩的、性别的神话。他们诉诸武装反对敌人伊斯兰世界，保卫自己的祖国和妇女的纯洁：她们是边界的护卫者，传统的承载者，但也是必须加以控制的潜在的敌人。

The communal violence which characterises India in the 1990s has brought with it increasing violence against women in the form of dowry deaths, sati and the use of amniocentesis as a way of limiting the numbers of female children. Hindu fundamentalists have drawn on a rich and gendered mythology. Their call to arms against the enemy, Islam, is in defence of the motherland and the purity of its women: they are the boundary keepers, the bearers of tradition, but also potentially the enemy within who must be kept under supervision.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在中国以汉民族文化为主流的背景下，"客家"是一个特殊的民系。客家人既属于汉民族的一部分，同时他们又以其独特的民俗、民风以及历史生成、迁徙、演变过程区别于汉民族以及其他任何一个少数民族。从众多客学研究资料来看，引起研究者们兴趣的主要集中在以民俗学、文化人类学、历史学等几个学科视角下的史料挖掘与阐释，因此"客家"的概念在不同的领域有着相异的内涵。然而，作为历史上生存型移民的客家人在结束了长久漂泊不定的游走后，他们的文化仍旧能以其内在巨大的张力立足于现代社会，这是令人惊讶的。

As the Han nationality culture dominates in China, Hakka is a peculiar colony. Though they are a part of the Han nationality, they are distinguished by their special folk-custom, folkway, history, migration and evolvement. From a number of studies on Hakka , what have made people interested in most is to find and explain the historical materials of this colony in those fields: folklore, anthropology, history, etc. Hence, different studies have given us different connotations about Hakka. However, what surprises us is that Hakka still stand in the modern society by its particular culture after a long time migration.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

保守性测试：在跨越点上，对照候选公司比现实跨越的公司皆略胜一筹。前者规模较大，利润较高，市场态势较坚挺，同时享有较好的声誉。这是一项十分重要的测试，它是我们要找的实现跨越的公司凸显出来。

Conservative Test: At the time of transition, the comparison candidate was more successful than the good-to-great company-larger and more profitable, with a stronger market position and better reputation. This is a critical test, stacking the deck against our good-to-great companies.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

那些把内战称为资产阶级革命的评论家，认为斗争的结果资产阶级并没有被剥夺政治权力，这一看法是正确的。我们将在后面讨论中会看到，不仅在18世纪，甚至在1832年议案改革之后农村中的上层阶级仍然牢固地控制政治机构。但是如果我们忽略了社会现实背后的另一方面，上述观点的价值就很小了。资本主义势力在内战之前就已经长时间地渗透并大大地改造了农村。

The critics of those who label the Civil War a bourgeois revolution are correct in their contention that the conflict did not result in the taking of political power by the bourgeoisie. The upper classes in the countryside remained in firm control of the apparatus of politics, as we shall see in due course, not only during the eighteenth century but even after the Reform Bill of 1832, But seen against the realities of social life the point is a trivial one. Capitalist influences had penetrated and transformed much of the countryside long before the Civil War.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

科学需要这种广泛的实践，地理学研究同样依靠广泛的实践，而且在某些情况下要制定自己的与自然科学相平行的策略(例如基于野外的案例研究代替实验室研究）。

Science requires this wide range of practices, and geographical enquiry is equally reliant upon it, and has in some cases developed its own strategies that have close parallels in the physical sciences (e.g. field-based case studies in place of laboratory investigation).

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但日益清楚的是，比较定居的采集社会，比如19世纪加拿大西部沿海所见的社会，无论在人口上还是在社会和政治结构上更像定居的农业部落社会，而不像大兽狩猎者（big-game hunters)（Testart 1982; Price and Brown 1985)。

It has, however, become evident that the more sedentary collecting societies, such as those that were encountered on the west coast of Canada in the nineteenth century, have more in common, demographically and in terms of social and political organization, with sedentary tribal agricultural societies than they do with big-game hunters (Testart 1982; Price and Brown 1985).

