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used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without Also , some tribes , such and Logo , will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets , The titular character of " Arthur " , an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by of its long nose resembling the animal . its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground In the US Navy , the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks , flying F-4s The aardwolf ("Proteles cristata " ) is an insectivorous mammal in the family Hyaenidae , native Its name means " earth-wolf " It is also called "maanhaar-jackal " (Afrikaans for " mane-jackal " ) , "termite-eating hyena " and "civet hyena " , based its anal gland , a characteristic shared with the order Carnivora , the aardwolf does not It eats insects and their larvae , mainly termites ; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue . eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with the hyena family Hyaenidae , though it was formerly placed in its own family Early on , scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena , which subsequently led The generic name "proteles " comes from two words " and "teleos " which combined means " complete in that they have five toes on with a more slender muzzle , black vertical stripes on to make the aardwolf appear larger It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have . The aardwolf is about long , about long , and stands about tall at the shoulders . An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching tend to be smaller ( about)than the eastern version ( around ) The front feet have five toes each , The teeth and skull are similar though smaller , and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects , but , unlike other hyenas , these teeth are used primarily bushland , avoiding mountainous areas .

Due to their specific food requirements , they where termites of the family Hodotermitidae dead and withered grass and are most populous There are two distinct populations : one Aardwolves are shy and nocturnal They will , on occasion as monogamous pairs with their young up to or to the border If the intruder is caught , which rarely happens , a fight will occur , which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking , and mating season , when they can occur once or twice per , as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared within their territory every 20 minutes or so , the marking frequency increases and numerous feces middens , within Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark , or on occasion they are crevices in rocks . , or enlarge dens started They typically will only use through all of their dens every six months Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at Therefore , when threatened , the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on If confronted , it may and more specifically on "Trinervitermes " Trinervitermes bettonianus " , in Trinervitermes rhodesiensis " , and Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to and also from the scent secreted or consume the entire colony , thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild scarce , so the need for seek out "Hodotermes mossambicus " , a type of harvester termite active in not scavenge or kill larger animals do not eat carrion , and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass , they are actually eating Also , contrary to some sources meat , unless it is finely ground or cooked for The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups , but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers , necessary Their primary source , " Trinervitermes " The breeding season varies depending on location their own territory , as well as others , for a female to

Dominant males also mate opportunistically with Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches , their tricks inside of the other territories , sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own . Females will also , when given the opportunity , mate with two to five cubs ( most often two ( November–December ) , when termites are more active . open , but initially are helpless , and weigh around The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for supervised foraging , and by four months are normally independent , though they often share a den with By the time the next set of cubs is born , the older cubs have The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread They are not common throughout , if food is abundant Because of these factors , the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern . persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock ; however , they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental recognized this , but they are still killed , on Spanish for " mudbrick " such as the Southwestern United States , the term is used to refer to Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking . They can be subsequently assembled There is no standard size , with In some areas a popular size measured weighing about ; in other contexts the size is weighing about . extremely durable , and account known to be particularly susceptible Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world ( Middle East eighth century BCE onwards ) . The word "adobe " has existed " ( with vowels unwritten Demotic or " pre - Coptic " , and finally to Coptic (c. 600   BC ) , where it appeared as " aṭ - ṭawbu " or " aṭ - ṭūbu " , with the definite article " al- " attached .

" tuba " , This " adobe " , probably an organic material such as straw or Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly , thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay , 10–30% silt and coarser particles up to No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays , Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through Adobe walls are load bearing , i.e. rather than by another structure , hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength in2 ( 2.07 newton / mm2 Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads . The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load and bending and inducing tensile stresses In addition to being an inexpensive material the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical , the high thermal mass of adobe mediates and from the surrounding air (convection ) before they warm through to After the sun sets and the temperature drops , the warm wall will continue for several hours due to the time-lag effect Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for inertia , and conclude that a longer period of time than usual - preferably with facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft2 °F/Btu in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 ft °F ) or 0.57 W/(m K ) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported , scale R0 by the thickness ft °F ) or 0.52 W/(m K ) Btu/(lb ° F ) or Btu/(ft3 °F ) or 1700 kJ/(m3 K ) ) , today called "cob " , is made by rather than by making individual dried bricks Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture The same mixture , without straw , the mixture is pressed , adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size , provided drying is even Straw , cement , or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can

To do so , a sample It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers . Heavier particles settle out first , sand above , silt above that , and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension After the water has cleared , Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed , as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick , respectively . Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength . When creating window and door openings , a lintel the opening to support the bricks above bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls , finishes or stucco can be applied , but need to be Alternatively , the walls can be The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using Depending on the materials available , a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across to air dry accordingly . The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed The heaviest wooden beams , called vigas , Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is To construct a flat adobe roof , beams of wood were laid to span the building , the ends of Once the vigas , latillas and brush are laid , adobe bricks bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered Three inches of adobe mud was applied then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to a downspout aka a 'canal '

When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create The construction of a chimney can greatly Local ordinances , referencing the UBC added requirements These included : restriction of which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity The largest structure ever made from adobe that is typically bold , Adventures may be activities with some potential for physical danger such as traveling , exploring , skydiving river rafting or participating in Adventurous experiences create psychological arousal , which can be interpreted as negative ( e.g. fear ) or positive ( e.g. flow ) a major pursuit in and of itself Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for : examples are adventure racing and Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge , such to draw global sustainability lessons from living the hero or main character going to face the wilderness or Mother Nature . Examples include books such as , whether it be a skill The genre's focus on story allows it to draw heavily from other narrative-based media explorers have written about their adventures Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written , such or Mark Twain's " Roughing It Others were personal journals , only later published , such as There are also books written written by those participating in the adventure but in a format other There are many sports classified as to their inherent danger and excitement . Adventure sports has fast caught up the Indian sub continent because of innumerable rivers that course through the expansive Gangetic Plains , and and has attracted Trekkers and lovers of nature Indian himalayas are the source The himalayan mountain ranges of The list is endless and options The Himalayas that stretch from north-west a number of high rise peaks that are considered ideal for mountaineering . variously described as part of its own right , located primarily in The continent , which has long been home to the majority of is a historical and cultural construct , as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them .

It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in reflects East – West cultural , linguistic , and ethnic differences , some of which vary on a spectrum rather than being the largest economies in the world from the ancient culture of India personified Asia , attracting European commerce , exploration particularly East Asia ) as well as overall population growth has since fallen . dating back to classical antiquity — may actually have more to Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to , Asia and Africa has , due to Greek geographers such along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea ) , a convention still followed by revised , and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the Tanais ( when Peter the Great , king of published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as The border had been moved perforce which the Ural River projects . , being wholly part of Oceania The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania , devised in the 19th century , have The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been there ( not all European Lewis and Wigen assert , " the Ancient Greeks , being imposed onto other cultures , an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means . Asia ) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them Geographically , Asia is the major eastern constituent Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass Asia , Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass — Afro-Eurasia ( except for the Suez Canal)—and share The idea of a place called "Asia " was originally a concept of Greek civilization , though this might not correspond to the entire continent currently where it has the same form , Whether "Asia " in other languages comes from Latin of the Roman Empire is much less certain , uncertain , though several theories have One of the first classical writers to use and alphabetic writing had not begun Prior to then in the Bronze Age

the records of the Assyrian Empire , mention a region undoubtedly Asia , certainly in Anatolia , including if not identical to Lydia . unknown agents , though one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time The burning of the palaces caused the clay tablets holding the Mycenaean administrative records to be preserved A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at The epithet " lawiaiai " , "captives " , associated One in particular , " aswiai " , identifies " Perhaps they were captured in Asia , but some others , to have been of Miletus , a Greek colony , which would not have been raided for the locations where these foreign women were purchased This "Aswia " appears to have been a remnant of a region known This name , " Assuwa " , has been suggested as Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to The Romans named a province Asia , located There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major Greek , it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία , but ancient transitions , , are difficult to catch who were all Greek . , not because he innovated it , but because his "Histories " are the earliest surviving prose to describe He defines it carefully , mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read , but whose works are Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were " given to a tract which is in reality one " ( Europa , Asia , and Libya , referring to Africa ) , stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia but that the Lydians say it son of Cotys , who passed the name on to a tribe The Iliad ( attributed by the ancient Greeks ( the tribe that replaced the Luvians named Asios ( an adjective meaning " Asian " ) ; and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in them developing around fertile river valleys . and the Yellow River shared many similarities . These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as

Other innovations , such as writing , seem to have been developed individually in each area . by horse-mounted nomads who could reach The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is South Asia , and the borders of The northernmost part of Asia , including owing to the dense forests , climate The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and that the steppe horsemen could cross only While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially , in many cases they could do little in the 13th century , an area extending would eventually take control of the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards . China and established the Qing dynasty . ) , and has the longest coastline are transcontinental countries lying partly in the Arabian Desert stretches across much of , among others , by Climates range from arctic and Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on forcing the formation of a thermal low which A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio , economic and environmental indicators , which identified The Asian countries of Bangladesh , India Some shifts are already occurring . ) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable , while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers . and is the fastest growing economic region . , the largest economies in Asia are China based on GDP in both dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia : Hong Kong , Singapore have been growing rapidly , both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8% " The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective " , India Historically , India was the largest economy the two millennia from the 1st until 19th century , contributing second - largest of any single nation the Soviet Union ( measured in net material product ( NB : A number of supernational economies are larger , such Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method ) as

is rich in natural resources , Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia , particularly in China Japan and South Korea continue to , but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads . According to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and They are Bangladesh , China Call centers and business process outsourcing ( BPOs ) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to out on the sea routes that are , from there to Djibouti and around Spain and France is on the one hand still under construction and on the other hand is worth over US$1 million excluding their homes ) , slightly below North America Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity " continued moving east . East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index ( HDI ) improvement of the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades , also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than 7 in the world , which is in the "very high human development" category ) , followed by Singapore ( 9 Most Asian countries have more than one language that is Ethnologue , more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia , more than 800 languages spoken in Asia , including the five most practiced in the world which are Christianity , Islam , Hinduism , Chinese folk religion ( classified as Confucianism and Taoism ) , Asian mythology is complex and diverse , as presented to Jews Noah — and later to to Muslims in the Quran — Judaism , the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths , is practiced primarily the Hebrew nation : which today consists ; though various diaspora communities persist worldwide ( 75.6% ) numbering at about 6.1 million , although the levels of

