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criminal information or indictment has been usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to The pleading in the criminal case , which open court , is usually either guilty or not guilty . Generally speaking in private, civil cases there There is only a judgment that grants An appellate court , commonly called a court second instance court , is any court of law that is empowered to , which initially hears cases ) which primarily reviews the decisions The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely some systems have appellate courts divided by Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts which only hears appeals raised the Court of Federal Claims on the other . Tennessee , and Oklahoma also The Court of Appeal of New Zealand , located in Wellington , is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court . usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations , rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were Furthermore , U.S. appellate courts are usually on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court . are allowed one appeal as of This means that a party who a trial may bring an appeal to However , appeals may be costly , and the appellate court must the court below that justifies upsetting Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a "court of Historically , others have titled their appellate court a "court of errors " and appeals " ) , intended to correct errors made ) , the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors ( which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court ) , the Kentucky Court of Errors ( renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi The phrase "court of appeals " most often refers to intermediate appellate courts However , the Maryland and New York systems are different The Maryland Court of Appeals and the New York Court of Appeals are the highest appellate courts the accused is expected to but they generally include "

guilty " , " not guilty " , and the peremptory pleas ' " ) setting out reasons why a trial can not the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial , and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment However , police custody can last if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment , or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time , and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism , of the prosecutor , the "procureur " of the accused , they are read the charges and asked The available pleas are : guilty , not guilty , and no defined as the calling upon the accused to appear , the informing of the accused of the demanding of the accused whether they plead guilty or not guilty , and the entering the police can not legally detain them unless an officer with the rank ( 36 hours total ) , or a judge ( who will be a magistrate ) authorises detention up to a maximum of 96 hours , but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for [ consist of an ] [ ... ] reading [ of] the indictment [ ... ] to the defendant [ ... ] and call on [ them ] [ They ] shall be ... ] before [ they are ] called upon to The first is called the "initial arraignment " and must take place 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain The presiding judge also decides at what amount , if any , to Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology associated with having to transport the public , court personnel and for If the defendant pleads guilty , The court is not required to In the past , a defendant who refused to plead ( or " stood mute " )

was subject to "peine forte et dure " ( Law French for " strong and hard punishment Today , in common law jurisdictions , the court enters a plea of not and its music was composed by originally entitled "Pikes Peak " . O Mother dear , Jerusalem " , though the hymn was not first published until 1892 was first entitled "America the Beautiful " , had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs , Colorado , to come to her , and she wrote them down upon The poem was initially published two years later in " The Congregationalist " to The first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in " A hymn tune composed in 1882 by , Newark , was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem , Ward , too , was Coney Island back to his home in New York City after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down . not knowing the national stature his music would Bates was more fortunate , since the song's popularity was well established have elapsed since the song was written , particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration , there have been efforts to give " America the Beautiful " legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to , or in place of , " The Star-Spangled Banner " , but so far this has not succeeded Proponents prefer " America the Beautiful " for various reasons , saying it is easier to sing , more melodic , and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as Some prefer " America the Beautiful " celebrated its bicentennial , a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number The first was by Charlie Rich peaked at number 82 in An all-star version of " America the Beautiful " performed by country singers Trace Adkins , Sherrié Austin

reached number 58 in July 2001 Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks ; at some sporting events , such as Twitter and Facebook , and from some conservatives " Together We Stand " , a disc containing three patriotic songs including " America the Beautiful " From sea to shining sea " , originally used an American idiom meaning " from the Atlantic Ocean Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song " God Bless the U.S.A. " and Schoolhouse Rock's " Elbow Room The phrase and the song are also grain " to create a personification The book points out that the poem "Auld Lang Syne " ; the songs can Assistive technology (AT ) is a term difficulty performing activities of daily living ( ADLs ) independently , or even with assistance . ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting , mobility ( ambulation ) , eating , bathing disabilities that limit the ability to people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish , or had great difficulty accomplishing , by providing enhancements to , or changing methods of interacting with , the technology needed to independent mobility for those who can not walk , while assistive eating devices can enable people who can not feed themselves to do Due to assistive technology , people " social participation , " " security and control , " and a greater chance to " reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses Adaptive technology and assistive technology are different that is used to help disabled people , while " adaptive technology " covers items that are specifically designed for disabled people and would seldom be used by any object or system that helps adaptive technology is specifically designed for Consequently , adaptive technology is a subset a healthcare profession that specializes in maintaining when independently performing life's occupations . According to the "Occupational Therapy Practice Framework : Domain . ; AOTA , 2014 ( ADLs ) , rest assistive technology (AT ) in the improvement The application of AT enables an individual

, that may otherwise be challenging , to the user in Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled , and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people which include feeding , toileting variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness The most common devices are transfer benches , stretcher or convertible chairs sit-to-stand lifts ( for moving patients ) , air bearing inflatable mattresses ( for supine transfer i.e. , ) , gait belts ( or transfer belt ) and a slider board ( or transfer board ) , usually A walker or walking frame or Rollator need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking . It consists of a frame that is about waist high , approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider other sizes , such as for Modern walkers are height - adjustable The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached of the person using it . A prosthesis , prosthetic , or prosthetic limb is a device that replaces using mechanical devices with human muscular, musculoskeletal, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by trauma , disease , Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury or to supplement defective body parts . lungs seeing less common use but under Prostheses are specifically not orthoses , although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some Prostheses are technically the complete finished item . is not a prosthesis , but   to the residual limb — usually a "socket " , and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and The terms " prosthetic " and " orthotic " are adjectives used to describe devices such A powered exoskeleton is a wearable mobile machine that is

powered by a system of electric motors Its design aims to provide back support , sense the user's motion , specialized equipment to sit or stand This equipment is frequently specialized for specific settings such as in a classroom Positioning devices have been developed to aid in allowing people to stand and bear weight on This makes them good for users who are actively trying to carry out some task . the visually impaired to easily - speech ) or braille This software is provided free of the screen , control the keyboard , and provide verbal descriptions to describe There are thirty languages to select As mentioned above , screen readers To use the text - to - speech tools , the documents must in an electronic form , However , people usually will , which can not be recognized by the text - to - speech software . formed into units called braille cells A full braille cell is made up of three dots , but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters A braille embosser is , simply put , a printer for braille . Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page , the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters , usually a camera and a display screen to perform A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images , and the user can control settings such as Similar to desktop video magnifiers , Wherever the computer cursor moves A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on On the keyboard shown , the round buttons the screen ( zoom in ) , or make the mouse cursor and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem are blind or visually impaired As well , over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can an implant or an accessory . that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay

independent at home longer . An example would be the systems being flooding and unlit gas sensors ( for Notably , these alerts can be such as a smart card , that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed , text size , etc . This is useful where users Identification Card Systems – Man-Machine Interface of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to for receiving and communicating information auditory communication needs by providing higher sound ( for those who are hard of hearing ) , tactile feedback , visual cues and improved technology access Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electro-acoustic device which is designed to amplify more intelligible , and to correct impaired hearing as measured by with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly amplifier , and speaker . with hearing difficulties to focus getting rid of extra background noises and distractions , making places like meetings much easier to participate The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs . Additionally , there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from Augmentative and alternative communication ( AAC AAC systems are extremely diverse and and assist cognitive processes such as growing rapidly , but have , that there is emerging evidence of scope exists to develop that helps a user learn and For example , a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating Users simply tap certain parts of , and reads it back From there , the user can Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used

However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate difficulty using standard cutlery due to Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier Plates and bowls may have food being pushed off of the dish when it is being created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play . are participating in sports , Assistive technology devices can be simple , or " low - technology " , or they may and adaptive bands and tubes . Accordingly , assistive technology can be In the United States there are two major pieces The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA ) which was first enacted in 1975 NIMAC ) was created which publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability Files provided are in XML format IDEA defines assistive technology as follows : " any item , product system , whether acquired commercially off the shelf , modified , or customized , that is used to increase , maintain a medical device that is surgically implanted Assistive technology listed is a student's IEP is not only recommended , it is required (Koch , 2017 These devices help students both with and without disabilities access the curriculum in a way they were previously unable to (Koch , 2017 Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging Mid tech supports used in the school setting include used to keyboard writing . Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding and speech to text . to determine whether assistive technology effectively supports people with dementia to One of the largest problems that affect disabled people is discomfort with prostheses An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized Assistive technology devices have been created to enable disabled people to use modern touch screen mobile computers adapter for iOS devices which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to Apple , with the release of

iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control Switch access could be activated either right and left head turns of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in amount of pressure required for consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to The form of home automation called assistive domotics focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to energy conservation but tailors it towards Overall , assistive technology aims to allow disabled people to " participate more fully in all aspects of and increases their opportunities for " preschoolers , all with some kind engagement in learning activities " Additionally , it has been a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly Nonetheless , their work load is significantly easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks The abacus ("plural" abaci or abacuses ) , also called a counting frame , is a calculating tool which has been It was used in the ancient Near East , Europe , The exact origin of the abacus has not beads could be loose on Later the beads were made to Abacuses are still made , Designs such as the Japanese soroban have Any particular abacus design supports multiple methods to perform calculations , including the four basic operations and Although calculators and computers are commonly used today instead of Merchants , traders , and and Africa use abacuses . as a scoring system in non-electronic table games . The word " abacus " dates ("abax " ) which means Alternatively , without reference to has been suggested that it means " a square tablet strewn with ( the exact shape of the Latin perhaps is popular , some argue Both "abacuses " and " abaci " ( soft or hard " c " ) are Babylonian cuneiform that may have been Greek historian Herodotus mentioned the abacus in

the pebbles from right to left various sizes that are thought to dates to the 5th century BC . Demosthenes ( 384 BC–322 BC ) complained that the need to use pebbles for calculations was too human behavior , stating " that men or marble , pre - A tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in to 300 BC , making it the oldest counting board discovered are 5 groups of markings . 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line eleven parallel lines , again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular ; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where Also from this time frame , the Darius Vase The Chinese abacus , also known as the "suanpan " ( 算盤 / " calculating tray " ) , is typically tall and The beads are usually rounded and The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam ; beads moved toward the beam are counted , while those moved away from it The upper deck had one bead and the bottom suggests that one could have inspired the other , given However , no direct connection has been demonstrated , and the similarity of the abacuses may be coincidental , both ultimately arising from counting Where the Roman model ( like most modern Korean and Japanese ) the standard "suanpan " has 5 plus up to 18 ) which may have been used for Chinese counting rods , which operated with Originally pebbles ("calculi " ) were Later , and in medieval Europe , jetons were manufactured . , tens , etc . This system of ' counter casting ' , shown nearby in reconstruction , dates to the 1st century AD . It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one The groove marked I indicates units , X tens , and so The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives – five units , five tens , etc . , essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system

316 - 396 ) , that the second-century CE philosopher Vasumitra said that " placing a wick (Sanskrit "vartikā " ) on the number one ("ekāṅka " ) means it is a one while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred , and on the number one thousand means it It is unclear exactly what this arrangement already finding new ways of recording called "soroban " ( , " counting tray " ) by the working class a century or more before the ruling class adopted it one bead and the bottom four beads . The top bead on the upper deck was equal the decimal number can be expressed , so the abacus is designed as The quotient division is generally used instead of the division method ; at the same time , in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication . called 天三算盤 , which is The four - bead abacus spread , and became common Japan even with the proliferation , Koreans call it "jupan " ( 주판 ) , "supan " ( 수판 ) or " called a "nepohualtzintzin " in ancient Aztec culture The word Nepōhualtzintzin comes from Nahuatl " Ne " – personal Its complete meaning was taken as : ( 1 , 2 , , 10 , and 15 One Nepōhualtzintzin ( 91 ) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts ( 364 ) completed a cycle to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo , who in his travels throughout Mexico found Sanchez wrote in " Arithmetic 5 , base 4 abacus had been found in the Yucatán Peninsula that This was a finger abacus , on one hand , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 were used ; and on the other hand 0 , 1 , 2 , and of colored knotted cords used to record but not used to perform Calculations were carried out using a yupana (Quechua for " counting tool " ; see figure ) which was still in

, but in 2001 Italian mathematician De Pasquale , researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 and powers of 10 , 20 , The Russian abacus , the " schoty " ( , plural from , counting ) , usually The Russian abacus is often used vertically , with each wire running horizontally The wires are usually bowed upward the beads pinned to either side . It is cleared when all the beads For easy viewing , the middle 2 beads on each wire ( the 5th and 6th bead ) usually are of a different color from the other eight Even the 1874 invention of mechanical calculator , Odhner arithmometer , had not replaced into the Russian Empire were known to leave in despair after watching since 1924 did not significantly around 1820 by mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet , who had served in Napoleon's army and had been a prisoner of war The abacus had fallen out of Poncelet used it , not The wireframe may be used either thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999 ) , or each bead may represent one unit ( e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on , so numbers up to 100 may In the bead frame shown , the gap challenged him to speed contests addition , somewhat faster for When the abacus was used for Learning how to calculate with the abacus may improve capacity for , is the act of performing People doing long-term AMC training show higher numerical memory capacity and experience memory to deal with complex processes the visual abacus and move the imaginary beads . The abacus shows how numbers , letters , and signs can An adapted abacus , invented by Tim Cranmer , and called a Cranmer abacus is commonly used by visually impaired users . keeping them in place while using a braille-writer and Nemeth code ( a type of large multiplication and long division problems are tedious The abacus gives these students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge

required by their sighted peers using pencil , or Brønsted–Lowry acids . proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory , can turn blue litmus red , The word "acid " is derived from the Latin "acidus/acēre " , meaning less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid " ( as in " dissolved in acid " ) , while the strict definition refers activates digestive enzymes ) , acetic acid ( vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid ) , sulfuric acid ( used in car batteries ) , and citric acid ( found in in the colloquial sense ) can be solutions or pure substances , and can be derived from acids are solids , liquids , ) , whose boron atom has a vacant orbital example the nitrogen atom in of the Brønsted definition , so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly " or " by releasing protons ( which then accept electron pairs . However , hydrogen chloride , acetic acid , and most other Brønsted–Lowry acids can not are therefore not Lewis acids . Conversely , many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted–Lowry acids . Hydronium ions are acids according to ( H+ ) , later described as protons or hydrons An Arrhenius acid is a substance that , Note that chemists often write H+("aq " ) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid–base reactions does not exist alone in other forms ( H5O2+ , H9O4+ Thus , an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when Due to this equilibrium , any increase hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because H3O+ when dissolved in water , in this case donating a proton , but does not relate the reaction does not produce hydronium work for the first example , where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed In the first reaction a fluoride ion , F−

, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the Fluoride " loses " a pair more distant from the fluoride nucleus than BF3 is a Lewis acid because it This reaction can not be described The second reaction can be described using The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid ; for example , of electrons when one of the H —O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become Depending on the context , a Lewis acid may also be described as Organic Brønsted acids , such as acetic , citric , or oxalic acid , are not Lewis acids produce a Lewis acid , H+ , but at the same time also yield , respectively , for the acids This reaction is referred to as Acid –base conjugate pairs differ be interconverted by the addition or and deprotonation , respectively ) Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could In solution there exists an equilibrium Brackets indicate concentration , such that [ H2O ] means The acid dissociation constant " The stronger of two acids will will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to Because the range of possible values for " K"a spans many orders of magnitude , a more manageable constant , p"K"a is more frequently used , where p"K"a = −log10 " K"a . Arrhenius acids are named according to , according to the table following used when the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element In the IUPAC naming system , " aqueous " is simply added to A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water ; in in water yielding one mole of partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base The stronger an acid is , the more easily it loses a proton , Two key factors that contribute to the ease the H — A bond and the size

Sulfonic acids , which are organic oxyacids A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid ) Unlike sulfuric acid itself , sulfonic acids Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid . to give ionic , crystalline hydronium "salts " While " K"a measures the strength the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order , can be illustrated by It has been shown that at least two properties must be considered . one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are Polyprotic acids , also known as polybasic acids , are able to two potential protons to donate ) , ( three potential protons to donate ) H2SO4 ) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion ( HSO K"a1 is very large ; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion ( SO ) , wherein the "K"a2 is lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion and lose a second to form ( H3PO4 ) , usually All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO , then the orthophosphate ion , usually just called Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent , the successive "K"a values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to Neutralization with a base weaker than An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride , which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and lose a proton , the pH of the system must rise above the p"K"a A strong base solution with a known concentration , usually NaOH or KOH , is added to neutralize the acid solution according to The titration curve of an acid titrated by a base has two axes , with the base volume on the x - axis Due to the successive dissociation processes , there The first equivalence point occurs when all first hydrogen ions from The second equivalence point occurs when all hydrogen ions are

where pH = pKa . Since there are two different Ka values , the first midpoint occurs at pH = pKa1 and the second one occurs at Each segment of the curve which contains a midpoint at its center is called Acids are fundamental reagents in treating is also the most-produced industrial chemical in the world producing fertilizer , detergent , batteries and dyes , as well as used in processing many products such like removing impurities ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from Natural fruits and vegetables also contain Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes , spinach , and especially in carambola and rhubarb ; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic that are widely added in usually pressurized to dissolve in Carbonic acid is very unstable and The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by , among those dicarboxylic acids play an essential role undergoing large scale changes which would be very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce Some acids , such as sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids , also effect dehydration and Nucleic acids , which contain acidic phosphate groups , include DNA and RNA An α-amino acid has a central carbon ( the α or "alpha" carbon ) which is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group ( thus they are carboxylic acids The variable group , also called the R group or side chain , determines the identity the R group is a hydrogen atom , but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens , and may contain other elements such naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration . Peptidoglycan , found in some bacterial cell walls a charged form , where the acidic carboxyl group ( -COOH ) loses a proton ( -COO− ) and the basic amine group ( -NH2 ) gains a proton ( a zwitterion , with the exception of Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group secreted within the stomach to help

hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides , as well as converting the inactive pro - enzyme , Oxygen gas (O2 ) drives cellular respiration , the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food , producing carbon dioxide ( CO2 changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat , charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl Many biologically important molecules , including a number of pharmaceutical agents , are organic weak acids which but not in their charged form ( For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited The charged form , however , is often more soluble in blood When the extracellular environment is more acidic and will be membrane soluble , allowing them to cross Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to A carboxylic acid has the general formula R-C(O)OH , where Asphalt , also known as bitumen ( , ) , natural deposits or may be a refined product The primary use ( 70% ) of where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete . the terms " asphalt " and "bitumen " are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance , although there is regional variation as to which term is Worldwide , geologists tend to favor the term "bitumen " for the naturally occurring material , " bitumen " is ; however , in American English , "asphalt " is more Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen " . of cold molasses while the material obtained at is sometimes referred to which means that there is a specific range where viscosity permits adequate compaction , and the required density is not The word "asphalt " is derived " , which is the latinisation ) , a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch " , which perhaps derives from , " not , without " , i.e. the alpha privative

, and ( " sphallein " ) , " to cause to fall , baffle ( in passive ) be for securing or joining together various objects , and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application . Specifically , Herodotus mentioned that and English ("asphaltum " and The Latin source of the word "bitumen " is claimed by some to be originally "gwitu-men " ( pertaining to others , " pixtumens " ( exuding or bubbling pitch ) , which was subsequently shortened to "bitumen " , thence passing via French into " is used instead of The word "asphalt " is instead asphalt itself ( also called "tarmac " in common parlance ) In Australian English , the word "asphalt " is used to describe is used to refer to "asphalt " is used for " Bitumen " is still Neither of the terms " asphalt " or "bitumen " should sourced from vegetation masses , whether fossilized as with coal , The majority of bitumen , on the other hand , was formed naturally when vast quantities of organic animal materials were deposited by water and buried hundreds of metres deep at the diagenetic point , where the disorganized fatty hydrocarbon molecules joined together in The naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically coal tar , which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material was produced , coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as led to the word "tarmac " , which is now used in common parlance to refer to when natural gas succeeded town gas , and the Canadian oil sands , both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather Of particular note is the use of "REOBs"the residue of recycled automotive engine oil collected from found in recycled engine oil : additives The majority of asphalt used commercially Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen lake where the organisms lived . covering , an area larger than giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen , known the Cold Lake oil sands , to the west and

the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining . the US , where there is However , detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct . The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from , that died millions of years ago when , buried deeply over time , and as an adhesive dates at and stones , to cement parts of carvings , such The Persian word for asphalt is " moom " , which is related to the English word mummy . the region where it could be being found in Epirus . slowly boiled to get rid of higher molecular weight that when layered on objects became quite hard objects that needed waterproofing , indicated that bitumen was sometimes A pamphlet dated 1621 , by " a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys , states that he had discovered the existence ( , and that he proposed of ways – " principally and in protecting , by " , which at that time But the substance was generally neglected In the 1830s there was a surge became widely used " for it had been made of Its rise in Europe was " a sudden phenomenon " , after natural deposits were found " in France the Parc (Ain ) and the Puy-de-la-Poix ( Puy - de - Dôme ) " , although it could also be made the United Kingdom was for etching . in etching , consisting of was " Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen patent # 7849 ) , having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting on 27 March 1838 , and obtained the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were previously formed by Claridge . Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from Whitehall , the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks , " and subsequently on the space at the bottom of aristocratic patrons , and Marc and Isambard Brunel as , respectively , a trustee and consulting engineer ) , Robinson 's and the Bastenne company , were in production " , with asphalt being laid

in Bunhill-row , while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving " continue(d ) a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt also be used for flooring , damp proofing in buildings also proliferating in the 19th century . various claims as to the exclusivity of And numerous patents were granted in patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each , with materials manufactured through Two products resulted , namely "Clarmac " with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. , although " Clarmac " was more widely used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water , possibly poisoning those who drank Asphalt was first used to At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock " was used , such mostly unpaved and covered with Especially where mud or trenching often made streets difficult to pass , pavements were sometimes Asphalt gradually became an ever more common method of , and leaving their waste behind They were not fast , and pedestrians could dodge and Brick surfacing was a good compromise , but even better was asphalt paving , which was easy to install and to cut through to With London and Paris serving The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed along the Athabasca River had long used it to waterproof their canoes . In 1719 , a Cree named to Henry Kelsey of the Hudson's Bay Company , who was the first recorded European to see However , it was n't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer Alexander MacKenzie saw the Athabasca oil sands and said , " At about 24 miles from Clearwater Rivers ) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long of extracting the bitumen was not , was a small fur trading post , other markets were far away , and transportation costs were too high to the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the product to pave 600 feet patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built

the Bitumount oil separation plant , which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to per day of for waterproofing roofs , but other uses included fuels , lubrication oils rust- and acid-proof paints , Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over In 1826 , or 1827 French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to make the oldest surviving photograph from a pewter plate which was then exposed and made it insoluble , so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas Although widely used for a time , it ultimately proved unstable especially when mixed with the most common diluents Unless thoroughly diluted , bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings , for instance those This is achieved either by of asphalt is approximately 102 million tonnes per Approximately 85% of all the asphalt produced is involves mixing fine and coarse aggregates such as The largest use of asphalt is for Due to its highly viscous nature , asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements , such as milling to remove a worn or damaged surface , the removed material reactivated and put back to constructed of or surfaced with that differs from dense graded asphalt (asphalt concrete ) in that it has , as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete , which has only around 5% asphalt the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and A number of technologies allow asphalt Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of and fine crushed aggregate that is spread similar to hot-mixed asphalt , several inches Bitumen emulsion based techniques are known to be , their use may also be 1. Asphalts for heavily trafficked roads ( based Warm emulsion based mixtures , to improve both their maturation time 3. Half-warm technology , in which aggregates are heated up to 100 degrees , producing

Synthetic crude oil , also known as syncrude , is the output from Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100-ton capacity) power shovels from the sand is a hot water process originally which converts it into a light crude oil equivalent . This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional oil pipelines and can be fed into conventional oil refineries Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel ; the Syncrude Canada Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil , and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined . prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower , and in some cases because they prefer to produce Because of the difficulty of moving in a form called dilbit or with synthetic crude oil , called synbit However , to meet international competition Asphalt was used starting in the 1960s as a hydrophobic matrix aiming to encapsulate radioactive waste such as medium-activity salts ( mainly soluble sodium nitrate and sodium sulfate ) produced by Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly radiotoxic alpha-emitting transuranic elements from nuclear reprocessing plants Japan , but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because , as occurred in a bituminisation plant radiation because of the presence of A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated hygroscopic salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible the concentrated salts , the asphalt acting as This also causes the matrix to The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar If not properly managed , When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling , encapsulated radionuclides The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the redox conditions prevailing and plutonium have a higher solubility and are also often present in used : blown bitumen ( partly

Japan black , a lacquer known and steel , and it by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance ink , and to make Material with a boiling point greater than around 500 °C is considered asphalt . The resulting material is typically further treated , which are then separated Further processing is possible by " blowing " the product : namely reacting it with oxygen . Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around . Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity ; upon delivery This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust The backs of tippers carrying asphalt , are also commonly sprayed Naturally occurring crude bitumen impregnated in from "oil sands " , currently ( an area larger than England ) , giving it the second-largest proven oil reserves and the only one accessible have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by " in situ , but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again about per day and was projected to rise to per day by Although uncompetitive economically , asphalt used motor oil , which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light Albania , the only European asphalt mine still in soluble in carbon disulphide ) , and a softening point ( ring and ball ) around 120   ° Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912 , they were transferred Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines ( deep and extending over several km ) still remain its granular form allows it to be car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry The two most common recycled materials that contain asphalt are and reclaimed asphalt shingles ( RAS and typically contains approximately 5 – 6% asphalt binder .

