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请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

所谓把某一事物吸收同化，对它进行阐释，其实就是将它纳入由文化造成的结构形态，要实现这一点，一般就是以被某种文化视为自然的话语形式来谈论它。这一过程在结构主义文论中可以有种种不同的名称：复原，归化，动机实现以及逼真化。

To assimilate or interpret something is to bring it within the modes of order which culture makes available, and this is usually done by talking about it in a mode of discourse which a culture takes as natural. This process goes by various names in structuralist writing: recuperation, naturalization, motivation, vraisemblablisation.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

比较性研究涉及对研究单元进行时空比较研究或在各研究单元之间进行比较研究，例如，比较澳大利亚20世纪的初期、30年代、50年代、70年代和90年代的国内旅游方式，或者比较旅游景点或旅游区（二者均被视为空间上的），如比较在墨尔本和珀斯两地国际游客的类型。比较还可在不同的性别、年龄、受教育程度及收入的游客的旅游体验层次进行。

Comparative research involves comparing research study units across time and space as well as between the study units themselves, for example comparing domestic tourism patterns in Australia in the 1900s, 1930s, 1950s, 1970s and 1990s, or comparing tourist settings or regions (both are considered spaces), such as international tourist patterns in Melbourne and Perth. Comparisons can also be conducted between tourists' experiences based on gender, age, education or income levels.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

公司所得税受到了经家的严厉批评。一些经家反对这种税，认为公司不过是一种法律形式，不应被征税。通过首先对公司利润征税，然后对由公司付给个人的红利再行征税，政府实际上对公司进行了双重征税。

The corporate income tax has been heavily criticized by some economists. Critics oppose the tax, arguing that corporations are but legal fictions and should not be taxed. By taxing first corporate profits and then the dividends paid by corporations and received by individuals, the government subjects corporations to double taxation.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这类安排可能采取的形式包括自治、国际管理、联合主权、国家之内的联邦和邦联，以及由不同实体组成的联邦。这类安排或永久或暂时，在国际关系中，临时的安排有时也会持续相当长的时间。

Possible forms which such arrangements can take include autonomy, international administration, joint sovereignty, federations and confederations within a state, and commonwealths encompassing distinct entities. Such arrangements may be permanent or temporary–though in international relations,temporary arrangements sometimes last for a long time.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

清代直隶省成为全国科举大省，从其乡试看颇具特色：顺天乡试与全国的会试共用一贡院，甚至皇帝亲临视察；顺天乡试考生要远远超出了直隶举子的范围，如全国的国子监贡监生等；顺天府的考官资质也远远高于其它省。

Hebei province, also called Zhili in the Qing dynasty, was proved to be one of the biggest provinces in the Imperial Examination. Its provincial test had several characteristics: First, it shared the same Examination Office with the national metropolitan examination, and it was even inspected by the emperor himself; Secondly, the candidates were not only from Zhili. It also attracted the students in the Imperial Academy. Thirdly, the examiners always had higher qualifications than any other provinces.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

"耻"是中国传统道德"八德"之一，被认为是"立人之大节"、"治世之大端"，是中国传统道德的一个重要组成部分，历来被儒家所重视。在春秋战国礼崩乐坏的社会大环境下，以孔子、孟子为代表的儒家学者逐渐将耻感文化纳入儒家学说体系。主要涉及个人的道德修养、人际交往等为人处世的道德原则，并且积极发挥着知耻在改过迁善、见贤思齐、洁身励行方面的重要作用。儒家耻感文化以其自身鲜明的特征，深刻地影响并融入了人们的道德实践之中。

As one of the Chinese traditional "eight virtues", "shame", once regarded as big attribute of "becoming a real man" and of "managing the state", is a major component of traditional Chinese morality. This notion of shame was gradually added to the Confucianism system by Confucius and Mencius against the background of the Springs and Autumns Period and the Warring States Period which are characterized by the collapse of the ancient rite system. The shame culture mainly touches upon individual moral cultivation, interpersonal communication, and other related socializing moral principles, and has been effective in encouraging individuals to mend their ways, emulate those better than them, and live nobly and diligently. This shame culture, with its distinct features, has profoundly influenced people's moral acts.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

泰始元年（公元265年），晋式帝司马炎即位为帝，成功实现了魏晋皇权的更替。为了奖励禅代功臣，巩固统治，晋武帝即位后就对成熙元年创立的五等爵制进行改革。从成熙元年到泰始元年五等爵制的变化，充分说明了封爵制就是统治者手中掌握的、为统治服务的一大法宝这一特性，同时也反映了司马氏从篡夺政权到巩固政权的政治使命的转变。

Sima Yan ascended the throne in 265, replacing the Wei dynasty and setting up its own soverneity. Once stepping on the power, he immediately reorganized the Five-rank System established in the first year of Chengxi to reward the meritorious officials and strengthen his domination. The Evolution of the Five-rank System adequately manifested the characteristic of rank system which was hold and used by rulers to serve their ruling, and reflected the transformation of Sima clan's political mission from the seizure of power to consolidation of power.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

用"七十子"称孔子弟子最早见于《孟子》，这是一种追"周公之迹"的仿圣行为。孔子弟子数量在两汉时期有三个不同的系统，它们各有来源，其中"七十二弟子"之说最终受到官方的认可，并得以确立。而官方认可的名单依据应是如《孔子家语》之类的孔氏家书。隋唐以后，"七十子"之称与"七十二弟子"之称合流，最终演变成"七十二弟子"或"七十七弟子"的缩称，即孔子弟子的"举其成数"。经过对历代典籍记载的考察，可以看出"七十子"之称有鲜明的演变轨迹。

The disciples of Confucius addressed as "seventy disciples" appeared at the earlist in Mencius, which imitated the behaviors of Zhou Gong. There were three types different systems of the address forms of confucian disciples in the Western Han dynasty, which each had its own source. The form of "confucius'72 disciples" was reviewed and approved finally by the official. The list approved by the official was supposed to family biography such as the Sayings Of Confucius.The form of "confucius'72 disciples" and "70 disciples" were gradually mixed after the Sui and Tang dynasties. The form of "Confucius' 70 disciples" had changed into the abbreviation of "72 disciples" and "77 disciples" finally, which was said to list its integral numbers. By analyzing record of classical books and these historical heritages, we distinguish the changing path of the form of "confucius' 70 disciples".

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

并不是只有国际奧委会对耐克这样的强硬做法提出质疑，对于耐克试图损害奥林匹克价值以及贬低一枚奧运会银牌的价值，运动员们也被激怒了。

The IOC wasn’t alone in questioning Nike's hardball approach. Athletes were irritated by the company's attempts to undermine the Olympic values and the devaluing of an Olympic silver medal.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

女性每个月都会经历性激素的变化，她们的情绪多变可能会让男性产生再也不接触异性的冲动，但是这并不意味着女性只能孤零零地一手拿着纸巾，另一手攥成拳头。解决办法是摄取n3脂肪酸。

Every month women may experience hormonal changes that may make men want to declare permanent secession from the other gender, but that doesn't mean women have to be left with a Midol in one hand and a balled fist in the other. The cure is through fats—omega-9 and -3 types.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

目录页需列出以下几项：报告摘要（executive summary）、序言/前言、致谢、表格和图表目录、章节标题、参考文献和附录。从报告摘要到致谢部分需要使用罗马数字标注页码。

The contents page lists the following items: executive summary, preface/foreword, acknowledgments, list of tables and list of figures, chapters, sub-sections, references and appendices. Roman numerals are used for pages from the executive summary through to the acknowledgments section.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在他看来，科学的进步令考古学家没有其他选择余地而必须采纳具体的历史学方法。然而，他从科西纳借鉴而来的考古学文化概念，以及从蒙特柳斯借鉴而来的传播论，都与人类行为的流行阐释密切相关，这些阐释是西欧自19世纪晚期起作为对文化进化论的反动而发展起来的。

In his opinion, scientific progress had left archaeologists with no alternative but to adopt the concrete methods of history. Yet the concept of the archaeological culture, which he had borrowed from Kossinna, and the diffusionist views of Montelius were both closely related to the widely held interpretations of human behavior that had developed as a reaction against cultural evolutionism in western Europe beginning in the late nineteenth century.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

以VO2max为例，作为反映运动中肌肉利用氧气能力的指标，V02max是有氧耐力性项目（跑步、自行车、游泳）的一个关键决定因素。

Take maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), for instance. As an indicator of the limits of muscle to utilize oxygen during exercise, VO2max is a critical determinant of performance in aerobic endurance events (running, cycling, swimming).

