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Carcinogenic chemicals in candles Candles create an atmosphere that may be romantic but is also laced with cancer chemicals, researchers have warned. Burning paraffin wax candles is an unrecognised source of indoor pollution, say scientists. Levels of chemicals released by candles can build up in unventilated closed rooms, the American Chemical Society's annual meeting in Washington DC was told. They include harmful substances such as toluene and benzene, which are known to cause cancer. Candle emissions could also irritate the lungs and trigger asthma attacks, said the researchers. Some cases of indoor allergy may actually be a response to inhaling candle chemicals, it was claimed. People who frequently used candles, for instance to help them relax in the bath or provide the right ambience for dinner, are most at risk. Dr Amid Hamidi, from South Carolina State University in Orangeburg, who co-led the study, said: “An occasional paraffin candle and its emissions will not likely affect you. But lighting many paraffin candles every day for years or lighting them frequently in an unventilated bathroom around a tub, for example, may cause problems.” The scientists suggested switching to candles made from beeswax or soy, which were believed to be safer. To investigate candle emissions, the researchers burned a range of candles in the laboratory and collected the mixture of substances they gave off. These were then analysed in a machine which separated out the individual elements and identified their atoms by weight. Paraffin-based candles produced “clear sharp peaks” for many chemicals. Burning candles does not produce high enough temperatures to combust the heavy molecules contained in paraffin wax completely, said the scientists. This led to the formation and emission of hazardous molecules such as toluene and benzene. Dr Joanna Owens, of Cancer Research UK, said: “There is no direct evidence that everyday use of candles can affect our risk of developing cancer. In terms of cancer, a far more significant type of indoor air pollution is second-hand cigarette smoke.” Dr Noemi Eiser, of the British Lung Foundation, said: “We would like to reassure people that occasional use of paraffin candles should not pose any risk to their lung health.”

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The greatest tragic poet of Italy ; b. at Asti (Piedmont), 17 January, 1749; d. at Florence, 8 October, 1803. He was the son of Count Antonio Alfieri and Monica Maillard de Tournon. His training (1758-66) at the Regia Academia of Turin, where, owing to his father's early death, he had been placed by his uncle, Count Benedetto Alfieri, bore no fruit. Recklessly plunging into the world at the age of sixteen, the uncontrolled master of a considerable fortune, after a short service in the Piedmontese army, he took to travelling all over Europe without any definite aim in view, urged on by an overwhelming spirit of unrest. Thus he spent his best years in disreputable intrigues, profitless roving, and the promiscuous reading of unworthy literature. French he knew well enough, but of his native tongue he had little more than a colloquial smattering. His real education was to begin soon after his twenty-ninth year, when his hitherto dormant genius suddenly kindled in him an indomitable literary ambition, which first caused him to delve into Italian, then into Latin, and, nineteen years later, into Greek with sturdy courage and unflagging perseverance. Italy lacked a tragic literature worthy of the name. Alfieri created it. Having settled at Florence in 1778, he contracted there an intimacy with Louisa von Stolberg-Gedern, Countess of Albany, the wife of Charles Edward Stuart, the Pretender. In 1792, when debauchery had brought the latter to his grave, the Countess began to share the poet's home. The criticisms of society were ignored and the lovers lived unwedded to the end. The poet's religious feelings, however, always appeared strong and sincere. He died after receiving the sacraments of the Church and was buried in Santa Croce, where a monument by Canova marks his grave. Alfieri's literary production, begun in 1778, was laborious and voluminous. His fame rests mainly on twenty-two tragedies, viz.: "Filippo," "Polinice," — both based on an extremely weird plot and exhibiting at times the beginner's hand; "Antigone," "Virginia," "Agamennone," showing greater poetic finish and maturer artistic skill; "Oreste," "Rosmunda," "Ottavia," "Timoleone," "Merope," — in which the author is at his best; "Maria Stuarda," a little below the standard previously set; "La Congiura dei Pazzi," full of vigor and poetic impetus; "Don Garzia," "Saul," this being his masterpiece; "Agide," "Sofonisba," "Bruto Primo," "Mirra," rich in striking effects; "Bruto Secondo," "Abele," "Alceste Seconda," and "Antonio e Cleopatra," which closed his repertoire. Alfieri's tragedies have been said to be cast in a form often constrained and pedantic. Even if this be true, the fault almost disappears when their forcefulness, freshness, sincerity of feeling, and inspiration are fully appreciated. Nor is the poet's fame waning in the hearts of contemporary Italy. His unrelenting hatred of tyranny, ringing through every word and line, is now more than ever acknowledged to have been the strongest literary factor in Italy's fight for political unity and independence. There is a complete edition of Alfieri's works in twenty-two volumes, by Capurro (Pisa, 1805-15). It contains, besides the tragedies, the "Vita di Vittorio Alfieri, scritta da esso," the "Misogallo," and sundry minor writings. The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes. Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration. No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny. Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912 Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online

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Of the Liberty of Thought and Discussion Summary (Part 1) In Chapter 2, Mill turns to the issue of whether people, either through their government or on their own, should be allowed to coerce or limit anyone else’s expression of opinion. Mill emphatically says that such actions are illegitimate. Even if only one person held a particular opinion, mankind would not be justified in silencing him. Silencing these opinions, Mill says, is wrong because it robs “the human race, posterity as well as the existing generation.” In particular, it robs those who disagree with these silenced opinions. Mill then turns to the reasons why humanity is hurt by silencing opinions. His first argument is that the suppressed opinion may be true. He writes that since human beings are not infallible, they have no authority to decide an issue for all people, and to keep others from coming up with their own judgments. Mill asserts that the reason why liberty of opinion is so often in danger is that in practice people tend to be confident in their own rightness, and excluding that, in the infallibility of the world they come in contact with. Mill contends that such confidence is not justified, and that all people are hurt by silencing potentially true ideas. After presenting his first argument, Mill looks at possible criticisms of his reasoning and responds to them. First, there is the criticism that even though people may be wrong, they still have a duty to act on their “conscientious conviction.” When people are sure that they are right, they would be cowardly not to act on that belief and to allow doctrines to be expressed that they believe will hurt mankind. To this, Mill replies that the only way that a person can be confident that he is right is if there is complete liberty to contradict and disprove his beliefs. Humans have the capacity to correct their mistakes, but only through experience and discussion. Human judgment is valuable only in so far as people remain open to criticism. Thus, the only time a person can be sure he is right is if he is constantly open to differing opinions; there must be a standing invitation to try to disprove his beliefs. Second, there is the criticism that governments have a duty to uphold certain beliefs that are important to the well being of society. Only “bad” men would try to undermine these beliefs. Mill replies that this argument still relies on an assumption of infallibility–the usefulness of an opinion is still something up for debate, and it still requires discussion. Furthermore, the truth of a belief is integral to whether it is desirable for it to be believed. Mill observes that the assumption of infallibility about a certain question implies that one not only feels very sure about a belief, but also includes the attempt to try to decide that question for other people. It is in stifling dissenting opinions in the name of social good that some of the most horrible mistakes in human history have been made. Mill writes about Socrates and Jesus Christ, two illustrious figures in history, who were put to death for blasphemy because their beliefs were radical for their times. Mill then considers whether society should be able to censor an opinion that rejects a common moral belief or the existence of God and a future state. He gives the example of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, a just and kind man who still persecuted Christianity, failing to see its value to society. Mill argues that if one is to accept the legitimacy of punishing irreligious opinions, one must also accept that if one felt, like Marcus Aurelius did, that Christianity was dangerous, one would also be justified in punishing Christianity. Third, Mill considers the criticism that truth may be justifiably persecuted, because persecution is something that truth should have to face, and it will always survive. Mill replies that such a sentiment is harshly unfair to those who actually are persecuted for holding true ideas. By discovering something true, these people have performed a great service to humanity. Supporting the persecution of such people suggests that their contributions are not truly being valued. Mill also contends that it is wrong to assume that “truth always triumphs over persecution.” It may take centuries for truth to reemerge after it is suppressed. For example, Mill writes that the Reformation of the Catholic Church was put down twenty times before Martin Luther was successful. It is mere sentimentality to think that truth is stronger than error, although truth will tend to be rediscovered over time if it is extinguished. Fourth, Mill responds to the possible argument against him that since we do not actually put dissenters to death any more, no true opinion will ever be extinguished. Mill replies that legal persecution for opinions is still significant in society, for example in the case of blasphemy or atheism. There is also no guarantee, given general public opinion, that more extreme forms of legal persecution will not reemerge. In addition, there continues to be social intolerance of dissent. Mill argues that societal intolerance causes people to hide their views, and stifles intellectualism and independent thought. Stifling free thinking hurts truth, no matter whether a particular instance of free thinking leads to false conclusions. In Chapter 2, Mill looks exclusively at issues of freedom of thought and of opinion. It is significant that he attempts to justify the importance of this freedom by showing its social benefits–for Mill, diversity of opinion is a positive societal good. Mill’s argument that the dissenting opinion may be true brings up some important points. First, it highlights that Mill believes that moral truths do exist. Thus, in defending liberty, Mill does not say that all opinions are equally valid. Mill is not a relativist; he is not saying that all things can be true according to their circumstances. Rather, he is simply saying that any single idea might be true, and that for this reason no idea can be dismissed, since truth is a boon to progress. Second, Mill tries to show the contingency of popular beliefs about truth while going to great lengths to not actually state that any popular views about things like religion are wrong. To accomplish this, he observes that in the past people have been persecuted for what is now believed to be true. Thus, Mill creates a logical situation in which anyone reading must accept that if they support persecuting “false” views, then they are required to accept their own persecution if in the minority on a specific issue. Mill is thereby able to dismiss the persecution of “false” views, without condemning modern views as being false. Third, Mill’s examples of persecuted truths reflect some of his rhetorical strategies in this essay. Mill is very conscious of his audience in 19th century England, and he uses examples, like the crucifixion of Christ, which would certainly have resonance with his readers. This reflects a more general strategy in this essay of choosing familiar and often uncontroversial examples in order to make much broader moral claims. In reading this essay it is important to remember that England did not have the same legal protection of liberty that it has today; Mill uses examples to make his points that would not get him into trouble with the law or English society. Finally, it is worth thinking about the importance of Mill’s assumption in the existence of truth to his justification for freedom of opinion. If no one could be wrong or right, would this require tolerance and respect of difference, or could the strongest opinion simply try to defeat all others? Mill does not try to answer this question, because the existence of truth is assumed throughout. However, thinking about such issues is important in seeing how persuasive Mill can be to people who do not share all of his assumptions. Summary (Part 2) After explaining how popular opinions might be false, Mill makes three further arguments in favor of freedom of opinion. His second argument (after the argument discussed last section that the popular opinion could be false), is that even if the popular opinion is true, if it is not debated it will become “dead dogma.” If truth is simply held as a prejudice, then people will not fully understand it, and will not understand how to refute objections to it. Dissent, even if it is false, keeps alive the truth against which it dissents. Mill then turns to two potential criticisms of his argument. First, one could say that people should be taught the grounds for their opinions, and that having been taught these grounds, they do not then merely hold prejudices but really understand the basis of their opinions. Mill replies that in cases where differing opinions are possible, understanding the truth requires dispelling arguments to the contrary. If a person cannot refute objections, then he cannot properly be said to understand his own opinion. Furthermore, he must hear these objections from people who actually believe them, because it is only these people who can show the full force of the arguments. Responding to objections is so important that if no dissenters exist, it is necessary to imagine them, and to come up with the most persuasive arguments that they could make. A second criticism might be that it is not necessary for mankind in general to be familiar with potential objections to their beliefs, but only for philosophers or theologians to be thus aware. Mill replies that this objection does not weaken his argument for free discussion, because dissenters still must be given a voice with which to object to opinions. Furthermore, while in the Catholic Church there is a clear distinction between common people and intellectuals, in Protestant countries like England, every person is considered responsible for his choices. Also, in modern times it is practically impossible to keep writings that are accessible to the intellectuals from the common people. Mill then presents a third argument for the value of liberty of thought and discussion. He writes that if a true opinion is not debated, the meaning of the opinion itself may be lost. This can be seen in the history of ethical and religious beliefs–when they stop being challenged, they lose their “living power.” Mill says that Christianity faces such a situation, where people’s beliefs are not reflected in their conduct. As a result, people do not truly understand the doctrines they hold dear, and their misunderstanding leads to serious mistakes. Mill presents one possible criticism of this view. He writes that it could be asked whether it is essential for “true knowledge” for some people to hold erroneous opinions. Mill replies that having an increasing number of uncontested opinions is both “inevitable and indispensable” in the process of human improvement. However, this does not mean that the loss of debate is not a drawback, and he encourages teachers to try to compensate for the loss of dissent. Mill then turns to a fourth argument for freedom of opinion. He writes that in the case of conflicting doctrines, perhaps the most common case is that instead of one being true and one false, the truth is somewhere between them. Progress usually only substitutes one partial truth for another, the newer truth more suited to the needs of the times. Dissenting or heretical opinions often reflect the partial truths not recognized in popular opinion, and are valuable for bringing attention to a “fragment of wisdom.” This fact can be seen in politics, where differing opinions keep both sides reasonable. In any open question, the side that is least popular at the time is the side that should be most encouraged. This side reflects interests that are being neglected. Mill then looks at a criticism of this fourth argument. He says that it could be argued that some principles, such as those of Christianity, are the whole truth, and if somebody disagrees, he is completely wrong. Mill replies by saying that in many ways Christian morality is “incomplete and one-sided,” and that some of the most important ethical ideas have been derived from Greek and Roman sources. He argues that Christ himself intended his message to be incomplete, and that it is a mistake to reject secular supplements to Christian morality. Most basically, human imperfection implies that a diversity of opinion would be required to understand truth. After looking at these four arguments for liberty, Mill briefly addresses the argument that free expression should be allowed, but only if it sticks to “fair discussion.” He says that such a standard would be very hard to enforce from a practical perspective. Mill posits that it would likely only be dissenters who would be held to such a high standard of conduct. Ultimately, it is not law’s place to restrict discussion in this way; public opinion must look at individual cases, and hold both sides to the same standard. Mill makes the case that if people hold a true opinion they will benefit from hearing dissenters argue against that opinion. He also observes that he thinks most people only know partial truths, and that they might benefit from hearing other fragments of truth. This discussion reflects a particular conception of how people learn. Mill contends that people learn through debate, and through having their opinions challenged. Thus, dissenting opinions are socially useful because they help people to understand the real strength (and limitations) of their own beliefs. Mill believes that the usefulness of dissenting opinions cannot be substituted for, neither when the unpopular view is partially true, nor when it is completely false. One idea to consider when thinking about Mill’s argument is whether he has an overly idealized view of this learning process. For example, what happens when the conflicting opinions rest on fundamentally different presuppositions–are the conversations that Mill describes really possible? If people do not share the same vocabulary for discussing moral and political issues, then will they really be challenging each other, or simply talking past each other? Think about what answer Mill might give to this problem. If his answer is unconvincing, then can he still say that a diversity of opinions is socially useful? Finally, it is also worth looking at Mill’s refutation of someone who thinks that Christianity is the whole truth. Mill seems to argue that such a person misinterprets Christianity. Would this response be convincing to a person with views on Christianity that are different from Mill’s? Does Mill have other arguments that might provide a better response to this claim? More generally, Mill’s discussion of religious toleration in Chapter 2 brings up the issue of whether Mill can be convincing to people whose beliefs demand intolerance of those who disagree with them. Since Mill is using social benefit as the basis of his justification for liberty, it would seem that a person who believes in intolerance could simply say that any benefits of free opinion are outweighed by allowing something evil to be expressed. Think about how persuasive such a critique is, given Mill’s claims about the need for dissent in order to truly understand one’s own opinions.