Asphalt naturally becomes stiffer over time due to oxidation , include " 300 tons of asphalt , " which , " in 2002 would have cost By 2006 this would have increased to $ 96,000 and by 2012 to $ 183,000 ... an increase of about $135,000 for People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing Asphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt , the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC ) determined that it is the application parameters In particular , temperatures greater , were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures , such as those typically used in ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent , that people use the same definitions and terms , and that products are tested the same The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. ANSI's operations office is ANSI was most likely originally five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee the American Standards Association ( ASA ) . reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute ( According to Adam Stanton , the first permanent secretary an ambitious program and little else . ANSI's members are government agencies , organizations Although ANSI itself does not while making clear how to , the International Organization for Standardization (ISO ) , administers many key committees and subgroups . the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST ) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative the spaceflight that first landed humans that landed the Apollo Lunar Module "Eagle " on Armstrong became the first person to step onto the lunar surface six hours and 39 minutes later Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later . They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside lunar material to bring back to Command module pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module "Columbia " alone After being sent to the Moon

by the Saturn V's third stage , the astronauts separated Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into " Eagle " and The astronauts used " Eagle"s ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and They jettisoned "Eagle " before they performed the maneuvers that propelled " Columbia " out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth . for [ a] man , one giant leap for mankind . Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory , by fulfilling a national goal proposed " before this decade is out , of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely triggered the Space Race to prove which superpower creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) But on April 12, 1961 , Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and the first to orbit Kennedy chose , from among of rocketry , so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from and was dubbed a "moondoggle " The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name : June 1961 , he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project , but Khrushchev did not take up An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts : a command module ( the three astronauts , and the only part that returned to Earth ; a service module LM ) that had two stages the Moon , and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit Technologies and techniques required for which astronauts Gus Grissom , Ed White , and Roger B. Chaffee died , In October 1968 , Apollo 7 and in December Apollo 8 tested In March 1969 , Apollo 9 Apollo 10 conducted a "dress rehearsal " The Soviet Union appeared to be winning overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher , which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat

about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong , Command Module Pilot and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP ) Buzz Aldrin Lovell and Aldrin had previously Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM , Apollo8 and Apollo9 swapped There would be one change . , began experiencing trouble with , and when Collins recovered in as backup LMP , and Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience , the first being Apollo 10 . Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with . Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining . Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof , but Collins , who considered himself a loner , confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts Armstrong did not agree with ...   all the crews I was on worked very well together a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969 , and announced he would on Apollo 14 after backing up for Apollo 11 . astronauts was added , known They developed procedures , especially those were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators , allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them the only person who communicated directly with an olive branch in its beak to represent The sunlight in the image was coming the Earth instead of the left . Aldrin , Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors , and ) did the artwork , which was then sent off to felt the talons of the eagle looked " too warlike " . When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft "Charlie Brown " and "Snoopy " , assistant manager for the MSC , to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming The LM was named "Eagle " named "Columbia " after "

Columbiad " , the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft ( also from ) , small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to from the Wright brothers' 1903 "Wright Flyer"s left propeller and , along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards , but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals , the widows gave the pin to with the resolution Project Apollo required . The landing site had to be close of propellant required , clear , and flat to simplify Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally The original requirement that the site be free relaxed , as no such site was restrictive , limiting the launch date to A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts Sites 3and5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed announced , the first question was , " Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface ? " had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander , which matched what , where the commander had never Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon , and Associate Administrator George Mueller told reporters he would be first as well . be the first because Armstrong was a civilian , which made he should be first , but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict , would be first since he the final decision was largely driven by Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small , maneuvering to exit the spacecraft Aldrin left the spacecraft first , but he damaged the simulator while While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision , Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first , if he agreed his commander 's prerogative to

himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon . walk on the Moon should be The ascent stage of LM-5 "Eagle " , followed by the descent stage four days later , and CSM-107 "Columbia " There were several differences between " on January 18 , followed by the S-II second stage on February 6 , S - IC first stage on part of Launch Complex 39 , while Apollo 10 was still A countdown test commenced on June 26 , and concluded on July 2 . Slayton roused the crew shortly after They then donned their space suits and out to Launch Complex 39 . Haise entered "Columbia " about three hours and ten minutes , taking up his position on Finally , Aldrin entered , the cabin was purged and pressurized The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour of the United States Army , General William Westmoreland , Millions more around the world listened , at 13:32:00 UTC ( its flight azimuth of 72.058 ° . 42 seconds into the mission , followed Apollo 11 entered a near-circular Earth orbit at an altitude of by , twelve minutes TLI ) burn at 16:22:13 UTC About 30 minutes later , with Collins in the left seat and at the controls , the transposition , docking , and extraction maneuver was performed . This involved separating "Columbia " from the spent S-IVB stage , turning around , and docking with " Eagle " still attached to After the LM was extracted , the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon , This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft , , Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to In the thirty orbits that followed , the crew saw passing views of about southwest of the crater Sabine D. as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft , and because it was unlikely to present " , and began the final preparations

At 17:44:00 "Eagle " separated Collins , alone aboard " Columbia " , inspected "Eagle him to ensure the craft was not damaged , and that the landing gear was correctly deployed . As the descent began , Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early , and reported that they were " long " ; they would land miles west " Eagle " was traveling The problem could have been mascons that contains a gravitational anomaly , potentially diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position , causing the computer to previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM in Apollo 5 . Having the rendezvous radar on ( so it was warmed up in have been irrelevant to the computer of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna dithering back and forth between two positions , depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up . When Armstrong again looked outside , he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north later determined to be West crater ) , so he took Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect could not since their horizontal velocity was out navigation data to Armstrong , who was busy piloting "Eagle As he got closer , discovered his new landing site had a crater in , with only 90 seconds of propellant Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to A light informed Aldrin that at least one had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said : " Contact light Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down , as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode , but Three seconds later , " Eagle " landed and Armstrong shut the engine Aldrin immediately said " Okay ACA — out of detent Armstrong acknowledged : " Out Aldrin continued : " Mode command the reaction control system (RCS) jets to fire .

" Out of Detent " meant the stick had moved away from its centered position ; it was spring - " Eagle " landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with of Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM would have become unsafe , but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds . Apollo 11 landed with less fuel This was later found to be the result of the propellant sloshing more than expected , uncovering Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with " Engine arm is off " , before responding to the words , " Houston, Tranquility Base here The "Eagle " has landed . to listeners that landing was " Roger, Twan—Tranquility , we copy about to turn blue . We 're breathing again . He then took communion privately At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair ( who had objected to the Apollo8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis ) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space to refrain from directly mentioning Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year to walk on the Moon began These took longer than expected ; three and a half hours instead of two everything required had been neatly but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to Apollo 11 used slow-scan television ( TV ) incompatible with broadcast TV , so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast ) , significantly reducing the quality of Minutes later the feed was switched to the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast After describing the surface dust as " very fine - grained " and " almost like a powder

six and a half hours after landing , Armstrong stepped off "Eagle" footpad and declared : " That 's one small step for [ a] man , one giant leap for mankind . Armstrong intended to say " " , but the word " a " is not audible was not initially reported by When later asked about his quote , Armstrong said he believed he said " for a man " , and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a " in One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words " for a " together ; another is , partly because of storms reveal the " a " may have been spoken but About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface He then folded the bag and This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts Twelve minutes after the sample was collected The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and Still photography was accomplished with a Hasselblad camera that could be operated hand held or mounted on Armstrong said moving in the lunar gravity , one-sixth of Earth 's , was " even perhaps easier than the simulations   ... It 's absolutely no trouble to walk and tested methods for moving backward , but neither astronaut had to plan their movements six or The fine soil was quite slippery . Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into "Eagle" shadow produced no temperature change was warmer in sunlight , so he felt cooler in The astronauts planted the Lunar Flag Assembly containing a flag Aldrin remembered , " Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only jam the pole Aldrin was afraid it might But he gave " a crisp West Point salute a telephone-radio transmission , which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House included a passive seismic experiment package used to measure

moonquakes and a retroreflector array used for Then Armstrong walked from the LM in the tubes — the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11 — but was unable to penetrate more than deep . The astronauts then collected rock samples using Many of the surface activities took longer than expected , so they had to stop documenting sample collection to pack them in tightly collected by the astronauts : armalcolite Armstrong his metabolic rates were high , and that he should slow He was moving rapidly from As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk , Mission Control granted the astronauts Aldrin entered "Eagle " first to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor ( LEC ) . This proved to be an inefficient tool , and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up and Aldrin tossed the bag down to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks , lunar overshoes , an empty Hasselblad camera Presidential speech writer William Safire had prepared an " read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were Safire to Nixon 's White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman , would " close down communications a clergyman would " commend their souls to the deepest of the While moving inside the cabin , Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine , stranding the astronauts left behind : an Apollo 1 mission patch who died when their command module caught ; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin , who respectively ; a memorial bag containing a gold replica peace ; and a silicon message disk carrying to prepare for the return flight . Two and a half hours later , at 17:54:00 UTC , they lifted off in liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag , whipping violently in the exhaust Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple : " The ascent stage of the LM separated  

up long enough to see the flag fall over . " During his day flying solo around the Moon , Collins never felt " not since Adam has any human known such solitude " , Collins felt very much a part of the mission In his autobiography he wrote : " this venture has been structured consider my third to be as necessary as either of the To give Collins an idea where to look , Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site , he tried in vain to find the module . Just before he reached the dark side Collins there was a problem with If it became too cold manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17 on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again , and carried on with normal housekeeping chores , while keeping When " Columbia " came back around to the near side of the Moon again , he was able to report that the problem of the Moon as " relaxing After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA , Collins slept so he could be rested for " Eagle " rendezvoused with on July 21 , and the two docked at 21:35 . Just before the Apollo 12 flight , it was noted that " Eagle " was still likely to Later NASA reports mentioned that " Eagle" orbit had decayed , resulting in it impacting in a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed , A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director , Charles Force , had his ten-year-old son Greg use The aircraft carrier , under the command of its sister ship , the LPH , which had recovered Apollo 10 on " Hornet " was then To make room , most of " Hornet"s air wing was left 11 still on the launch pad , A presidential party consisting of Nixon , Borman , Secretary of State William P. Rogers and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger flew to

to the command ship "USS Arlington " in " in Marine One for Weather satellites were not yet common He realized that a storm front was Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult , and strong upper-level winds which " would have ripped , advised NASA to change the recovery area , each man risking , one never before attempted In a conventional entry , trajectory event P64 For a skip-out re - entry , were extending the re - entry but not actually skipping out , P66 was not invoked The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67 . "Hornet " launched four Sea King helicopters and The third carried photographic equipment , and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon . Seven minutes later " Columbia " struck the water forcefully east of Wake Island and from " Hornet " with seas and winds at broken clouds at with visibility of " landed upside down but was righted within ten minutes by A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to prevent it The possibility of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote The astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and "Columbia " wiped that might be present . The astronauts were winched on board , where they would begin , Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 , before the Moon was proven to be barren of Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to [ A]s a result of what you 've done , the world has never been closer After Nixon departed , "Hornet " , which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane , placed on a dolly and moved the lunar samples , film , data tapes and other items to be removed " Hornet " returned to and its pyrotechnics made safe . a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol , the astronauts continued in first in the Apollo spacecraft , then " , and finally in

the Lunar Receiving Laboratory ) , the astronauts were quarantine (NASA physician William Carpentier and MQF project engineer On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to celebrate the flight , attended by members of to the House of Representatives and the other The crew toured from September 29 to November 5 . Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished followed by the words "TASK ACCOMPLISHED , ca n't they   ... ? " became a common saying following Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans While Apollo 11 sparked the interest not hold the interest of the nation Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand ; lunar geology Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had While most Americans were proud of once during the late 1960s did the Gallup Poll favored " doing more " in space as opposed to " doing less " . those polled favored cutting spending The Space Race had been won , and Cold War tensions were easing as This was also a time when inflation was rising , which put pressure on the government to What saved the space program was that that had achieved something great the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically . The Soviets publicly denied there was indicated they were not making " We are concentrating wholly that the Soviets had tried to but were unable due to " by The Byrds on the 1969 album The command module "Columbia " went on a tour , to be readied for a four-city tour titled "Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission " . , until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018 , to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022 In 2009 , the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO and foot trails made by the astronauts on the lunar surface , after being abandoned and impacting the Moon .

financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines , which NASA confirmed was also a smaller collection stored at White Sands Test Facility They are handled only indirectly NASA to make up about 250 presentation Apollo 11 lunar sample displays for 135 nations , the fifty states weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed contacted the National Air and Space Museum to inform them The bag contained various items , which should have been left behind that had been used to taken by "Life" photographer Ralph Morse prior to 40 years to the minute after the events restoring the video footage and has released In July 2010 , air - to - ground voice recordings re - synchronized and released Aldrin , and Collins met " We expect that there is , as we speak , another generation of kids out there who are looking up to be the next Armstrong , Collins sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal , resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of the United States House of Representatives directing the United States Mint to design and sell commemorative coins in The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full - motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate archival footage to recreate the time leading Apollo 8 ( December 21–27, 1968 ) was the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit , and also the first human spaceflight to reach another astronomical object , namely the Moon , which and then departed safely back Apollo 8 launched on December 21, 1968 , and was the second crewed spaceflight mission flown , as the lunar module was not yet ready to make its first flight Astronaut Jim McDivitt's crew , who were training Apollo 8 took 68 hours ( almost three days ) to travel the distance The crew orbited the Moon ten times to fulfill U.S. president John F. Kennedy's goal of landing

It not only demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver President John F. Kennedy believed that not only was it in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations , but that the perception of American power was at least him for the Soviet Union to be meant Kennedy needed to choose one where the US and Soviet Union would be — something spectacular , even if it could not be After consulting with his experts and : to land a man on , under which a specialized spacecraft would a command module ( CM ) with the only part that would return to ) to provide the command module with , and water ; and a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to in that the commander was not had flown twice before , This would also be the first case Lovell , Gemini XII ) flying as a non - commander . the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced at When Lovell was reassigned to was brought in as backup LMP astronauts was added , known , and mission ground rules , and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised so that the prime and backup crews could practice the only person who communicated directly with each led by a flight director . It shows a red figure8 looping around the Earth and Moon to reflect , but NASA did not The crew would have likely chosen " Columbiad " , the name Apollo4 and Apollo6 were "A" missions , tests of the SaturnV launch vehicle using Apollo7 , scheduled for October 1968 , would be a "C" mission , It had been decided as early as May 1967 that there would be schedule , and when Apollo8 's LM-3 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center , more than a hundred significant defects were discovered , leading Bob Gilruth , the director of and others to conclude that there was no prospect of LM-3 being ready to fly in Indeed , it was possible that delivery would slip to