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

作为一种范式，解释社会学范式（也被称为建构主义范式）“假设一种相对主义的本体论（有多重事实），一种主观主义认识论（认知者对于研究对象的理解），以及一套自然主义的方法论（在现实世界中进行研究）”（Denzin& Lincoln 1994, pp. 13 ~ 14)。

As a paradigm, the interpretive social sciences paradigm (also known as the constructivist paradigm) 'assumes a relativist ontology (there are multiple realities), a subjectivist epistemology (knower and subject create understandings), and a naturalistic (in the natural world) set of methodological procedures' (Denzin & Lincoln 1994, pp. 13-14).

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

所列举的方法并不相互排斥——例如，单个案例研究也可以是本质性的或工具性的案例研究方法。同样，多案例研究或集合案例研究也可能属于本质性的或工具性的案例研究方法。而且，案例研究方法也与案例研究类型有关，比如本质性单案例研究可以是探索性研究，而工具性的多案例研究 可能属于解释性研究。

This list is no t mutually exclusive — for example, a single case study can also be an intrinsic or an instrumental case study. Similarly, a multiple case study (or a collective case study) can also be an intrinsic or an instrumental case study. Furthermore, the research approach can also be linked into the case study type, such as a single intrinsic case study that is exploratory or a multiple and instrumental case study that is explanatory.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在简单方程（15.18）中，受教育年数是误差项的一部分。如果分给某些人的征兵抽签号较小，但他们获得了更多的学校教育，则抽签号和教育负相关，违背了方程（15.4）中对工具变量的第一个要求。

In the simple equation (15.18), years of education is part of the error term. If some men who were assigned low draft lottery numbers obtained additional schooling, then lottery number and education are negatively correlated, which violates the first requirement for an instrumental variable in equation (15.4).

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

撞击产生的震动波传遍被击中的石头或锥形体的岩芯(core)，分离出一块叫做薄片(flake，图6.1)的断片。

Instead, shock waves from the blow spread through the struck stone or core in a cone-shaped pattern, detaching a fragment called a flake (Fig. 6.1).

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如表9一1所示，社会生活的时间可以分为三个层次，每一个层次都与其他两个相关联。社会生活的长时段（longueduree)属于制度（法律、家庭等）的历史发展范围。在短时段（dasein)中（或预期寿命期间），社会生活受到个人和家庭生命周期的影响，也受到特定时代社会条件特征的影响（与长时段相互作用）。在日常生活时段上，个人的惯常性既与社会的制度框架结构也与个人的生命周期节奏相互作用。

As suggested by Figure 9.1, the temporality of social life can be broken out into three levels, each of which is interrelated to the others.The longue durée of social life is bound up with the historical development of institutions (the law, the family, etc.). Within the dasein, or lifespan, social life is influenced by the life cycle of individuals and families and (interacting with the longue durée) by the social conditions characteristic of their particular generation. And within the durée of daily life, individual routines interact with both the structure of institutional frameworks and with the rhythm of their life cycle.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

不用说，在北美社会，包办婚姻不是常见的事情，但它们的确也发生了。在少数民族中，人们可能致力于保护传统价值,他们担忧要不然的话，传统也许会丧失。在富贵又有权力的家族中，婚姻可能是这样包办的：他们把自己的儿女隔离在私立学校中，小心翼翼地引导他们走向“合适的”婚姻。

Arranged marriages, needless to say, are not commonplace in North American society, but they do occur. Among ethnic minorities, they may serve to preserve traditional values people fear might otherwise be lost. Among families of wealth and power, marriages may be arranged by segregating their children in private schools and carefully steering them toward "proper" marriages.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

还有一种观点是，儿童能学会语言是因为成人对他们使用一种特别的“简化”语言，有时也称“妈妈语”，或者“儿童导向语”（CDS简称“儿向语”)，非正式的名称又叫“宝贝儿语”。这一假说十分注重环境对促进儿童语言习得的作用。

Yet another suggestion is that children are able to learn language because adults speak to them in a special “simplified” language sometimes called motherese, or child-directed speech (CDS) (or more informally, baby talk). This hypothesis places a lot of emphasis on the role of the environment in facilitating language acquisition.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

公司具有独立的合法身份，实际上是一个“法人”，可以根据自己的利益购买、出售、借贷、生产物品和提供劳务，还有签订各种合同。另外，公司享有有限责任的权利。公司的每一个所有者的投资风险都严格限定在特定的权利。公司的每一个所有者的投资风险都严格限定在特定的数额上。

The corporation has a separate legal identity, and indeed is a legal “person” that may on its own behalf buy, sell, borrow money, produce goods and services, and enter into contracts. In addition, the corporation enjoys the right of limited liability, whereby each owner's investment and financial exposure in the corporation is strictly limited to a specified amount.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

有关究竟归纳法或演绎法所做的解释哪个更好这一争论是种不当的二分法。查尔斯•达尔文在五年环球航行过程中的观察，令他怀疑创世论是否能有效地解释各种动植物种的地理分布。

The debate whether explanations are better produced by induction or deduction poses a false dichotomy. Observations that Charles Darwin made in the course of a five-year voyage around the world led him to doubt whether creationism could best account for the geographical distributions of various species of plants and animals.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

南宋艾轩学派理学家林希逸所注的《庄子口义》就义理阐释而言首次在对"三教合一"的自觉体认中善意地调和儒道矛盾，就散文评点而言首次在散文技法层面对《庄子》进行鉴赏评析。而本书亦自对《庄子》的涵泳中体认原著者的境界与风神，并与注者的主体人格精神发生互动，这些都在庄学史上有草创之功。口语体的注释文本亦客观反映了《庄子口义》的讲稿性质和受通俗文学之兴起影响的结果。

The Colloquial Annotation of Chuang Tzu was composed by Lin Xiyi, a neo-Confucianist belonging to Aixuan School of neo-Confucianism in the Southern Song dynasty. At the level of interpreting the ideas and contents, out of good will, this work for the first time harmonized the conflicts between Confucianism and Taoism on the basis of the conscious awareness of "Unification of the Three Religions ". As to prose comments, this book initiated the appreciation and analysis of Chuang Tzu, the classic in Taoism, focusing on prose writing skills. Additionally, this book also ruminated over Chuang Tzu for the awareness of its author's spiritual feature and realm, thus interacting with the subject personality of its author. The annotation in a colloquial style also reflects that The Colloquial Annotation of Chuang Tzuis similar to a lecture note and corresponds to the rising of popular literature.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

当我们思考图11.2所显示的土壤性质并把它与我们了解到的同一个山坡的水文信息(图11.4)联系起来，我们开始看出地方过程与景观尺度的模型有更进一步的联系。生态学家近来一直对“斑块动力学”很感兴趣。

When we think about the soil properties shown in Figure 11.2 and tie this in with what we know about the hydrology of the same hillslope (Figure 11.4), we begin to see further links between local processes and patterns at the landscape scale. Ecologists have been much interested recently in ‘patch dynamics’.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

另外还有一些例子支持与此类似的原理，我们称之为A-over-A原理。请看46中的句子：46 a.Jolm kept the car in the garage？(约翰把车存在车库里。）b.Mary saw the man walking towards the railroad station.(玛莉看见那个人朝火车站走去。）

There are other examples that support a principle of this sort, which we will refer to as the A-over-A principle. Consider the sentences of 46:46 a. John kept the car in the garage. b. Mary saw the man walking toward the railroad station.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

比如，饱和脂肪会阻塞通往脑部的动脉血管，增大中风的发病几率。脂肪酸（存在鱼中）对人脑有益，因为omega-3脂肪酸能保持动脉血管的通畅。它还能改变人体的神经递质，减少抑郁症的发生。

Saturated fats, for example, clog arteries that lead to your brain, putting you at increased risk of stroke, while omega-3 fatty acids those fats found in fish—are helpful for your brain because they help keep your arteries clear. They also alter your neurotransmitters and reduce depression.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