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

为说明OLS的合理性，你还必须在一个令人信服的场合说明你的模型满足OLS的关键假定。如同我们详细讨论过的那样，第一个问题是，误差项是否与解释变量不相关。理想的情况是，你能够控制足够多的其他变量来假定留在误差项中的因素与回归元不相关。特别是在处理个人、家庭或者企业层次的横截面数据时，自选择问题（我们在第7章和第15章中讨论过）通常很重要。例如，在19.3节的IRA一例中，或许对储蓄有不可观测偏好的家庭也正是那些开立了 IRA的家庭。你还应该能够证明，其他潜在的内生因素（即测量误差和联立性）不是严重问题。

In order to justify OLS, you must also make a convincing case that the key OLS assumptions are satisfied for your model. As we have discussed at some length, the first issue is whether the error term is uncorrelated with the explanatory variables. Ideally, you have been able to control for enough other factors to assume that those that are left in the error are unrelated to the regressors. Especially when dealing with individual-, family-, or firm-level cross-sectional data, the self-selection problem—which we discussed in Chapters 7 and 15—is often relevant. For instance, in the IRA example from Section 19.3, it may be that families with unobserved taste for saving are also the ones that open IRAs. You should also be able to argue that the other potential sources of endogeneity—namely, measurement error and simultaneity—are not a serious problem.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

《苏联大百科全书》（Great Soviet Encyclopedia) 的条目中也有有用的信息，特别是阿齐科夫斯基（Ansikhovsy 1973) 关于“考古学” 的条文。这一时期所做工作的考察由菲尔德和普赖斯（Field and Price 194：9)、孔比耶（Combier 1959)、查德（Chard 1961， 1963， 1969) 、德贝茨（Debetz 1961)、弗鲁姆金(Frumkin 1962)，波利斯科夫斯基(Boriskovsky 1965) 和克莱因(Klejn 1966)提供。

Useful information is also contained in entries to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, especially Artsikhovsky's (1973) essay on "Archaeology." Surveys of work done during this period are provided by Field and Price (1949), Combier (1959), Chard (1961, 1963, 1969), Debetz (1961), Frumkin (1962), Boriskovsky (1965), and Klein (1966).

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因此，试图在工作中消除不满意因素的管理者只能给工作场所带来和平，而未必能够激励员工。这些导致工作不满意的外部因素称为保健因素 (hygiene factors)。当它们得到充分改善时，人们便没有了不满意，但也不会因此感到满意（或受到激励）。

Therefore, managers who sought to eliminate factors that created job dissatisfaction could keep people from being dissatisfied but not necessarily motivate them. The extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people won't be dissatisfied, but they won't be satisfied (or motivated) either.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

我们后来称它为“清除你的松软干酪”因素。这个类比来源于一名训练有素的世界级运动员戴维·斯科特，他获得过6次夏威夷铁人三项冠军。

We came to call this the "rinsing your cottage cheese" factor. The analogy comes from a disciplined world-class athlete named Dave Scott, who won the Hawaii Ironman Triathlon six times.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这一摊废物使皮下造成压力，从而形成了为这场战斗提供新血液的红色供给线和为此做出反应的白细胞所产生的白色脓液。战斗剰下的废物就像火山一样升至皮肤表面形成丘疹。

This pool of waste builds up pressure under the skin, creating redness from new blood supply lines coming to battle and pus from the white blood cells responding to the scene. Like a volcano, the waste material rises to the surface to form the pimple.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对于汤姆森、沃尔塞甚至斯廷斯特拉普而言，几千年的时间看来已经长得足以涵盖考古记录所揭示的过去。沃尔塞将人类最早抵达丹麦的时间，定在约公元前3000 年左右，青铜时代始于公元前1400年至公元前1000年之间，而铁器时代的开始晚至基督纪年初期。由于纯粹的巧合，在玉木冰期（the Würm glaciation)，斯堪的纳维亚、苏格兰和瑞士都被冰川所覆盖，一直到全新世几乎没有人类栖居的证据。

For Thomsen, Worsaae, and even Steenstrup, several thousand years appeared long enough to encompass the past that was being revealed by the archaeological record. Worsaae dated the first arrival of human beings in Denmark around 3000 bc, the beginning of the Bronze Age between 1400 and 1000 bc, and the start of the Iron Age as late as the early Christian era. By an ironic coincidence, Scandinavia, Scotland, and Switzerland had all been covered by glaciers during the Würm glaciation and to this day have produced little evidence of human habitation prior to the Holocene era.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

其实事情也并不是那么糟，拉德克利夫－布朗和列维－斯特劳斯都从埃米尔• 杜尔干的社会学中获得灵感。虽然拉德克利夫－布朗并不喜欢被称为“功能主义者”，但他很高兴把他的学科称为 “比较社会学”。

As if all that is not bad enough, both Radcliffe-Brown and Le ́vi-Strauss drew inspiration from the sociology of Emile Durkheim. And although he did not like being called a ‘functionalist’, Radcliffe-Brown was happy to call his discipline ‘comparative sociology’.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

另外，欧盟开始在国际谈判和已经建立的国际组织中代表成员国利益（如控制北海和大西洋东北部海洋污染的奥斯陆和巴黎委员会）（Haigh，1990， 1992）。在其他区域性的协议范围内，如北美自由贸易协定、亚太经合组织、北欧理事会和南锥体共同市场等，环境问题已经成了争论的中心以及区域合作和区域管理的重点。

