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as the four women who knew how The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess ( c. 200 A.D. ) . Early sources claim that Mary ( or Maria ) devised a number tools as well as novel techniques The laboratory water-bath , known eponymously ( the bain-marie , is said to have been invented or at least improved by her . Essentially a double - boiler , it was ( and is ) used in chemistry The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus ) and the kerotakis ( a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations , it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were As the language of the alchemists is analyzed , historians are becoming , such as the evolution of science and philosophy , the sociology Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at ) , the European Society for the Study , and the University of Amsterdam's Sub - A recipe found in a mid-19th-century kabbalah based book features step As such , the classical elements appear in alchemical writings , as do Similarly , the gods of the Roman pantheon Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature , and the 18th-century disappearance has been strongly influenced by Those focusing on the exoteric , and William R. Newman , have interpreted the 'decknamen ' ( or code words These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in perpetuated , sometimes merging in This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages , as metaphysical aspects , substances , physical states , and material processes are supposed to have been used as , and , ultimately , ' Alchemical Formulas ' were like are held to symbolize evolution and everlasting state , so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible . Applied to the alchemist himself , represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal . Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near

Initially confounded and at odds after being given a copy of , a Chinese alchemical text , by his friend Richard Wilhelm , Jung discovered a direct correlation the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up A process , which he called "process of individuation " . were symbols for its origin and Together with his alchemical "mystica soror " , Jungian Swiss analyst Marie-Louise von Franz , Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available , compiled a lexicon The volumes of work he wrote of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as as a human being where opposites brought Both von Franz and Jung have contributed psychology as well as contemporary culture art , seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment . " Literary alchemy " appears throughout Here , characters or plot structure themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols One goal of alchemy , the transmutation is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible They observe astronomical objects such as in either observational ( by analyzing the data ) or theoretical astronomy of two main types : observational and that can not be observed or a galaxy to complete a life cycle their evolution to determine how they form , evolve , and Historically , astronomy was more Today , that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms " astronomer " and "astrophysicist " Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically astronomy and are employed by The American Astronomical Society , which is the major organization This number includes scientists from other fields , and engineering , whose research interests are closely related to astronomy , it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure , allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes . Those who become astronomers usually Taking courses that teach how to research , write , and present papers are also invaluable While there is a relatively low number of

, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well Like any hobby , most people who think devote a few hours a month to ASCII ( ) , abbreviated Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted The first edition of the standard was published Originally based on the English alphabet , ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable 0 " to " 9 " , lowercase letters " a " to "z", uppercase letters "A " to For example , lowercase " i " would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 = hexadecimal 69 ( "i The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII ) was developed called the X3 committee , by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee , and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group in , ASCII was published as ASA X3.4 - 1963 , reserved for future standardization , and whether there should be more control characters The indecision did not last long : during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to "sticks " 6 and 7 , and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into The X3 committee made other changes , including ) , renaming some control characters ( moving or removing others ( RU was removed ) . addressed how ASCII should be transmitted ( least significant bit first ) , and how it should be recorded on The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on ( i.e. graphemes and control characters with each other and to communicate character-oriented information such as written language Before ASCII was developed , To include all these , and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique , which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code is less reliable for data transmission , as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of The committee considered an eight-bit code , since

eight bits ( octets ) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode However , it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when to minimize costs associated with for error checking if desired . The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together , for The first two so-called "ASCII sticks " ( 32 positions ) The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier , so it became position 20hex ; for the same reason , many special signs commonly used as The committee decided it was important chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics , the special and numeric codes and the letter "A " was placed in position 41hex to match Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the shifted values of codice 1 were codice 2 early typewriters omitted " 0 " and " 1 " , using " O " (capital letter " " ) instead , but codice 3 and codice 4 pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common . Thus , in ASCII codice 5 were 1–5 , corresponding to the digits The parentheses could not correspond to " 9 " and " 0 " , however , because the place corresponding to " 0 " was taken by This was accommodated by removing " 6 " and shifting the remaining characters , which corresponded to " 8 " and " bit-paired keyboards , notably the Teletype Model 33 , which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII , not to traditional mechanical typewriters ) , used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC ( 1981 ) symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table . 2 , and the codice 8 pairs others , including the No . 2 , did not shift

codice 9 ( comma ) or codice 10 ( full stop ) in uppercase without unshifting ) Some common characters were not included , notably codice 14 together with the simple line characters codice 17 ( SOM ) , end of ) , end of transmission who are you ? " (WRU ) , " are (RU ) , a reserved device control ( For example , character 10 represents the "line feed" function ( which causes a printer to advance its paper ) , and character 8 represents refers to control characters that do not include carriage return , Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting , ASCII does not Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR , which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option . until the 1980s , less costly and in some ways less fragile In particular , the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 ( Control-Q , DC1 , also known as XON ) , 19 (Control-S , DC3 , also known as The Model 33 was also notable ( code 7 , BEL , meaning audibly alert the operator ) literally , as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character . received a Control-S (XOFF , an abbreviation for transmit off ) , it caused the tape reader to stop ; receiving Control-Q (XON , " transmit on " ) caused This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow but Control-Q is replaced by backwards , so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace ) . Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL The purpose of this key was to up , then type the rubout , which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored Teletypes were commonly used for

and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character Because of this , DEC video terminals the DEL code for the key marked "Backspace " while the key marked "Delete " sent an escape sequence , while many other terminals sent BS for to erase the previous character , this could be set to BS " or " DEL , but not both , resulting in a long period to correct it depending on what terminal they were using ( shells that allow line editing , , and zsh , understand Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different The "escape" character ( ESC, code 27 ) , for example , was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of This is the same meaning of " , C language strings , and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning . co - opted and has In modern use , an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start , beginning with ESC followed An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an character used to terminate an operation The inherent ambiguity of many control characters , combined Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return " ( which moves the printhead and "Line Feed " ( which advances the paper one line without moving The name "Carriage Return " comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained DEC operating systems ( 8 , RT-11 TOPS-10 , etc . ) of a line so that the console device ( originally Teletype machines ) would work By the time so-called "glass TTYs " ( later called CRTs or terminals ) came along , the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention . When Gary Kildall created M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC 's RT-11 . EBCDIC instead of ASCII and Unfortunately , requiring two characters to

mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when To simplify matters plain text data streams , including files , on Multics used line feed (LF ) Unix and Unix-like systems , and Amiga systems , adopted this convention from The original Macintosh OS , Apple DOS , and alone as a line terminator ; however use line feed ( LF ) Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings , machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings , and machines running operating systems such of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII . NVT ) , so that and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings , and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions use when transmitting commands and The PDP-6 monitor , and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10 , used Control-Z (SUB ) as an Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to or end - of - file , was used colloquially Control-Z instead of SUBstitute . The end - of - text code ( ETX ) , was inappropriate for a variety of reasons , while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it known as the printable characters , represent Code 7Fhex corresponds to the non - printable " delete " (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted ASCII was first used commercially American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX ( TeletypeWriter eXchange ) which was also used by Bob Bemer introduced features such as according to Bemer , " so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the "Bemer–Ross Code " although some misuse that term to represent all variants , including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such that are identical or nearly

, such as the symbol for e.g. with code page 1104 . to include non-English letters ( e.g. é, ñ It does not make any additional codes available , so the same code points encoded , so plain-text in Swedish , German etc . ( for example , in e - mail or Usenet ) contained of words , something those programmers still a variation of ASCII is used , in which the backslash ( 5C hex ) is rendered as ¥ ( a Yen sign , 16- , and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12- , 18- , it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs from 0 to 31 with more graphics . The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is being based on ASCII-1963 , instead of the more common ASCII-1967 , such The IBM PC defined code page 437 , such as smiley faces , and Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages , and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware more for international languages than for The IEC 8859 standard ( derived from the DEC-MCS ) finally provided a standard that most systems copied ( at least as accurately as they copied ASCII , but with many substitutions A popular further extension designed by Microsoft , Windows-1252 ( often mislabeled as ISO-8859 - 1 ) , Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments . set as the first 128 symbols , so as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence figures are manipulated to appear drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed Today , most animations are made Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation , while 2D computer animation ( which may can be used for stylistic reasons , often featuring anthropomorphic animals , minimally differ from each other

The illusion — as in motion pictures in general — is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement , but the exact causes are Analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display Television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and — for instance moving images in magic lantern shows — can also to emulate living beings has a very long history The word "animation " stems from the Latin "animātiōn " , stem of " animātiō " , meaning " , people all over the world enjoyed shows with moving figures that were created and manipulated manually sequential images that were shown one Series of sequential images had occasionally but the stroboscopic disc provided the first method to for the first time had artists creating the flip book ( 1868 ) and The average 19th-century animation contained about 12 images that were displayed as a continuous loop by spinning The flip book often contained more pictures and had a beginning and end , but its animation would not last When cinematography eventually broke through in 1895 after animated pictures had Animation on film was not commercialized until a few years later by manufacturers ) for adapted toy magic lanterns intended for is the oldest known example of what became Successful producer John Randolph Bray and animator Earl Hurd , patented American animation that would last until now lost ) , which their first animated feature , " Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs " , still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features . Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War , Disney's next features "Pinocchio " , "Fantasia " ( both 1940 ) and Fleischer Studios' second animated feature " Mr. Bug Goes to Town " ( 1941/1942 ) failed at the box office . For decades afterward , Disney would be the only American studio to regularly produce animated features , until Ralph Bakshi became the first to also Although relatively few titles became as successful their own animation industries that produced both short

Russia's Soyuzmultfilm animation studio , founded in 1936 , produced 20 films ( including average and reached 1,582 titles in television sets started to become common and especially US youth spent many hours watching and by the end of the 1950s , the production of new animated cartoons started to shift Hanna-Barbera Productions was especially prolific and had huge hit series , such as Scooby-Doo " ( since 1969 ) and Belgian co - production "The Smurfs While US animated series also spawned successes , relatively often preferring stop motion to be completely created digitally as it proved cheaper and ) of all film genres between 2004 and 2013 . The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction , while its total malleability also allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to Many American studios , including Warner Bros. and Disney , lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey to the public certain war values Animation has been very popular in television commercials , both due to its graphic appeal , and the humour it can provide . Animation has traditionally been very the screen ( which is often the case in Japan , where ) , original animated characters also commonly Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and Stories and images can easily While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations Since first being licensed for of products , as have features many attractions that were based criticism has arisen , especially animated feature-length films there is much more to whether it is gender , Indeed , “ There is a good chance that some of your beliefs have been influenced by decades has changed gradually and adjusted According to Juan Sklar , “ To start with , the “engagement two years old is associated with greater female gender-stereotype behaviour order to stay with her beloved man “ The symbolism here is powerful [ ... ] To win must forfeit her thoughts and intellect Historically , animated movies have portrayed female characters struggling to gain independence

the image of an ideal , correct , and rigorous woman was breaks completely with the patterns and "Shrek " , produced by Disney Animation and Pixar has produced the most films either to win or ) , BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film 2011 ) , Golden Rooster Award for , Goya Award for Best Animated Film ( since 1989 ) , Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year National Film Award for Best Animated Film ( since Also since 2007 , the Asia Pacific Screen Award The creation of non-trivial animation works ( i.e. The most important difference is that once a film of one more shot is higher for It is relatively easy for but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators ( although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation ) It is pointless for a studio creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of Thus , animation studios starting with of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger necessarily have individual styles , but to whatever style is employed on about 500 to 600 people , of whom 50 to 70 are animators , typically have having a separate group of visual development artists develop to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions , traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format ; the storyboard artists would then Traditional animation ( also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation ) was the process of drawings , first drawn onto transparent acetate sheets called cels , which are filled in with Today , animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system . the drawings and simulate camera movement and

The "look " of traditional cel animation is still preserved , and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same , " Lucky and Zorba " ( producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement , having the Walt Disney studio ("The Little Mermaid " , " of full animation , as are non-Disney works , "The Secret of NIMH " (US , 1982 ) , "The Iron Giant (Spain , 2007 ) . and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation , thereby limiting the fluidity of United Productions of America , limited animation can be , as in " Gerald McBoing-Boing " ( US , 1951 , and certain anime produced in Rotoscoping is a technique patented by trace live-action movement , frame by The source film can be directly copied as in " The Lord of the Rings " as in "Waking Life " ( US , 2001 ) and animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn ) , in which a live-action girl Stop - motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film , usually named after the medium used to create the animation . , the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact . on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics and 2D animation , to give artists Speaking about using this approach in " Paperman " , John Kahrs said that " Our animators can change things , actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want 3D animation is digitally modeled and The 3D model maker usually starts by creating A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces , which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh Other techniques can be applied , mathematical functions

( e.g. , gravity , particle simulations ) , simulated fur or The national divinity of the Greeks , Apollo the Sun and light , poetry One of the most important ) , Apollo is considered " ) , Apollo is an oracular god — the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle Apollo is the god who affords ; various epithets call him the "averter with Apollo , whether through the god himself or mediated through a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague The invention of archery itself is carrying a golden bow and a quiver of Apollo's capacity to make youths grow As the protector of young ("kourotrophos " ) , Apollo is concerned Apollo is an important pastoral deity , and was the patron of herdsmen and Protection of herds , flocks pests and predators were his primary duties encouraged founding new towns and establishment " , Apollo presides over the 5th century BCE , as "Apollo Helios " he became identified among Greeks with Helios The name " Apollo"—unlike the related older name " Paean"—is generally not found in the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts , although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form " ] ) , is more archaic It probably is a cognate to the Doric month "Apellaios " ( ) , and the offerings apellaia ( ) According to some scholars , the words are derived from the Doric word "apella " ( ) , which originally meant "wall , " corresponding to the "ecclesia " ( Thus , the Greeks most often " apollymi " ) , " to destroy " . Plato in " Cratylus " " ) , "redemption " ) , "purification " , and with ( " [ h]aploun " ) , " simple " , in particular ("aeiballon " ) , "ever-shooting Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ("apella " ) , which means "assembly " , so that Apollo would be the god also gives the explanation ( " sekos " ) , " fold " , in which case Apollo would be the god of

form "Apaliunas " ( " d " ) is attested which may also be surmised an earlier /kʷalyán-/ before palatalization Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus (; , " Phoibos " ) , literally It was very commonly used aspects ascribed to the god . most often seen as a healing The Delos sanctuary was primarily through the centuries he acquired different functions , the oracular god who in older times , but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component , a Cretan-Minoan component , popular religion was to keep away evil , and he was therefore called "apotropaios " ( , " averting evil " ( " keeping off ill " ; from v. + n. Apollo also had many epithets relating Some commonly-used examples are " paion " " ) " epikourios " ( , " succouring " ) , " oulios " ( , " healer , baleful " ) and " loimios " ( , " ( ) , who did not have a cult of his and seems to have originated It is suggested , though unconfirmed , that he is connected to the Mycenaean figure " pa-ja-wo-ne " ( Linear B :) . Homer illustrated Paeon the god and the song both Apollo and afterwards to other gods Apollo Helios , to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer About the 4th century BCE , the paean became merely a formula of adulation ; its object was either to misfortune or to offer thanks but he is also the bringer The connection with the northern-dwelling Dorians and their initiation festival "apellai is the "megistos kouros " (the great Kouros ) However it can explain only the Doric type connected with the Ancient Macedonian word "pella " ( Crete , to have originated they evidently transferred their religious practices . "Apollo Delphinios " or "Delphidios " was a sea-god especially worshipped in Crete and in the islands . Apollo's sister Artemis , who was the Greek goddess , the Minoan " Mistress A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long The name of Apollo's mother Leto has