只关心传统技术的企业很难察觉新科技的重要性，要想有所问应更足难上加难。例如：以真空管技术为主的美国无线电（RCA，Ra¬dio Corporation of America)、 通用电气 （GE, General Eitxriric》 和 吉悌电信(GTE-Sylvania）等美国电子企业，虽然试图打人半导体的领域，却没有一家成功。

It is hard for firms steeped in an old technological paradigm to perceive the significance of a new one. It is often even harder for them to respond to it. The leading American vacuum tube competitors (RCA, General Electric, GTE-Sylvania) all entered the semiconductor industry, for example, but none succeeded.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

地貌学研究（有关地貌的形成和发展的研究）涉及到一些具体的研究领域如沉积学，而沉积学自身又包含有沉积岩相学和沉积物颗粒学。通过这些学科的综合研究可以对沉积物进行细致地探讨，例如在沉积物的结构和组成上，可分为从渗水性能好的砾石和沙到保水性能好的黏土，对沉积物的颗粒，可区分为从砾石到沙或粉沙，在沉积物的坚固性上，可划分为从松散到粘固。

Geomorphology (the study of the form and development of the landscape) incorporates specializations such as sedimentology, which itself includes sedimentary petro graphy and granulometry. These combine to produce a detailed analysis of the composition and texture of sediments, ranging from freely draining gravel and sand to waterretentive clay; the size of constituent particles in sediments, ranging from pebbles to sand or silt; and the degree of consolidation, ranging from loose to cemented.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他设法用比较研究来确定各类自然环境里文化发展的不同路径，并相信，在相同的环境背景里，它们会变得形态相同，并会遵循相似的发展轨迹。

He sought by means of comparative studies to determine the different ways in which cultures had developed in various types of natural environments, believing that they would tend to acquire the same forms and follow similar developmental trajectories in similar natural settings.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

瓣膜在心脏永不停止的血液循环活动中扮演的角色极普通又极关键：瓣膜是门卫，阻止血液回流进刚刚离开的心室。在心房与心室之间，在心室与离开心室的血管之间，都有瓣膜。血液流过后，瓣膜就会合上，发出我们在电视上听到的心跳声。

The valves play a key and surprisingly basic role in the never-ending cycle of blood through the heart: They are doormen who keep the blood from retracing its journey, leaking backward into the chambers it has just left. There are valves between each atrium and ventricle, and between each ventricle and the blood vessel that leaves it. As the blood swishes through, the valves slam shut, producing what we hear on TV as a heartbeat.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对普通训练者来说，这是个非常值得自豪的成就。如果你的训练就一直停在这个动作上，那也绝对不是什么丢脸的事。与健身房里的“行尸走肉”所能达到的成就相比，你已经领先了几光年。但是总有些人想要走得更远。如果你也属于这群精英，我建议你把眼光放在最强有力的中段练习动作——V字举腿——上。

The average athlete should be incredibly proud of such an achievement, and there’s absolutely no shame in leveling off your training at that point. It’s an accomplishment light years ahead of what the average gym-trained zombie could ever attain. But some of you will want to go further. If you are one of this elite group, I would advise setting your sights to the most powerful midsection exercise possible—the V raise.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

由伊朗考古学家所做的工作也倾向于集中关注比较晚近的帕提亚 （Parthian)、萨珊（Sassanian)和伊斯兰阶段。伊朗末代国王穆罕默德·雷扎·巴列维（Mohammad Reza Pahlavi)试图强调前伊斯兰波斯文明的荣耀，并将其世俗的现代政权与古波斯的阿奇美尼亚王朝（Achaemenian dynasty,前539-前330)而非较为晚近的伊斯兰历史联系起来。这包括1971年在波斯波利斯（Persepolis)宏伟宫殿废墟举行热烈庆祝君主帝国据信成立2500周年大典活动。

The work done by Iranian archaeologists also tended to be focused on the more recent Parthian, Sassanian, and Islamic periods. The last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, sought to emphasize the glories of pre-Islamic Persian civilization and to identify his secularist and modernizing regime with the ancient Persian Achaemenian dynasty (539–330 BC) rather than with a more recent Islamic past. This included a magnificent celebration in 1971 of the supposed 2,500th anniversary of the founding of that monarchy held in the ruins of its greatest palace at Persepolis.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

另一方面，哪里有真正的农村动乱，哪里就没有“大恐慌”。这些地区正在前进的农民过去就是造反者，我们不可能把他们想象成为贵族的工具。大规模的农民暴动行为使资产阶级感到害怕，特别是那些杷封建权力视为神圣的财产的人，并使他们成为贵族镇压力量的武器。在巴士底狱风暴以后，某些地区的资产者，特别是暴力行动最猛烈的阿尔萨斯，就一心一意地与特权阶级联合并镇压起义的农民。

On the other hand, where there were real agrarian revolts and jacqueries, there was no Grande Peur. In these areas, the peasant on the march was the brigand. There was no need to imagine brigands, and no possibility of imagining that he was the tool of the aristocrat. Full-scale peasant violence frightened the bourgeoisie, particularly those for whom feudal rights were as sacred a form of property as any other, and threw them into the arms of the nobility. After the storming of the Bastille the bourgeoisie in some areas, especially Alsace where uprisings were particularly violent, cooperated wholeheartedly with the privileged classes in suppressing them.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

纵跳被认为是腿部功率的有效指标。从萨金特试验演化出各种各样的纵跳方案，如跳起手触墙试验，阿巴拉科夫试验（Abalakow test;见Kirby, 1991的综述）。

The vertical jump has been accepted as a valid measure of leg power and various vertical jump protocols have been derived from the Sargent test (e.g. jump-and-reach test, the Abalakow test) (for review see Kirby, 1991).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

阿尔伯特•爱因斯坦（1879—1955），这位出生在德国却在瑞士工作的专利员，将这些新理论推进到了一个全新的领域。1905年，爱因斯坦发表了一篇题为“论动体的电动力学”的论文，文中包括他的独特的相对论。依照相对论，时间和空间并不是绝对的，而是与观测者相关的，两者相互交织在爱因斯坦所谓的四维时空连续体中。时间和空间都没有能够脱离开人类经验独立存在。

Albert Einstein (1879--1955), a German-born patent officer working in Switzerland, pushed these new theories into new terrain. In 1905, Einstein published a paper titled "The Electro-Dynamics of Moving Bodies" that contained his special theory of relativity. According to relativity theory, space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into what Einstein called a fourdimensional space-time continuum. Neither space nor time had an existence independent of human experience.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

就在这次战争余尽之时，重大的强迫性迁移仍在继续。近70万巴勒斯坦人被逐出刚成立的以色列国（B.Morris，1987；Adelman，1995），1500万难民在瓜分期间和瓜分以后在印度和巴基斯坦之间无立锥之地，50年代早期，近500万韩国人从北部逃到南部（Zolberg，1997）。

In the immediate aftermath of the war significant forced migrations continued. Around 700,000 Palestinians were ejected from the newly formed state of Israel (B. Morris, 1987; Adelman, 1995); 15 million refugees were exchanged between India and Pakistan during and after partition; and in the early 1950s around 5 million Koreans fled from the north to the south (Zolberg. 1997).

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在负偏态曲线中，曲线向高测量值周围倾斜[参见图9-8(b)]。在正偏态曲线中，数值集中在低测量值周围[参见图9-8(c)]。另一种极端的分布类形是J形分布，这种分布是由于频数分布中的高数值极差的内含引起的[参见图9-8(d)]。

In negatively skewed curves, the scores are skewed around the upper values being measured (see figure 9.8(b)), and in positively skewed curves, the scores are clustered around the lower values (see figure 9.8(c)). A further type of distribution is a J-shaped distribution, which results from the inclusion of a large range of high-value scores in the frequency distribution (see figure 9.8(d)).