In addition, the EU has begun to be represented alongside member countries in international negotiations and in established international institutions such as the Oslo and Paris Commissions which regulate maritime pollution in the North Sea and north-east Atlantic (Haigh, 1990, 1992). Furthermore, within other regional arrangements, such as NAFTA, APEC, the Nordic Council, MERCOSUR, etc., environmental issues have become key bones of contention and the focus of regional cooperation and regulation.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

威廉斯在这一点上的沉默甚至使某些人得出了我相信错误的结论，如斯内德克（1993）就认为，除了赋予葛兰西霸权观念一点点新的和稍微有点不同的生机外，威廉斯根本就没有什么真正的理论贡献。然而，如斯内德克承认的那样，在此存在着一个不能否认的矛盾:尽管威廉斯存在各种各样的缺点，但“因为对女性主义的、第三世界的和工人运动的反霸权的强调，他在当代文化研究中的影响仍然十分强大”（斯内德克，1993:113)。

Williams' reticence in this regard has even led some, like Snedeker (1993), to conclude, erroneously I believe, that Williams made no real theoretical contributions at all, save giving Gramsci's notions of hegemony a new and somewhat more nuanced lease of life. Yet there is a certain paradox at work here for it is also true, as Snedeker (1993: 113) concedes, that Williams' influence, in spite of all his supposed defects, "remains powerful in contemporary cultural studies, with their emphasis on the counter hegemonies of feminist, Third World, and working class movements."

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

案例研究报告可以采用书面形式或口头形式。但是无论采用哪种形式，在编写过程中都需要采取相似的步驟：确认报告的读者、建立写作框架以及遵循一定的程序（如邀请案例研究的主体对研究报告进行评论）(Yin 1994, p. 127)。

The reporting of a case study can take written or oral forms. Regardless of the form, however, similar steps need to be followed in the compositional process; identifying the audience for the report, developing the compositional structure, and following certain procedures (such as having the report reviewed by informed persons who have been the subject of the case study) (Yin 1994, p. 127).

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他的趣味与文化是社会性的，而不是个人化的；作为一名社会行为人，他可以对他召集形成的效忠从属关系施加某种控制，但他无法控制那构造出这些效忠从属关系的社会秩序。

His tastes and his cultures are social, not individual; as a social agent he can exert some control over the allegiances he forms, but not over the social order that frames them.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

把人放入他的习俗整体中去的努力采取了不同的手法，采取了不同的战术；但是所有都是，或者最终都发展到，使用简单全面的理智的战略：我将如何称呼这个体现了人类生活中的生物学、心理学、社会和文化因素之间关系的“层累的”概念，以便抓住它的要害。

Attempts to locate man amid the body of his customs have taken several directions, adopted diverse tactics; but they have all, or virtually all, proceeded in terms of a single overall intellectual strategy: what I will call, so as to have a stick to beat it with, the "stratigraphic" conception of the relations between biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors in human life.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

既然我们不可能回到黑森林的小屋，那么我们能回到什么地方呢？ 再如，地方（以及地方中的自然）经验的本真性(根)这个问题就是一个难题。多威评论道，从一开始，本真性难题自身就是现代的问题。只有当现代工业化把我们同生产过程割裂开来，我们遭遇到作为已完成商品的环境时，本真性问题才出现(Dovey，1989：43)。

We cannot turn back to the Black Forest farmhouse, but what is it that we might turn to? The issue of authenticity (rootedness) of the experience of place (and nature in place) is, for example, a difficult one. To begin with, as Dovey (1989: 43) observes, the problem of authenticity is itself peculiarly modern. Only as modern industrialization separates us from the process of production and we encounter the environment as a finished commodity does it emerge.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果你经常从肺部咳出黏液 (并不是只有流鼻涕时才排出黏液，那通常是鼻窦炎引起的），那么请考虑补充N-乙酰半胱氨酸。这种物质能够减少黏液分泌，促进谷胱甘肽的生成，有助于防止细胞受损。我们建议每日补充N-乙酰半胱氨酸两次，每次600毫克。（对重症监护病人，我们买际上使用的是一种与N-乙酰半胱氨酸有关的化合物。）

If you routinely cough up mucus from your lungs (rather than mucus coming out only when you blow your nose, which is usually from sinus conditions), consider N-acetylcysteine. It’s a substance that loosens mucus and boosts production of a substance called glutathione, which helps prevent damage in lung tissue. We recommend 600 milligrams twice daily. (By the way, we actually use a related compound with intensive care patients.)