Following the original seven-step plan would have meant delaying the "D " and subsequent missions " CSM-103 " ) would be ready three months before LM-3 , Instead of repeating the "C" mission flight of sent all the way to entering a lunar orbit and returning to The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have had to wait This also meant that the medium Earth orbit "E" mission could be dispensed with . , Alabama , where they met with KSC Director Kurt Debus , Apollo Program Director Samuel C. Phillips Kraft considered the proposal feasible from agreed that the next Saturn V , AS-503 , could be made ready by December 1 ; and von Braun was confident the pogo oscillation problems that had afflicted Apollo6 The only person who needed some convincing was Apollo 8 , Slayton asked McDivitt if he still wanted McDivitt turned it down ; time preparing to test the LM he still wanted to do Slayton then decided to swap spacecraft , requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103 , while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104 , since CM-104 could not be made David Scott was not happy about giving up CM-103 , the testing of which he had closely supervised , for CM-104 , although the two were almost identical , and Anders was less than enthusiastic about being Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the Soviet Union's Zond5 mission The Apollo 8 crew , now living in , Anne Morrow Lindbergh , the night They talked about how , used a piece of string to that calculated the fuel needed for The total he had carried was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second . The Saturn V rocket used by Apollo8 was designated AS-503 , or the "03rd" model " ) Rocket to be When it was erected in was thought that the rocket would be used for an uncrewed Earth-orbit test flight carrying a third stage that failed to reignite

which would not only hamper engine performance , but could exert , and MSFC researchers concluded the spacecraft itself vibrated , causing Of equal importance was the failure of Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two , it had accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to As a result , engine three A Saturn stage IC was equipped with with an apogee of and a perigee of , with an inclination of This was followed by a trans-lunar injection relative to Earth , that humans had ever traveled . of and an apolune of , This was then circularized at Apollo 8 was launched at 12:51:00 UTC ( 07:51:00 Eastern Standard Time ) and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready was crucial , and in the last uncrewed test , it had failed he radioed , " Apollo8 You are Go for TLI given official permission for Apollo8 to performed the TLI burn perfectly . After the S-IVB had placed the mission the remaining Apollo8 spacecraft , separated from it The crew then rotated the spacecraft to then practiced flying in formation as they moved away from Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to that the crew perform a separation maneuver . Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft ) to add to their velocity Borman did not want to Mission Control decided to burn in Five hours after launch , Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB to vent its remaining fuel , changing its trajectory The S-IVB , with the test article attached , posed no further hazard to Apollo8 an inclination of 23.47 ° from the plane of the ecliptic , The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass up to from Earth . Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X - ray ,

or 1milligray ( mGy ; To record the actual radiation dosages , each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation Although Mission Control normally performed all the actual navigation calculations , it was necessary to have a crew member adept at navigation so that the crew could return to Earth in case communication with Lovell navigated by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft , because of the problems in moving (PTC ) , also called "barbecue roll " , in which the spacecraft rotated about once per the spacecraft's outer surface could be heated to over , while the parts in These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack and propellant lines to Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll , the spacecraft swept out a cone as it rotated The first mid-course correction came eleven hours into the flight The crew had been awake for decided at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise . sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises that the service propulsion system (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was " coated " first by burning This change was less than the planned , because of a bubble to make up the shortfall . About an hour after starting his sleep shift , Borman eventually fell asleep , and then awoke feeling ill He vomited twice and had left the spacecraft full of small globules which the crew cleaned up as well as they could . Borman initially did not want , but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control . could tape voice recordings and telemetry The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room ( there were The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu , as Borman thought ,

or a reaction to the sleeping pill Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome , Space adaptation syndrome had not occurred on ) , because those astronauts could not move freely in the small cabins , except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course in black - and - white only , using a Vidicon tube to show how the Earth appeared However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made show the people watching back on Lovell went to sleep 32-and-a-half hours into the flight   – three - and - a - half hours before he had A short while later , Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft : three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the silicone sealant , and the attitude required Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at This time , the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras Although difficult to aim , the entire spacecraft , the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth , what was visible , and the colors they could see the flight , and 13 hours before entering lunar orbit , the crew of Apollo8 became the first humans to enter the Moon's gravitational force on Apollo8 became stronger At the time it happened , the crew , since they were and slowed the spacecraft down by , effectively reducing the closest distance at This maneuver had to be performed perfectly , and due to orbital mechanics had to be on Go and " riding the best bird we can find " . With ten minutes remaining before LOI-1 the spacecraft systems and made sure that They had been flying over Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface . , 8minutes , and 16 seconds 4minutes and 7seconds , placing could have ended up in

a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even been flung If it had lasted too long , they could have the engine , or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time , the crew would have appeared early from behind the Moon . they were passing over . especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft second of the Moon below . taking as many photographs as possible of Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was Borman kept asking how the data He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary the crew set up equipment to Anders described the craters that they to check the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon . He had been scheduled to but due to the Apollo8 flight , he was unable to attend When the spacecraft came out from Anders saw the Earth emerging from a black-and-white photograph as he did so not generally visible from the lunar surface This is because , as , Earth remains in approximately the same position in the lunar sky , either above the spacecraft so that Borman could , Borman was able to sleep for two orbits , awakening periodically to ask questions about Borman awoke fully when he started to hear his fellow crew members make They were beginning to not understand questions and had to ask for the answers to be extremely tired from not having to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing Anders initially protested , saying that he was fine , but Borman would not be that Borman would set up the camera to continue to take Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned , and with so many people expected to be watching , he wanted the crew Borman introduced the crew , followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon

" a vast , lonely , forbidding expanse of nothing Then , after talking about what they were flying over a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from Borman said , " And good luck , a Merry Christmas and God all of you on the good Earth The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the trans-Earth injection ( TEI ) , which to ignite would strand the crew re - emerged from behind , and 39 seconds , the When voice contact was regained , Lovell announced , " Please be informed , there is a Santa Claus " , to which Ken Mattingly , the current CAPCOM , replied , " That 's affirmative , you are the best ones to to do some navigational sightings , maneuvering Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude , they to reenter data to tell It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers , using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned , and another 15 minutes to The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft . This time , they gave how an astronaut lived in space of brandy , which Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed . They remained unopened , even There were also small presents to The next day , at about 124 hours into and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude , with the blunt end forward . The service module would burn up in Six minutes before they hit the top just as had been calculated becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma The spacecraft started slowing down , and the deceleration peaked at . With the computer controlling the descent by At , the drogue parachute deployed , stabilizing the spacecraft , followed at When the spacecraft hit the water , the parachutes dragged it over and

left it upside down , in what was termed Stable2 position As they were buffeted by , waiting for the three flotation balloons to About six minutes after splashdown , the command module was righted into a normal apex-up (Stable 1) orientation The first frogman from aircraft carrier arrived 43 minutes Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968 , a year that had Even though the year saw political assassinations the Prague Spring , "Time" magazine them as the people who most They had been the first people ever They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as having only a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding The effect of Apollo8 was summed , received by Borman after the mission , that stated simply , " Thank you Apollo8 was the "Earthrise" picture that the crew took as they came around for This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture while actually behind the camera , and it has been credited as one Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said , " Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost " ; while space historian Robert K. Poole saw Apollo8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight , Mercury-Atlas 6 by John Glenn , There were 1,200 journalists covering the mission , with the BBC's coverage broadcast in saw — either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit Madalyn Murray O'Hair , an atheist , later American astronauts — who were all government employees — from public prayer in Though the case was rejected by to be skittish about the issue a postage stamp ( Scott catalogue # 1371 ) commemorating the Apollo8 flight around the Moon and the words , " In the beginning God ... " , the first words by Lovell and the space suit worn Apollo 8's historic mission has been depicted and referred to in several forms , The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by and released by NASA in

, in 2003 , a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission , training and launch footage , and motion pictures taken in flight . Other documentaries include " Race to the Moon " and " In the Shadow of the Moon " ( to the Moon" episode " 1968 " about the Apollo 8 mission is doctored to read : " As one of the most turbulent , tragic years in American history drew to were watching and listening as , and Bill Wattles – became the first turkeys to orbit another world . The choral music piece "Earthrise " by Luke Byrne commemorates An astronaut ( from the Greek " astron " ( ἄστρον ) , meaning "star " ( ναύτης ) , meaning "sailor " ) is a person trained , equipped , and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve " Astronaut " technically applies or allegiance ; however , astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead meaning " space " , Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut ( from the Mandarin " tàikōng " ( ) , meaning " space " ) , although its use is somewhat informal and its origin sponsored and trained exclusively by governments , either by the military The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary , with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force , rather than The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI ) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed traveled beyond low Earth orbit , either or , in one case , a loop around the Moon . qualify as having reached space Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded in , exceeded 100 kilometers ( about 62.1 miles two times , becoming the first person space is Gennady Padalka , who and Soviet Union were planning , but had yet to launch discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called "astronauts " or "cosmonauts

Dryden preferred " cosmonaut " , on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader "cosmos " , while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars A professional space traveler is called an "astronaut " The first known use of the term "astronaut " in The word itself had been known , "astronaut " referred to "astronautique " (astronautic ) was The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut " , an older term for an air traveler first applied in a title for those selected to By convention , an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency ( or its Soviet predecessor ) is called a "cosmonaut " pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov ( 1900–1974 ) . and Grigoriy Nelyubov , who were to have flown in space , " Space-universe navigating personnel " ) is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general , while ( , " navigating outer space personnel " ) is Here , ( , literally " heaven - navigating " , or spaceflight ) is The term "taikonaut " is used common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space This is the term used by For its 2022 Astronaut Group , ESA envisions a category they called "parastronauts " , with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight . While no nation other than Russia the United States , and China have launched a crewed spacecraft , several other nations have Inspired partly by these missions , For example , the term "spationaut " ( ) is sometimes used to describe French space travelers , " ; the Malay term ( deriving from "angkasa " meaning ' space ' ) was used and , the Indian Space Research Organisation hope to launch a spacecraft in 2022 that would carry "vyomanauts " , coined from the Sanskrit word ( meaning ' sky ' or 'space a Finnish American , has sometimes been referred to as , from an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be human space flight safety " in order to The first American to orbit the Earth was

John Glenn , aboard " Friendship 7 , during Space Shuttle "Challenger"'s mission STS-7 , Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct ( commonly called a "spacewalk " allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions and Soyuz TM-13 , respectively . Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel On 23 July 1980 , Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space , and the first African American to fly into space The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry the Space Shuttle , the U.S. began taking West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly the first citizen of an African country to fly The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen , who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made Daemen , who was a commercial passenger 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2 Titov remains the youngest human to reach On the same flight as Daemen was 82 year , 6-month-old Wally Funk , one of the women dubbed the Mercury 13 , She is the first of the Mercury 13 to reach space would all engage in space travel The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn , one of the Mercury 7 , who was 77 when he flew on a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted not accept female pilots at that time A month later , Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian with a Japanese TV station , although at the time , the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut piloting and engineering training were often although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter ( Once selected , NASA astronauts go ( astronaut candidates ) may also experience short periods of weightlessness (microgravity ) in an aircraft called the "Vomit Comet , " the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (

, respectively , and replaced Astronauts are also required to T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field , due to its proximity to ( NSBRI ) to address Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound ( including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka ) perform ultrasound scans under to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that "Salmonella typhimurium " , a bacterium that can cause food poisoning , became more virulent when More recently , in 2017 be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness scientists at NASA have seen that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have Being in space can be It can affect the otolith organs and that lengthy journeys into outer space , may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their intellectual capabilities , it temporarily hinders A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions , including While scientists still know little also slightly weaker vision , both of which could possibly select menus that appealed to Five months before flight , menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician how they will react in Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula about of water every day . At NASA , those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin . U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge , known as , eighteen astronauts ( fourteen men and four women ) have lost their lives have lost their lives training for The Space Mirror Memorial , which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex , is "A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of

Poor People From being a Burthen to For making them Beneficial to the Publick " , commonly referred to as "A Modest Proposal " , is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published anonymously by Jonathan Swift in 1729 ease their economic troubles by selling their children Swift's essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay Ireland , so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states : " A young healthy child well nursed , is , at a year old , a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food , whether stewed , roasted , baked , or boiled ; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee support his argument , including a list and calculations showing the financial benefits of throughout his essay which lampoon the then-influential William Petty and the social engineering popular among followers George Wittkowsky argued that Swift's main target in "A Modest Proposal " was not the conditions the can-do spirit of the times that led illogical schemes that would purportedly solve " involved the idea of running the poor through a joint-stock company " "A Modest Proposal " also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in The pamphlet targets reformers who " Edmund Wilson argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal ' can be compared which he argues that crime the reader to detest the speaker and Swift's specific strategy is twofold , using a "trap " to create sympathy the narrator who , in the span of one sentence , " details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty " but feels emotion solely for members of Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create " two opposing points of view " that " alienate the reader , perhaps unconsciously , from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us , rhetorically ,

Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals . James William Johnson argues that "A Modest Proposal " was largely influenced and inspired by Tertullian's "Apology " : a satirical attack and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works "A Modest Proposal out the same central theme , that of as well as the same final argument , that " human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human Stylistically , Swift and Tertullian Bernard Mandeville's "Modest Defence of Publick Stews " asked to introduce The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests andwhile not being a completely satirical texthas also been discussed John Locke commented : " Be it then as Sir Robert says , that Anciently , it was usual for Men to Let it be , that they exposed them ; Add please , for this is still greater Power , " that to fat and eat them " : If this proves a right to do so , we may , by the same Argument Sodomy , for there are examples of these too , both Ancient and Modern ; Sins , which I suppose , of Mankind , and the , and the distinction of Robert Phiddian's article " Have you eaten Phiddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish While Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal , George Wittkowsky , author an Early Georgian Pamphlet " , argues that to understand the piece fully it is important to understand the economics taken the time to focus directly that " people are the riches there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work Furthermore , " in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry " . Louis A. Landa composed a conducive analysis when he noted that it would have been healthier for the Irish economy to more appropriately utilize their human assets by

giving the people an opportunity to " become a source of wealth to the nation " or else they " must turn to begging This opportunity may have included giving the farmers more coin to work for , diversifying their professions , or even consider enslaving their people to lower coin usage and build up in the 18th century that " people and shows that mere population itself , in Ireland's case , did not always mean greater wealth and account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer , not richer Swift also recognises the implications of this fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox which was born the plumpest, finest thing , that could be seen ; , and bid me send you word , that she would not follow your direction , but that she would breed him up to be a parson or a lawyer , and then , instead of being eat himself , he should You know women in passion never mind what they say ; but , as she is a very reasonable woman , I have almost brought her over now convinced her , that as matters stood , we could not possibly maintain all the nine , she does begin to think it reasonable the youngest should raise fortunes for the eldest : and upon that foot a man may perform family duty for , if he should happen to get twins , the selling of one might provide Or if , by any accident , while his wife lies in get a second upon the body dispose of the fattest of the two , and that would help to breed up The more I think upon this scheme , the more reasonable ; for , in all probability , we shall , in a very little time , be altogether as poor here as you are I believe , indeed , we shall carry it farther , and not confine our luxury ; for I happened to [ Parliament ] not far

found them roasting a great fat fellow , [ Walpole again ] For my own part , I had not ; but , if I guessed right , four or five of the company had a devilish mind The essay's approach has been copied many 1984 ) , the evangelical author Francis Schaeffer abortion and euthanasia , imagining informing them that , on Christmas Eve , he is going to use napalm to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find . The 2013 horror film " Butcher Boys , " written by the original The Texas Chain Saw Massacre scribe Kim Henkel , is said to be an updating who actually took Swift up , claiming that a solution to the climate crisis was " we need to eat the babies " . The individual also wore a T-shirt saying The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements Together with hydrogen they constitute group 1 , which lies : this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations easily with a knife due to their softness , exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen ( and in the case Because of their high reactivity , they , and are found naturally only in salts and never All of the discovered alkali metals occur in is the most abundant , followed by potassium , lithium very rare due to its extremely high radioactivity Experiments have been conducted to Uue ) , which is likely to be the next member of is the sodium-vapour lamp , which emits Table salt , or sodium chloride , ) has been an important commodity in human activities , as testified by the English word "salary " , referring to "salarium " , money paid not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove

1807 in England by Humphry Davy caustic potash ( KOH , potassium were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity Potassium was the first metal that was However , it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson , the chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius , detected the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore to form compounds similar to , though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline than the other alkali metals Berzelius gave the unknown material the name " "λιθoς " ( transliterated as " lithos " , meaning " stone " ) , , as opposed to potassium , which had been discovered , which was known partly Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the spectroscope , invented in 1859 by The next year , they discovered caesium Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred of music , where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions . His version put all the alkali metals then known the alkali metals ) , together into his periodic table placing lithium at the top 1 above lithium , and silver , and gold were placed twice , once as " encompassing today's groups 8 to were left in " group IA Later the group's name was changed to "group 1 " in 1988 There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries before Marguerite Perey , which had been reported with an energy level below 80   Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product , one that was separated during purification , but emerged again being thorium , radium , ( such as coprecipitating with caesium salts ) , which led Perey to believe that it was element 87 , caused Perey then attempted to determine ) in the periodic table would be ununennium ( Uue ) , attempted in 1985 by bombarding It is highly unlikely that this reaction will be able to several micrograms , to make a large enough target

not been found in nature and has only been produced quantities smaller than those needed However , given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table , and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan Currently , none of the period 8 elements has been discovered yet possible , due to drip instabilities , that only the lower period 8 elements , up to around element 128 , are physically possible The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another , thus increasing their atomic number . protons are paired , with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other , enhancing All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not the Earth caused parts of this planet oxygen ( 30.1% ) , ; with the remaining 1.2% The alkali metals , due to their high reactivity , do not occur naturally They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica , forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth , both ; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% , making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element . , of which the most common is ordinary salt ( sodium chloride ) , which occurs in Other solid deposits include halite , amphibole a result of ancient seas evaporating , which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake and does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to Due to its relatively low reactivity , it

estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm ) or about 18 ppm , comparable to that Rubidium is approximately as abundant of actinium-227 and can be there is estimated to be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration , which results in Hence , all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities , melting and boiling points , as They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure , and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited having very large atomic and ionic radii , as well of their lone valence electron in the outermost s - orbital to form the +1 oxidation state , due to the ease The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme radioactivity ; thus , the presentation of its properties here is limited . What little is known about francium shows that it is caesium , as expected . each other than the elements in any other group are to each other Indeed , the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium , due to their similar ionic radii ; lithium and sodium are more distinct For instance , when moving down the table , all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius , decreasing electronegativity , In general , their densities increase when moving down the table , with the exception that potassium is that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials : lithium's value is anomalous , being more negative The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except a pale golden tint : it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured ( the other two being copper and gold ) Additionally , the heavy alkaline earth metals calcium , strontium , and barium , as well as the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium , are pale yellow , though the colour is much less prominent than it They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure , and have distinctive flame colours because

their outer s electron is very easily excited All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms Because of this , they or kerosene (paraffin oil ) . to form the alkali metal halides , which are white ionic crystalline compounds that are all to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and thus should be handled with great care The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than if the same number of moles of and the ability to attain a noble gas configuration Not only do the alkali metals react with water , but also with , the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree is very high as it is in a full shell that is thus , they almost always The alkalides are an exception : they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals very unusual as before the discovery not expected to be able to form anions and were thought to be able to appear in salts only as which gives them enough stability to to be able to form much theoretical interest due to their unusual stoichiometry and the electrides , which are salts aqua ions of the formula [ M(H2O)"n"]+ , where " n " Their coordination numbers and shapes agree well In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the first coordination sphere , also is a dative covalent bond , with the oxygen atom Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by The latter are said to the second coordination sphere is not well - is not high enough to polarise the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form experimentally determined to be 4 [ Li(H2O)4]+ : while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted [ Li(H2O)4]+ through a face of the tetrahedron , though molecular dynamic simulations may There are also probably six water molecules and gives its compounds a more covalent character . due to their similar atomic radii , so

For example , lithium forms a stable nitride , a property common among and lithium hydroxide is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent Conversely , lithium perchlorate and other lithium salts with large anions that can not be polarised are much more , probably because Li+ has Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high atomic weight , causing its electrons to travel light and thus making relativistic effects , francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium 's ; also , its atomic radius is expected to be abnormally low Thus , contrary to expectation anion polarisability , though due to many sources give extrapolated values , ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity the Fr2 molecule ( 42.1 kJ /mol ) , showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers ; hence , their isotopes must be either odd – odd ( both proton and neutron number are odd ) odd , but neutron number is , almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd – even ( the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and For a given odd mass number , there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide , since there is not a difference in binding energy between even – odd and odd – even comparable to that between even – even and odd – odd , isobars ) free to beta decay that odd-numbered elements , such as the alkali metals , tend to have , all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one and caesium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope : sodium-22 and sodium-24 are trace radioisotopes produced cosmogenically , potassium-40 and rubidium-87 have very long half-lives and thus occur naturally , and all isotopes of francium are radioactive . Caesium was also thought to

be radioactive in the early 20th century , ( Francium had not been , makes up about 0.012% of Caesium-137 , with a half-life of , which are responsible for Caesium-137 undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable barium-137 and can not be feasibly disposed of in this way , but must be allowed to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other For instance , when moving down the table , all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius , decreasing electronegativity , Because of the shielding effect , when an atom has more than one electron shell , each electron feels a net charge of +1 , as some of the nuclear charge ( ) is cancelled by the inner electrons an alkali metal is always one less Therefore , the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different electron shell than the inner electrons , and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller . is the energy required to move The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge , the amount of shielding is always an outer electron in main group elements The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels . Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge ( +1 ) , the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy Since this distance increases down the group francium due to the relativistic stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital , bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations easier for the outermost electron to be The atomisation energy measures the strength of the metallic bond of the group as the atoms increase in radius and thus the metallic bond must increase in length , making the delocalised electrons further away from Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives

a quantity closely related to ( but not equal to ) to attract electrons ( or If the bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride were covalent , the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 The electron pair is attracted so close However , if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom , the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller , making the electron pair more strongly attracted Hence , the larger alkali metal atoms ( further down the group ) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them Li I ) will dissolve in solid to liquid while the boiling point ) is the point where the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid and all the liquid changes state its melting point , the metallic bonds keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around , and the metallic bonds eventually break completely of the alkali metals decreases down the group This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from going down the group ( because their atomic radius increases ) further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil , thus lowering The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure ( body-centred cubic ) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can increases going down the group ; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii ; if figures for these two factors are known , can then be calculated . The resultant trend is that the densities Due to having the lowest atomic weight and , which well illustrate group trends involving the alkali metals losing electrons to alkali halides and becomes less and

less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase , and as the anion becomes larger All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively of a strongly basic alkali metal hydroxide and releasing This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group : lithium reacts steadily and potassium can ignite , generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that When an alkali metal is dropped into , of which there are The metal reacts with the water first , breaking the hydrogen bonds in this takes place faster for Second , the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas , causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air . other body of water , not the initial reaction which tends to happen mostly Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior driven by a Coulomb explosion rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen , leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known , reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols , or with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfides or bisulfides , and may be used to for example , the oxides The alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each , the most electronegative of NaAu and KAu are metallic , but RbAu and CsAu and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid must be taken due to are poor conductors or semiconductors , implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the Zintl anions involved Nevertheless , while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters , group 13 elements Boron is a special case , being the only nonmetal in group 13 . The alkali metal borides tend to be boron - rich , involving appreciable boron – boron bonding involving deltahedral structures , and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high vapour pressure at This makes direct synthesis problematic because

the alkali metals do not react with thus this must be accomplished Furthermore , exceptionally in this group down the group : lithium reacts not until 1200 °C , and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been Various phases are known , such NaB15 , and KB6 . , which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal Potassium , rubidium , and caesium react with graphite ; (dark grey , almost black ) almost black ) , MC36 M = K, Rb , or Cs These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite , suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers Upon heating of KC8 , pyrophoric and explodes on contact While the larger alkali metals ( K , initially form MC8 , the smaller ones initially form MC6 , and indeed they require reaction of around 500   ° C to When the alkali metals react , such as the silicides M4Si4 (M = K, Rb The chemistry of alkali metal germanides , involving the germanide ion Ge4− and other cluster (Zintl ) ions such as , , and [ ( Ge9)2]6− , is Alkali metal stannides are mostly ionic , ) , and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide ( unknown , and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable ; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions Lithium , the lightest of the alkali metals , is the only alkali metal which Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume ) , the energy required to all the energy released from the formation of highly charged ions , only forming ions so only lithium , the smallest alkali metal , can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be endothermic , so they do not form Sodium nitride ( Na3N ) and while existing , are extremely unstable , being prone to

decomposing back into their constituent elements , and can not be produced by reacting the elements with each and arsenic to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M3Pn and Pn represents a pnictogen – of the P3− and As3− ions , so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to These are not the only phosphides and While most metals form arsenides are shorter than in sodium metal , and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding can not be straightforwardly ionic . Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known , such a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence The antimonides are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent ; involve antimony atoms bonded in containing the O2− ion ) , peroxides ( containing the ion , where there is a single bond between the two oxygen atoms ) , superoxides ( containing the ion ) , and many others form lithium oxide , but sodium reacts and potassium superoxide , while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom . This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with the larger sodium and potassium , allowing them to form the less stable peroxides . Rubidium and caesium , at so large that even the least stable superoxides can Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed , the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised . ( The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist , but do not form upon direct reaction the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming all the alkali metals , with the exception of francium , are known to form their oxides , peroxides , The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents , which allows them to the presence of water vapour , naturally present in breath , makes All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form

low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with then extracted using liquid ammonia . Rubidium and caesium can form Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 ( copper - coloured the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured suboxides , such as well as Cs7O2 . The alkali metals can also react analogously polonium ) , and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known ( with the exception of francium 's ) . can similarly result in lower chalcogenides , with chalcogen ions containing chains the sulfide ( Na2S ) and various polysulfides with the formula Na2S"x " ( " x " from , the alkali metal selenides and tellurides are alkaline in solution ; when reacted directly with selenium and are formed along with the selenides They may be obtained directly when air is not present , and are colourless, water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on , forming salts known as the alkali metal halides The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known ; the unstable ones are not known , with the exception of sodium astatide , because of the great instability and rarity The most well - known of the twenty is certainly sodium chloride , otherwise known as All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and They are all white ionic crystalline solids that except for lithium fluoride ( LiF ) , which is insoluble The alkali metals also react similarly with as reducing agents , producing Other pseudohalides are also known , except for lithium cyanide , indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely Ternary alkali metal halide oxides , such as Na3ClO , K3BrO ( yellow ) and K4Br2O , are also Alkali metal cations do not usually form ; thus the Li+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode .

as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ( [ M(H2O)6)]+ the lithium ion , which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ( [ Li(H2O)4)]+ ) ; the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are Because of this , anhydrous salts containing alkali metal cations are often used The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid ammonia , forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated metal cation M+ and solvated electron e− , which react to ( MNH2 , where M represents an alkali metal ): this was first noted by Humphry Davy in The process may be speeded up as well as the divalent lanthanides , The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of the colour as being due to At low concentrations ( below 3 M ) , the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of is copper - coloured and also contain the alkali metal cation ( M+ These are unstable and eventually Being the smallest alkali metal , lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds , which are bonded covalently . Organolithium compounds are electrically non - conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures , and the structure ( RLi)"x " where a carbanion , organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases butyllithiums are often used and ( " x " = 4 , tetrahedral ) and hexameric ( " x " useful reagents in organic synthesis , as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship For example , alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise aldehydes and ketones by Alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with " N","N"-disubstituted amides to give aldehydes and ketones , and symmetrical ketones by reacting with They thermally decompose to eliminate a β-hydrogen , producing alkenes and lithium hydride : another route is the reaction aryllithiums that act as strong bases as the carbanions they effectively are Unlike the organolithium compounds , the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic which are commercially available and more reactive than organosodium compounds and "cis"-2-Butene and "trans"-2-butene equilibrate when in