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

"教刑"是中国先民提出的，尔后成为教育上的一种指导思想；汉儒又从实践中总结出"夏楚二物，收其威也"的经验；宋儒再提出"教不严、师之惰"的绝对论调，经过历代的传诵，以至于传统教育离不开体罚，似乎无体罚则无教育，不知误导了多少家长，害苦了多少儿童。这一切到了清末兴学，才有些许改观，此后民国，进而共和国，民主教育的实施使其越发消退。从"倚重"到"怀疑"，从"收威"到"示威"，从"可施"到"不得"，是体罚与中国教育这百年来变化的主要特征。另一方面，它的所指也在不断扩大，证明人们观念的不断进步。简而言之，这一路走来步履有点蹒跚，颇为不易。

Punishment on students was used by people in ancient China and then this method became a kind of educational thought. Han Confucian scholars summarized the idea of using ferule can improve students' politeness and Song Confucian scholars advocated the thought of “lax cultivation due to lazy teacher”. These opinions were so popular in the traditional education system that misled parents and hurt children. Until the late of the Qing dynasty, people began to advocate democratic education and abandoned corporal punishment. During the past one hundred years, people's view on ferule changed from reliance to suspicion, from improving student's politeness to showing authority, from using it to abandoning it. Besides, the range of corporal punishment is enlarged gradually. This phenomenon reflects the advancement of people's thoughts.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

神庙是苏美尔城邦最杰出的建筑，用来祭祀城邦的最高神或女神，通常建在称作兹古拉特的巨型金字形神塔的顶部。苏美尔人相信男女诸神都是这些城邦的主人，于是他们耗费大笔财富建造神庙，而且还为男女祭司建造华丽的居所。掌管神庙和神庙财产的祭司权力极大。

The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was the temple, which was dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city and often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities, and much wealth was used to build temples as well as elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who served the gods. Priests and priestesses, who supervised the temples and their property, had great power.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

1990年代中期以后，社会生物学的术语本身很少有人使用了，除了威尔逊自己，而诸如“进化心理学”或只是“达尔文主义的社会科学”之类的术语已取而代之。不过，达尔文主义的拥护者的人类观仍然倾向于强调假定在基因配置中已建立起来的同一性(性、暴力和亲属制度是典型的话题），这对构成主流人类学基础的社会文化相对论者形成了挑战，并且常常是以引起争论的方式。

Since the mid-1990s, furthermore, the term sociobiology itself is hardly used by anyone but Wilson himself, and terms like "evolutionary psychology" or simply "Darwinian social science" have replaced it. It nevertheless remains a fact that adherents of Darwinist views of humanity tend to emphasise uniformities presumably founded in genetic dispositions (sex, violence and kinship are typical topics), which challenge the sociological and cultural relativist underpinnings of mainstream anthropology, often in provocative ways.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

佛教和耆那教是向吠陀和印度教的分层化制度挑战的复兴运动。印度教的反应是吸收了佛教和耆那教的阿希姆萨即生命神圣的教义。

Buddhism and Jainism were revitalization movements challenging the Vedic and Hindu stratification systems. In response, Hinduism co-opted the Buddhist and Jainist doctrine of ahimsay: the sacredness of life.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

尽管所谓的姊妹相依、姑侄共从、联翩共嫁一位诸侯的“一娶九女”的媵妾侄娣婚被古儒奉为春秋时贵族婚姻生活的“金典玉律”，但细审典籍，不难发现其破绽百出。媵妾婚不仅与当时诸侯的婚姻生活的事实不符，而且与贵族的婚姻等级礼制相违，没有存在的合理性。并且，所谓的侄娣婚俗，仅仅见于部分贵族的婚姻生活中，不能称其为婚制。确切地说，春秋时期贵族的婚姻形态应该是以多妾制为补充的一夫一妻制。

Although the so-called system of concubine marriage which refers to the system of one husband marrying several sisters or even their aunts and nieces was often regarded by scholars of the past as the golden standard of the aristocratic marriage life in the Spring and Autumn Period, a careful reading of the classical documents and records reveals that this understanding does not hold water because it is not the fact and inconsistent with the marriage life of the feudal princes as well as against the etiquettes of their hierarchy-based marriage in that period. Furthermore, the marriage custom of marrying the wives' sisters and nieces was only seen in some aristocratic marriages, which cannot be regarded as a marriage system. In fact, the aristocratic marriage pattern in the Spring and Autumn Period was a kind of monogamy complemented by the system of multi-concubines．

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

第一，挑战直指奥本海默所提出的国际法是“只在国家之间存在的，并且是排他性的法律”这一信条。基于某些具有革新性的协定，个人和群体已被承认是国际法的主体。这样的协定包括《纽伦堡和东京战犯审判法庭宪章》（1945）、《世界人权宣言》（1948）、《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》（1966）和《欧洲人权公约》（1950）。

First, there has been a challenge mounted to the doctrine that international law, as Oppenheim put it, is a ‘law between states only and exclusively’（see 1985, ch. 1). Individuals and groups have become recognized as subjects of international law on the basis of such innovatory agreements as the charters of the "Nuremberg and Tokyo war crimes tribunals" (1945), the "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (1948), the "Covenant on Civil and Political Rights" (1966), and the "European Convention on Human Rights" (1950).

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

由具体动词或者其他词汇项来选择补足语类型，这被称为C-选择（C代表Categorial“范畴的”） 或是次范畴化，这是我们心理词库中词条的一部分内容。

The information about the complement types selected by particular verbs and other lexical items is called C-selection or subcategorization, and is included in the lexical entry of the item in our mental lexicon. (Here C stands for “categorial”.)

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

发现企业绩效下滑的另一个视角涉及一种"温水煮育蛙”现象（“boiled frog” phenomenon)。“温水煮青蛙”是一个经典的心理反应实验。

Another perspective on recognizing performance declines revolves around what is known as the “boiled frog” phenomenon in which subtly declining situations are difficult to recognize.The “boiled frog” is a classic psychological response experiment.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

要得到内部人员供给的情况，你必须首先找到一些方法来搜集与这些候选人的质量（或素质）特定有关的信息。这些企业雇员资格数据库（qualifications inventory) 所包括的内容有：每位雇员的工作绩效记录、教育背景以及提升的可能性这类信息既可以用人工的方式进行搜集，也可以借助计算机来进行编辑整理。

Sometimes who to choose is not so obvious. Here, managers turn to qualifications (or skills) inventories. These contain data on employees performance records, educational background,and promotability. Whether manual or computerized, these help managers determine which employees are available for promotion or transfer.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

工作绩效分析是指核验当前工作绩效与要求的工作绩效之间的差距，并确定是应当通过培训来纠正这种差距，还是应通过其他方式（如更换机器或调动雇员）来纠正。第一步是要评价雇员的工作绩效。换句话说，就是要改进雇员的工作绩效。你必须先确定你希望这个雇员的工作绩效是什么样的，而目前他的工作绩效又是什么样的。

Performance analysis is the process of verifying that there is a performance deficiency and determining whether the employer should correct such deficiencies through training or some other means (like transferring the employee). The first step in performance analysis is usually to compare the person s actual performance to what it should be. Doing so helps to confirm that there is a performance deficiency, and (hopefully) helps the manager to identify its cause.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

"兼爱"是墨子在2000多年前提出的重要主张，为的是在春秋战国的动乱时期求得天下和谐，它在墨家思想体系中占据了核心地位。墨子的"兼爱"具有与儒家的"仁爱"和西方的"博爱"所不同的特质，正是这些特质让"兼爱"思想一度沉寂以后，在充满竞争的当代社会中重新大放异彩。

"Universal love" is an important assertion which was proposed by Mozi 2000 years ago, aiming at the world harmony during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Period. It occupies the central position in the Mohist ideology system.There are some characteristics that distinguish "universal love" from the Confucian "benevolence" and western "universal fraternity", and it is just these characteristics that make "universal love" acquire attention again in the competitive modern society after being silent for a period of time.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

另外，这是严重的数据开采形式，而且在最终模型中也难于解释t和F统计量。有人也许会说，逐步回归只是把研究人员在寻找不同模型时所做的事情自动化了。然而，在大多数应用研究中，一个或两个解释变量才是我们的主要兴趣所在，我们的目标是要了解这些变量的系数对于其他变量的取舍或函数形式的变化有多稳健。

In addition, this is a severe form of data mining, and it is difficult to interpret t and F statistics in the final model. One might argue that stepwise regression simply automates what researchers do anyway in searching over various models. However, in most applications, one or two explanatory variables are of primary interest, and then the goal is to see how robust the coefficients on those variables are to either adding or dropping other variables, or to changing functional form.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

吴武陵，中唐元和时人，以名儒、文章、史学、气节著称，两《唐书》本传记其事多有脱略，其生平行实学界鲜有人关注。今钩沉载籍，对其生平事迹作系统考索及辨析。知吴武陵本名偘，郡望濮阳，信州贵溪人。元和二年进士擢第，次年流永州。约元和十年北还，为裴度器遇，以史才直史馆。

