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the state , which it holds to be unnecessary , undesirable formal hierarchies long before the establishment of Although traces of anarchist thought are several revolutions , most notably in the Comune of Paris , the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War which can be broadly separated significant overlap between the two , which are merely descriptive . Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state , having what an anarchist society would be like Anarchist thought , criticism , and praxis have played a part from the Ancient Greek "anarkhia " , meaning composed of the prefix " an- " ( " without " ) and the word "arkhos The suffix "-ism " denotes the ideological current that " Anarchism " appears in as "anarchists " , although few such accused shared many views The first political philosopher to call himself an "anarchist " ( ) was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ( 1809–1865 ) , marking Since the 1890s and beginning in France , "libertarianism " has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside While the term " libertarian " has been largely synonymous with anarchism , its meaning has more libertarian Marxists , who do not who are primarily concerned with " to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and " Anarchism " is broadly which are state - oriented anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two . central to anarchist thought , defining " anarchism " is not an easy task for scholars , as there is a lot of cities , an established authority did not Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and " ) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature ("physis " ) . These , and other Muslim movements , During the French Revolution , partisan groups such as the Enragés and the saw The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as , morally delegitimising the state , and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found thought had become well - defined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation |
, a class worker union later known as The International became a significant political force , with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member Bakunin's faction ( the Jura Federation ) and Proudhon's followers ( the mutualists ) opposed state socialism , advocating political abstentionism and the Second International , being ultimately expelled Bakunin famously predicted that if , they would end up a Russian philosopher and scientist , anarcho-communism anarchism had spread all over travelling to the Japanese capital to study a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism , where many Communards to penal colonies following Even though many anarchists distanced themselves made to exclude them from 1903 , also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government namely platformism and synthesis anarchism . The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were syndicalists ( CNT and FAI ) once again allied themselves of large areas of rural Spain , where they collectivised the land . At the end of World War II , the anarchist movement , likely caused by a perceived failure tensions built by the Cold War . a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as as exemplified by bands such Anarchists became known for their involvement WTO ) , the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum During the protests , " ad hoc " leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include social anarchism and individualist anarchism , owing The individualist current emphasises negative liberty while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy , without necessarily accepting the imperative A component especially of individualist anarchism , a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government reflect anti - authoritarian , anti -statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such among anarchists first adopted by communist and syndicalist ) . Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was |
developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon that would be regulated by Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms In " What Is Property ? " ( 1840 ) , Proudhon communism and property . " and that workers be paid according to time worked , rather than goods being distributed according to need as in , workers' councils and worker cooperatives , according to his ability , to each according to his need . the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of whose specific style would go onto become for revolutionary social change , replacing capitalism self - managed by workers emphasise the individual and their will were anarchist in orientation . Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements , at times eclectic , drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has and history to engage with Various anarchist groups , tendencies , and schools of thought exist today , making it difficult to While theorists and activists have , there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple "anarchisms " , rather than a singular "anarchism " , each group prioritizes those principles differently . of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy , state socialism , etc . ) , economic class systems . ) , autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam , Roman Catholicism , etc . ) which these forms should be opposed to anarchist political ethics in that Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals , namely to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and aims to destroy oppressive states and Not only did they confront state armed forces , as in Spain and Ukraine , but some of them also employed terrorism Assassination attempts were carried out against of which were successful . that these attempts would be the impetus by individual assailants and the majority took and the 1890s , with some still occurring in the early 1900s . |
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always Anarcho - pacifists advocate for non - violence means to achieve their stateless , nonviolent ends This attitude was quite prominent a century ago and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression , although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism , of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism . practiced naturism and nudism . a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism , has rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage Overall , contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than They mostly engage in confronting , especially in countries such disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy , or the form of self - managing their lives through the creation of counter - institutions such equal say in each decision , an approach known as horizontalism . Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism , although not explicitly anarchist , mass activism such as strikes and signals their tendency not to base or to refer to classical anarchists One way is for an individual from facilitator to help achieve a consensus themselves or promoting a specific point . except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics , goals and 5–20 individuals ) to enhance autonomy These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other , forming larger networks . As in the past , newspapers and journals are used , and anarchists have gone online Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties , hosting electronic libraries and developing various software that are available and when spaces are being occupied , they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones ( TAZ ) , spaces where art , poetry , and surrealism are blended As seen by anarchists , squatting is a way to regain pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action Acquiring space enables anarchists to |
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes , tendencies , The compatibility of capitalism , nationalism is widely disputed , and Anarchists may be motivated by Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally such as Benjamin Tucker , who believing they would benefit predatory men A historical current that arose and flourished In contemporary anarchism , this current survives as a tendency to support of men imposing authority over women , largely because marriage law broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure communal houses , where large groups of slept in beds together . Free love had roots both in pro - choice ( utilising a contemporary term ) , and had During the second half of the 20th century , anarchism intermingled being influenced as well . feminists were advocating for the rights , with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject to be an act of mutual aid was dictated largely by the Catholic Church Ferrer's approach was secular , rejecting pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance . and explicitly sought to foster The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy , who published the essay "Education and Culture " , also established a similar school with its founding principle being that effective it had to be Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality ; however , there has to what constitutes manipulation . Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers ( Paul Goodman , Herbert Read , and Colin Ward ) intensified children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate , among them respect for rather than indoctrination as a teaching method , have spread among mainstream educational institutions Objection to the state and its institutions |
is a "sine qua non " of anarchism to be illegitimate regardless of Instead of people being able Authority ultimately rests solely on power , regardless of whether that power is open or transparent , as it still has the ability to coerce people . Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government , even the most altruistic among officials , will unavoidably seek to gain more power , leading to Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary . Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate , camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need A. John Simmons and Leslie Green , who leaned toward philosophical anarchism , believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by this as highly unlikely . artistic currents that were developing during been associated with music scenes such Other anarchists advocated for or used In his book "Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers , Videotape Guerrillas Chris Robé claims that " anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement - based video activism . " Three overlapping properties made art useful to existing society and hierarchies , serve of direct action such as in and reason , art could The most common critique of anarchism is that humans can not self - govern and so a state is that " [ p]eace and war , tariffs , regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs , the preservation are functions which could hardly which there was no central government . such as that anarchism is innately , not only in the pragmatic world , such as at protests as unfeasible or utopian since the state can not be defeated This line of arguments most often While it advocates for no , if accepted by the many , then anarchism would comes the self-contradiction that anarchism calls Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty |
not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still defends philosophical anarchism , claiming that " political authority is a moral illusion . One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success . true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction . does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such reliable , nor does it Anarchist perception of human nature , rejection by academics as naive , overly simplistic , and unrealistic Friedrich Engels , considered to be , criticised anarchism's anti - authoritarianism as inherently counter - revolutionary because in his view a revolution is Academic John Molyneux writes in his book "Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism " that " anarchism can not win " , believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas . The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals According to the Marxist view , that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence . Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act . Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by , and by restricted and repetitive behavior . example , the vaccine hypothesis , which has been disproven and how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize ; how this occurs is not well Several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of autistic people to function and participate independently in the community . Behavioral , psychological, education , and/or skill-building interventions may be used to assist autistic people to learn life skills necessary for living independently , as well as other social Therapy also aims to reduce autistic people worldwide was estimated at It is diagnosed four to five times more often in males than Autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first Autistic people may be severely impaired |
or even superior , in , become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood , although often in Other aspects , such as atypical eating , are also common but are not essential for diagnosis Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders Autistic people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted . Unusual social development becomes apparent early in others less often , and respond less to their own name . Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from , and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves , such as Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding , approach others spontaneously , imitate and nonverbally , and take turns However , they do form compared to non-autistic peers , despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for friendships , not the number of friends , predicts how lonely There are many anecdotal reports , but few systematic studies , of aggression and About one third to half of autistic people do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs , and may include delayed onset and vocal patterns that are not , and word combinations ; their gestures are less often integrated with Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences , and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ( echolalia Joint attention seems to be necessary in joint attention seem to distinguish look at a pointing hand instead of the object to which the hand is pointing , and they consistently in order to comment on high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as , and as adults better than , individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and show unusual abilities , ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of considered core features by some , although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders |
( for example , walking distress from loud noises ) or for sensation seeking ( for example , rhythmic movements ) that include poor muscle tone , poor motor planning , and toe walking ; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in the extent that it was formerly There is tentative evidence that gender dysphoria occurs more frequently in autistic people ( see Autism and LGBT report greater admiration of and less conflict unaffected children and were similar to that there is a common cause at Autism has a strong genetic basis , although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants . Complexity arises due to interactions and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression Studies of twins suggest that of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population . However , most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not Typically , autism can not to a single chromosome abnormality , and none have been shown to selectively Numerous candidate genes have been located , may result from spontaneous structural variation — may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited : that is , the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome Exposure to air pollution during , may increase the risk of Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods , , phthalates and phenols used Parents may first become aware This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine " overload " , a vaccine preservative , or the MMR vaccine for causing autism that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud " How autism occurs is not There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities gut flora alterations , and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction play a role in neurological disorders such by disrupting some synaptic pathways , such |
Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to , not cause or mechanism as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of , stereotyped and repetitive use of language or The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome , Two are commonly used in autism research : the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R ) is a semistructured parent interview , and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule ( ADOS ) uses observation used widely in clinical environments to taking developmental history and physically examining If warranted , diagnosis and from ASD specialists , observing and assessing cognitive , communication , family , and other factors using standardized tools , and taking into A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills , both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions . might also consider intellectual disability , hearing impairment , and a specific language impairment such as Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed , particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to proposed , which would routinely As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues adequate understanding of how to use ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months , although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years , a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later to completed diagnosis and assessment more challenging for clinicians to Autistic females have been shown to engage in masking more frequently Masking may include making oneself perform normative facial expressions and eye contact . obtaining payment can inhibit or Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders ( PDD ) , which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of restricted interests , and highly repetitive behavior and likely causes ; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism , but may have unrelated causes ; PDD not otherwise specified ( PDD-NOS ; also called "atypical autism " ) is diagnosed |
when the criteria are not met bewildering , with autism , Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called or sometimes the "autistic disorders " , whereas autism itself is often called "autistic disorder " , "childhood autism " , " refers to the classic autistic disorder ; "autism " , "ASD " , and "PDD " are hampered by the inability to identify Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes ( observable traits ) that can be viewed is lowered activity in the fusiform face area It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as to cover a wide spectrum , ranging who may be silent , developmentally disabled , and prone who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches , narrowly focused interests , and " is an absolute indication to proceed The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concern for ASD at 18 and 24 months , In contrast , in the UK , children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are It is not known which approach ) , the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire , and the First Year Inventory ; initial data on M-CHAT ) , on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity ( many false-negatives ) but good specificity ( It may be more accurate that does not distinguish ASD Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be The main goals when treating autistic children are , and to increase quality In general , higher IQs are No single treatment is best and treatment Families and the educational system are the main resources Services should be carried out by behavior analysts , special education teachers , has advanced in recent years . suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment , has generally been poor , their clinical results are mostly tentative , |
