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请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

清末新政初期，袁世凯、刘坤一、张之洞奏请政府设立京师仕学院，期待此举落实"借材异国"策略的示范作用，藉此为速行新政提供及时、直接的蓝本与改革经验的借鉴。然因观念、政局等影响，仕学院"借才"方式与"课官"范围被迫几度调整，反映出"借材异国"襄助新政的困难与不确定性，而报刊舆论与朝中政情于此颇有隔膜。仕学院"讲友"的名目，本为趋避袁世凯密奏政务处聘请外国人为"顾问"之锋芒，避免枢廷干预而提出的变通办法，尔后却为仕学院"译书洋员"取代。

At the early stage of the reform in the late Qing dynasty(1901-1911), Yuan Shikai, Liu Kunyi and Zhang Zhidong put forward a proposal to establish a capital officials college‘Jingshi Shixueyuan', which was an embodiment of their strategy for the employment of foreign advisers, in order to provide blueprints and experience for the reform. Affected by traditional idea and political situation, the plan of foreigner employment and checking officials was modified for several times. It was difficult and uncertain for the planners to put their strategy into practice, because public opinion had no knowledge of that. The title of foreign adviser, ‘Jiangyou'(a member of discussion group), which was created for substituting‘Zhengwuchu Guwen', a consultant of the Government Affairs Supervision Bureau, to avoid intervention of superiors, was soon replaced by ‘Yishuyangyuan'(translator).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

而1857年的兵变是对英国的回答，这是一次反动的暴乱和驱逐英国人的失败尝试。引进法律、秩序、税收制度以及人口增长的更深远的影响，在于经营地主的兴起。尽管经营不力，但农民确实使经济出现了剩余。由于英国人的统治，兵变的失败，以及印度社会的特性，印度不可能象日本那样去改变落后状态，即由本国的社会精英中新的成分来进行统治，利用上述经济上的剩余作为发展工业的基础。相反，在印度，这笔剩余被外国征服者，地主和放债人榨取并挥霍掉了。因此经济停滞贯穿于整个英国统治时期，一直延续到今天。

The response was the Mutiny of 1857, a reactionary convulsion and unsuccessful effort to expel the British. A deeper and more long-run effect of the introduction of law and order and taxes, and of an increasing population, was the rise of parasitic landlordism. Despite poor cultivation, the peasants did generate a substantial economic surplus. The British presence, the failure of the Mutiny, the character of Indian society ruled out the Japanese solution to backwardness: rule by a new section of the native elite which used this surplus as the basis for industrial growth. Instead, in India the foreign conqueror, the landlord, and the. moneylender absorbed and dissipated this surplus. Hence economic stagnation continued throughout the British era and indeed into the present day.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这种情况在1860—1880年期间达到了高潮。1879年的“德干农业救济法”第一次试图限制财产权的转移以保护农民。在19世纪余下的年代里，印度的其他地方也通过了相似的法规。主要条款是禁止土地流向不种田的种姓，即放债人。其主要作法是与农民签订有限的贷款契约，而且鼓励耕作种姓的富裕农民借钱给穷苦邻居。

This situation was at its height between 1860 and 1880. In 1879 in the "Deccan Agricultural Relief Act" came the first attempt to limit the rights of transfer and to protect the peasant. Similar legislation was passed during the rest of the nineteenth century in other parts of India. The chief provision has been a prohibition on the transfer of land to noncultivating castes, in other words moneylenders. The main effect was to contract the already limited supply of credit for the peasant and to encourage the growth of a class of wealthy peasants within the cultivating castes who could lend to their less fortunate neighbors.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在实际操作中有许多形式的福利计划可供采用，但为简化我们的讨论，在此把各种福利归为以下四类：（1)(用于带薪不工作时间的）补充性工资；（2) 保险福利；(3)退休福利；（4）雇员服务福利。

There are many benefits and various ways to classify them. We will classify them as (1) pay for time not worked (such as vacations), (2) insurance benefits, (3) retirement benefits, and (4) services.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

当代人权体制包括全球、地区以及国家范围内相互交迭的制度和条约。在世界范围内，人权体现在《国际人权宪章》中，它包括1948年的《联合国人权宣言》和几个主要在60年代和70年代通过的公民、政治与经济权利条约。

The contemporary human rights regime consists of overlapping global, regional and national institutions and conventions. At the global level, human rights are firmly entrenched in the "International Bill of Human Rights", which comprises the "UN Declaration of Human Rights of 1948" and the several conventions on civil, political and economic rights adopted predominantly in the 1960s and 1970s.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

A型人格（type A personality)的主要特征是长期感觉到一种时间紧迫感；一种过度的竞争驱动力；难以接受和享受闲暇时间。A型人格的对立面是B型人格 (type B personality)。B型人格不会产生时间紧迫感或焦躁。直到最近，人们还认为具有A型人格的个体更有可能在工作中承受压力。

Type A personality is characterized by chronic feelings of a sense of time urgency, an excessive competitive drive, and difficulty accepting and enjoying leisure time. The opposite of Type A is Type B personality. Type Bs don’t suffer from time urgency or impatience. Until quite recently, it was believed that Type As were more likely to experience stress on and off the job.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

当迪克· 库利正在系统地招聘他所能找到的人才时，据《解冻银行》一书所有，美国银行遵循的是“弱将强兵”模式。

While Dick Cooley systematically recruited the best people he could get his hands on, Bank of America, according to the book Breaking the Bank, followed something called the "weak generals, strong lieutenants“ model.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

今井正明（Imai，1986)也主张持续的改进过程，借此鼓励人们将注意力放在他们工作的环境而不是结果上。他坚信只要通过持续地改进流程和系统，最终的结果就会是一个更好的产品或服务。这就是“P”（过程导向方法），而不是“R”（结果导向方法），后者是由工作测量的前辈和工业管理之父弗雷德里克·泰勒（Frederick Taylor)提出的。过程导向方法又称为Kaizen法（Kaizen approach)。

Imai (1986) supports the continuous improvement process, whereby people are encouraged to focus on the environment in which they work rather than on the results. He believes that by continually improving processes and systems, the end result will be a better product or service. This has become known as the "R" or process approach, rather than the "R," or results approach of Frederick Taylor, a pioneer in work measurement and the father of industrial management. The process approach is also known as the Kaizen approach.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

此次分析所得到的ε估计值呈现在表9.4的备注中，此估计值是由SPSS的重复量数程序计算所得，如果ε小于1.00，则自由度会依据公式（df x ε= 调整后df)来调整，这样的调整会是针对任何包含重复量数因子的F值之分子与分母的自由度。另一种调整S的保守方式（称之Geisser/Greenhouse 校正， Geisser/Greenhouse correction)之公式如下：θ = l ( k - l ) 公式 9.15

The epsilon estimate from this analysis is shown at the bottom of table 9.4. This estimate was obtained by running a repeated-measures computer program from SPSS. If epsilon is less than 1.00, the degrees of freedom is adjusted according to the formula df x ε = adjusted df. This is done for the degrees of freedom in both the numerator and the denominator of any F ratio that includes the repeated-measures factor. A conservative approach to this adjustment (called the Geisser/Greenhouse correction) can be done as follows (Stamm & Safrit, 1975): θ = l ( k - l ) (9.15)

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

Libby计算了任一样品中14C衰变一半所用的时间为5568年—14C的半衰期—尽管现代研究指出更准确的数据是5730年。为了保持连贯性，实验室们依然采用5568作为它的半衰期；因为我们有正确校正后的碳14时间表（见下面），所以这个差别现在已不再是问题。

Libby estimated that it took 5568 years for half the 14C in any sample to decay – its half-life – although modern research indicates that the more accurate figure is 5730 years (for consistency laboratories still use 5568 years for the half-life; the difference no longer matters now that we have a correctly calibrated radiocarbon timescale: see below).

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

45°线马上告诉我们消费支出是等于、大于还是小于收入水平。消费曲线45°线相交的那一点是盈亏平衡点（break-even point，也译作收支相抵点），代表家庭收支相抵时的可支配收入。

The 45° line tells us immediately whether consumption spending is equal to, greater than, or less than the level of disposable income. The point where the consumption schedule intersects the 45° line is the break-even point—it is the level of disposable income at which households just break even.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

明清乡试、会试时，为防止作弊，考生、考官等要用不同颜色的笔，以明责任。考生用墨笔答卷，称墨卷。墨卷须用朱笔誊写成"硃卷"送考官评阅，故正副主考疲倦时亦用墨笔。同考官、内收掌及书吏用蓝笔。乾隆三十六年（公元1771年），因皇太后万寿恩科改为紫笔，乾隆四十三年（公元1778年）复用蓝笔。

In order to prevent cheating in the imperial examination of the Ming and Qing dynasties, candidates, examiners, etc. would use pens of different colors to clarify responsibilities. Candidates used the black ink to answer questions on paper. Then it must be transcribed in red ink as "ZhuJuan" sent to examiners to review with black ink. Other examiners and officials used the blue pen in the imperial examination. In Qianlong thirty-six years (AD 1771), it was changed to purple because of the birthday celebration of the Empress Dowager. In Qianlong forty-three years (AD 1778), the blue pen was reused in the imperial examination.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

另一种论证方法抵制此类论点所内含的本质主义，并定义了一种“女权主义的环境主义”，其中，“女性和环境的联系可以被视为由特定的生产、再生产和分配的性别和阶级(等级/种族)组织所构成”(Agarwal，1992:119)。

An alternative line of argument resists the essentialism implicit in such an argument and defines a "feminist environmentalism in which the "link between women and the environment can be seen as structured by a given gender and class (/caste/race) organization of production, reproduction, and distribution" (Agarwal, 1992: 119).