Wu Wuling, a famous Confucian in the Yuanhe Period of the Mid Tang dynasty, was also well-known for Confucianism, beautiful articles, historical researches and noble personality. There has not been a detailed record about Wu in New Book of the Tang History and Book of the Tang History, and the academic field rarely pays attention to Wu. According to the historical data, this paper explores Wu's life. Wu Wuling, from Puyang of Guixi in Xinzhou, had an old name Kan. He was a successful candidate in the highest imperial examination in the second year of Yuan He and was exiled to Yongzhou in the next year. Seven years later, he was highly appreciated and recommended by Pei Du and secured an official position as an official historian.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

文献分析包括识别与査找相关的文献和材料，收集与分析那些文献和材料，评估文献和材料与研究项目的相关性，解释与报告整体分析得到的调査结果。

Documentary analysis involves identifying and locating relevant documents and materials, gathering and analysing those documents and materials, evaluating the relevancy of the documents and materials to the research study, and interpreting and reporting the findings from the overall analysis.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

选择过程可由预算驱动，也可由功能要求驱动。在第一种情况中，项目预 算被视为制约因素，而工作任务是在预算范围内设计出功能最好的系统，这就是按成本设计的方法

The selection process may be driven by the available budget or by the functional requirements. In the first case, the available budget for the project is viewed as a binding constraint, and an effort is made to design a system with the best possible capabilities without exceeding the budget. This is known as the design-to-cost approach.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

随着对捷克斯洛伐克乌奈迪斯（Únětice)青铜时代墓地的发掘，考古学家开始在附近地区分发现类似乌奈迪斯的器物，并将其归到一起，建立了一个“乌奈迪斯文化”。以同样的方式，1870年，中欧定义的伯格沃尔（Burgwall)类型陶器扩大成为一种“伯格沃尔文化”的概念（Sklenář 1983:110)。

Following the excavations at a Bronze Age cemetery at Únětice in Czechoslovakia, archaeologists began to identify Únětice-like finds in nearby regions and finally organized these to establish a Únětice culture. In a similar manner, the Burgwall-type pottery that had been defined in central Europe in 1870 was broadened into the concept of a Burgwall culture (Sklenář 1983: 110).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

除了欧盟 这一核心，欧洲自由贸易联盟（EFTA）和北约（NATO）的欧洲成员形成了另外一个互动中心圈和制度形式，以防北约将欧洲锁定在全球军事网络中，斯堪的纳维亚国家的制度与相互联系切断欧盟的组织。最后，东欧与中欧、巴尔干以及前苏联国家都与欧洲的中心相互关联，相互影响。

Beyond the EU core, EFTA and NATO membership produces a second concentric ring of interaction and institutional forms in the European region: in the case of NATO institutions lock Europe into global military networks, while in the case of the Scandinavian countries institutions and interactions exist which cut across EU regimes. Finally, Eastern and Central Europe, the Balkans and the states of the ex-Soviet Union all maintain a variety of diverse relations and interactions with the European core.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

埃塞俄比亚东北部荒芜的达那基尔洼地阿法尔民族提供了一个专门化的例子。阿法尔人是盐矿开采者，从古代以来，一直在东非从事盐的贸易。盐是从广阔的盐原地表上开采得到的，采到盐是既有风险又很艰难的事。

One example of specialization is afforded by the Afar people of Ethiopia's Danakil Depression. Afar men are miners of salt, which since ancient times has been widely traded in East Africa. It is mined from the crust of an extensive salt plain in the north part of the depression, and ro get it is a risky and difficult business.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

一些学者的著作中表现出与英国进化论的连接，但最明显的是在德籍英国东方学学者弗里德里克·马克斯· 缪勒的著作中。在其教父费利克斯· 门德尔松劝诫下，年轻的缪勒放弃学习音乐，转而学习梵语，他先在莱比锡求学，后到柏林转投博普门下。1846 年，缪勒进入牛津大学深造，并最终在那里确立了自己在现代语言和比较语言学领域中的地位。

The connection to British evolutionism runs through the work of several scholars, but none as obviously as that of the German-British orientalist, Friedrich Max Müller. Dissuaded by his godfather Felix Mendelssohn from studying music, the young Max Müller turned to Sanskrit, first at Leipzig and then, under Bopp, at Berlin. In 1846 further studies took him to Oxford, where he settled and eventually took up chairs in modern languages and comparative philology.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

首先，关系具体体现在物中一食物、独木舟、库拉贝壳等，因此产生了马克思提出的那种一般的“商品拜物教”之谜，或者如莫斯(Mauss,1990:3)在《礼物》中表述的那样:“礼物中究竟有什么力量使得受赠者必须回礼?”在回答礼物关系之谜时，莫斯承认，被赠予之物使“自身拥有灵魂”，并且“馈赠某物给某人就是呈现自我的某个部分”。

First, relations become embodied in things – food, canoes, kula shells – thus posing the general enigma that Marx addressed under the rubric of "the fetishism of commodities" or, as Maass (1990: 3) prefers to formulate it in his opening question in The Gift: "What power resides in the object that causes its recipient to pay it back?" Maass, in pursuing an answer to the riddle of gift relationships recognizes that the thing given "itself possesses a soul" and that "to make a gift of something to someone is to make a present of some part of oneself."

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

再往上大部分人叫作“嘴巴” 的，我们语言学工作者称为口腔，以区别于鼻腔。鼻腔包括鼻子、连接鼻子和喉咙的通道，加上鼻窦。以上这些加起来叫声道。

Finally there are the tongue and the lips, both of which are capable of rapid movement and shape changing. All of these together comprise the vocal tract. Differing vocal tract shapes result in the differing sounds of language.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对二值响应模型略加修改，就适用于独立混合横截面数据或其他观测上独立但不一定同分布的数据集。为了解释总的时间效应，通常还在模型中包括年度或其他时期虚拟变量。恰如线性模型一样，对数单位和概率单位模型也可用于在自然实验的背景下评价某些政策的影响。

Binary response models apply with little modification to independently pooled cross sections or to other data sets where the observations are independent but not necessarily identically distributed. Often, year or other time period dummy variables are included to account for aggregate time effects. Just as with linear models, logit and probit can be used to evaluate the impact of certain policies in the context of a natural experiment.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是，他的数据确实说明河流“腹地”(即耕地)的来源已经大量减少。更重要的是，沉积系统的复杂性说明，按照我们的观点，如果我们要外推到更大的流域的话，局地尺度观点是不够的。

However, his data certainly do suggest a large reduction in ‘upland’ (i.e. field) sources of eroded soil. More importantly from our point of view, the complexity of the sediment transfer system shows that a local-scale viewpoint is not enough if we are to extrapolate to larger basins.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

忠恕是儒家的重要伦理范畴之一，核心含义为"尽己而推己"，其关键是一"推"字。《大学》中"忠恕"思想的表现形态有宏观和微观两种。从宏观上看，《大学》中的"忠恕"思想表现为"修齐治平"这样一个"内圣外王"之道；从微观来看，"忠恕"思想则表现为"絜矩之道"。两种形态均体现了儒家"忠恕"思想尽己而推的推衍实质。

The thought of "loyalty and reciprocity", one of the parts of the Confucian ethics, focuses on "restraining oneself and putting oneself in the place of another", with the latter being its key point. In The Great Learning, this idea is expressed in two ways. Macroscopically, it is shown as a way of internally "keeping pure and wise in heart" while externally "being noble and benevolent". And microscopically, it is a way of "regulating one's own behavior according to one's own yardstick". These two ways both showed the Confucian thought of "loyalty and reciprocity".