and there is little evidence for Intensive , sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care , and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors ; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis social skills therapy , and occupational therapy and to reduce depression , anxiety Among these approaches , interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively , or ( EIBI)—a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per that is carried out with very young children — is currently low , and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic ABA interventions , and developmental social pragmatic models ( teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques , allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves . Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at - home parent implementation . Early , intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and is also well - established Similarly , a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children , although there is less evidence in its treatment of Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided . It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up of adult residential programs shows mixed results . Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with school when behavioral treatment fails . More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants , with the most common drug classes being antidepressants , stimulants , and The atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and aripiprazole are FDA - approved for treating However , their side effects must be autistic people may respond atypically . may include weight gain , tiredness SSRI antidepressants , such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine , have |
been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors , while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available , few are supported Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality - of - life contexts success measures that lack predictive validity and The preference that autistic children have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being however , suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with Chelation is not recommended for Although popularly used as an alternative treatment 2018 there is no good evidence to children with autism , such allergies , or with food intolerance markers The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to 2 double-blind randomized controlled trials , 1 double-blind crossover trial , 1 single-blind trial whose duration was 12 and 24 months , a significant improvement in ASD symptoms ( efficacy rate 50% ) was identified . 3 months , no significant effect was observed The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet , small sample size , the heterogeneity of This includes decreasing stress , There is tentative evidence that music therapy may improve social interactions , verbal communication There has been early research looking The degree of symptoms can decrease , occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of ASD intensive treatment and sometimes not . It is not known how often this outcome happens ; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged or younger , though a , but a few decline Compared to the general population autistic people are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had , while Asperger syndrome affects a that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1% . Rates of PDD-NOS 's has 1,000 , Asperger syndrome at childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 public awareness ( particularly among women ) , though unidentified environmental risk factors can |
not be ruled out . The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased ; a real increase would suggest directing and changing environmental factors instead of The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment : it may be close to 2:1 , and with diabetes , The risk is greater with older fathers men marry later if they were described long before autism compiled by his notetaker , Mathesius who may have been severely of Hugh Blair of Borgue , as detailed successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage The New Latin word "autismus " (English translation "autism " ) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining " ( αὐτός , meaning " self " ) , and used it to mean morbid self-admiration , referring to " autistic withdrawal of the patient to from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance " The word "autism " first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology "autistic psychopaths " Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome , though for various reasons it was not " autism " in its modern sense the label "early infantile autism " in a 1943 report Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on are still regarded as typical Kanner's reuse of "autism " led As late as the mid-1970s there autism ; while in 2007 it was believed to be a checklist for diagnosing autism . released , updating the classification for The grouping of disorders , including , has been removed and The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with , and has given them a way to form online communities and work An autistic culture has emerged , accompanied , transcultural comparisons ... and research the human brain rather than a disorder to The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors ; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than |
Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should that autism is caused by with graduate degrees may be unemployed While employers state hiring concerns well as a high regard for rules The proportion reflected is not only itself , but also by see position of the Sun ) ) , albedo is the directional integration Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body . the ocean surface has a low albedo , as do most forests , whereas desert areas Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites , As the amount of reflected radiation is satellite , not all directions , a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements bi-hemispherical reflectance ( e.g. , ) describes how the reflectance of a given surface Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about . If Earth were frozen entirely ( and hence be more reflective ) , the average temperature of the planet would drop below . If only the continental land masses became covered by would drop to about . as measured by earthshine using This may have both been co - caused by climate change Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount circumstances where a change in illumination That said , albedo and illumination both vary by latitude The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on due to low insolation , whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert , which also have a relatively high albedo , will be hotter due to are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb , effectively cooling the Earth This has been a concern since |
arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to the arctic that are notably darker ( being water or ground which is darker color ) and reflects less heat back into space When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall , , reflecting away sunlight , affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass ) , the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall , deepening the snow – temperature feedback . However , because local weather is dynamic due to the change of Snow albedo is highly variable , ranging from as high as about 0.4 for melting snow , Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow , the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would When sea ice melts , either due to a rise in increased solar radiation from above , the snow-covered surface is reduced , and more surface of sea water is exposed , in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts . sea ice is thus another example of of albedo , can lead and crystalline silicon ( c - Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions . Because forests generally have a low albedo , ( the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum , some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface , causes heating where it condenses , acts a strong greenhouse gas , and can increase albedo when treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily . photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity Water reflects light very differently light even wavy water is always smooth a locally specular manner ( not diffusely ) such as those that occur the terminator ( early morning , late afternoon , and near the poles ) However , as mentioned above |
look white ( and have high albedo ) because the water is foamed up , so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect , to a maximum approaching 0.8 . Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight , but they can also serve as blankets Albedo and climate in some areas such as those created by The size of this effect is difficult to quantify : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 Human activities ( e.g. , deforestation The albedos of planets , satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer on wavelength , lighting angle ("phase angle " ) , and variation For small and far objects that can not be resolved by telescopes , much of what we know Another notable high-albedo body is Eris , with Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt to be around 0.14 , but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian , displaying also a strong opposition effect . Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band ) geometric albedo ( measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer ) and the Bond albedo ( measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected ) . astronomical bodies are often expressed in - empirically describe the variation of another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon , asteroid , etc . ) and the echo from the target is circularly polarized and the received pulse is as the transmitted pulse (SC ) and Those components of the received echo that return a smooth or mirror-like surface ) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of A , or a ' " , is the first letter and Its name in English is " a " ( pronounced ) , plural " aes " The earliest certain ancestor of "A " is aleph ( also written ' |
aleph ) , the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet , which consisted entirely an abjad to distinguish it from When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet , to represent the glottal stop — the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages , and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter — so they used their version of the sign to represent many variant forms of the letter "A " First was the monumental or lapidary style , which was used when inscribing on There was also a cursive style used , there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental , but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive , such Variants also existed that were 5th century AD ) , several variants of , the Visigothic script in Spain , and the Insular or Anglo - Irish semi - uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of which was very similar to the present-day form , was the principal form used that are known today . These variants , the "Italic " and "Roman" forms , were derived from The Italic form , also called "script a , " is used in a circle and vertical stroke on the right ( " ɑ " This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands " a " ) . Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form . common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop , as demonstrated by the uncial version shown . the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc , resulting in the printed form , while in others it was dropped , Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally from the rest ( set in The double sequence does not occur in such as "Aaron " and after and ) and French , the second most common in Spanish , and the most common in Portuguese . , denotes an open unrounded vowel , such |
a " along with various other letters to denote a variable , with B , C etc . " A " is often : A- , A or A+ , the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for ; Georgia to the east ; Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th - most populous of the U.S. states Alabama is nicknamed the "Yellowhammer State " The state tree is the longleaf pine , and Alabama's capital is Montgomery , and Its oldest city is Mobile , founded The state's geography is diverse , with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and Politically , as part of a predominantly conservative state , and it is part because of its continued dependence on employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and of the Reconstruction Era up until the 1960s African Americans were markedly under - High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below a person of Alabama lineage is ( or variously or in different dialects ; the plural form is ) . The suggestion that " Alabama " was borrowed from the Choctaw language is used , while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote "Alibamu " and "Limamu " , respectively , the , with French maps identifying , " Albama " , "Alabamu " , " Allibamou Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw ( meaning 'plants ' or 'weeds ' ) and ( meaning ' to cut ' , ' to trim ' , or ' to The meaning may have been ' 'herb gatherers ' , referring it meant ' Here We at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site scholars ' formulating the characteristics of Mesoamerican culture , but developed independently European contact were the Cherokee , an Iroquoian language people Alibamu " ) , Chickasaw , The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach What is now the counties of Baldwin and Mobile became part |
Most of what is now as the Yazoo lands beginning during Georgia from 1767 onwards . Mobile and the Yazoo lands , what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part December 10, 1817 , the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state with settlers and land speculators pouring the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded . The economy of the central Black Belt ( named around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who From 1826 to 1846 , Tuscaloosa served as it had voted to move which nearly half , 435,080 , were enslaved African Americans , and 2,690 were free people of color barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised , many African Americans emerged chiefly agricultural , with an economy the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights . Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects , although Organized insurgent , resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans . control of the legislature and governor 's office through an election dominated , prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools . The same year , legislation was approved for voter registration that effectively disenfranchised making voter registration difficult , requiring This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible The numbers dropped even more in to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting , the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well , due mostly to the imposition of a slight majority of those disenfranchised by Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to overturning certain provisions , the state legislature would The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and it did not relieve them the South , the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to and the construction partially financed with to raise matching funds to pay Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice , by raising additional monies to A total of 387 schools , seven teachers' houses |
, and several vocational buildings were completed agricultural depression , and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of the Great Migration out of the South . Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was Heavy industry and mining were the basis Its residents were under - represented which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes , as it was required by Industrial development related to the demands of to the state not seen since Between 1940 and 1943 , more than 89,000 people moved into House and Senate seats based on population , as required by the state constitution to One result was that Jefferson County , containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse , contributed more than one-third but did not receive a proportional amount A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination , " a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census . This benefited the urban areas that had developed , as well as all in the population who had the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement in " Brown v. Board of Education " that public schools had to be desegregated , but Alabama was slow 1964 , but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in According to "The New York Times " , Alabama's African-Americans were living in Alabama's cities that are predominantly African-American . the late 20th century and has used new types However , the state , particularly Huntsville the statue removed , but Moore refused to follow the court order , making Alabama 23rd in the amount it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States . Georgia to the east , Florida Alabama's land consists of of forest Areas in Alabama administered by Notable natural wonders include : the "Natural Bridge" rock , the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies , located just south of Haleyville named for its cathedral-like appearance , features , just north of Montgomery A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 |
The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound " ) because of The state is classified as humid subtropical ( " Cfa " Temperatures tend to be warmer the northern parts of the state , especially tend to be slightly cooler the hottest in the U.S. , with high temperatures averaging over throughout averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported This activity decreases somewhat further north Occasionally , thunderstorms are severe Alabama , along with Oklahoma and Iowa , has the most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes and was devastated tremendously by the northern to southern parts of Although snow is a rare event in a few times every winter , with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years . Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on , which still form the largest proportion It currently ranks fifth in roughly 307 native freshwater fish species , and 420 bird species that According to the 2020 United States Census the population of Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted Those citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are of overwhelmingly English extraction , however most English Americans identify simply as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long Demographers estimate that a minimum of that the figure is probably much Alabama's population younger than age1 were Native American groups within the state had increasingly associated racial segregation , the Native American peoples , who have sometimes been of mixed race , have insisted on often overlooked as the state tried in the state , descended mostly Most Alabama residents ( 95.1% of those five and older ) spoke , a minor decrease from 96.1% in Alabama English is predominantly Southern , the decreasing loss of the final "r " , for example the " boyd " pronunciation of " bird there is a South Midland "arm " and "barb " rhyming with "form 11% as having no religion . The Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 members |
respondents could name all four , 59% said they possessed a "full understanding " of their faith and Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since be Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe . There are six Dharma centers and organizations 1896 by Paul K. Dealy , who Alabama was 75.1 years , below showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem , with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese , except for ten which had Residents of the state , along to be physically active during any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk " , with The law , if enacted , would punish doctors who perform Alabama was valued at $ was $170billion , or $ Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities plant nursery items , peanuts , cotton , grains such as corn and sorghum , vegetables and Alabama produced 132 million pounds of cast-iron and steel pipe ) ; paper , A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state Located in the state are Honda Manufacturing as well as their various suppliers . The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor , SSAB , ThyssenKrupp , and U.S. Steel have facilities In May 2007 , German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division , Inoxum , including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant , was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in for $ 1.6billion in March 2013 The Hunt Refining Company , a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc. and operates a refinery there . become operable by 2015 and The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be ranked 14th in most popular states to Mobile is known for having , a tradition that continues to the state's top event , producing the most tourists with Alabama has historically been a popular region UAB Hospital , USA Health University Hospital , Huntsville Hospital , and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers |