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December 5, 2012 The HSUS’ South Florida Wildlife Center Conducts Workshop for Solving Conflicts with Coyotes Combination of education and innovative coyote hazing allows people, pets and wildlife to peacefully coexist Due to an increased number of coyote sightings throughout Broward County, Fla., The Humane Society of the United States’ South Florida Wildlife Center, in collaboration with Broward County Animal Care and Adoption, held two workshops featuring successful techniques for humanely resolving conflicts with coyotes. “The South Florida Wildlife Center took great pride in presenting expert Lynsey White Dasher, renowned urban wildlife specialist from The Humane Society of the United States, as the featured speaker at these workshops,” said Sherry Schlueter, executive director of the SFWC. “Ms. White Dasher presented information on basic coyote ecology and behavior, as well as the most current research findings on the types and causes of conflicts between humans and coyotes.” The first workshop featured tips for protecting pets from coyotes, reducing coyote attractants in neighborhoods and hazing bold coyotes. Coyote hazing helps restore the fear of humans back into habituated coyotes and involves the systematic use of deterrents including noisemakers, projectiles and water hoses. “Although coyote conflicts are still relatively rare in Broward County, it’s an excellent idea to take a proactive approach toward educating residents about coyotes,” said Dasher. “Public education and coyote hazing are not only more humane solutions for resolving these conflicts, but they are also more effective and longer-lasting than the proven failures of lethal measures.” The HSUS held an additional workshop for Broward County animal control and police officers to further train officers in responding to coyote calls and to promote humane deterrents when conflicts arise in urban environments. “We are excited to partner with The Humane Society of the United States to educate our residents, staff and first responders about coyotes in Broward County,” said Lisa Mendheim, public education coordinator, Broward County Animal Care. For more information about solving conflicts with coyotes, please visit humanesociety.org/coyotes. The Humane Society of the United States South Florida Wildlife Center’s mission is Protecting Wildlife through Rescue, Rehabilitation and Education. For hospital admissions, call 954-524-4302, ext. 10; for adoptions, 954-524-4302, ext. 15; to volunteer, call 954-524-4302, ext. 40; to make a donation, 954-524-4302, ext. 52, and to speak with the executive director, 954-524-4302, ext. 16. The SFWC is located at 3200 Southwest Fourth Avenue, Fort Lauderdale. Media Contact: Kaitlin Sanderson: 301-721-6463; firstname.lastname@example.org

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Chapter 17: Windows, Dialogs, Frames, and Menus The exercises here are taken from my forthcoming book The Java Developer's Resource. - What's the difference between a Frame and a Dialog? - What's the difference between a Menu and a MenuBar? - What's the difference between a Menu and a MenuItem? - Why wouldn't you create a Menu inside the MenuBar's add method like you create MenuItem's inside a Menu's add method? - It's a little silly to ask the user if they are sure they want to start global thermonuclear war and then only provide an OK button. Write an OK-Cancel Dialog class that produces a modal dialog with two buttons, OK and Cancel. Make the constructor protected. However include a static method that creates a new instance of the OKCancel class and handles user input. This method should take a single String as an argument and return a boolean indicating whether the OK or the Cancel button was pressed. The dialog should dismiss itself when a button is pressed. Make sure a long String is handled reasonably (that is wrap it to fit the box). - Create a subclass of the OKCancel dialog that has buttons for "Yes" and "No" instead. - Revise Program 17.6 so that instead of printing the Menu Choice on System.out it pops up an Alert Dialog from Program 17.3 with the MenuChoice. - Use exercise 1 to revise Program 17.6 so that it asks the user to confirm each menu selection. [ Exercises | Cafe Au Lait | Trade Shows | Links | FAQ | User Groups ] Copyright 1996 Elliotte Rusty Harold Last Modified August 20, 1996

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This, the centre argues, could offer a springboard for rekindling interest in language learning, in the wake of plummeting numbers taking French and German at GCSE and A-level following the Government's decision to make languages voluntary from the age of 14. Instead of seeing it as a problem that so many students in the UK have English as a second or alternative language, we should be celebrating the fact that we have such a diverse language culture in our schools. Indeed, we should try to encourage some of our monolingual English students to join in the learning of a community language. Sir Digby Jones, director general of the Confederation of British Industry, should approve of that. Four of the languages that are gaining in popularity are Chinese, Russian, Urdu and Portuguese. Just before the A-level results were announced, Sir Digby argued that more pupils should take up Chinese or Russian because these countries are where the markets of the future will be based. A survey at the weekend added India and Brazil to the nations likely to be dominating the world as we approach the middle of the 21st century. The good news is that we should have enough speakers of these tongues to enable them to pass on their knowledge to others. It may be that after-school clubs will have to be set up so that the speakers of, for example, Portuguese and Gujerati can come into the schools to help the teachers. Such a drive would also be given impetus by the Government's move to treat language qualifications like those for musical instruments, whereby pupils can be awarded grades at any age when they have mastered the knowledge and skills. The future for languages in the United Kingdom need not be bleak if we abandon the notion that we have to stick rigidly to French and German as the two main languages pupils should be learning. Welcome to a brave new world in which pupils learn Urdu, Bengali, Gujerati, Panjabi, Mandarin and Portuguese.

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Step 12: Layout coils Once again, follow the template. This is by far the most confusing part, and I think the template should really help. Lay down one group (e.g. "A"), then another, then another. Check that the current all flows one way. That is, if you imagine an electron running through the coils, it always enters the coil from one particular side and exits from another. Just don't cross the wires over, and you should be fine. The arrows on template should help you think about how the electrons should be running through the coil wraps. Now glue those coils down. Glue 'em down good. Once that's set, solder the remaining three ends together (the ones not soldered to thick wire that should be sticking out of the "4" coils). This is the neutral point. In our circuit, you won't need to access this junction again, so you can tape it down or otherwise hide it under the coils' base, along with excess lengths of the other connections. In fact, the more you can do to tidy up stray wires, the better. A malfunctioning turbine that comes out of its divots has a nasty tendency to grab exposed wire and tear it up. Fun to watch, but hell to repair. What you should have left are the three thicker wires connected to the "1" coils on each of the groups. This will lead into the AC to DC conversion circuit.

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- About Us - Career Center - Nano-Social Network - Nano Consulting - My Account April 18th, 2007 Romero's first-place project was "Finding a Beneficial Use for Produced Water." Romero, in her fourth year working on the subject, has learned produced water from oil and gas drilling is useful in potash mining. Romero found this situation true when a nanotechnology membrane was employed to hold back the hydrocarbons and allow the salt and water to pass. She has also studied use of produced water for irrigation. "Since there's such a scarcity of water here in New Mexico, I wanted to find another source of water for irrigation and other uses of water," Romero said. "And produced water is a large source." Much of that water is now disposed of as hazardous water, she continued. |Related News Press| Yale researchers’ technology turns wasted heat into power June 27th, 2016 FEI Launches Helios G4 DualBeam Series for Materials Science: The Helios G4 DualBeam Series features new capabilities to enable scientists and engineers to answer the most demanding and challenging scientific questions June 27th, 2016 Mille-feuille-filter removes viruses from water May 19th, 2016 First single-enzyme method to produce quantum dots revealed: Biological manufacturing process, pioneered by three Lehigh University engineers, produces equivalent quantum dots to those made chemically--but in a much greener, cheaper way May 9th, 2016 Call for NanoArt and Art-Science-Technology Papers June 9th, 2016 Are humans the new supercomputer?Today, people of all backgrounds can contribute to solving serious scientific problems by playing computer games. A Danish research group has extended the limits of quantum physics calculations and simultaneously blurred the boundaries between mac April 14th, 2016

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The first two decades of the 16th century witnessed the harmonious balance and elevated conception of High Renaissance style, perfected in Florence and Rome by Leonardo, Raphael, and Michelangelo. It brought together a seamless blend of form and meaning. In Venice, Bellini, Giorgione, and Titian devoted themselves to an art that was more sensual, with luminous color and a tactile handling of paint, preoccupations that would attract Venetian artists for generations, including Tintoretto and Veronese later in the century. In the 1520s, Florence and Rome, but not Venice, saw a stylistic shift following the social and political upheaval ensuing from the disastrous Sack of Rome. Mannerism, as practiced by Bronzino, Pontormo, and Rosso, was a self-consciously elegant style that traded naturalism for artifice, employing unnaturally compressed space, elongated figures, and acid color. While mannerism became popular internationally, and lingered in northern Europe, by around 1580 it had fallen out of favor in Italy. One factor was the desire of the Church, challenged by the Protestant Revolution, to connect with the faithful. In place of mannerism’s ingenuous complications and artificiality, the Counter-Reformation Church required painting that was direct and emotionally resonant. The “reform of painting,” as it was called, was launched by two brothers and a cousin in Bologna: Annibale, Agostino, and Lodovico Carracci. They established an academy that emphasized drawing from life and looked to inspiration from Titian and other Renaissance masters, restoring the naturalism and classical balance of the early 16th century.

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A recent Danish study suggests that you may not need expensive cardiac testing to determine your risks of heart disease. Just look in the mirror. People who look old--with receding hairlines, bald heads, creases near their earlobes, or bumpy deposits on their eyelids--have a greater chance of developing heart disease than younger-looking people the same age. "Looking old for your age marks poor cardiovascular health," said Anne Tybjaerg-Hansen of the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. Tybjaerg-Hansen led a research study which documented the differences between biological and chronological age. A small consolation: Wrinkles elsewhere on the face and gray hair seemed just ordinary consequences of aging and did not correlate with heart risks. The research involved 11,000 Danish people and began in 1976. At the start, the participants were age 40 and older. Researchers documented their appearance, tallying crow's-feet, wrinkles, and other signs of age. In the next 35 years, 3,400 participants developed heart disease (clogged arteries) and 1,700 suffered a heart attack. The risk of these problems increased with each additional sign of aging present at the start of the study. This was true at all ages and among men and women, even after taking into account other factors such as family history of heart disease. Those with three to four of these aging signs--receding hairline at the temples, baldness at the crown of the head, earlobe creases, or yellowish fatty deposits around the eyelids--had a 57 percent greater risk for heart attack and a 39 percent greater risk for heart disease compared with people with none of these signs. Having yellowish eyelid bumps, which could be signs of cholesterol buildup, conferred the most risk, researchers found. Baldness in men has been tied to heart risk before, possibly related to testosterone levels. They could only guess why earlobe creases might raise risk.