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

本组也包括与5a-还原酶（Sot- reductase) 缺乏有关的各种综合征， 5a- 还原酶会将睾酮降解为二氢睾酮 (dihydrotestosterone)。来自多米尼加共和 国的一系列报告描述了一些家庭将染色体为46, XY的孩子喂养成为女子的情况， 这些孩子在青春期获得了可观程度的男性 第二特征。出生时的外生殖器具有女性的 外表，在整个童年只有一个会阴开口和很短的阴道。

This group also includes the syndromes associated with deficiency of 5a-reductase, the enzyme that reduces testosterone to dihydro-testosterone. A series of reports concerning patients in the Dominican Republic have described families with a 46, XY chromosomal complement raised as females, who underwent a striking degree of virilization at puberty. The genitalia had a female appearance at birth and throughout childhood w ith a single perineal opening and a short vaginal pouch.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

约于纪元前1380年席卷埃及的伟大宗教革命与政治革命，一直被描述为一个人，即诶赫那顿的业绩。布里斯特德说：“在埃赫那顿以前，世界史不过是传统之不可遏止的拓展。”

The great religious and political revolution which gripped Egypt about 1380 b.c. has been pictured as the work of one man: Ikhnaton. "Until Ikhnaton," says Breasted, "the history of the world had been but the irresistible drift of tradition.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

就像普遍主义（共性论）补充了特殊主义（个性论），比较方法则补充了田野工作。在民族志的比较方法中，民族志学者分析了许多相互联系的文化，而不是集中分析一个特定的文化或一种特定的情况。与田野工作一样，比较方法也是很难真正做到的。它并不是简单地欢呼全球多样性，例如享受食物市场或国际节日。那些背景设置试图将多样性统一起来，但是它们也呈现出一种经常是混乱的混合物。

The comparative method complements fieldwork, just as universalism complements particularism. In the comparative method of ethnography the ethnographer analyzes many cultures in relation to one another, rather than focusing on a particular culture or situation. Like fieldwork, the comparative method is difficult. It is not simply a celebration of global variety, such as is enjoyed in food fairs or international festivals. Those settings attempt to unite diversities, but they also present an often confusing mixture.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

就像进步时代(参见Hays，1959)和新政时期早期阶段的情形，又周期性地产生了这种观念：政府必须大力干预以确保对国家资源的正确保护和有效管理，从而为了国家管理的资本积累的阶级战略而挑战私有财产的权利。

Periodically, as was the case in the progressive era (see Hays, 1959) and in the early stages of the New Deal, this leads to the idea of considerable state intervention to ensure the proper conservation and efficient management of national resources, thus challenging the rights of private property in the interest of a state-managed class strategy for capital accumulation.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

此外，有关地区考古学的文粹定期可见于《文物》杂志， 比如克利尔（Cleere 1993) 。这些著作中有许多是外向型的，考察特定的社会、政治、经济和民族因素如何影响到考古学的实践。

In addition, collections of papers dealing with regional archaeologies have appeared periodically in the journal Antiquity, for example, Cleere (1993). Many of these works are strongly externalist, examining how specific social, political, economic, and ethnic factors have influenced the practice of archaeology.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

韦斯顿·拉巴尔曾根据他对艾马拉民俗传说的分析说玻利维亚的艾马拉人“忧郁、冷酷、报复心强、愁闷、充满仇恨和奸诈”。拉巴尔所收集的每一个艾马拉传说最终都与围绕着抢夺食物、欺骗、玩弄手腕、暴力、拨弄是非者、谋杀者和巫师术士的冲突相关。

Weston La Barrc (1966) called the Aymara of Bolivia "morose, cruel, vindictive, sullen, hateful, and treacherous" on the basis of his analysis of Aymara folktales. Every Aymara tale collected by La Barre turned out to be concerned with conflict over food, deceitfulness, chicanery, violence, busybody informers, murderers, and sorcerers.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

理解动态不一致性的关键在于要记住，通货膨胀和失业之间的短期替代关系是由短期菲利普斯曲线给定的。但是，由于通货膨胀预期的调整，两者 之间没有长期的替代关系。经济的最佳长期情况是充分就业和零（或者至少是低）通货膨胀。然而，如果政策制定者宣布一项充分就业和零通货膨胀政策，将由于追求较低的失业和略微较高的通货膨胀，而立刻成为一种“骗局”。公开宣布的计划与执行的计划之间的分离，产生了“动态不一致性” 概念。

The key to understanding dynamic inconsistency lies in remembering that there is a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment given by the short-run Phillips curve but there is no long-run tradeoff because of the adjustment of inflationary expectations. The best long-run position for the economy is full employment with zero (or at least low) inflation. However, a policymaker who announces a full-employment–zero-inflation policy will immediately be led to "cheat" by seeking lower unemployment and slightly higher inflation. It is this split between announced and executed plans that gives rise to the name "dynamic inconsistency."

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

构建IS-LM模型的第一步就是考察利率水平对计划投资支出以及总需求的影响。然后我们利用凯恩斯45°线图来分析利率水平是如何影响总产出水平的。最终得到的均衡总产出与利率之间的联系被称为IS曲线。

The first step in constructing the ISLM model is to examine the effect of interest rates on planned investment spending and hence on aggregate demand. Next we use a Keynesian cross diagram to see how the interest rate affects the equilibrium level of aggregate output. The resulting relationship between equilibrium aggregate output and the interest rate is known as the IS curve.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

然后长成了少年，在同伴面前大嚷大叫却又惧怕黑暗，欺软怕硬、崇尚强力和暴行，热衷于战争、凶杀和暴力故專，加入帮派并讨厌孤独；羡慕各式各禅的传奇人物，如士兵、海员、拳击家、足球队员、演员、牛仔、枪手和侦探等等；宁死也要压过同伴一头，希望战胜他们并永葆胜利，炫耀自己的臂力，唯恐他人不知，为胜利而沾沾自喜却从不承认失败。

After that, a boy, hoarse and loud before his companions, but afraid of the dark; will beat the weaker and avoid the stronger; worships strength and savagery, loves tales of wai and murder, and violence done to others; joins gangs and hates to be alone; makes heroes out of soldiers, sailors, prize fighters, football players, cowboys, gunmen, and detectives; would rather die than not out-try and out-dare his companions, wants to beat them and always to win, shows his muscle and demands that it be felt, boasts of his victories and will never own defeat

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这个埃奥罗斯的竖琴便是诗人，而诗歌则是内外因素——即不断 变化的风与琴弦的质地和张力——交互作用所产生的和音。正如雪莱紧接着解释的那样，当野蛮人“表达周围事物所感发他的感情时……语言、姿势，乃至塑像的或绘画的摹拟，便都成了事物 以及野蛮人对事物的理解二者结合而成的表象”

The Aeolian lyre is the poet, and the poem is the chord of music which results from the reciprocation of external and internal elements, of both the changing wind and the constitution and tension of the strings. As Shelley at once goes on to explain when a savage 'expresses the emotions produced in him by surrounding objects , language and gesture, together with plastic or pictorial imitation, become the image of the combined effect of those objects, and of his apprehension of them.'

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这在材料收集与阐释之间构成了一种互动的关系，这使得两者都易受社会的影响。而且，过去采集的材料到后来往往要么已不充分，要么已无法解决后来被认为是重要的那些问题了。

This creates a reciprocal relation between data collection and interpretation that leaves both open to social influences. Moreover, the data recovered in the past are often neither adequate nor appropriate to solve the problems that are considered important at a later time.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

霍德（Hodder 1991c)将他这种方法称之为“阐释考古学”，形容其以解释学方法为特点，欢迎不同的声音，旨在满足可能的真实性的内在标准（Hodder et al. 1995) 。甚至当这类解释拥有大量历史学或民族志的信息时，插入虚构的细节来增强故事的叙述质量这一做法也被视为可取的。

Hodder (1991c) designated this sort of approach "interpretive archaeology" and described it as characterized by a hermeneutic method that was welcoming to multivocality and aimed mainly at satisfying internal criteria of plausibility (Hodder et al. 1995). Even when significant amounts of historical or ethnographic information are available for such an interpretation, it is regarded as desirable to interpolate invented details to enhance the narrative qualities of the story.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

威廉·姆斯的总课题——研究实际生产条件中所有的指义形式——总是历史的、唯物主义的。 然而，直到1977年，他才进一步发展了自己的理论观点， 将之称为“马克思主义的”(《马克思主义和文学》，1977)，说明他这一立场最重要的标志是他进一步阐发了由意大利哲学家和政治行动家安东尼奥·葛兰西(Antonio Gramsci,1891—1937)提出的“霸权”(hegemony)概念。

Williams’s general project – the study of all forms of signification in their actual conditions of production – was always emphatically historical and materialist. Yet it was only in 1977, with the publication of a developed statement of his theoretical position, that he began to characterize his work as ‘Marxist’ (Marxism and Literature, 1977). What most importantly defined this position was the use of the concept of ‘hegemony’ developed by the Italian philosopher and political activist Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937).