adherence to Jewish religion vary . Outside of Israel there are 14.4–17.5 million ( 2016, est . ) Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion ; it are prevalent minority denominations , which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people Islam , which originated in the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia , followed , India ( 10% ) Mecca , Medina and Jerusalem of Muslim devotees from all over , and spread from there because Baháʼí activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions The religions of Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism and Sikhism originated However , it is mostly Sri Lanka and Bali , Indonesia ( 33–51% ) , Taiwan India and in overseas Indian communities such The polymath Rabindranath Tagore , a Bengali poet, dramatist , and became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate . his prose works and poetic thought had on Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata ( Japan , Gao Xingjian (China , 2000 ) , Orhan Pamuk (Turkey , 2006 ) , and Mo Yan Also , Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize She is a Buddhist and was " his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money . one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by Aruba ( , ) is a territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands physically located in the mid - south of It measures long from its Collectively , these and the other three Dutch substantial islands

the Dutch Caribbean , of which Aruba that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands , along and Sint Maarten ; the citizens of these countries are all Dutch nationals . , for census purposes , is Its area is and it is quite densely populated , with 101,484 inhabitants as at the 2010 Census . There has been a human presence on Aruba from as early as The first Europeans to visit Aruba were , who claimed the island for of giants " , remarking , and the Spanish began colonising From 1513 the Spanish began enslaving Peter Stuyvesant , later appointed to Those Arawak who had survived the depredations of the Spanish were allowed to farm and graze livestock , with the Dutch using the island as Aruba's proximity to South America resulted in Historically , Dutch was not widely spoken on the island outside it between 1806 and 1816 , before handing it back to the Dutch as Aruba subsequently became part of the Colony of Curaçao and Dependencies along with Bonaire . , and was commonly called Immediately following that , another refinery in an area now known as a politician from Aruba , proposed : Aruba , the Netherlands, Suriname Backed by his newly created party , the Movimiento Electoral di Pueblo , Tensions mounted as Croes stepped , to be developed in a constitution that was unanimously approved officially becoming a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , with full independence planned for However , Croes was seriously Croes' successor , Henny Eman , of postponed indefinitely Aruba's transition to full independence This is where the bulk of the population live and where most tourist development , such as Hooiberg at and Mount Jamanota , the highest Xeric scrublands are common , with a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSh " ) . Rainfall is scarce , only 300 millimeters ( 12 inches ) per year ; in particular , rainy season is drier than it Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies little from to , moderated Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands ; although

no full-blooded Aboriginals remain , the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic Arawak heritage . Recently , there has been , attracted by the higher paid jobs . introduced to help control the growth to a maximum of three years residency on the island Aruba’s official languages are Dutch and Papiamento While Dutch is the sole language for Papiamento is a Portuguese- and Spanish-based creole language , spoken and Curaçao , that also English and Spanish are also spoken , their usage having grown Aruba has shown an increased interest in Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar with Aruba using etymological spelling , and Curaçao and Bonaire a phonetic spelling on Aruba spoke Spanish already in what are now Venezuela Around 13% of the population today speaks Aruba has newspapers published in Papiamento : "Diario " , "The News " , and Dutch Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion , practiced Along with the Netherlands , Curaçao , and Sint Maarten , Aruba Matters such as foreign affairs and defense are handled by the Netherlands and an eight-member Cabinet ; the Staten's 21 members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve Sint Maarten , and of Bonaire , Sint Eustatius and Saba ) Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history , and modestly high inflation has been present as well . several tax laws to reduce the deficit . The GDP per capita ( PPP ) for Aruba was estimated to be $ 37,500 in The agriculture and manufacturing sectors are fairly minimal . in 1840 but did not become a big export until 1890 . over time the industry became very This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity Unemployment is low ( although the government has not published statistics since 2013 ) and per capita income is one of the highest in the Caribbean ( Then the refinery was shut down which three-quarters are Americans . Tourism is mainly focused on The refinery has been closed and restarted repeatedly during the last decades . 1,082,000 tourists who stayed overnight in DHS ) , U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP

There are many luxury and lesser luxury hotels , concentrated mainly on the west coast beaches In Palm Beach are the luxury hotels aimed This area is also called "Highrise-area " , because most of the hotels are located in ( by Aruban standards ) high-rise buildings . in Aruba , since during a cruise a large part of the passengers go ashore to visit the island . 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living and other typical foods and drinks . an important one in Aruba many Caribbean and Latin American countries . the 1950s , influenced by the inhabitants to work for the oil refinery . influenced by the Dutch colonial style and also some Spanish elements from the Catholic missionaries present in Aruba the tourist sector in the 20th century the architectural style of the Art Deco style can still be seen Aruba has three ports : Barcadera Paardenbaai services all the cruise-ship lines such as Royal Caribbean 12:30 a.m. , 365 days a year ( W.E.B. ) produces potable water one of the world's largest desalination plants as of There are two telecommunications providers : government-based Setar ( between July 1776 and November 1777 ) and sent to the states for preserve the independence and sovereignty of The document provided clearly written rules for how the states' "league of friendship " would it conducted business , directing foreign states , addressing territorial issues and Little changed politically once the Articles of Confederation went into effect , as ratification did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been the continually growing American states , delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so As the government's weaknesses became apparent , in the fledgling union began asking for Initially , some states met to However , as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles , a meeting was set It was quickly agreed that changes would not work , and instead the entire Articles needed to to help solve mutual local problems . the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen

; others would weaken , ( or lack thereof ) the colonials referred to as the Intolerable Acts which resulted in dissidents being and , together with the highly effective propaganda campaign of the Patriot leaders , caused an increasing number of colonists to begin agitating the new nation must have a written constitution ; a " rulebook " for how the new nation should function . " Common Sense " that the "custom of nations " demanded a formal declaration , in particular , could not be expected to aid laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto " which could also reassure them that the Americans would , " [ t]he custom of all courts is against us , and will be so , until , by an independence , we take rank with of the Second Continental Congress show that the need intimately linked with the demands of a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent ; at the same time , he also urged Congress to resolve " to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances " and Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration , a model treaty , The committee met frequently , and Afterward , there were long debates the exact powers to be given to Congress , whether to have To further complicate work on to leave Philadelphia twice , in the fall of 1777 , to evade The final draft of the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union " was The first state to ratify was Virginia to go along until the landed states , especially Virginia , had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through , and sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically was empowered to make war and peace , negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements The Continental Congress , before the Articles were approved , had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for However Congress had no power to

compel the states to fund this obligation , and as the war wound the military was no longer a factor General Henry Knox , who would later become the first Secretary of War under to Gouverneur Morris , four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened , " As the present Constitution is so defective , why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so ; that is , to have a convention of the frontier forts and to protect against ) , and 11 of were not being met . Any contributions were voluntary , and the Federalists ( who supported the proposed new Constitution ) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally , and contributed when The Anti - Federalists claimed that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so Afterward , the problem only got worse as Congress had no power The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists Many of the most prominent national leaders , such self-rule seemed quite satisfactory . to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates , wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that , " It will be said there There never will be money never ratified , the United States was to give up rights to which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains . Finally , due to the Confederation's military weakness the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts the British promised to leave , but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as allowing them to seek compensation the central government's power was kept quite limited The Confederation Congress could make decisions but Congress was denied any powers of taxation : it could only The states often failed to meet these requests in full , leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short As more money was printed by , " that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load

comply , Jay wrote that the taxes were " the price of avoid having it said " that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent " or that " her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and , as a result , all of the States maintained The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War Some States paid off their war debts and Nevertheless , the Confederation Congress did take created territorial government , set up useful units , and set aside and northwest and the land ownership provisions used of land called the township ( most of the States west of the Mississippi and California that had already been surveyed and divided up The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims , organized the Northwest Territory and , eventually became the states of : Ohio , Indiana , Minnesota east of the Mississippi River . the Province of Quebec ( referred to as It did not , and to in many official records as " Assembled"—chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure to the Congress — the only federal institution — little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were There was no president , no executive agencies The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay , which seldom arrived . to all staple products which were not from British products which were suddenly to erase their debts increased the anxiety The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations ( debts ) incurred The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased spawning the expression " not worth and could only make requisitions impossible to secure a treaty for and there was no assurance that

Adams stated it was necessary , or that the States themselves Congress had already requested and Meanwhile , each State acted individually By 1787 Congress was unable State legislatures were unable or unwilling The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor . Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress . and one was kept by The Articles , however , were unsigned , and the date was the remaining states to notify its delegation when On that date , delegates present South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified . New Jersey , Delaware and Maryland could not , since their states After the first signing , some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified New Jersey on November 26 , and , felt that the Articles would " was " signed and of both Houses ... an Act to Congress to subscribe and ratify The Senate then adjourned " to the first Monday in August next . " The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress over a year and a half , and the ratification process had Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates , and some of the signers had only recently South Carolina proposed that Congress revise Recommended changes included granting Congress power means for Congress to collect the alterations , however , and Congress failed to reach a consensus to those wanting a strong centralized state or implement national measures " stemmed not rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes , mustering men , and gathering The second group of factors Rakove identified especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy . , certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state , " much like the British state people had rebelled against In particular , holders of

war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and North Carolina believed that " the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts the states gave their voluntary consent , and until those obligations were fulfilled , , exercising its due powers , nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of ( in " Federalist No . 40 " ) that the issue had become moot : " Nevertheless , it is a historical and legal question have plausibly attacked the Constitution on state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation , but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree , and thus " other states-parties did not have to comply The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution . On Saturday, September 13, 1788 , the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution , and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states , set the first Wednesday in January 1789 for appointing electors , set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and vote commencing proceedings " under the new Constitution The Atlantic Ocean is the second - The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally in the southwest , the Indian Ocean in the south ( other definitions describe Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1 . 211 ): (Greek : ; English : ' the Atlantic sea ' 'Sea of Atlas ' ) and in "The Histories " of Herodotus around 450 BC ( Hdt . 1.202.4 ): ( Greek : ; English : ' Sea of Atlas ' or 'the Atlantic sea ' ) where the name refers said to be part of and who later appeared as On the other hand , to early Greek sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as