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果整个社今只分成两个主要的继嗣群体，无论它们是相尚于氏族或联族，还是牵涉到甚至更无所不包的层次，那么其中每一个群体就叫作半偶族（moiety）（因法语“一半”这个单词得名）。半偶族的成员相信他们自己拥有一个共同的袓先，但无法通过确切的系谱联系证明。一般而言，世系群和氏族成员的亲属感情要比联族和半偶族成员亲属感情更强。这可能由于后者的规模更大，而且更分散。

If the entire society is divided into only two major descent groups, whether they are equivalent to clans or phratries or involve an even more all-inclusive level, each group is called a moiety (after the French word for "half"). Moiety members also believe they share a common ancestor but cannot prove it through definite genealogical links. As a rule, the feelings of kinship among members of lineages and clans are stronger than those of members of phratries and moieties. This may be due to the larger size and more diffuse nature of the latter groups.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

观心思想是唐末、五代、宋初佛学思想家永明延寿心学思想脉络中的重要一环。延寿几乎将佛教的一切修习法门都纳入到观心的宗教实践之中，以一心释观心、以一心“妙观”统摄唯心之旨，同时又以观心坐实、印证唯心，使其宗教思想成为一个完满自足的理论体系。观心思想贯通《宗镜录》和《观心玄枢》，《观心玄枢》不仅是百卷《宗镜录》的理论浓缩，更是《宗镜录》思想的进一步深化和落实，在延寿重构心宗的过程中具有重要的地位，对后世的佛教思想产生了重要的影响。

The theory on cultivation of the mind is an important part in the mind philosophy formulated by Yong-ming Yanshou, a famous Buddhist philosopher in the late Tang dynasty and the early Song dynasty. Yanshou incorporated almost all the Buddhist doctrines into his religious practice of theorizing about cultivating the mind, explaining the nature of the mind by the conscientious mind and shedding light on the essence of the pure mind by the conscientious mind. In the meantime, he stressed that such a theory on the mind should serve as the foundation and proof for the pure mind. As a result, his religious thoughts constituted a self-sufficient theory. His theory on cultivation of the mind was presented throughout his Zong Jing Lu (Reflections on the Mind) and Guan Xin Xuan Shu (The Gist of Theory on Cultivating the Mind), the latter containing the highlights of the theory of the mind explicated in his 100-chapter book, Zong Jing Lu as well as further developing and grounding the theory of Zong Jing Lu. It is argued that Guan Xin Xuan Shu holds an important place in his theorization of the mind and has had an important impact on the development of Buddhist philosophy．

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

以流感病毒为代表性例子来说，你的身体对该病毒有所了解（它似乎每年都变异，所以，除非你接种过最新的流感疫苗，否则身体对新出现的同族流感病毒则了解不多），它就有能力把它赶走。但是如果这种病毒是新的病毒，像SARS病毒（严重呼吸系统综合征病毒），它无法呈现同样的标志记号，说明你的身体对它不熟悉。

In the case of a typical flu virus, your body knows parts of it (it mutates every year, it seems, so you know only a part of the newer strain unless you’ve received a current flu vaccination) and is able to fight it off. But when a virus is new—as in the case of the SARS virus—it doesn’t display the same markers indicating that it is foreign to your body.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

无限分布滞后模型比类似的有限分布滞后模型使用更少的参数提供了灵活的滞后分布。几何分布滞后模型，或者更为一般的有理分布滞后模型，是最常见的无限分布滞后模型。使用有关简单动态方程的标准计量经程序，就可以估计它们。

Infinite distributed lag models provide flexible lag distributions with fewer parameters than a similar finite distributed lag model. The geometric distributed lag and, more generally, rational distributed lag models are the most popular. They can be estimated using standard econometric procedures on simple dynamic equations.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

研究方法上定性与定量概念的对立指出了关于人类学本质的重要分歧：人类学究竟是艺术还是科学？只要考虑一下人类学家收集数据的一系列方法——参与观察、面访、生命史、调查家谱、人口普查、调查问卷、网络分析、档案转录——以及确定每个方法到底是“定性的”还是“定量的”以及到什么程度，是多么的困难，我们就会清楚后一种差別确实是关乎人类学总体的方向和目的的。

Opposition between the concepts of the qualitative and the quantitative in research methodology points up disagreements over the nature of anthropology as such: art or science? When considering the range of methods of gathering data which anthropologists employ—participant-observation, interviews, life-histories, genealogies, censuses, questionnaires, network analysis, archival transcription—and the difficulty of deciding whether each is "qualitative" or "quantitative", and to what extent, it becomes clear that the latter distinction is really one of overall orientation and intention.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

也许人们在对某些商品的使用过程中创造了意义与价值并进而促进了美国资本主义生活方式的扩张，但绝不可将市场的渗透与文化或意识形态的渗透混为一谈。

It may be the case that certain commodities are used, made meaningful and valued in ways which promote American capitalism as a way of life, but this is not something which can be established by simply assuming that market penetration is the same as cultural or ideological penetration.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

探索阶段（exploration stage)大约发生于一个人的15岁-24岁之间的这一年龄段上。在这一时期中，个人将认真地探索各种可能的职业选择。

Exploration stage occurs in a person between the ages of 15 and 24. During this period, individuals will seriously explore various possible career choices.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这种救赎的叙事出现于体育和主流出版物之上，最终 “超越了美国体育世界”，在 1999年促生了一种新的白人男子气概。这种气概是“战略上同时女性化也男性化的...对于财富矛盾的...内部冲突的、家庭导向的，总的说来，尝试驾驭与社会特权之间的关系”。阿加西的传媒再现是一个关键，库茨将其称之为从20世纪90年代到21世纪的 “白色起义”:“对于白人在主流美国流行文化中所代表的意义的公开斗争。”

This redemptive narrative appeared in both sports and mainstream publications and ultimately "transcended the American sports world", promoting a new, White masculinity beginning in 1999 that is "both strategically feminized.. .and musculinized.. .ambivalent toward wealth.. .internally confliceted, family oritented, and in general, attempting to manage its relationship to social privilege".The media representation of Agassi was key in what Kusz termed the "white revolt" of the 1990s to 2000s, a "public struggle over the meanings assoicated with whiteness in mainstream American popular culture".

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在这种划分方案背后的理论——不仅仅是细节——还没有经历变革和重新认识的时候，你又能提出什么建议呢？这种状况也导致了一些市民组织中很多荒唐可笑的关于策略的讨论，如，格林威治村的市民组织。

What can you recommend, when the very theory behind such a zoning resolution --- not merely its detail-needs drastic overhaul and rethinking? This sad circumstance has given rise to many a ludicrous strategy session, for instance, in the civic organizations of Greenwich Village.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

兰台作为两汉重要的宫廷藏书处，既是御史中丞治事机构，又是广延学者名儒点校"秘书"和著史之所，后世秘书省、史馆等文馆职能均发端于兰台。"兰台"出典很多，一度指代御史台、史官和秘书省，笔者钩沉相关史料，试图理清兰台出典之源，呈现兰台在历史长河中之真实完整的面貌。

Lantai (the Censorate), as an important imperial place for a collection of books in the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, was the workplace for the Imperial Minister to handle affairs and for scholars to recruit secretaries and compile books. Many official functions can trace back to Lantai such as the office of secretariat, the office of official historian etc. The research attempts to find out the origin and outline the true landscape of Lantai on the basis of exploring the historical materials.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

中国学校乐教的全面兴盛是在西周时期，但人们对在西周之前的殷商学校乐教状况的认识却有些模糊不清。任何事物的发展不是一蹴而就的，正是殷商时期的铺垫，才造就了西周的辉煌。在记载殷商的历史文献中出现了“商人以乐造士”、“殷人作乐于瞽宗，瞽宗殷学也”的文字记载，可见乐教在殷商时期就受到人们的重视。笔者从考证商代学校出发，继而考证其乐教场所、音乐教育内容，授乐者及“受众”，力图再现殷商时期的学校音乐教育。