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

尹(Yin 1994，p. 13)曾在其著作中指出：案例研究是一种经验性的调查：•在真实环境背景中研究一个当前的现象；•尤其是当现象与其背景间的界线并不十分明显的时候。斯泰克（Stake 1995，p. xi)却从另一方面将案例研究定义为“对于单个案例之特殊性和复杂性的研究，以了解其在重要环境中的活动”。

According to Yin (1994, p. 13):A case study is an empirical inquiry that• investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,especially, when• the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. Stake (1995, p. x i ) , on the other hand, defines a case study as 'the studyof the particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understandits activity within important circumstances'.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因为某些原因，银行、保险公司(insurance companies )和一些著名公司的办公间会成为这种情况下最大的破坏者。如果到银行和保险公司扎堆的地方来看一看，你就会发现这里曾是一个闹市中心，但现在被取代了，一个已经被移平了的圆丘。

For some reason, banks, insurance companies and prestige offices are consistently the most voracious double-destroyers inthis way. Look to see where banks or insurance companies areclustered, and you will too often see where a center of diversity has been supplanted, a knoll of vitality leveled.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

每增加一年工作经验所增加的工资，都比前一年所增加的要少，这就反映了工作经验的边际报酬递减。在30年处再增加一年经验实际上将使工资降低。这并非很现实，但它是用二次函数刻画递减边际效应的后果之一：在某点处，函数必然达到最大然后向下弯曲。出于实际目的，最大值常出现在一个足够大的点，以致出现转折无关紧要，但并非总是这样。

Each additional year of experience increases wage by less than the previous year—reflecting a diminishing marginal return to experience. At 30 years, an additional year of experience would actually lower the wage. This is not very realistic, but it is one of the consequences of using a quadratic function to capture a diminishing marginal effect: at some point, the function must reach a maximum and curve downward. For practical purposes, the point at which this happens is often large enough to be inconsequential, but not always.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他试图用通过一批有限的器物类型来划分每个时期，这些类型是该时期的代表。这些典型器物在考古学上，好比地质学家和古生物学家用来分辨一个特定地质时代的标准化石。

He sought to distinguish each period by specifying a limited number of artifact types that were characteristic of that period alone. These diagnostic artifacts were archaeological equivalents of the index fossils that geologists and palaeontologists used to identify the strata belonging to a particular geological epoch.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在明确了数据分析的三个方面和五种“理论”类型之后，在此对定性数据的筛选、展示和结论的归纳、证明方法加以总结，研究人员可以采用以下方法：备忘录、 编码、内容分析、持续比较分析、渐进法、域分析、理想型法、事件结构分析、矩阵法、分类法、类型法、概念树、思维导图、草根理论分析和变焦模型法。

Having identified three aspects of data analysis and five types of 'theory', we now overview ways to reduce, display and conclude/verify qualitative data. A number of data analysis methods enable researchers to do just that: memos, coding, content analysis, constant comparative analysis, successive approximation, domain analysis, ideal types, event-structure analysis, matrices, taxonomies, typologies, conceptual trees, mind maps, grounded theory analysis and the zoom model.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

棒球中的击球被人视为是所有运动中最难的挑战。试想：投球手戴着橡皮手套， 鼓足劲，然后朝本垒投出一个70~100mi/h的快球，飞到60ft(1ft≈0.3048m)远的地方。那里站着一个击球手，手持击球棒，他最佳的触球点大约有3in(1in≈25.4mm)长。以球飞行的速度，从球被投出的时间到接触球棒有效的触球点大约有450ms。

Hitting a pitched baseball has been regarded by some as the single most difficult challenge in all sports.Consider this: The pitcher toes the rubber, winds up, and delivers a 70 to 100 mph fastball toward home plate, 60 feet away. There stands the batter, wielding a slab of lumber whose optimal point of contact with the ball is about 3 inches long. At the speed of the pitch, the time from the release of the ball to the hoped-for point of contact with the bat is about 450 milliseconds.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

接下来的观察是一系列现代部落社会生活方式的概述：霍屯督人、维达人（Veddahs)、安达曼群岛岛民、澳大利亚土著、塔斯马尼亚人、斐济人、毛利人、塔希提人（Tahitians)、汤加人、爱斯基摩人、北美印第安人、巴拉圭人、巴塔哥尼亚人（Patagonians)和富甘人（Fuegans)。这些章节的安排明显是根据地理分布而非进化过程，也没有设法指出哪些特定现代群体为史前发展的特定阶段提供了证据。

This observation is followed by a series of sketches of the ways of life of modern tribal societies: Hottentots, Veddahs, Andaman Islanders, Australian Aborigines, Tasmanians, Fijians, Maoris, Tahitians, Tongans, Eskimos, North American Indians, Paraguayans, Patagonians, and Fuegans. The ordering of these chapters is clearly geographical rather than evolutionary and no attempt was made to indicate what particular modern groups provided evidence about specific stages of prehistoric development.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

不利的供给冲击会使总供给曲线向上移动。图6-10表明了石油价格的上涨这种冲击的影响。𝐴𝑆曲线向上移动到𝐴𝑆'，经济均衡点从𝐸点移动到𝐸'点。因此，这种供给冲击的直接效应就是提高价格水平和降低产量。一次不利的供给冲击具有双重的不幸结果：它引起价格的提高和产出的降低。

An adverse supply shock is one that shifts the aggregate supply curve up. Figure 6-10 shows the effects of such a shock—an increase in the price of oil. The 𝐴𝑆 curve shifts upward to 𝐴𝑆', and the equilibrium of the economy moves from 𝐸 to 𝐸'. The immediate effect of the supply shock is thus a rise in the price level and a reduction in the level of output. An adverse supply shock is doubly unfortunate: It causes higher prices and lower output.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

两份英国报纸在报道1992年洛杉矶暴动时（此前4名洛杉矶警察殴打一名骑摩托车的黑人Rodney King。路人录下殴打画面后，公众气愤要求严惩涉事警察，但4人却被法院无罪释放。这一事件引发了洛杉矶大规模的黑人暴动）使用的标题是“洛杉矶无法无天”和“洛杉矶之战”。很显然，编辑在制作标题的时候既未联系与该新闻事件性质相似的1965年沃茨暴动，亦未考虑游行示威者在暴乱中喊出的口号“无正义毋宁战”，而是借鉴了美国电视剧《洛城法网》的名字，完全在虚构世界里寻找对新闻故事的诠释方法。

The riots, following the acquittal of the four Los Angeles police officers captured on video physically assaulting the black motorist Rodney King, were headlined in two British newspapers as ‘LA Lawless’, and in another as ‘LA War’ -- the story anchored not by a historical reference to similar disturbances in Watts, Los Angeles in 1965, or to the implications of the words --‘No justice no peace’--chanted by demonstrators during the riots; the editors chose instead to locate the story within the fictional world of the American television series LA Law.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对文学专业的学生来说，列维·斯特劳斯的“结构”人类学和由此产生的结构语言学的含义必然是深刻的。首先，这两门学科的基本概念都为现代人攻击“现实主义”或“自然主义”提供了基础，并因而给予了动力。

For the student of literature, the implications of Lévi-Strauss’s sort of ‘structural’ anthropology and the structural linguistics from which itderives, must be considerable. Primarily, the notions fundamental to both disciplines provide a basis for, and so lend power to, the modernattack on ‘realism’ or ‘naturalism’.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他还举了三个在那里近亲婚姻制度普遍存在的例子：茨瓦纳男人倾向于和地位低于自己的女人结婚，茨瓦纳社会的彩礼相对较低；南部索托男人则倾向于和地位高于自己的女人结婚，该社会的彩礼相对较高；斯威十男人则两种倾向兼具，但是那些向下娶妻的男人（像茨瓦纳人那样）所付彩礼要低于向上娶妻的那些男人（像南索托人）。

Take three examples where close kin marriage is common: Tswana men tend to marry women of lower status, and bridewealth in Tswana society is relatively low; Southern Sotho men tend to marry higher status women, and bridewealth in their society is relatively high; Swazi men may marry either way, but those who marry ‘down’ (like the Tswana) pay less bridewealth than those who marry ‘up’ (like the Southern Sotho).