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Global internet speeds have been slowed by what is being described as the biggest internet attack in history, with banking and email systems reportedly at risk. An issue ignited by a spat between spam-filtering setup Spamhaus and a large scale hosting firm, the initial row has since sparked a widespread spat centring around continuing cyber-attacks, with the knock-on effect being a global slowing of internet speeds. Having started to affect the wider internet, the reported ‘biggest attack in history’ has reportedly seen web users struggle to load and utilise streaming services such as Netflix and LOVEFiLM. What’s more, experts have suggested that if the problems continue more essential services such as email systems and online banking could be brought down the attacks. A London and Geneva based non-profit organisation which attempts to aid email providers in filtering out spam and other unwanted content, Spamhaus recently added servers run by Cyberbunker, a Dutch web host which promises to host almost any content, to its blocklists of suspected malicious activity. With Distribution Denial of Service (DDoS) tactics having since been implemented to bring Spamhaus to its knees, an attacking method of flooding a site with large volumes of traffic in a bid to render it unreachable, the filtering service has since pointed the finger of guilt at Cyberbunker. Describing the attacks as unprecedented, Steve Linford, CEO of Spamhaus, stated: “We’ve been under this cyber-attack for well over a week.” He added: “They are targeting every part of the internet infrastructure that they feel can be brought down. We can’t be brought down.” Said to have expanded to include “criminal gangs” from Eastern Europe and Russia, the cyber-police-forces of five nations are now reportedly investigating the attacks. Describing the method and implications of these internet affecting attacks, Professor Alan Woodward, a cybersecurity expert from the University of Surrey told the BBC: “If you imagine it as a motorway, attacks try and put enough traffic on there to clog up the on and off ramps. “With this attack, there’s so much traffic it’s clogging up the motorway itself.”

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The Wedge from Substituting Wind H2 Fuel Cell for Gasoline in Hybrid Car A wedge can be achieved through eliminating tailpipe carbon emissions: - H2 is produced by wind power instead of fossil fuel power. - Wind power output is 10,000 TWh/y that needs 4000 GW capacity, which can be achieved by 4 million 1 MWp windmills. As we already saw in Section 2 of the Supporting On-Line Material (Energy Efficiency and Conservation), a wedge is available from more efficient light-duty vehicles. Specifically, we considered cars on the road in 2054, driven 10,000 miles per year, and achieving either 60 mpg or 30 mpg. As in Section 2 of the Supporting On-Line Material, we attribute 3 kgC of carbon emissions to each gallon of conventional fuel, thereby including a 25% overhead on a fuel carbon intensity of 2.4 kgC/gallon. Then, these cars emit, annually, either half a ton of carbon (at 60 mpg) or a full ton of carbon (at 30 mpg). A strategy that puts on the road in 2054 two billion 60 mpg cars, instead of two billion 30 mpg cars, is a wedge. Clearly, a second wedge can be obtained if these two billion 60- mpg cars run on hydrogen, as long as the carbon emissions associated with the hydrogen production are negligible. Let us first assume that the substitution of energy as hydrogen for energy as gasoline is one-for-one. Invoking the useful fact that the energy content (lower heating value) of 1 U.S. gallon of gasoline and 1 kg of hydrogen are both almost exactly the same (120 MJ), the one-for-one assumption, therefore, means one ton of hydrogen fuel backs out three tons of carbon emissions at the tailpipe. The hydrogen vehicle gets 60 miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent and is driven 10,000 miles per year, so it requires 170 kg of hydrogen fuel per year and backs out 500 kg of carbon per year in conventional fuels. Two billion cars require 330 million tons of hydrogen per year and back out 330 billion gallons of gasoline or diesel fuel (containing 1 GtC) per year. Treating the energy stored in hydrogen and stored in gasoline as equivalent leaves out many critical issues. Hydrogen scores less well than gasoline from the perspective of safety and storage. Hydrogen scores better than gasoline, if the full promise of fuel cells can be realized. The NRC Report postulates that fuel cells deliver a 67% premium in energy efficiency for hydrogen, relative to hybrid vehicles running on hydrocarbons (S38, Chapter 4); 100 mpg-equivalent fuel cell cars would displace 60 mpg gasoline or diesel cars, for example1. Then, each kilogram of hydrogen fuel backs out five kilograms of carbon in conventional fuel, and each 100-mpgequivalent hydrogen car requires 100 kgH2 per year and prevents 500 kgC/y of tailpipe emissions. Where two billion 60-mpg-equivalent cars required 330 million tons of hydrogen per year, two billion cars with a fuel economy of 100-mpgequivalent require 200 million tons of hydrogen per year. For the remainder of this section, we will assume the hydrogen fuel cell cars achieve 100 mpg-equivalent, and we will identify several wedges, each associated with a different way of producing, annually, 200 MtH2 of carbon-free hydrogen, or an appropriately larger amount of low-carbon hydrogen. We discuss three ways in which renewable energy can produce wedges by decarbonizing fuel. Hydropower, wind power, and photovoltaic electricity can produce hydrogen via electrolysis. Direct sunlight can provide heat that backs out fossil fuels used for space and water heating in buildings. And, plant matter (biomass) can be converted into fuels. Electrolytic Hydrogen from Renewables Electrolyzers producing hydrogen do not know the difference between renewable electricity, nuclear electricity, and other sources of electricity. Thus, the result above, that 1 kg of hydrogen can be produce from 52.5 kWh of electricity, based on the NRC electrolyzer, holds for renewable energy as well. A wedge from our car substitution strategy requires 10,000 TWh/y of renewable electricity. This may be compared to the 2002 global rate of production of electricity from hydropower, 2650 TWh/y, four times less and almost exactly the same as the rate of production of electricity from nuclear energy (S33, p. 411). While nuclear electricity comes only at large unit scale and must be grid-connected, renewable electricity comes at all scales. It can produce distributed power, and it can produce grid-independent power. A wedge from 10,000 TWh/y of renewable electricity making hydrogen that eliminates tailpipe carbon emissions could be produced by four million 1 MWp windmills or four hundred million 10 kWp photovoltaic arrays, operating at 30 percent capacity factor. S33 International Energy Agency, 2002. World Energy Outlook 2002. Paris, France: OECD/IEA. By subscription: http://library.iea.org/dbtwwpd/ Textbase/nppdf/stud/02/weo2002_1.pdf. S38 National Research Council, 2004. The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.