There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution . Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and , frequently , urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented . to reflect the decennial censuses , either , ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses ( as the state already included in its constitution but had many other states had to change their legislative districting , as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the Attorney General of Alabama , the Alabama Secretary The judiciary is responsible for interpreting Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly Some critics believe the election of judges more death sentences than does Texas , a state which has a population five Some of its cases have been highly controversial ; the U.S. Supreme Court has It was the only state to allow whether or not to use a death sentence ; in 10 cases judges parole that were voted unanimously , or5% personal income tax , depending on the amount earned and filing status Property taxes of.40 % of assessed value per year , are the second - lowest in the U.S. Each county has its own elected legislative branch , usually the state have limited home rule . local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing home rule for counties , as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission United States Supreme Court decisions in " Baker v. Carr " ( 1964 ) , to implement the principle of represented by one state senator , leading counties in Alabama has resulted counties to do things not Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times , and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature , applying to only one county or on local legislation , taking away Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state , meaning White Democratic politicians passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise African American residents , a process Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted |
By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised : 600,000 as population grew and shifted when whites bureaucratically , and at times violently , resisted a controversial figure who vowed to maintain 1965 did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage , among the majority of the population to dominate expressing "profound regret " over slavery in which the Democratic Party operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state . For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were Since the mid- to late 20th century , however , white conservatives started shifting to and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are Ernest C. Hornsby , refused to leave Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices . , giving them control of the end of Reconstruction , when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government , including the newly emancipated freedmen who had gained the franchise . Many local offices ( county commissioners , boards tax collectors , etc . ) majority Democrats , resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary . , at-large races , and Democrats The current split is 35 Democrats , 31 Republicans the purview of the Alabama State Board of Education as well $ 3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education . That represented an increase of $ According to U.S. Census data ( 2000 ) is the fourth lowest large , school corporal punishment is not unusual in Alabama , with 27,260 public school students paddled at least one time , as of fall 2015 ) (University of Alabama School of Medicine, University of South Alabama and Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine—Auburn Campus ) , an optometry college ( University of Alabama at Birmingham ) , two pharmacy schools ( Auburn University and Samford University ) , Birmingham School of Law , Cumberland School of Law The largest single campus is the University of Alabama , located |
The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of both numbers among the top twenty Bryant – Denny Stadium is the home is the fifth largest stadium in America . Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic ; the stadium seats 40,646 Alabama has six major interstate routes : Interstate 65 ( I-65 ) travels north – south roughly through the middle of the state ; I-20/I-59 travel of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta ; I-85 east - northeast to the Georgia state line ; and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state : I-165 in Mobile , I-359 in Tuscaloosa A sixth route , I-685 , will be formed when I-85 is as the 25th busiest for , the greatest of all the Greek warriors , and is the central character of Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the "Iliad " , other sources concur that he Later legends ( beginning with Statius' unfinished epic "Achilleid " , written in the 1st century AD ) state that Achilles was invulnerable for one heel , because when his mother Thetis dipped him in " has come to mean Linear B tablets attest to the personal name "Achilleus - u " and "a-ki-re - we " , the latter being the dative of the a combination of ( ' ) , grief " and ( ' ) "people , soldiers , nation " , resulting who has the people distressed " or " he whose people have is a theme raised numerous times in the "Iliad " ( and frequently by Achilles himself ) . of ' ("glory " , usually Furthermore , " laós " , following Leonard Palmer , to mean " a corps of soldiers the hero is functioning rightly , , but when wrongly , " which first gave an Illyrian "* āk̂pediós " , evolving through time into " * ākhpdeós " and then " * akhiddeús " . The shift from "-dd- " to "-ll- " is then ascribed The first root part " * h₂eḱ- " |
" sharp , pointed " also gave Greek ἀκή ("akḗ" "point , silence , healing " ) , ἀκμή ("akmḗ" "point , edge ὀξύς ( " oxús " " sharp , pointed , keen , quick , clever " ) , whereas ἄχος stems from the root "*h₂egʰ- " " to be upset , The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin " acupedius " Compare also the Latin word family of "aciēs" "sharp edge battle , engagement " , "acus" "needle to make pointed, sharpen, whet ; to exercise ; to arouse " ( whence " acute " Some researchers deem the name a loan word , river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about his being an old water divinity ( see below Worship ) . Zeus and Poseidon had been originally uttered by Themis , goddess of divine law ) that Thetis would bear a son greater There is a tale which offers , pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father Thetis , although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus , was also brought up by Hera , further According to the "Achilleid " , , and to non-surviving previous sources , when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal ; however , he was him : his left heel ( see It is not clear if this version of events was known burn away the mortal parts of his body None of the sources before Statius " , Homer mentions Achilles being wounded : in Book 21 describe the hero's death ( i.e. the "Cypria " of Miletus ) , there , to be reared . either to gain glory and die young , or to Achilles chose the former , According to Photius , the sixth book reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by When she had Achilles , Peleus noticed , tore him There , Achilles was disguised Cercysera or Aissa ( " , Neoptolemus ( also called Pyrrhus , after his father's possible alias ) |
learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to and jewellery and placed a shield When Achilles instantly took up the spear , Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to be sounded while he was According to the "Iliad " , 50 ships , each carrying 50 Myrmidons , they accidentally stopped in Mysia , ruled by King Telephus Telephus a wound that would not heal ; Telephus consulted an oracle , who stated that " he that wounded shall heal to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles Achilles refused , claiming to for ransom , the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound . Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound ; therefore , the spear must be able to Troy " , the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe , as well as in , the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons ( or according other sources , of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to Yet Achilles , struck by the youth – who , refusing to yield , instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by and does not narrate Achilles' death battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon has taken a woman named Her father Chryses , a priest of Apollo , begs Agamemnon to Agamemnon refuses , and Apollo The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to Achilles does so , and Calchas declares that Chryseis must Agamemnon consents , but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis , the daughter of Briseus , be brought to Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away ( and , as he says later , because he loves Briseis ) , with Achilles refuses to fight or , thanks to the influence of the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles , and urges the king to appease the warrior |
Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains , Ajax and They promise that , if Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and The Trojans , led by Hector , subsequently push the Greek army back the son of Nestor , Achilles His mother Thetis comes to comfort place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing , which was taken by Hector . fight and takes the field , always seeking out Hector . become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction , seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself of Troy three times before Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face he knows the battle is inevitable Wanting to go down fighting Achilles not to spare his life , but to treat his body Achilles tells Hector it is him , declaring that " my rage , my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused Achilles then kills Hector and , which comes on in the autumn , Orion's dog ( Sirius ) Argeiphontes ) , Hector's father Priam Hector's body so that he can Achilles relents and promises a truce for and a work named "Posthomerica " , composed by Quintus of When Penthesilea , queen of Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen , only to grieve over At first , he was so distracted by her beauty , he did not fight as Following the death of Patroclus , Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion . When Memnon , son of , slays Antilochus , Achilles Consequently , Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus the cyclic epic "Aethiopis " , which was composed after the "Iliad " , possibly in the 7th century BC . appears to be the model of Homer does not suggest that |
Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the "Iliad " that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple ; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual that a man could both desire The death of Achilles , even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources , is a complex one , with many different versions . , and as predicted by was brought about by Paris according to Statius ) . In some versions , the god Apollo Some retellings also state that Achilles Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love Priam is willing because it He claims they built a massive burial mound could be seen by anyone Achilles was cremated and his ashes " , Odysseus sails to One of these is Achilles , who when greeted as blessed in death " , responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead . But Achilles then asks Odysseus and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions , Achilles is filled Ajax the greater ) . giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles after considering both men's presentations , decided Odysseus was more deserving of Furious , Ajax cursed Odysseus , which earned him the ire made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep , thinking lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep , he was so ashamed that he committed Odysseus eventually gave the armour to A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game ("petteia " ) . The tomb of Achilles , extant but also by Persian expeditionary forces , as well as by Alexander the Great today's Black Sea , appears to have |
for an island in the middle of the Black Sea , today identified with ( graffiti and inscribed clay disks , these possibly being votive offerings Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards Pliny the Elder ( 23–79 AD ) in his "Natural History " mentions a "port of Achilles " , famous ( ) , situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary ; furthermore , at 125 Roman miles from " which stretches forth in , called "Dromos Achilleos " ( Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος , " Achilléōs drómos the hero's exercise or of games instituted to be the iconic spit , called today "Tendra " ( or ) , situated between the mouth is hardly 125 Roman miles ( c. 185 km ) away " Achillea " and introduces [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "island of the blest " The "present day" measures , he gives at this point , seem to account that Achilles was buried on an island named "Achillea " , Ruins of a square temple , measuring that dedicated to Achilles , A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription , found on the island in 1840 , reads : " Glaukos , son of Poseidon , dedicated me to The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on " Leuce " seems to go back to an account from Already in the fifth century BC , the Black Sea , while in another retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι , " makárôn nêsoi " ) or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world , which should have accounted for the identification The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes , who likely lived during the first century CE , wrote that the island was called "Leuce " " because the wild animals which live It is said that there , in Leuce island , reside , and that they wander this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves |
through their virtues , because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour Pausanias has been told that the island is " covered with , some wild , some In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue " . Leuce had also a reputation as a lord of Croton to be Herodotus , Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of , built by settlers from Later attestations point to an "Achílleion " ( Ἀχίλλειος ) in be descended from Achilles through Alexander the Great , son of the Epirote princess Olympias , could therefore also claim this descent , and in many ways strove to be He is said to have Achilleion while passing Troy . The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of the title "Achilleis " by modern scholars an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel Extant fragments of the "Achilleis " and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to The first part of the "Achilleis" trilogy , " The Myrmidons " , focused on , who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon ; only a few lines survive today . The tragedian Sophocles also wrote " The Lovers of Achilles The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start , and therefore that motion and change were impossible named Hippias argues with Socrates The two get into a discussion They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be " better " than a person who is unintentionally false , on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject athletics and the sciences to prove The two also reference Homer Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus , who concocted a number a generally honest man , while Socrates believes The two argue over whether it is better to lie The Romans , who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy , took , while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children |
Other writers , such as Catullus Abraham Lincoln (; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865 He was self - educated and became a lawyer , Whig Party leader by the opening of additional lands to , becoming a leader in the new Republican Party practice slavery , and southern states began seceding from the Union . His allies , the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans Anti-war Democrats ( called "Copperheads " ) despised Lincoln , and their mutual enmity , carefully distributing political patronage , and by appealing to He suspended " habeas corpus he averted British intervention by defusing that the Army and Navy liberate , protect , with his wife Mary when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville , Kentucky , an Englishman who migrated from passing through New Jersey , Pennsylvania Lincoln's paternal grandparents , his namesake Captain Abraham Lincoln and wife Bathsheba (née Herring ) moved the family Abraham's father , witnessed the attack . The heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy remains unclear , but it is widely assumed that she was Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all to Indiana where the land surveys and titles were more reliable . Indiana was a "free" (non-slaveholding) territory , and they settled in an "unbroken forest " At various times , he owned farms , livestock , and town lots , paid taxes , sat and called her "Mother " Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with His family even said he was lazy , for all his "reading , , writing Poetry , etc Lincoln was largely self - , where he learned to read but probably not to and in Indiana , where he went to school sporadically due to farm chores , for responsibility for chores and customarily gave his father all earnings from work Lincoln was tall , strong , and athletic , and became adept at using an ax also known as catch wrestling ) including Abraham , moved west Abraham then became increasingly distant and other family prepared to move |
Illinois , Abraham struck out asked how he came to He answered that in the practice of law he frequently came across the word " demonstrate " for his father's home to study until he " could give any proposition [ here , referencing Euclid's "Elements Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge , whom he met when he moved in a relationship but not formally Owens arrived that November and ; however , they both , and the following year they became A wedding set for January 1, 1841 , was they reconciled and married on While anxiously preparing for the nuptials , he was asked where he was going and replied regularly kept him away from The oldest , Robert Todd Lincoln , was the only child to live to February 1, 1850 , probably of tuberculosis Lincoln's third son , " Willie" Lincoln was Lincoln " was remarkably fond were not considered to be strict with their own . In fact , Lincoln's law partner William H. Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln Their father , it seemed , was often too absorbed in Herndon recounted , " I have felt many and many a time that I wanted yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut his children were doing or had and Willie , had profound effects Lincoln suffered from " melancholy " , a condition now thought Although the economy was booming , the business struggled and Lincoln eventually That March he entered politics Lincoln briefly interrupted his campaign to In his first campaign speech after returning , continued his voracious reading , and decided Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney , as was the custom , Lincoln borrowed legal texts Chitty's "Pleadings " , and read law on his own . Lincoln's second state house campaign in 1834 , this time as a Whig , was , and later was a Canal Commissioner but adopted a "free soil" stance opposing both slavery , " [The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy , but the promulgation of |
abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils . " to be "an old line Whig , a disciple John J. Hardin though he prevailed with Lincoln not only pulled off , but as dutiful as any participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line a bill to abolish slavery in , enforcement to capture fugitive slaves , and a popular vote imputed to President James K. Polk's desire for " by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions by Mexico , and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had " invaded our territory and shed the blood Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove and the national papers , and it One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln Realizing Clay was unlikely to win Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed The administration offered to appoint him " every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer " Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks favored those interests , but ultimately represented whoever hired him . , a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge . defending William "Duff" Armstrong , who was After an opposing witness testified to seeing produced a "Farmers' Almanac " showing the moon was at a low angle , drastically Leading up to his presidential campaign , who was a third cousin ; Harrison of Greek Crafton who , as he lay dying of his wounds , confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison . Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to a dying declaration and was not subject of 1850 , a legislative package designed and opposition to " both extremes particularly acrimonious , Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed would allow the electorate of each territory Lincoln did not comment on slavery which he repeated en He said the Kansas Act had a "declared" indifference , but as I must think , a covert " real " zeal for the spread I can not but hate Nationally , the Whigs were irreparably |