The full-scale prosperous period of music education in Chinese schools was in the Western Zhou dynasty. However, people had indistinct idea about music education before the Western Zhou dynasty. Every development doesn't accomplish at one stroke. It was the foundation from the Shang dynasty that paved the way for the glory of the Western Zhou dynasty. Some written records like "businessmen educated by music"and "people enjoying music in School of Gu Zong in the Shang dynasty" appeared in the historical documents of the Shang dynasty, which revealed that the music education was valued in that period. In this paper, the author tries to show music education in the Shang dynasty's schools by studying Schools of the Shang dynasty, and further research their subordinate music institutions, music education content, teachers and students.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

A型人格（type A personality)的主要特征是长期感觉到一种时间紧迫感；一种过度的竞争驱动力；难以接受和享受闲暇时间。A型人格的对立面是B型人格 (type B personality)。B型人格不会产生时间紧迫感或焦躁。直到最近，人们还认为具有A型人格的个体更有可能在工作中承受压力。

Type A personality is characterized by chronic feelings of a sense of time urgency, an excessive competitive drive, and difficulty accepting and enjoying leisure time. The opposite of Type A is Type B personality. Type Bs don’t suffer from time urgency or impatience. Until quite recently, it was believed that Type As were more likely to experience stress on and off the job.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

通过公理的推导讨论其基本理论。接下来介绍层次分析法的概念和假设。在该章的附录中，收录了一个案例，就项目的结果对两种模型方法进行比较，并指出各自的相对优点。

Basic theory is discussed along with the guiding axioms. Next, the concepts and assumptions behind the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) are detailed. A case study contained in the appendix documents the results of a project aimed at comparing the two approaches and points out the relative advantages of each.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

组建创业型企业的三种基本方法是个人独资、合伙制以及公司制。不过，如果把这三种基本选项的变体也包括在内的话，就会获得六种可能的选项，而每一种选项都有其独特的税收待遇、法律责任以及优缺点。这六种选项是个人独资、普通合伙制、有限责任合伙制、C型公司、S型公司，以及有限责任公司。

The three basic ways to organize an entrepreneurial venture are sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. However, when you include the variations of these basic organizational alternatives, you end up with six possible choices, each with its own tax consequences, liability issues, and pros and cons. These six choices are sole proprietorship, general partnership, limited liability partnership (LLP), C corporation, S corporation, and limited liability company (LLC).

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在全球范围内，人权体现在《国际人权宪章》中，它包括1948年的《联合国人权宣言》和几个主要在60年代和70年代通过的公民、政治与经济权利条约。在80年代，《消除对妇女歧视公约》和《儿童权利公约》对这一体系进行了补充。

At the global level, human rights are firmly entrenched in the "International Bill of Human Rights", which comprises the "UN Declaration of Human Rights of 1948" and the several conventions on civil, political and economic rights adopted predominantly in the 1960s and 1970s. These were complemented in the 1980s by the "Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women" and the "Convention on the Rights of the Child".

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

钱穆先生早年曾有一段在无锡江苏省立第三师范学校担任国文教师的经历。有学者业已质疑钱先生晚年撰写的《师友杂忆》一书中，关于这段时期的回忆，存在一些不尽准确的地方。通过对钱穆的回忆录、著作及大量相关资料的梳理考辨，指出该书第七章中至少还有八处表述不清或者根本错误的文字。

In his early years, Qian Mu was a Chinese teacher in Jiangsu Provincial Third Normal School in Wuxi. Some scholars have begun to question the inaccurate records of the events he described in the book Teachers and Friends, which he wrote in his later years. By collecting and researching Qian Mu's reminiscences, works and other files, this article points out that there are at least eight mistakes in the seventh chapter due to the lack of clear expressions, and some basic wrong ideas as well.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这种争论常被曲解为关于“本质主义”的争吵，关于属性是先天给定的，是起点，还是属性永远在形成过程中，在不能确定的联盟或对抗中逐渐发展（比如一个被压制的民族在反对压制中得到属性）的本质主义的争吵。

Often the debate has been cast as a quarrel about ‘essentialism’: between a notion of identity as something given, an origin, and a notion of identity as something always in process, arising through contingent alliances and oppositions (an oppressed people gain identity from opposing the oppressor).

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

国家之间的经济纽带是什么？从经看最重要的无疑是国际贸易和国际金融。国际之间的商品贸易和服务贸易，使得人们能够受惠于各国比较优势下的专业分工所带来的各种好处。通过出口那些本国生产相对有效率的商品和服务，进口那些本国生产缺乏效率的商品和服务就可以提高本国人民的生活水平。

What are the economic links among nations? The important economic concepts involve international trade and finance. International trade in goods and services allows nations to raise their standards of living by specializing in areas of comparative advantage, exporting products in which they are relatively efficient while importing ones in which they are relatively inefficient.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果潜在的分布是正态的，那么期望值d下降到b - a范围的概率是0.9973。任何情况下，根据Chebyshev不等式，持续时间至少有89%的几率会落在该范围。

If the underlying distribution is normal, then the probability is 0.9973 that d falls within b - a. In any case, according to Chebyshev's inequality, there is at least an 89% chance that the duration will fall within this range.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

1992年，一个名为“生物人类学中的政治-经济方法”的研讨会的组织者艾伦˙古德曼（Alan Goodman) 和托马斯·莱瑟曼 （Thomas Leatherman) 希望扭转这一趋势。他们希望促进对“当地文化和历史情境中”的生物学容量和福利的研究，“它们反过来也受到跨区域和全球进程的形塑并且与之发生互动。”他们是少数开始注意到“外界的刺激因素通过了一个文化过滤器并且与社会不平等密切相连”的生物人类学家。这门子学科的主流倾向于贬低这样的观点，认为它们不合适地将政治注人科学中。

The organizers of a 1992 symposium on "Political-Economic Approaches in Biological Anthropology," Alan Goodman and Thomas Leatherman, hoped to reverse this trend. They wanted to foster the study of biological capacities and well-being in the "context of local cultures and histories, which in turn are shaped by and interact with interregional and global processes." They are among a small number of biological anthropologists who are beginning to see that stressors move through a cultural filter and are intimately linked with social inequality. The mainstream of the subdiscipline has tended to discount such views as inappropriately injecting politics into science.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这个背景有助于我们认识地方的“中间状态”(‘betweenness’ of place): 即地方对观念的依赖。地方存在于并且被构建于观念的主观方面；同时它被局外者看做并构建为一种外部的“其他部分”。正如尼古拉斯•恩特里金指出的，“我们的邻里不仅是一块以我们自己和我们家庭为中心的地域，同时也是一块从外部或局外者的角度来看包含房屋、街道和人口的地域。因此，地方既是意义的核心又是我们行为的外部背景’。另外，“局外者”的认识在从一个特殊具体的地方向实质上“不从属于任何地方”的情形转变时，往往变得很抽象。

In this context it is helpful to recognize the 'betweenness' of place: that is, the dependence of place on perspective. Places exist, and are constructed, from a subjective point of view; while simultaneously they are constructed and seen as an external ‘other’ by outsiders. As Nicholas Entrikin put it, ‘Our neighborhood is both an area centered on ourselves and our home, as well as an area containing houses, streets and people that we may view from a decentered or an outsider’s perspective. Thus place is both a center of meaning and the external context of our actions’. In addition, views from ‘outside’ can vary in abstraction from being in a specific place to being virtually ‘nowhere’ (i.e. an abstract, perspectiveless view).

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

中国古典音乐哲学所谓"乐生于音"、"形于动静"的言说所蕴涵的，乃是一种"赖有我以凝道"之中国古典特色的实践人本主义哲学。人类发于声音、形于动静的音乐艺术行为实践，既是得道的途径，又是行道的手段。就音乐艺术与人类生活的内在关系而言，音乐之符号的意义，与其用法有着不可分割的有机联系。所谓"乐体"，正是有关"乐用"即音乐之用法的范畴。

The ancient Chinese philosophy of music claimed that "music must be produced from sound and formed in moving and stopping". What is implied in this theory is that philosophy of music is the philosophy of practical humanism with heavy characteristics found in ancient Chinese culture. Such behavior of practicing music art, i.e. "producing music from sound and forming it in moving and stopping" is the way of achieving Dao and also the means of practicing Dao. The meaning of music symbols connects indispensably with their applications. And the musical style itself is just the category as to when, where, how and for what music is applied, and who applies it.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

按照巴纳德的理论，权的来源并不存在于拥有权威的人或发布命 令的人中，而是存在于下属对于权烕是否接受。如果下属不服从命令， 他扪就拒绝了权烕。

In Barnard's theory,the source of authority did not reside in persons of authority, or those who gave theorders, but in the acceptance or nonacceptance of the authority by subordinates. If the subordinates disobeyed an order, they rejected the authority.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