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

暴雨流量分析和USLE都使用到了监测过程中收集到的数据。在单一地点观测的一个问题是要知道如何去概括空间的情况。到目前为止，所讨论样本都是单一变量的，如土壤流失或径流形成。

Both the stormflow analysis and USLE used data collected as part of monitoring programmes. One problem with observations from a single site is knowing how to generalize across space. The examples discussed so far relate to single variables such as soil loss or runoff response.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是，劳拉却说出了包含多个短语的复杂句子，她还能使用并理解被动句，也能给动词加上屈折词缀，使其与句子主语在人称和单复数上保持一致，并能依据表示过去时间的状语使用动词的过去时。

Nevertheless, Laura produced complex sentences with multiple phrases and sentences with other sentences inside them. She used and understood passive sentences, and she was able to inflect verbs for number and person to agree with the subject of the sentence. She formed past tenses in accord with adverbs that referred to past time.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

小说《黑暗之心》和电影《现代启示录》中的人物库尔茨就属于这种类型。第二类故事则强调拥有“种族优越性”的白人对丛林及丛林栖息者的利用与征服。小说、电影和神话故事中常常出现的角色“人猿泰山”则是此类帝国主义小说最典型的代表。在东方主义的视角下，上述两种叙事结构均包蕴着帝国主义文化的欲望和焦虑，而不仅仅是对其他种族和异域土地的征服。

Kurtz of both Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now is such a figure. Then there are stories of whites, who because of the supposed power of their racial heredity impose themselves on the jungle and its inhabitants. ‘Tarzan’ (novels, films and myth) is the classic representation of this imperial fiction. From the perspective of Orientalism both narratives tell us a great deal more about the desires and anxieties of the culture of imperialism than they can ever tell us about the people and places of colonial conquest.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这批人撰写的主要一般性著作有：奥布赖恩（M .J. O’Brien 1996a)的《过去的范例：密苏里考古学的故事》（Paradigms of the Past：The Story of Missouri Archaeology )、莱曼、奥布赖恩和邓内尔（Lyman, O’Brien，and Dunnell 1997a)的《文化历史学的兴衰》（The Rise and Fall of Culture History)，还加上一位行为考古学家，奥布赖恩、莱曼和希弗（O’Brien，Lyman, and Schiffer 2005)的《作为过程的考古学》(Archaeology as a Process)。由这批学者所做的同样重要的特殊研究与传记将在后面提及。

The major general historical works produced by this group are M. J. O’Brien, Paradigms of the Past: The Story of Missouri Archaeology (1996a), R. L. Lyman, M. J. O’Brien, and R. C. Dunnell, The Rise and Fall of Culture History (1997a), and, with a behavioral archaeologist, M. J. O’Brien, R. L. Lyman, and M. B. Schiffer, Archaeology as a Process (2005). Equally important specialized studies and biographies produced by this group will be noted later.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

它可以理解成一种遏制的形式：一种予以准许和受到控制的异议姿态。它担当的是安全阀的作用，因而强化了宰制性的社会秩序，其方式是，它容许持异议者与抗议者有一定的自由，这自由足以让他们相对而言感到满意，却又不足以威胁到他们所抗议的体制本身的稳定性， 所以它有能力对付那些对抗性的力量。

It can also be understood as a form of containment—a permitted and controlled gesture of dissent that acts as a safety valve and thus strengthens the dominant social order by demonstrating its ability to cope with dissenters or protesters by allowing them enough freedom to keep them relatively content, but not enough to threaten the stability of the system against which they are protesting.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

不仅是成品贸易，半成品以及零配件的贸易也有增长。贸易成本降低总味着曾集中于一国之内的生产过程能够被分配和扩张到全球，即克鲁格曼所说的“切割价值链”（Krugman，1995），或者称为“全球商品链”（Gereffi 和 Korzeniewicz， 1994）。用这种方式切割价值链，能力的不断增强会导致贸易占国内生产总值比例的增长。技术变革、生产的全球组织和低成本贸易使生产过程中每一部分的专业化成为可能（见下面第5章）。

Trade has risen not just for finished goods, but also for semifinished manufactures and components. Falling trade costs have meant that production processes, once concentrated in one country, can be parcelled out and distributed around the globe, what Krugman dubs 'slicing up the value chain' (1995) or alternatively 'global commodity chains' (Gereffi and Korzeniewicz, 1994). The increased ability to slice up the value chain in this fashion leads to increases in trade relative to domestic production. Technological change, the global organization of production and the low costs of trade have made possible specialization in each segment of the production process (see chapter 5 below).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

洲际贸易可以追溯到古代（Sabloff和Lamberg-Karlovsky，1975）。公元前3000年，早期的美索不达米亚有原料进口活动；巴比伦和印度从事贸易开始于公元前800年；而东地中海的希腊文明，从公元前5世纪起，就在其东西两个方向开辟贸易通道。