to compromise on the slavery issue . , " I think I am a Whig , but others say there are no Whigs , and that I am an abolitionist I do no more than oppose the "extension " of slavery dedicated to antislavery , drawing and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members , Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties , fearing that the new party would become a platform for Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat , and had vowed not to support Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued , As the 1856 elections approached , Lincoln , which formally established the Illinois Republican Party supporting the party platform and called for received support to run as comprised the ticket , which Lincoln The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State James Buchanan and the Know-Nothings nominated His petition was denied in " Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in the decision wrote that blacks were not citizens and While many Democrats hoped that " Dred Scott " would end the dispute up for re - election hoped to defeat him . Many in the party felt that 1858 , and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned After his nomination he delivered his House Divided Speech , with the biblical reference Mark 3:25 , " A house divided against itself I believe this government can not endure permanently half slave and half I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to It will become all one thing , or all the other . , in turn , select Douglas stated , " [ Lincoln ] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him , my victory will be hardly won . ; they had an atmosphere akin The principals stood in stark contrast both Lincoln warned that Douglas’ "Slave Power " distorting the Founding Fathers' premise that all men are Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine , that local settlers were free to choose |
whether to allow slavery and accused Lincoln of having joined Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone , as he claimed Douglas represented a conspiracy the legislature re - elected Douglas . Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him the "Illinois Staats-Anzeiger " , a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive ; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratically but While Lincoln was popular in in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek office . Traveling untiringly Lincoln made about fifty speeches he quickly became the champion of However , unlike his overwhelming support in the Midwestern United States his support in the east was not as great , where he sometimes encountered a lack of appreciation and in some quarters was argued that the Founding Fathers of the United States had repeatedly sought to restrict , and rejected any " Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that Journalist Noah Brooks reported , " No man ever before made such an impression on for an unannounced candidate , to appear in one rival 's (Seward ) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists , while not mentioning either by name " The taste " is " in my mouth a little . Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by , and Jesse DuBois , and Exploiting his embellished frontier legend ( clearing land and splitting fence rails ) , himself : " I am four inches , nearly ; lean on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds ; dark complexion , candidates such as Seward and A former Democrat , Hannibal Hamlin of Maine , led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support . Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession . When Douglas was selected as from eleven slave states walked out of began cultivating a nationwide youth organization , the Wide Awakes , which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to |
spearhead voter registration drives , thinking that new voters and young voters tended to As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned , and second on Lincoln's life story allowed a common farm boy to work his way The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition ; a "Chicago Tribune" writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life and sold 100,000–200,000 copies public appearances , many sought to visit him and write him was entirely due to his support , carrying the free Northern states , as well as California and Oregon , and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation , the Confederate States of America The upper South and border states ( Delaware , Maryland , and Arkansas ) initially President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy , declaring secession Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the Party's platform of Lincoln said , " I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession the states when Lincoln took office That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already stating " One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended , while the other believes it is wrong and ought not This is the only substantial dispute . " " We are not enemies We must not be enemies The mystic chords of memory , stretching the Union , when again touched , as surely they will be , by the better angels of signaled that legislative compromise was impossible the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union Meanwhile , Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated . and said : " Both parties deprecated war , but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive , and the other would accept war rather than let it perish , and the war |
Washington , and Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by disappointed " at his failure to realize that " the country was sleeping on a volcano " and that the South was preparing for Donald concludes that , " His repeated efforts to avoid collision in on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood But he also vowed not The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot ; , protect Washington , and " preserve the Union " , remained intact despite the seceding states . Virginia seceded and was rewarded North Carolina , Tennessee , and Arkansas followed over the following two months . Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland , but did not prevail ; Kentucky remained As States sent Union regiments south Union troops who were changing trains the capital and the Army responded by habeas corpus " where needed John Merryman , one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements , petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of " habeas corpus . In June Taney , ruling only issued the writ which he felt could only be suspended by commander - in - chief , suspended " habeas corpus " , and arrested and that bipartisan support was essential to both sides of the aisle , such Democrats to command positions . the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates . the 1856 Republican presidential nominee , without consulting Washington Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity . Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming and selecting generals based on their success , their state , and canceling contracts , saving He worked more often and that Washington was well - defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for Twice a week , Lincoln met with Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride , concerned that he was working too |
For his edification Lincoln relied upon General Henry Halleck entitled " Elements of Military Art and Science " to control strategic points , such Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general - McClellan then took months to McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln , as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington . reinforce Pope , Lincoln restored McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army , while General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to ; and after the 1862 midterm elections he was defeated by Lee at due to rising inflation , high taxes suspension of " habeas corpus " , military draft law , and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market then resigned and was replaced Meade followed Lee north into to follow up despite Lincoln's demands poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution , which before 1865 delegated the issue to Lincoln argued that slavery would be rendered obsolete if its expansion into new territories were prevented . an act banning slavery on all federal territory , which Lincoln signed . 1862 was enacted , providing those convicted of aiding the rebellion his belief that it was unconstitutional He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander - in - chief , which he planned to The Emancipation Proclamation , issued on September 22, 1862 , and effective January 1, 1863 , 10 states not then under Union control , with exemptions specified for Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was : " I never , in my life , felt more certain that I was doing right , than I do in signing this paper . " Enlisting former slaves became official policy . |
raising black troops , Lincoln wrote , " The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers end the rebellion at once " In 272 words , and three minutes , Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789 and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal " He defined the war as dedicated poly 486 710 579 672 663 739 687 863 649 936 579 965 739 1133 782 1037 800 956 910 905 905 1025 855 1305 576 1223 513 1371 620 1388 687 1467 846 1510 1010 2035 1160 2140 869 2135 718 1682 663 1685 634 2000 725 2030 489 2095 504 1800 362 1775 263 1710 225 1516 252 1226 269 1046 324 948 434 913 481 866 446 poly 2620 780 2740 775 2754 889 2745 991 2855 1064 2864 1316 2800 1420 2766 1516 2806 1600 2772 1942 2664 1919 2577 1791 2508 1780 2496 1719 2455 1745 2496 2052 2348 2145 2308 2128 2345 2038 2293 1759 2229 2081 1977 2076 1997 2035 2058 2009 2093 1965 2174 1537 2461 1429 2453 1290 2357 1382 2287 1336 2290 1287 2354 1203 2412 1179 2499 1133 2540 1072 2560 988 2595 Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in said , " I ca in multiple theaters , while also Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in inquire into Grant's political intentions , and once assured that he had none , Lincoln promoted Grant a rank which had been unoccupied Authorization for such a promotion " with which Lincoln signed the same day he When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were , the persistent general replied , " I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer . " Grant's army moved steadily south . City Point , Virginia , to Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure — plantations , railroads , and bridges — hoping considerable ) for its own sake . one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general Jubal Early raided Washington , |
Legend has it that while Union Captain ( and future Supreme Court Lee's forces , efforts to discuss Lincoln refused to negotiate with to end the fighting was not 1864 , while uniting the main Republican factions , along with War Democrats Edwin M. Stanton and — to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace the party and called the war a "failure " ; but their candidate , McClellan , supported the war and and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended The Democratic Party was deeply split , Reconstruction preceded the war's end , as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated , Lincoln replied , " Let 'em up easy . , and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states His main goal was to keep the union together , so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame , but on how to rebuild the nation as and Sen. Benjamin Wade , who otherwise Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South , Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms As Southern states fell , they needed leaders while their administrations were Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed , and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations . The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient , and passed their own plan " clinch the whole matter " and by December 1863 an amendment was brought the second attempt in the House passed on up a temporary federal agency designed to meet Lincoln claimed Indians were antagonistic Although Lincoln was a veteran of Some believed it was a conspiracy to put down the Dakota Uprising . When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians , Lincoln , even advocating their extinction . He ordered Indian farms and food supplies be destroyed , and Indian warriors |
Aiding Pope , Minnesota Congressman Col. Henry H. Sibley led militiamen and regular troops to defeat the uprising to be ended ; Lincoln personally reviewed each of killing innocent farmers ; he commuted ( one was later reprieved Lincoln sought to be lenient any of the Dakota be spared , in 1864 , that he would have gotten more presidential election support had he executed all 303 Lincoln responded , " I could not afford to hang I had looked the party over and concluded that these were Then I had no right to a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress' responsibility for There were two measures passed to the second and third Morrill Tariffs , following the first above $800 ( $ in current dollar terms " and the "Journal of Commerce " published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others to corner Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in It had been sporadically proclaimed Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that " we can not ask a man what he will do , and if we should us , we should despise Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known . " and had served as a judge Finally , Lincoln's Treasury Secretary , Salmon P. Chase West Virginia was admitted to the John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy never joined the Confederate army , he up from behind , and , mortally wounding him . Lincoln's guest Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors , Lincoln was Stanton saluted and said , " Now he belongs to Two weeks later , Booth , refusing to surrender , was tracked and was mortally shot by Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive , so Corbett was , and then in the Capitol Rotunda The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for bonfires , and hymn singing or Poet Walt Whitman composed " When Lilacs |
Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd " to eulogize him , one of African Americans were especially moved ; they had lost ' their Moses , but noted that some Lincoln haters the Bible , quoting and praising He never made a clear profession of a proneness for quoting Scripture . to the Doctrine of Necessity , a belief that the human mind was controlled by in 1850 he more frequently used the language or imagery of The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him God " could have either saved or destroyed the Union without And having begun , He could give the final victory to either side that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in he increasingly appealed to the Almighty events , writing on April 4, 1864 : I claim not to have controlled events , but confess plainly that events have controlled Now , at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party , or any man devised , God alone can claim it Whither it is tending seems If God now wills the removal also that we of the North the South , shall pay fairly , impartial history will find therein new cause to attest and revere , and by Lincoln himself of them at the very have reflected his own personal beliefs and might have been a device to reach his audiences , who were mostly Lincoln is believed to have had depression , smallpox , contained mercury , to treat Several claims have been made that photographs of Lincoln appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting . Lincoln's redefinition of " republican values " emphasized freedom and equality for all —the "sheet anchor " of republicanism when the Constitution , which " tolerated slavery " , was Diggins notes , " Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history and destiny of republicanism itself all parties must agree to pull Furthermore , it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in a spokesman for business interests , favoring William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for |
of the Republic and its institutions strengthened Randall concludes that " he was conservative in his complete avoidance of hatred for the slaveholder , thirst and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders , and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by He said " A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations , and always changing and sentiments , is the only true sovereign for how people viewed the country The term " the United States " has historically been used sometimes in the plural ("these United States " ) Lincoln , Washington , and Franklin Delano Roosevelt , although the order varies Between 1999 and 2011 , Lincoln , John F. Kennedy , and Ronald Reagan have been Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr . Many , though not all , in the South considered Lincoln Historians have said he was " a classical liberal " in the 19th-century sense ( 1900–1920s ) , when Union nationalism , as envisioned by Lincoln , " helped lead Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with " a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life . " During the Great Depression , he argues , Lincoln served " as a means for seeing the world's disappointments , for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful " Franklin D. Roosevelt , preparing America for the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed Americans asked , " What would Lincoln do ? " However , Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost brought hope to those oppressed led by Lerone Bennett Jr. , rejected Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968 ethnic slurs and told jokes that social equality , and proposed sending Defenders , such as authors Dirck and Cashin , retorted that he was not as bad and that he was a "moral visionary " who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause , as fast as politically |
apart from neo - Confederates such as Mel Bradford who denounced , his insistence on stopping the spread Lincoln's image suffered "erosion , fading Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on While he is usually portrayed bearded , he did n't county names , including the capital one of the top five Ford's Theatre , among the top sites in where he died ) . Lincoln's home , as well as Aristotle (; "Aristotélēs " , Taught by Plato , he existing prior to him . It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon when Aristotle was a child , and he was brought up until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC ) . Shortly after Plato died , Aristotle left Athens and , Macedon , tutored Alexander the Great beginning which helped him to produce The influence of physical science extended from , and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology , such as on as well as Christian theology , as simply "The Philosopher " , while the poet Dante called him “the master of those who know In general , the details of Aristotle's life are not well - Aristotle , whose name means " the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon . While he was young , medical information , which was taught he was about thirteen , He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries , " to experience is to learn " [ παθείν μαθεĩν The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after although it is possible that at that time and left before the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus where together they researched the botany While in Lesbos , Aristotle married Pythias , either Hermias's adoptive daughter or She bore him a daughter , whom they also named Pythias he gave lessons not only |
to Alexander but also to two other future kings : Ptolemy and Cassander Alexander to be " a leader the barbarians , to look after the former as after friends and relatives , and to deal with the latter as his own school there known as the Lyceum While in Athens , his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became , who bore him a son This period in Athens , between 335 and 323 BC , is when Aristotle is believed to which only fragments have survived . Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not , for the most part , intended generally thought to be lecture aids His most important treatises include " Physics " , " Metaphysics " , Politics " , " On the Soul " and "Poetics " Aristotle studied and made significant contributions Alexander and Aristotle became estranged is an unlikely claim made some six years after Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle to have stated : " I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy " – a reference to Athens's trial formal logic , and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic The order of the books ( or the teachings from which they are composed ) is not certain the analysis of simple terms in the "Categories , " the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in " On Interpretation " , to the study and "Sophistical Refutations " ) . "stricto sensu " : the grammar of and essence ( " to ti ên einai " , " the what it was to be " ) in his "Metaphysics and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form , a philosophical theory called hylomorphism a house is the bricks , stones , timbers , etc . is the "actual" house , namely ' ' or any other differentia that let us define something Like his teacher Plato , Aristotle's philosophy Aristotle's ontology places the universal ("katholou " ) " ) , things in |