虽然列维-斯特劳斯像列维-布留尔一样，经常评述“简 单”结构和“复杂”结构、“冷”社会和“热”社会（指历史上变化的剧烈程度），以及有“具体”思维和“抽象”思维的社会之间的区别，但是他的整个方法肯定是一种从一般到特殊的推理方式。

Although Lévi-Strauss, rather like Lévy-Bruhl, has often commented on distinctions between ‘elementary’ structures and ‘complex’ ones, ‘cold’ societies and ‘hot’ societies (with reference to the relative ‘heat’ of historical change), and societies with mainly ‘concrete’ and those with ‘abstract’ thought, his entire approach is predicated on reasoning from the general to the specific.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这里举例证明的一般问题，是通常所说的“保健实施”。有时可利用的医疗技术也会遇到文化抵抗。例如，一项在迈阿密多种族人群中进行的医疗保健研究显示了使用诊所和医院的文化及物理阻碍。对马萨诸塞一女性主义诊所的人类学研究表明，女性主义运动的文化模型会怎样影响医疗保健实施。一项对埃及工人阶级妇女的人类学研究表明，她们对身体独特的文化想象，怎样影响其对避孕药品的使用。

The general problem exemplified here is sometimes termed "health care delivery". Available medical techniques meet cultural resistance. A study of health care among varied ethnic groups in Miami, for example, showed cultural as well as physical barriers to using clinics and hospitals. An anthropological study of a feminist clinic in Massachusetts showed how the cultural patterning of the feminist movement affected health-care delivery. An anthropological study of working-class women in Egypt showed how their distinctive cultural images of the body affected use of contraceptives.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

产生出这些遗存的活动就是行为过程(behavioral processes)，该过程通常包含四个连续的阶段：获取(acquisition)、制造 (manufacture)、使用(use)和沉积(deposition)(图4. 6)。

The activities responsible for these remains are behavioral processes, usually comprising four consecutive stages: acquisition, manufacture, use, and deposition (Fig. 4.6).

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

孢粉分析 孢粉学或对孢粉颗粒的研究由挪威地质学家Lennart von Post在20世纪初发明。孢粉学研究对考古学具有很大的价值，因为这门技术可以应用在各种各样的遗址中，为我们提供有关年代以及环境方面的信息，事实上，在同位素年代测定方法出现之前，孢粉研究在考古学中主要用于年代测定（参见第4章）。

Pollen Analysis. Palynology, or the study of pollen grains (see box overleaf), was developed by a Norwegian geologist, Lennart von Post, at the beginning of the 20th century. It has proved invaluable to archaeology, since it can be applied to a wide range of sites and provides information on chronology as well as environment – indeed, until the arrival of isotopic chronological methods, pollen analysiswas used primarily for dating purposes (Chapter 4).

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

受益原则认为，个人所缴纳的税额应与他们从政府计划中得到的利益成比例。如同人们根据自己消费的面包数量按比例向卖者支付货币一样，个人纳税也应与其能够从公共品（如公路或公园）中获得利益的情况相对应。

The benefit principle, which holds that individuals should be taxed in proportion to the benefit they receive from government programs. Just as people pay private goods like dollars in proportion to their consumption of private goods like bread, a person’s taxes should be related to his or her use of collective goods like public roads or parks.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因此，人类学一直将环境描述成标准地围绕着观察者散开的社交性或高或低的同心圆，将观察者放在了观察的中心：从家屋到世系到村落到部落到其他部落（Sahlins 1968：65)。人类学认为，一种分类的语言已经稳妥地将说话人放在了社会空间的中心，该语言也以此为中心扩散开来：从“自我”到“兄弟姐妹”到“堂表亲”到“邻居”再到“陌生人”，或者从“自我”到“宠物”到“家畜”到“猎物”到“野生动物”（Leach 1968:36-7)。

Hence, anthropologists have come to depict environments as normatively fanning out around the perceiver in concentric circles of greater and lesser degrees of consociality, with the perceiver at the perspectival centre: from house to lineage to village to tribe to other tribes, perhaps (Sahlins 1968:65). A language of classification has been seen to place the speaker reassuringly at the centre of a social space and fan out from there: from "self" to "sibling" to "cousin" to "neighbour" to "stranger", perhaps; or else from "self" to "pet" to "livestock" to "game" to "wild animal" (Leach 1968:36–7).

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

或者，假如这首诗似乎是一个賦予《约伯记》和《薄伽梵歌》以生命力的问题的过于轻率的——以某种不同的形式——表达，那么，下面所引爪哇的古典诗歌则相当精彩。它被六岁以上的每一个爪哇人学习，咏唱、反复地引用，它说明了道德规范与实际所得之间的差异、“是”与“应该”的表面不一致：

Or if this seems too flippant an expression of an issue that, in somewhat different form, animates the Book of Job and the Baghavad Gita, the following classical Javanese poem, known, sung, and repeatedly quoted in Java by virtually everyone over the age of six, puts the point -the discrepancy between moral prescriptions and material rewards, the seeming inconsistency of "is" and "ought"-rather more elegantly:

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

当然，像任何谬误一样，这种观念也包含了一些真实的成分。 因为这种舛谬毕竟作为对事实的描写而与真实联系在一起。9月屠杀的受害者们说明，普遍的愤恨会突发成毫无选择的报复行为，更何况在暴民发作之时，穷人正陷于窘境。就这一点来说，心平气和的分析也会承认恐怖的存在，因此考察这种情况发生的原因是很有必要的。生活于社会秩序最底层的的人民大众，他们所臣服的环境日益险峻，社会生活也日益衰微萧条，这些无疑是恐怖发生的原因。

Like any caricature, this conception contains some truthful elements without which the resulting image would bear no recognizable relation to reality. As the Victims of the September massacres show — mainly poor people who happened to be in jail when the mob burst in — popular resentments could erupt in sudden acts of indiscriminate vengeance. Nevertheless a dispassionate analysis cannot just draw back in horror at this point; it is necessary to perceive the causes. They are clear enough in the aggravating circumstances of the moment and the history of degradation and oppression to which the mass of people at the very bottom of the social order were subject.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

首先，介绍四种早期动机理论：马斯洛的需求层次理论，麦格雷戈的x理论和Y理论，赫茨伯格的双因素理论和麦克莱兰的三种需要理论。尽管当今许多更具说服力的动机理论已经产生，但是这些早期理论仍然至关重要，原因在于：首先，早期动机理论为当代动机理论的发展奠定了基础；其次，许多实践中的管理者仍然在使用这些经典理论。

We begin by looking at four early motivation theories: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, McGregor’s theories X and Y, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s threeneeds theory. Although more valid explanations of motivation have been developed, these early theories are important because they represent the foundation from which contemporary motivation theories were developed and because many practicing managers still use them.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

奥格拉拉人相信圆圈是神圣的，因为神灵使自然界所有的东西都成为圆的，除了石头。石头是用于破坏的工具。太阳与天空，地球与月亮，就像盾牌一样都是圆形的，尽管天空深得像一只碗。

The Oglala believe the circle to be sacred because the great spirit caused everything in nature to be round except stone. Stone is the implement of destruction. The sun and the sky, the earth and the moon are round like a shield, though the sky is deep like a bowl.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他们在寺院、其他公共建筑和豪宅中搜寻典籍和艺术品，试图发现主要针对城市中心的都市平面图，但是他们总体上漠视与生计、整体聚落形态、乡村生活、技术进步或贸易相关的证据。表现出极大的保守性， 古典考古学仍然保持着它原先文艺复兴时的成规老套。

They searched for ancient texts and works of fine art in the contexts of sanctuaries, other public buildings,and elaborate houses,and sought to recover urban plans with a primary focus on civic centers, but they generally ignored evidence relating to subsistence, overall settlement patterns, rural life, technological processes, or trade. In a remarkable display of conservatism, classical archaeology remained true to its original Renaissance preoccupations.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

如果你在厨房窗户旁边煮着一锅面条，这扇窗户就会因蒸汽而模糊，你也就无法看到窗户外面。这就是白内障产生的影晌：遮蔽眼球的晶状体，造成你的视线模糊。许多物体，包括紫外线、香烟雾以及糖尿病人体内多余的葡萄糖（这些都是加快人体血管衰老的因素）都能够加大白内障的发病率。

If you boil a pot of pasta by the kitchen window, the window's going to steam up so you can't see out of it. That's what cataracts do: cloud the lens of your eye to cause blurry vision. Many things, including UV light, cigarette smoke, and extra glucose in people with diabetes (things that accelerate arterial aging), can increase the risk of cataracts.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