Lydian origin , and she was is the origin of Sibyl , and where some of the oldest oracular shrines Omens , symbols , purifications , and exorcisms appear in , less trusted by the Greeks The god seems to be related the word is not complete . The stones found in front of and "Qλdãns " , whose name may be cognate with the Hittite and Doric forms , in surviving Lydian texts " The Greeks gave to him the name "agyieus and houses who wards off evil and his symbol was a tapered stone The Late Bronze Age ( from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian "Aplu " was a god Here we have an apotropaic situation , where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it Aplu , meaning " the son of " , was a title given to the god Nergal , ( ) who brings death but who can also heal , possessing a magic art that separates the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as The terrible god is called "the archer " and the bow is also an attribute them and his alternative Shiva is a healer physician had two cult sites that had widespread influence ) were so distinct that they might both have shrines , for this Apollo was also Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced , about 650 BCE such as "Apollodorus " or "Apollonios " and cities named "Apollonia " testify to his popularity Didyma and Claros pronounced the so-called "theological oracles " , in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects Some of the earliest temples , especially in Crete , do not The different wooden elements were considered divine , believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which The temples should be canonic , and the architects were trying to From the earliest times there were certain rules order to hold the roof , and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to The Doric order dominated during the 6th and

the 5th century BC but there was , which could n't be solved without changing the original forms . the Ionic order , but the Ionic capital also As Zeus' favorite son , Apollo had and was willing to reveal and Leto , his previous wife or When Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant , she , only to be rejected Delos that had once been Since it was neither a mainland nor an island , Leto was readily welcomed there and gave birth It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia , the goddess When Apollo was born , clutching a golden sword , everything on Delos turned into gold and Swans circled the island seven times He was washed clean by the goddesses who then covered him Since Leto was unable to feed him , Themis , broke free of the bands fastened onto him and declared that he would be the master of interpret the will of Zeus to be always favorable towards the Delians Thargelion — according to Delian tradition — or of the month Bysios The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon , were ever afterwards held sacred to The Hyperboreans always sang and danced There , a vast forest of beautiful trees Henceforth , Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and wolves became sacred to from his epithet "Lyceus " , meaning " wolf - like " But Apollo was also the wolf-slayer of Apollo being worshipped as he is likewise speculated to amber Apollo shed when his son Asclepius died became the waters of the river Eridanos the arrow which he had used said to have built a foundation and an altar on Delos using the horns of the goats that his sister building when young , he later came to be known and god who guided men his time herding cows , he the bee nymphs , who trained him Apollo is also said to the oracular shrine of Delphi to Apollo foretold by Apollo when he was still in Leto's womb . , and had assaulted her

To avenge the trouble given to The Delphian nymphs who were present encouraged After Apollo was victorious , they also brought him gifts and gave the Corycian cave to him According to another version , when But when Apollo came and sent Themis , the child of the cities of men the present , and what will happen in so Earth took the office of prophecy away from Phoebus , , asking him to take Zeus smiled , that the child so quickly came to ask Apollo also demanded that all other methods of divination be made inferior to his , a wish that Zeus granted him readily . However , Apollo had committed a blood murder and had to be Because Python was a child of Gaia , Gaia wanted Apollo Zeus did n't agree and , and instructed him to After the servitude was over , There Zeus himself performed purificatory rites Purified , Apollo was escorted by his half sister Athena to Delphi where the oracular shrine was finally handed over to him by Gaia had also travelled to Crete Apollo later established the Pythian games to Soon after , Zeus instructed But Apollo , disobeying his father Hyperborea and stayed there for He returned only after the Delphians sang hymns to him and pleaded him to come back Zeus , pleased with his son's integrity , gave Apollo the seat next So , when he spotted a ship sailing from Crete , and followed a course that led There Apollo revealed himself as Hera once again sent another giant , Tityos to rape Leto This time Apollo shot him also aided him in protecting After the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down When Apollo was exiled from Olympus for killing Python , Admetus , who was then Apollo is said to have Apollo's mere presence is said to have made the cattle give birth to Apollo helped Admetus win the hand King Pelias , by taming a lion and a boar to draw Admetus' chariot When Admetus angered the goddess Artemis by forgetting to give her

the due offerings , Apollo came to According to another version , or perhaps some years later , when Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead the Cyclopes , who had fashioned Apollo would have been banished but his mother Leto intervened , , pleaded him not to by Apollo while he was She displayed hubris when she boasted that she was superior seven male and seven female , She further mocked Apollo's effeminate appearance and Leto , insulted by this , told her children to punish and her brother Amyclas were not killed because they prayed to When Chloris married and had Nestor the years he had taken Once Apollo and Poseidon served Apollodorus states that the gods willingly went to the king disguised as Other versions make both Apollo and Poseidon the builders of the wall . a mortal named Aeacus as When the work was completed , and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead , the third forced its way Apollo immediately prophesied that Troy Aeacus's descendants , the Aeacidae ( i.e. his son Telamon joined Heracles when However , the king not only refused to give the gods the wages he had promised , but also threatened to bind their feet Angered by the unpaid labour and the insults a pestilence and Posedion sent the sea monster Cetus Apollo had a lover named Ourea , who was a nymph and During the war , the Greek king Agamemnon Apollo's priest Chryses , and refused to Angered by this , Apollo Apollo entered the battlefield as per He pushed the Greeks back and When Zeus allowed the other gods to When the Greek hero Diomedes injured the Trojan hero Aeneas on him and gave the hero a son of Zeus , Apollo The Trojan hero Hector ( who , according to some , was the god's own son When he got severely injured encouraged him to take up when Hector was about to lose , Apollo hid Hector When the Greek warrior Patroclus tried to

Encouraging Hector to attack Patroclus murdered his son Tenes before the war began and brutally assassinated his son Not only did Apollo save also tricked Achilles by disguising him away from the gates . After Heracles ( then named Alcides ) was struck with the king would give him . Only then would Alcides be To complete his third task , Heracles a hind sacred to Artemis , and bring back it alive , the animal eventually got tired , and when it tried crossing the river Ladon , Heracles captured Soon after , he contracted once again , in hope The Pythia , however , denied the sacred tripod and started walking away , intending to start his own oracle However , Apollo did not to give a solution to Heracles He was noble , just He did all his duties justly . Because of this people were very and set up shrines and This annoyed Zeus , who decided to But because he was a just king to let him live . But he metamorphosed Periphas into an eagle and made the eagle the A long time ago , there were three kinds and androgynous , descended from Each human being was completely round , They were powerful and unruly To check their insolence , Zeus and improve their manners instead of He cut them all in two and asked Apollo to make necessary repairs , giving humans the individual shape they still have now Apollo turned their heads and necks pulled together their skin at the abdomen , and sewed the skin together This is what we call " As he [ Zeus ] cut them one after give the face and the half of Apollo was also bidden to heal their wounds and compose their forms Apollo "Kourotrophos " is the god who nurtures and protects children and Education is said to have Many myths have him train his children fostered by Apollo , who pertaining to medicinal arts by his father Anius , Apollo's son by Rhoeo Apollo brought him up and After the child was born ,

Apollo sent snakes to feed Even though he foresaw his death his destiny and died a brave death . Apollo saved a shepherd boy ( name , thus becoming the god of Plato said that the innate ability of is the gift of Apollo and believed that Apollo is the god all things move together , both called "Homopolon " before the "Homo " was replaced by " , and hence , like The swans , which were considered to be the most musical mathematics and music were connected the soul , just as medicine Apollo is often found delighting , and many ancient ceramics depict him when challenged by others . either to Hermes or to Myths tell that the infant Hermes a tortoise and killed it , When Hermes acted innocent , Zeus , having seen the events , sided with Apollo , and ordered Hermes to return Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had had invented the lyre himself , Once Pan had the audacity to Apollo and to challenge the god and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower , Midas , who happened to It was so beautiful that Tmolus at once awarded the victory was pleased with the judgement . Only Midas dissented and questioned the justice Marsyas was a satyr who was punished by Apollo for his hubris the ground , tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy . would pick it up would When Marsyas played the flute , that he was better than wearing his hair long , for having a fair face and smooth body , ' His [Apollo] hair is smooth and His body is fair from head bright , his tongue gives oracles , propose which you will What of his robes so fine in texture , so soft What of his lyre that flashes gold , gleams white with cunning and so sweet ? Nay , all these allurements suit with According to one account , after the first round , they both were

deemed equal by the Nysiads . But in the next round , Apollo saying that Apollo would have But Apollo replied that since Marsyas played the flute , which needed air blown from the throat , it was similar to singing , and that either they both should get an equal chance to combine their skills or none of them should use their mouths Apollo then played his lyre and sang at the same time , mesmerising played his flute out of tune assigned to himself the punishment of being skinned for a wine sack . So the Muses who were the judges declared Apollo the winner . But Apollo soon repented and being distressed at what he had done , he tore the Muses and Apollo's sons Linus and The Muses fixed the middle string , Linus the string struck with the forefinger , and Orpheus the lowest string and the one next to it . the god to avenge the broken promise . When the Argonauts faced a terrible storm , Apollo , to help them , where the Argonauts soon took Apollo helped the Greek hero Diomedes , to and brought many offerings to Apollo Arion was a poet who was kidnapped by some sailors for the rich prizes to which the sailors consented . Arion began singing a song in Once Hera , out of and sent a terrible plague to the Greek camp , which indirectly led to the most important one being The gods Athena and Ares came Athena helped the hero Odysseus while Ares fought alongside of the Brygoi When Odysseus lost , Athena When Zeus suggested that Dionysus defeat the Indians in order to Among the warriors was Aristaeus , and gave him a bow and arrows and fitted a strong shield to After Zeus urged Apollo to join the war , he went Though saddened that the seer was fated to be doomed in the war , Apollo made Amphiaraus' last hours glorious by " lighting When Hypseus tried to kill Then Apollo himself replaced the charioteer Heracles blinded the giant Ephialtes by shooting

shooting his left and Heracles twin giants who decided to wage by piling up mountains , They even dared to seek Angered by this , Apollo who was described as having and started harassing the pilgrims . and sent them to his army And he challenged the young and sturdy men to to cut their heads off when they would get defeated by Finally , Apollo came to Ares and became the victor in of warmth in winters is Molpadia and Parthenos were the sisters One day , they were put but they fell asleep while While they were asleep , When the sisters woke up and saw what had happened , Apollo , who was passing by , caught them and and they both received divine honors Prometheus was the titan who was punished by Zeus for stealing , where each day an eagle was sent to eat Prometheus' liver , which would then grow back overnight to be eaten again Zeus to release the kind Titan , while Artemis and Leto a white colored rock jutting out from the island Once , Aphrodite fell deeply a young man of great beauty who was later accidentally killed by a boar Heartbroken , Aphrodite wandered looking confided in him her love and She did so and was Another tale relates that a man named Nireus , who fell in , came to the rock and jumped in order relieve himself After jumping , he fell pulled out , he found a box filled with gold . every year at the sacrifice performed the sake of averting evil . However , a number of men would be stationed all around and take him out of Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are Apollo's advances and ran away from order to persuade her , by taking her in and According to Roman poet Ovid , the chase was brought about by Cupid the laurel and its leaves , which Apollo is said to have been the lover of all nine Muses , and not being able to decided to remain unwed . Cyrene was a Thessalian princess whom Apollo

the city Cyrene and made her She was later granted longevity by Apollo who turned her She bore him a son , Rhoeo , a princess of the island On the island Delos she bore Apollo a son named Anius . Not wanting to have the child , she entrusted the infant to Apollo when he and Poseidon were serving the Trojan king Laomedon . They both united on the day the walls of Troy were built She bore to Apollo a son , whom Apollo named Ileus Thero , daughter of Phylas , a maiden as beautiful as the moonbeams , was loved by mother of Chaeron , who was famed as " the tamer Hyrie or Thyrie was the mother had a son with her named An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long by Achilleus , and Apollo avenged his death by killing Achilles While pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell When Apollo found out about Dryope , the daughter of Dryops Hyacinth ( or Hyacinthus ) The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the head , killing him instantly Apollo is said to be the interjection , meaning " alas He was later resurrected and Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed lay asleep in the undergrowth . its death that he asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever , was also Apollo's lover . either for one year or nine years described by Callimachus of Alexandria , who wrote that Apollo was " fired with love " for of Apollo's lovers and says that Apollo served Admetus because he Latin poet Ovid in his Ars Amatoria said that even though he was a god , Apollo forsook his pride and stayed in as a servant that Apollo became his servant not When Admetus wanted to marry This satisfied Alcestis ' father and he let Admetus marry Branchus , a shepherd , one day Captivated by the god's beauty , he to reward him , bestowed mortal women and nymphs as well