the world , whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things a universal form , which could be sees an apple , and one can also analyse a form of Moreover , one can place an apple next to a book , so that one can speak being next to each other Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part possible that there is no particular good in existence , but " good " is still a proper universal form this point , arguing that all universals time , and that there are no universals that are unattached Where Plato spoke of the world of forms , a place where all universal forms subsist , Aristotle maintained that universals The coming to be is a change and actuality ("entelecheia " ) is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented a plant in the soil is potentially ( " dynamei " ) a plant , and if it is not prevented by something , it will become a plant Potentially beings can either ' act ' ( " poiein " ) or ' be acted upon ' ("paschein " ) , which can be either the potentiality of sight ( innate – being acted upon ) , while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning ( exercise – acting Because the end ("telos " ) exists potentiality , therefore actuality In summary , the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity the final house are actualities , which is also a final cause or end Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to time and in substantiality . and form ) , Aristotle example , " what is it that makes a man one Since , according to Plato there are two Ideas : animal and biped , how then Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based exist or happen in the world |
of the universal , whereas for natural phenomena including those now covered by physics , biology and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics , coextensive with reasoning , which he also would describe as covered by the term "scientific method " . either practical , poetical or theoretical " ( " Metaphysics the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles hot , cold , wet : "violent" or "unnatural motion " , such , such as of a falling object , in " On the Heavens " as the agent stops causing it , the motion stops also : an object is to be at rest , since Aristotle does be observed that , as Aristotle stated , heavy objects ( on the ground , say ) require more force to make them move ; and objects pushed with greater force move faster . Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite , and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws John Philoponus ( in the Middle Ages ) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than , who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be With it , he saw that whatever shape he made the hole , the sun's image always remained According to Aristotle , spontaneity and chance are causes of Chance as an incidental cause lies in from what is spontaneous " Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of " those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays , " pointing out correctly that if " the size of the sun is greater than times greater than that of the sun , then ... the sun The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change , including " lakes that had dried up " and "deserts that had become watered by rivers " , giving as examples the growth |
Homer , and " the his major writings "Meteorologica " ) . Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically , and biology forms He spent two years observing and His data in " History of Animals " " , and " Parts of Animals , statements given by people provided by travellers from overseas Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function , the heron , which lives in and long legs , and a sharp spear - like beak , whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet . Darwin , too , noted Aristotle used the data to come close to implying evolution , but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur , he saw these must be considered distinct from and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results . He used the ancient Greek term "pepeiramenoi " to mean observations , or at data , discovering patterns common when large amounts of data become available in a new field , such It does not result in it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is From the data he collected and the live-bearing tetrapods ( terrestrial placental mammals ) that so that an elephant has fewer young ( usually just one Lifespan increases with gestation period , and also with body mass , so that elephants live longer than mice , and are heavier . , from highest potential to lowest birth : the highest gave see also : He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates , and below them the colder invertebrates as " animals without not exactly fit into a linear scale such as that sharks had not available to Aristotle , Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not zoologists who studied this question recently Aristotle's psychology , given in his treatise ) , posits three kinds of soul ( " psyches " ): the vegetative soul , the sensitive soul , and : Like the vegetative soul it can |
grow and nourish itself ; sensations and move locally . Because all beings are composites of of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings , e.g. the ability to initiate movement ( or in and chemical transformations , which According to Aristotle in " On the Soul " , memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between a mental picture (phantasm ) that can Aristotle believed an impression is left A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system can not receive all the impressions at once , and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and Retrieval of impressions can not Because Aristotle believes people receive are continually weaving together new impressions To search for these impressions , people search the memory itself . is offered instead of a specific memory until they find what they Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally If the chain of "images " is needed , one memory will When people recall experiences , reach the one that is needed retrieving the information stored in a memory impression Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of of certain impressions , was connected systematically in relationships such as contiguity , described in his laws Aristotle believed that past experiences are to bring up the actual experience . of digestion , so it While a person is asleep , the critical activities , which include thinking remembering , do not function during sleep they can not have desire , which is Dreams do not involve actually still involved , but in Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as , and then looks away , the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion . When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly , a person constantly encounters new stimuli to |
sense and so the impressions of However , during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences . Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli , dreams do For example , a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings . Since a person sleeping is in judgements , they become easily deceived by what appears in the dream is real , even when the dreams are absurd in not foretelling and not sent Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances future events are simply coincidences . Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred . Secondly , any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part For example , if , while a person is sleeping , a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut , this sensory experience is not a practical rather than theoretical study , i.e. , one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function ( "ergon An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see have a function specific to humans , and that this function must be an activity of the "psuchē " "eudaimonia " , generally translated as " happiness " or a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately , but by teachers , and experience , leading consciously chooses to do the best things his work titled "Politics " . Moreover , he considered the city to be prior in importance is prior to the individual , |
be prior to the part " He famously stated that " man is by nature a political animal " and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is being like an organism rather than a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others Although he was aware of , the natural community according to Aristotle was the city ("polis " ) The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability , but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life , and to perform beautiful acts : " The political partnership must be regarded , therefore , as being for the sake of noble actions , not for the sake of living together . according to which individuals leave , especially to thought in and economists , as it Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society , and that although private property is often blamed for social strife , such evils in fact come people became dependent on one another , importing what they needed and exporting the surplus . , believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household , retail trade seeks to make of money that was perhaps is impossible to determine the value the number of other goods it is worth , the necessity arises of He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange , making it a Aristotle's "Rhetoric " proposes that a speaker to persuade his audience : "ethos " "logos " ( an appeal to three genres : epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame ) , ) , and deliberative (speeches calling that epic poetry , tragedy , comedy , dithyrambic poetry music , and dance are all fundamentally acts of "mimesis He applies the term "mimesis " both art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the "mimesis " is vital to understanding the work itself Aristotle states that " mimesis |
" is a natural instinct of humanity and that all human artistry " follows Because of this , Aristotle possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures harmony , whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone , and is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average ; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than While it is believed that Aristotle's "Poetics " originally comprised two books that focuses on tragedy has Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements : plot-structure a means of driving the story ; and the plot , not the characters , is the chief focus of tragedy arousing pity and fear , and is meant to effect either , is superior : He suggests that because tragedy possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music , is more unified , and achieves , it can be considered Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active , ensouling masculine element bringing feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of More than 2300 years after his death , Aristotle human knowledge then in existence , and he was the founder of According to the philosopher Bryan Magee , " it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did " left every future scientist and philosopher in Taneli Kukkonen , writing in "The Classical Tradition " , observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched , and his reach in influencing rhetoric and literary analysis is As a result , Kukkonen argues , any analysis of reality today " will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind Aristotle's pupil and successor , Theophrastus , wrote the "History of Plants " , in the latter 's bringing with him on his expedition a host and arteries , noting that the latter pulse while the Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius natural theology ) would remain central Ernst Mayr states that there was " nothing of any real consequence in The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus , Elias John Philoponus stands out for having |
into Arabic and studied by Averroes , Avicenna and Alpharabius in great depth , also influenced as the " exemplar " was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made , both from and from the original Greek , such , working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher " , the demand for Aristotle's writings grew , his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress , Phyllis , but was himself captivated by her , and allowed her to ride what to expect , and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect . Besides Dante's fellow poets , the classical figure that most influenced the "Comedy " is Dante knew Aristotle directly from Moses Maimonides ( considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism ) adopted his "Guide for the Perplexed " on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived Also , in his letter to Tibbon , Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are " sufficient by themselves and [ superior ] to all that In the Early Modern period , scientists such Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against , establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of but decided " to go under , over , and beyond " it with his system In an 1882 letter he wrote that " Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods , though in very different ways , but they were mere schoolboys to James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle , whom he considered to be " the greatest thinker of all times " . Samuel Taylor Coleridge said : Everybody is born either a Platonist or and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only |
recommend " three A's"—Aristotle , Aquinas argued that " almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack Russell called Aristotle's ethics " repulsive " , and labelled his logic " as definitely antiquated as The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by " proceed[ing ] so readily to In 1985 , the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled " a strange and generally speaking , wishful thinking and credulity amounting Aristotle was taken more seriously : Kukkonen noted that " In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti - elitist and capable of disputing Biologists continue to be interested The works of Aristotle that have These texts , as opposed to : the "exoteric " , intended Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication , the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as " have applied to the published works , is how the exoteric writings were all lost , and how the ones now possessed came to be Aristotle has been depicted by , where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to Rembrandt's "Aristotle with a Bust of Homer " , too , is a celebrated work , an earlier age : as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes , " this painting will remain one of the greatest is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write his Concerto in F , less than four weeks before the work's premiere . Although the story is likely apocryphal have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords ready to study with Ravel Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to and his brother Ira did after to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris . |
Yet after he played for Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students : " What could I give you that you have n't already back , as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based piano and orchestra to follow " on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne " , written in 1926 Gershwin explained in " Musical America " , " My purpose here strolls about the city , listens The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso " introduces the American Blues and The "Allegro " that follows continues common time , syncopated rhythms , and Gershwin did not particularly like He stated that Damrosch 's sluggish , dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall The audience , according to Edward Cushing , responded with " a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music , good and bad , " An American in Paris " was originally scored for 3 flutes 2 clarinets in B - flat , bass clarinet in B - flat , 2 bassoons , contrabassoon 3 trumpets in B - flat timpani , snare drum , bass drum, triangle, wood block, ratchet, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A , baritone saxophone ( all saxophones doubling soprano saxophones using the notes A , B , C , and D , it had been Gershwin's intention to use the notes A4 , The soprano saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments , and the contrabassoon in Paris " , working announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score would be eventually released . The Gershwin family , working in conjunction the University of Michigan , were working to make scores available to the public The score to " An American in Paris " was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released The changes made by Campbell-Watson were music were re - integrated prepared by Mark Clague , director " An American in Paris " |
has been frequently recorded . the Victor Symphony Orchestra , drawn from members Gershwin was on hand to " supervise " the recording ; to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave Then , a little later , Shilkret discovered there was no one to so he hastily asked Gershwin ; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated " , featuring Gene Kelly and The category's original name was Best Art Direction , but the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS ) being renamed The films below are listed with the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999 ) The Academy Awards , popularly known as Given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS ) called the "Academy Award of Merit " , although more commonly referred to by its nickname , the "Oscar Douglas Fairbanks in The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in what would become known as the 1st Academy Awards It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now televised live worldwide . It is also the oldest The 93rd Academy Awards ceremony , honoring the best films of 2020 and early 2021 , was As with the two previous ceremonies , there was $ 5 ( $ Fifteen statuettes were awarded , honoring Since then , for the rest given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards . The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings , He had to return to the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier ; this made him the first Academy Award winner the system changed , and professionals 1957 , the Best Foreign Language Film category , now known as Best International Feature Film , was Perhaps the most widely seen streaker in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel , who streaked across flashing a peace sign on national US television at Bemused host David Niven quipped , " Is n't it fascinating to think that probably the only laugh that man will ever get in his life is by stripping |
off and showing his shortcomings ? Later , evidence arose suggesting that Opel's appearance was facilitated as all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture Kerry Brougher , but is now , more popularly known as , it is 13.5 in ( 34.3 cm ) tall , weighs 8.5 lb ( 3.856 kg ) , and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a sword Sculptor George Stanley ( who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl ) sculpted The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were , a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper , nickel silver The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of Illinois , which also contributed From 1983 to 2015 , approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year It would take between three and four weeks to While based on a digital scan of and polished , they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn , New York – based Epner Technology The time required to produce 50 such statuettes The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar One biography of Bette Davis , who was a president of the Academy in 1941 , claims she named Columnist Sidney Skolsky , who was present wrote that " Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar . The Academy credits Skolsky with " the first confirmed newspaper reference To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony to wait several weeks to have the Governor's Ball , a party held immediately The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made Prior to 1950 , Oscar statuettes were ( and remain ) the property of Since then the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for US$ 1 of " Around the World in 80 Days to auction to raise money the first-ever Oscar to be sold passed $ 60,500 ( $ today ) , " I do n't |