为了进一步分析尼卡宁的传媒表征，我们从德勒兹的视角出发，将现代主义自我建构的二元模式问题化（例如：男性化/ 女性化，男人/ 孩子，冠军/ 退役，好/ 坏，体育英雄/ 酗酒者，有决心的/ 迷失的，理性的/ 失控的）。德勒兹和瓜塔里（Deleuze & Guattari，1987 ) 使用术语“ 肖像特征” 来连接这些二元化的特征。在这种语境下，一个个体必须选择二元划分后的其中一侧站队：男性化的、好的一侧被德勒兹和瓜塔里加以“ 多数主义” 形象的标签。

To further analyze the media representations of Nykanen, we draw on aDeleuzian perspective to problematize the dualistic scheme of modernistconstruction of the self (e.g., masculine/feminine, man/child, champion/retired, good/bad, athletic hero/alcoholic, determined/lost, rational/outof control). Deleuze and Guattari (1987) used the term "faciality trait" toconnect these binary characteristics. In this context, an individual is required to take up a position on either side of the binary divide: the masculine, good side is labelled by Deleuze and Guattari as the "majoritarian" face.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

简言之，就像口头和文字之间没有本质的区隔一样，个体与集体的阅读，一个传统和它的表现之间的关系也必须被看作不断发展的。另外，交谈、书写和阅读之间的紧密联系意味深长；用斯坦利˙费什的话说（Stanley Fish 1972:401)，阅读是一种“运动的艺术”，只有理解人们据以交谈、书写和阅读进行交流的方式，我们才能够正确评价在特定历史、社会与文化情景中的各种方式的重要性。

In short, just as there is no essential separation between the oral and the literate, so, individual and collective readings, a tradition and its performance, must also be seen in ongoing relationship. Furthermore, talking, writing and reading are significantly implicated in one another; reading is a "kinetic art", in Stanley Fish’s phrasing (1972:401), and it is only in understanding the ways in which people move between communication in terms of talking, writing and reading that an appreciation of the significance of each in any particular historical, social and cultural situation is to be gained.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

雪莱的文章毫不含糊地表明了柏拉图主义美学家的一个倾向，即把一切事物压缩为一个单一的种类，并使这一种类受制于一个单一的判断标准，从而取消了各事物间的差别。

Shelley's essay demonstrates, in its most uncompromising form, the tendency of a Platonic aesthetic to cancel differences, by reducing everything to a single class, and by subjecting this class to a single standard of judgment.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在西周官学之乐教体系中已有乐德、乐语、乐舞之分科，然三者以乐德为首出，表现了周代乐教对德性培养的重视。"乐德"随"德"字意义的流转而演变。在先秦，乐德包涵"乐自天德（得）"、乐教的"制度之德"以及乐教对个体"精神品行之德"的陶养三个方面，其中既有宗教意义的依附，亦有主体独立性的高扬，反映了"人文觉醒"初期"乐德"意义的混融性。

There were three branches, such as musical virtue, musical discourse and musical dance in the official school of the western Zhou dynasty, and musical virtue came first in terms of importance. It shows people in the Zhou dynasty paid much attention to cultivating virtue in music education. The connotation of "music virtue" evolved with the meaning change of the word "virtue". In the Pre-Qin period, musical virtue included "music from heaven", "the virtue of the system" of music education, and the virtue cultivation in an individual's "spirit and conduct" by music education. From that, we can see man's religious attachment to God, and the subject's independence as well, which reflect the mingling feature of "music and virtue" in its meaning in the initial period of "humanistic awakening".

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

要完善土链的思想仍有余地,在澳大利亚东南部,在K周期系列中不同时期土壤侵蚀和沉积的序列与土壤剖面发育有关(Butler, 1959)。

Further scope remains to elaborate the catena idea and, in southeast Australia, sequences of erosion and deposition over time periods were related to soil profile development in a series of K cycles (Butler, 1959).

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

其二，在酋邦和国家中，经授权的第三方可公布具有约束力的决定，而争端双方不得不尊重这一决定。这一过程被称为裁决(adjudication)。调解和裁决之间的区别从根本上说在于授权。在裁决解决争端中，争端各方都尽可能强硬地坚持 自己的立场，但他们不参与最终裁决。

Second, in chiefdoms and states, an authorized third party may issue a binding decision the disputing parties will be compelled to respect. This process is referred to as adjudication.The difference between mediation and adjudication is basically a difference in authorization. In a dispute settled by adjudication, the disputing parties present their positions as convincingly as they can, but they do not participate in the ultimate decision making.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

诺伊曼和莫根施特恩（Neumann and Morgenstern，1947)总结提炼的 Bernoulli原则认为，从多数人公认的少数公理中进行合理的推导是符合逻辑的。

Bernoulli's principle, as refined by von Neumann and Morgenstern (1947), has the normative justification of being a logical deduction from a small number of axioms that most people find reasonable.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

直立，按照合桥（第九式）的运动过程，做出标准桥式（图104）。双臂伸直，同时弯曲膝盖，将体重转移至双腿。双手（最后是手指）用力按压地面，使手掌离地，同时继续向前转移体重。此时，如果你的后背足够柔韧以维持高度的弓形，腹部又足够有力，在你起身时手指会离地（图105）。这个向上的运动过程应该是平缓向前转移体重的结果，而非用双手以爆发力推地面的结果。继续向上运动，双手绕过肩部收回，颈部也收回，与身体成一直线。最后，将髋部拉回，成直立姿势，双手回到身体两侧。这是该动作的结束姿势（图106）。从直立姿势做成标准桥式，然后把自己从下向上拉回成直立姿势，就是一次完整的铁板桥。重复练习，保持正常呼吸。

Stand up straight and perform a closing bridge (Step 9) into a full bridge hold (fig. 104). From this position, shift your weight forwards through the thighs, and bend the knees as you straighten your arms. Continue gradually shifting your weight forwards as your press through the hands and finally the fingers, lifting the palms off the floor. At this point, provided your back is flexible enough to maintain a high arch, and your stomach is powerful enough, your fingers will leave the ground as you start to straighten yourself up (fig. 105). This upwards motion should be the consequence of a smooth forwards transfer of your bodyweight, not the result of an explosive push off the floor with the hands. Continue the movement, drawing your hands back over your shoulders and pivoting the neck up in line with the body. Finally, pull the hips in until you are standing straight with hands by your sides. This is the finish position (fig. 106). Going from standing up, down to a full bridge hold, then straightening yourself back up to the standing position again constitutes one full repetition of the stand-to-stand bridge. Repeat the exercise, breathing normally.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

环境退化可能对高度地方化的和纯粹国家化的环境资源和生态系统造成影响，同时，它也可能影响到范围更广的共享资源和生态系统。的确，如果不承认稳定的“大地女神”模型的所有含义，那么，认为整个地球可以被看作一个单独的相互联系的生态系统，或者认为地球的重要部分构成不同的区域或大陆的生态系统，是合情合理的。

While environmental degradation can be wrought upon highly localized and purely national environmental resources and ecosystems, it can also affect very widely shared resources and ecosystems. Indeed, without accepting all the implications of the homeostatic Gaia model, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the entire planet can be viewed as a single interrelated ecosystem or that significant parts of it constitute distinct regional or continental ecosystems.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

福山县(包括现福山区、芝罘区和开发区范围)明清两代考中进士75人(其中武状元1名、武探花1名)，还有举人273人、贡生500人。

In Fushan County (today's Fushan District, Zhifu District and Kaifa District), 75 people were nominated as Jinshi in the Ming and Qing dynasties, including a Zhuangyuan (the first place) and a Tanhua (the second place) in martial arts as well as 273 Juren and 500 Gongsheng.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

其他控制内在效度威胁的方式包括安慰剂、单盲及双盲设计。安慰剂 (placebo)是用来评估观察到的效果是来自实验处理或心理效果。通常控制条件是研究对象接受到实验者的关注与互动程度一样，只不过采取的实验处理和依变项的表现无关。

Other ways of controlling threats to internal validity include placebos and blind and double­blind setups. A placebo is used to evaluate whether the observed effect is produced by the treatment or is a psychological effect. Frequently, a control condition is used in which participants receive the same attention from and interaction with the experimenter, but the treatment administered does not relate to performance on the dependent variable.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在19世纪后半期，主要货币的价值由金价决定，固定汇率制就建立在这个基础之上，这就是古典金本位制。在巴黎国际金融会议（1867年）之后，1878年正式建立了金本位制。早期参与者主要限于主要的欧洲国家、北美国家和澳大利亚。到了20世纪初，成员国范围扩大到许多欧洲国家、拉丁美洲国家、日本和主要的殖民地区，后来，有些落后国家退出并将其货币贬值了。

In the latter part of the nineteenth century the values of major currencies were fixed to the price of gold, providing the basis for a system of fixed exchange rates: the classical Gold Standard. After the preliminary Paris International Monetary Conference (1867) the Gold Standard was established formally in 1878. Initially, participation was confined to the leading European economies, North America and Australia; it was only in the early twentieth century that membership expanded to include the bulk of the European and Latin American countries, Japan and the leading colonial territories, although some of the weaker economies later left and devalued their currencies.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