Intercontinental trade dates back to antiquity (Sabloff and Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1975). Early Mesopotamia, in the third millennium BC, was importing raw materials; Babylonian and Indian societies were engaging in trade as far back as 800 BC; while Hellenic civilization in the eastern Mediterranean was, from the fifth century BC, exploring trade routes to both its east and west.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

制度比较方法并不经常被釆用，部分是因为韦伯有可能令人类学家感到畏惧，但是他的美妙的德国手法，经常在最近的一些对黑非洲较发达的地区——巴干达、布索加、弗拉尼、埃塞俄比亚、阿散蒂的研究中清楚地看到。

The comparative-institutions approach has been less frequently pursued, partly because Weber tends to frighten anthropologists, but his fine Germanic hand can be seen quite clearly in a number of recent studies of some of the more developed of black African states -Buganda, Busoga, Fulani, Ethiopia, Ashanti.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

世界范围内涌现出两项令人激动的发展：一项是社区考古学(community-based archaeology)的出现，另一项是本土考古学(indigenous archaeologies)的发展。

Two exciting developments are emerging the world over: community-based archaeology and the growth of indigenous archaeologies.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在有关著作中，这两种环境决定论的分歧主要表现在：一种观点认为环境可以适应当代的工业社会结构，而另一种则要求从根本上改变这种社会结构（Milbrath 1984:72)。在这个意义上，把这两种环境决定论区分为“保守派”和“激进派”是有益的；“保守主义”和“激进主义”的本质似乎是经常通过细微的、渐进的方式从一种分析视角转向另一种分析视角，甚至是在一种分析视角内相互变换。阔特格如夫（Cotgmve)对这两种环境决定论（包括保守主义者和保护主义者）作了如下区分：一种观点不反对主流经济价值体系的主导地位，另一种则希望以“福利价值体系取代与纯经济目的不相协调或冲突的经济价值体系”(Cotgrove 1976:24)。

The most pervasive distinction in the literature is between an environmentalism which can be accommodated within the structures of contemporary industrial society and one which demands fundamental change to those structures (Milbrath 1984:72). In this sense it is useful to speak of the two environmentalisms as "conservative" and "radical"; it is the nature of the conservatism and radicalism that appears to shift, often in quite subtle ways, from one analytical perspective to another, or even within a single analysis. Cotgrove made a distinction between those environmentalists (including conservationists and preservationists) whose policies offer no challenge to the dominant economic value system, and those who would wish to replace economic goals with "welfare values which are incompatible with or in conflict with purely economic ends" (Cotgrove 1976:24).

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

冰期时代的便携性（可移动）艺术品包括上千件雕刻和有刻划纹的小形物体，如石头、骨头、角和象牙。绝大多数可以辨认的形象都是动物，而可能最著名的还是所谓的“维纳斯像”，例如奥地利的Willendorf的石灰岩维纳斯像。

Ice Age portable (“mobiliary”) art comprises thousands of engravings and carvings on small objects of stone, bone, antler, and ivory. The great majority of identifiable figures are animals, but perhaps the most famous pieces are the so-called “Venus figurines,” such as the limestone Venus of Willendorf, from Austria.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

引起运动性哮喘症状的运动主要是短时间大强度运动：持续时间6~10分钟，强度达最大心率的80%时最易诱发,较短时间的运动不易诱发运动性哮喘,低强度运动不引起气喘反应，较长时间运动不但不会加重运动性哮喘，反而使之减轻——“贯通”现象。

The exercise most likely to elicit the symptoms of EIA is typically short and intense: bouts 6-10 min long, at an intensity sufficient to raise the subject's heart rate to 80% of its maximum, are the most asthmagenic. Shorter sessions are less potent stimuli for EIA, and lower intensity exercise will not be as reliable in calling forth the asthmatic response. Longer sessions will not worsen EIA , and may even lessen it — the 'run-through' phenomenon.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

式（12.50）对OLS有何含义呢？因为我们一开始就假定高斯-马尔可夫假定成立，所以OLS当然是BLUE的。而且，即使其为不是正态分布，我们知道，通常的OLS检验统计量在假定TS.1’-TS.5’下也渐近确当，而含有ARCH误差的静态模型和分布滞后模型都满足这5个假定。

What implications does (12.50) have for OLS? Because we began by assuming the Gauss-Markov assumptions hold, OLS is BLUE. Further, even if it is not normally distributed, we know that the usual OLS test statistics are asymptotically valid under Assumptions TS.1’ through TS.5’, which are satisfied by static and distributed lag models with ARCH errors.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