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

尽管目前在象征人类学和比较符号学领域涌现出很多优秀的专著和论文，但是针对同一主题的系列丛书的出版及其所能引起的共同关注和讨论目前还不多见。因此，这套丛书的出版意在弥补这一空缺。这套丛书不仅计划收录人类学家的田野专著、理论著述以及比较研究，而且还包括其他学科学者的作品，其中既有科学类的也有人文类的。

Although excellent individual monographs and articles in symbolic anthropology or comparative symbology have recently appeared, a common focus or forum that can be provided by a topically organized series of books has not been available. The present series is intended to fill this lacuna. It is designed to include not only field monographs and theoretical and comparative studies by anthropologists, but also work by scholars in other disciplines, both scientific and humanistic.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

并且，金融机构通过向客户提供多重金融服务，可以与企业建立广泛而长期的联系。这些联系可以降低信息生产成本，增加范围经济。

Additionally, by providing multiple financial services to their customers, financial institutions develop broader and longer-term relationships with firms. These relationships both reduce the cost of producing information and increase economies of scope.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

政府积极提高就业率的稳定政策可能会造成两种类型的通货膨胀：一种是成本推进型通货膨胀，它通常是负面的供给冲击或工人要求提高工资水平而引起的；另一种是需求拉动型通货膨胀，这种类型通货膨胀的产生通常是由于政府政策推动总需求曲线向右位移引起的。

Two types of inflation can result from an activist stabilization policy to promote high employment: cost-push inflation, which occurs because of negative supply shocks or a push by workers to get higher wages, and demand-pull inflation, which results when policymakers pursue policies that shift the aggregate demand curve to the right.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

除了少数几个作用有限的奇特变种，如巴哈教和摩门教（且不说像共产主义和法西斯主义这样含义模糊的所谓政治宗教），自穆罕默德以来没有出现过新的理性化的世界性宗教。

Except for a few odd sports of limited consequence such as Bahai or Mormonism (and leaving aside, as equivocal cases, the so-called political religions such as Communism and Fascism), no new rationalized world religions have arisen since Mohammed.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

现在要来真格的了！在做半引体向上时，上身肌肉要支撑你全身的重量，这肯定比你舒坦地划船或做下拉动作强度大。因此，你的抓握能力会大大增强，背部、肱二头肌和前臂也能够得到锻炼。

Things are getting serious now. During half pullups, the upper body muscles exclusively move the entire weight of the body— certainly more than the average man can comfortably row or use on pulldowns. As a result the grip is strengthened and the back, biceps and forearms are developed.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

PERT网络（PERT network）是一种流程图形状的图表，用来描述某个项目所必需的各项活动的先后顺序以及与每项活动有关的时间或成本。使用PERT网络时，管理者必须弄清楚哪些活动必须完成，判断哪些事件彼此相互依赖，并且识别潜在的问题点。PERT还使得管理者更容易比较各种活动备选方案对进度和成本的影响。因此，PERT使管理者能够监控项目的进展、识别可能的瓶颈以及在必要时调动资源以使项目按进度计划进行。

A PERT network is a flowchart diagram that depicts the sequence of activities needed to complete a project and the time or costs associated with each activity. With a PERT network, a manager must think through what has to be done, determine which events depend on one another, and identify potential trouble spots. PERT also makes it easy to compare the effects alternative actions might have on scheduling and costs. Thus, PERT allows managers to monitor a project’s progress, identify possible bottlenecks, and shift resources as necessary to keep the project on schedule.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

“百分位点使我们了解分布中处于具体位置的数据”（Neuman 2000,p. 320)。 中位数是第50个百分位点，其他常用的百分位点是第25和第75个百分位点，或者是第10或第90个百分位点。

Percentiles tell the score at a specific place within the distribution'(Neuman 2000, p. 320). The median is the 50th percentile; other percentile scores that are used are the 25th and 75th percentiles or the 10th and 90th percentiles.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

某些函数形式对异常观测就没有那么敏感。我们在6.2节中曾提到，对大多数经济变量来说，取对数会显著地缩小数据的取值范围，而且所得到的函数形式（如常弹性模型）也能解释更宽泛的数据取值范围。

Certain functional forms are less sensitive to outlying observations. In Section 6.2, we mentioned that, for most economic variables, the logarithmic transformation significantly narrows the range of the data and also yields functional forms—such as constant elasticity models—that can explain a broader range of data.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

更为特别的是，人文主义使人类学摆脱了本质论的禁锢，例如“文化”、“性别”和“种族”。这些概念在人类学话语中是构建异己性的手段：在人之间找出差异并进行区分，从而不可避免地造成等级性和不平等。在这一分类（“文化”、“性别”和“种族”）的内部同样存在着同质性、连续性和确定性。

In particular, humanism offers anthropology an escape from imprisoning essentialisms such as ‘culture’, ‘gender’ and ‘race’. For these concepts have operated in anthropological discourse as means of making alterity: creating differences between people and enforcing separations which have come to imply inevitable hierarchy and inequality. Sameness within the category (‘culture’, ‘gender’, ‘race’), meanwhile, has come to imply inexorable homogeneity, coherence and determination.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

句子的基本结构（又称深层结构或d-结构）遵循短语结构规则。基于基本句子结构的变体可以通过转换派生出来。

The basic structures of sentences, also called deep structures or d-structures, conform to the phrase structure rules. Variants on the basic sentence structures are derived via transformations.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

与前面的例子不同，现在IV估计值比OLS估计值大得多。尽管我们不知道该差异是否在统计上显著，但它不会与OLS 中遗漏能力变量所造成的偏误相吻合。有可能也与能力相关:较多的兄弟姐妹意味着平均起来受父母的照料较少，这可能导致较低的能力。该解释不能完全令人信服，因为educ未必满足经典的变量误差模型，这一点我们已在9.3节中讨论过。

Unlike in the previous example, the IV estimate is now much higher than the OLS estimate. While we do not know whether the difference is statistically significant, this does not mesh with the omitted ability bias from OLS. It could be that sibs is also correlated with ability: more siblings means, on average, less parental attention, which could result in lower ability. This is not entirely convincing because, as we discussed in Section 9.3, educ is unlikely to satisfy the classical errors-in-variables model.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

为了理解该计算，让我们关注图9一23中示例项目的AOA网络图，并假设每个作业活动都服从分布，参数值如表9一8所示。在执行10次仿真运箅 后，包含作业活动持续时间、关键路径和项目完成时间的结果都列示在表9一9 中。

To understand the calculations, let us focus on the AOA network in Fig. 9.23 for the example project and assume that each activity follows a beta distribution with parameter values given in Table 9.8. After performing 10 simulation runs, the results listed in Table 9.9 for activity durations, critical path, and project completion time were obtained.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

60年代之后，在英国出现了争夺霸主权的危机，因为政府不能轻而易举地取得协调一致，所以它需要武装自己，以对付来自颇具战斗力的工会的反对势力，来自“恐怖主义者”和爱尔兰共和军的反对势力。这个被鼓动得更具活动能力的霸主政权在“闪电行动队”和“专业特警"这类警察故事中得到了反映。那些故事中的便衣警察打击恐怖主义的典型做法是以他们自己的暴力行为来对抗恐怖组织的暴力行为。

After the 1960s there is a crisis for hegemony in Britain, and the state, unable to win consent easily, needs to arm itself against opposition from trade union militancy,‘terrorists’, the IRA. This more aggressively mobilized state of hegemony is reflected in such examples of the police genre as ‘The Sweeney’ and ‘The Professionals’ in which plain-clothes cops typically combat a terrorist organization by matching its violence with their own.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

正是由于这一原因,他的著作经常被描述为“存在主义”,与他老师无情的“本质主义”相对。

It is for this reason that his work is often characterized as 'existentialism', in contrast to the remorseless 'essentialism' of his mentor.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但并不是所有的癌症都是肿瘤或肿块，这使得它们更难沴断。血液类癌症，比如白血病就不是通常意义上的肿瘤，而是在骨髓中所积累的不正常的白细胞。它们聚集茌一起，使得健康的白细胞和红细胞 瀕临饿死，即使你的身体无法保证不被感染，也不能输送你所需要的氧。

But not all cancers are tumors or lumps—making them even more difficult to diagnose. Blood-borne cancers such as leukemia are not like tumors in the usual sense. Instead, abnormal white blood cells accumulate in bone marrow and crowd or starve out healthy white and red blood cells making your body unable to protect itself against infection and unable to deliver as much oxygen as you need.