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The relevance of creation Special 16 Page Centre Liftout—Casebook II Background Considerations Evolution: A Belief System Most people have the wrong idea of what the creation/evolution question is all about. They don’t understand the real issues involved and think that evolution is a scientific theory. Evolution, however, is not a scientific theory; it is a belief system about the past. We don’t have the past; we only have the present! All the fossils, all the living animals and plants, the world, the universe -everything exists in the present. We cannot test the past using the scientific method (which involves repeating things and watching them happen), since all evidence we have is in the present. Evolution is a belief about the past which describes the way some people think the evidence came to be here in its present state. It is important to understand that by definition, creation is also a belief about the past which describes the way in which the evidence in the present came to be. The difference is that we base our understanding of creation upon a book which claims to be the Word of One who knows everything there is to know about everything-who was there and who is able to tell us what happened. On the other hand, evolution comes from the words of men who were not there. This whole issue revolves around whether we believe the words of God who was there, or the words of men (no matter how qualified) who were not there. Many think of scientists as people in white lab coats objectively searching for the truth. But scientists come in two basic forms, male and female, and they are just like you and me-they have beliefs and biases. Bias determines what you do with the evidence; the way in which you think certain evidence is more relevant or important than other evidence. Scientists, then, cannot be objectively searching for the truth in this matter. They are therefore not neutral. They all start with beliefs which determine what they do with the evidence. As we look around the world today, we see things happening which are disturbing and alarming to Christians, because they are largely unable to understand why they are happening. We see more and more marriages breaking up, people not bothering about marriage, an increase in homosexuality and lesbianism, families not functioning in the way they used to, children not coming or not being sent to Sunday School like they used to. There is a great increase in disrespect for authority, and lawlessness is ever on the rise. Things occur which were unheard of a generation ago-e.g. a school in Australia featured a display of ‘good art’ by the students, which consisted of the carcasses of two dead cats stuck inside a frame, as well as some dead, rotting seagulls hanging by their necks from the ceiling as a mobile! The Church is not as effective as it once was. With few exceptions, it is either just maintaining itself or, in many instances, running down. People find it hard to evangelise. Evangelists don’t get the response of previous years. Why not? To begin to understand this, we must first of all consider the relevance of Creation from Genesis. In John 5:46-47, we read of Jesus Christ’s words, ‘For had ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me: for he wrote of me. But if ye believe not his writings, how shall ye believe my words?’ Then in Luke 16, Jesus quotes Abraham as saying (v.31), ‘If they don’t believe the writings of Moses, they are not going to be persuaded even if one rose from the dead.’ Both references underline the paramount importance placed on the writings of Moses, beginning with Genesis. In Acts 28:23, we read that Paul in Rome preached unto them Jesus from Moses and the prophets. These are all references to the writings of Moses, and in particular there is one book of Moses which is referred to more often in the rest of the Bible than any other book. The book of Genesis is referred to, or quoted from, in the rest of the Scriptures more than any other. But in Theological and Bible Colleges, in Christian and non-Christian circles, which book of the Bible is the most attacked, mocked, scoffed at, kicked, stood on, thrown out, allegorised and mythologized? It’s Genesis! The book that is quoted from more than any other is the one that is most attacked, disbelieved, or ignored. Why is that so? The Foundations under attack Psalm 11:3 states, ‘If the foundations be destroyed, what can the righteous do?’ If you destroy the foundations of anything, the structure will collapse. If you want to destroy any building, the best way is to destroy the foundations. Likewise, if you want to destroy Christianity, destroy the foundations which are established in the book of Genesis. Is it any wonder that Satan is attacking Genesis more than any other book? The Biblical doctrine of origins, as contained in the book of Genesis, is foundation to all other doctrines of Scripture. Refute or undermine in any way the Biblical doctrine of origins, and the rest of the Bible is undermined. Every single Biblical doctrine of theology, directly or indirectly, ultimately has its basis in the book of Genesis. Therefore, if you do not have a believing understanding of that book (not just believing it is true, but believing and understanding what it says), you cannot hope to attain full understanding of what Christianity is all about. You are fooling yourself if you think you understand what Christianity is all about if you don’t understand the book of Genesis. Why do I make such statements? Well, the meaning of anything is tied up with its origins. If you want to understand the meaning of anything, you must understand its origins -its basis. Genesis is the only book that provides an account of the origin of all the basic entities of life and the universe-the origin of life, of man, of government, of marriage, of culture, of nations, of death, the chosen people, of sin and clothes: so it goes on and on. The meaning of all these things is dependent on their origin. In the same way, the meaning and purpose of the Christian Gospel depends on the origin of the problem for which the Savior’s death was and is the solution, as we shall see later. If you are not a Christian, consider these questions. ‘Are you married? Why? Do you believe it is a man, for a woman for life? Why not six wives? Or six husbands? What happens if your son comes home and says, ‘Dad, I am going to marry Bill tomorrow’? Would you say, ‘You can’t do that, son! It’s not the done thing!’? ‘Yes it is, Dad. There are even Churches that will marry us.’ If you are not a Christian, what will you say to your son? Consider why you wear clothes. Is it to keep warm? What then if you live in the tropics? Is it to look nice? If these are your only reasons, why wear clothes? Why not take them off if you want to, where you want to? Does it really matter if you go nude publicly? Ultimately, the only reason for insisting that clothes must be worn is if there is a moral reason. If there is a moral reason, it must have a basis somewhere, and therefore there must be standards connected to the moral reason. What then are the standards? Many girls in our culture (including Christians) just accept the fashions of the day, (e.g. show off their bodies and breasts). Parents, what about the training of your children? What do you say to them about clothes? Why Law and Morality? Consider another area. What do you tell your children about laws? Perhaps you tell them some things are right and some are wrong, but do you ever explain to them where right and wrong came from? Would you say we have right and wrong because God has given us laws? If so, why is that? Why does He have a right to say what is right and what is wrong? Why Sin and Death? Or, suppose someone came up to you and said, ‘You Christians are saying that we need Jesus Christ, that we need to confess our sins. What is sin? Why do we need Him anyway? Besides, God can’t be who He says He is. If He is, like you say, a God of love, look at all the death and suffering in the world. How can that be?’ What would you say? Sadly, the average Christian could not answer any of the above questions in defense of his faith. Because Christians cannot answer these questions adequately, they cannot pass that information on to their children who in turn cannot pass it on to the next generation. The net result is generations of wishy-washy Christians who believe in many things but are not sure why. They have beliefs in marriage, in wearing clothes, a belief that some things are right and others wrong, and a belief in Jesus to save them from their sin-but ask them why and they don’t really know. Yet, the Lord commands us in 1 Peter 3:15, ‘… be ready always to give an answer to every man that asketh you a reason of the hope that is in you …’ Let us consider these point by point. When Jesus was asked concerning divorce in Matthew 19, He immediately referred to the origin of the basis of marriage. He said, ‘Haven’t you read that He that made them in the beginning made them male and female?’ and then said, ‘For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother and cleave unto his wife and they shall be one flesh.’ Where did He quote from? Genesis. In fact, He quoted from Genesis, chapters 1 and 2 in the same verse-for those who wrongly say Genesis 1 and 2 are two different accounts of Creation! What He was saying was this: ‘Don’t you understand- the reason for marriage is that there is a historical basis.’ If we didn’t have this historical basis, we wouldn’t have marriage. This is why, if you are not a Christian and you believe in marriage, you are being totally inconsistent because you have no basis for it. The only basis is in the Scriptures. You can say it is convenient for you, but you can’t tell your son he can’t marry Bill. You would have no justification. Now if we go back to Genesis, we read how God took dust and made a man. From the man’s side He made a woman. They were one flesh. Adam’s first recorded words were, ‘She is bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh.’ They were one flesh. That is why, when you get married, you become one, because it has this historical basis. If it didn’t it couldn’t be so. Also you are to cleave to one another just as if you had no parents. Just like Adam and Eve who had no parents. We know it is to be a heterosexual relationship. Why? Because God made Adam and Eve, not Adam and Bruce. He made a man and a woman. That is the only basis for marriage, and that’s why we know that homosexual behaviour and desire is evil, a perverse and unnatural deviancy. It is time the Church stood up against the increasing acceptance of homosexuality as somehow natural or normal or as an ‘acceptable alternative.’ Paul couldn’t write about homosexuality in the way he does in Romans if he didn’t have that historical basis. What about the rest of the teaching on marriage? There is another aspect which has to do with the family and it is the reason many Christian families go to pieces or the kids go astray. In the majority of Christian homes today it is usually the mother who teaches the children spiritually. What a shameful thing it is that the fathers have not taken on their God-given responsibility! When you look at the biblical roles given to fathers and mothers, it is the fathers who are given the responsibility of providing for their children, providing the family’s spiritual and physical needs (Isaiah 38:19). Mothers are just as much to blame for taking it on themselves. One of the things that happens as a result of this role reversal is that the sons often stop coming to Church, though the daughters may keep coming. Then the Christian girls have no Christian boys to marry, and so end up disobeying the Lord by marrying non-Christians. Many girls go to the mission field, but not many males. A major reason why there are so many problems in Christian families today is that fathers have not taken on the responsibility of being priests in their household as they are commanded. A father is to be a priest to his wife and children. It is not however a boss relationship where men despotically lord it over women. Women’s liberationists think the Bible teaches that in marriage, the idea of a woman having to be in subjection to her husband, means that he is boss in a tyrannical sense. Unfortunately, many Christians think like this also. However, it doesn’t mean that at all. Anyone who uses these Biblical role-absolutes to justify one person seeking power over another has somehow missed the whole message of Jesus Christ (Eph. 5:21, Jn. 13:5). If you do not adopt the God-given roles set out in Scripture, you will find that your family will not work. If you are not a Christian and you believe in marriage, just remember you have no basis for it. You are being totally inconsistent and you could never justify to your daughter why she should marry a man nor to your son why he should marry a woman. Why do we wear clothes? If there is a moral basis, you have a reason. If there is no moral basis, there is no reason except perhaps convenience. But there is a moral basis if you go back to the Scriptures. We read in Genesis that when God made Adam and Eve they were naked. But sin came into the world, and sin distorts anything. Sin distorts nakedness. Immediately Adam and Eve knew they were naked, and they tried to make a pair of pants out of fig leaves. They still saw their nakedness. God came and killed animals and gave them coats. This was the first blood sacrifice. It was a covering for their sin. The same word for these animal-skin coats is used of the priest’s coat. It means a complete covering or ‘atonement.’ Now, let’s be realistic on these issues. Men are very easily aroused sexually. That is why semi-naked women are used in T.V. advertisements, etc. Parents need to explain to their daughters how easily a man is aroused sexually by a woman’s body. They need to know, because many of them do not understand what happens to a man, and you need to tell them. The New Testament says that if a man lusts after a woman in his heart, he commits adultery in his heart. (Sin distorts nakedness). Many Christian girls go bra-less and wear clingy T-shirts or wear clingy clothes to show off their breasts or sexual parts. You can see the boys’ eyes follow them around. But what is happening? Many of those fellows are committing fornication or adultery in their hearts for which they and the girls will have to answer. What we should say is this—there is a moral basis for wearing clothes, because of what sin does to nakedness. We must understand how men are created, that they were designed to be easily aroused sexually and respond to one woman this wife, and this was and is necessary for procreation in marriage. Therefore, clothing should minimise to the greatest extent any stumbling block laid in a man’s way. But a man is no less guilty if he succumbs to the ‘second look.’ Don’t simply accept the fashions of today. There is a moral basis for clothing. Therefore, there are standards. Knowing what men are like and knowing what sin does to nakedness, you thus have a basis for understanding what the standards should be. Law and Morality In many Christian homes the parents have certain beliefs about marriage and clothing. They say to their teenagers, ‘You can’t wear that.’ The teenagers reply, ‘But why not?’, ‘Because it is not the Christian thing’, answer the parents. ‘Why not?’ ask the teenagers again. ‘Because Christians don’t wear that,’ the parents insist. ‘Why not?’ the reply comes. And so comes a real imposed legalism. What a difference it makes when the parents use Genesis as a basis to explain to their children why they must do this or that with regard to marriage, clothing, etc., rather than parents saying, ‘This is what you will do,’ and imposing it on their children with no basis. Why is there right and wrong (e.g. The Ten Commandments)? Remember the story in Matthew 19 when the man came to Jesus and said to Him, ‘Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?’ Jesus replied, ‘Why do you call me good? There is none good but one, that is God …’ How do you decide if something is right or wrong or good or bad? God, the only one who is good, created us and therefore owns us. Thus, we are obligated to Him and we must obey Him. He has a right to set the rules. He knows everything there is to know about everything (i.e. has absolute knowledge), and therefore we must obey. That is why we have absolutes, why there are standards, and why there is right and wrong. Now, if you are not a Christian and you think some things are right and some are wrong—why do you think like that? You have no basis for such a decision. Where do you get your standards from? How do you decide what is good and bad? Most of the non-Christians who believe there is right and wrong are practicing the Christian ethic but they haven’t the basis for it. The evolutionary philosophy says, ‘There is no God. All is the result of chance randomness. Death and struggle are the order of the day, not only now but indefinitely into the past and future.’ If this is true, there is no basis for right and wrong. In the book of Judges we read that when they had no king to tell them what to do, they all did what was right in their own eyes. When there is no absolute authority, you can do whatever is convenient to you. And if people start believing in a world view called evolution, they are going to say, ‘There is no God. Why should I obey authority? Why should there be rules against aberrant sexual behaviour? Why should there he rules against abortion? After all, evolution tells us we are all animals. So, killing babies by abortion is the same as chopping off the head of a fish or chicken.’ The Consequences of Rejecting God and His Absolutes Missionaries were sent to New Guinea because there were many so-called pagan and primitive people there. Missionaries recount that in one tribe, which has since ceased to be cannibals, men would race into a village, grab a man by the hair, pull him back, tense his abdomen muscles, get a bamboo knife and slit open his abdomen, pull out his intestines, cut up his fingers, and while he was still alive, eat him until he finally died. People hear that and say, ‘Oh, what primitive savages!’ They were not primitive savages! Their ancestor was a man called Noah. The Indians’ ancestor was a man called Noah, the Eskimos’ ancestor was a man called Noah. Your ancestor was a man called Noah and Noah had the knowledge of God and could build ships. His descendants could make musical instruments, build a big tower, and practice agriculture. What happened to the New Guinea natives is that somewhere in their history, as Romans 1 tells us, they rejected the knowledge of God and they were turned over to foolish, perverse and degenerate things. However, this same degeneracy can be seen in so-called civilised nations that cut people up alive all year long-one and a half million of them in the U.S.A. each year—and it is legalised. This is what abortion is -cutting people up alive and sucking out the bits and pieces. If you talk with people in Bible studies about abortion, they will often say, ‘What do you think?’ ‘What if my daughter was raped?’ or ‘What if the embryo was known to be deformed? What do you think? What is right in your eyes?’ That’s humanism. Christians who say this, don’t understand what the Bible is all about. It is not just a book which we add to our life and thinking. Our thinking must start with that book, the Bible. Your bias determines the framework for your world view. That is why the Bible must be the basis for locking ourselves into the right framework. That is why you must start there. Because we have an absolute, i.e. One who knows everything, He can give us the basis for coming to the right conclusions about anything in this world. Christians should start with what our absolute tells us in order to understand these things. If we go to our absolute, we only have to read Psalm 51, Psalm 139, and Jeremiah 1, to find that at the point of conception we receive a God-consciousness and a sinful nature that distinguishes us from animals. At the point of conception we are human-thus abortion is murder and there are no other options. Do Christians make a stand on that? Why does Paul say, ‘Stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught …’ (2 Thess. 2:15)? Do we stand fast or do we waver? Do we think that we have no right to impose our views on society? What we are seeing in our society today as a result of the evolutionary philosophy, is an outward expression, in more and more of its naked ferocity, of the rejection of God and His absolutes. Thus the increasing popularity of abortion. The Gospel, Sin and Death What is the Gospel message? When God made man, He made him perfect. He made the first two people, Adam and Eve, and placed them in the Garden of Eden where they had a special, very beautiful relationship with God. When He made them, He gave them a free will—they could choose—and they chose to rebel against God. This rebellion is called sin. All sin comes under the banner of rebellion against God and His will. As a result of that rebellion in Eden, a number of things happened. First, man was cut off from God. That separation is called spiritual death. On its own, the final effect of this would have been living forever in our sinful bodies, eternally separated from God. Imagine living with Hitler and Stalin forever! Imagine living in a horrible sinful state forever. But something else happened. Romans 5:12 tells us that as a result of man’s actions came sin, and as a result of sin came death; but not just spiritual death, as some theologians claim. To confirm this, you only have to go to 1 Cor. 15:20 where Paul talks about the physical death of the first Adam and the physical death of Christ, the last Adam. Or Genesis 3, where God expelled Adam and Eve from the Garden so that they would not eat of the tree of life and live forever. Physical death as well as spiritual death resulted from their sin. Why did God send death? Three aspects of death should be considered carefully: 1. God, as a righteous judge, who cannot look upon sin, had to judge sin. He had warned Adam that, ‘dying, thou shalt die.’ The curse of death placed upon the world was and is a just and righteous judgement from God who is the judge. 2. One of the aspects of man’s rebellion was separation from God. The loss of a loved one through death shows the sadness of the separation between those left behind and the one who has departed this world. This parting should remind us of what sin did and how great a gulf has occurred between God and man as a result of sin. When we consider how sad it is when a loved one dies, it should remind us of the terrible consequences of sin which separated Adam from the perfect relationship he had with God. This separation was passed on to all of mankind. 3. Another aspect of death which many people miss is that God sent death because He loved us so much. God is love, and, strange as it may sound, we should really praise Him for that curse He placed on us! God did not want man to be cut off from Him for eternity because of his rebellion. Imagine living in a sinful state for eternity, separated from God! But He loved us too much for that so He did a very wonderful thing. In placing on us the curse of physical death, He provided a way to redeem man back to Himself, in the person of Jesus Christ, who suffered that curse on the cross for us. ‘He tasted death for every man,’ (Heb. 2:9). By becoming the perfect sacrifice for our sin of rebellion, He conquered death. He took the penalty which should rightly have been ours at the hands of a righteous judge, and bore it in His own body on the cross. All who believe in Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour are received back to God to spend eternity with Him. Isn’t that a wonderful message? THAT IS THE MESSAGE OF CHRISTIANITY. Man forfeited his special position through sin, and as a result God placed upon him the curse of death so he could be redeemed back to God. What a wonderful thing God did! On Good Friday, we remember Jesus being nailed to the cross, thus saying ‘No’ to what Adam did. On Easter Sunday, we remember His rising from the grave, which says ‘yes’ to mankind. But evolution destroys the very basis of this message of love. The evolutionary process is one of death and struggle, cruelty, brutality and ruthlessness. It is a ghastly fighting for survival, elimination of the weak, and of the deformed. This is what evolution is all about—death and struggle bringing man into existence: death over millions of years. It is an onward, upward ‘progression’ leading to man. Yet, what does the Bible say in Romans 5:12? ‘Man’s actions led to sin, which led to death.’ In other words, evolutionists would say death and struggle led to man’s existence. The Bible says man’s rebellious actions led to death. These statements cannot both be true. One denies the other-they are diametrically opposed. That is why the compromisers who claim to hold both positions at the same time (e.g. theistic evolutionists) are destroying the basis of the Gospel. If life formed in an onward ‘progression,’ how was man to fall upward? What is sin? Sin then becomes an inherited animal characteristic, and is not due to the fall of man through disobedience. The many Christians who accept the belief of evolution and add God to it, destroy the very foundation of the Gospel message they are professing to believe. Even the atheists realise this, as seen in the quote from the article by G. Richard Bozarth entitled, ‘The Meaning of Evolution.’ from ‘The American Atheist,’ September 1978, page 19: ‘… Christianity is-must be -totally committed to the special creation as described in Genesis, and Christianity must fight with all its full might, fair or foul, against the theory of evolution … It becomes clear now that the whole justification of Jesus’ life and death is predicated on the existence of Adam and the forbidden fruit he and Eve ate. Without the original sin, who needs to be redeemed? Without Adam’s fall into a life of constant sin terminated by death, what purpose is there to Christianity? None.’ As the atheist Jacques Monod (noted for his contributions to molecular biology and philosophy) said in an interview broadcast by the Australian Broadcasting Commission on the 10th June, 1976 as a tribute to Monod and entitled ‘The Secret of Life’, ‘… selection is the blindest, and most cruel way of evolving new species, and more and more complex and refined organisms … the more cruel because it is a process of elimination, of destruction. The struggle for life and the elimination of the weakest is a horrible process, against which our whole modern ethic revolts. An ideal society is a non-selective society, it is one where the weak are protected; which is exactly the reverse of the so-called natural law. I AM SURPRISED THAT A CHRISTIAN WOULD DEFEND THE IDEA THAT THIS IS THE PROCESS WHICH GOD MORE OR LESS SET UP IN ORDER TO HAVE EVOLUTION’ (emphasis added). Original sin, with death as a result, is the basis of the Gospel. That is why Jesus Christ came and what the Gospel is all about. If the first Adam is only an allegorical figure, then why not the second or the last Adam, Jesus Christ? If man didn‘t really fall into sin, there is no need for a Saviour. Evolution destroys the very foundations of Christianity because it says that ‘death is a part of life’. Now, if you lived in a skyscraper, and if there were people underneath that skyscraper with jackhammers hammering away at the foundations, would you say, ‘So what?’ That is what many Christians are doing. They are being bombarded with evolution through the media, the public school system, T.V., the papers, and yet they don’t even react. The foundations of the ‘skyscraper’ of Christianity are being eroded by the ‘jack-hammers’ of evolution. But, inside the skyscraper, what are many Christians doing? They are either sitting there doing nothing or they are throwing out jack-hammers and saying, ‘Here, have a few more! Go destroy our foundations!’ Worse still, theistic evolutionists (those who believe in evolution and the Bible) are actively helping undermine the basis of the Gospel. As the Psalmist asked in Psalm 11:3, ‘if the foundations be destroyed, what can the righteous do?’ If the basis of the Gospel is destroyed, then the structure built on that foundation (e.g.: the Christian Church) will collapse. If Christians wish to preserve the structure of Christianity, they must protect its foundation and therefore actively oppose evolution. Evolution also destroys the teaching of the new heavens and the new Earth. What are we told about the new heavens and the new Earth? Acts 3:21 says there will be a restoration (restitution). That means things will be restored to at least what they were originally. We read about what it will be like. ‘… They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain.’ There will be no violence! ‘The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them … and the lion shall eat straw like the ox’—i.e. vegetarian! (Isaiah 11:6-9). In Genesis we find that man and the animals were told only to eat plants. They were vegetarians. Only after the flood was man told he could eat meat. So they were vegetarians and there was no violence before Adam sinned. Some people object to the claim that the first creatures were vegetarian by saying that lions have sharp teeth which were created to eat meat. Is that necessarily so? It is what you were taught in school! What we should say is that the lion’s sharp canine teeth are good for ripping. The same teeth that are now good for ripping up other animals could have been used for ripping up plants. According to God’s Word, lions were vegetarian before the Fall and will be once again in a future paradise. By the way, ‘meat-eating’ animals can still be vegetarians. Dogs and cats will survive quite well on a balanced diet of vegetables, so perhaps you are wasting your money feeding them meat. Also, the Bible does not exclude the possibility of direct action by God at the time of the Fall (and in the future restoration) having a direct biological effect on the creatures in relation to feeding habits, etc. To believe in evolution is to deny a universal Paradise before Adam, because evolution necessarily implies that before Adam there was struggle, cruelty and brutality, animals eating animals, and death! Is the world going to be restored to that? If you believe in evolution, you must deny a universal Paradise before Adam and so also at the end of time. Thus evolution strikes at the heart, the foundation of Christianity. We should be out there doing something about it. Many of us have been hoodwinked into thinking that evolution has to do with science and that you need to be a scientist to do anything to combat it. But evolution is a belief system and you don’t need to be a scientist to combat it.