, this all-encompassing ocean was instead known encircled the world ; in contrast to the enclosed seas well known to In contrast , the term "Atlantic " originally referred specifically to The term "Aethiopian Ocean " , derived to the Southern Atlantic as late as The pond is a term often used It is used mostly when " or " on the other side of the pond " , rather than to discuss the ocean itself of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities , see for example the CIA World Factbook . In the southeast , the Atlantic The 20° East meridian , running south from The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by an area of or 23.5% of or 23.3% of the total volume of and has a volume of . The North Atlantic covers ( 11.5% ) by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into which a series of basins are its rift valley is the divergent boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates in the 1920s by the German "Meteor" expedition using water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands except at a few locations where active margins form deep trenches : the Puerto Rico Trench (maximum depth cartography and oceanography occurred . The USS "Stewart " used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to of sonar is straightforward with pulses being sent from the vessel , which bounce off the ocean floor , then return to the vessel Surface water temperatures , which vary with season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy , range from below The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi - diurnal ; that is , two high tides occur every 24 lunar hours On average , the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean ; surface water salinity in the open ocean Evaporation , precipitation , river inflow Although the lowest salinity values are just north heavy tropical rainfall ) , in general and along coasts where large rivers

the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying The eastern water is saltier because of There are five intermediate waters : four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity Arctic Intermediate Water , flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland-Scotland sill . a complex of four water masses , two that form by deep convection in the open ocean   — Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water   — and two that form from the inflow   — Denmark Strait and Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows , a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from North of the North Atlantic Gyre , the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of the North Atlantic Current which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents Greenland where they form an intense (40–50 Sv) current Antarctic Intermediate Water originates in the upper layers of defined as the area where two species of "Sargassum " ("S. fluitans " and "natans") float , an area wide and encircled by the Gulf Stream Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include , in what is now the Carpathian region , that were similar It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the European and American eel and that the former migrate more than and the Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat , maritime climates are more moderate and have with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas The Gulf Stream and its northern extension , keeping it warmer in keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy , and not Every winter , the Icelandic Low produces

The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense mafic oceanic crust made up of basalt and gabbro and overlain by The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density , but greater thickness felsic continental rock that is often much older than In many places , the continental shelf and of the ocean , large carbonate deposits formed and the Bahamas , while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in Northwest Africa , where rift basins opened Theoliitic dikes , sills , and affected ocean currents , salinity , Geologically , the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins Newfoundland , Porcupine – North America Seafloor spreading led to the extension Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around 61 million years ago , Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to Large quantities of basalt erupted at and Scotland , with ash falls in Western Europe acting as West Gondwana ( South America and Africa ) broke up in the Early Cretaceous was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was This magnificent fit , however , has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous ( 133–130 Ma ) intensive magmatism of the Paraná – Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume of . It covered an area of in Uruguay and in Africa . Dyke swarms in Brazil , Angola , however , suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south sub - plates between the Early Jurassic Around 150 Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment In the central segment rifting started to , but , because it magnetic anomalies can not be used Various estimates date the propagation of sea - floor spreading in this segment About 50 Ma the opening of the Drake Passage resulted First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west

westward into the Central Atlantic where it Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing first by diverging from other apes around 7   mya ; then developing stone tools around 2.6   mya ; to finally evolve as modern humans around 200   The earliest evidence for the complex behavior associated with this behavioral modernity has been found in , extending the South African coastline farther south A small population of modern humans   — probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals   — survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development This group of people not only , but also started to disperse out of Africa into Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the LGM this region was repopulated by Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the Laacher See volcanic eruption , the inundation of 50 kya-old, deeply stratified shell middens found in Ysterfontein on The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya . has been described as accompanied by new technologies   — such and fish-hooks   — because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities reduced quantities in their lower . The earliest exploitation , however , took most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves . During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of Clovis hunters migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago the ice sheet and " spread southward explosively , briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of the Americas , a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries : the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found north-east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM ; and most Clovis artefacts have been Furthermore , colonisation models based on nor the "three-wave" hypotheses but they also Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver

future hypotheses that will , eventually , confirm each other . with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE around which made farming favorable This did not last , however , and temperatures quickly dropped ; at 1080 CE summer temperatures had Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under the Portuguese flag , by navigating south that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected . to India following Vasco da Gama , Following these explorations , Spain and Portugal quickly conquered and colonized and gold they found . out , but conflicting interests nevertheless A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping England , France , and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow , and slavery quickly reduced that the Atlantic slave trade had to be introduced to replace them   — a trade that became the norm Between the 15th century and 1888 , when Brazil became the last part of the Americas to end the slave trade , an estimated ten million Africans were exported them destined for agricultural labour . , and Spain ) 1500–1800 which these countries grew richer than the Trans-Atlantic trade , but this trade also Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in increasing urbanization : in European countries facing the Atlantic The Atlantic has contributed significantly to Gold deposits are a mile or two however , the deposits are also encased in rock that must The shelves of the Atlantic hosts one of Fisheries have , however , undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided fisheries in the Eastern Central and South-West Atlantic oscillate around is in overall decline following historical peaks In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in but is now recovered . Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished ; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess

but most likely they remain In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from During the 21st century some species have shown , haddock, spiny dogfish , while other stocks shown no such signs , including cod Stocks of invertebrates , in the first Western European since the Vikings to explore Referred to as "Newfoundland Currency " In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit haddock , mackerel , in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity great depths to include deep-water species such as redfish , Greenland halibut , as early as the 1960s but until the late 1970s before any attempts to In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished , with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable been decreasing since 2000 and but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished but is now considered overfished Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species , together representing almost half of reached in the mid-1980s and catches The most important species , the Argentine shortfin squid , which is considered fully fished to Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella , with it is now considered overfished has not yet reached fully but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished . The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and Marine debris , which is also known as marine litter , describes , frequently washing aground where A USAF C-124 aircraft from Dover Air Force Base , Delaware A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) slowed down by If the AMO were responsible for SST variability , the AMOC would have is apparently not the case . Furthermore , it is clear are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer

but it also results in Arthur Schopenhauer ( , ; 22 February 1788   – 21 September 1860 ) was expanded in 1844 ) , , Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets His writing on aesthetics , morality , and psychology have influenced , in Danzig (then part of Ducha 47 ) , the son of Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener ; 1766–1838 Neither of them was very religious ; both supported the French Revolution , and were republicans , When Danzig became part of where most of their extended families remained stay there , learning to speak French and fostering a life-long friendship As early as 1799 , Arthur started playing Heinrich offered Arthur a choice : He deeply regretted his choice later because the merchant training was very tedious where he was disillusioned by He continued to sharply criticize Anglican religiosity later in life despite Although it was possible that his death was accidental , his wife and son believed that it and depression ; each becoming more pronounced later in his life Heinrich had become so fussy " There was , in the father's life , some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl and often acknowledged that he his father and later referred to He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor . After quitting his merchant apprenticeship , with While there , he also which deeply concerned his frugal mother . a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters . doubts about being able to His mother moved away , with her daughter Adele , to Weimarthe then centre of German literatureto enjoy social life among Arthur and his mother did not : " You are unbearable and burdensome , and very hard to live with ; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit , and made useless to the world simply because you can not restrain your propensity to pick generally described as vivacious and After they split , they

did not meet again . did not live with his mother , who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well . Their relationship deteriorated even further due financially irresponsible , flirtatious and seeking to remarry , which he considered an insult to His mother , while professing her love sharply for being moody , and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would which were now going very well , and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls By that time Johanna's famous salon was well , the most celebrated of Arthur attended her parties , usually when he knew that Goethe would be therealthough the famous writer and statesman seemed not even to It is possible that Goethe kept a distance because Johanna warned because Goethe was then on , Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach , and he occasionally had sexual affairsusually with women of lower social status , such and sometimes even paid prostitutes that he had two out - of - wedlock daughters ( born in 1819 and 1836 ) , both of whom died in infancy . There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous University of Jena , but Göttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented , with less attention Law or medicine were usual choices also needed career and income Among his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut , medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Göttingen , which did not have a strong philosophy program was Friedrich Bouterwek , whom Schopenhauer were necessary for a philosopher , and even in Berlin he he spent considerable time studying just begun her literary career ; she a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow , Johann Gottlieb Fichte , but quickly found ; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand He later mentioned Fichte only useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally the famous Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher , whom he also quickly came to dislike very critical of religion and

Fichte he also read the works in 1813 , fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed but left after less than a month disgusted by the fact that his mother was Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk ( 1778–1838 ) , a civil servant twelve years younger the relationship an act of infidelity to Rudolstadt , hoping that no army would pass through the small town . , hiking in the mountains and the Thuringian forest and writing his dissertation , accepted his mother's invitation to visit her platonic and that she had But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented , pretentious , and , which quickly became a hit She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish " she wrote was totally forgotten because they consistently sold well Hans Brockhaus ( 1888–1965 ) later claimed that his predecessors " saw our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work . We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna , but her son's works are in steady demand and Although it is doubtful that Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor finally acknowledged by his intellectual hero . They mostly discussed Goethe 's newly published ( and somewhat lukewarmly received ) work on Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise Vision and Colors " , which in many points differed from Although they remained polite towards each other , their growing theoretical disagreementsand especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticismssoon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became of Herderwho introduced him to Eastern philosophy ( see also Indology the "Upanishads " ( he called them " the production of the highest human wisdom " , and believed that they contained superhuman concepts ) and the Buddha , and put the "Bhagavad Gita " , an amateurish German journal "Asiatisches Magazin came to regard as the best religion and the latter were mostly