最近大量出现的社会科学理论研究，是企图区分和辨明两种主要的分析概念：文化的结构与社会的结构。这种努力的动力源于要考虑社会进程中的观念因素，而不受黑格尔式或是马克思式还原论形式的束缚。

A great deal of recent social scientific theorizing has turned upon an attempt to distinguish and specify two major analytical concepts: culture and social structure. The impetus for this effort has sprung from a desire to take account of ideational factors in social processes without succumbing to either the Hegelian or the Marxist forms of reductionism.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

无论是否给出理论模型，我们都要对函数形式做出假定。如你所知，常弹性和常半弹性模型很有吸引力，因为系数易于解释（作为百分比）。如何选择函数形式没有硬性的原则，但略为提及你要估计的是弹性还是半弹性模型也会有所帮助。举例来说，如果你要估计某变量对工资或薪水的影响，因变量几乎可以肯定是采用对数形 式的，而且你也许从一开始就可以把它包含到方程中去。

We always have to make assumptions about functional form whether or not a theoretical model has been presented. As you know, constant elasticity and constant semi-elasticity models are attractive because the coefficients are easy to interpret (as percentage effects). There are no hard rules on how to choose functional form, but it is useful to mention whether you will be estimating elasticities or a semi-elasticity. For example, if you are estimating the effect of some variable on wage or salary, the dependent variable will almost surely be in logarithmic form, and you might as well include this in any equations from the beginning.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这一种族思维方式，在19世纪和20世纪初期达到顶峰，但它并没有就此消失。种族主义至今仍在世界各地流行，不论是在美国的白人与黑人、澳大利亚人与澳洲土著、华人与马来人中，还是在印度婆罗门与贱民之间。种族解释模式经常没有恶意地出现于大众文化中。例如，《收视指南》上在解释20世纪七八十年代当红女歌手盖尔（Crystal Gayle)的个性时，将其归因于“切罗基印第安人和爱尔兰血液在她的血液中奔流”。

This racial way of thinking reached its peak in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but it is by no means dead. Racism is rife throughout the world, whether among American whites describing blacks; Australians, the Aborigines; Chinese, the Malays; or Hindu Brahmins, the "untouchables." The racial mode of explanation appears constantly and innocently in popular culture. An issue of TV Guide, for example, explains the personality of singer Crystal Gayle as being due to "Cherokee Indian and Irish blood coursing through her veins." 

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

他也反对“ 文化的科学” 的观点 ( Radcliffe - Brown 1957 : 106 - 9; cf 1957 : 117 - 23) , 并含蓄地扞击博厄斯对此的强调。对他来说，博厄斯人类学中真正重要的是“社会”（作为人们彼此间的关系），不属于“文化”的变幻莫测，是不能被科学分析的。这是当时美国占 据统治地位的观点。与博厄斯及其追随者的文化概念不同，拉德克 利夫－布朗的“ 文化” 概念本质上是濡化 ( enculturation ) 或（更确切说） 社会化 ( socialization ）的同义词， 即习得如何在一个社会中生存的途径。

He also rejected the idea of a ‘science of culture’ (1957: 106–9; cf. 1957: 117–23) and implicitly attacked the Boasian emphasis on this. What really mattered to him was that in Boasian anthropology, the dominant version in America at the time, ‘society’ (as relations between people) was lost to the vagaries of ‘culture’, which could not be analysed scientifically. In fairness to Boas and his followers though, Radcliffe-Brown’s notion of ‘culture’ was essentially synonymous with enculturation or (more accurately) socialization: a way of learning to live in a society.

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

清朝陕甘合闱时期陕西籍解元的地理分布呈现出明显的地域不均衡性。这一时期的解元主要分布在西安府、同州府等关中地区，陕北和陕南的解元人数非常少，表现出明显的地区差异。究其原因，影响解元分布的因素非常复杂，既与经济发展水平高低、文化教育程度有关，也与学校教育机构的分布、行政设置、自然环境、交通道路等密切相关。可以说，导致人才地理分布不均衡的最主要原因是教育资源分布的不均衡。所以，教育资源的不均状态，不仅在今天存在，早在科举时代就已经非常明显了。

It is obvious that the regional characteristics of Shaanxi Jieyuan is of imbalance in the Qing dynasty. The most were lived in the Xi'an prefecture and Tongzhou prefecture, while in Northern Shaanxi regions and Southern Shaanxi regions fewer. The reasons which influence the factors of the distribution are very complex, such as the economic development, education, distribution of education institutions, administrative systems, natural environment and transportation. The main reason is the imbalance of education resources. So the imbalance not only exists in the modern times but also is obvious in the imperial era.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

然而，在欧洲，联合出品在某些时候就是重要的资金来源。合作生产1950年在法国只占受资助电影的15%，但这个比例在接下来的15年中稳步上升，在60年代中期达到了约70%。此后该比例有所下降，到70年代晚期又回到了战后最初的水平。到80年代晚期又出现了某种程度的复苏。到90年代中期，西欧的联合出品的程度已经达到了总电影量的50%。欧洲一些国家的电影产业几乎完全依靠国际联合出品的资金，如葡萄牙和比利时就是如此（Gyory和Glas，1994;《银屏摘要》，1996，1997b）。

However, in Europe co-productions have at certain times been an important source of finance. In France co-productions accounted for only 15 per cent of film finance projects in 1950, but this climbed steadily over the next fifteen years to reach around 70 per cent of film projects in the mid-1960s. After this, the level declined and by the late 1970s had returned to its initial postwar levels, before undergoing something of a revival in the late 1980s. By the mid 1990s the level of co-productions in Western Europe had reached 50 per cent of all movies. Smaller European film industries like the Portuguese and Belgian are almost totally reliant on international co-production finance (Gyory and Glas, 1994; Screen Digest, 1996,1997b).

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

朱熹"自得"的基本含义为"自然而得"、"得之于己"。所谓"自然而得"，具体内涵有二:对经典意义的悟解，要经由一个循序而进、积累渐渍的过程，而非匆遽躁进、躐等欲速所能致；对经典意义的悟解，要靠优游涵泳、反复玩味的工夫来达成，非苦心考索、安排措置所能致。

The basic meaning of Zhu Xi's "self-gaining" is getting something naturally and by oneself. The understanding of classics is a process of sequential and accumulated infiltration, rather than rashness. It relies on leisure and complacence, pondering time and again instead of painstaking research and arrangement.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

然而，历史上更为常见的是，形式上的停滞与个体的创造发明并存。因此，当文化形式“凝固”且变得独立时，就会从创造它们的力量中分离出来，使得世界中充满着习惯，而个体也就会创造出新的形式，为世界带来进一步的变化和变迁。在形式的混乱中要发生这些，首先要求，个体有可能在众多相互竞争的选择中（宗教和科学；弗洛伊德和荣格的心理分析；积家、阿曼尼和马莎的服饰；曼城、曼联、狼队和系伯尼安等足球队）进行筛选；并且把这些形式按照一定的顺序和频率组织起来，形成新的产成品（拉康心理分析；朋克服饰）。

More historically usual, however, is the situation of formal inertia and individual invention proceeding side by side. Hence, as cultural forms ‘congeal’ and become independent, detached from the energies which produced them, and fill the world with habit, individuals are also creating new forms, and causing a world of further heterogeneity and flux. New energies, not incorporatable within old forms, create new forms. This happens as, first, amid the clutter of forms, individuals have the possibility of choosing between a number of often competing options (religion and science; Freudian and Jungian psychoanalysis; Jaeger, Armani and St Michael tailoring; Manchester City, Man. Utd, Wolves and Hibernian football); and also of putting these formstogether in a sequence and frequency which amounts to a new bricolage (Lacanian psychoanalysis; Punk tailoring).