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Active verbs form more efficient and more powerful sentences than passive verbs. This document will teach you why and how to prefer active verbs. - The subject of an active voice sentence performs the action of the verb: “I throw the ball.” - The subject of a passive voice sentence is still the main character of the sentence, but something else performs the action: “The ball is thrown by me.” For a detailed explanation, see my handout, “Active and Passive Verbs.” For a more colorful introduction to the concept, with self-quizzes, and Legos, see the slideshow “Troy Sterling and the Active and Passive Verbs.” (The slideshow will appear in the space below.) About this Slideshow I originally created this with Impress, the Open Office slideshow presenter, and exported it as a Shockwave file. I’m amazed at how tiny the resulting file is. It looks like a few effects didn’t make the transition, but they were just eye candy. I designed this as a simple linear slide show, for me to present in the front of the room. In this online version, all you can do is click to advance to the next page. It should at least have multiple-choice questions, in order to ensure that a bored reader isn’t just clicking through on autopilot. (At any rate, it’s more entertaining than my more traditional online guide to Active and Passive Verbs.) This is just a bit of practice, as I continue to experiment with various media production tools. I’ve also downloaded Jahshaka, an open-source video editing tool, but it crashed on my little wimpy laptop. I’ll try it again when I get some time at the office. Update. 22 July 2011: I’ve de-emphasized the original Flash version (which is still online), and replaced it with the WordPress slideshow version (which runs on iPads and other non-Flash machines).

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My late professor S. Amitzur, a rather well-known algebraist, wrote a book (in hebrew) in which he systematically writes functions on the right: $\,xf\,\,,\,xA=b\,$ , etc. When I asked him why would he do such a thing being that the huge majority of books are written the other, "more usual", way, he said: "Most algebraists gave up the algebraic usual notation and adopted the analysts' notation, being the former a more natural and easier to handle notation in algebra. I won't surrender" . Of course, he said the above in a jokingly mood, yet he consistently used his way to write down stuff in his classes, and this posed some major challenges for greenhorns in linear algebra (and even for graduate students like myself, when trying to adapt things from one writing way to the other one) For example: the matrix representation of a linear transformation is defined in most books as the transposed coefficients matrix resulting from applying the lin. trans. to some basis and writing the resulting vectors as lin. comb. of some other (or the same, in case of operators) basis. With the algebraists' notation one does NOT take the transpose but directly the resulting matrix, what makes things easier though pretty confussing for someone checking things in other books. Thus, nowadays, a lin. transf. $\,f:\Bbb R^n\to\Bbb R^m\,$ has a matrix representation of order $\,m\times n\,$ , whereas with Amitzur's notation we get a $\,n\times m\,$ matrix, which is a little simpler, I guess. And then one has to write "row vectors" to the left of matrices instead of column vectors to the right of matrices. But for that all remains the same. Another rather interesting example is with products of permutations in the symmetric group, where most authors choose to carry on from right to left, consistently with the usual definition of functions' composition, ,and yet here and there one can still find people who does the other way around, a la algebraists... Ittay mentions, apparently, Amitzur's book, and I believe him when he says it isn't very popular...now, perhaps, but 20-25 years ago it was very popular, in particular in my school, the Hebrew Unviersity in Jerusalem, and in spite of being rather elementary (1-2 years in linear algebra), I still use it here and there for consultations.

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Teaching for the future To equip children for the workplace in the 21st century, conventional teaching must give way to the use of technology. The biggest challenges facing teachers in the 21st century is equipping their learners with the skills that enable them to take up their place in the economy, according to Lauren Woodman, senior director of Microsoft’s government and education team. Woodman said equipping children with problem-solving skills, the ability to think critically and work collaboratively were critical outcomes to ensure that upon finishing school they will have the skills that make them employable. “Technology, certainly, is a skill that we can use to reach out to learners with throughout the world, especially in rural areas,” Woodman said. Woodman said she grew up in a rural part of Texas where computers were not part of the learning process for her. She said these days technology can bolster the learning and teaching experience through satellite classes, for example, as well as Microsoft’s Cloud Computing concept through which education can be rolled out much more cheaply on a wider scale, thus benefitting more pupils than anyone had envisaged. “The biggest challenge we face is ensuring that we find ways to make sure that education helps children prepare for tomorrow,” she said. Microsoft is expecting to find wonderful examples of good practices in the classroom when the global Partners in Learning teachers’ competition takes place soon in Cape Town. Speaking during the Imagine Cup technology contest for students held in Poland, Microsoft’s vice-president for education, Anthony Salcito, said technology is not the issue but ensuring how it can be better utilised in terms of providing access to information and ensuring relevance in the classrooms of the 21st century is. To illustrate his point, and emphasise the urgency of tackling education differently, Salcito showed delegates a video in which an American student criticised the tertiary system for not adapting its teaching methods to the 21st century. In the humorous video, a student explains why he quit studies, saying how a professor stands in front of an auditorium before 40 or 200 students, whose names he would not even have learnt. The student says he bought textbooks he never even opened—there was better information available on the internet. “We take tests based on how many facts we can memorise, but society doesn’t care because, in the information age, facts are free,” the student said. “We’ve lost sight of what education should be ... it is about empowering students to change the world for the better. I dropped out of school because my school interfered with my education,” the student said. After the Imagine Cup, world leaders gathered at the fourth annual Education Leaders Forum in Warsaw to examine how the private sector, governments and education systems could work together in delivering engaging, relevant and authentic experiences that would build stronger economies and more cohesive societies. The Education Leaders Forum was attended by 135 delegates from 43 countries, including Microsoft education leader Reza Bardien and the University of South Africa’s executive director of ICT, Deon van der Merwe. At the forum, the spotlight fell on new ways of teaching and learning in the light of the global credit crisis and emphasised the need for faster production of new skills. Microsoft president Jean Philippe Courtois said education should be a life-long quest, and that this ongoing learning is what keeps life and work interesting. Courtois said improving access to education is critical and that the demand for post-secondary education is rising, especially in the developing world. “A number of factors are fuelling this growth, however, the financial crisis has certainly played a role. The crisis has increased unemployment, disproportionately for youth in many countries, raising awareness of the need for higher education and skills development,” he said. At the same time, in many countries, he said, budgets for education are being cut. “It’s clear that we will have to rethink traditional models to address the challenges this growth will create.” Courtois said the dilemma faced by many around the world was improving access and quality with less money. “Many are looking to ICT to help. In essence, “Cloud Computing” is a way of saying that, in the not-so-distant future, many of your IT needs such as computing power and storage will be provided to you as a service, just as a utility provides you with electricity today. The phenomenon of Cloud Computing will mean that technology providers will build and manage massive data centres through which we can deliver IT services to businesses and consumers alike on an on-demand basis where you pay only for what you use.”

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Trace Organic Analysis by Gas Chromatography with Selective Detectors Environment: Water and Waste Published Online: 15 SEP 2006 Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. All rights reserved. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry How to Cite Rosenberg, E. 2006. Trace Organic Analysis by Gas Chromatography with Selective Detectors. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry. . - Published Online: 15 SEP 2006 Selective detectors for gas chromatography (GC) allow one to detect selectively after gas chromatographic separation analytes that either contain certain elements or carry functional groups for which the detector is particularly selective (element-selective detectors). Spectroscopic detectors are a class of selective detectors which, in the ideal case, may even allow the identification of the analytes through acquisition of molecule-specific spectra. Selective detectors often allow the detection, quantitation or identification of analytes even in the presence of complex matrices and may thus significantly improve the selectivity of an analytical method.