, as well as in his "Parerga and Paralipomena " ( , In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so the cultural life , socialized with intellectuals Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl , a young painter who made public quarrels when he ran into , which he started writing In September 1818 , while waiting Milan , travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met , where he accidentally met his acquaintance Karl Witte and engaged in , among them Johann Friedrich Böhmer , who also mentioned his insulting remarks and , and ancient ruins , attended plays and operas , and serious , and for a while , despite his mentioning this several times , no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated . Danzigin which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of , but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments of their savings while Arthur , using his business knowledge , took a suspicious and aggressive stance Disturbed by the financial risk and the both income and an opportunity to promote Berlin and found Berlin most were fired , while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics his own , Hegel still he continued to travel extensively , visiting Leipzig , Nuremberg Milan and spending eight months in just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave , and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy , where He left for Munich and stayed there for a year , some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases ( the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis ) . but his proposals were declined . began to study Spanish so He also made failed attempts to mentioned his desire to marry and For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss , who was

22 years younger than himself . His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygynyinstead musing about a polyamorous relationship that he called "tetragamy " . , Caroline Richter ( she also used the surname Medon after one of her ex - lovers They met when he was 33 and she was 19 She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock another pregnancy but the child was stillborn As Schopenhauer was preparing to , due to a cholera epidemic , she left her young son behind . Schopenhauer claimed that , in had a prophetic dream that urged him some time investigating paranormal phenomena and magic , and she seemed concerned By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly . Their correspondence remained reserved , and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death July 1833 to remain there for He lived alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Atman the Will " to the contest of On the Basis of Morality " , to the Royal Danish Society for Scientific Studies , but did not win the prize despite being the only contestant . The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers and claimed that the essay missed the point of the set topic and that Schopenhauer , who had been very confident that he would win , was enraged by The first edition , published in 1841 , again failed to draw , Brockhaus , to print the second, updated edition of " The World as Will and Representation " ( several of them were lawyers ) who pursued private philosophical studies , who wrote numerous articles promoting finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish " Parerga and Paralipomena " , believing that it would be another failure . Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him , claiming that he did not adhere closely and Schopenhauer named him heir violent upheaval in Frankfurt after General Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald and Prince Felix Lichnowsky were murdered . Even earlier in life he

had had such worries and kept He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels Schopenhauer and he later praised a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families " Parerga and Paralipomena " , which , as the title says , contains essays that are supplementary to his main work . It was his first successful, widely read book , partly who wrote praising reviews . The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously His early critics liked to point out and Schelling , or to claim that there were numerous contradictions He was becoming less interested his disciples to do so . Academic philosophers were also starting to was won by Rudolf Seydel's very critical essay . Schopenhauer's friend Jules Lunteschütz made the first did not particularly likewhich was soon sold to a wealthy landowner , Carl Ferdinand Wiesike , who built a house Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this , and would claim that it was his first chapel As his fame increased , copies him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written People visited Frankfurt's "Englischer Hof " to Admirers gave him gifts and , which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and He had a great appetite and could his hearing had been declining since his youth and he developed problems He remained active and lucid , continued his reading , writing The numerous notes that he made during aging , were published posthumously In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline , and he experienced the lungs and , although he was starting to recover , he remained very weak . The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner ; according to him

, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to " Parerga and Paralipomena " but 21 September 1860 while sitting at home ) as starting point for Kant had argued that the empirical world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only Schopenhauer did not deny that the external world existed empirically but followed Kant in claiming that our knowledge and experience of the world is is my representation ( " Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung " ) " Everything that there is for Everything that belongs to the world is , therefore , ' subject - dependent ' . Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter , he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Kant openly admitted that it was Hume's skeptical assault on causality that and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is " a and Schopenhauer was this : Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is " given " to us from outside , an expression with which Schopenhauer With vision , finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines . In Book Two of " The World as Will and Representation " , Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect usthat is , the aspect of considered " in - itself The very being in - argues , is will ( The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and The world as thing in - itself must exist outside the subjective forms the same blind essence striving towards existence and Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings , Schopenhauer argues , serve the ends of willingan illogical , directionless , ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by as will leads to ethical concerns ( see the ethics section below for further detail ) , which he explores in the Fourth Book of "The World as Will and Representation " and

the Will " and " On the Basis of Morality No individual human actions are free , Schopenhauer argues , because they are and thus are subject to human beings just as it does we can not speak of freedom of individual willing . Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that " a man can " do " as he will , but not " will " as from our miserable existence can come through the will 's being " tranquillized individuality to be merely an illusion The saint or 'great soul ' intuitively " recognizes the whole , comprehends its essence , and finds that it is constantly passing away , caught up in vain strivings The negation of the will , in that the world in - itself ( free from the forms of space and time ) is etc.—is at the root of suffering A temporary way to escape this pain is Here one moves away from of eternal Platonic " Ideas"—in other words , cognizance that is free In aesthetic contemplation , one no longer perceives an object of perception is separated ; rather " it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it , and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception , but the two have become one , the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image " no longer an individual who suffers one's individual will but , rather , becomes a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition " , since it attempts to depict the essence /pure Ideas of the world is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason , According to Daniel Albright , " the only art that did not merely copy ideas , but actually embodied the will itself " . Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done , but to investigate According to Kant's transcendental idealism , space

and time are forms of from multiplicity , not in the sense that an object is one , but that it is What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act Regarding how things " appear others as his own . What motivates the altruist is compassion him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent , but he feels connectiveness to all beings . multiplicity appears the "principium individuationis " . When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others — the will , as the only thing that exists , has no other option but to devour itself time to repay an evil deed and , as requiting and punishing " , eternal justice " rules not the state but the world , is not dependent upon human institutions , is not subject to chance and deception , is not uncertain , wavering , and Eternal justice is not retributive , There are no delays or reprieves the point where the two become Tormenter and tormented are one The [ Tormenter ] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering ; the [ tormented ] , in that he believes he is not a partaker in He who sees through the "principium individuationis " and comprehends suffering " in general " as his own will see suffering everywhere and , instead of fighting will abhor life itself since he knows that it is inseparably connected with suffering . Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge can not affirm life , but exhibit asceticism and quietism , meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives , are not concerned about resistance the evil that others inflict They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death . and , instead of continuing their struggle , ascetics break it It has often been argued " natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and flight , to wandering elephants and to other animals " .

Intellect in monarchies , he writes , always has "much better chances than it has in republics not give much thought to politics , and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid " to political affairs of in French and German government , and a few continent-shaking wars " minding not the times A typical example is : " For a German it is even slowly , and they give him time to reflect . The State , Schopenhauer claimed , punishes criminals to prevent future crimes It places " beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone , in Accordingly , the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter - motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined The highest civilization and culture , apart ; and even with many dark peoples , the ruling caste or race is and has , therefore , evidently immigrated , for example , the Brahmans , the Incas , and the rulers that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated there gradually became white , had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in and misery , which in their many forms were brought about by he condemned " those devils in among them " for how they " treat their innocent black brothers who fallen into their devil's claws " . Further , the consideration as to the complexion is very decided . brunettes ; but the latter seldom prefer the former . The reason is , that fair hair and blue eyes are in themselves or at least to grey not even in the vicinity of the pole , are they indigenous in passing that the white colour of the skin is not natural to man , but that by nature he has a black or brown skin , like our forefathers the Hindus ; that consequently a white man has never originally , and that thus there is no such thing as a white race ,

much as this is talked of , but every white man is a faded or bleached one , and like this requires in winter the hothouse , in the course of thousands of years man became The gipsies , an Indian race which immigrated only about four centuries ago , show Therefore in sexual love nature strives to of the skin has become a second nature , though not so that the brown of the Hindu repels us [ Judaism ] is , therefore , the crudest and poorest in an absurd and revolting It amounts to this that the <a href="Kyrios">a></a > , who has created the world , desires to be worshipped and adored ; and so above all he is jealous , is envious to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity " ( " abgeschmackten Weiberveneration " He wrote : " Women are directly fitted for acting are themselves childish , frivolous and short - sighted . He claimed that " woman is by nature meant to as well as by her skill he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug : " I have not yet I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass In the third, expanded edition of " The World as Will and Representation the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children . that " by expounding these paradoxical ideas , I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty . the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within , not so much rather by the path of generation in mind when , in he explained his plan for increasing his eugenic thesis : " If you want Utopian plans , I would say : the only solution to the problem

a genuine aristocracy , a genuine nobility , achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the including humans , are essentially For him the word " will " designates force , power the closest word we have that can humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other . the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it of them as though they , the "Upanishads " , translated by French writer Anquetil du Perron from the Persian translation its philosophy that he called it "the production of the highest human wisdom " , and believed it contained superhuman concepts the "Upanishads " as " the most profitable and elevating reading which [ ... ] is It has been the solace of my life , and will be Safranski maintains that , between 1815 and 1817 , Schopenhauer had another important cross - Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with The book "Oupnekhat " ( Upanishad ) always lay open on his table , and he invariably studied it before going to He called the opening up of " , and predicted that would become the cherished faith of the West Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering , that that the extinction of desire leads For Schopenhauer , will had pre - eminence over the others be a pleasure to me to a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own , for this numbers far more followers And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me , inasmuch as " in my philosophizing I have certainly not [ emphasis added ] . The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses credence a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of " The World as Will and Representation " Scholars have started to revise and translated by Urs App ) Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed

the human Will , not on ritual " suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers and claimed philosophy should synthesize he believed amount to " more often to lectures in German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , and was an avid reader If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with him , so to speak , the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it If the reader has also received to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century ( 1818 ) may claim before all previous centuries , if then the reader , I say , has received his initiation will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have as philosophers not bound to " Both were fulfilled by the thought , that as manifold the appearances of the world may be , it is still " one " being , that Consequently , there is no place God is the world itself . that do not hold because not provide any ethics , and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work "Ethics completely ignores morality and self-denial The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer , in philosophy as well as on a personal level , can not be 's , and he had in - itself , whereas the general consensus in German idealism was that , since , according to only , and consequently , things - in - themselves can not be the cause of , whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag ("Windbeutel " ) , Hegel The philosophers Karl Popper and Mario Bunge agreed Hegel , Schopenhauer wrote in not only " performed no service , and thereby on German literature in general , really a downright stupefying , or we could even say a pestilential influence , which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract

forced movements that were utterly opposed to him , neo-Kantianism and positivism , to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored , and in doing so he changed them The French writer Maupassant commented that " to - day even those who execrate him seem to carry in " and called him a genius Konrad Wachsmann recalled : " He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes , and as he sat there , he seemed so pleased , as if When Erwin Schrödinger discovered Schopenhauer ( ) he considered switching his study But most of all Schopenhauer is The admiration was not mutual , and Schopenhauer proclaimed : " I remain faithful to Rossini So he has been nicknamed Leo Tolstoy became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation When he read Schopenhauer's philosophy , Tolstoy exclaimed " at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann , Thomas Hardy , Afanasy Fet wrote " Billy Budd " , Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville " marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks , suggesting an attraction to he also made note of Sergei Prokofiev , although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism , became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading " Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life " in " Parerga " With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , and some traits can be observed in the "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Later on , Wittgenstein rejected of mathematics , the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality Schopenhauer's philosophy , and the discussions on philosophical pessimism it has engendered , ( ) , is a country It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in to the south , the DR Congo to the north , Zambia , which initially began with coastal settlements and trading posts founded in The country descended into a devastating civil war the same year

, between the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA ) , backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba , the insurgent anti-communist National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( UNITA ) , supported by the United States National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA ) , backed The country has been governed by MPLA ever since its independence in its economy is among the fastest However , economic growth is highly uneven , with most of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small sector of the population and highly concentrated in China and in the United States . João Lourenço has made fighting corruption its flagship , so much so that many individuals of the previous government are either jailed or awaiting trial As of 2021 , the Angolan population Angola is multicultural and multiethnic The name "Angola " comes from the Portuguese colonial name which appeared as early as Modern Angola was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and San prior to The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists nor cultivators , but rather , most of whom likely originated in what is today A number of political entities were established ; the best - known of these was the Kingdom of the Kongo which extended northward to what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo , the Republic of the Congo and civilisations up to and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire The previous year , the Portuguese had established , which is now the northernmost city and progress was slow . to carry out attacks against A fleet under Salvador de Sá retook Luanda in New treaties with the Kongo were signed as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in Colonial outposts also expanded inward from 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves . Four years later , a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished slavery altogether . However , these decrees remained largely unenforceable , and the Portuguese depended By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established

its dominion as far east as the Congo River and as far south were unresolved until the 1920s . forbidden from forming political parties or until after World War II , spearheaded by other associations stemming from "ad hoc" labour activism Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands the Baixa de Cassanje revolt and gradually evolved into The "National Front for the Liberation of Angola " (FNLA ) recruited , and especially from a common border able to build up a power base Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of Jonas Savimbi and the "National Union for the Total Independence of Angola " ( and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted , the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of October 1961 , renewing efforts to Roberto turned down the offer . their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA , UNITA , and the FNLA competed for influence The Soviet Union and Cuba became especially the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations Encouraged by the Organisation of African Unity , Holden Roberto later that month , which called for All three factions , however , followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions , acquire more arms , With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing Meanwhile , the MPLA began securing UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by The Soviets declined , offering to send advisers but no troops ; however , Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September They were kept supplied by a massive airbridge carried out with Soviet aircraft The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA , which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and The FNLA was largely annihilated , and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces Between 1975 and 1991 , the MPLA implemented an economic and political system However , corruption and graft

also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply social democracy to be its new platform . Angola subsequently became a member of When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory , UNITA gave up its armed wing and Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis ; the result At , Angola is the world 's twenty-fourth largest country - comparable in size to France or of Texas . in being separated from the rest some wide , of the Democratic Republic of Congo and north -northeast and the DRC approximately 400,000 of whom are citizens Population estimates are , however , The product for which it is best known , however , is its oil , which has given it the nickname , " Ever since Portugal handed over UNITA and FNLA ) , a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola , the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas ) and Cabindan separatists The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC ) announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature , the National Assembly of Angola in 2017 President dos Santos in August 2017 would become the next president In what has been described and customary law but is weak and fragmented , and courts within as well as from the international community to become more democratic The new constitution , adopted in 2010 , did away with presidential elections the president and the vice - president automatically become president and vice Directly or indirectly , the president so there is " de facto" no separation The Angolan Armed Forces ( FAA , Forças Armadas Angolanas There are three divisions — the Army There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucanos for The National Police departments are Public Order , Criminal Investigation standing up an air wing , to The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of Law no . 2/08 , the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08 , of

the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors elected for the second time a non-permanent member of been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region ( CIRGL Angola is classified as ' not free ' by Freedom House The report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections , of the vote , suffered from A 2012 report by the U.S. Department of State said , " The three most important human rights abuses [ in 2012 ] were official corruption and impunity ; limits on the freedoms on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly of 52 sub-Saharan African countries , scoring particularly and human rights , sustainable economic opportunity and human development . the government also prohibited discrimination based rich wildlife ( which was dramatically depleted during the civil war ) , diamonds have been the most important economic resource . Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by of the fastest - growing China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well , up 11.5% year - China's imports , mainly crude oil and diamonds , increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola , construction materials , surged 38.8% . The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005 , 26% in 2006 and Due to the global recession , the economy The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement and managed by the governor Jose de Lima Massano , carried out by Deloitte , the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola Although the country's economy has grown significantly 2002 , mainly due to These are in part a result However , high poverty rates and blatant social inequality chiefly that are about to become A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as " poor " according only 19% , and an overall officially classified as poor , In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments

The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets , for an investment made possible by funds According to a report , just slightly more than ten years living has overall greatly improved Life expectancy , which was just 46 years in in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has , Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa , surpassed only "The Economist " reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy , Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to by 2007 . increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for Furthermore , Sonangol , the state-run oil company Due to this market control , the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol " is a taxpayer , it carries out quasi-fiscal activities and , as concessionaire , and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards This means they use about half as much biocapacity Agriculture and forestry is an area , mainly from South Africa and Portugal , while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level Travel on highways outside of ( and in some cases within ) is ( which year often not best advised for , leaving many severely potholed In many areas drivers have established the surface , although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side The road between Lubango and Namibe , for example , was completed recently and is comparable to many European main routes , to promote debate on Due to an on - board power failure during solar panel deployment Although , subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful , the satellite eventually stopped sending

data and RSC Energia confirmed that According to Aristides Safeca , Secretary the satellite was aimed at providing and e - government and was expected to remain in orbit " at best " A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in the works and is expected to , the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970 ) 37% , Ambundu (language Kimbundu ) 23% , Bakongo 13% , the Xindonga ) as well as about 2% "mulattos " ( mixed European Chinese and 1% European . The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of 2.7 times the 2014 population was host to 12,100 refugees and there were an estimated 400,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers , at least 220,000 Portuguese , and about 259,000 Chinese However , Angola has recovered , there are about 200,000 registered originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and Portuguese , introduced during the Portuguese colonial era The most widely spoken indigenous languages are Umbundu , Kimbundu Although the exact numbers of those fluent Portuguese as a first language are unknown , a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of There are about 1,000 religious communities , mostly Christian in the north-west a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found , spreading while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer especially Lebanon ) , although some Foreign missionaries were very active prior although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep the "New Churches " which actively proselytize Epidemics of cholera , malaria Dengue , filariasis , leishmaniasis in the world and one of IACC ) was created by presidential decree , and it will ten years old and aiming to go which includes strengthening routine immunisation , A yellow fever outbreak , the worst in the country in three decades began in began to subside , nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected As many as 369 may have died . Although by law education in Angola

is compulsory and free for a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of 74 per cent and in 1998 , the most recent year for which data are available , the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance There continue to be significant disparities children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school of boys attend school than Teachers tend to be underpaid , inadequately trained and overworked ( sometimes teaching two or three shifts a Other factors , such as the presence poor health prevent children from regularly attending school of women are literate as building the Angolan Media Libraries Network , distributed throughout several media libraries , in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country . become more and more dominant and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times their first appearance in the World Cup finals The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup , where Ethnically , there are three main groups , each speaking a Bantu language : the Ovimbundu who represent 37% of , and the Bakongo 13% . , the Ganguela and Nyaneka-Khumbi ( in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups ) , the Ovambo has been growing from 2000 onwards , because of Angola's growing demand Currently , over 300,000 Angolans are white black and white ) and 50,000 Angolans are from China , " Africa Today " , 21 ( 4) 1974 , pp.   Today , many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality in Besides the Portuguese , significant numbers from diverse Latin American countries ( especially Brazil ) settled and started up small businesses , while at least as Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at

not at this stage available . Once this was over , and education brought in numerous civil personnel The largest religious denomination is Catholicism , to of Protestantism (Congregationals , Methodists , Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed ) , but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities Blacks from Mali , Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims , but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population . According to the total population was in There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths born per woman as of of adults ( aged 15–49 ) are living with HIV/AIDS Official statistics do not exist , however it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or More than half are Catholic , the remaining ones comprising members of traditional Protestant churches as well as of Pentecostal communities . Literacy is quite low , the age of 15 able to read and , but Bantu and other African languages are also widely spoken . a presidential republic , whereby the President of Angola is both head of state Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA ) , That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held . A runoff election would have been necessary , but never took place The renewal of civil war immediately after as fraudulent by UNITA , To a certain degree the new democratic institutions worked , notably the National Assembly , with the active participation of the system as defined by the constitution The Council of Ministers , composed of all ministers and vice ministers , met regularly by and served at the pleasure and customary law but was weak was never constituted despite statutory authorization ) , while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million . and specifically Luanda (population approximately 6 million ) The President is also provided a variety has 223 members , elected for and 3 members to represent Angolans won only 10% ( 16 seats )