Whereas isomerisation is fast with reported , establishing that they , like the sodium compounds As such , they have to be made by reacting and terminal alkynes , to give Liquid ammonia , ether , or hydrocarbon solvents are used , the most common of which being The most important of these compounds Similarly , the alkali metals to give alkali metal cyclooctatetraenides ; for alkali metals form oxides , However , the first three directly with carbon to give They can reduce metal cations that Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered , there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics Being the first period 8 element , the undiscovered element ununennium ( element 119 ) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter congeners ; however , it is also predicted to differ or rubidium instead of caesium This is unusual as periodic trends , ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilisation and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii ; this effect behave chemically as an alkali metal , which , although likely , may not be true due The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's electron affinity far beyond that of have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to very close to that of so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more the Uue+ ion is predicted to be and are thus larger than , which is not seen to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3/2 spinor , causing what would otherwise be expected Not as much work has been done predicting Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table ( element 169 , unhexennium , that the next element after ununennium with alkali-metal-like properties may be element 165 , unhexpentium , which is [ Og ] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1/22 9s1

This element would be intermediate in , and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former , its chemistry may be closer caesium , having an ionisation energy comparable and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium , having an atomic radius may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron , possibly allowing oxidation states Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s -block elements , these predictions for and unhexpentium also mostly hold have not been explored yet as of 2019 , and they may or may not be able to exist . In periods 8 and above so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate . In addition , the relativistic and shell - structure effects ( which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d- , f- , and g-orbitals Analogously to the pseudohalogens , they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals The element hydrogen , with one electron per neutral atom , is usually placed but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal ; when it is considered to be an alkali metal , it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties has one valence electron and reacts easily mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H+ compared to ) is much higher than As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom , hydrogen often behaves like and is very occasionally considered ( The alkali metals can also form negative ions , known as alkalides more than laboratory curiosities , being An argument against this placement is that is endothermic , unlike the exothermic formation The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens : indeed because its single proton can not easily ; while this has been shown to not be the case , under extremely high pressures , such hydrogen does become metallic and

The 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen , while unique because there is no 1p subshell Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H+ , or gain one to form the hydride ion H−. In the former case it resembles superficially the halogens , but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well . Group 14 is also a good fit but hydrogen can not be Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory , although group 1 is the most common placement ( if one is chosen ) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species , being the foundation of acid-base chemistry . the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to ) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in Indeed , transferring of protons Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form hydrogen bonds , which are While analogous lithium bonds are also known The ammonium ion ( ) has very similar properties an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium , and is often soluble in water , a property stably as a metal (ions in very high pressures ( though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around , 100 GPa ) , and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune , which may have It has been estimated that to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa . Other "pseudo-alkali metals " include the alkylammonium cations , in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by In particular , the quaternary ammonium cations ( ) are very useful since they are permanently charged , and they are often used stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . a metallocene , the cobalt analogue of ferrocene It is a dark purple Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons , one more than usually found in This additional electron occupies an orbital that is

Consequently , many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra" electron , yielding a very stable 18-electron cation and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form a strong reducing agent , and decamethylcobaltocene is stronger still due to the combined inductive effect Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene , the inert pair effect is quite strong , and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies , and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 oxidation state closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii , K+ (152 pm ) and It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in continental Europe ( but not immediately following its discovery , and was placed just after caesium and left the space below caesium However , thallium also displays the oxidation state +3 , which no known alkali metal displays ( although ununennium , the undiscovered seventh alkali metal , is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state ) The sixth alkali metal is now considered to While Tl+ is stabilised by is still able to participate chemically , so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution The group 11 metals ( or coinage metals ) and gold , are typically " The filled "d" subshell and free "s" electron of Cu, Ag , and Au contribute Chemically , the group 11 metals behave like are hence somewhat related to for their previously being labelled as "group IB " , paralleling silver , and gold are listed twice , once under group VIII ( with the iron triad and platinum group metals ) , and once under group IB Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative , the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB , due to the existence of copper(II ) and gold(III ) compounds being

However , eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group ( group VIII was labelled a transition group ) to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals ( group 1 : p6s1 ; group 11 : d10s1 However , the similarities are largely This stems from the filled d subshell providing , so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do as having more covalent character in their compounds the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily that the second and third ionisation energies are lower , a richer coordination chemistry , thus giving the group 11 metals clear transition metal character complicated due to their extreme reactivity with be obtained the same way leaching ) , whereupon basic precipitation The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then Lithium and sodium are typically , with calcium chloride typically added The heavier alkali metals , however , are more typically isolated in a different way , where a reducing agent ( typically sodium calcium for the heaviest alkali metals ) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride . The liquid or gaseous product ( the alkali metal ) then Lithium salts have to be extracted and dried seabed , but is such as sylvite ( potassium chloride Previously , potassium was generally or potassium hydroxide , found extensively in places such as in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s However , these methods are problematic Rb & Cs obtained mainly as by To make pure cesium , ores that can then be separated Because metallic cesium is too reactive to handle , it is , however it is quite Some minerals found in North America , Some potassium minerals ( lepidolites , biotites contain it , together with Pollucite , carnallite , leucite , and lepidolite are all minerals that contain rubidium . For several years in the 1950s and 1960s , a by-product

of the potassium production called Alkarb was was potassium and a small fraction of Today the largest producers of caesium , Today , a common method for separating caesium alum (Cs, Rb)Al(SO4)2·12H2O , which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 Caesium , however , is not produced from the above reaction . is the main method of obtaining pure caesium , extracted from the ore mainly Both metals are produced as by in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply , in the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O + 5 n , yielding francium-209 , The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction Lithium , sodium , and potassium have many applications , while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet . lithium-ion batteries , and lithium oxide can Lithium stearate is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases lithium hydroxide , which is also used to absorb carbon dioxide which produce very efficient light compared to can help smooth the surface of Being a strong reducing agent , it is , such as titanium and fertilisers as potassium is an important element Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base , and is used to control carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and Rubidium and caesium are often Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate ; it would be off by used as the definition of the because of francium's relatively simple atomic structure , among used in spectroscopy experiments , leading air and water and must be kept away from heat and carbon tetrachloride , so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used Experiments are usually conducted using disposed of by reaction with cool water , but the heavier alkali metals should The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas , except for Lithium naturally only occurs in no known biological role , but does have effects on the body when ingested stabiliser in psychiatry to treat speech and vomiting , among

, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower all known biological systems , generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells . Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates and pH ; the minimum physiological requirement for Sodium chloride ( also known as common salt ) is the principal source of is used as seasoning and preservative , such as for ) inside animal cells , while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells outside of cells , known The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential — The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal : for example potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia Due to their similar atomic radii , rubidium are taken up similarly . may help stimulate metabolism , and , similarly to caesium Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non - toxic : a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g not show negative effects in test persons Rubidium ( and to a much lesser extent caesium ) can function as temporary cures can adequately physiologically substitute potassium never able to do so , but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute . , but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources As such , caesium is Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987 , in which an improperly - disposed - of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic Brazil , was scavenged from a junkyard , and the glowing caesium salt sold Together with caesium-134 , iodine-131 , and strontium-90 , caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by or graphemes ( called letters The first fully phonemic script , the Proto-Canaanite script , later known as the Phoenician alphabet , is considered to be the first alphabet , selecting a small number of hieroglyphs commonly seen in their Egyptian surroundings to describe the sounds , as opposed to

which diacritics modify to represent vowels ( as in Devanagari , in which letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants ( as in the original Phoenician , Hebrew or Arabic ) , and an "alphabet " , a set of graphemes that represent both consonants and use today , the most popular is the Latin alphabet , which and which is now used by many languages world - wide While most alphabets have letters composed there are also exceptions such This makes them useful for by allowing words to be The English word "alphabet " came into which in turn originated in the Greek ἀλφάβητος ("alphabētos " ) . , " alpha " ( α ) and "beta " Sometimes , like in the alphabet song is used instead of the word "alphabet " ( " Now I know my ABCs " ... that are called uniliterals , to represent syllables that begin ) to be supplied by in the Sinai peninsula dated to circa the 15th century BC , apparently left at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa having been adapted from specific forms dated to circa 2000 BC , strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs . This script had no characters representing vowels , although originally it probably was a syllabary , but unneeded symbols that indicate the following vowel was invented , which is conventionally called "Proto-Canaanite " before c. 1050 BC . be distinguished , namely Canaanite and Aramaic Vowelless alphabets are called abjads , currently exemplified in scripts including The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution and some "weak" consonants are sometimes used to indicate the vowel quality The Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts , and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters , making it a script simple enough for common traders to vowels have independent letter forms separate from The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in , and the syllabical Linear B script that was

used by the Mycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols , including The Greek alphabet , in its Euboean form , was carried over by Greek colonists alphabets used to write the Italic languages modifying existing letters , such as the eth ð of Old English and Icelandic , which is a modified "d Another notable script is Elder Futhark , which is believed to have evolved of alphabets known collectively as , although inscriptions have also been found on bone and and became , together with , and is notable for for other languages within the former Soviet Union . The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius , while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by Clement of Ohrid , who created by Sejong the Great . Zhuyin ( sometimes called "Bopomofo " ) is a semi - syllabary used to phonetically of Zhuyin today is limited , but it is still widely used in Taiwan where Zhuyin developed out of a form Like an alphabet the phonemes of syllable initials but like a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable finals are not ; rather , each possible final ( excluding the medial glide ) is represented ("l-u - an " ) , where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final " -an European alphabets , especially Latin and Cyrillic , have been adapted for The term "alphabet " is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense . a script that is " segmental is , it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or These three differ from each vowels : abjads have letters unexpressed ; abugidas are also consonant - based , but or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants . on the other hand , consonants and Examples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts and abugidas are used to write Tigrinya , Amharic , The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would

imply , since each glyph stands by rotation to represent the following vowel is basically an abjad , but ( These are the only time vowels Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet , but has syllabic letters for ( я , е , ю ) are not always clear - writing the vowels is mandatory , and full letters are used , so the script is a true alphabet . mandatory vowel diacritics , effectively making them the Mongol Empire was based closely on written after the preceding consonant rather than Although short " a " was not written , as argue that the linear arrangement made this Conversely , the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida ( ironically , the original source have been so completely assimilated no longer systematic and have rather than as a segmental script . Even more extreme , the Pahlavi abjad Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels . tone , though names do not yet exist to distinguish Some alphabets disregard tone entirely , especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load Such scripts are to tone what Most commonly , tones are indicated with diacritics , the way vowels are treated in determined primarily by the choice of , but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to More rarely , a script may as is the case for Hmong can be quite small . may have had even fewer Today the Rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters . to be as small , but it actually consists of While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent ( just eleven ) , Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been " conflated"—that is , the graphic distinctions had been lost were not developed to compensate in Arabic , another script that " g " , " d " , " y " , " k " However , such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated . The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, Devanagari .

and special letters for " kš " and "jñ , " theoretical and not actually used The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary , and so has the "khutma" letters ( letters with a dot added ) to represent The largest known abjad is Sindhi , with the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically The original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters Some Armenian and Western scholars believe it was created by Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian : Մեսրոպ Մաշտոց Mesrop Maštoc ' ) also known as Mesrob the Vartabed , who was an early medieval Armenian linguist , theologian, statesman and hymnologist , best known for inventing the Armenian alphabet c. 405 AD ; other Georgian and Western scholars are and the glyphs of logographic systems typically The Armenian alphabet ( ' or ' ) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been used to write the Armenian language 405 A.D. originally contained 36 letters . Two more letters , օ (o ) and ֆ (f ) , The Armenian script's directionality is horizontal left - Z ) , which is derived from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order , is well established , although languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters ( such as the French " é " , " à " , and " ô " ) not considered to be additional letters the accented letters such as " á , and " ö " are considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds from the sounds represented by " is considered a separate letter , but accented vowels such as " á " and " é In German , words starting which spells the German phoneme ) are ) instead of appearing after initial "sz " , as though it were a single letter — in contrast to several languages such as dh- " , " ë- " , " gj- " , " ll- " , " rr- " , " th- " , " xh- " and " zh- " ( all representing phonemes and

considered separate single letters ) would follow the letters " d " , " e " , " g " , " l " , " n " , " r " , " t " , " respectively , as well as Further , German words with an umlaut are collated ignoring the umlaut — contrary to Turkish that adopted the graphemes ö and ü , and where a word like " tüfek " , would come It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets Some alphabets today , such as the Hanuno'o script , are learned one letter , and are not used One , the "ABCDE" order later used in Phoenician , has continued ; the other, "HMĦLQ , " was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Ethiopic . Runic used an unrelated Futhark sequence , which The Brahmic family of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on according to how and where they are produced in the mouth , which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel ( usually e ) before or after the consonant ; the two exceptions were Y and Z , which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan , and were " ( pronounced "I Graeca " "Greek I " ) and "zeta " ( from Greek)—this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages , as in the term " zed " English other than American English . Over time names sometimes shifted or were added , as ) , the English name for Y , and American " zee " for Z. Comparing names in English the Great Vowel Shift : A , B , C and D are in contemporary French they are . The French names ( from which the English names are derived ) preserve the qualities When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language , which alphabets are based , In a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be , so that a writer could its pronunciation , and a speaker would National languages sometimes elect to address