His children grew up to be physicians , musicians , poets He was ultimately given immortality for the benefits he bestowed upon Apollo's children who became musicians and bards include Orpheus, Linus , Ialemus They were nicknamed Nete , Apis , Idmon , Iamus Anius , Pythaeus and Ismenus He also had a son named Chrysorrhoas who was a mechanic artist . of Chiron, Eurydice the wife of Orpheus, Eriopis Melite the heroine , Pamphile the silk weaver , Parthenos , and by some accounts , Phoebe , Hilyra and Scylla Additionally , Apollo fostered and educated Chiron , the centaur who later became the greatest teacher and educated many demigods She made him promise that he would grant to her whatever she would ask for , and then cleverly asked him to let her stay but she refused him and Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo , which was then named Cassandra promised to return his love give her the power to see she went back on her word and rejected him soon after , is " thea apollousa " , that is , and wife , and there seems to have been a tradition which actually described Artemis as Artemis , like her brother , She also is the protector of Though she has nothing to do with oracles , music or poetry , she sometimes in Eretria , a "place where and magic , is the chthonic counterpart They both are cousins , since their mothers - Leto and Asteria - are sisters . One of Apollo's epithets , "Hecatos " working from afar " heaven , Hecate presided over If Hecate is the "gate-keeper " , Apollo "Agyieus " is the "door-keeper The oldest evidence found for Hecate's worship is to be Apollo's sister counterpart in the absence great power , Apollo was seen being the male counterpart of Athena . Being Zeus' favorite children , they were Apollo and Athena often took cities , and were patrons Apollo and Athena were companions of the Muses , the former a much more frequent companion than , Apollo is seen holding

the aegis like Athena usually does her husband , King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war . at Delphi that Agamemnon's son , Orestes , is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus , her lover Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified ; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father , whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of is more meaningful than the bond he drives them away . He says that the matter should no direct Roman equivalent , although later Roman poets often replacing an older cult site there known as Apollo's temple , dedicated a portion of The chief Apollonian festival was the Pythian Games held every four years Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod , representing Apollo because he had been that in Ancient Egypt people believed that hawks were sacred to the god and that according to the ministers of Apollo in Egypt there were certain men called "hawk-keepers " and tended the hawks belonging to Eusebius wrote that the second appearance of the moon is held sacred in and that the city's symbol is a man colonization , 750–550 BCE . helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of However , this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction : Hittite cuneiform texts mention an Asia Minor god called "Appaliunas is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by reason — characteristics contrasted with is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian However , the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary : the two gods are brothers , and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea , he would leave and also in the art of The earliest Greek word for a statue is " delight " ( , " agalma " ) , and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision . Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that The muscular frames and limbs combined with

, and the physical capacity which was Numerous free-standing statues of male youths from Archaic Greece exist , and were once thought to be representations of Apollo , though later discoveries indicated "Apollo Ptoios " , Boeotia alone Significantly more rare are the life-sized bronze statues One of the few originals which survived into the present day — so rare that its discovery in 1959 was described as " a miracle " , a port city close to Athens , and is believed to Apollo as a handsome beardless young man , is The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century ; for The life-size so-called "Adonis " found in 1780 The conventions of this representation , head tilted , lips slightly parted , large - eyed , curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck , were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses , such as when Charles Handy ( 1978 ) uses Greek gods Apollo represents a 'role' culture where order Santa Monica Studio's 2010 action-adventure game God of War III with his bow being used by Peirithous the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity . Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable Agassi was the first man to win four Australian Open singles titles in the Open Era ( though later surpassed by Agassi is the second of five men to achieve the career Grand Slam in the Open Era and the fifth of eight overall to make Agassi was the first man to win and grass ) , and remains the most recent American man to win the French Open He also won 17 ATP Masters Series titles and Agassi reached the world No . 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by to No . 141 in 1997 , prompting many to believe that his career was over

Agassi returned to No . 1 in 1999 and enjoyed After suffering from sciatica caused a spondylolisthesis ( vertebral displacement ) and a bone spur that interfered with the nerve , Agassi , after losing in the third round for at - risk children for at - risk children when Turks frequently used Armenians Andre was given the middle name Kirk At the age of 12 , Agassi and his good friend and doubles partner , Roddy Parks When he was 13 , Agassi was sent to Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy was all his father could afford . After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play , Bollettieri , deeply impressed by his talent , called Mike and said : " Take He 's here for free ranked No . 91 . ended the year ranked No . ( Memphis , U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships , Forest Hills WCT , Stuttgart Outdoor , Volvo International and Livingston Open ) , and a male teenager ( a record that stood His year-end ranking was No . 3 Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as While still a teenager , he reached the semi - finals 1988 and made the US Open semi - finals in 1989 He reached his first Grand Slam final in he was favored before losing which he later attributed in falling off during the match . He reached his second Grand Slam , defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the semi - finals . His opponent in the final was Pete Sampras ; a year earlier , Agassi had crushed Sampras , after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras Agassi lost the US Open The rivalry between these two American players became the biggest one in tennis over his second consecutive French Open final , where he faced Courier emerged the victor in a five - set final . not at the French Open or the US Open , where he had previously Goran Ivanišević in a five - two former Wimbledon champions : Boris Becker and John McEnroe

Agassi once again played on the United States' Davis Cup winning team in 1992 Agassi famously played the game wearing Oakley brand sunglasses , and a photo of him from the day appeared on He then became the first man to his balding head , breaking with his old "image won , beating Sampras in a four - set final (Cincinnati , Key Biscayne , and , with the last victory being in an intense late-night four - set semi - final of Agassi reached the world No . 1 ranking for the first time in He held that ranking until which allowed Sampras to surpass him and finish ranked No . 1 at the year-end ranking . , as he failed to and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon , respectively , and lost the Australian and US Open semi later said in his biography that purpose , as he did not want to play Boris Becker , whom he would have faced in that final . His wrist injury resurfaced , and he He later confessed that he started using crystal methamphetamine at that time wrote a letter claiming the same friend had that the letter was a lie . He quit the drug soon after At this time Agassi was also model , and socialite Brooke Shields and a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back ranked outside the world 's . 110 to No . 6 , the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player and was runner - up became No . 1 as when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five - set French Open final , becoming , at the time , only the fifth male player ( joining Rod Laver Don Budge — these have since been joined by Roger Federer , to win all four Grand Slam singles titles Only Laver , Agassi , Federer , Nadal and Djokovic have This win also made him the first ( of only four , the next being Federer, Nadal and Djokovic respectively

) male player in history to have the Wimbledon final , where he lost winning the US Open , beating Todd Martin Overall during the year Agassi won . 1 , ending Sampras's record the year at No . 1 He began the next year 2000 by capturing a five - set semi - final and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four - set final He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since Rod Laver achieved also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events , missing only the Wimbledon title .. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi - many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semi - finals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest No . 1 in Agassi opened 2001 by successfully of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open . again in the semi - finals 6–7 , 6–7 , with him to skip the Australian Open , where he was a two-time defending champion . later that year defended his Key Biscayne title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four - set final . came in the final of the US Open , which Sampras won The match was the last of the eighth ( and final the No . 1 ranking to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings He had held the No . 1 ranking for two weeks , when Lleyton Hewitt took it back Agassi then recaptured the No . 1 ranking once again There he managed to reach the US Open semi - finals , where surrendering his No . 1 Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced , his third time to finish as and finished the year ranked No - finals of the Australian Open to and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles , having already the second - oldest singles only by Ken Rosewall , who

He finished the year ranked No . 8 , one of the oldest players to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was No . 7 in 1988 Agassi 's 2005 began with , but had to withdraw Agassi 's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US to advance to the final The most notable of these matches down to win in the fifth set tie-breaker In the final , Agassi faced Federer , who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in , as he was still recovering from an ankle injury and also of the ankle injury , and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events , eventually out of the top 10 playing a tune-up , and then Wimbledon by world No . 2 ( his plans to retire following the US Open Agassi had a short , but dramatic , run in Because of extreme back pain , Agassi Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round who had earlier advanced to The rivalry has been called the competing in the 90 's , as Sampras and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade . with Sampras being considered the greatest server and Agassi the greatest serve returner at the time Agassi was favored as he was ranked No . 4 the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in Agassi , however , lost the final to Sampras in Although Sampras was ranked higher , Agassi came out winning the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world With both Sampras and Agassi participating The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won 3 out of 4 major titles , meeting each other twice They met 5 times during , including the Australian Open ; however continued winning Grand Slam titles every season , The next time Sampras and Agassi met in a Grand Slam final was considered a career rejuvenation , as Sampras

Sampras forfeited the No . 1 ranking to Agassi when injury forced him to withdraw from that year's US Open , which Agassi went on to win . three more times on the Grand Slam level offering three memorable contests No . 3 Sampras in the semi - In arguably their most memorable match ever , Sampras Their last meeting was the final of the 2002 US Open , which was their third meeting in a US Open final , but the The match was also notable because route to the final . Sampras had defeated No . 3 Tommy Haas in the fourth round and future No Agassi had defeated No . 1 and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in most frequently from all the players other They met 22 times on Chang , unlike most of Agassi's big rivals , had a playing style similar the baseline with Chang being more The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies and defeating Chang , the defending champion , in the 1990 French Open in a four - set quarterfinal . Arguably their best match took place in the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing It turned out to be with Chang recording easy straight-set victories in the semi - finals of both the Australian Open Years after , Agassi shockingly had lost the first of did not want to face Boris Becker , who was awaiting the winner in the final . Boris Becker and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4 . and 1989 before Agassi reversed in 1988 , with Becker Their most notable match was the 1989 Davis Cup semi-final match , which losing the first two in Agassi , considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass , shocked Becker , a three-time champion , in Becker won that year 's Wimbledon semi - final after being down a set and two breaks , to eventually win in In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semi - final , this time it was Agassi

who came out victorious in Agassi and Pat Rafter played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5 . The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters , because of the players' contrasting styles of play , with Rafter using traditional serve-&-volley methods against with both winning two matches each Agassi won the first two both of the gruelling 5-setters often being Agassi and Roger Federer played 11 times , and Federer led their head - to - the rivalry against the 11-years-younger Federer , who was another great server like Sampras , then went on to lose both the round-robin and the final . with Federer eventually prevailing in that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at Their final duel took place in the during his career , sixth only Steffi Graf , to play with , Arizona , where he reached the final before bowing Agassi returned to the tour renamed , beating John McEnroe in the The following day , he while defeating Courier in the decisive match The series and Agassi came back At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston , Agassi beat James Blake for He defeated Blake again in the final of the Champions Shootout . on court since the 2002 again in March 2010 after the two participated in the "Hit for Haiti" charity event organized , the old rivals began making jokes up with Sampras intentionally striking Agassi and Sampras met again Sampras squared off for an exhibition would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis , typically by inducing a weak return with On the rare occasion that he charged the net , Agassi liked to His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand , hit well cross - court but Agassi's strength was in dictating play was able to consistently take While he was growing up , Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors , and to make , in their first year together in

out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win A signature play later in his career after deep penetrating groundstrokes . , reaching two consecutive finals there early Despite grass being his worst surface , Wimbledon in 1992 , a tournament that he professed to hating Agassi established a limited liability company named Andre Agassi Ventures ( formerly named Agassi Enterprises ) Agassi , along with five athlete partners the Tennis Channel to promote the channel to 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and to Landry's, Inc. for $163 million in a nightclub at Caesars Palace , which opened in 2004 , and sold it to Angel Management Group in They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection Graf , through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC , along with Bayview Financial LP , called Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas in Las Vegas while Agassi , Graf , and other private investors hold the remaining 49% . His business manager , lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers , but they have been estranged since Agassi used Prince Graphite rackets early in and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket , having signed , and in November 2003 he A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities , and Adidas was more than happy , Ebel , Mountain Dew in , Kia Motors in 2002 , Between 1999 and 2000 , he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal named the spokesman of Aramis Life , a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year Prior to the 2012 Australian Open , Agassi and Australian winemaker Jacobs Creek announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to " [ share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court . In the early 1990s , after dating Wendi Stewart , Agassi dated American singer his 2009 autobiography , " We agree that we 're good for each other , and so what if she 's twenty-eight years We 're sympatico , and the public outcry only adds spice to

It makes our friendship feel forbidden , taboo – another piece Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing ( born 2001 ) and daughter Jaz Elle ( born 2003 ) Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players . Long-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one described him as being a "father figure , BILT By Agassi and Agassi's autobiography , ' , ( ) , was published in Iran where he was a professional boxer There is also mention in the book of using and testing Roger Federer declared himself shocked and disappointed , while Marat Safin argued for understanding , saying that " It was a period in my life where I needed help always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted The book reached No . 1 Democratic candidates , and $ 2,000 , which assists Las Vegas' young people . 1995 for his efforts to help Agassi's charities help in assisting children for at - risk children a 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate . Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports His foundation also provided $ 720,000 Athletes for Hope , which helps professional athletes get involved in all people to volunteer and support He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund , now , focusing on the "nationwide effort to to launch Box Budd!es , a new school , called the Doral Academy West through By winning the 1999 French Open , Agassi Considered by numerous sources to be , Agassi has also been called one of the greatest service returners ever to play the game , and was described by the BBC upon his retirement as " perhaps the biggest worldwide star in The Austroasiatic languages , also known as Khmer , and Mon have These form thirteen established families ( plus perhaps Shompen , which is poorly attested , have traditionally been grouped into , separated by regions where well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by

phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes , such having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast , either between modal voice and creaky voice . However , some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or and the Munda languages of East and Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is two recent proposals are given , neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer " Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification , based appear to be more distantly related than they actually are He therefore takes the conservative view that treated as equidistant on current evidence have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward . believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis ( Sidwell 2015b ) a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure , with an east–west division ( consisting of , and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches ) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before Sidwell ( 2015c ) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed have been either a coastal route down the coast the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures , with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P. During the Iron Age about 2,500 B.P. , relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Katuic, Pearic , and Khmer were formed , while the more internally diverse Bahnaric branch ( dating to about 3,000 B.P. ) underwent the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies fish capture techniques ) can be reconstructed valley ' , ' boat ' , ' fish ' , ' catfish sp . ' , ' eel ' , ' ( Central Austroasiatic ) , , ' otter ' ,

heron , fishing bird ' in the Red River Delta area about 4,000-4,500 years before Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through Khmuic, Palaungic , and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came Hence , this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared , early Austroasiatic speakers would have also quoted in Sidwell 2021 ) that " pre - Munda in regular terminology) languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain , and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based ( Ratliff 2010 ) , some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt ( Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Mitsuru Sakitani suggests that Haplogroup O1b1 , and haplogroup O1b2 , which is common in today Japanese , Koreans and some Manchu , are A 2021 study by Tagore et al . found that the proto-Austroasiatic-speakers split There is evidence that later back migration , contributing to the fragmentation observed specifically Mundari , intermixed with the local population Furthermore they concluded that their results do not support a genetic relationship between Papuan-related groups , as previously suggested by McColl et al. 2018 , but that these Ancient Southeast Asians are characterized by Basal-East Asian ancestry Larena et al . 2021 could reproduce estimated to have formed about 50kya years ago Early Austroasiatic-speakers are estimated to have originated from an lineage , which split from Ancestral East Asians between 25,000 to 15,000 years ago , and were Early Austroasiatic people were found to be best represented by the Mlabri people in A study in November 2021 (Guo et al. ) found that modern East-Eurasians can be , one being the "Ancestral Austroasiatic" component ( AAA ) , which is and making up the exclusive ancestry among The early Austroasiatic-speakers are suggested to have been hunter-gatherers but became rice-agriculturalists quite early , spreading from Mainland Southeast Asia northwards to the Yangtze river , westwards According to Chaubey et al. , "

Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are , followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with According to Zhang et al. , Austroasiatic migrations also known as Afrasian or Erythraean , is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly is the fourth largest number of native speakers of Omotic ; however , the inclusion of Omotic remains controversial , By far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum is Arabic , a "de facto" group of today , Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages , and within the Semitic family , or the period when the parent language ( i.e. Proto-Afroasiatic ) was spoken . acknowledgement of these languages' genetic relation with each The terms " Hamitic " and " Semitic " were etymologically describes various Biblical tribes descended from Ham Friedrich Müller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic " Maurice Delafosse ( 1914 ) later coined the term "Afroasiatic " ( often now spelled " Afro-Asiatic " However , it did not ( 1950 ) formally proposed Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean " ( Tucker 1966 ) and "Lisramic " ( Hodge In the 9th century the Hebrew grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh of Tiaret in Algeria became the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together ; he perceived Europeans also began suggesting such relationships a language family consisting of Semitic , ) , and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian , Berber , and Cushitic ; he are characterized by a grammatical gender system . This "Hamitic language group " was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages , including the Ancient Egyptian language " Die Sprachen der Hamiten " ("The Languages of the Hamites " ) , in which he expanded Lepsius's model , adding the Fula, Maasai, Bari, Nandi, Sandawe and Hadza languages was based on a belief that " speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding different from and superior to However , in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages ( a concept he introduced ) , it was based

Leo Reinisch ( 1909 ) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic while urging their more distant affinity with In dismissing the notion of a separate "Nilo-Hamitic" language category , in particular , Greenberg was " returning to a view widely held a half-century earlier He also added ( and sub - classified ) the Chadic languages Greenberg developed his model fully in his book "The Languages of Africa " ( 1963 ) , in which he a member of the Khoisan languages , a grouping that has since proven inaccurate and excessively motivated on To Khoisan he also added the Tanzanian Hadza and Sandawe , though this view has been discredited as linguists working on these languages regard Since the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages ( Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian ) have not been shown to form an exclusive (monophyletic) phylogenetic unit of their own , separate from other Afroasiatic languages , linguists no longer use the term in that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch it the new name " Omotic " has to be removed from Cushitic , thus forming an independent branch " Glottolog " does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established spoken in Africa identified by dated to c. 3400 BC ( 5,400 years ago Symbols on Gerzean ( Naqada II ) pottery resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs date back to c. 4000 BC , suggesting This gives us a minimum date for However , Ancient Egyptian is highly considerable time must have elapsed in the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely approximately 7,500 BC ( 9,500 years ago ) , and approximately 16,000 BC ( 18,000 years ago ) According to Igor M. Diakonoff ( 1988 : 33n ) , Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 10,000 BC ) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest , and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC The Afroasiatic " urheimat " , the hypothetical place where Proto-Afroasiatic language speakers lived in Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken While there is no definitive agreement on

when or where the original homeland of this language family existed , many link who would later spread to According to Ehret ( 1996 ) , tonal languages appear in well as in certain Cushitic languages . * -ay/*-āy ; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations ) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language ( provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic " by Kossmann & Suchard ( Believed to have been created by Charlemagne , Andorra was - princes : the Bishop of , with an area of and and 11th - smallest by Andorra is not a member state of It has been a member of unknown , although several hypotheses have ) , who describes the Andosins , an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe , as historically The word Andosini or Andosins ( ) may meaning " big " or The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of derive from , meaning " When the Arabs and Moors conquered La Balma de la Margineda , found by archaeologists Madriu ( the present-day Natural Parc located in Escaldes-Engordany declared UNESCO World Heritage Site ) as ) , both dated in associated with the Iberians and historically or Andosini ( ) during Influenced by the Aquitanian, Basque and Iberian languages , the locals 200 years , during which time Christianity " , the buffer zone between the Frankish Empire and the Muslim territories , Andorra being part of the territory ruled by the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the "Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell " ( Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell ) . no military protection , and the Bishop of Urgell , who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys , asked the lord signed under oath a declaration of their co - sovereignty over Andorra Aragon , Peter III , between provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared whose title would ultimately transfer to after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle

the country named the figure of the syndic (now spokesman and president of the Andorrans to their co - princes , making possible the creation of After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count John I , the Consell de la Terra or Consell General de les Valls ( General Council of the Valleys ) was founded Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or Església de Santa Coloma ) , Andorra developed exquisite Romanesque Art during the 9th through 14th centuries , statues of the Virgin and Child (Our Lady of Meritxell being the the co - title to Andorra Andorra continued with the same economic system that , a system similar to of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade , Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors , in Escaldes-Engordany Three centuries after its foundation , the Consell de la Terra The manor house built in 1580 served while professing to be a neutral country ) supported the Catalans who saw After the French Revolution , Napoleon I rural culture remained largely unchanged . elected by suffrage limited to The New Reform ( ) began after The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting the Revolution of 1881 , which began when the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and and La Massana by establishing contact The council was replaced and new elections The economic situation worsened , as the populace Between 1882 and 1887 , the first academic schools were formed and the FHASA strikes ( Vagues de FHASA ) ; the revolt led by Joves Andorrans ( a labour union group related On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament . nobleman Boris Skossyreff , with his promise the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign Boris I , King of Andorra , simultaneously declaring war and Bishop Justí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately a French military detachment of Garde Mobile led by settled permanently in the country thus neutral and was an important smuggling route between committing economic crimes , reducing the rights

General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary Certain groups formed to help victims while participating in smuggling to Among the most prominent was the Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command , which , in contact with the British Mi6 , helped almost 400 fugitives , among whom were In the capital city there was a smuggling black market cinematic art not favorable to totalitarian regimes , where movies , music were imported , becoming an anti-censorship attraction The Andorran opening to the capitalist economy resulted Shortly after activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction All in all , a renovated hotel industry Andorra lived an era commonly known the country experiencing radical changes in the economy speakers of great importance promoting musical hits rhythm & blues , jazz , rock and roll and But in recent times its thriving tourist industry along communications have removed the country from Since 1976 the country has seen to anachronisms in sovereignty , as well as the need to powers took place when instituting chaired by the first prime minister Òscar Ribas Reig with was drafted by the co - and after three days he took Andorra is a parliamentary co - principality ) as co - princes , in his capacity as prince although he is not elected and the other half of the councillors are Fifteen days after the election , the councillors Eight days later , the Council convenes once Candidates can be proposed by the absolute majority of votes to be The Syndic General then notifies the co - princes , who in turn proposing and passing laws . parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year , the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved not satisfied with the council , he may request that the co - princes dissolve the council and : one appointed by the head of government , one each by the co - princes , one by the Syndic General , and

by the High Court , as is The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting , one appointed by each of the co - princes and , although there is a small ceremonial army Responsibility for defending the nation rests However , in case of emergencies or natural disasters , the Sometent and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality This is why all Andorrans , usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house ) should , by law , keep a rifle , even though the law also states that the police will and Co - operation in Andorra has a small army , which has historically been raised or has never in modern times amounted The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding Before World War I , Andorra maintained an armed force ) and a Lieutenant ( Desener or Lloctinent del Capità willing to undertake ceremonial duties . taken over by the formation of Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French National Gendarmerie , with , with eleven soldiers appointed to one for each parish ( although there are currently seven parishes , there were only six until 1978 ) , Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of The army has not fought for The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing , criminal detection , border control a small special forces unit trained in counter - Although it is the closest The Andorran Fire Brigade , with headquarters at of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting The first fire pump purchased by the government was rugged mountains , the highest being the Coma Pedrosa at , and the average elevation ( at Andorra's lowest point of ) of Pyrenees conifer and mixed and oceanic climates , depending on Its higher elevation means there is , it is slightly cooler in The diversity of landmarks , the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical

of the Mediterranean climates make the country have When in precipitation , a global model characterized by convective and abundant rains can be can last until autumn ( May, June and August are usually it is less rainy , except in the highlands , subject ski resorts which total over of The banking sector , with its tax haven status , also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs ( the financial and insurance sector accounts for However , during the European sovereign-debt crisis of , partly caused by a drop Spain , undercutting duty-free shopping and Agricultural production is limited ; only 1.7% of the land is arable , and most food has to be Some tobacco is grown locally . Andorra is not a member of being treated as an EU member for Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the French franc and and the peseta remained legal tender in announced that Andorra intended to and do not have the right to vote in communal elections . in Andorra ( Catalan :) , and provides free Catalan classes to Because of immigration , historical links , and close geographic proximity , Spanish , Portuguese and French are Most Andorran residents can speak one or English is less commonly spoken ( 88.2% ) Catholic . There are also members of There are also small numbers of Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have Spanish , which use Catalan , French and Spanish languages respectively , as the main language of Parents may choose which system their children by Andorran authorities , but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the state public university and is the only university in The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme , and it serves principally as The Virtual Studies Centre (Centre d'Estudis Virtuals ) at the university runs development of the country was affected of which is unpaved .

The two main roads out of Andorra la Vella are the CG-1 to the Spanish border near Sant Julià de Lòria , and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel running half-hourly or more frequently within Andorra's borders but there are , however , heliports in La Massana (Camí Heliport ) , Arinsal an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of La Seu d'Urgell Airport has operated commercial flights to is the main hub for Air Andorra and Nearby airports located in Spain and The nearest railway station is Andorre-L'Hospitalet station east of In Andorra , mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by The first commercial radio station to broadcast was Radio Andorra , which was active from 1939 to 1981 creating and managing the entity ORTA in the public company Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra ( RTVA ) . only the national public television network Andorra Televisió , created in There are three national newspapers , " as well as several local newspapers . such as "Les Valls d'Andorra " ( 1917 ) , " Nova Andorra which survive in Sant Julià de Lòria especially especially Catalan in character , especially la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Andorran gastronomy is mainly Catalan , although it has also adopted the Alt Urgell , with whom it Typical dishes of the country are the quince all - i - oli , the massegada cake , the escarole with pear trees , confited duck To drink , the mulled wine and beer are also popular . of the parochial communities , the relations of ( social and political) power and the national culture qualifier on 11 October 2019 , against by the Andorran Football Federation – founded in 1994 , it organizes the national competitions Copa Constitució and Supercopa ) and , mainly influenced by the popularity The Andorra national rugby union team , nicknamed Els Isards , Other sports practised in Andorra include the arithmetic mean ( ) or arithmetic average , or simply just the "mean " or the " average " (

when the context is clear ) statistics , the arithmetic mean is used frequently in many diverse fields such as While the arithmetic mean is often used to report central tendencies , it is not a robust statistic , meaning that it is greatly influenced by outliers ( values that are very much larger or If the data set is a statistical population ( i.e. , consists of ) , then the mean of that population is called the "population mean " , and denoted by the Greek letter The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined not only scalar values ; this is often referred to as a centroid . The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than , and no more than half are smaller than If elements in the data increase arithmetically , then the median and arithmetic average are equal For example , consider the data sample The average is formula 20 , as However , when we consider a sample that can not be arranged so as to increase arithmetically , such as formula 21 , the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly 6.2 , while the median is A weighted average , or weighted mean some data points count more heavily than others , in that they are given more weight in the calculation formula 22 and formula 23 is formula 24 In contrast , a " weighted " mean in which the first number receives , for example , twice as much weight as the second ( perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as these numbers were sampled ) would Here the weights , which necessarily sum to the value one , are formula 27 and formula 28 , the former being twice the If a numerical property , and any sample could take on any value from a continuous range , instead of , then the probability of a number falling be described by integrating a continuous probability distribution the naive probability for a sample number taking one certain value from infinitely many is zero

, in which there are A most widely encountered probability distribution is called the normal distribution ; and the mode ( the three M 's ) , are equal to Particular care must be taken when using cyclic data , such as lead to the average value artificially moving Some software ( text processors , web browsers ) may not display the x̄ symbol This conference currently contains 16 teams organized into 4 divisions , as does All ten of the AFL teams , and three NFL teams , became members of have occurred since the merger , The Chiefs in 2020 ( highlighted twice ( home and away their schedule by the NFL : three games This assignment shifts each year and will follow ) in the AFC qualify for with the winner receiving the Lamar Hunt Trophy . The AFL began play in 1960 three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch ( the then-Baltimore Colts ) joined the ten former AFL teams to The two AFL divisions AFL East and AFL West were more or less intact , while the NFL's Century Division , in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967 , was moved from the NFL joined the AFC and two have left , thus making the When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined The expansion Jacksonville Jaguars joined the AFC in There have been five teams that have relocated at least once attempted to move to Baltimore ; the resulting dispute between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL The NFL would again expand in Between 1995 and 2020 , the AFC has , and Washington Football Team missing out The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast select AFC games ( that involve them to be moved from CBS their human farmer , hoping to create a society where the animals can be equal , free , and reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into

to Moscow-directed Stalinism , an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences The Soviet Union had become a totalitarian autocracy built and secret summary trials and executions . The original title was " Animal Farm : A Fairy Story " , but U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946 , and , the Telugu version , kept it Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944 , when the United Kingdom was Nazi Germany , and the British intelligentsia held one of Orwell 's own ) ; it also featured Best 20th-Century Novels , and number 46 The poorly-run Manor Farm near Willingdon , England the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer , Mr. One night , the exalted boar , Old Major , holds a conference , at a revolutionary song called "Beasts of England " . When Old Major dies , two young pigs and renaming the property "Animal Farm " . , the most important of which is , " All animals and write , while Napoleon Food is plentiful , and of leadership and set aside special food items , ostensibly for their personal health his associates to retake the farm ( later dubbed the "Battle of the Cowshed " ) modernise the farm by building a windmill Through a young porker named Squealer , , claiming that Snowball was only trying to win animals When the animals find the windmill collapsed Squealer persuade the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project , and begin to purge the farm of animals accused by the Cowshed, Napoleon ( who was nowhere to be found during the battle ) gradually smears Snowball to the point of saying he is a collaborator of Mr. Jones , even dismissing the fact that Snowball was given an award of courage while while an anthem glorifying Napoleon , who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man ("Comrade Napoleon " ) , is composed and during which many animals who are alleged to be helping Snowball in plots are executed by the farm , using blasting powder to