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In the era of data what is a fact?13 Jan 2012 The Twitter universe is abuzz about this article in the New York Times. Arthur Brisbane, who responds to reader’s comments, asks I’m looking for reader input on whether and when New York Times news reporters should challenge “facts” that are asserted by newsmakers they write about. He goes on to give a couple of examples of qualitative facts that reporters have used in stories without questioning the veracity of the claims. As many people pointed out in the comments, this is completely absurd. Of course reporters should check facts and report when the facts in their stories, or stated by candidates, are not correct. That is the purpose of news reporting. But I think the question is a little more subtle when it comes to quantitative facts and statistics. Depending on what subsets of data you look at, what summary statistics you pick, and the way you present information - you can say a lot of different things with the same data. As long as you report what you calculated, you are technically reporting a fact - but it may be deceptive. The classic example is calculating median vs. mean home prices. If Bill Gates is in your neighborhood, no matter what the other houses cost, the mean price is going to be pretty high! Two concrete things can be done to deal with the malleability of facts in the data age. First, we need to require that our reporters, policy makers, politicians, and decision makers report the context of numbers they state. It is tempting to use statistics as blunt instruments, punctuating claims. Instead, we should demand that people using statistics to make a point embed them in the broader context. For example, in the case of housing prices, if a politician reports the mean home price in a neighborhood, they should be required to state that potential outliers may be driving that number up. How do we make this demand? By not believing any isolated statistics - statistics will only be believed when the source is quoted and the statistic is described. But this isn’t enough, since the context and statistics will be meaningless without raising overall statisteracy (statistical literacy, not to be confused with numeracy). In the U.S. literacy campaigns have been promoted by library systems. Statisteracy is becoming just as critical; the same level of social pressure and assistance should be applied to individuals who don’t know basic statistics as those who don’t have basic reading skills. Statistical organizations, academic departments, and companies interested in analytics/data science/statistics all have a vested interest in raising the population statisteracy. Maybe a website dedicated to understanding the consequences of basic statistical concepts, rather than the concepts themselves? And don’t forget to keep rating health news stories!

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National efficiency standards for appliances, lighting and other equipment will save consumers and businesses more than US$1.1 trillion by 2035, according to the report "The Efficiency Boom: Cashing In on Savings from Appliance Standards", by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) and the Appliance Standards Awareness Project (ASAP). A typical household will save about US$10,000 between 2010 and 2025 by purchasing products compliant with today's minimum standards. To assess the potential impact of future standards, the report evaluates 34 products for which new or updated standards could be adopted within the next four years. New and updated standards that could be completed by 2015 would reduce 2035 electricity use by another seven per cent, the study found The researchers found that existing standards reduced US greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by about 200 million tonnes in 2010. They calculate that the annual reduction level will grow to 470 million tonnes by 2035, or roughly the output of 120 coal-fired power plants. It is estimated that new and updated standards would reduce 2035 GHG emissions by another 200 million tonnes, or the equivalent of another 50 coal-fired power plants. Source: Environmental News Service, 12 March 2012

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Bed Bug Extermination Bed bugs are small flat insects that are able to hide in and around beds easily. Bed bugs are parasitic creatures feeding on warm blooded hosts. They’ll migrate to out of sight areas for example mattresses and box spring. They can be comparatively difficult to detect. They multiply pretty rapidly and in only 3 months a small bed bug problem can change in a large bed bug infestation. The absence of signs does not mean that there is no infestation. Bed bugs are resilient creatures. They could endure large amounts of time without feeding. Adult bed bugs can survive up to a whole year without having a food supply. Bed Bug Extermination Options The following types of treatments are tools in the arsenal of the bed bug exterminator. Effective extermination, and depending on the level of an infestation, might require a combined approach. Pesticide treatments are the most economical solutions. They can be more effective than other extermination techniques. In some cases bed bugs are known to show resistance to certain pesticides and might require a second treatment. Steam treatment can effectively kill bed bugs. To be effective, a heat or steam treatment must reach 150-170 degrees for a sustained period. A heat or steam treatment can be labour intensive, as bed bugs can hide in multiple locations even in one room. A thorough steam treatment can take longer than other conventional treatments. There is also the possibility that the steam or heat will not penetrate deep enough in materials to kill all bed bugs. Steam could also cause damage to varnished surfaces. The areas that usually need to be targeted during a steam treatment are, mattresses, bed frame, bedding, carpets and curtains. Cold – Cryonite Treatments Bed bugs are highly sensitive to temperature. They thrive indoors because of the relatively steady temperature with limited air flow. Cold treatments can thus be effective when dealing with a bed bug population. Cryonite treatments have been gaining popularity in recent years as they are effective and non-toxic. The bed bugs are immediately killed as soon as they come in contact with the Cryonite. Live bed bugs as well as un-hatched eggs immediately perish. It does not contain any pesticides or other noxious chemicals. Essentially it is a CO2 “snow” and when it is applied to the infested sites, it generally does not make a poisonous residue that could be harmful to other sorts of life like persons or animals. Most surfaces can be treated with cryonite, even electronics and plastics.

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It was in 1814 that Padre Boscana, who had been serving at San Luis Rey, came to reside at San Juan Capistrano, where he wrote the interesting account of the Indians that is so often quoted. In 1812, its population gained its greatest figure, 1361. In November, 1833, Figueroa secularized the Mission by organizing a “provisional pueblo” of the Indians, and claiming that the padres voluntarily gave up the temporalities. There is no record of any inventory, and what became of the church property is not known. Lands were apportioned to the Indians by Captain Portilla. The following year, most probably, all this provisional work of Figueroa’s was undone, and the Mission was secularized in the ordinary way, but in 1838 the Indians begged for the pueblo organization again, and freedom from overseers, whether lay or clerical. In 1840 Padre Zalvidea was instructed to emancipate them from Mission rule as speedily as possible. Janssens was appointed majordomo, and he reported that he zealously worked for the benefit of the Mission, repairing broken fences and ditches, bringing back runaway neophytes, clothing them and caring for the stock. But orders soon began to come in for the delivery of cattle and horses, applications rapidly came in for grants of the Mission ranches, and about the middle of June, 1841, the lands were divided among the ex-neophytes, about 100 in number, and some forty whites. At the end of July regulations were published for the foundation of the pueblo, and Don Juan Bandini soon thereafter went to supervise the work. He remained until March, 1842, in charge of the community property, and then left about half a dozen white families and twenty or more ex-neophytes duly organized as a pueblo. In 1843 San Juan was one of the Missions the temporalities of which were to be restored to the Padres, provided they paid one-eighth of all produce into the public treasury. In 1844 it was reported that San Juan had no minister, and all its neophytes were scattered. In 1845 Pico’s decree was published, stating that it was to be considered a pueblo; the church, curate’s house and court-house should be reserved, and the rest of the property sold at auction for the payment of debts and the support of public worship. In December of that year the ex-Mission buildings and gardens were sold to Forster and McKinley for $710, the former of whom retained possession for many years. In 1846 the pueblo was reported as possessing a population of 113 souls. Twenty years ago there used to be one of the best of the Mission libraries at San Juan. The books were all in old-style leather, sheepskin and parchment bindings, some of them tied with leathern thongs, and a few having heavy homemade metal clasps. They were all in Latin or Spanish, and were well known books of divinity. The first page of the record of marriages was written and signed by Junipero Serra. [Illustration: CAMPANILE AND RUINS OF MISSION SAN JUAN CAPISTRANO.]