the problem of dialects by simply Some national languages like Finnish , Armenian Serbo-Croatian ( Serbian , Croatian Strictly speaking , these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb " to spell " ( meaning ) , the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into Similarly , the Italian verb corresponding to ' spell ( out ) unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial , as Italian spelling is highly phonemic . its spelling , but not vice versa , as certain phonemes can but a given letter is consistently pronounced At the other extreme are languages such of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established , and because English has acquired a large number Sometimes , countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself , as when Turkey , and as when Kazakh due to the Soviet Union's influence , and in 2021 , having a transition The atomic number or proton number ( symbol "Z " ) of a chemical element is The sum of the atomic number "Z " N " gives the mass number "A , and hence different mass numbers , are A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as monoisotopic elements ) , and the average isotopic mass called the relative atomic mass ) in a defined environment The conventional symbol "Z " comes from the German word ' ' number ' , which , before the modern synthesis physics , merely denoted an element's numerical place then approximately , but not completely , consistent with the order his first periodic tables ( first published on atomic weight ("Atomgewicht " ) . However , in consideration of slightly and placed tellurium ( atomic weight 127.6 ) ahead of iodine ( atomic weight 126.9 ) A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory , however

tellurium , later several other pairs of elements ( such as argon and ) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights , thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined and a positive charge which , in units of the electron's charge , was to be approximately equal to This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight ( though it was almost 25% , ) , the single element from Nevertheless , in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge element on the periodic table ) , a month after Rutherford's paper appeared , Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that in an atom was " exactly " equal to its place in the periodic table ( also known as symbolized " Z " ) To do this , Moseley K and L lines ) produced by the elements from aluminum ("Z" =   13 Z "   =   79 ) used as a series increased from one target to the Moseley's law ) that the atomic number does closely correspond ( with an offset of the nucleus , i.e. the element number " to uranium ( " Z "   =   92 There were seven elements ( with " Z "   <   92 ) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered , corresponding to atomic numbers 43 , 61 , 72 , 75 , 85 , 87 and 91 From 1918 to 1947 , all seven of these missing elements were discovered . nuclear charge being quantized in units which were now recognized to be the same as the element number , was not understood . An old idea called Prout's hypothesis had postulated that the elements were all made which in the Bohr-Rutherford model had a single electron However , as early as 1907 , Rutherford and Thomas Royds had shown that alpha particles helium atoms , which had a mass four times that of hydrogen , not two times . believed he had proven Prout's law ( alternate names being proutons and It had been immediately apparent

the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei , and thus there was the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei A helium nucleus was presumed to be " ( electrons bound inside the nucleus ) to cancel two An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons , and its positive charge now was realized to come which is "Z " ( As of , all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions , such that equals the atomic number of the element being Anatomy (Greek "anatomē " , ' dissection It is an old science , having , as these are the processes , both over immediate and long-term timescales . Anatomy and physiology , which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively , and are often studied together Macroscopic anatomy , or gross anatomy , Derived from the Greek "anatomē" "dissection " ( cut up , cut open up " , and τέμνω " témnō " " I cut " ) , anatomy which they are composed , deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved . large enough to be seen includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy , the study by sight of the Anatomy can be studied using Methods used include dissection , and its organs studied , and endoscopy , in which a video camera-equipped instrument The term "anatomy " is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy . However , substantially the same structures and of the animal kingdom and the term also The term "zootomy " is also sometimes used to specifically refer to The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile ( although some have secondarily adopted Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also They have an internal digestive chamber , with Vacuoles , when present , are more in number and

Each typically has a cell membrane formed Those simpler invertebrates which are and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among Connective tissue gives shape to organs The main types are loose connective tissue , adipose tissue The extracellular matrix contains proteins , the chief The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization , as - linking of its proteins as , bound to each other Epithelial cells can be squamous ( flat ) , cuboidal or the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next , modified to suit a particular function In the respiratory tract there is a type and in the large intestine there are In simple animals this may just Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion , either locomotion or Smooth muscle has no striations when examined It contracts slowly but maintains as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found slowly or make rapid contractions . bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often known as neurons which transmit and jellyfish ) , the nerves form a nerve net , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally In more complex animals , specialized receptor cells such Neurons can be connected together the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system ( brain and spinal cord ) The latter consists of sensory nerves and motor nerves that influence target organs All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at the gastrointestinal tract is below it . At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but However , a few vertebrates , such which may be secondarily lost to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure

tail , although the divisions between the three are not always The skeleton , which forms the support structure inside the fish , is either The main skeletal element is the vertebral column , composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight there are no limbs or limb girdles The main external features of the fish , the fins or soft spines called rays , , have no direct connection with the spine and on round the body in The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision . There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear Sharks and rays are basal fish Their bodies tend to be dorso - ventrally flattened , they the urinary and genital passages open , but not a swim bladder The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits , often They have a bony skeleton , are generally laterally flattened , have five pairs of gills protected by comprising frogs , salamanders and They are tetrapods , but have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size . Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae Their skulls are mostly broad and short , and are often and in some species , poison glands They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea buccal pumping , a pump action in which air is first These are then closed and In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer The feet have four or five digits and the toes ; their short legs project sideways , the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and comprising turtles , tuataras , They are tetrapods , but either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size Their bones are better ossified and The teeth are conical and mostly their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing

The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams , with a copulatory organ present in which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land , or develop internally They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period . There is one living species , " ) on either side and the jaw The brain and heart are more Lizards have skulls with only one This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth Lizards are mostly quadrupeds , with the trunk held off the ground have no limbs and resemble snakes lizards , having branched off The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow Snakes lack moveable eyelids , the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales . The head and trunk are dorso - ventrally flattened and the tail side to force the animal through The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some The nostrils , eyes and ears the flat head enabling them to remain when it is submerged . Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping , their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and Birds are endothermic , have a high metabolic rate , a light skeletal system and powerful muscles The long bones are thin , hollow The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are There are no teeth and the narrow jaws The eyes are relatively large , particularly in nocturnal species such as from where they fan out

the bird's surface and fine down occurs the feathers when the bird preens , mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs of bats are modified into held well clear of the ground ossified and their teeth , which are usually differentiated , are The teeth are shed once ( milk teeth ) during the animal's lifetime or not at all , as is the case in cetaceans . and their skin contains glands which to feed the young . have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw and deoxygenated blood are kept Mammals are amniotes , and most are viviparous , giving birth to live young . and medical students learn gross anatomy and tutorials and in addition , medical students generally also learn gross anatomy Human anatomy , physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences , which are generally taught to medical students in Human anatomy can be taught regionally , respectively , studying anatomy by specific systems , such as The major anatomy textbook , Gray's Anatomy , has ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as cilia or flagella or may , food may be gathered by phagocytosis , energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by Metazoans are a multicellular organism , with , both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates . An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms , sponges , brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of , discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering , the exoskeleton , made sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , one to three simple eyes ( ocelli ) and three sets of modified appendages that form , some of which may

be fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems Spiders a class of arachnids have They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax In 1600 BCE , the Edwin Smith Papyrus , an Ancient Egyptian medical text , described the heart , uterus and bladder , and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart Over time , this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of Alexandria not only housed the biggest library also home to many medical practitioners and and physiology took place in of the third century were Herophilus and These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for was considered taboo until the Renaissance — Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections . making impressing contributions to many branches Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse , the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins , and that the atria were parts of the heart vital input towards understanding the brain , was particularly concerned with studies and believed that air entered the lungs and heart , which was then carried throughout the body — the arteries carrying the air through the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery naming and describing the function of blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves and describe not only the salivary glands , but a hollow organ and described the ovaries and , an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on and philosopher , wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise Galen's drawings , based mostly on dog anatomy , became effectively the only anatomical textbook Marie Boas writes , " Progress as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid Between 1275 and 1326 , the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi , Mondino's "Anatomy " of 1316 was followed in Mondino's dissections , starting

with the abdomen , then the thorax , then Andreas Vesalius ( 1514–1564 ) ( Latinized from Andries van Wezel ) , , is considered the founder of ( " the structure of the human body " ) , a large format book to be set up towards these were difficult to obtain Philadelphia , Baltimore and New York snatching activity as criminals raided demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised Some graveyards were in consequence protected He was responsible for setting "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine , of comparative anatomy , published over 70 research papers , and became famous for , and were often used Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives studying the internal structures of the body were dissection of the dead and that opened up an understanding of around 1839 , Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine . Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between Equally important advances have occurred in " X - rays can be differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees Affirming the consequent , sometimes called and sufficiency , is a formal fallacy of taking a true conditional statement ( e.g. , " If the lamp were broken , then the room would be dark " ) , and invalidly inferring its converse ( " The room is dark , so the lamp is broken " ) , even though the converse may not be true . Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement formula 1 and invalidly The name " affirming the consequent " derives from using the consequent , "Q to conclude the antecedent "P " . Affirming the consequent can also result If "P " and "Q " are "equivalent" statements , i.e. formula 6 , it " is "

possible to infer "P " under the condition "Q " . It is August 13 , so it is my birthday " formula 1 and " It is my birthday , so it is August 13" formula 2 are equivalent and both true consequences of the statement " August 13 is my birthday However , one can affirm with certainty that " if someone is not rich " ( " non - Q " ) , then " Here , it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ( " If an animal is a deer ... " , " If an animal is an elephant ... " , " If an animal is a moose ... " , " etc . " ) can give rise to the consequent ( " then it has four legs " ) , and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs " must " imply that the animal is a dog and nothing is interrogated for supposedly being " Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington " , who has been blocking out large portions "P " in this case is ' The chaplain signs his own name ' The chaplain's name is written ' . Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986 ) was a Russian film director , screenwriter " Ivan's Childhood " ( 1962 "Mirror " ( 1975 ) 1979 ) , a number of his films from this period are ranked among the best films ever made . abroad ; "Nostalghia " ( ( 1986 ) were produced Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky ( in ) His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian teacher who Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova ( née Dubasova ) that traces its history back to the 17th century ; among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov , a fact she had as active and popular , having many friends and being typically , having been awarded a Red Star after being shot in one would eventually need to amputate due to gangrene ) . at the Moscow School No . 554 .

During the war , the three evacuated to Yuryevets , living , where the poet Andrei Voznesensky was He still managed to graduate , and from 1951 to 1952 studied Although he already spoke some Arabic his studies and dropped out to low and most films were directed produced , many of them The Khrushchev Thaw relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm , who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors . The longer television film " There Will Be No Leave Today " followed , who was teaching at , Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as they liked the same film directors and which was later published in the script "The Steamroller and the Violin " , which they sold to Mosfilm . Tarkovsky's first feature film was " Ivan's Childhood " director Eduard Abalov , who had to " Andrei Rublev " was not released after completion due to several times , resulting in who had been a production assistant for they had been living together " Solaris " , an adaptation together with screenwriter Friedrich Gorenstein as early From 1973 to 1974 , he shot the film "Mirror " , a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing " White day " and " A white , white From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature . only allowed it to be Few prints were made and the film-makers danger of being accused of wasting public funds , which could worked on the screenplay "Hoffmanniana " " Hamlet " , his only stage play , who also acted in The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was "Stalker " , inspired by the novel "Roadside Picnic " by the brothers Tarkovsky had met the brothers first Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel "Dead Mountaineer's Hotel " and he developed a raw script . to work on the script based the point where he hired Alexander Knyazhinsky

" ) , based on starred Natalya Bondarchuk and Anatoli Papanov . To get the project approved by , omitting several scenes that were After shooting roughly half of the film after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted shot the documentary "Voyage in Time " together which he and Guerra completed 1982 to start shooting " Nostalghia " , but Mosfilm then withdrew from the project , so he sought and received Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called "Grand Prix du cinéma de creation " with Robert Bresson . from winning the Palme d'Or , a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in He stated , " I am not a Soviet dissident , I " but if he returned home , he added , " I would be unemployed At that time , his son Andriosha was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country preparing the film " The Sacrifice " many of the crew being alumni While " The Sacrifice " is follows Tarkovsky on a walk as — he claims himself to be immortal and has no fear Ironically , at the end of the year Tarkovsky treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son , Andre Jr , who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union . , he wrote : " But now I have no strength left — that is the problem The inscription on his gravestone , which Larisa , reads : " the early 1990s when it was alleged by former KGB agents who claim that Viktor Chebrikov gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as anti-Soviet propaganda Larisa and actor Anatoly Solonitsyn all died , a period referred to literature and music , among Tarkovsky was , according to He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are

elevated to something special and Tarkovsky was also a deeply religious Orthodox Christian , who believed great art should have Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has only been truly mastered by very few filmmakers , stating " they can be counted The list includes : " Diary of a Country Priest "Wild Strawberries " , and "Persona " City Lights " by Charlie Chaplin ; " Seven Samurai " by , with the early film-making forming only a prelude The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia , although he rated Soviet directors such as : " I have lived a lot among very simple farmers and They spread calmness , had that I have seldom come Dovzhenko had obviously understood wherein the sense of life resides . [ ... ] This trespassing of Andrei Tarkovsky was not a fan of science fiction , largely dismissing it However , in a famous exception Tarkovsky , saying that its "vision of and its destiny is pushing the frontier : " All art , of course , is intellectual , but for me , all the arts , and cinema even more so , must above all be emotional and often considered by critics to Recurring motifs are dreams , memory , childhood , running water accompanied by fire , rain indoors , characters re - appearing in He once said : " Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless , collating him by close to him and far away , relating a person Water , clouds , and reflections were used by him as their symbolism , such as Bells and candles are also that he called " sculpting By this he meant that Up to , and including , his film "Mirror " , " , which features a color epilogue monochrome , and in " Stalker's" case sepia sequences , while otherwise being conducted shortly after finishing " Andrei Rublev " , Tarkovsky dismissed cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color . He claimed that in everyday life

one does not consciously notice colors most of the time , and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments , but not all the time , as Contrarily , however , Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by a critic who wrote that " with " Autumn Sonata" Bergman does Bergman " , adding : " Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films , and that Fellini began to make Fellini films [ ... ] Buñuel nearly always made can be attributed to this collaboration In his last film , " The Sacrifice " , Tarkovsky worked with ( Nykvist was not alone : several people involved in the production had previously collaborated with Bergman , notably lead actor Erland Josephson , who had also acted for Film scholars Vita T. Johnson and Graham Petrie , in ' ( 1994 ) , wrote that Tarkovsky was bisexual and speculated more controversially that he was also ephebophilic . Noting that Tarkovsky's favorite hair color was red portrays female sexuality negatively except in " who is also played Film teacher David Pratt criticized the evidence given for Donato Totaro , however , took this claim seriously and said that " perhaps the authors were ' protecting ' their source , given that homosexuality is still a taboo subject in , directed the opera "Boris Godunov " directed a radio production of the short story "Turnabout Tarkovsky's first feature film was " Ivan's Childhood " He then directed " Andrei Rublev " Mirror " in 1975 The documentary "Voyage in Time " was produced as was " Nostalghia " His last film "The Sacrifice " was produced A book of 60 photos , "Instant Light , Tarkovsky Polaroids " , taken Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in " Concentrate " ( , " Kontsentrat " ) is the boat that brings back the concentrates Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed , according to Marina Tarkovskaya , Tarkovsky's sister ( and the screenplay was never filmed . excellent " ( ) for " Hoffmanniana " ( )

Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky to write Writing was not without difficulty , less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page . Although the script was well received it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able in February 1976 , and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the film , the screenplay Perestroika , Tarkovsky was finally his death , by a retrospective of the film magazine "Iskusstvo Kino " was devoted was established , with its first recipient Tarkovsky has been the subject of Most notable is the 1988 documentary " Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced " Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky " The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films as saying : " His unusual sensitivity is both overwhelming and astounding Probably there is no equal among film directors alive now . Kurosawa also commented : " But the finished image is nothing more And he had to make : " Andrei Rublev is maybe my favorite film ever " , and : " I remember , the first time I saw a Tarkovsky film , I was shocked I was fascinated , because suddenly I realized that film could what I had imagined before He dedicated his film Antichrist to him , and , while asked : “ Have you I ’ve seen it 20 in which a phrase , statement or resolution is not explicitly defined , making several interpretations plausible any idea or statement whose intended meaning can not be definitively resolved according The former represents a choice between The latter represents a choice between pertains to its having more than one meaning " Meaning " here refers to whatever should be captured Or consider " apothecary " One could say " I The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended If , for instance , someone says " I buried $ 100 in the bank " someone used a shovel to dig or speaker to clarify their context their specific intended meaning ( in which case ,

a less ambiguous term should have been used The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s ) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be a politician whose "weasel words " and obfuscation are necessary to gain support More problematic are words whose senses " Good " , for example , can mean " useful " or " functional " ( " That 's a good hammer " ) , " exemplary " ( " She 's a good student " ) , " pleasing " ( " This is good soup " ) , " moral " ( " a good person " versus " the lesson to be learned from a story " ) , " righteous " , " I have a good daughter " is not clear about which sense Semantic ambiguity occurs when a word , phrase or sentence , taken out of context , has Syntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure This is often due to , the application of which is , could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch ( as opposed to ) , or it could mean that he was sitting " To get in , $ 10 or your voucher and This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher . Usually , semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand The sentence " We saw her duck " is also syntactically ambiguous Conversely , a sentence like " He ate the cookies on the couch " is also semantically ambiguous Cook , cook ! " used as vocative ) , cook ( imperative verb form ) ! " , but also as "Cook (imperative verb form ) , cook ( noun used as vocative ) ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities , where there is more than one way For example , " ice cream " and " I Metonymy involves referring to one entity

for example , using "wheels " to refer to a car , or " Wall Street " to refer to the stock exchanges located on that street or even the entire US financial sector metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity ( located close together ) , or a function or process that an object performs , such as "sweet ride " to refer to a nice car Philosophers ( and other users of time and effort searching for and removing ( or intentionally adding ) ambiguity in arguments incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments . say , " I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth " Some will think they oppose taxes in general because they Others may think they oppose only those taxes that they believe will , either by adding a comma after "taxes " ( to convey the first sense ) or by changing " which " to " that " ( to convey the second sense ) or by and think the politician supports everyone's opinion However , the opposite can also be true — an opponent can the speaker uses ambiguity ( intentionally existentialism ) , there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity , as it is generally seen as Martin Heidegger argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous , as is the relation of there is always an underlying background for Thus , although some things may be certain , they have little to do with Dasein's sense In calling his work Being and Nothingness an "essay ambiguous , or relating fundamentally , where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity : " as long as there have been philosophers and they have thought , most of them have tried to mask And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples has always It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality , by escaping from the sensible world , by yielding to eternity Ethics can not be based

She states : " Since we do not succeed in fleeing it , let us , therefore , try to Let us try to assume must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such and sex are ambiguous . Corey Anton has argued that we can not be certain what is separate from or unified with something else : language , he asserts , divides what is not , in that the desire to ' authoritatively disambiguate ' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide . that ethics must focus on ' dialectically integrating opposites ' and balancing tension , rather ambiguity can be a useful tool . " Last night I shot an elephant motive , plot , character Mathematical notation , widely used in physics and other sciences , avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in It is common practice to omit Also , it is common Then , if one sees formula 2 , there is no way to distinguish whether it means formula 1 multiplied by formula 4 , or function formula 5 evaluated at Many algorithmic languages ( C++ and Fortran ) require the character * as The Wolfram Language used in Mathematica allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol , but requires square brackets to indicate are not allowed for grouping division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left Until the last century , many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first parentheses is required when translating An expression such as formula 18 can be understood to mean either formula 19 The expression formula 23 means formula 24 in several texts , though it might be thought to mean formula 25 , since formula 26 commonly means Conversely , formula 28 might seem to mean formula 29 , as this exponentiation notation usually denotes function iteration : in general , formula 30 Then , there is an "unwritten rule " : the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than formula 37photon state if the Latin characters dominate .

The ambiguity becomes even worse , , especially if some normalized adimensional , dimensionless variables are used or state with momentum equal Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations ; their value ( and sometimes even dimension , ) , depends on the system preceded by the definition , suitable : " ... Only in A highly confusing term is "gain " . The term "intensity " is ambiguous when Also , confusions may be a dopant , or resolution still can be resolved at such as " definable " or " nameable " . the intention of avoiding ambiguity , Lojban and Loglan are two related languages this , focusing chiefly on The languages can be both spoken historically , such attempts at language improvement Languages composed from many diverse sources contain dividing the macromolecule into subunits called of the sacred as ' mysterium tremendum et fascinans ' , the awe-inspiring mystery The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked In music , pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous , and ambiguous phrasing , or ( Stein 2005 , p.79 To quote Sir Donald Francis Tovey ( 1935 uncertainty just where it has visually ambiguous , such as a factor used in determining peoples' responses ( e.g. an unconscious man lying on a park bench ) make witnesses less assistance , due to the fear that they may have misinterpreted the situation and acted unnecessarily . Alternately , non-ambiguous emergencies (e.g. an injured person verbally In computer science , the SI prefixes kilo- , mega- and giga- were historically used in certain contexts to 1024, 10242 and 10243 ) contrary to the metric system in which these units unambiguously mean Subsequently , the Ki, Mi , and Gi prefixes were introduced so that binary prefixes could be written explicitly , also rendering k, M , the binary prefixes ( necessarily indicating the new style ) as to whether the usage of

G remains ambiguous (old style ) or not ( new style ) 1 M ( where M is ambiguously 1,000,000 or 1,048,576 ) is " less " uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 ( defined to designate the interval 950,000 to his firstborn flock up to God as , in pausa " Hā́ḇel ; , " Hābēl " Julius Wellhausen , have proposed that the name is independent of the root , the former thus seen In Jesus speaks of Abel as " righteous " , that " The blood of [ speaks ] better things than the Canon of the Mass along with According to the Coptic Book of Adam and Eve ( at 2:1–15 ) , and the Syriac Cave of Treasures which Adam and Eve , and descendants , offered their prayers , regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra - biblical , the soul having been appointed as the chief Genzā Rabbā , Abel is cognate , sometimes translated "Splendid Hibel " ) , who is spoken or of Manda d-Hayyi , and as a brother to Anush (Enosh ) and to Sheetil (Seth ) , who is the son of Adam still virgins , but was Hibil is an important lightworld being ( uthra ) who before and after are detailed also in a separate text named " Diwan Masbuta d-Hibil Ziwa " ("The Scroll of the Baptism of Hibil Ziwa " ) Hibil battles and defeats Krun and the dualistic balance of the universe , Manda d-Hayyi summons Hibil , whom the King of Light , lingering for many ages until the Great Mystery instructs him to descend Zartai-Zartanai , remaining there undetected for many ages while aiding the beings of light accompanying him with and Mag and of Gaf Shdum directs Hibil further down Hibil further down to Giu's brother Krun , whom Hibil battles Hibil ascends , sealing the abodes According to the "Diwan Masbuta d-Hibil Ziwa " , Hibil asks Qin what they are made from , and Qin shows him the murky waters , which the Great Mystery informs him is

Hibil then ascends back to ( explained as supplying the strength and he had secretly taken them , while in the Right Ginza , Hibil marries Zahreil , the daughter of Qin , while and Gafan , and she shows him the spring with the mirror ( said to show the past and future ) , which He leads her out of , sealing its gates , seals , commands the Great Mystery to confound which are received , but Hibil and his companions remain detained until a masiqta is performed , following which they ascend to According to Shi'a Muslim belief , Abel ("Habeel " ) is buried in the Nabi Habeel Mosque , located The aardvark (; Orycteropus afer ) Tubulidentata , although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known a long pig-like snout , which is used to sniff out food . areas that are mainly rocky A nocturnal feeder , it , which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young . " by the IUCN , although which also includes elephants , The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the "African ant bear " , "anteater " ( not to be confused with The name "aardvark " is Afrikaans ( ) , comes from means "earth pig " or "ground pig , because of its burrowing habits . The name "Orycteropus " means burrowing foot , and the name " afer " The aardvark is not closely related Tubulidentata , in which it is usually considered to form the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae . The aardvark is not closely related Along with the sirenians , hyraxes has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably "Myorycteropus africanus " " Orycteropus mauritanicus " , found The mysterious Pleistocene "Plesiorycteropus " from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate The aardvark is vaguely pig - Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs .

with the rear legs being longer than or 'thumb ' ) , resulting in four toes , while somewhat flattened and shovel - like , and appears to be intermediate between a claw and Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone ( CCCB An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , when its tail ( which can be up to ) is The aardvark is pale yellowish - gray in color and often stained reddish - brown by The aardvark's coat is thin , and Its hair is short on its head and tail ; however its legs The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs . bears a disc , which houses Instead of having a pulp cavity , , held together by cementum with the largest having about 1,500 The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously the jaw , which fall out and are not replaced . Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth and have a dental formula of : These remaining teeth are peg - like mobile and is moved by uncertain whether they are olfactory Its nose is made up of with 4 to 5 . The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs , more Its keen sense of smell is not its olfactory lobe is very developed . The mouth is small and tubular , typical of species that The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue ( as much as long ) and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell The ears , which are very effective , are disproportionately long as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up , thereby rendering Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck ; their output is what causes the tongue , where suitable habitat ( savannas i.e., ants and termites ) is

The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest , They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia . all the way to South Africa Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies , but if all else fails , they will and shoulders , sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet They are capable of causing They will also dig to escape as they can . The aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively myrmecophagy ) ; the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber . the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit , then defecate then grow rapidly due to The time spent in the intestine of They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants . Due to their stringent diet requirements , they require a large range to survive . the late afternoon or shortly after sunset , and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food , the ground and its ears pointed forward , which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in profusely as a means to explore When a concentration of ants or termites is detected , the aardvark , keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators , and takes up an astonishing number of insects one night have been recorded . It avoids inhaling the dust by When successful , the aardvark 's long ( up to ) tongue licks up the insects ; the termites' biting , or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin other animals will visit to pick Termite mounds alone do n't provide they look for termites that When these insects move , they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion ) ; however , they do n't seem to prefer

bright or dark nights over the other . During adverse weather or if disturbed However , it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as It makes a bleating sound if frightened When it is threatened it If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents . for about ten minutes , sniffing and it will bound out and within seconds it will be Aside from digging out ants and termites , the aardvark also live , which generally fall burrows made while foraging , refuge and resting location , , while the main burrow is also Main burrows can be deep and extensive , have several entrances and can be as long as These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter . regularly , and periodically moves on and makes a new one . As they are vacated , then they are inhabited by Other animals that use them are hares , mongooses , hyenas Without these refuges many animals would die Only mothers and young share burrows ; however If attacked in the tunnel , it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing , or if it decides to fight it will roll Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season , one cub weighing around is When born , the young has When nursing , it will skin disappear and after three , the ears can be held Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers , however , this is possibly because they are There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits ; however , their numbers seem to be stable overall They are not considered common due to their large range , they There may be a slight decrease in Southern African numbers are not decreasing . Aardvarks handle captivity well . much admired because of its diligent quest which they then proceed to pound together with the root of the owner the ability to pass through The charm is said to be