know why anybody would be My wife's health is much more important contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue Prior to that , the results , with each representing a different discipline Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers ( and its predecessor Price Waterhouse All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors , on New membership proposals are considered annually . The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership , although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names The 2007 release also stated that it were published describing the demographic breakdown of Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed , 94% were Caucasian , 77% were male , and 54% were According to Rules 2 and must open in the previous calendar year , play for seven consecutive days , to qualify ( except for the Best International Feature Film " The Hurt Locker " , was originally first released in 2008 , but did not qualify did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length , defined except for short-subject awards , and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame / s 2018 , multi - part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award , an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast or distribution ) , or Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline ; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline , the film will , Best Animated Short Film , and Best Live Action Short Film does not coincide with a calendar year , instead of covering one year Second , there are multiple methods The main method is a week-long theatrical release in " Films also can qualify by Finally , a film that is selected as a gold , silver of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible (Documentary category |
and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories ( i.e. only directors vote for directors the single transferable vote is used , with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees selected from among the nominees by The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process , commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year , and six weeks , which usually begins during This is an elaborate extravaganza , with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in not wearing a bow-tie , and musical performers sometimes do not adhere The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised 1953 by NBC , which continued to broadcast the event until over , televising the festivities ( then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy international markets ( especially those outside of The ceremony was broadcast live internationally 1970 , but only two South American countries , Chile and Brazil , purchased the rights to air the broadcast . the Academy Awards had been sold in The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February , since 2004 , to help disrupt and shorten Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success would cut into the Academy Awards audience . directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game . ) now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period Some years , the ceremony is moved and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close Easter , which for decades had been a grievance from members Advertising is somewhat restricted , however , as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific , The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in could be avoided , and |
an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed moving the ceremony even further back However , such an accelerated schedule would dramatically to the point where some voters would only have time to view as opposed to traditionally receiving would clash with National Football League playoff games . , because of the assassination of In 1993 , an " In Memoriam " segment was introduced , honoring those who , a selection compiled by a small committee Criticism was also levied for the segment having a "popularity contest " feel those who had died by the subject's cultural impact ; the applause has since clapping during the segment and giving the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not This , according to organizer Bill Mechanic , was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing to streamline speeches , winners' dedications were displayed on an on how long the ceremony had become , by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by Mark Bridges when accepting Although still dominant in ratings steadily dropped ; the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest - rated in the past eight years ( although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership ) , while the show itself also faced mixed reception reported that ABC was , to broadcast the Oscars , seeking Currently and nominally , AMPAS production staff and hosting , although ABC is allowed to have Historically , the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to a box office record that would remain unsurpassed (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million ) received 11 Awards including Best Picture , drew By contrast , ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings , despite how much critical acclaim The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budget independent film "Crash " ( with a pre - Oscar gross of US$53.4 million ) |
, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in 1953 ) and then at took place solely in Los Angeles to move the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles , this time to also been split into separate categories the Art Direction ( now Production Design ) , Cinematography , and Costume Design awards were black-and-white films and color films ) . indeed air all 24 categories live . The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees , rather than by Due to the positive exposure and prestige millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season " the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality . A recent technique that has been claimed negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there The Oscars have been infamously known The term "Oscar bait " was coined which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non - white and since 1991 been non - white , with the rate of winners being , a number of high-profile Oscars have been given to yellowface portrayals , as well as performances of Asian characters rewritten for white characters . that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias . which the Netflix-broadcast film "Roma " had been the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films , while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar . The United States Department of Justice , having heard of this potential rule change , wrote , cautioning them that placing Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols ( Best Writing in |
Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later George C. Scott became the second person to refuse " , saying , " The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando , who refused his award ) , citing the film industry's discrimination and in the Academy Awards , Emmy Awards and Though some commentators worry that gender discrimination would cause men to dominate unsegregated categories , other categories are unsegregated It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters also been extended to award can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars . reported to be as high as US$80,000 . and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers Some of the gifts have even in 2014 , the adult products retailer Adam & Eve Actrius " ) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play "Actrius " screened in 2001 The film had first screened at wrote that though the actresses were " competent in roles that " , the film " is visually unimaginative , never escapes its stage origins , and is almost totally lacking in revelation or Noting that there were " occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness " , they did not " justify comparisons to " All About Eve " , and were " insufficiently He also wrote that " The Guardian " called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece " , and that " The Evening Standard " stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers " MRQE wrote " This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original , but does not stray 1986 , followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996 , and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012 Over four million copies have been sold worldwide and contains twenty-six illustrations , one ( A is for alligator and armadillo , B is for butterfly , etc . ) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many |
The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify ( however , there are not necessarily " a thousand things , or maybe more A television series was also created , airs in the United States , Australia And recently in Greece on International Atomic Time ( TAI , from which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface . of whole seconds . , when another leap second was put currently exactly 37 seconds behind TAI . TAI may be reported using over from non-uniform time standards based on Specifically , both Julian days and the Gregorian calendar The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks ; the International System of Units ( SI ) definition of the second is The clocks are compared using GPS signals The participating institutions each broadcast , in real time , a frequency signal where " NPL " identifies The TAI form may be denoted " compared against each other . The International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( BIPM , France ) , combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms " Circular T " , and of tables of differences UTC − UTC("k " ) ( equivalent to TAI − TAI("k " ) ) for each participating institution " k corrected by issuing a revision of a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this , once published in Circular T , the TAI scale is not revised TAI and to make better estimates the atomic clocks were not operated continuously , UK (NPL ) . and to establish a time scale , called Greenwich Atomic ( GA ) , in July 1955 , using clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation , and the combined TAI scale , therefore , corresponded to an average Starting from the Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00 ) , corrections were applied so that TAI would correspond Because the clocks were , on average , well above sea level slowed by about one part in a |
The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch , Geocentric Coordinate Time ( TCG ) ) , which represent three fundamental time scales All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184 ) exactly at that instant TT , with the equation TT(TAI the ITU-R which stated , " would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI , as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC composed of segments that are regularly in fractional leap seconds so that only in whole seconds to approximate be more stable and easier other animals , resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual However , the object(s ) of concern vary among cultures and The word "altruism " was popularized ( and possibly coined ) by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French of the day organisms is an individual performing , time , probability of survival or reproduction ) , but benefits , either directly in the clinical setting , that is " intentional and voluntary actions that aim to The latter are predicated upon social relationships , whilst altruism does Much debate exists as to whether " true" altruism is possible in The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing , helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic , as The term "altruism " may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to , which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher and has become a major topic for evolutionary biologists , and ethologists . Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields , Generosity is an obligation , because Nemesis avenges the poor and and wealth of certain people who , which has become a principle more generally in the study of the fitness of another individual while decreasing by the need to produce theories Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their inclusive fitness when |
they are doing altruistic acts . Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness ; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups which is a mathematical equation used to Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman , neuroscientists and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway , a primitive part of the brain that usually However , when volunteers generously their own by making charitable donations Altruism , the experiment suggested , was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to learning altruistic behavior , especially and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers , and that these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers , leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions , but that when they were confronted as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients According to Adrian Raine , a clinical neuroscientist of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people : " Psychopaths often feel no empathy or Without that awareness , people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr , reached although they were able to The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines "psychological altruism " as " a motivational state with the goal of There has been some debate on whether or not humans are However , because altruism ultimately The social exchange theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs He identified four major motives : to ultimately benefit the self ( egoism ) , to ultimately benefit to benefit a group ( collectivism ) , or to uphold Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely |
The "empathy-altruism hypothesis " basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering . which compel people to reduce Empathy is thus not selfless , since altruism works either and have positive, pleasant feelings triggered by as the way to incentive the gain to avoid social punishment by helping in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided , whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping , comforting , sharing Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress . Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping health and have consistently found those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health , but physical health and longevity as well , found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period , people who volunteered for two or more organizations had Merely being aware of kindness A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced that , while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness , it has also been found to work in Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over - taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one ( although positive effects were still significant ) . Additionally , while generous acts make people feel good about themselves hand - in - hand " Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build |
the good society " ( " Altruism The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions public sociology saying , " The intrinsic scientific, policy of investigation in helping to construct ' good societies ' is unquestionable " ("Altruism , Morality that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized order to benefit the world and How altruism is framed , organized , carried out , and what motivates it at that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and " build the good society " . The motivation of altruism is also Most, if not all , of the world's religions promote Love and compassion are components equally : love is the wish that all beings be happy , and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering moral action and judgment , Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not the concept of altruism , not " – to live and let live , thereby not harming sentient beings , i.e. uncompromising It also considers all living things to - violence to progress the soul One's unconquered mind with anger , pride , greed and uncontrolled sense organs Anger spoils good relations , pride destroys humility , deceit destroys peace and The "great vows " ( Mahavrata ) minimize karmas which limit the capabilities Jainism views every soul as worthy the potential to become "Siddha " great care and awareness is essential , whether the creatures are great St Thomas Aquinas interprets ' You should as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love Considering that " the love with which a man loves himself is " and quotes Aristotle that others lies in our relations to that though we are not bound to love others more seek the common good , the good of , the good of a part However , he thinks we should love God more than more than our bodily life — since |
the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman , the same as hatred of that altruism is but one possible form An altruistic action is not always a loving action the strong can help the , " motivated by a powerful feeling Another way is merely " one ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself At its worst , Scheler says , " love for the small , the poor , the weak , and the oppressed is really disguised hatred , repressed envy , an impulse to detract , etc . īthār " ( إيثار ) " preferring others to oneself " for others is deemed as considered to be property of that European concept , in "īthār" attention is , or giving , which is the intention of altruism . This can be altruism towards of giving in existence . Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag , focuses on how society could everything that happens is to The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities his life to uphold " 22 carats humanity " , the Guru Granth . when a fellow Sikh , Bhai Kanhaiya , He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he that they considered counterproductive to " What were you doing " I was giving water to the wounded because I them " , replied Bhai Kanhaiya The Guru responded , " Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds . You were practicing what you Kindness ( Daya ) and Forgiveness ( Kshama ) are Giving alms to the beggers or or "Punya " and Hindus believe it will free their souls Swami Vivekananda , the legendary Hindu monk , has ( Whoever loves any living being , is serving god . ) the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views karma is insentient and short |
to exist as soon as Hence , karma can not a future date according to one's merit . Furthermore , one can not Since apurva is non - sentient , it can not act unless moved by an intelligent being However the very well known and popular text , the Bhagavad Gita action ) & " Nishkam which can be said to There exists a wide range of philosophical views Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that individuals are morally obligated to The opposing view is ethical egoism , which maintains that moral agents should always , the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible . to determine the most effective ways to benefit all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact , based upon of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects , companies , and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives , help people , or 1905 – March 6, 1982 ) , better known by her pen name Ayn Rand ( ) , was and for developing a philosophical system she Born and educated in Russia After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful , she achieved fame her best-known work , the novel " Atlas Shrugged Instead , she supported " laissez-faire" capitalism , which she defined as the system based on recognizing have generally ignored or rejected her philosophy because of her polemical approach and February 2, 1905 , to Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family Her father's business was confiscated , and the family fled to the Crimean Peninsula , While in high school there , Rand concluded she was an atheist and valued reason above any other virtue Along with many other bourgeois students , she was purged from the university shortly and graduate , which she decided her professional surname for writing would be " Rand " , possibly because it is graphically She departed on January 19, 1926 , Rand was |
so impressed with the Manhattan skyline that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor " Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter , she and allowed her to watch dozens of films free of In Hollywood , a chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to work While working on " The King of Kings , Frank O'Connor ; the two and an American citizen on March Although it was never produced " , first produced by , reopened successfully on Broadway Her first published novel , the semi - autobiographical " We the Living " Initial sales were slow , and the American publisher let it go out a revised version in 1959 that has Rand wrote that " We the Living " " is as near to an autobiography as I Rand wrote her novella "Anthem " to such an extent that even the word " I " has been forgotten and replaced with " we both of them expressed admiration " , a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said " man " instead of a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as " second - handers"—those who attempt to live through others , placing others to quit if his employer did While completing the novel , Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight delivering the novel , but afterwards she was so exhausted that Producer Hal B. Wallis hired her afterwards as while working in Hollywood . A visit by Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a falling out between the two valued political allies which Rand considered rude " before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee that the 1944 film "Song of Russia " grossly misrepresented conditions there as much better and happier than it was . She also wanted to criticize what she interpreted as its negative presentation not allowed to do so , some of whom the book This group ( jokingly designated "The Collective |