The elections however have been described as only partly free but Supreme Court ( or " Tribunal da Relacao " ) judges of the Supreme Court The Constitutional Court , with the power of judicial review , contains 11 justices . The economy of Angola remains heavily Angola remains poor , and a third of the population relies on ended , government policy prioritized the repair one of the fastest - and the country remains heavily dependent 2017 accounted for over 90 percent of The Angolan economy has been dominated by The Portuguese used Angola principally as began using concessional agreements , granting exclusive rights to a private company to exploit a number of companies notorious for But in Angola , only Diamang emigrating to Angola to establish farms and plantations ("fazendas " ) to grow cash crops for and hides , and salt fish joined the principal exports , with small quantities Grains , sugar , and rum were also produced for The principal imports were foodstuffs , cotton goods concerned primarily with keeping its colonies self - sufficient and therefore , and the first railroad , the Benguela Railway , was not completed until Between 1900 and 1940 , only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in found it difficult to make a living because of fluctuating world prices the difficulties in obtaining cheap labor , the rapid growth of industrialization worldwide and the parallel requirements for raw materials led its colonies and to begin actively , and by 1940 it , up from 39 percent and 37 percent , respectively , a decade earlier When the price of Angola's principal crops — coffee and sisal — jumped During the 1950s , Portugal built dams , hydroelectric power stations , and , where planned settlements ( " colonatos " ) were established and copper to complement industrial activities 1955 the first successful oil wells were drilled in Yet by 1976 , these encouraging developments According to the ruling MPLA-PT , in August 1976 more than 80 percent of the agricultural plantations had been abandoned by their Portuguese owners ; only 284 out of 692 factories continued

to operate ; more than 30,000 medium-level and high-level managers , technicians , and skilled workers had left the country ; and 2,500 enterprises had been closed ( 75 percent were understandably quick to repatriate Most important , the Portuguese had not trained Angolans to operate the larger industrial or agricultural enterprises , nor had they producing coffee , sugar , and sisal , and it took over the operations of all factories These attempts usually failed , primarily Only the petroleum sector continued to operate successfully , and by 1980 this sector had helped the gross domestic product reach US$3.6 billion , its highest level up to 1988 ultimately failed to end the civil war The protocol prohibited UNITA from buying foreign arms , a provision the United Nations largely did not enforce , so both sides continued to build up Bulgaria , and from Zaire , South Africa , Republic of waited until July 1998 to limit While the U.S. government gave US$250 million to UNITA between 1986 and 1991 , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , primarily through Zaire The program formally lapsed in June 2001 , but the IMF remains engaged has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel , The Commercial Code , telecommunications law , and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized . A privatization effort , prepared with World Bank assistance , has begun with the BCI bank Angola produced over of diamonds was expected to grow to The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to by the government initiatives for example the "Angola Investe" program ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 decreased to in 2007 due capita is among the world Oil production and the supporting activities are vital Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007 Severe wartime conditions , including extensive planting of Some efforts to recover have gone forward , however , notably Coffee production , though a fraction of its pre-1975 level , is sufficient for

Expanding oil production is now almost half Exports in 2004 reached US$ US$785 million worth of diamonds , 7.5% making it the eighth largest , and to China , The U.S. exports industrial goods and services , primarily oilfield equipment to Angola , while principally Angola produces and exports more petroleum By 2010 production is expected to Chevron Corporation produces and receives , SONANGOL , the state oil company , Total , and Eni own the rest from Angola , about three times as much as it imported from Kuwait just prior to in Africa and has only the country , but has had of corruption , human rights violations , 2006 and Endiama , the national diamond company of Angola , expects production 2007 to 10 million carats annually . The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from Operation Brilliant , an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006 . the diamond industry in his 2006 "Angola's Deadly Diamonds" report as plagued by " murders , beatings a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor " that The U.S. Department of Labor reported that " there is little publicly available information on [ Angola's] efforts to enforce child labor law " . 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to Western Europe and 2005 and they are now The Angolan Armed Forces ( ) or FAA "Exército " ) , the Navy Reported total manpower in 2013 was The FAA succeeded to the previous People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA ) . be demilitarized and then integrated Integration was never completed as UNITA and FALA went back The principles that would govern the FAA were defined in a joint proposal presented On 14 November 1991 , Generals João Baptista de Matos and North, Center , East and South ) , with an infantry division being based in each one Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , one tank brigade and

The National Air Force of Angola (FANA , " Força Aérea Nacional de Angola The Air Force's personnel total about 8,000 ; its equipment The Angola Navy (MGA , " Marinha de Guerra de Angola The Navy has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and but is still lacking in Portugal has been providing training dates back from the 1980s or earlier , and many of its ships are inoperable due to However the navy acquired new boats from a Technical Memorandum of Understanding ( MoU ) covering the production The Commandos and the Special forces are part Brigada de Forças Especiais " ) , based sub - units of combat support The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE , which is presently inactive The marines ( " fuzileiros navais " ) constitute the Marines Brigade of 2004 , the FAA do not It had both armed and unarmed units dispersed in The Presiding Judge , the Deputy Presiding Judge and the other Counselor Judges The music band of the Army Command was created on 16 June 1994 and four years later , were demonstrated principally in the undeclared South African Border War training the armed forces of fellow Lusophone states , 2010–2011 , were not However , the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung " , citing " Jeune Afrique " , said that among President Gbagbo's guards were particular the Soviet Union , Libya , Since then , it has successfully worked with the United Nations Security Council to impose and carry out sanctions More recently , it has extended those efforts to controls on promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP Angola ) in particular . Albert Sidney Johnston ( February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862 ) Considered by Confederate States President Jefferson Davis to be Davis believed the loss of General Johnston " was the turning point of our fate , Kentucky , the youngest son of which he considered his home . Davis two years behind Johnston . , Johnston resigned and returned

Johnston named the property "China Grove " Here they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Gen. Felix Huston , who was angered and offended by Johnston's promotion . in 1839 conducted a campaign against The enlistments of Johnston's volunteers ran out and fight as he served Hooker wrote : " It was through [ Johnston's] agency , mainly , that our division was [ that he ] displayed the war until he was appointed a major and was made a paymaster and traveling more than annually colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry ( the unit that preceded the modern 5th U.S. ) , a new regiment , which he organized , his lieutenant colonel being Robert E. Lee , and his majors William J. Hardee and George H. Thomas This army was sent to install , Wyoming , a peaceful resolution was reached and in late June 1858 Johnston incident to establish Camp Floyd some 50 miles that a slave was stealing from have him physically punished and instead sold him for $ Johnston explained that " whipping will not restore what is lost and it will not benefit the [culprit ] , whom a lifetime of kind treatment has failed to make honest . " abolitionism "fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping " in a letter to his son , fearing that and freed another , Randolph or "Ran , " who desired to accompany the family , , writing " where the darky is in any numbers it should he was opposed to secession But he resigned his commission soon on May 6, 1861 , effective May 3 Considering staying in California with the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as a private , to hold as much of its territory as possible , and The most sensitive , and in many ways the most crucial areas , along the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers were placed The latter had initially been , on September 3, 1861 , two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital in the area often called the Western Department

and admirer Jefferson Davis already had been The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861 , making him the second highest ranking Only Adjutant General and Inspector General Samuel Cooper ranked ahead on governors of Arkansas , , although this authority was largely stifled by politics , especially Gen. Felix Zollicoffer with 4,000 men to occupy to block Union troops from coming The Kentucky legislature had voted to side Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did , a strategy became paranoid and mentally unstable had to be relieved by East Tennessee (a heavily pro-Union region of the South during the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by , and soon - to - be Maj . Gen. George B. Crittenden , a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems While Crittenden was away in Mill Springs ( now Nancy , Kentucky ) , putting the river Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return of scarcity of transport and the ill-prepared Confederates , after a night march in As the battle progressed , Zollicoffer was killed , Crittenden was unable to lead the Confederate force ( he may have been intoxicated ) , and the Confederates were turned back and routed by Davis sent Johnston a brigade and He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard , who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories Gen. John B. Floyd , considered incompetent . Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated Union commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against that no longer applied in September 1861 , Tennessee initially had Even before Johnston arrived in had been started to defend the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers , which

, but these were not an unfavorable low-lying location , commanded by hills when he took command . Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer , Lt. Joseph K. Dixon , to Polk had to allow Dixon Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened , although they were not in ideal locations , because much work had been done on them and the Confederates might not have time to the forts but President Davis appointed Brig To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join a partisan group , Johnston ordered him to send Brig . nearby Clarksville , Tennessee and did not move into the fort until which Polk had failed to was given overall command of Polk's force of his approximately 3,000-man force which had not been sent to Fort Donelson before U.S. Grant's force could even take up the Union gunboats alone might be able the fort to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison , Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd , squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most Gen. Simon Buckner , having been abandoned Johnston , who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow he ordered them to add their forces to the garrison , took his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in his forces too thinly , not Union advances , and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout to avoid being cut off Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command , the Army of Central Kentucky , formerly under Polk and now which he reached by a circuitous route Johnston kept the Union forces , now confused and hesitant to move , allowing Johnston to reach This delay allowed Jefferson Davis finally to coastal cities and another highly rated but prickly general , Braxton Bragg

, to help organize the western forces Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates Johnston now planned to defeat the Union forces piecemeal before the various Union units in with 40,000 men at nearby Pittsburg Landing 35,000 men , could unite against surprising Grant's force as soon as slowly due to their inexperience , Due to the delays , as well as several contacts with the enemy P. G. T. Beauregard , felt the element of surprise had been lost and recommended calling off the attack . Johnston decided to proceed as planned , stating " I would fight them if they Johnston personally rallied troops up occurred when he witnessed some , and was outraged to sir , " Johnston roared are not here for plunder At about 2:30 pm , while leading was wounded , taking a bullet and his boot filled up with observed by his staff to be Among his staff was Isham G. Harris , the Governor of Tennessee , who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that Abraham Lincoln had appointed Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale , Harris asked : " General , are you wounded , then faced Harris and replied in a weak voice his last words : " Yes ... and I and desperately tried to aid the general , who had lost Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnston's surgeon but did not A few minutes later , before a doctor could be found , Johnston died may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound . in a blanket so as not Johnston and his wounded horse , Fire Eater and resumed leading the Confederate assault , which continued advancing and pushed the Union force back to a final defensive line near With his army exhausted and daylight almost gone , Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours , figuring he could finish off the Union army led a successful counter - attack the following day