1998年，在肥皂剧《加冕街》中，虚构人物迪尔德丽•拉希德被捕人狱。全英国的小报不但报道了这一消息，更积极呼吁将其释放，仿佛这不是一部虚构电视剧的虚构情节，而是一起“真实生活”中的事件。这或可算是超级真实主义的经典案例。《每日星报》发起了一场名为“释放威瑟菲尔德人”的抗议运动，鼓动读者通过电话或传真的方式联名抗议。

The 1998 case of the imprisonment of Coronation Street character Deirdre Rachid is perhaps a classic example of hyperrealism. The tabloid press not only covered the story, it campaigned for her release, in much the same way as if this was an incident from ‘real life’. The Daily Star launched a campaign to ‘Free the Weatherfield One’, and invited readers to phone or fax them to register their protest.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

"祭酒"在秦汉时期作为礼仪长期存在，在战国和西汉时期又以尊号的形式使用。王莽改制崇儒尚师，设九"祭酒"。"祭酒"随之成为王莽官制的重要组成部分，从中央到地方均有设置。王莽"祭酒"官职的设立对东汉官制产生了较大影响。东汉"祭酒"作为官职后缀涉及军政多个方面，既可是朝廷官职，也可为三公府吏。三国时代在东汉官制基础上，又设置了多个军职和行政"祭酒"。从先秦到三国时代"祭酒"从尊号转变为实际的官职，范围和职能也有大的变化，成为一个官职体系。

In the Qin and Han dynasties, "libation" existed as an etiquette for a long time, and turned into an honorable title in the Warring states period and the West Han dynasty. When the political system of the West Han dynasty changed by Wang Mang, libation became an important official position in the new government, and set up from the central government to regional governments. The emperors of East Han after Wang Mang expanded the libation from few positions to a large position system in the government, which included administrative positions, army positions and secretary positions of ministers. And the kings at the period of Three Kingdoms afterward set up more libations in the army and administrative system. At last the libation changed from a honorable title to a realistic position, with great varitey in its range and function, turning into a system of official position.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

伴随着埃及和阿富汗—巴黎式改革者阿布杜拉及阿尔—阿富汗尼的强烈的伊斯兰清教主义在阿拉伯化城镇的名流显贵，特别是聚集在菲斯城古老的卡拉维因大学周围那些人中间的高涨，柏柏政策及其所隐含的对伊斯兰教的威胁，刺激了民族主义在反对欧洲支持的世俗化与基督教化信仰的旗帜下发展起来。

Coinciding with the rise of the intense Islamic puritanism of the Egyptian and Afghan-Parisian reformers Abduh and At-Afghani among the notables of the Arabized towns, and particularly those around the ancient Qarawiyin University at Fez, the Berber Policy and its implied threat to Islam stimulated the growth of nationalism under the banner of defending the faith against European-sponsored secularization and Christianization.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

巴比奇的科学成果是十分显著的。他在1822年制造了世界上第一台实用的机械计算器，也就是他的差分机。91年之后，它的基本原理 被伯勒（Burrough)的会计机器采用。

Babbage's scientific output was phenomenal. He demonstrated the world's first practical mechanical calculator, his difference engine, in 1822. Ninety-one years later its basic principles were being employed in Burroughs's accounting machines.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

反映物这一概念模式在确定批评性分析的焦点和条件时所起的作用无论是明显的还是隐含的，我们都很难说清它到底在何种程度上促成了美学理论中特有的观点和发现。在其中的一端，是柏拉图以镜子为比方得出的简单明了的派生物。例如，镜中反映的形象只是事物的幻影，勉强以二维来表示三维，因此具有欺骗性：这就降低了艺术的地位，因为它只是表象，与真理相距甚远。再说，镜子的唯一功用是反映一个完美无缺、绝对准确的形象，因此，当荷马和埃斯库罗斯等诗人背离了事物的真相时，我们便别无选择，只能说他们在撒谎。

At one extreme we have Plato's simple and obvious derivatives from the mirror as analogue. For example, a mirror-image is only a simulacrum of an object, forced deceptively to represent three dimensions by two; hence the lowly status of art as mere appearance, far removed from the truth, Also, the sole function of a mirror is to yield a flawless and accurate injage: correspondingly, when poets like Homer and Aeschylus depart from the truth of things, we have no alternative but to say that they are liars.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

不同的民族志游戏规则正在世界的许多地方出现。一个研究美洲土著文化的外来者可能期待——也许作为继续研究的必要条件——为支持土著的土地要求而在诉讼中作证。国家和地方的本土政府如今对民族志的田野工作提出了各种各样的正式限制。上述情况以新的方式决定了关于特定的人什么能够说，特别是什么不能说。一类新人物出现了，那就是“本土民族志学者”（Fahim，ed.1982；Ohnuki-Tierney l984）。研究自己的文化的局内人提供了新的视角和理解的深度。以独特的方式，他们的叙述既获得了力量也受到限制。