, as many , including Boxer the workhorse , are wounded , Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill ( being almost 12 years old at that point ) . a knacker's van , and a donkey called Benjamin alerts the animals of this off their alarm by persuading the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and honours him with a festival the following day Years pass , the windmill is rebuilt , and another windmill is constructed , which makes the farm a good amount of income However , the ideals that Snowball discussed , including stalls with running water , are forgotten , with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals Snowball has been forgotten , the exception of the few who Many of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or Mr. Jones is also dead , saying he " died in , as they walk upright , carry whips , drink : " All animals are equal equal than others . " The maxim "Four legs good , two legs bad " is similarly changed to " Four legs good , two legs better . and restores the name " The Manor Farm The men and pigs start playing each other while cheating at Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington , one fighting loudly over who cheated a political satire that was intended to have a "wider application " , according to Orwell himself , in most notably " 1984 " , as both have been considered works of Swiftian Satire . Furthermore , these two prominent works seem to stress the potential/current threat of dystopias similar Orwell distinctly references the disarray and Orwell's style and writing philosophy as a whole were very concerned with Orwell was committed to communicating in a way that was straightforward , given the way that he felt words were commonly used in politics to deceive and careful , in " Animal Farm " , to make sure that the animals speak and interact

, as the generally moral animals seem to speak their minds clearly , while the wicked animals on the farm , such such a way that it meets their own insidious desires George Orwell wrote the manuscript between November 1943 and , which he described in " Animal Farm " , he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him " how easily totalitarian propaganda and strongly condemn what he Immediately prior to writing the book propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out almost lost when a German V-1 flying bomb Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published , largely due Four publishers refused to publish " Animal Farm " , yet one had initially accepted the work , but declined it after consulting clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch – including his regular publisher Gollancz He also submitted the manuscript to the poet T. S. Eliot ( who was a director of the firm ) rejected it ; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing " and "fundamental integrity " , but declared that they would only accept it for publication if " which I take to be generally Trotskyite " . Eliot said he found the view " not convincing " , and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm ; argue " what was needed   ... was not more communism Orwell let André Deutsch , who 1944 , read the typescript , and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it ; however , they did not , and " lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in " Animal Farm " . " " now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian Anti-Russian books do appear , but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always Pamela , who felt that it was not the moment for " , and in giving permission for a Russian translation of " Animal Farm " , Orwell refused

to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Low had written a letter saying that he had had " it would illustrate perfectly . However , the publisher had provided the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press " , and Bernard Crick published it , " How the essay came to Contemporary reviews of the work were not writing that it " puzzled The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said " The Guardian " on 24 August 1945 called "Animal Farm " "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by Tosco Fyvel , writing in "Tribune which may already be behind Julian Symons responded , on 7 September , " Should we not expect , in " Tribune " at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State – a reviewer should have the courage to and express an opinion favourable or In a hundred years time perhaps , " Animal Farm " may be simply a fairy story ; today it " Time" magazine chose " Animal Farm ( 1923 to 2005 ) ; it " Animal Farm " has also " has also faced relatively recent issues or referring to " Animal Farm However the book itself , as " stated in 2019 that the book is widely available in by and large no longer reads books , because the elites who do read books feel connected to the ruling party anyway , and because the Communist Party sees being too aggressive in blocking cultural products The authors stated " It was — and remains — as easy to buy " 1984 Shenzhen or Shanghai as it The pigs Snowball , Napoleon , , which they formally name , not to be confused the humans ( drinking alcohol , ) , which were explicitly These commandments are also distilled into the maxim " Four legs good , two legs bad !

Eventually , these are replaced are equal , but some animals are more equal than others " , and " Four legs good , two legs better " as the pigs become more human . supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written , " Orwell himself wrote in 1946 , " Of course I intended it primarily as a satire [ and ] " that kind can only lead to a change of masters [ - ] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert . " he stated , " for the past ten years I have been convinced essential if we wanted a revival On my return from Spain [ I thought of exposing the Soviet myth easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated The "Battle of the Cowshed " has The pigs' rise to preeminence mirrors the rise just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader the Bolsheviks , and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel on the farm recalls the internal terror faced confess their non-existent crimes and are killed , Orwell directly alludes to Peter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison contend that the "Battle of the Windmill " , specifically referencing the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow , represents wrote , " All the animals , including Napoleon " took cover Orwell had the publisher alter this to remain in Moscow during told Orwell , as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler , that it had been " the character The book's close , with the pigs and and the West " – but in reality were destined , as Orwell presciently predicted , to continue to unravel . A theatrical version , with music by " Animal Farm " has been adapted to film twice . A BBC radio version , produced by Rayner Heppenstall that Porteous , " who had not read the book , grasped what was happening after A further radio production , again using Orwell's own dramatisation

In 1950 , Norman Pett and his writing partner Don Freeman were secretly hired to adapt " Animal Farm " Amphibians are ectothermic , tetrapod vertebrates of All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia , with most species living within The young generally undergo metamorphosis and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs lizards but , along with are amniotes and do not require water bodies in which to features that were helpful in They diversified and became dominant later displaced by reptiles and The smallest amphibian ( and vertebrate ) in the world is a frog from New Guinea ("Paedophryne amauensis " ) with a length of just " ) , but this is dwarfed by the extinct "Prionosuchus " depends on the taxonomic classification followed . The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb , University of California, Berkeley and With the phylogenetic classification , the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they Traditionally , amphibians as a class a larval stage , while the group that ) and all their descendants is called , and Lissamphibia may possibly the Temnospondyli ( traditionally placed in and in some analyses even in This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed and included them elsewhere under , which is usually considered a clade , a group of species ) , Caudata ( or It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor , and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced reptiliomorph amphibians , and thus of amniotes . Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known , the oldest "true frog " is "Prosalirus bitis " , It is anatomically very similar The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species , " Eocaecilia micropodia " , also from Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes

the order Anura , or whether Anura is a sub - order three orders , but an extinct salamander-like family , the Albanerpetontidae , is now considered The first major groups of amphibians ("stem " ) developed in the Devonian period , around 370 million years ago , from lobe-finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and digits that enabled them to Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if Eventually , their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods , Despite being able to crawl these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of Many examples of species showing transitional features a skull very similar to that them to stay out of Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger , better They developed " hands " diminished in size and became necessary for hearing on dry land 360 million years ago ) , the seas , rivers and lakes were teeming , may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water . It is thought they may In the early Carboniferous ( 360 to 345 million years ago ) , the climate became wet and Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt currently held by the crocodile . Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air , most still had a long tapering body and They were the top land predators , sometimes and the many types of They still needed to return After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse amphibian dominance gave way to further devastated by the Permian–Triassic extinction event . During the Triassic Period ( 250 to 200 million years ago ) , the reptiles continued to out - compete the amphibians , which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage , may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli A 2005 molecular phylogeny , based on rDNA analysis

, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in 250 million years ago ) and soon after their divergence from The briefness of this period , and the swiftness with which radiation took place , would help account for place considerably earlier than the palaeontological evidence , including the need to develop their tails had propelled them forward Their vertebral columns , limbs , limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them to regulate their body heat to cope They developed behaviours suitable for that had previously been absorbed The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into Reptiles , birds and mammals are amniotes , the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes , some of which are impervious . protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage . They are not found in Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to paedomorphosis , caused by two evolutionary trends : miniaturization Another reason for their size is associated to have evolved only in all other known lines the development was much more they do n't eat during go faster the smaller the individual is , so it happens n't go through a metamorphosis . Amphibians that lay eggs on land often go through the whole metamorphosis The smallest amphibian ( and vertebrate ) in the world is a microhylid frog from New Guinea ("Paedophryne amauensis " It has an average length of and is part of a genus that " ) but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed — the extinct "Prionosuchus " , a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Amphibians are ectothermic ( cold - blooded ) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal physiological processes Their metabolic rate is low and as tear ducts and movable eyelids , and most species have ears that can They have muscular tongues , which

in many species can be protruded Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae Their skulls are mostly broad and short , and are often scales , apart from a few fish-like scales some species , poison glands ( a type of They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults . first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through These are then closed and The order Anura ( from the Ancient Greek " a(n)- " meaning " without " and " oura " meaning " tail " ) comprises the frogs and toads They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them , shorter forelimbs are commonly referred to as frogs , while those with warty skins are known as toads The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to Members of the family Bufonidae are the Goliath frog ("Conraua goliath " ) of first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012 , which is also to live in trees or that are broadly accepted by the scientific community , but the relationships between The suborder Archaeobatrachia contains four families of These are Ascaphidae , Bombinatoridae , Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder Mesobatrachia are the fossorial Megophryidae , Pelobatidae , Pelodytidae , Scaphiopodidae and Rhinophrynidae and Neobatrachia is by far the largest suborder The order Caudata ( from the Latin "cauda " meaning " tail " ) consists of the salamanders — elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related Salamanders lack claws , have scale-free skins , either smooth or covered with tubercles , and tails that are usually flattened from side the Chinese giant salamander ("Andrias davidianus " ) , which has been reported to grow to a length of , The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of invaded from Central America by about

Urodela is a name sometimes used paedomorphic and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part The suborder Cryptobranchoidea contains the primitive salamanders . found , but there are only three living species , the Chinese giant salamander ( "Andrias davidianus ; gills slits are present and A unique feature is their ability to feed The suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders . having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw , and by using internal fertilisation , and the female picks it up and inserts it stored until the eggs are laid are in a single family , Sirenidae while others are derived . external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack spermathecae The order Gymnophiona ( from the Greek "gymnos " meaning " naked " and " ophis " meaning " serpent " ) or the exception of Thomson 's caecilian ("Caecilia thompsoni " ) , which and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin , which are probably short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have and under plant debris , but Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch , A few species give birth to live young , nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in The integumentary structure contains some typical characteristics common to of highly cornified outer layers , renewed periodically Local thickenings ( often called warts ) are common , such birds where it is shed in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in of bony fish is largely superficial the skin (cutaneous respiration ) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without and to hibernate at the bottom To compensate for their thin and delicate skin , principally on their heads , backs The secretions produced by these help keep amphibian have granular glands that secrete Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to by three layers of pigment cells called occupying the deepest layer ) , the

guanophores ( forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules , producing a blue-green colour ) and the lipophores ( yellow , the most superficial layer ) . The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by taking place more slowly than They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of The bones are hollow and lightweight it to support the head and The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel - like in larger than the fore legs , especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming are not so large , and the burrowers mostly have short limbs between the toes for swimming , broad adhesive toe pads ( frogs usually dig backwards short and more or less walking and the tail often swings from side to side or adopted by their ancestors , the lobe-finned fish Some salamanders in the genus "Aneides " and certain plethodontids climb trees and have long limbs , large toepads and is moved from side to and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives The tail often continues to twitch the attacker and allow the salamander to Both tails and limbs can be , and the circulatory systems of the the gills where it is oxygenated especially frogs ) lose their gills and of a single ventricle and two atria When the ventricle starts contracting , The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates , with The amphibian brain is less well developed birds and mammals but is It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain . Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input , and nerves to regulate activity them when submerged in water There is no external ear , but the large circular eardrum lies Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way , but low-frequency noises can be detected through , called "papilla amphibiorum " , in the inner ear capable of detecting

Another feature , unique to frogs and salamanders , is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved The eyes of tadpoles lack lids , but more dome - shaped , the lens becomes flatter , and eyelids and associated glands and ducts out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth them swallow the prey , repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up There are two kidneys located dorsally it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent while terrestrial species , with a greater need to conserve water , excrete for oxygen entering the blood . Most amphibians , however , are To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration , the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at in these situations can rely primarily is more concentrated , some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange , most famously the plethodontid salamanders , which have neither lungs require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them A few (e.g. "Fejervarya raja " ) can inhabit brackish water , but there are There are reports , however , of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading , however , do not an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly continuously or at any time of mostly seasonal , usually in by increasing day length , rising temperatures or temperature , but the trigger event , especially in arid regions , is internal , the male extruding an intromittent organ , the , and inserting The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and a gelatinous cone , on the substrate either be placed directly into the female cloaca

while in others , the female The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs , their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male Often the male collects and retains the egg mass , " ) where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and The tailed frog ( " Ascaphus truei " ) exhibits internal fertilisation . The "tail " is only possessed by the male and is an extension internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs Typically , prolonged breeders congregate at first , calling and setting Other satellite males remain quietly nearby , waiting for their opportunity to take The females arrive sporadically , mate selection takes place and eggs are The females depart and territories may More females appear and in due course , the breeding season comes to an end where temporary pools appear in dry regions These frogs are typically fossorial species that They are attracted there by a suitable place , perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season long enough to get her interested in choosing him to a process of significant morphological change after Frogs , toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as which stimulates metamorphosis , and prolactin , which counteracts thyroxine's effect many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances . For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of Teeth , a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death , called apoptosis surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing mucoproteins and considerably as it absorbs water The ovum is at first rigidly held , but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the embryo to move freely , even when they are These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and