" ) included a future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan , a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal Initially , the group was an informal gathering Later , Rand began allowing her new novel , " Atlas Shrugged " " was considered Rand's "magnum opus " — and , as a corollary the most creative industrialists , scientists , and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating as " stopping the motor of the world " by withdrawing the minds of the individuals contributing most to to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive , the economy would collapse and society would fall apart . Despite many negative reviews , "Atlas Shrugged " became an international bestseller ; however , the reaction the Nathaniel Branden Lectures , later incorporated as Critics , including some former NBI students and Branden himself , later described , wearing clothes to match Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving She began delivering annual lectures at These included : supporting abortion rights , opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft "bums " ) , supporting " civilized men fighting savages " , saying European colonists had the right to invade and take land inhabited by American Indians , and calling homosexuality " immoral " and " disgusting " , while also advocating the repeal of an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott , whom he later married . with Branden had already ended The Objectivist " repudiating Nathaniel Branden for from writing her newsletter and , after her initial objections , allowed a social worker employed by her attorney to enroll the Objectivist movement declined , especially after the world " as it could be and should be " , rather than as it Her fiction typically has protagonists who are heroic individualists , depicted as Rand considered plot a critical element of literature , and her stories typically have what biographer Anne Heller described In school Rand read works by , and Friedrich Schiller , who |
and their skill at constructing plots Hugo , in particular , most notably the 1863 novel " What Is to Be Done ? " by " We the Living " , Rand's descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios describing its essence as " the concept his only absolute " . philosophical realism and opposed anything she Rand considered axiomatic , and reason , which she described as " the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by - perceptual or "a priori" knowledge , including instinct , ' 'intuition , ' any form of ' just knowing She said the individual should " exist for his own sake , neither her solution to the is -ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of " man's survival qua man " . She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible of force was evil and irrational , writing in " Atlas Shrugged " that , " Force and mind are opposites She considered "laissez-faire" capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on protecting those rights . she understood included theocracy , Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian , Rand preferred the term " radical them over issues such as Rand denounced libertarianism , which art as a "selective re - creation allows philosophical concepts to be presented grasped easily , thereby fulfilling As a writer , the art form Rand focused on most closely was Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy politics that evil — the violation She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy , stating : " I am not primarily of egoism ; and I am not primarily an advocate of reason and applies it consistently Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas Numerous authors , including Robert Nozick and she failed in her attempt to solve the is – ought biased and inconsistent with normal usage have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails |
have gone further , saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions Except for Aristotle , Thomas Aquinas sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her . Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend " three A's"—Aristotle , Aquinas when asked where her philosophy came from , she responded : Aristotle , the only philosopher who ever influenced me . , political scientist Charles Murray criticized her claim that her only "philosophical debt " was to Aristotle He asserted her ideas were derivative was inspired by the murderer William Edward Hickman " We the Living " ( which Rand later revised ) , Rand considered her philosophical opposite to be Immanuel Kant , whom she referred to as " she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest . She was not an academic and did not participate in and wrote about ideas she disagreed with in a polemical manner without The first reviews Rand received were for positive , but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script Although Rand believed that her novel " We the Living " was not widely reviewed , over 200 publications Overall , they were more positive than those she received , received far fewer reviews than " We the Living " , and Lorine Pruette's positive review in " The New York Times " was one that Rand greatly Pruette called her "a writer of great power " who wrote " brilliantly , beautifully and bitterly you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking There were other positive reviews , but for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications . one called it " a whale said " anyone who is taken in by it deserves " Atlas Shrugged " was widely reviewed , and many of the reviews were strongly negative . conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book "sophomoric " and " remarkably silly " . shrillness without reprieve " . |
a godless system ( which he related , claiming , " From almost any page of " Atlas Shrugged " , a voice can be heard , from painful necessity , commanding , was similar to that for " Atlas Shrugged " . " , and author Gore Vidal called her viewpoint " nearly perfect in With over 30 million copies sold , Rand's books continue to be read widely A survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book - of - the-Month Club in 1991 asked club members to name Rand's "Atlas Shrugged " was the second most popular choice , Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists , like Other artists who have cited Rand thought include comic book artist Steve Ditko and musician he later distanced himself . and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work . game shows , as well as movies and video games have referred authors such as the psychologist Albert Ellis Rand , or characters based on her , figure prominently " , remarked that , " Rand 's is a tortured immortality , one in which she 's as likely to be Jibes at Rand as cold A 1997 documentary film , ' , was " The Passion of Ayn Rand " , a 1999 television adaptation Rand's works , most commonly "Anthem " or "The Fountainhead" , are sometimes assigned as teachers who promise to include conservative " and " libertarian " , Rand has had Rand is often considered one , said that " without Ayn Rand , the libertarian movement would not The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives ( despite Rand taking some atypical positions for a conservative , like being pro - choice and an Nevertheless , a 1987 article in " Republican congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have The financial crisis of 2007–2008 spurred renewed " Atlas Shrugged " , which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis Signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero that through Greenspan , " |
Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb "incalculable impact " in encouraging the spread her work has increased gradually . Rand , including " an explosion However , as of that same year many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject over 60 colleges and universities accepted grants required teaching Rand's ideas or works were controversial or even rejected because of the requirement to teach that , " Rand is surely the most engaging philosopher of my lifetime " , but " nobody in the academe pays any attention to her , neither as an author nor , " An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis " . That same year , Hazel Barnes included a chapter When the first full-length academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking " that association " for taking her One of these was " Other philosophers , writing in the same publication , argued that Nozick misstated that despite " the incessant bombast and Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement , the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in " Contemporary Women Philosophers " , Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence in how different academic specialties viewed She said that Rand's philosophy " is regularly omitted from academic philosophy Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher . He said most commentators view her ethical argument and her political theory " is of marred by an "ill-thought out and unsystematic" effort to reconcile " The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies " , a multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed academic journal and her ideas , was established libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer argued very few people find Rand's ideas to her being a "compelling writer " noting that "Atlas Shrugged " outsells to take over publication of " The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies " , and the University of Pittsburgh Press launched an "Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies" series based on said that " only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously " . during her life was even more English and American literature have continued largely to |
ignore her work , although attention , Twayne's Masterwork Studies ( " The Fountainhead: An American Novel " by Den Uyl and "Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind and Re - reading the Canon ("Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand " , edited by Gladstein and Sciabarra ) , as well as in popular study guides that " Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction a newsletter called "The Intellectual Activist " , , a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting the Institute for Objectivist Studies , now known as is a French mathematician , and a theoretical physicist In his early work on von Neumann algebras He also formulated the Connes embedding in 1986 at Berkeley and Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto , Ontario his wife Mary Jane Dwan , née Hunt . he was seven years old on December 4, 1892 , and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter , he took the job . the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters them to continue productions requiring worked there year-round , and working part - time in fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well notably in the acclaimed 1922 , and one short film made in the short - lived sound - on - film process went on to direct " The Wizard of Oz " and " Gone With the Wind who became an actor , director Over a long career spanning almost 50 years , Dwan directed 125 motion pictures , some of which were highly acclaimed , such as the 1949 box office hit , " of cinema , stating that his style " is so basic as to seem invisible , most of the population living in the fertile north and the Sahara dominating the geography making it the world 's tenth largest nation by area Pre-1962 Algeria has seen many empires and , practicing Islam , and Algeria is a semi-presidential republic , with the continent , based largely on the largest company in Africa , supplying Algeria's military is one of the Other forms of the name are : |
, ; ; ; ; Around ~1.8-million-year-old stone artifacts from Ain Hanech ( Algeria ) were considered to Stone artifacts and cut-marked bones that were are estimated to be ~1.9 million years old , and even older stone artifacts to be as old as ~2.4 million years Hence , the Ain Boucherit evidence shows that much earlier than previously thought ( 43,000 BC ) similar to Iberomaurusian ( located mainly in This industry appears to have spread Neolithic civilization ( animal domestication and agriculture ) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as This life , richly depicted in Carthage , the Carthaginians expanded and As Carthaginian power grew , its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically . in which agriculture , manufacturing , trade , and political organisation supported By the early 4th century BC , Berbers being unpaid following the defeat of They succeeded in obtaining control and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan , used in Greek to describe natives of In 146 BC the city of Carthage As Carthaginian power waned , the influence of Berber leaders in the By the 2nd century BC , several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms were harassed by local tribes . the Byzantines arrived Leptis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had been busy Furthermore , during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Carthaginians, and Ottomans the Berber people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent . Altava ( modern day Algeria ) Christians , Berber and Latin speakers until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in numerous local dynasties emerged , including the Rustamids the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages , the great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene ( Abu Madyan ) These "Fatimids " went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb boasting a secular inner government , as well as a powerful army and navy , made up primarily of Arabs |
The Fatimid caliphate began to collapse when In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero Khālīfā Al-Zānatī asks daily , for duels , to defeat the Hilalan hero Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī and many other Arab knights in The Zirids , however , were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption The indigenous Amazigh tribes , however , remained largely independent , and depending times unifying it ( as The Fatimid Islamic state , also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes , who and again into sub - ( for example , Sanhadja Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties , Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties Both of the Hammadid and Zirid empires as well as the Fatimids established their rule in The Zirids ruled land in what is now Algeria , Tunisia The Hammadids captured and held important regions and Fez establishing their rule in briefly over Sicily , originating from modern Algeria , the Zirids El Mu'izz the Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition and declared his independence too weak to attempt a direct invasion , who regularly disrupted farmers he could n't control , especially in Cyrenaica , where they are still one of arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region the last under the walls of Kairouan , his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of The invasion kept going , and in 1057 the Arabs spread on encircled the Qalaa of Banu Hammad (capital of the Hammadid Emirate ) , as they had done in Kairouan a few From there they gradually gained taken back by the Almohads in in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously The Almohads originating from modern day Morocco , although founded by a man originating from Algeria known as Abd al-Mu'min would soon take control the Koumïa , were the main supporters of 1212 the Almohads began collapsing , and in 1235 the governor his independence and established the Kingdom of Tlemcen and of the Hafsids would occasionally be by the Zayyanid sultans , Spain decided |
and captured Mers el Kébir , and decided to get bolder , , taking over Bejaia in Hayreddin Barbarossa , who operated successfully They succeeded in conquering Jijel When Aruj was killed in The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan , He was a Kouloughli or of Until 1587 Beylerbeylik of Algiers was governed by Beylerbeys who served Subsequently , with the institution of the Ojaq who were led by the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly , and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha . The pirates often took the passengers and According to Robert Davis , from called Razzias , on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell The threat was so severe that as far as Iceland , raiding and capturing slaves . had also raided in Iceland Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back corsair captains rebelled , killed the agha its own in power . select the dey passed to the divan It was at first dominated by the "ojaq " ; but the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent , replacing The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat 1671–1830 ) that the system was occasional mob rule , the day - to - day operation of the Deylikal government was remarkably orderly . it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside , where heavy taxation frequently Autonomous tribal states were tolerated , and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the Kabylia , although in 1730 the Regency was able to take attack Spanish merchant shipping , and as a result , the Spanish Navy bombarded Algiers the Spanish fleet was to be joined back Oran and Mers el Kébir , the two last Spanish strongholds in A year later , a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet , under their consul , the French invaded and , the French conquest was complete . dead in the hospital and only 3,336 The population of Algeria , which French policy was predicated on " A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population |
" Our first duty is to take , whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination . One of France's longest-held overseas territories , Algeria as " colons " and Between 1825 and 1847 , 50,000 French people emigrated to the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France the colonial system , gave rise to the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the Sétif and Guelma massacre the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began after the publication Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependants were killed by by lynch mobs in Algeria . Historians , like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron , state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far but was less than the 1 million deaths The number of European "Pied-Noirs " who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964 Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale ( FLN become increasingly socialist and authoritarian But , he relied much Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during In December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the Bendjedid resigned and a High Council of State was which more than 100,000 people are thought to during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969 , a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group . , considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won He worked to restore political stability , and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution The AIS disbanded and levels of Bouteflika was re - elected The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country , raise living standards , the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation , which was approved for re - election in re - elected in April 2009 started on 28 December 2010 , inspired The government enacted legislation dealing with Algeria's president , after winning the first round |
the highest of all presidential elections since and the creation of South Sudan , Algeria has been the largest country in , two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound , and between which are inserted vast plains and occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated 19 ° and 37 ° N ( a small area is north 19°N ) , and longitudes 9°W and 12 ° E. Most of the coastal area is hilly , sometimes even mountainous , and there are a few natural harbours . The Hoggar Mountains ( ) , also of the capital , Algiers , be hot year round . , and the nights are cool from annually , the amount Farther inland , the rainfall is which all support a wide range of Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife , and gazelles , although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs ( foxes ) Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population , but these A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers . Snakes , monitor lizards , and numerous other reptiles can be found the native flora includes Macchia scrub , olive trees Fig , eucalyptus , agave " ) , actually rule the country , even deciding who The most powerful man might have been Mohamed Mediène before he was brought down these generals have died , retired , or been imprisoned . The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms , but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed to participate in the election , which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing The Algerian parliament is bicameral ; the lower house who are directly elected for five-year terms , while the upper house , the Council of the Nation , has 144 members serving six-year terms , of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president According to the constitution , no political association may be formed if it is " based on differences Giving incentives and rewarding best performers , |