Different rules of the game for ethnography are now emerging in many parts of the world. An outsider studying Native American cultures may expect, perhaps as a requirement for continuing research, to testify in support of land claim litigation. And a variety of formal restrictions are now placed on fieldwork by indigenous governments at national and local levels. These condition in new ways what can, and especially cannot, be said about particular peoples. A new figure has entered the scene, the "indigenous ethnographer" (Fahim, ed. 1982; Ohnuki-Tierney 1984). Insiders studying their own cultures offer new angles of vision a n d depths of understanding. Their accounts are empowered and restricted in unique ways.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

应用Z评定方法，人们能够回答诸如一名纵跳得分48cm的14岁男孩，是否将在21岁时加入国家排球队的问题。为了回答这个问题，已知国家队平均纵跳得分是72cm。通过将此数值与一般人群在该年龄的均值进行比较并除以标准差（3cm），我们得出Z值为4。

Applying the Z strategy, one can address questions such as whether a 14-year-old boy with a vertical jump score of 48cm will be on the national volleyball team at the age of 21. To answer this, the mean vertical jump score of the national volleyball team is determined (72 cm). By comparing this value to the population mean for that age (60 cm) and dividing by the standard deviation (3cm) we obtain a Z value of 4.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

可能有人会反对说，比喻风格井非唯一的风格，甚至不是唯一的诗意风格，修辞也注意简单风格，但实际上它不过是一种装饰性更少的风格，或者更准确地说，一种装饰得更简单的风格，而且它也像抒情诗和史诗一样，有自己特殊的形象，完全缺乏形象的风格并不存在，热奈特如此说（Genette 1982:47)。

"It might be objected that figurative style is not the only style, or even the only poetic style, and that rhetoric also takes cognizance of what is called simple style. But in fact this is merely a less decorated style, or rather, a style decorated more simply, and it, too, like the lyric and the epic, has its own special figures. A style in which figure is strictly absent does not exist," writes Gérard Genette (1982:47).

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

每天能量消耗量的主要部分是用于维持生命的基本过程，称为安静能量消耗(resting energy expenditure, REE)或安静代谢率（resting metabolic rate)。这是在没有食物消化时，身体在安静状态下用于进行中的生理过程的能量消耗。

The main component of the daily energy turnover is the energy expenditure for maintaining process, called resting energy expenditure (REE) or resting metabolic rate. This is the energy expenditure used in the ongoing processes of the body in the resting state when no food is digested.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

第三次威胁来自Coniston合伙公司。这家投资集团公司买下了吉列公司5.9%的股份，并发起一场代理战，试图控制吉列公司的董事会，将公司卖给出价最高的收购者，从中捞一把股份收入。

The third attack came from Coniston Partners,an investment group that bought 5.9 percent of Gillette stock and initiated a proxy battle to seize control of the board, hoping to sell the company to the highest bidder and pocket a quick gain on their share.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

若要获得线性关系中近似常态的样本分配，最佳的方法是将相关系数转换成Z值（Z value)，此方法通称为费雪尔Z转换(Fisher Z transformation)。(请注意，此Z不应该与用来表示常态曲线纵坐标高度的z搞混。）

The most satisfactory method of approximating normality of a sampling distribution of linear relationships is by transforming coefficients of correlation to Z values. This is often called the Fisher Z transformation. (This Z should not be confused with the z used to refer to the height of the ordinate in the area of the normal curve.)

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

有关美国职业篮球联赛中运动员的数据集NBASAL RAW便是一例。对于每个运动员，我们都有其得分、篮板、助攻、上场时间和人口统计方面的信息。就像在计算机习题C6.9中那样，我们可以利用多元回归分析，来检验这些生产力指标是否因结婚与否而有所不同。我们也可以利用这种数据，在解释了生产力差别之后，检验已婚男性是否收人更高。（比如，NBA股东或许认为已婚男性为球队带来稳定性，或至少对球队形象更好。）

The data set NBASAL.RAW, on players in the National Basketball Association (NBA), is one example. For each player, we have information on points scored, rebounds, assists, playing time, and demographics. As in Computer Exercise C6.9, we can use multiple regression analysis to test whether the productivity measures differ by marital status. We can also use this kind of data to test whether married men are paid more after we account for productivity differences. (For example, NBA owners may think that married men bring stability to the team, or are better for the team image.)