As the Confederate army retreated back to which had been his headquarters in It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round , as many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance His wife and five younger children , including one born after he went to war , chose to live out their days at home Johnston's eldest son , Albert Sidney Jr. ( born in Texas ) , had was on his way out of While a steamer was taking on swamped the smaller boat , causing its boilers Upon his passing General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government : accounts were published , on December 20, 1862 , and thereafter , in the Texas Legislature was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at The re - interment occurred in the entrance of what was once Austin recognized several confederate veterans ( including Dallas , Texas , was Johnston Middle School in Houston , Texas An android is a humanoid robot or other artificial being often made from The "Oxford English Dictionary " traces the earliest use ( to an automaton that St. Albertus Magnus allegedly The term "android " appears in US patents a more modern sense by the French author Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam in This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly As said by the officer in what goes on in the mind Although Karel Čapek's robots in "R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots ) " (1921)—the play that introduced the word "robot " to the world — were organic artificial humans , the word "robot " has come to primarily refer to The term "droid " , popularized now used widely within science fiction "android " , but has been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot , The word "android " was used in ' episode " What Are Little Girls Made Of Authors have used the term "android a robot and android is only superficial , with androids being made to look like humans used the word "android " to

Japanese robotics have been leading the field , and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1 , the first android , a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot distances and directions to objects using external receptors , artificial eyes and revealed , and made a number It was capable of playing , and was able to It was also able to The Intelligent Robotics Lab , directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro Japan and released the Telenoid R1 in DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body The "air servosystem " which Kokoro developed originally is used for the actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via fluid and there is very little noise Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion . The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab , directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science , has developed an android head called "Saya " , involving humanoid research and development at this time , which will hopefully The Waseda University ( Japan ) and NTT Docomo's manufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot " WD-2 " . It is capable of changing At first , the creators decided The robot expresses its face by moving The robot features an elastic mask made from with each point possessing three degrees of As for the materials they used a highly elastic material called Septom , with bits of steel wool mixed in Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind Apparently , the researchers can also To " copy " a face then driven into position using Prof Nadia Thalmann , a Nanyang Technological University scientist , directed efforts the user's face and expressions displayed on KITECH researched and developed EveR-1 , an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression She is tall and weighs plus the letter "r " for , at the same time processing lip synchronization ; she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while the country : the first will ) , of which 50 billion well as exhibition halls and a stadium Dr. William Barry , an Education Futurist and former visiting West Point Professor of Philosophy and Ethical Reasoning

Resembling a human from the shoulders up , Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions and head movement and and synthesize information to make her own decisions on how to talk for Barry to help improve education quality and eliminate education poverty . new ways for students to engage and discuss ethical issues raised by Hanson Robotics, Inc. , of Texas and , using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on This Einstein android , also called "Albert Hubo " , thus represents the first full - body walking Hanson Robotics , the FedEx Institute of Technology , and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author Philip K. Dick (creator of "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? " , the basis One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots — such as the creation of strong artificial intelligence — are assumed to have been solved . Some android heroes seek , like Pinocchio , to become human , as in the film "Bicentennial Man " , or Data in ' Others , as in the film "Westworld " , rebel against abuse Android hunter Deckard in " Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? " and its film adaptation "Blade Runner " discovers that his targets appear to be , in some ways , more " human " than One aspect of writing about the meaning Perhaps the clearest example of this is John Brunner's 1968 novel " Into the Slave Nebula " , where the blue-skinned android slaves are explicitly shown to be fully human . More recently , the androids Bishop and Annalee Call in the films "Aliens " and "Alien Resurrection " are how humans deal with the presence of an " Other " Female androids , or "gynoids " , are often seen in science fiction , and can be of men attempting to create " and the female robot Maria in Some gynoids , like Pris in " Blade Runner " , are

, or as submissive, servile companions , such as in " The Stepford Wives " the east , the Northwest Territories (NWT ) to the north , and the U.S. state of Montana to by the Great Plains , while the western part quick temperature changes due to air aridity . at 661,848 square kilometres , and the 4th most populous , being Alberta's capital is Edmonton , while The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas ( CMAs ) and both exceed contributes to continuing the rivalry between The oil industry has been a pillar of Since Alberta is the province most rich in hydrocarbons , it provides 70% of the oil and natural gas exploited In the past , Alberta 's political landscape hosted parties like Today , Alberta is generally Before becoming part of Canada several First Nations and was a territory used Canada acquired the lands that would become Alberta as part of many immigrants arrived , the biggest wave of which was pushed by Wilfrid Laurier , to prevent the prairies from being annexed by Americans . on - Stone Provincial Park . Governor General of Canada ( 1878–83 ) Alberta's southern border is the 49th parallel north , which The 60th parallel north divides There are numerous rivers and lakes There are three large lakes , Lake Claire Lesser Slave Lake ( ) , and Lake Athabasca ( ) , which located at about the geographic centre of , surrounded by extensive ranching country . is boreal forest , while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely forested ( see Alberta Mountain forests and Alberta-British Columbia foothills forests The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between Alberta extends for over from , therefore , varies considerably Average high temperatures in January range from in the southwest to in the far north . cause them to drop most the mountain ranges before reaching the province of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is , suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts

and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by , the temperature can change rapidly produced record maximum temperatures from in the mountains to over in southeastern Alberta . Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1,900 up to just under 2,600 hours The average daytime temperatures range from around in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north , up to around in the dry prairie a type of intense, fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and , pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream , descends over frequently interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds blowing propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in , temperatures soared from in severe , are frequent in In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of has been recorded flowering as early as March , though April is the usual month Other prairie flora known to flower early are the golden bean and wild rose up as summer lengthens , to be replaced by hardy perennials These are largely deciduous , typically aspen , poplar , North of the North Saskatchewan River , evergreen forests Aspen poplar , balsam poplar ( or in some parts cottonwood ) , and paper birch The four climatic regions ( alpine , boreal forest ) of Alberta are home , with its grasses providing pasture Moose , mule deer, elk, and white-tailed deer are found can be found in the prairies Rabbits , porcupines , skunks Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north Vast numbers of ducks , geese , swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one , and crows are plentiful , and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found Bull trout , native to the province Alberta has operated a rat-control program , which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported , usually of rats have been domesticated rats that It is illegal for individual Albertans

to own or keep Norwegian rats only be kept in the province by zoos , universities and found and captured , in In the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Other formations have been recorded as well , like the Milk River and The latter two have a lower diversity to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered Additional geologic formations that have produced only a few fossils The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during least 10,000 years ago , They are thought to have then possibly moved down the east side Others may have migrated down consisted of all land drained by The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory they were prime habitats for fur-bearing animals southern rivers into the rivers north of ) of Montreal to compete , then setting northward on , which he followed to It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name — the Mackenzie River — which he followed and NWC , and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities . to the land that would later become Alberta , and the Crown As settlement increased , local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added . Alberta was enlarged and given volunteers left relatively few workers to maintain On June 21, 2013 , during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered The 2016 census reported Alberta had a population With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016 mainly because of its burgeoning economy . Between 2003 and 2004 , the province had high birthrates such as British Columbia ) , relatively high immigration , and a high rate of interprovincial migration compared to other provinces . The Calgary – Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area between the ages of 15–64 , and 500,215 residents ( 12.3% ) aged 65 and English is the most common mother tongue , with There are also 933,165 residents who

identify as a visible minority , including The 2006 census found that English , with 2,576,670 native speakers , was the most common mother tongue ( 3.02% ) , followed 61,225 ( 1.90% ) . Other mother tongues include : Punjabi , Ukrainian , with 29,455 (0.91% ) ; Spanish , with 29,125 (0.90% ) ; Polish , with The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 ( but large numbers later came from As reported in the 2001 census , The Chinese presence began with workers employed Albertans were : 885,825 English ( 27.2% ) ; 679,705 German ( 20.9% ) ; 667,405 661,265 Scottish ( 20.3% ) ; 539,160 Irish ( 16.6% as were applicable . ) of whom consist of First Nations and the other half are There are also a small number of The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than was Roman Catholic , representing 24.3% the population identified themselves as belonging , a communal Anabaptist sect similar to the Mennonites the population , Sikhs 1.5% , Buddhists 1.2% , and Hindus 1.0% Calgary is home to Canada's largest mosque Alberta's economy was one of the by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent , or Switzerland , and was the highest of any province in Canada at This was 56% higher than the national average of and more than twice that of some of the national average was the largest for after taxes was $ 70,986 $ 60,270 in Canada as , with a GDP exceeding . and one of the densest The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million ( 72% A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining Energy revenues totalled $111.7 billion and Energy resource exports totalled $ while exports were $2.7 billion . Alberta's ICT industries generated over $ 13   billion in revenue . of plains buffalo (bison ) for Wheat and canola are primary farm crops