请将下面教育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

朱熹的《大学章句》是独具特色的理学诠释文本，代表了礼理沟通、融合的经学诠释典范。朱熹的"格物致知"诠释，注入了天理论，实现了从礼到理的哲学升华；强调大学格物的基础是小学工夫，从历史的角度考察了礼理沟通的可能；同时重视格物中居敬涵养的修养工夫，强调礼理融合的实践。

Zhu Xi's Commentary on the Great Learning was a unique text of interpretation and represented a classics model of the integration of the ritual and the principle. Zhu Xi's interpretation of " investigating things to extend knowledge", which was injected with the principle, made a philosophical breakthrough from the ritual to the principle; emphasized the basis of the investigation of things was the practice of the plain knowledege, investigated the possibility of communication between the ritual and the principle from the perspective of history; at the same time attached great importance to self-cultivation with seriousness and emphasized the practice in the integration of the ritual and the principle.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

对于一个产业来讲，进入威胁的大小取决于呈现的进入壁垒加上准备进入者可能遇到的现存守成者的反击。如果壁垒高筑或新进入者认为严阵以待的守成者会坚决地报复，则这种威胁就会较小。

The threat of entry into an industry depends on the barriers to entry that are present, coupled with the reaction from existing competitors that the entrant can expect. If barriers are high and/or the newcomer can expect sharp retaliation from entrenched competitors, the threat of entry is low.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

假如它们不是族性的组成部分，那么它们是什么特性的基础？科恩的质疑强化了来自非洲自身的另一个更古老的质疑。在1984年，我在赞比亚发表了一个有关部族制 (tribalism)发明的讲演。在听众散场时，我听到那位赞比亚的人文科学系主任对同僚说，“那时我们是谁? ”一旦族性被想象 (imagined)出来，它的确像是原生的，而且想象之前的任何身份都变得不可能。

And if they were not the ingredients of ethnicity, what identities did they underlie? Cohen's challenge reinforces an older challenge from within Africa itself.In 1984, I gave a lecture in Zambia about the invention of tribalism. As the audience filed out, I heard the Zambian Dean of Arts say to a colleague, "Who were we then?" Once it has been imagined, ethnicity certainly seems primordial, and it becomes impossible to conceive of any prior identity.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

即使你在设计题目、阐述模型、收集数据和运用计量经济方法的过程中非常谨慎，仍有可能（至少在某些时候）得到令人迷惑的结果。此时，很自然的想法是尝试不同的模型，不同的估计方法，甚至不同的数据子集，直到结果与预期更加一致。实际上，所有的应用研究人员在找到“最佳”模型之前，都会搜索各种不同的模型。不幸的是，数据开采的实践破坏了我们在计量经分析中所做的假定。OLS和其他估计量的无偏性结论，以及我们为假设检验而推导的t分布和F 分布，都假定我们观察到一个服从总体模型的样本，并对该模型只估计一次。

Even if you are very careful in devising your topic, postulating your model, collecting your data, and carrying out the econometrics, it is quite possible that you will obtain puzzling results—at least some of the time. When that happens, the natural inclination is to try different models, different estimation techniques, or perhaps different subsets of data until the results correspond more closely to what was expected. Virtually all applied researchers search over various models before finding the “best” model. Unfortunately, this practice of data mining violates the assumptions we have made in our econometric analysis. The results on unbiasedness of OLS and other estimators, as well as the t and F distributions we derived for hypothesis testing, assume that we observe a sample following the population model and we estimate that model once.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

因为同样的几何图案也存在于欧洲洞穴艺术中，看来它也描绘具有变异意识形态的人所看到的事情。就如南非和澳大利亚的岩石艺术与我们称之为宗教体验的东西有关一样，欧洲石器时代的艺术也是如此。

Since the same geometric designs occur in the cave art of Europe it seems it, too, depicted images seen in altered states of consciousness. Just as the rock art of southern Africa and Australia is related to what we would label religious experiences, so too was the Stone Age art of Europe.

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

虽然列维－斯特劳斯像列维－布留尔一样，经常评述“简 单”结构和“复杂“结构、 “冷“社会和“热“社会（指历史上变化的剧烈程度），以及有“具体”思维和“抽象”思维的社会之间的区别，但是他的整个方法肯定是一种从一般到特殊的推理方式。

Although Le ́vi-Strauss, rather like Le ́vy-Bruhl, has often commented on distinctions between ‘elementary’ structures and ‘complex’ ones,‘cold’ societies and ‘hot’ ones (with reference to the relative ‘heat’ of historical change), and societies with mainly ‘concrete’ and those with ‘abstract’ thought, his entire approach is predicated on reasoning from the general to the specific.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

为补偿相对吸引力或非货币因素的差别而产生的各工种之间的工资差别，称为补偿性差异。

Wage differentials that serve to compensate for the relative attractiveness, or nonmonetary differences, among jobs are called compensating differentials.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

我们关于词汇歧义和结构歧义的知识表明，语言表达式的意义建立在它所包含的词和它的句法结构之上。一个表达式的意义由其各个部分的意义组构而成，取决于它们如何在结构上组合起来，这个概念称为语义组构性原则。

Our knowledge of lexical and structural ambiguities reveals that the meaning of a linguistic expression is built both on the words it contains and its syntactic structure. The notion that the meaning of an expression is composed of the meanings of its parts and how they are combined structurally is referred to as the principle of compositionality.

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

人体渴望伤口痊愈，用“有害”胆固醇填补患处，“灰泥”会用得过多，高出血管壁上的破裂口。而这还只是个开头，此举还会刺激免疫系统，吸引来白细胞试图实施保护，消除“有害”胆固醇，平复人体受到的伤害。白细胞会分泌有毒物质，这些物质通常情况下能对抗感染，而这时则会造成全面发炎。

In its zeal to heal, it starts convering up the damage with the "bad" cholesterol, slapping it on like too much plaster over a hole in a wall. And that's only the beginning, since it stimulates the immune system to attract white-cell protsctors to try to smooth out and gobble up the rotten cholesterol. Those, in turn, spill some of their toxic contents that normally attack enemy infections, which causes generalized inflammation.

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

它与通常对形象的研究所不同之处在于，它认定在巴罗克诗歌中，“属性被组织成差异，差异形成对立，而感知世界则按照某种物质几何学的严格规律，被划分为对立的两极”。

This is distinguished from usual accounts of imagery by its insistence that in baroque poetry ‘qualities are organized into differences, differences into contrasts, and the sensible world is polarized according to the strict laws of a kind of geometry of material’.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

我们也还记得教皇庇佑九世在他所谓的《谬误条目》中“宣称教会从国家控制中完全独立出来，坚持罗马教廷保留世俗权力的必要性。”

We recall that Pius IX in his so-called Syllabus of Errors "claimed the complete independence of the Church from state control; upheld the necessity of a continuance of the temporal power of the Roman See."

请将下面民族学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

尽管大多数曾在殖民地开展研究的人类学家已通过修正错误减少其作品中殖民主义的色彩，人类学至少在某种程度上依旧自视为社会科学而不是艺术，它不过是无意中契合过殖民主义的目标。另一方面，它又曾满足了现代主义的发展规划和思维模式的霸权需要。

Although most anthropologists working among the colonized have viewed their programme as one to alleviate the weight of colonialism by reducing its mistakes, anthropology—at least to the extent it has considered itself a social science and not of the arts—has nevertheless inadvertently served colonialism’s aim. It has also served the hegemony of modernist programmes of development and ways of thinking.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

此外，因为一切人类语言可以互相翻译，就可以通过问答而得知人们如何看待他们自己的思想和行为。一个巴聪加人如何称呼他的母亲？“妈妈妮。”

Moreover, because of the mutual translatability of all human languages, what people think about their thoughts and behavior can be learned through questions and answers. What does a Bathonga call his mother? "Mamani."

请将下面体育学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

通过分析很多研究的结果，我们可以得出结论：每天喝700毫升咖啡，帕金森综合征发病率降低40%；阿尔茨海默病发病率则会降低约20%。

There have been enough studies performed that we can say that drinking twenty-four ounces of coffee a day decreases your risk of Parkinson's disease by 40 percent and your risk of Alzheimer's disease by about 20 percent.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

其他西方国家不同于美国和英国的地方在于国内产生的流行音乐相对贫乏。所有这些国家都从美国进口大部分的音乐唱片，继续复制着50年代和60年代建立起来的主导模式（参看IFPT，1994）。

Where other Western countries differ from the US and UK is in the relative paucity of domestically generated popular music. All of them import a significant proportion of their recorded music from the US, reproducing the pattern of dominance established in the 1950s and 1960s (see IFPI,1994).

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

用到英语上时，我们只要多加一点讯总，说X-bar的字序是“主要语在前”； 用到日语中，只要说明“主要语殿后”即可。同样的，其他的短语超级规则也可把左到右的字序规则蒸馏掉，使某一种语言的短语字序另外用一个“X-bar在前”或 “X-bar殿后”的指令来执行即可。

To get English, one appends a single bit of information saying that the order within an X-bar is "head-first." To get Japanese, that bit of information would say that the order is "head-last." Similarly, the other super-rule (the one for phrases) can be distilled so that left-to-right order boils away, and an ordered phrase in a particular language can be reconstituted by adding back either "X-bar-first" or "X-bar-last."

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

迪克•海布迪奇用“混搭”—词清晰地描述了青年亚文化是如何从以商业化方式生产的商品中创造出自己的用途和意义的。文化商品或被拼凑或被转化，早已与生产者的本来意图大相径庭，所表达的含义也与最初的设计“背道而驰”。

Dick Hebdige offers a clear and convincing explanation of the process (‘bricolage’) by which youth subcultures appropriate for their own purposes and meanings the commodities commercially provided. Products are combined or transformed in ways not intended by their producers; commodities are rearticulated to produce ‘oppositional’ meanings.