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

根据神话所说，当多贡人在如今他们居住的地方安定下来的时候，每个村子都是由一些兄弟建立的，这些兄弟是如今的一个或几个宗族的祖先（Beaudoin 1984）。一个祖先的所有后代居住在同一个小村里，叫做吉那（ginna）。“吉那”这个单词与宗族的土地、宗族的首领吉那巴那（ginna bana） 居住的家庭房屋以及与各个家户居住的较小房屋等有关。大多数土地是被管理起来的，并且由吉那巴那在家户的头领们中间进行分配。因而，“吉那”这个概念把人类学家所谓的财产、居住地、社会权利和义务，以及政治等集合在一个简单的家族关系术语中。只有男人和他们的孩子才是家系的成员。妻子/母亲属于另外的不同中心的家系。婚姻通常由两位父亲组织起来，他们用这种方式加强了友谊的非正式纽带。

When the Dogon settled where they live now, according to the myth, each village was founded by several brothers, who were the ancestors of one or several present-day clans (Beaudoin 1984). All the descendants of an ancestor live in the same hamlet, called a ginna. The word ginna is used about the clan's land, about the family house where the clan chief (ginna bana) lives and about the smaller houses where the households are based. Most of the land is administered, and distributed among the heads of household, by the ginna bana. The concept of ginna thus groups what anthropologists see as property, place of residence, social rights and duties, and politics, in a single kinship term. Only men and their children are members of the lineage. The wives/mothers belong to other lineages which are centred elsewhere. Marriage is usually organised by the two fathers, who strengthen informal ties of friendship in this way.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

现象学批评是运用现象方法于文学作品的尝试。正如胡塞尔“括起”真实对象一样，在现象学批评中，文学作品中的实际历史关联，它的作者、创作条件和读者都被置之不顾；相反，现象学批评的目标在于对本文进行全然“内在”的阅读，这种阅读根本不受任何外在之物的影响。本文自身被还原为作者意识的纯粹体现：它的风格方面和语义方面的一切都被作为一个复杂总体的有机部分而把握，这一总体的统一本质就是作者的心灵。

Phenomenological criticism is an attempt to apply the phenomenological method to literary works. As with Husserl's 'bracketing' of the real object, the actual historical context of the literary work, its author, conditions of production and readership are ignored; phenomenological criticism aims instead at a wholly 'immanent' reading of the text, totally unaffected by anything outside it. The text itself is reduced to a pure embodiment of the author's consciousness: all of its stylistic and semantic aspects are grasped as organic parts of a complex totality, of which the unifying essence is the author's mind.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

只需想一下澳洲土著和非洲丛林人（Bushmanh），托拉査人和阿洛尔人，霍皮人和阿帕切人，印度人和罗马人，甚至是意大利人和波兰人，就可以看到宗教的发展程度并不总是一致的，即使是在两个复杂程度相近的社会中。

One need only think of the Australians and the Bushmen, the Toradja and the Alorese, the Hopi and the Apache, the Hindus and the Romans, or even the Italians and the Poles, to see that degree of religious articulateness is not a constant even as between societies of similar complexity.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在美国的马克思主义理论中起主导作用的是法兰克福学派的黑格尔传统（《泰洛斯》杂志是标举这一传统的典型刊物）。马克思主义在英国（自20世纪30年代开始衰落）的复兴是由 1968年的“动乱”和随后欧洲大陆风潮的涌入发动的（《新左派评论》是一个重要的渠道）。

Marxist theory in the United States has been dominated by the Hegelian inheritance of the Frankfurt School (the journal Telos was the standard-bearer of this tradition). The revival of Marxist criticism in Britain (in decline since the 1930s) was fuelled by the 1968 ‘troubles’ and by the ensuing influx of continental ideas (New Left Review was an important channel).

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

剧中人物所处的环境、他们的感情、他们的困境必须从外部加以理解，必须被表现为奇特的、有问题的。这并不是说，演员必须避免使用感情，而是要避免采用移情的手段。用形式主义者的话来讲，就是要用“暴露的方法”（见第2章第33-34页）。

The situation, emotions and dilemmas of the characters must be understood from the outside and presented as strange and problematic. This is not to say that actors should avoid the use of emotion, but only the resort to empathy. This is achieved by ‘baring the device’, to use the Formalist term (see Chapter 2, pp. 33–34).

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

例如，最近的关于中东问题的学术讨论，把阿拉伯联盟所做的摧毁现存的民族国家边界的努力、苏丹政府统一某种程度上武断和偶然地划定的主权国家的努力，以及阿塞林突厥人脱离伊朗加人阿塞拜疆苏维埃共和国的努力等等，都统统称为“民族主义”。

Thus a recent symposium on the Middle East refers indiscriminately to the efforts of the Arab League to destroy existing nation-state boundaries, those of the Sudan Government to unify a somewhat arbitrary and accidentally demarcated sovereign state, and those of the Azerin Turks to separate from Iran and join the Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan as "nationalism."