Caecilians , some plethodontid salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups , or The amphibious salamander " Ensatina " attaches The greenhouse frog ("Eleutherodactylus planirostris " ) lays First a raft is built , then eggs are laid in the centre , and finally a foam cap in most lungless salamanders ( Plethodontidae ) the larvae growing within the eggs and " ) and some of the African live-bearing toads ("Nectophrynoides spp . " ) Other amphibians , but not caecilians , The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body , but the larvae subsist The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth , either before or after metamorphosis , according and typically have oval bodies and long , vertically flattened tails The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic ) are semi - terrestrial first , internal gills later ) , lateral line systems and large tails that they Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that The lungs develop early and are the jaws have long , parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts In fact , tadpoles developing Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies they swim in the quiet waters feeding Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths , shallow bodies and caudal fins ; they the gills , and stir up They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet . , eating insects , smaller tadpoles its gills disappear along with its gill sac Eyes and legs grow quickly There are associated changes in the neural networks such as At hatching , a typical salamander larva has The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water . the gills from becoming clogged up Some members of the genera "Ambystoma " and "Dicamptodon " have larvae that never fully develop into The northwestern salamander ("Ambystoma gracile " ) is one of these and , depending on environmental factors , either

remains permanently in the larval state , a condition known as neoteny , Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis The tiger salamander ("Ambystoma tigrinum " ) also may grow particularly large in The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial , but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in When conditions are particularly inhospitable would otherwise die out . Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg , emerging This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed Their lungs are functional early , but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land . prolactin is the required hormone , and for adaptation to the land phase , Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do The development of the young of "Ichthyophis glutinosus " , a species from Sri Lanka , has been much The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and They swim by undulating their body night , soon lose their gills The skin thickens , embedded scales develop caecilians , the young are " Typhlonectes compressicauda " , a species from South America , is typical They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills , small eyes and At first , they feed they begin to rasp at on which they feed along They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born , lost their eyes and gills , developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles The ringed caecilian ("Siphonops annulatus " ) has The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult

which gives the skin an opportunity to has been little studied but , in general , the larger the number the less likely it is that in up to 20% of amphibian species , one or both adults play some role in the care of the The black mountain salamander ( " Desmognathus welteri " ) does this , When fully developed , they break their way out of the egg an underwater nest and encourages females to protects the egg cluster which is hidden When the eggs hatch , the male stuck there by a mucous secretion , himself into the water and the tadpoles The male midwife toad ( " Alytes obstetricans " ) winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch , he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles The female gastric-brooding frog ("Rheobatrachus spp . " ) swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings ; however , this stage was never observed before the species became extinct The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply . The pouched frog ("Assa darlingtoni " ) lays When they hatch , the male The aquatic Surinam toad ("Pipa pipa " ) raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until and when they hatch , the tadpoles are carried one by The karyotypes (chromosomes ) have been Generally , the karyotypes of diploid amphibians Amphibians have also very large genomes compared amphibians although a number of genomes have been published recently . the first to be reported Compared to some salamanders this frog genome is predators , feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can that do not move too fast such as beetles , The sirens ("Siren spp . " ) on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog ("Xenohyla truncata " ) includes a large quantity of The Mexican burrowing toad ("Rhinophrynus dorsalis " ) has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants

green frogs ("Rana clamitans " ) have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had Toads , salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it . a feature unique to amphibians . The base and crown of these are composed of dentine separated by an uncalcified layer and they are Salamanders , caecilians and some frogs both jaws , but some frogs ("Rana spp . " ) lack teeth The tiger salamander ("Ambystoma tigrinum " ) is that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates . Others amphibians , such as toads , actively search for prey , while the Argentine horned frog ( " Ceratophrys ornata " ) lures inquisitive prey closer by frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim , often brightly coloured and toxic , while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well - work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow When they are newly hatched , frog larvae feed on When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria Water is drawn in through their mouths , which are usually their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of They scrape and bite food stirring up the bottom sediment , filtering The calls made by caecilians and , grunts or hisses and have not been much studied A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians or a form of communication Most salamanders are considered voiceless , but the California giant salamander ( " Dicamptodon ensatus " ) has vocal cords and Frogs are much more vocal , especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse the atmosphere , or the water to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from

to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws Other calls include those given by and a release call given by a male When a frog is attacked , a distress or fright call is emitted , often and salamanders defend home ranges . These are usually feeding , breeding or sheltering sites . Males normally exhibit such behaviour though even juveniles are also involved . Although in many frog species , females are larger than males , this is not the case in most species where males are actively a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder . This may involve snapping , chasing and sometimes biting , The behaviour of red back salamanders ("Plethodon cinereus " ) has been much studied 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard A similar proportion , when moved experimentally a distance of , found their way back were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact An aggressive posture involved raising the body off who often turned away submissively If the intruder persisted , a biting lunge often observed at breeding locations ; calling is both an announcement of In general , a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual , and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires There is a tendency for males while vigorously attacking unknown intruders . " and usually come off If threats are insufficient , , and lack claws , defensive armour Nevertheless , they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive and frogs is the mucous secretion that them slippery and difficult to The secretion is often sticky and Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow African clawed frogs ("Xenopus laevis " ) , which gives the frogs an opportunity Caecilians have been little studied toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish The rough-skinned newt ("Taricha granulosa " ) from

, the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by Handling the newts does not cause harm , but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly and mammals were all found In locations where both snake and salamander co - exist , genetic changes and they feed on Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing Some frogs and toads are toxic , the main poison glands being at the side and their secretions may be foul - tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms Poisonous species often use bright colouring to These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black , with the fire salamander ("Salamandra salamandra " Once a predator has sampled one likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal . the fire-bellied toad ("Bombina spp . " ) and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked , exhibiting their bright colours to Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide They have various colourings such as to blend into the background . Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short-tailed shrew Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked , sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to its base to allow it to to make themselves look large ("Pelobates spp " ) scream and Giant salamanders of the genus "Andrias " , as well as Ceratophrine and "Pyxicephalus" frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with live fruit flies ( " Drosophila virilis " ) , salamanders chose the larger of 1 vs not 3 vs 4 ) , but not 4 vs Dramatic declines in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinction , have locations all over the world , and amphibian declines are thus perceived In 2006 , there were believed to be 4,035 species of were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to

be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status . to be involved , including habitat destruction and modification , over-exploitation shown to be especially damaging amphibians are often considered to eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of Predators that feed on amphibians The western terrestrial garter snake ( " Thamnophis elegans " ) in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on decreasing in numbers , the Yosemite toad ( "Bufo canorus " ) and the mountain yellow - legged frog ( " Rana muscosa " ) , putting scarce , this would affect Meanwhile , in the ponds and also forage on detritus that the algae later die and decompose A global strategy to stem the crisis was what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this Amphibian Ark is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan , and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world , encouraging Alaska (; ; ; ; A semi - exclave of Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state It is the third - least populous and the most sparsely populated state , but by far the continent's most populous territory located the settlement of North America by way The Russians were the first Europeans to settle the area beginning in the 18th century , eventually establishing Russian America , which The expense and difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted its sale to the U.S. equivalent to $ million in ) , or approximately two cents per becoming organized as a territory on the smallest state economies in the country , Alaska 's per capita income is among the highest , owing , all of which it the highest of any U.S. state , The name "Alaska " ( ) was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer , "alaxsxaq " , meaning " the mainland " or , more literally , "the object towards which

the action of the sea is directed Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere what is today Southeast Alaska , Also in Southeast were the Haida , now well known for President Grover Cleveland , and later the U.S. Congress , granted them permission to settle the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Western and Southwestern Alaska are home the Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq live in what is now Southcentral Alaska and primarily known today for Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska According to this hypothesis , in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River , populated by "bearded men " who " pray The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the "St. Gabriel with sea otter pelts judged to be Between 1774 and 1800 , Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska to assert its claim In 1789 , a Spanish settlement and These expeditions gave names to places Later , the Russian-American Company carried out Sitka , renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867 in what is now Southeast Alaska It remained the capital after the colony The Russians never fully colonized Alaska , and the colony was never , negotiated the Alaska Purchase ( also also planned the sale ; the purchase Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged ; In the ceremony 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched " , where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised the military initially , and was administered as a district starting in which was Alaska's first municipal government , but the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners Alaska's capital , which had been Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that Kiska , all which were During the Japanese occupation , a white American civilian and and Kiska respectively , and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors Unalaska/Dutch Harbor and Adak became significant bases

The United States Lend-Lease program involved flying American warplanes through The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting 133 people and destroyed several villages and ( more than a thousand times as powerful spilling more than of crude oil It is technically part of the continental U.S. , but is sometimes not included in colloquial use ; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S. , often called " the Lower 48 " . making it the only state to border a Canadian territory ) ; , as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island is by far the largest state in the United States , and is more than twice the size which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover ( mostly Glacier ice covers about of Alaska The most populous region of Alaska , containing Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage , this is the region of Alaska closest As such , this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred as well as the Tongass National Forest , Denali National Park and Preserve is located here . Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some in the world , is here The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered The city of Utqiaġvik , formerly the northernmost city in the United States and is The Northwest Arctic area , anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley , is often regarded as being More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain , which stretches more than into drawn west of 180 ° to keep the whole state , and owned and managed by the U.S. federal government Alaska owns , its entitlement under ceded to the organized boroughs presented above , under the statutory provisions pertaining to These are not very popular Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings starting in 1991 were repealed Effectively , the corporations hold title ) but can not sell The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey ( AHRS ) is

a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites Alaska is not divided into counties , as most of which function somewhat similarly to However , unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states , the boroughs do not The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own , but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough which are centrally administered under Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of uses only two tiers — state/borough . Owing to the low population density , most As the name implies , it has no intermediate borough government but is administered , containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River , The state's most populous city is Anchorage , home is Denali ( $ 42,245 As reflected in the 2020 United States census , as " The Bush " and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network . the population , did not live CDPs have not been established except that seven CDPs were established Saxman East ) , but have not been used since . Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification both the wettest and warmest Juneau averages over of precipitation a year , and Ketchikan averages over The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to , and days tend to On average , Anchorage receives of precipitation a year , with there are areas in the south central in large part by the Bering Sea and and a continental subarctic climate farther north . The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i.e., the region around Kotzebue Sound ) is technically a desert , with portions receiving less than of precipitation annually . The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F ( the low - to - mid 30s ° C ) , while The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both

The highest is in Fort Yukon ( which is just inside making Alaska tied with Hawaii is Arctic ( ) with the population of Alaska was 736,081 ahead of North Dakota , Vermont , and Wyoming ( and Estimates show North Dakota ahead . Alaska is the least densely populated state , and , at , with the next state , Wyoming , at . Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area , and the tenth wealthiest ( per capita The 2019 American Community Survey estimated 60.2% of the population was non-Hispanic white , 3.7% Black or African American , 15.6% American Indian or Alaska Native , 6.5% , 7.5% two or more races , and 7.3% Hispanic or Latin American of the total population was foreign - born non-Hispanic white , 3.4% Black or African American , 13.3% American Indian or Alaska Native , 6.2% Asian , 0.9% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander , 0.3% some other race , and 7.7% multiracial Hispanics and Latin Americans were 7% Mexican Americans , Puerto Ricans , and ) , 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native , 5.4% Asian , 3.3% Black or African American , 1.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander , 1.6% from some other race , did not have two parents , 2.2% spoke another Indo-European language , Tagalog ) , and about 5.3% 83.7% spoke only English , and 16.3% spoke another language other than The most spoken European language after English was Spanish , spoken by approximately 4.0% of The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects . Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo – Aleut or Na - Dene language families ; however , some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida ) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic ) According to statistics collected by Of the religious population , 100,960 people Roughly 4% were Mormon , 0.5% Jewish , 0.5% Muslim , with 50,866 adherents ; non -

denominational Evangelicals with 38,070 adherents ; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with of the adult population practiced Christianity . Protestantism was the largest Christian tradition , dominated Mainline Protestants were the second largest Protestant Christian group , followed Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within whom observance of halakha may Alaskan Hindus often share venues and the Sri Ganesha Temple of Alaska , making it the first Hindu Temple in Alaska and the northernmost Hindu Temple in the world in Alaska range from 2,000 When completed , the mosque will be the first in the state The 2018 gross state product was $55 billion , 48th 2018 was $ 73,000 , and industries such as natural resource extraction Kodiak Island boroughs , as well the economy , allowing the state to Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum , natural gas There is also a growing service and tourism sector . Alaska has vast energy resources , although its oil reserves have been largely depleted , but according to the Energy Information Administration , by February 2014 Alaska had the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States , typically producing about , although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing The Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to of crude oil per in Alaska 's bituminous , sub - bituminous , and The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped , proposals special low-cost electric interties ) were judged uneconomical , 2001 ) due to , established by voters in Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale , out of fear that the legislature The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this , mostly due to From its initial principal of $ 734,000 Most if not all the principal is invested Starting in 1982 , dividends out each year to eligible Alaskans , as the distribution of payments was

held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme ) to $ 3,269 Every year , the state legislature takes out 3% back into the principal for has long been higher than Due to the northern climate and short growing season , relatively little farming occurs or on the Kenai Peninsula , about The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown , but the long sunny summer days The Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus , especially the Delta Junction area growing agronomic crops ; these farms mostly lie north and east of This area was largely set aside However , a small assortment of state and local fairs the largest ) , are feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as that is often cheaper within the state than outside it . while fishing for subsistence , as well as sport . Hunting for subsistence , primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is (the other 49 US states ) , and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively gathering is an essential activity because imported food Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline , the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high , because of the terrain and difficult road conditions , which change dramatically , as high as 50¢ per pound ( $ 1.10 / at all during such inclement weather and The cost of delivering a of where per capita income can be $ 20,000 or less World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks , the Blueberry Festival well as folk music brought by Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster , metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal . , though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was "The Chechahcos " , produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM's "Mala The Magnificent " , In 1932, an expedition set out from MGM's studios

film what was then billed they set up "Camp Hollywood " When " Eskimo " premiered " Eskimo " was critically acclaimed and released worldwide ; The 1983 Disney movie " Never Cry Wolf " was at least partially shot in The 1991 film "White Fang " , based on was filmed in and around Steven Seagal's 1994 " On Deadly Ground " , starring Michael Caine , The psychological thriller "Insomnia " , starring Al Pacino and Robin Williams , was The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn , " Into The Wild " , was partially filmed and set in Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there Northern Exposure " , set Alaska , was filmed in were not an official organization until 1941 Before the force was officially organized Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on "Public Safety Officers " who have police training but do the troopers serve as the only police force available " dry " , having Domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also this is in part linked The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in There are more than a dozen colleges and universities The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC , Many of its young people , including the state after high school graduation and do not return . , Alaska did not have a law school or , and campuses not meeting in oil revenues that previously propped Alaska has few road connections compared to The state's road system , covering a relatively small area of the state , linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway , the principal route out of The state capital , Juneau , is not accessible by road , only a car ferry ; this has spurred , an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel Built around 1915 , the Alaska Railroad ( It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that

passing through Anchorage , Eklutna The cities , towns , villages , and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as while transporting natural resources southward , such remains inaccessible by road ; also partly runs through the state British Columbia and Yukon Territory ) , This line is now mainly used by tourists , often arriving The Alaska Rail network is not connected to , British Columbia , several hundred miles to Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system ( known as the Alaska Marine Highway The ferries transport vehicles as well created a summertime tourism market , mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and , Cities not served by road can be reached only by , or snowmachine , accounting Anchorage and , to a lesser extent Fairbanks Because of limited highway access , air travel within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide , so they are heavily The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane . 2,507 Private , 1,496 Commercial , 2,180 Airline Transport , and Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled . , any time after the , but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race , a trail from year , the official distance is set The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine all other means of transportation had failed Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash , GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and , advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska . The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts , and habeas corpus . Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state , since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican - leaning .