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

海姆写道，“单子没有窗户，但是它们具有终端”，在赛伯世界中，莱布尼茨的“单子论形而上学”成为赛伯空间之逻辑和“爱欲本体论”的基础。把对这种新空间的深入探索视为一种激进的和革命的行动的形式，这样的人现在有很多。

"Monads have no windows, but they do have terminals" writes Heim, going on to describe a cyberworld in which Leibniz's "monadological metaphysics" underpin both the logic and "erotic ontology" of cyberspace. And there are many who now regard intensive exploration of this new space as a form of radical and revolutionary action.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

最后，阐释理论主导着分析层面确立的考古形态与无法直观的古代行为和环境状况之间的关系。于是，阐释理论推断的是沉积前理论解释的过程。

Finally, interpretive theory governed relations between the archaeological patterns established at the analytical level and directly unobservable ancient behavioral and environmental patterns. Thus interpretive theory infers the processes that predepositional theory explains.

请将下面历史学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

第一，挑战直指奥本海默所提出的国际法是“只在国家之间存在的，并且是排他性的法律”这一信条。基于某些具有革新性的协定，个人和群体已被承认是国际法的主体。这样的协定包括《纽伦堡和东京战犯审判法庭宪章》（1945）、《世界人权宣言》（1948）、《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》（1966）和《欧洲人权公约》（1950）。

First, there has been a challenge mounted to the doctrine that international law, as Oppenheim put it, is a ‘law between states only and exclusively’（see 1985, ch. 1). Individuals and groups have become recognized as subjects of international law on the basis of such innovatory agreements as the charters of the "Nuremberg and Tokyo war crimes tribunals" (1945), the "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (1948), the "Covenant on Civil and Political Rights" (1966), and the "European Convention on Human Rights" (1950).

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

但是黎巴嫩、缅甸的基督教的克伦人和穆斯林的若开人、印度尼西亚的托巴巴塔克人、安汶和米纳哈萨人、菲律宾的摩洛人、印度旁遮普的锡克人、巴基斯坦的阿赫马迪亚人及尼日利亚的豪萨人都是宗教损害或妨碍整体公民感的其他著名例子。

But Lebanon, the Christian Karens and the Moslem Arakenese in Burma, the Toba Bataks, Ambonese, and Minahassans in Indonesia, the Moros in the Philippines, the Sikhs in Indian Punjab and the Ahmadiyas in Pakistan, and the Hausa in Nigeria are other well-known examples of its force in undermining or inhibiting a comprehensive civil sense.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

然而，丹麦国家藏品拥有从同一墓葬、窖穴或其他背景中出土的成套器物，而它们可以比较可靠地被看做同时埋藏的。汤姆森将它们称为“共生发现物” （“dosed finds”），并相信，采用对这类发现中各类器物的比较，注意哪些器物类型共生，而哪些器物则从不共生，这就有可能令他确定不同时期代表性的器物种类（Graslund 1974：97—118, 1981， 1987)。

Yet the Danish national collection contained sets of artifacts that had been found in the same grave, hoard, or other contexts and that could safely be assumed to have been buried at the same time. Thomsen called these “closed finds” and believed that, by comparing the various items from each such discovery and noting which types of artifacts occurred together and which never did, it would be possible for him to determine the sorts of artifacts that were characteristic of different periods (Graslund 1974: 97–118, 1981, 1987).

请将下面人文经济地理的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

郊区的兴起是十足由美国领导的社会转变过程，代表了一种有时被称为美国霸权周期的元素。这是沃勒斯坦主义周期性意识形态时空概念的一部分。在世界系统分析中，现代世界已经通过3个霸权周期而发展，每个周期都是以世界性霸权国家经济上的成功为基础的。

The rise of the suburb was very much a US-led process of social change and represents an element of what is sometimes called the American hegemonic cycle. This is part of a Wallersteinian cyclical-ideological TimeSpace. In world-systems analysis, the modern world-system has developed through three hegemonic cycles each based upon the economic successes of a world hegemonic state.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

研究原料产地的前提，是某物品的原料的物质特征，有别于来自其他产地原料的产品。当然，有时候某物如此特殊，一眼便知它来自某地。

For characterization to work, there must obviously be something about the source of the material that distinguishes its products from those coming from other sources. Of course, sometimes a material is so unusual and distinctive in itself that it can at once be recognized as deriving from a given source.

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

“《阿闼婆吠陀》中的《瞿波塔梵书》(GopathaBrarnaoa)一节不厌其详地列举了因为在仪式中各司其职而应取到肉份的不同人的名字。”

"The Gopatha Brahmana of the Arthava Veda gives in detail the names of different individuals who are to receive shares of the meat for the parts they take in the ceremony" (ibid.:22).

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

有几本计量经教材报告临界值的上下界，它们取决于理想的置信水平、对立假设、观测次数和回归元个数。（我们假定模型中包含截距。）

Several econometrics texts report upper and lower bounds for the critical values that depend on the desired significance level, the alternative hypothesis, the number of observations,and the number of regressors. (We assume that an intercept is included in the model.)

请将下面外国语言文学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

这种联合在英国成为许多理论争论的基础，不论在政治理论界，还是在文学文化研究界都是如此。有关文化与意义之间的关系的许多重大探索始于20世纪70年代的电影研究杂志《银幕》。 它利用阿尔都塞和拉康的理论，力图搞清楚电影艺术表现形式的结构怎样建构主体或怎样为其定位。

This conjunction is the basis of much theoretical debate in Britain, in political theory as well as literary and cultural studies. Crucial investigations of relations between culture and signification took place in the 1970s in the film studies magazine Screen, which, deploying Althusser and Lacan, sought to understand how the subject is positioned or constructed by the structures of cinematic representation.

请将下面经济学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

在美国，生产1单位粮食需要1小时劳动，生产1单位服装需要2小时劳动；在欧洲，生产粮食的成本是三小时劳动，生产服装的成本是4小时劳动。我们看到，美国在这两种商品上都拥有绝对优势，它生产两种商品的绝对生产效率都要比欧洲高。

In America, it takes 1 hour of labor to produce a unit of food, while a unit of clothing requires 2 hours of labor. In Europe the cost is 3 hours of labor for food and 4 hours of labor for clothing. We see that America has absolute advantage in both goods, for it can produce either one with greater absolute effciency than can Europe.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

无论它作为一种演变理论是否有其内在的价值，悲剧的文化进化观鼓励考古学家从考古材料中去寻找人口压力、环境退化和社会系统崩溃的证据。

Cataclysmic evolutionism, whatever its intrinsic merits as a theory of change, encouraged archaeologists to look for evidence of populationpressure, environmental degradation, and the collapse of social systems in the archaeological record.

请将下面管理学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

5.帕累托分析或ABC分析。这种分析用来识别项目中最重要的成本要素。第一步是按照成本对每一个成本要素进行区分，然后将它们归入下面的三个组中。A组：高端成本要素占成本要素的小部分（10%〜15%)，其成本大约占 总成本的60%或以上。B组：所有的既不属于A组也不属于C组的成本要素。C组：低端成本要素占成本要素的大部分（大约50%)，其成本大约占总成本的10%或更少。

5. Pareto, or ABC, analysis. This analysis is used to identify the most important cost components of a project. The first step is to sort each component by cost and then to place them into one of the following three groups:Group A : small percentage of the top cost components (10% to 15%)which together account for roughly 60% or more of the total costGroup B: all cost components that are not members of group A or CGroup C: large percentage of the bottom cost components(approximately 50%), which account for 10% or less of the total cost

请将下面文化学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

首先，大多数国家之间的原生运动并没有涉及所有的分离国家（就像“泛”字开头的运动至少倾向于所做的那样），而是涉及到散居在几个国家中的少数民族。例如，已故的卡萨武布先生与他的刚果共和国和安哥拉盟友发起的阿巴克运动。

In the first place, most interstate primordial movements do not involve entire separate countries, as the pan-movements at least tend to do, but rather minorities scattered through several, for example: the Abako movement of the late Mr. Kasuvubu and his Republic of The Congo and Angola allies.

请将下面考古学的汉语文本翻译为英语文本。

分节社会（segmentary societies，有时指“部落”）一般比流动的狩猎采集群要大，但是其成员很少超过几千人，他们的食物和生存大部分依赖栽培的植物或驯化的动物。他们是比较典型的定居农人，但也可能是游动的畜牧人，拥有一种以强化利用畜牧为基础的、十分不同的流动型经济。

Segmentary Societies (Sometimes Called “Tribes”). These are generally larger than mobile hunter-gatherer groups, but rarely number more than a few thousand, and their diet or subsistence is based largely on cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Typically, they are settled farmers, but they may be nomad pastoralists with a very different, mobile economy based on the intensive exploitation of livestock.