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Coincidences: Remarkable or Random? Most improbable coincidences likely result from play of random events. The very nature of randomness assures that combing random data will yield some pattern. “You don't believe in telepathy?” My friend, a sober professional, looked askance. “Do you?” I replied. “Of course. So many times I've been out for the evening and suddenly became worried about the kids. Upon calling home, I've learned one is sick, hurt himself, or having nightmares. How else can you explain it?” Such episodes have happened to us all and it’s common to hear the words, “It couldn't be just coincidence.” Today the explanation many people reach for involves mental telepathy or psychic stirrings. But should we leap so readily into the arms of a mystic realm? Could such events result from coincidence after all? There are two features of coincidences not well known among the public. First, we tend to overlook the powerful reinforcement of coincidences, both waking and in dreams, in our memories. Non-coincidental events do not register in our memories with nearly the same intensity. Second, we fail to realize the extent to which highly improbable events occur daily to everyone. It is not possible to estimate all the probabilities of many paired events that occur in our daily lives. We often tend to assign coincidences a lesser probability than they deserve. However, it is possible to calculate the probabilities of some seemingly improbable events with precision. These examples provide clues as to how our expectations fail to agree with reality. In a random selection of twenty-three persons there is a 50 percent chance that at least two of them celebrate the same birthdate. Who has not been surprised at learning this for the first time? The calculation is straightforward. First find the probability that everyone in a group of people have different birthdates (X) and then subtract this fraction from one to obtain the probability of at least one common birthdate in the group (P), P = 1 - X. Probabilities range from 0 to 1, or may be expressed as 0 to 100%. For no coincident birthdates a second person has a choice of 364 days, a third person 363 days, and the nth person 366 - n days. So the probability for all different birthdates becomes: With its factorials the last equality is not especially useful unless one possesses the capability of handling very large numbers. It is instructive to use a spreadsheet or a loop in a computer language to calculate Xn from the first equality for successive values of n. When n = 23, one finds X = 0.493 and P = 0.507. A plot of the probability of at least one common birthdate, P, versus the number of people, n, appears as the right hand curve of circles in Figure 1. The curve shows that the probability of at least two people sharing a common birthdate rises slowly, at first passing just less than 12% probability with ten people, rising through 50% probability at the open circle corresponding to twenty-three people, then flattening out and reaching 90% probability in a group of forty-one people. This means that on the average, out of ten random groups of forty-one persons, in nine of them at least two persons will celebrate identical birthdates. No mysterious forces are needed to explain this coincidence. Figure 1. Probabilities of Coincident Birthdates: The right-hand curve of circles represents the probability that in a random group of people at least two celebrate the same birthdate. As indicated by the open circle just above the horizontal line at 0.50 probability, an even 50% chance is achieved at just 23 people. The left-hand curve represents the probability that in a random group of people at least two share a birthdate within one day of each other. The 50% chance for this three-day coincidence occurs with just 14 people. Note that the probability of coincident birthdays for 2323=46 people is not 100%, as some might suppose, but 95% as shown by the right-hand curve in Figure 1. Extension of the curve beyond the limit of Figure 1 reveals that fifty-seven people produce a 99% probability of coincident birthdays. The same principle may be used to calculate the probability that at least two people in a random group possess birthdates within one day (same and two adjacent days). This condition is less restrictive than the former, and 50% probability is passed with just fourteen people. The left-hand curve in Figure 1 shows a plot for the probabilities of within-one-day birthdates. Delving a little deeper into some aspects of the probabilities of identical birthdates provides additional insight. Note that we said several times “at least two people” sharing a common birthdate. As the group size increases the chances for multiple coincidences also increase. The descending curve at the left of Figure 2 represents the probability of no coincidences (NC) of birthdates, identical to the Xn values calculated above. The first curve with a maximum plots the probability of only one pair (1P) sharing an identical birthdate. The maximum occurs at twenty-eight people with a probability of almost 0.39. As the group becomes larger the probability of other coincidences increases as well. The second curve with a maximum represents the probability of exactly two pairs (2P) sharing an identical birthdate. Its maximum occurs at thirty-nine people with a probability of 0.28. The last, rising curve in Figure 2 plots the total probabilities of all remaining coincidences (<2P), consisting of three pairs, triplets, etc. For all numbers of people, the probabilities of all four curves total 1.00. Figure 2. Probabilities of Multiple Coincident Birthdates: The descending curve at the left represents the probability for no shared birthdates, no coincidences (NC). The first curve with a maximum plots the probability of only one pair (1P) with an identical birthdate. The second curve with a maximum represents the probability of exactly two pairs (2P) sharing identical birthdates (different date for each pair). The ascending curve at the right plots the probability of all other coincidences (<2P), three pairs, triplet, etc. For any number of people the probabilities of the four curves total 1.00. Figure 2 shows that for twenty-three people the probabilities are 0.36 for one pair, 0.11 for two pairs, and 0.03 for the total of all other coincidences for a probability sum of 0.50. We have broken down the 0.50 probability for at least one coincidence discussed above for twenty-three people into component contributions. For twenty-three people the probability of no coincidences is also 0.50, as shown in the descending curve (NC) of Figure 2. There is an almost triple intersection at thirty-eight people where the chance of 1 identical pair, 2 identical pairs, and the total of all other coincidences is 28-29%. For thirty-eight or more people the total of all other coincidences becomes greater than the exactly one and two pair possibilities, and passes through 50% chance at forty-five people. In a random group of more than forty-five people there is a better than even chance that there are more than two coincidental birthdates. What this series of calculations boils down to is this: If coincident birthdates are so much more common than we would have guessed, isn't it likely that many of those other striking coincidences in our lives are the outcome of probability as well? We should not multiply hypotheses: the principle of Occam’s Razor states that the simplest explanation is to be preferred. |Births, 41 cases (90%)| James K. Polk Warren G. Harding |Deaths, 36 cases (83%)| William Howard Taft |Crowd Size for 50% Probabilities| |At least two have the same, unspecified birthday||23| |At least one has the specified birthday||253| |At least two have the same, specified birthday||613| Consider the birth and death dates of American presidents to see how this reasoning works in real cases. There have been forty-one presidential births, and Figure 1 indicates a 90% probability that at least two presidents should have been born on the same day. There is one such coincidence: James K. Polk and Warren G. Harding were both born on November 2. The result appears in Table 1. With forty-one cases there is a 66% chance of a second coincidence, but none has yet occurred. [The result may be obtained by adding the probabilities for forty-one persons for the 2P (0.28) and <2P (0.38) curves of Figure 2.] Perhaps the next president’s birthdate will coincide with one of the previous forty-one. (The birthdates of neither Albert Gore nor Colin Powell do so.) Of the thirty-six dead presidents Figure 1 indicates an 83% probability that at least two should have died on the same date. The results also appear in Table 1. Both Millard Fillmore and William Howard Taft died on March 8. With 36 cases there is a 51% chance of a second coincidence. In what seems an astounding coincidence, three early presidents died on July 4, as listed in Table 1. Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died in the same year, 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of their signing the Declaration of Independence. Adams’s final words, that his long-time rival and correspondent Jefferson “still lives,” were mistaken, as Jefferson had died earlier that same day. James Monroe died on the same date five years later. Presidential scholars suggest that the former early presidents made an effort to hang on till July 4. James Madison rejected stimulants that might have prolonged his life, and he died six days earlier on June 28 (in 1836). It seems evident that for the deaths of several presidents July 4 is not a random date. Only one president, Calvin Coolidge, was born on July 4.An important point in all of the preceding is that no birthdate was specified in advance. Table 2 lists the crowd sizes for 50% probabilities. The first entry restates what we already know: a group of twenty-three suffices for at least two to possess the same unspecified birthdate. If we specify a particular birthdate, such as today, a crowd of 253 people is required to have an even chance for even one person with that birthdate. For at least two persons to possess a specified birthdate, the 50% probability is not reached until there is a mob of 613 people. This huge difference of twenty-three versus 613 for 50% probability of at least two persons with a common birthdate is due to the fact that the date is unspecified for the group and specified for the mob. That some improbable event will occur is likely; that a particular one will occur is unlikely. If we look at our personal coincidences, we see that they were rarely predicted in advance. Abraham Lincoln and John Kennedy It is always possible to comb random data to find some regularities. A well-known qualitative example is the comparison of coincidences in the lives of Abraham Lincoln and John Kennedy, two presidents with seven letters in their last names, and elected to office 100 years apart, 1860 and 1960. Both were assassinated on Friday in the presence of their wives, Lincoln in Ford’s theater and Kennedy in an automobile made by the Ford motor company. Both assassins went by three names: John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald, with fifteen letters in each complete name. Oswald shot Kennedy from a warehouse and fled to a theater, and Booth shot Lincoln in a theater and fled to a barn (a kind of warehouse). Both succeeding vice-presidents were southern Democrats and former senators named Johnson (Andrew and Lyndon), with thirteen letters in their names and born 100 years apart, 1808 and 1908. But if we compare other relevant attributes we fail to find coincidences. Lincoln and Kennedy were born and died in different months, dates, and states, and neither date is 100 years apart. Their ages at death were different, as were the names of their wives. Of course, had any of these features corresponded for the two presidents, it would have been included in the list of “mysterious” coincidences. For any two people with reasonably eventful lives it is possible to find coincidences between them. Two people meeting at a party often find some striking coincidence between them, but what it is — birthdate, hometown, etc. — is not predicted in advance In the card game bridge there are a possible 635,013,559,600 different thirteen-card hands. This number of hands could be realized if all the people in the world played bridge for a day. For an individual it would take several million years of continuous playing to be dealt each of these hands. Yet any given hand held by a player is equally probable, or rather, equally improbable, as its probability is 1/635,013,559,600 or a little better than one part in a million million. Any hand is just as improbable as thirteen spades. Bridge hands are an example of the daily occurrence of very improbable events, but of course, the hands are not specified in advance. Consider a group of just 10 or more students in a classroom of a college that draws students from several states. During school session, numerous such classrooms exist each day. Yet the odds against predicting the exact make up of any classroom ten years in advance (all the students and teacher born by then) are truly astronomical. This is another example of the daily occurrence of highly improbable events. Runs of Heads and Tails What sequence of head(H) and tails(T) might you expect in random tossing of a coin? Not all heads nor all tails, nor even the alternating sequence (HTHTHTHT), as this series is obviously regular and not random. In a random sequence we expect runs of both heads and tails. We can simulate progressions of coin tosses from a random sequence of numbers. So far as is known, the decimal digits of the irrational number p, which multiplies the diameter of a circle to obtain the circumference, are random. This does not mean that every time p is calculated a different result is obtained, but rather that the value of any single digit is not predictable from preceding digits. An example of a pattern leading to predictability is the sequence of decimal digits in the fraction 1/7 = 0.142857142857142857. . . , where there is an obvious repeat every six digits. The decimal digits of p have been calculated to hundreds of millions of digits by high-speed computers, but we list only the first 100 digits in four rows of 25 digits. There are fifty-one even digits and forty-nine odd digits. There is an almost an even distribution when the first 100 decimal digits are divided in another way: forty-nine digits from 0 to 4 and fifty-one digits from 5 to 9. Since the decimal digits of p are random, we may simulate a random sequence of heads and tails in coin tossing by assigning even digits to heads and odd digits to tails. The sequence of heads and tails in 100 tosses with 25 tosses per line becomes Combing the random sequence we find some regularities, such as the alternating sequence of eight tosses from 62-69 (underlined). The probability of an alternating sequence of 8 tosses is once in 27 = 128 tosses. There are some long runs of all heads and all tails. There are two runs of 5 heads, one run of 6 heads, one run of 8 tails, and a surprising run of 10 heads. The p decimal digits 69-78 are all even (refer to underlined digits). A run of ten even digits should occur only once in 210 = 1,024 digits. Yet such a run occurs within the first eighty digits. So what have we here? A proof that the decimal digits of p are not random? No, what we have instead is a demonstration of how it is always possible to comb random data and find regularities not specified in advance. Since ten even digits occur within the first 100 decimal digits of p, we might (mistakenly) think we are on to something, and that such a run might occur frequently. In fact a run of ten even digits does not occur again in the first 1,000 decimal digits of p. In the first 1,000 digits a single run of ten odd digits occurs from 411-420. The point is that the very nature of randomness assures that combing random data will yield some pattern. But what that pattern is cannot be specified in advance. If someone finds a pattern combing random data, he or she may use it as a hypothesis for investigation of more data but should never make a general conclusion from it. In our example we discovered (but did not predict) ten even digits within the first 100 digits but not again in the next 900 digits. For confirmation of a trend, the target data must be stated in advance of data inspection. If an unexpected pattern does emerge during inspection after the data is obtained, the pattern can be used as a hypothesis for obtaining and inspecting an entirely new set of data. The heads and tails sequence may be applied in other ways. Consider a football quarterback who completes 50% of his passes or a basketball player who makes 50% of his or her free throws. Assign heads (H) to a pass completion or made free throw and tails (T) to a miss, and then one expects long runs of completions and misses as shown in the HT sequence above. Most hot and cold streaks in sports are just the consequence of randomness. The “hot hand” is most often an illusion of significance that appears in data sets that are random. We may utilize the random sequence of p decimal digits to find likely streaks for a .300 hitter in baseball. For example, assign the digits 0, 2, and 4 to hits and the other seven digits to outs. Then, out of the first 100 decimal digits there are 30 hits and 70 outs. If we divide the sequence of 100 digits into successive groups of four, a representative number of bats per game, we obtain the results for twenty-five games. Our .300 hitter then goes hitless in four games (three in succession for a “slump”), strokes one hit in thirteen games, two hits in seven games, three hits in one game, and has no game in which he gets four hits. Astonishingly, the batter gets at least one hit in the last thirteen games, considered enough to be a real “streak.” But this “streak” arises out of the random sequence of p decimal digits. A batter’s slump or hitting streak is likely just the result of randomness in play. Clearly, unspecified improbable coincidences occur daily to everyone, and these coincidences are most likely the result of randomness. If the data set is large enough, coincidences are sure to appear, as demonstrated with the first 100 decimal digits of p. The chance of tossing five straight heads is only 3 percent, but for 100 tosses the chance becomes 96 percent. Though applied in a different context, Ramsey theory (Scientific American, July 1990) states that “Every large set of numbers, points, or objects necessarily contains a highly regular pattern.” It is not necessary to posit mysterious forces to explain coincidences. Random Prices in the Stock Market Figure 3. Stock Market Simulation: Daily stock market action presented as price for 109 trading days generated from the random decimal digits of p. The representative “head and shoulders top” is shown to be consistent with random play of the market. Of course, the number of days is flexible, one decimal digit may represent any fraction or number of days. See Note for a description of how the price action was generated. Given the current fascination with the long bull market in stocks, we can generate an even more interesting result from the random decimal digits of p. Let us plot on the x-axis the number of the decimal digit and on the y-axis a price value that is generated from the decimal digits as described in the Figure 3 caption and Note so that there is an arbitrary and equal balance between the up and down directions for price. For the first 108 decimal digits of p the entire plot is in positive territory. Starting at zero the plot works its way haltingly to increasingly positive values, attaining a plateau from the 48-71 decimal digits before it begins to work its way down, almost returning to zero on the 99th digit, and crossing into negative territory after the 108th decimal digit. To a stock market technician this plot represents a head and shoulders top in a plot of a stock price or stock market price versus time. It is all there in Figure 3, a top and shoulders on both sides of the top. Yet this plot was generated from the first 109 random decimal digits of p! The maximum value of 65 on the y-axis is reached three times in the plateau region and is more than 7 times greater than the maximum single move of 9. Therefore, we may conclude that a head and shoulders top in stock or commodity prices may represent nothing more than random play in the markets. (Over the longer term there is a rising trend in stock market averages.) A recent sweepstakes received in the mail offered a grand prize of $5,000,000. The fine print stated the chances of winning this prize as one in 200,000,000. Out of this large population some one person will win the sweepstakes. With such incredibly unfavorable odds each person must decide for him or herself whether it is worth the time and the first class postage to return the entry. The sure big winner appears to be the postal service, which garners more than ten times the grand prize amount in postage. So, the next time you hear, “It couldn't be just coincidence,” you will be fully justified in answering, “Why not?” CSICOP Presidential Coincidences Contest Back in 1992, the Skeptical Inquirer held a Spooky Presidential Coincidences Contest, in response to Ann Landers printing “for the zillionth time” a list of chilling parallels between John F. Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln. The task was for readers to come up with their own list of coincidences between other pairs of presidents. There were two contest winners, Arturo Magidin of Mexico City, and Chris Fishel, a student at the University of Virginia. Magidin came up with sixteen stunning coincidences between Kennedy and former Mexican President Alvaro Obregón, while Fishel managed to come up with lists of coincidences between no fewer than twenty-one different pairs of U.S. presidents. A few examples from Magidin’s list: Both “Kennedy” and “Obregón” have seven letters each; each was assassinated; both their assassins had three names and died shortly after killing the president; Kennedy and Obregón were both married in years ending in 3, each had a son who died shortly after birth, and both came from large families and died in their forties. Fishel came up with dozens of coincidences; here are a few between Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson. Both men served two full terms; both their wives died before they became president; each had six-letter first names; both were in debt at the time of their deaths; each had a state capital named after him, and both their predecessors refused to attend their inaugurations. [For more information and the full lists, see SI Spring 1992, 16(3); and Winter 1993, 17(2).] I am indebted to Professor Russell N. Grimes of the University of Virginia for discussions of expressions leading to Figure 2 and Table 2. - The price action was generated in a positive direction when the preceding digit is odd (except for 5) and in a negative direction when the preceding digit is even, with the magnitude of the direction given by the value of the digit. Thus preceding odd digits 1 + 3 + 7 + 9 = 20 generate a positive direction and preceding even digits 0 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20 a negative direction. The sum in the two directions is the same. For the left over digit 5 the direction is up or down depending upon whether the previous digit is odd or even, respectively. In the first 108 decimal digits there are eight 5s, half each generating positive and negative directions. Therefore we have a perfectly arbitrary and equal balance between the positive and negative directions. - Epstein, Richard A. 1967. The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic. New York: Academic Press. - Falk, Ruma. 1981. On Coincidences. Skeptical Inquirer 6(2): Winter: 18-31. - Graham, Ronald L., and Joel H. Spencer. 1990. Ramsey Theory. Scientific American 263 (1): 112-117 (July). - Paulos, John Allen. 1988. Innumeracy. New York: Random House. - Weaver, Warren. 1963. Lady Luck. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.