Local political communities have often worked on Alaska Natives , while organized in and around their communities , have Six Republicans and four Democrats have served and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal The new law means people over 21 To finance state government operations , Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes , , gaming ( pull tabs , which has historically received The state government has had to drastically reduce its budget , and has 2016 to under $ 500   million by 2018 . presidential elections and has done so all but one election that it has participated in (1964 ) while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close . Republicans have carried the state by Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska , 59.49% The Alaska Bush , central Juneau , midtown surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have The measure passed by a margin of ( like in Washington state and like in Maine ) . Agriculture is the practice of cultivating of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago Pigs , sheep , and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped fuels and raw materials ( such ) , vegetables , fruits Modern agronomy , plant breeding , agrochemicals , and technological developments have sharply increased crop yields , but meat , but have raised Agriculture is both a cause of all of which can cause The word "agriculture " is a late Middle English adaptation or ' growing ' . While agriculture usually refers to and beetle have been cultivating , in its broadest sense using natural resources to " produce commodities which maintain life , including food to grow many times larger than could be sustained by From around 11,500 years ago , the eight Neolithic founder crops ,

emmer and einkorn wheat , hulled barley Southwest Asia , where wild boar were domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago , along of Africa by 7,000 years ago . by 5,600 years ago , and was independently domesticated in Eurasia . Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism ; BC ; seed - ploughs , vegetables such as lentils Staple food crops were grains such as industrial crops such as flax and In India , wheat , barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC , soon followed Cattle , sheep and goats BC there was a nationwide granary system and the 1st century BC , followed by irrigation Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago   – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used   – on the major cereals were wheat , emmer In the Americas , crops domesticated teosinte ) include squash , terraced hillsides , fertilized their soil , , as were the peanut , the East domesticated crops such as and a North American species , developed by to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation ; a A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters Indigenous Australians , long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers , practised systematic burning , possibly to enhance and fish trapping systems from There is evidence of ' Irrigation , crop rotation , and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution , allowing global population to , has seen large rises in , and assisted by synthetic fertilizers Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals . In shifting cultivation , a small area cutting and burning the trees . The cleared land is used for growing becomes too infertile , and and the process is repeated . where the forest regenerates quickly . family or local needs alone , with little left over for transport elsewhere Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity , with a low fallow ratio and increased water pollution , and often involved In recent years there has been

has been the European Union , which to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies , also known as decoupling . research in alternative technologies such as , are threatening food security in The International Fund for Agricultural Development posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally ; China was the largest in the world , followed by the European Union other primary activities ( such as fishing ) can be more than 80% in and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen for example , between 55 and 75 % of the population was engaged in agriculture ; by many countries employs the largest percentage of women Agriculture , specifically farming , remains a hazardous industry , and farmers work-related injuries , lung disease , noise-induced hearing loss , skin diseases , as well and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be hazardous to worker health , and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness commonly share in work and live on the farm itself , The International Labour Organization considers agriculture " one of the most hazardous of It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000 , twice the average rate related to agricultural activities often go has issued guidelines on implementing Shifting cultivation ( or slash and burn ) is a system , releasing nutrients to support Then the plot is left fallow the farmer moves to a new plot , grows , requiring the input of in which there is no fallow period Because of the low biodiversity , nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up , necessitating In subtropical and arid environments , the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall , either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year are grown ( coffee , chocolate ) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry . wool , and for work on feed source , as grassland

- based , mixed , and landless . , 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock , with the sector Between the 1960s and the 2000s , there both by numbers and by the latter of which had production Non-meat animals , such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens , also showed Global cattle , sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050 . During the second half of the 20th century , producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production , while mostly disregarding the need Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such Outside nutrient inputs may be used , however manure is returned directly areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil , representing 30–40 million pastoralists . crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach - linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member countries . Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied becomes a challenge as well as Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations , sometimes Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such prepare for planting , for Chemical ( pesticides ) , , and cultural practices are used Cultural practices include crop rotation , culling , cover crops , intercropping Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers , using cultural techniques such as crop rotation Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable , soil moisture to use for growing Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects Crop alteration has been practiced by Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop , for example , larger fruits or seeds , drought-tolerance , His work on dominant and recessive alleles , although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years , gave plant breeders a better understanding of

Domestication of plants has , improved disease resistance and drought tolerance , eased harvest and improved the taste and Careful selection and breeding have had and 1930s improved pasture ( grasses and clover ) in to sharply increase yield by the US have increased from around 2.5 tons ha ) ( 40 bushels per about 9.4 t / ha ( 150 bushels Similarly , worldwide average wheat yields have increased 1900 to more than 2.5 t / ha , African under 1 t / ha , and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t / ha with irrigation countries such as France is organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available Increased durability , nutritional content , insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred Currently a global treaty , the Biosafety Protocol , Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to a crop that can be sprayed comes an increase in the use of In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed , causing farmers to switch Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops , which have a gene ) , which produces a toxin Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross - pollination with wild species insecticides , especially those used on insecticides ) , nutrient runoff , £ 2,343   million , or £ 208 per hectare ( $ 30 to $ while livestock production imposes $ 714 Both studies , which focused solely on the fiscal impacts , concluded that more should be done to and to reduce costs . Yield increases with inputs such competitors ( such as weeds farm units , such as making fields larger ; this means removing hedges , ditches and that " Livestock are one 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured all human-induced methane ( which is 23 times ; in the Amazon basin 70% of

previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for Furthermore , the UNEP states that " methane emissions from global livestock are projected to increase by to yield goods and services the Earth's ecosystems , and is the driving force transformed by humans vary from Land degradation , the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity , is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide , with , leads to fish kills , renders water unfit for drinking Excessive fertilization and manure application to high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient ( mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse the western US are being depleted , water resources by industry and urban areas , meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing to 2.5million short tons annually worldwide , yet crop loss from pests has three million pesticide poisonings occur annually , causing " save the environment " and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming , a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website : ' Growing more per acre leaves more land for However , critics argue that for food is not inevitable , and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation and heat waves ) ; changes ; changes in the nutritional quality of , with effects unevenly distributed Future climate change will probably negatively affect effects in northern latitudes may be Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 , high levels of erosion and There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices ; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered A solution would be to give Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make , a farming process which helps prevent The International Food Policy Research Institute states that agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other ; using a model that

assessed how eleven technologies could impact that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices increased dramatically , due largely Between the 1960s and the 1980s , the Green Revolution with world grain production increasing significantly ( between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% In particular , the production of nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half 1979 , and has since Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off -farm processing , packaging , Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production , distribution Combining agricultural production with general theories of , and grew significantly through relatively recent , major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies , food costs attributed to food processing , sometimes referred to as the value chain , have risen while the costs attributed to farming have the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products ) have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world . However , there was still mainly due to taxation . the most taxation , but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation such as cotton , still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices , causing hardship Unprocessed commodities such as corn , soybeans , and cattle are , affecting the price the producer receives Research became more systematic when Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments some of them , such as the Park Grass Experiment , are still 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science " , driven ( including policies related to ) , economic stability ( including especially water policy ) , research and Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality , ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality , food security , ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs , and conservation . Political action groups , including those interested also provide influence , as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities .

international efforts to defeat hunger and , states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment published short stories and poetry and edited the literary magazine "Oxford Poetry " , before going on to publish and universalism , addressing these subjects " ( 1945)—which illustrates commonalities between Western and Eastern mysticism — and " The Doors of Perception " ( 1954)—which interprets " The Cornhill Magazine " , and his first wife , Julia Arnold , who and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister Julia named him Aldous after and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog " ) His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley "Ogie " , short for who frequently " [ contemplated Huxley , being financially indebted to his father , decided to ( who was to take the pen name George Orwell ) and Steven Runciman being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep and began writing seriously in was his fifth novel and first dystopian work . There he met several Bloomsbury Group figures , ( 1921 ) he caricatured Jobs were very scarce , but in 1919 John Middleton Murry was reorganising the "Athenaeum " and invited Huxley to join the staff . He accepted immediately , and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys , also Italy part of the time during the 1920s , where Huxley would most famously "Brave New World " , and on " Eyeless in Gaza " , son Matthew Huxley , and his death , and also for , where he wrote " Ends and Means " ( published in Jiddu Krishnamurti , whose teachings he greatly an enduring exchange ( sometimes edging on with Krishnamurti representing the more rarefied, detached, ivory-tower perspective and Huxley also became a Vedantist in Not long afterwards , Huxley The novel won Huxley a British literary award , and His Disciple " , states that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and In March 1938 , Huxley's friend Anita Loos " which was originally to star Greta Garbo and be directed ( Eventually , the film was

Pride and Prejudice " ( 1940 ) based on " Alice's Adventures in Maria applied for United States citizenship and When Huxley refused to bear arms for the U.S. and would not state that his objections were was invited by Professor Huston Smith to be the Carnegie Visiting Professor of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( Biographer Harold H. Watts wrote that Huxley's writings in the "final and extended period of his life " are " the work of a man who the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to persuasion ; the tendency to promote , summarizing a paper he had presented in Santa Barbara , he wrote , " What I said was that if we did n't pretty quickly start rather than in terms of power politics we should very soon Biographer Milton Birnbaum wrote that Huxley " ended by embracing both science and In his last book , " Literature and Science " , Huxley wrote that " The ethical and philosophical implications of modern science are In "A Philosopher's Visionary Prediction , " published one month before he died , " writing that " We must learn how to be mentally silent , we must [ T]he individual must learn to decondition himself , must be , founded and headed by and the West " , published Huxley also occasionally lectured at released on CD : " Knowledge and Understanding " and " Who Are We ? Doctor Humphry Osmond , a British psychiatrist then employed asked him to supply a dose " , in which he recounted this experience , Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and may have caused the relationship to cool , but Huxley continued Huxley wrote that " The mystical experience is doubly valuable ; it is valuable because it gives the experiencer a better understanding of himself and the world and because it may help him to lead a less self-centered and more creative life Circa 1939 , Huxley encountered the Bates method , in which he was instructed by Margaret Darst Corbett .

Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and He reported that , for was able to read without glasses and without strain . He even tried driving a car " , which was published It was , and is , widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness that had enabled him to present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet , wearing no glasses and without difficulty : " Then suddenly he faltered — and To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to When it was only an inch or so away he still could n't read it , and had to fish make the typing visible to him Brazilian author João Ubaldo Ribeiro , who as a young journalist the late 1950s , wrote that Huxley had said to him , can hardly see at all Laura Archera , later emphasised in her biographical account , " This Timeless Moment " having regained his sight " . After revealing a letter she wrote to the "Los Angeles Times " disclaiming the label can hardly see " by with , " Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind , it is true there were many indications of did not wear glasses , he would quite often use , is that it is not constant , but highly Mind Wide Open " , quotes Huxley " I am and , for as long as I can remember , I have , do not evoke pictures When I recall something , They had one child , Matthew Huxley also an author , as well as She wrote " This Timeless Moment " that followed , with his health deteriorating , he wrote the Utopian novel "Island " , and gave both at the UCSF Medical Center and at The most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers , following , is at the Library of the University of California , On 9 April 1962 Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature

On his deathbed , unable to speak owing to advanced laryngeal cancer , Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for "LSD , 100 µg , intramuscular . " led by his elder brother Julian . Huxley had been a long-time friend of Algae (; singular alga ) is , a large brown alga which may grow up to in length . Most are aquatic and autotrophic ( they generate food internally One definition is that algae " Likewise , the colorless "Prototheca " under "Chlorophyta " are all devoid Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as "blue-green algae " , do not include a common ancestor , and although their plastids seem to have a single origin , from cyanobacteria , they were acquired in that have primary chloroplasts derived from Diatoms and brown algae are examples land plants , such as the phyllids Most are phototrophic , although some are mixotrophic , deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by Some unicellular species of green algae , many golden algae and other algae have become heterotrophs ( also called colorless or apochlorotic algae ) , sometimes parasitic , relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus Some other heterotrophic organisms , such as the apicomplexans , are also derived from but are not traditionally considered Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived include cattle feed , using algae other chemicals used in industrial processes , The singular is the Latin word for ' Although some speculate that it ' be cold ' , The Ancient Greek word for ' seaweed ' was ( ) , which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae ) or a red dye derived from it . The Latinization , meant primarily the cosmetic rouge . The etymology is uncertain , but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical ( ) , ' paint ' ( if not that word itself ) , a cosmetic eye-shadow used by Accordingly , the modern study of marine and freshwater algae

is called either phycology or algology , depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used that are no longer photosynthetic only four are currently considered among 1744–1774 ) published the "Historia Fucorum " W. H. Harvey ( 1811–1866 ) and Lamouroux ( 1813 ) were the first to divide macroscopic algae discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., O. F. Müller and Ehrenberg ) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms ) . clearly viewed as plants , microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile ) , euglenophytes , and most groups of algae (sometimes all ) later also abandoned in favour Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae "Prototheca " and "Helicosporidium parasites of plants ) were " incertae sedis " , while others (e.g., the green algae "Phyllosiphon " and "Rhodochytrium " , parasites of plants , or the red algae "Pterocladiophila " and "Gelidiocolax mammillatus " , parasites of ) had their relationship with algae originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., "Chlorochytrium " ) , but later Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., "Beggiatoa " ) were much like "Chara " almost 500 million years ago generations and were probably filamentous in unrelated groups is common . The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns , of these groups : the florideophyte reds , various browns , and The form of charophytes is quite and browns , because they have distinct nodes , separated by internode 'stems ' ; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur or amoeboids , but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several organization have been reached , These are the brown algae,—some of which ( kelps)—the red algae , and the green algae ( see Charales and Charophyta ) , in a lineage that eventually led The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is to be " an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure " . The fungi , or mycobionts , a few from the Basidiomycota . In nature they do not