as well as offering funds underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument ( ENI ) Defence Minister Herve Morin stated that " It 's time for our country to " when presenting the draft law on been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union Total military personnel include 147,000 active , 150,000 reserve , and 187,000 paramilitary staff ( 2008 estimate ) for men aged 19–30 , Algeria has been categorised by Freedom House as " not free " since it began publishing 1991 , when the country was labelled " partly free . ; expression ; and right assembly as well as intensified censorship , with many leaders imprisoned and Algerians think that homosexuality should be accepted , according to The administrative divisions have changed several times When introducing new provinces , the numbers of old provinces are kept , Algeria's currency is the dinar ( The economy remains dominated by the state Algeria has struggled to develop because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages . and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues , Algeria Algeria , whose economy is reliant on petroleum , has been day , but it is also a major gas producer and exporter , Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005 , Algeria had of proven natural-gas reserves To cope with social demands , the authorities raised expenditure , especially in production volume is downwards . of volume , continues to decline , dropping from 43.2 million tonnes The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach , which This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity developing research facilities and paying researchers the government has funded the creation of at various universities and over 780 research labs , youth and women unemployment is higher among young people , with the first capital of the Hammadid empire ; Tipasa |
and Timgad , both Roman ruins ; M'Zab Valley , a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis ; and the Casbah of Algiers The Algerian road network is the densest in at of highways , with This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway , a major infrastructure project currently under It is a 3-way, highway , linking the Trans-Sahara Highway , which is now Algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million , of which the vast majority are Arab-Berber ethnically About 90% of Algerians live in , although some 1.5 million remain nomadic Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees , who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance Indigenous Berbers as well as Phoenicians , various Sub-Saharan Africans , and French European population who became known as Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages the language used by the majority of a "national language " by the constitutional amendment of taught and is partially co - official ( with a few restrictions and French is widely used from primary school onwards ) and academia due to Algeria's colonial history . An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French , or 18 million people out of a total the population according to a 2021 CIA "World Factbook" estimate , and 97.9% according to Pew Research There has been an increase in The June 2019 Arab Barometer-BBC News report found that the percentage of Algerians identifying as non - religious has grown from around 8% ( 1.72 per 1,000 people ) , nurses Some 99% of Algerians living in of " reducing by half However , poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis , hepatitis that was designed to significantly aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability built since independence , now taught and it is also the elementary appeared , therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore , but at the age of five |
The school offers two programs : general accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in The University of Algiers , founded in 1879 , is the oldest , science and letters ) . Even if some of them science and medicine continue to be provided in French and the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene , the University of Mentouri Constantine , and The University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar Modern Algerian literature , split between Arabic has been strongly influenced by Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted and Ibn Khaldun , though born while staying in Algeria . , and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times , are attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation , at the same time that they Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through Other new artistic currents including the one of Algerian painting , abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways , in order when Apuleius wrote " The Golden Ass " , the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity , there which is often regarded as tends to be defined in to the terrorism that occurred during Chaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems Folk music styles include Bedouin music , characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida ( poems ) ; Kabyle music , based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed , Raï music is a style The financial support provided by the state , Between 2007 and 2013 , FDATIC subsidised 98 films ( feature films , documentaries According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database , 41 Algerian films Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse and varied dishes , depending on , since they are always It can be prepared using Among the dishes known , couscous, chorba , Cakes are marketed and can |
be found in cities either However , traditional cakes are also Tamina , Baklawa , Chrik, Garn logzelles Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as , chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar several games such as El Kherba or Playing cards , checkers and chess games She is vice - president in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental , under her brother He is a childhood friend , and A child prodigy of exceptional talents He began working while still in school , proving that he could have made a fortune to put it out of John Galt is the primary male hero of " , and leads Eddie to the Twentieth Century Motor Company , where he secretly , and his employment , when Galt himself remains concealed throughout Henry ( known as " one of the central characters in " , and invents Rearden Metal , an alloy stronger , lighter , cheaper his wife Lillian , his brother Philip the Taggarts , and himself likewise Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental . capable of appreciating and making world - famous as a pirate , who seizes relief ships sent He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are , they have enough capital to a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation , and gives him a bar of gold has paid over the last several years . Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow ; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world , which only knows of Ludlow as According to Barbara Branden , who was closely associated with Rand , there were sections written a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel , wherein the hero becomes the first of Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his Dagny Taggart , to actually run the railroad , but nonetheless opposes his life : the desire to overcome , and the horror that he will succeed at this . dislikes his habits and ( secretly at first ) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value |
Lillian achieves this , when Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which as " co - ordinator He uses his position there to publishes a book entitled " Why Do You Think You Think Hank Rearden , and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up to get Rearden to agree , and is the creator of When John Galt is captured by breaks down before extracting the information along with colleague Hugh Akston , mentor He has since become a sell-out , one who had great promise , to the detriment of the He is killed when Cuffy Meigs ( see below ) drunkenly causing it to destroy itself The character was , in part whom Rand had interviewed for The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill ( which , by restricting the number to one , forces Hank ) , he is given Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co - ordinator , a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of Mouch's mantra , whenever a problem arises from his prior policy , is to say , " I ca both the present and past cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning A portmanteau sociocultural anthropology is commonly used today Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life Archaeological anthropology , often termed as , studies human activity through investigation The abstract noun "anthropology " is first attested Their New Latin ' derived from the combining forms of the subject matter occurred subsequently , Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already The Société Ethnologique de Paris , the first to use the term "ethnology " , was Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists . Meanwhile , the Ethnological Society of New York , currently the American Ethnological Society as the Ethnological Society of London in 1843 , , anti - slavery , Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results , making feature - by - feature comparisons of their subject matters , were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals , languages , and folkways were |
unknown to them then . Charles Darwin's " On the Origin of Species " was the epiphany of everything they had There was an immediate rush to bring the process of breaking away from the Société de biologie to form the first When he read Darwin , " , as the French called Broca , being what today would be called a neurosurgeon , which appeared to reside in , today called Broca's area after , but a German philosopher specializing in his six-volume work , entitled "Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker " out that anthropology is a new field and psychology to differentiate man from " the animals nearest to He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical , The history of civilization , as well as ethnology , are In 1863 , the explorer Richard Francis Burton and the speech therapist James Hunt broke away from the new anthropology rather than just ethnology . present , though not Broca The Anthropological Review " , Hunt stressed Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor , Similar organizations in other countries followed : One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology , and Prehistory ( 1869 ) founded by Rudolph Virchow , known for anthropological societies and associations occurred , most independent , most publishing their own journals , and all international and technique to solve specific problems , has arrived ; for , " social " anthropology the US have been distinguished from , long - term in -depth examination of context , and the importance they place on Cultural anthropology , in particular , has emphasized cultural relativism , holism This has been particularly prominent traditionally been divided into the four field approach : "biological" or "physical" anthropology ; " social " , " cultural " , or " sociocultural " anthropology ; and archaeological anthropology ; plus practice more ethnology ( a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities the origin and evolution of " Homo sapiens " , human physical traits , |
human behavior , the variations among different groups "Homo sapiens " has influenced its social organization Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity , such Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories , as well there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed came to occupy a central place in biological anthropology remained largely positivist . Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of in which people " make Cultural anthropology is more related to ( how one's culture affects the experience ) , while social anthropology is more related to sociology and the attempt to understand other societies in Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates as kinship is a human universal . Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on Artifacts , faunal remains , and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives Archaeologists examine material remains in Linguistic anthropology ( not to be , verbal and non - that brings linguistic methods to bear Ethnography is a method of analysing It often involves participant observation though an ethnographer may also draw from arguing that anthropology tries to applicable in general and novel settings , while Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories 'literature ' , conceived as independent artistic activities , do not exist To surmount this difficulty , anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which , without exclusively being ' artistic ' , have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities . Media anthropology ( also known as of understanding producers , audiences from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies research which happen to involve media , such as development work a wide variety of fields , such While the origins of ethnomusicology date back formally introduced as “ ethnomusicology ” by Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst around 1950 Visual anthropology is concerned , in and , since the mid-1990s , While the term is sometimes used , including areas such as of economics , of which it is highly critical . |
Its origins as a sub - field Economic Anthropology remains , for the most part The school of thought derived from , including , but not The first of these areas was " did much to dissipate the peasantry , many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such It is a " complex More simply , applied anthropology is The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why , if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty , Why is there such a gap between Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis " Kinship " can refer both to " the study of " the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures , or it can refer to " the patterns of terms , such as "descent " , "descent groups " , "lineages " , "affines " , " cognates " , and Broadly , kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA This is called consanguineal relations or they want to be a part ( archeological , biological , cultural , linguistic ) that seeks to reduce male bias in experiences can differ from those historically such 'peripheral' perspectives have been ignored , observed only from an outsider perspective , and regarded as less - valid or less - Feminist anthropologists have stated that their publications have contributed to anthropology , and note that from 1891 to 1930 doctorates in anthropology went to males more than 85% , more than 81% were under 35 , and only 7.2% to anyone over 40 years old , was , until " [ who was also a Caribbeanist . as well as the United States , and thereby tried to improve Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering ( Farmer , |
1999 , 2003 ; Beneduce , 2010 ) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness . nutritional status and food security , and how changes in the former , and dietary health , then is in turn connected to ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – practices , and conceptual categories space using the methods and theories evolutionary biology ) often through close collaboration , looked at from the basis Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned , a new development started from the 1960s , and is still unfolding : anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at Firstly , anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere ( as Secondly , anthropologists slowly started An anthropology of the state developed , and it is a most thriving field today specializes in " the cross-cultural study of Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly The sub - group was very closely related to STS and Donna Haraway's 1985 "Cyborg Manifesto " could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first anthropology and technology intersect . The field is new , and The sub - field is also defined as , "the study of The focus of its research concerns " how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments , and how their environments change across space The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology , and arguably at least the backdrop , if not the focus of most today , is political ecology . Many characterize this new perspective as more arguments for / against or to prevent corporate exploitation and damage Often , the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation ) as distinctive , with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non-industrial indigenous and traditional societies . |
Anthropological theory is distinct because of Environmental discourse appears to be characterized and creating standards , concepts Anthropology and environmental discourse now have can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change , a study commonly found a central place in how environmental problems are examined Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts , or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral / universal , typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected , Environmentalism itself can be expressed and indigenous customs by examining historical records or may not exist today were " a notoriously agoraphobic lot , anti - urban by definition " Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World " ( the latter being the habitual focus of the attention of " specialists in ' other cultures ' " closer : examining the types of cities These two methods are overlapping and dependent as well as economic and political factors to Anthrozoology ( also known as "human–animal studies " ) is the study Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship , from the assumption that typological human biological differences and social science , combining the human development , and brings together fields a legal setting , most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed , as found in fossil hominid evidence ( AAA ) , which cultural relativism , which has an influence on all the sub - fields of This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by be examined dispassionately on their own terms , infanticide , racism , sexism , mutilation ( including circumcision and subincision ) , Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government , in particular , has caused bitter controversy But by the 1940s , many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in ( for example , Office of Strategic Services Attempts to accuse anthropologists of |
during the Vietnam War years have turned up Many anthropologists ( students and teachers ) were active in the antiwar movement may proscribe anthropologists from giving The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth ( ASA ) has called The "Principles of Professional Responsibility " issued by the American Anthropological Association that " in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research , no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given . Anthropologists , along with other social scientists , are working with the US military " The Christian Science Monitor " reports that " Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs " released its final report concluding , in part , that , " When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions , not subject to external review and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of Before WWII British 'social anthropology ' and American 'cultural anthropology ' were still distinct traditions . There are several characteristics that tend One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account In the 1990s and 2000s , calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture , of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another writing anthropology were heard . concepts shared by virtually all human cultures ) , but modern population genetics , participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists which means traveling to a community something called "fieldwork . " Along with dividing up their project divide the world up into relevant time periods up into relevant cultural traditions based on Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types , or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in to culture regions as well , since mapping cultures is central to "other cultures " , both in Now there exist many works focusing close to the author's "home " . |
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