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3 Answers | Add Yours At the beginning of As You Like It Oliver and Orlando hate each other. Orlando is resentful because Oliver, his older brother, refuses to help him improve his education but treats him like a peasant. He says: My father charged you in his will to give me good education: you have trained me like a peasant, obscuring and hiding from me all gentlemanlike qualities. Orlando actually encourages the wrestler Charles to kill Orlando in their upcoming bout, but Orlando wins and then is forced to flee because he learns that Oliver has further plans to kill him. Duke Frederick orders Oliver to pursue Orlando because he believes Rosalind and Celia have run off with him and he blames this on Oliver. The Duke's reason for blaming Oliver is that he suspects him of plotting to kill his youngest brother and forcing him to flee, thereby providing Rosalind and Celia with the protection to flee with him. In other words, the Duke believes that his daughter Celia is to be found with Rosalind and that Rosalind is to be found with Orlando because they are in love with each other. At the end of the play the brothers are reunited and reconciled in the Forest of Arden, where Orlando saves Oliver from being killed by a lioness. Oliver has become a changed man. He promises Orlando that he will give him his estate and all its revenues (V.2) because he wants to marry Celia and live the life of a shepherd in the forest. William Shakespeare's As You Like It is a very witty comedy. Here, the characters of Orlando and Oliver are clearly distinguishable from each other. Oliver is Orlando's elder brother. Both are the sons of late Sir Rowland de Bois. In the very beginning, we find out, in accordance with the rule of primogeniture in England, which instructs that all the property would be inherited by the eldest of the family, Orlando gets the possession of the belongings that his father leaves. Though, he was instructed to take proper care of Orlando, he, out of jealousy and loath, makes Orlando totally deprived. In fact, when the royal wrestler Charles is supposed to fight Orlando, Oliver leaps with joy thinking of the probable death of his brother. But, in Orlando, we find no such cruel feeling or motive. He is not even confident enough to stand on his own feet. He just flees away in fear of his brother. Later in the play, when Oliver is attacked by a lioness in the forest of Arden, it is Orlando who rescues him. Orlando could have shown abhorrence or reacted vindictively by not saving Oliver, but he does not do so. Unlike Oliver, he proves to be a sensible brother and a good-natured human. And, at this point, his valour is also expressed. Another notable point is that, Orlando's character develops gradually with the help of Ganymede, whereas Oliver's character faces a sudden change in the forest of Arden which is very miraculous. Finally , the difference between the two brothers has clearly been depicted in the play, where Shakespeare's portrayal of Orlando is almost a mirror image of Oliver. according to me orlando's and oliver's relationship at the begining was based on jealousy and loath. oliver was always jealous of orlando because of orlando's gentleman like qualities in the second scene of the play only it is clearly reavled that oliver is jealous of orlando's inheritted qualities and also because people used to like orlando more than oliver and oliver was misprised in front of him... and he even tries to kill him by hiring charles the wrestler to kil him and as adam tells orlando that he overhears him that he was planning to set fire in orlandos room.....however his views and behaviour was changed afterwards when orlando saved oliver from lioness... We’ve answered 328,176 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Go Tell It on the Mountain, Baldwin’s first published novel, tells a passionate story closely paralleling the author’s own family background. It focuses on John Grimes, a black boy growing up in a religious home in Harlem under the stern hand of his preacher father, Gabriel. The action of the novel takes place in 1936, on John’s fourteenth birthday, with sections detailing previous events in the lives of John’s aunt Florence, his father, and his mother, Elizabeth. Florence is a strident and bitter woman who left her ailing mother and irresponsible younger brother to come North. She married a man named Frank, who abused and abandoned her, and now she approaches old age feeling empty, living alone, and sharing in the life of her brother’s family. Gabriel, her brother, had been a wild young man, but he repented, became a preacher, and married a fallen woman named Deborah. Succumbing to temptation, however, he impregnated a young woman he worked with and then refused to acknowledge his paternity. He watched his son Royal grow before his eyes and heard of the boy’s violent death in a knife fight. Gabriel drifted in despair, his wife passed on, and he came to New York to begin a new life. There he met Elizabeth. Elizabeth was nine when her mother died, and, because her father ran a brothel, she went to live with her aunt in Maryland. There she fell in love with a young man named Richard; they moved to New York.... (The entire section is 587 words.)

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Calcium and vitamin D are essential at every age, particularly for older women who face a higher risk of osteoporosis and bone fractures. But most women consume only an average of 895 mg of calcium per day, according to the latest "What We Eat in America" federal food survey &mdash well below the 1,200 mg per day recommended by the Institute of Medicine. To improve calcium levels, many women turn to supplements, which might be a double-edged sword, according to a slew of new studies, raising heart attack and even mortality risk while not providing the desired bone-health boost. Read on to find out more. Calcium Doesn't Reduce Fracture Risk There's no evidence to support the idea that calcium and vitamin D supplements prevent falls and bone fractures in older adults, a new review published in the Annals of Internal Medicine finds. After two systematic evidence reviews and a meta-analysis on the health effects of vitamin D supplements, researchers from the United States Preventive Services Task Force found no evidence that daily supplementation prevented bone fractures, though it did increase a patient's risk of kidney stones. Because preventing falls is so essential for senior health, the task force recommends regular bone density tests and screens for osteoporosis. Calcium May Double Death Risk In a large, long-term study of Swedish women, researchers found that calcium intake greater than 1,400 mg per day was associated with higher death rates, particularly from cardiovascular events. The increase in death risk was more pronounced in those who consumed high amounts of calcium in their diets and used calcium tablets, as much as doubling their death risk, compared to those who ate foods with a lot of calcium but did not take supplements. Joan Salge Blake, MS, RD, a clinical associate professor of nutrition at Boston University who did not work on the study, says it's almost impossible to get too much calcium from diet alone, so the take-home message is to make sure you're eating enough calcium-rich foods in your diet to avoid needing supplements at all. Calcium Supplements Pose Heart Risk The greatest risk of calcium supplementation might be for your heart, according to recent research. In addition to the Swedish study, another article published last week in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that men who took calcium pills, though not women, had a 20 percent higher risk of dying from heart disease. Other studies have found similar results in both men and women. Reena L. Pande, MD, a cardiologist at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston and an instructor at Harvard Medical School, wrote in an exclusive to Everyday Health that these findings should be taken with a grain of salt because they are observational studies and not the "gold standard" randomized controlled trials. Still, the possibility remains that calcium supplements can harm your heart, so use caution while taking supplements, as more research is conducted. Calcium Supplements and Kidney Stones New research published in the Annals of Internal Medicine associated calcium supplements with an increased kidney stone risk, supporting the findings of several past studies published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. But a recent review of studies by researchers at the Hospital Clinico de San Carlos in Madrid, Spain, found that calcium supplements did not significantly increase kidney stone risk in women receiving treatment for osteoporosis, though some patients did report kidney pain, indicating the more study on the link is needed. Calcium and Iron Calcium can decrease the body's absorption of dietary iron, according to the National Institutes of Health. To offset this effect, people should consume foods that enhance the absorption of iron, such as meat protein and vitamin C, particularly when iron needs are high, NIH experts say. Women need more iron during menstruation and pregnancy and if they're only consuming vegetarian iron sources, according to NIH guidelines. Calcium and Constipation According to some research, a less than desirable but not dangerous side effect of calcium supplements can be constipation. In general, calcium carbonate supplements are the most constipating, according to the Mayo Clinic, so you may need to try a few different brands or types of calcium supplements to find one that you tolerate the best, or talk to your doctor about other options. - Last Updated: 02/25/13 - Last Updated: 02/25/13

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American agriculture is marked by several trends. The first is the continuing decline of small family farms. Since 1979, 300,000 small farms have disappeared in the United States, and since 1946 the number of people employed in agriculture has been cut in half. Increasingly, large companies such as Archer-Daniels Midland (ADM) have come to dominate American agriculture. In 2000, ADM had worldwide sales of $12.9 billion. In the beef industry, 4 firms control 80 percent of the U.S. market. Almost 91 percent of U.S. farms are considered to be small (less than 1,000 acres). Large farms (more than 1,000 acres) made up just 9 percent of farms but received 51 percent of total agricultural revenues in 2000. The second trend is the increasing productivity of the sector. Agricultural production in the United States has increased by an average of 5 percent each year since 1990. In addition, the output of each agricultural worker has grown by an average of 0.84 percent each year. On average, one American farmer produces enough food for 96 people. This improvement is partially as a result of the consolidation of farms and partially a result of new technologies and farming methods. The third trend is the growth in both exports and imports. In 1998 total agricultural exports were $60.5 billion. That same year, total imports were $48.9 billion. The fourth and final trend is the loss of agricultural subsidies . Some of these subsidies are in the form of outright payments in exchange for farmers not growing certain crops and are provided to keep the price of crops high. Since the early 1990s, Congress has gradually reduced these subsidies. However, support and aid for certain types of farmers, including tobacco farmers, continues. After declining to a low point of $9 billion in 1997, government spending on agriculture increased to $23 billion in 1999 and $38.4 billion in 2000. The increases mainly came from emergency aid to farmers because of natural disasters during these 2 years. About 40 percent of the land in the United States is used for agriculture of some form, including livestock grazing. This includes 431.1 million acres of cropland, 396.9 million acres of pasture, and 71.5 million acres of forests. In 1998, the total crop output of the United States was 489,976,030 metric tons with a value of $102.14 billion. The largest single crop was corn, which accounted for more than half of the nation's crop output with 247,882,000 metric tons. The second largest crop was soybeans with 74,598,000 metric tons. Wheat is third with 69,327,000 metric tons. Other major crops include sugar cane, sugar beets, potatoes, bananas, and coffee. Tobacco also provides substantial cash returns, although yields are small when compared with many other crops. Total animal output in 1998 was $94.19 billion while forestry products, including timber, totaled $24.68 billion. Of the total American livestock, there were 101.2 million head of cattle, 56.2 million pigs, 8.3 million sheep, 6.15 million horses and 1.5 billion chicken. The remaining livestock includes a variety of species such as bison, turkeys, and geese. Commercial fishing has declined significantly in the United States over the past 30 years. The majority of U.S. fish cultivation is used domestically, and about half is for human consumption. There is a wide variety of species caught, including cod, haddock, pollock, tuna, and salmon. Various shellfish such as lobster, shrimp, or crab account for about 20 percent of the annual harvest, but provide about one-half of the total revenues. Commercial fish farms are increasingly common and used for species such as salmon, catfish, and shrimp. Total fish harvests amounted to $3.7 billion in 1998, of which shellfish totals were $1.6 billion. There have been dramatic improvements in agricultural technology in the United States. Improvements include increased use of computers, scientific soil and crop analysis, and more sophisticated machinery. Genetic engineering of seeds has also increased crop yields but created controversy over the safety of genetically altered products. There has subsequently been a decrease in soil erosion caused by over-farming and an overall decline in the use of pesticides and fertilizers. However, the pesticides used are much more powerful and lethal than earlier chemicals. About two-thirds of the states have had deep reductions in agriculture. Agriculture has declined most significantly in the New England states and New Jersey. In the West and southern plains, some states have had minor declines, while others have had small increases. The only regions of the nation that have seen major expansion of agriculture have been the middle-Atlantic area and the Pacific Northwest. The states with the largest increases in output were Arkansas, Washington, Delaware, Florida, and Georgia. Progress in technology and crop yields has made the United States among the most productive agricultural producers in the world. The United States produces about half of the world's corn and 10 percent of its wheat. It also accounts for 20 percent of the globe's beef, pork, and lamb. With such progress in increasing output and the efficiency of agriculture, food prices for American consumers have had little increase over the past 20 years. Americans spend less on food, as a proportion of their income, than any other nation in the world. U.S. consumers spent 10.9 percent of their income on food. In comparison, the average British consumer spent 11.2 percent, the French 14.8 percent, the Japanese 17.6 percent, and Indians spent 51.3 percent. The United States is the world's largest producer of timber. About 70 percent of the nation's forests are privately owned, but there is also limited logging allowed in federally-owned or managed forests. Almost 80 percent of timber harvested is soft woods such as pine or Douglas Fir. Hardwoods such as oak account for the remaining 20 percent.

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In TCP Connection Terminationlesson, you will learn how Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) terminates an established connection gracefully. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Connection Termination When the data transmission is complete and the device want to terminate the connection, the device initiating the termination, places a TCP segment (Segment is the name of the data packet at transport layer, if the protocol is TCP) with the FIN flag set to one. The purpose of FIN bit is to enable TCP to gracefully terminate an established session. The application then enters in a state called the FIN-WAIT state. When at FIN-WAIT state, Device A continues to receive TCP segments from Device B and processes the segments already in the queue, but no additional data is accepted from the application. TCP Connection Termination In the example shown above, assume Device A has completed its transmission and indicates this by sending a segment to Device B with the FIN bit set to 1. Device B will acknowledge the segment with an ACK. At this point in time, Device B will no longer accept data from Device A. Device B can continue to accept data from its application to transmit to Device A. If Device B does not have any more data to transmit, it will also terminate the connection by transmitting a segment to Device A with the FIN bit set to 1. Device A will then ACK that segment and terminates the connection. This Lesson explains how Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Terminates an established connection using FIN flag. Click "Next" to continue.

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