It is unknown when they One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species , rarely except that alternatively , the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont " is the more accurate term many different mycobionts or may live independently ; accordingly , lichens are The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone ( they can be experimentally worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised of marine invertebrates of the order the coral-forming marine invertebrates , where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide endosymbiotic algae from the genus "Symbiodinium " to , breadcrumb sponges ( "Halichondria panicea Rhodophyta , Chlorophyta , and Heterokontophyta , the three main algal divisions , have lifecycles which show considerable variation and In general , an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid , a sexual phase where the cells are haploid , followed by fusion of Commonly , in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae , two specialized , sexually compatible , haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form To ensure a successful mating , the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated ; However , sexual reproduction is more The "Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium " ( located in the National Museum of Natural History ) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens , which , although not exhaustive ( no exhaustive collection exists ) , gives an idea one standard textbook , in the British Isles the "UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report " estimated there to be and so on , but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources , fairly well studied since the founding Algae spread mainly by the dispersal This dispersal can be accomplished by Due to this , spores in or on other organisms . mainly by running water and wind , as well as limits the algae that can survive algae is subject to floristic discontinuities

caused by geographical features , such as Antarctica , long distances of It is , therefore , possible to identify species occurring When they occur out of their localities , hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible , such as Mapping is possible for select species only : " there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns . " " is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of as insufficient due to the "difficulties , under deep ; however , some such as "Navicula pennata " have been recorded to A type of algae , "Ancylonema nordenskioeldii " , was found in Microscopic forms that live suspended in indicator organisms to monitor pollution in Due to this , the species composition of algal populations may shift in used both for " algae " and ( in the modest tradition Agar , a gelatinous substance derived from Alginic acid , or alginate , Alginic acid also has been used To be competitive and independent equal or beat the cost level of Today , algae are used or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds . Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source Asia , leading some to rich in iodine , potassium considered a vegetable ; Japan , over 20 species such as "nori " it is known as ; Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients " is very high in Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain DHA ) and eicosapentaenoic acid the original source is algae ( microalgae in particular ) , which are eaten by marine life such Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff using a horizontal algae scrubber , also called netting where algae colonies can form They found that algae can readily be used to reduce Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae just as well using ATS organic fertilizer ' " ) is a collection such as the "variation " among and between groups ) used in a particular variable is partitioned into

components attributable to different sources of Around 1800 , Laplace and Gauss then used in astronomy and Laplace knew how to estimate a variance from a residual ( from reaction times (the "personal equation " ) and had developed methods of reducing The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding A dog show is not a random sampling of adult , pure - bred A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex , like the yellow-orange distribution shown Suppose we wanted to predict One way to do that is to " explain " the distribution groups are identified as " divided according to the product (interaction ) of two binary groupings : young vs old , and short - haired vs long - haired ( e.g. , group 1 is young, short-haired dogs , group 2 is young, long-haired dogs , etc Since the distributions of dog weight within , and since the means are grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain which group a dog is in does n't allow us to predict its weight much better than simply knowing the dog is in a dog show An attempt to explain the weight distribution by and " less athletic vs more athletic " would probably big, strong, working breeds , while breeds kept smaller and thus lighter . As shown by the second illustration , considerably smaller than in the first case " X"1 and "X"2 reliably An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards and Pointers does not justify The fixed-effects model ( class I ) of analysis of variance applies to to see whether the response variable values used when the treatments are not This occurs when the various factor levels are Teaching experiments could be performed by with each text considered a treatment . The random-effects model would determine whether important differences studied from several approaches , the

most common of which uses Note that the model is linear This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out by Oscar Kempthorne at Iowa State University . The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually can not be directly falsified , However , many "consequences " of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified . unit-treatment additivity " implies " that the variance is constant for all treatments of " unit treatment additivity " to produce a "derived linear model " , very similar to the textbook model discussed previously , according to approximation theorems and However , there are differences For example , the randomization - based analysis results in " no assumption " of a "normal" distribution and certainly "no assumption " of " involves tedious algebra and extensive time . Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model , most teachers emphasize However , when applied to confidence intervals must use "subjective" models , as emphasized by Ronald Fisher and treatment-effects from observational studies generally are that change variances rather than means ( called dispersion effects ) have been successfully conducted using The property of unit-treatment additivity is not " , so statisticians often If the response variable is expected , then the statistician may specify or observational study ) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance which only the difference in outcomes is Adding a constant to all observations does not alter significance . Multiplying all observations by a constant does not alter significance . So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in was common to subtract a equivalent to dropping leading digits ) means and variances , dividing the sum of squares ( SS ) , the result is called the mean square (MS ) and the squared terms are of squares "SS " into components related to the effects used The " F"-test is used formula 20 degrees of freedom . ( where formula 22 is the treatment sample size

The ANOVA " F"-test is known to be nearly optimal in the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect , the "F"-test's "p"-values closely approximate the permutation test's p-values when the design is balanced . against all alternative hypotheses , as observed can be used individually . Regression is first used to then ANOVA is used to selecting simple(r ) models that " Such models could be fit but ANOVA tools could then be the fitted models , and to test The simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is : Graeco-Latin squares , etc . a series of single factor experiments and the efficiency The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance . The ability to detect interactions is Caution is advised when encountering interactions ; Test interaction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA if Neither the calculations of significance nor the estimated treatment effects " A significant interaction will often mask Regression is often useful . with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication ( possibly no replication and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically ( or practically ) while other analysis is performed after Early experiments are often designed to Reporting sample size analysis is generally required and the process that led to less formal methods for selecting the number of to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume proposed for ANOVA to summarize Sometimes tests are conducted to determine whether the assumptions of ANOVA appear to be violated . order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or terms of whether they are " planned " ( a priori ) or " post The follow-up tests may be "simple" pairwise comparisons of individual group means or may be "compound" comparisons ( e.g. , comparing Comparisons can also look at tests of trend , such for each treatment ) are relatively easy to interpret ; unbalanced experiments

is easy , but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power . " The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply . is much more difficult than of variance can also be then the sums of squares , mean squares , and "F"-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation are ANOVA is ( in part ) a test of statistical significance . a special case of linear regression which in turn is a special case of the general linear model Linearly re - order the data so that formula 25-th observation is associated with a response formula 26 and factors formula 27 where formula 28 denotes the different factors and formula 29 is the total number of factors In one-way ANOVA formula 30 and in Furthermore , we assume the formula 32-th factor has formula 33 levels , namely formula 34 in the vector formula 36 and then We simply regress response formula 26 against the vector formula 46 However , there is a concern In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of is equal to zero . or paraffin ( a historical trivial name that also has other meanings ) , in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) defines alkanes as "acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula , and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms " In an alkane , each carbon atom is sp3 - hybridized with 4 sigma bonds Nevertheless , most alkanes do not Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear , The third group is sometimes called cycloalkanes Image : Saturated C4 hydrocarbons ball-and-stick.png|thumb|right| C4 alkanes and cycloalkanes ( left to right ): " n"-butane and isobutane are the two C4H10 isomers ; cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are the two C4H8 alkane isomers . Branched alkanes can be chiral . its higher homologues are chiral due to

their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3 . Such compounds are called cycloalkanes , and are also excluded from the above list because changing the number of The IUPAC nomenclature ( systematic way of naming compounds ) for alkanes is based vowels a , e , to create suffixes -ane , -ene , -ine ( or -yne ) , -one , -une , for the hydrocarbons C"n"H2"n"+2 , the prefix " n- " or " n"-"(for " normal " ) where a non-linear isomer exists . Although this is not strictly necessary and is not part still common in cases where one wishes to emphasize or , " " n"-butane " rather than simply " butane " to differentiate it from Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to " -o " ) from Hence, pentane , C5H12 ; hexane Though technically distinct from the alkanes referred to by some as Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix " cyclo- " to distinguish them from Cycloalkanes are named as per e.g., cyclopentane (C5H10 ) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like pentane ( C5H12 ) , but they are joined up in a five-membered ring The trivial (non-systematic) name for alkanes is ' been retained due to familiar usage Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins . alkanes are gaseous ; from liquids ; and after C18H38 As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight , it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher That is , ( all other things being equal ) the larger This rigid structure requires energy to break Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to be seen from the graph above This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase , forming a well-organized structure , which requires more energy The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to they substantially polarized by an electric field

not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule , high , a property that is remains less than that of as sp3 hybrids , that is to say that , to a good approximation , the valence electrons are in ≈   109.47 ° . a hydrogen ; the latter by The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar they are tetrahedrally arranged , with an angle of 109.47 ° The structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the atoms or groups bound to of 120 ° between them attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0 ° and is low compared to the thermal energy complex but based on similar principles , with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon diagrams or in models . , and carbon–hydrogen bonds , and The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960   cm−1 , while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300   cm−1 . The carbon –hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature " δ"C = 8–30 (primary, methyl ) , 20–60 ( tertiary , methyne , C – H ) and quaternary . the molecular ion is usually weak . The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret , but , in The acid dissociation constant ( p"K"a) values of all alkanes are estimated , hence they are extremely weak acids that are practically inert to bases ( see : carbon acids They are also extremely weak bases , ) , although superacids that are at least millions of times stronger have been known to protonate them to give hypercoordinate alkanium ions ( see : methanium ion ) Similarly , they only show reactivity with the strongest of electrophilic reagents (e.g., dioxiranes and salts containing ~90 kcal/mol , but usually less sterically accessible ) , they are also relatively unreactive toward free radicals , although many electron-deficient radicals will of other electron-rich bonds ( see below

" ( with the meaning here cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and involving free radical intermediates , in particular are possible as the carbon atoms are in its lowest possible oxidation state ( −4 ) Reaction with oxygen ( " if " present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction stoichiometry ) leads producing carbon dioxide and water . 109.5 ° ) to accommodate , known as steric hindrance or However , in general and perhaps surprisingly , when branching is not extensive enough to make highly disfavorable 1,2- and 1,3-alkyl – alkyl steric interactions ( worth ~3.1 kcal / mol and ~3.7 kcal / mol in and pentane , respectively ) unavoidable , the branched alkanes are actually more thermodynamically stable than their linear (or less branched) isomers about 1.9 kcal / mol more stable , the exact reasons for this rule have and is yet unsettled . Several explanations , including stabilization of electrostatic effects have been advanced as The standard enthalpy change of combustion , Δc"H"⊖ , for alkanes increases by ( usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites ) , which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement , C – C scission in position beta ( i.e. , cracking ) and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer ) are permanently regenerated , and thus they proceed by Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization Isomerization and reformation are processes not lose any carbons or hydrogens cycloalkanes or aromatic hydrocarbons , giving off hydrogen as a by-product . Alkanes can be chlorosulfonated and nitrated , although both reactions require chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons Nucleophilic Abstraction can be used to one compound to another by transmetalation reactions 1.99% methane , 2.5 ppm ethane ) and Neptune ( 1.5% methane , 1.5 ppm ethane Titan ( 1.6% methane ) , a satellite of Saturn , was examined by the "Huygens" probe , which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains Also on Titan the Cassini mission has

Methane and ethane have also Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal , which is thought to imply that its ices formed the Sun , which would have These hydrocarbon deposits , collected in porous rocks and once exhausted can not , so the content in the oceans is negligible ; however , such as at the bottom of the oceans ) , methane can co - crystallize with water to form a solid methane clathrate (methane hydrate ) Although this can not be termites , is also due Methanogenic archaea are , hence , with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been if a minor role , Some specialized yeasts , e.g. , " Candida tropicale " , "Pichia" sp . , "Rhodotorula" sp . , can odd - numbered , between 27 and 33 made by the plants by decarboxylation The Jeffrey pine is noted for producing , for which reason its distillate was Floral scents have also long been and " n"-nonane is a significant component , although they are less One example is the shark liver oil , which is approximately 14% pristane ( 2,6,10,14 - tetramethylpentadecane , C19H40 ) . , chemical messenger materials , on which , 3-methylpentaicosane ( C26H54 ) " Glossina morsitans morsitans " , the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C18H38 ) , and acts by One example , in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role , is the ecological relationship ) ; the latter is dependent for pollination on the to identify a mate ; in ( C23H48 ) , pentacosane 3:3:1 , and males are to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen ; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also As stated earlier , the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and The Fischer–Tropsch process is a method to synthesize Alkanes or alkyl groups can also This hydrogenation reaction is typically performed using a powdered metal catalyst , such as palladium The reaction is exothermic because the product alkane

treated with sodium in dry ether to yield an alkane having double the number Methane and ethane are the main components It is , however , Propane and butane are gases liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas ( , butane in space heaters and From pentane to octane the alkanes vaporize easily on entry into are much less prone to This propensity to premature ignition is , where 2,2,4 - trimethylpentane ( " isooctane " ) Alkanes from nonane to , for instance , hexadecane (an alkane of higher viscosity , less and They form instead the major part of , cetane being an old name for the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating as their hydrophobic nature means that water can not reach the metal surface . Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms used , for example , Some synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene are alkanes with chains Alkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as This inertness yields serious ecological issues if There are , however , some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize Methane is flammable , explosive because it is a colorless, odorless gas , Ethane is also extremely flammable Propane , too , is flammable and explosive , and may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness such as " de novo " Depending on the particular legal rules that apply a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to These grounds typically could include errors The specific procedures for appealing , including even whether there is a right decision , can vary greatly A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error " " , and a party on the other side is called an "appellee " trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay The appellant is the party who , in a lower court decision , is appealing to a higher court to have their case either the plaintiff ( or claimant )

The winning party from the lower court , however , is now the respondent . An appeal " as of right " is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle The appellate court can not refuse to or "permission " requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal ; in such a situation either or may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal . the state or prosecution generally has no appeal " as of right And due to the double jeopardy principle , the state or prosecution may never But in some jurisdictions , the state or prosecution may appeal " as of right " from or in part or from the state or prosecution may appeal The ability of the prosecution to appeal the appellant is named first . This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals the law reports reverses ( in some cases twice ) as the appeals work This is not always true The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal Relief in post - conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases . with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal all other orders or rulings made by This is because such orders can not be appealed " as to higher state appellate courts , and if unsuccessful , mount a "collateral" action such habeas corpus in the federal courts . Generally speaking , " [ d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity [ Collateral review ] , on sentence , and as such ( no . 04–4103 ) lower court decisions may also be obtained After exhausting the first appeal as of the highest state court to review the decision . The highest state court , generally known as whether it will review the case An appellant's claim(s ) must usually be

to object to the error when , appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected counsel and actual innocence based on These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal , however some states allow An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as That is , it goes a form or document that in many cases is required to begin exactly how the appeal is officially The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short : in days , not months as within a country , depending Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not . it " affirms " the judgment ( i.e. , in the lower court ) , it may " modify " the ruling to correct the defect , or it may nullify ( " reverse " or " vacate " ) review a lower court decision "de novo " ( or completely ) , challenging Another situation is where appeal is by way of " re in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal has the same effect as affirming the judgment , together with any written evidence that ) can present arguments against if represented , or " pro se " if the party has not engaged legal representation . and sometimes in oral argument to not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it A trial de novo is usually available by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of If unchallenged , these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once generally has the power to request In such a proceeding , all issues and evidence may be developed newly , as though never heard before , and one is not restricted to the evidence heard " trial de novo " effectively erases

the prior trial as if it had The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that ' " This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to " annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been The only exception to this is that a decision in a judicial proceeding , both to base their arguments wholly on the higher court that the result they desired succeed , the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error , that is , an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust , and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly . Some examples of reversible error would be applicable to the case , permitting or excluding evidence improperly , to do so , juror In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of an " abuse of discretion deference to the lower court's view of the evidence , and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid , or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered . there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have Another issue suitable for appeal in After an appeal is heard , the "mandate " is a formal notice of the trial court and , when filed , which sets out the legal reasoning There can be multiple outcomes , so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings , reverse others and remand the case all at the same time Remand is not required where there is nothing left to Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back not to say anything . the first pleading by a defendant , usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or