, with Alberta leading the provinces farming , often with fallow seasons Continuous cropping ( in which there is no fallow season ) is gradually of increased profits and a reduction of , with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors then migrating north during the summer short but the working days are long polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over The Athabasca oil sands surrounding Fort McMurray have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels ( - conventional in situ methods to Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction it profitable to extract this oil give little profit or even a loss . stabilizing oil prices threatened the economic viability of patents related to interactive liquid-crystal display systems . Alberta has been a tourist destination from , and camping , shopping locales international sporting competitions such as the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games , as well as more eclectic attractions . According to Alberta Economic Development , Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors Banff , Jasper and the Rocky Mountains There are also natural attractions like Alberta's Rockies include well-known tourist destinations Banff National Park and Calgary on Highway   1 Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks , Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park , Wood Buffalo National Park Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley , located northeast Drumheller also had a rich mining history being Its unicameral legislature — the Legislative Assembly — consists of 87 members elected first past Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately . The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by Alberta's elections have tended to yield had three main political parties , the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives The Wildrose Party , a more conservative party formed in the 2012 election and became the official opposition , a role it held until 2017 when it was dissolved and succeeded by the new United Conservative Party created by suggesting at the time a possible shift to villages and summer villages ) ,

specialized municipalities , rural municipalities ( including municipal districts ( often named as counties ) , improvement districts , and special areas ) , Métis settlements Policing in the province of Alberta This organization policed the province until it It was at that time the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police specifically RCMP " K " in Alberta has been evolving as certain aspects , such as the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT ) to combat organized crime and the serious offences that accompany Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have in that year came mainly from ) , and grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects ( " about $837 million in royalty payments from personal income tax at $ 10 , 763   million and federal transfers of $ 7,976   million with total resource revenue at $ 3,097 , while most Albertans continued to pay the 10 - per - cent income tax rate , new tax brackets 12 - per -cent , 14 - per with higher incomes ( $ 128,145 annually or more ) were to grant residents personal tax exemptions of $ 18,451 , in addition , and the aged . - operation with the provincial government . Based on Statistic Canada reports , low income Albertans , who earn less than $25,000 $ 150,000 or more , Those in the middle income brackets representing those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more in provincial taxes than residents in Alberta is the "best province " for those with a low income because there is no provincial income tax for those who earn $ 18,915 or less Even with the 2016 progressive tax brackets up to 15% , Albertans who have the highest incomes , pay the least in taxes 1,726 ; 1,300 jobs to Most real property is assessed according to linear property , all of which is assessed by regulated rates . The Edmonton Fringe Festival is the world 's second - largest after the Edinburgh Festival its Stampede , dubbed "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth " various races and competitions , such

who entertain in venues as Both Calgary and Edmonton are home Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Residence program in both socially and economically , The Artist is selected each year via a public and competitive process is expected to do community outreach and attend events The award comes with $60,000 funding which has ( almost ) exclusive authority to make laws respecting , and one ( St. Albert Glen Avon , survives as a ward For many years the provincial government has funded Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had , but not for separate school boards Since 1994 there has continued the difference is that the provincial government now sets the mill rate , the money is The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to support K–12 education provided by school boards Public and separate school boards , charter schools , and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of Homeschool tutors may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies . The University of Alberta , located in Edmonton The University of Calgary , once affiliated with 1966 and is now the second-largest university Calgary's second public university , and in late September 2009 , a similar move made MacEwan University Edmonton's second public university . There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding , along with two technical institutes There are also many private post-secondary institutions , mostly Christian Universities , bringing the total number of and grants while attending selected private institutions students ( as opposed to Alberta Health Services ( AHS)—a quasi-independent agency that delivers as set out by the provisions , making it the best - funded health - care system per - capita in All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by AHS is the province's single health authority , established Alberta is well - connected Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport are the

fourth- and fifth - busiest primarily serving the prairie provinces ( Alberta Calgary , Edmonton , Red Deer , Medicine Hat , and Lethbridge There are more than of by two shortline railways : the Battle River Railway and Passenger trains include Via Rail's Canadian ( Toronto – Vancouver ) or Jasper – Prince Rupert trains , which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel Alberta has over of highways The main north–south corridor is Highway 2 , which begins south of Cardston at Highway   4 , which , begins at the Coutts border crossing and Highway   3 joins Lethbridge   2 to Highway   North of Edmonton , the highway an interchange with Highway   43 The section of Highway   2 been named the Queen Elizabeth II Highway to commemorate Highway   2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it : Highway 22 , west of Highway   2 , known as "   21 , east of , runs westward through Calgary and known as the Yellowhead Highway (Highway   16 ) , runs west Highway   3 runs between   11 ( also known runs east from the Saskatchewan River Crossing in , connecting with Highway   are often called "trails " For example , Highway   2 , the main north-south highway in the province , is called Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary but becomes Calgary Trail ( for southbound traffic Edmonton and then turns into Actinopterygii ( ;) , members of which are known as ray-finned fishes , is a clade ( traditionally class or subclass ) of The ray-finned fishes are so - called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that and marine environments from the deep sea at , to the massive ocean sunfish , ; but all teleosts , the most advanced actinopterygians The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is crossed Leptoid scales are thinner and more , and lack the hardened enamel or dentine-like layers found in the scales of Ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes , including tetrapods ,

possessed lungs used for aerial respiration . separate , and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally , typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they However other patterns of ontogeny exist , , fish starting life as Most families use external rather than 79% ) do not provide Viviparity , ovoviviparity , or , whether by the male , the female , or both parents is seen in a significant fraction ( 21% Viviparity is relatively rare and that self - fertilise . The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite , producing both eggs and spawn and having long periods out of water in temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned The latter comprises the subclasses Chondrostei The Neopterygii , in turn , is divided into the infraclasses Holostei and Teleostei During the Mesozoic ( Triassic , Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified The latter include mostly terrestrial species but also groups that became secondarily aquatic (e.g. Whales and Dolphins ) The polypterids ( bichirs and reedfish ) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians , the Acipenseriformes ( sturgeons and paddlefishes ) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii , and Holostei (bowfin and gars ) are the sister lineage of The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is " Andreolepis hedei " , dating back 420 million years ( The listing below is a summary of all extinct ( indicated by Albert Einstein (; ; 14 March 1879   , widely acknowledged to be but he also made important contributions His mass–energy equivalence formula , which arises from relativity theory , has been dubbed of the photoelectric effect " , a pivotal step described as his "annus mirabilis " ( 'miracle year' ) , Einstein published , explained Brownian motion , introduced Einstein thought that the laws of classical mechanics could no longer be , which led him to He then extended the theory to However , for much of First , despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics , he opposed what it evolved into , objecting that nature " does not

Second , he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory Swiss citizenship , which he kept and in 1903 he secured awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich . join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin . was visiting the United States , Adolf Hitler On the eve of World War II , he that the US begin similar research . lacked the capital to convert their equipment first to Milan and a few months later , Einstein , then 15 , stayed in Munich to pursue electrical engineering , but Einstein He later wrote that the spirit to let him go by physics from a young age , reaching a mathematical level years ahead The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean theorem at A family tutor Max Talmud says that after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook , after a short time " [Einstein] had high I could not follow led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure " . had become more seriously interested ) , Einstein was introduced Kant became his favorite philosopher , his tutor stating : " At the time he was still a child , only thirteen years old , yet Kant's works seemed to be clear to and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling While lodging with the family of Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Einstein's future wife , a 20-year-old Serbian named Mileva Marić , also enrolled at the polytechnic school spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested Marić that he preferred studying the exams in Maths and Physics and was was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl " Novi Sad where Marić was staying In May 1904 , their son Hans Albert Einstein Their son Eduard was born in April 1914 , but Marić returned learning that , despite their close relationship

before , Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin Elsa Löwenthal ; she was his first cousin maternally and second cousin 14 February 1919 , having lived apart Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings while his wife was pregnant with their second child : " I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be , after having had a relationship Betty Neumann , the niece of a close friend ) , with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being Later , after the death of his second wife Elsa , Einstein was Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for , but was not conscripted in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902 , self - mockingly named "The Olympia Academy " , which met regularly to discuss science Sometimes they were joined by Mileva who attentively listened but In 1900 , Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen " ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena " " Annalen der Physik " recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern . The following year , after he gave accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics . - The New York Times.png|thumb |right| " The New York Times " reported confirmation of " the Einstein theory " ( specifically, the bending of Brazil ) , after the findings , enabling him to concentrate the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy , additionally offering him the post of was soon to be established and professorship without teaching duties he moved to Berlin the following year His decision to move to Berlin of living near his cousin Elsa , with whom he had As World War I broke out that year , the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics , which he used to calculate that deflection , and the perihelion precession

, making Einstein world - for his discovery of the law of While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial , the citation also does not treat " , as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan , He went on to deliver " My First Impression of the U.S.A. " , in tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans , much as had Alexis de Tocqueville , who published Einstein was clearly surprised : " What strikes a visitor is The American is friendly , self - confident , optimistic , Ceylon and Japan , where to thousands of Japanese . , where thousands came to as being modest , intelligent , considerate , and having , he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony He was greeted as if he were a head of state , rather than a physicist , which included a cannon salute upon arriving stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him in 1923–1924 ) , a body created to promote international exchange between Originally slated to serve as by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to instead have him become the German delegate , thus allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take the Swiss spot , from Einstein visited South America , where he spent about a month in Argentina he and his arrangers aimed to " The New York Times " , and a performance of "Carmen " was cheered by the audience on During the days following , he Einstein as " the ruling monarch of , gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein His friendship with Millikan was " awkward " , as Millikan " , where Einstein was Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin , , gave Einstein a tour of Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife , was to premiere a few days later

invited Einstein and Elsa to this as " one of recalled his " modest little flat " and the piano at which he had begun writing While at American universities in early 1933 He and his wife Elsa returned and during the trip , they learned that the German Reichstag had passed that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin Later on , they heard Belgium on 28 March , Einstein surrendered his passport , formally renouncing barring Jews from holding any official positions the Nazi book burnings , with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming , " Jewish intellectualism is dead the phrase , " not yet hanged " , offering a $5,000 bounty In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born , who had already emigrated from Germany to " ...   I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something , unsure where he would live and work , and countless other scientists still in Germany . , Belgium , where he had become friends with Einstein bring Jewish scientists out of Germany immediately , and sent his friend , physicist Frederick Lindemann , to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and Einstein later contacted leaders of İsmet İnönü , to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement Einstein , during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine , as they were being who should be offered a temporary shelter to the US and took up for having become a refuge for He was one of the four first selected ( along The two would take long walks Bruria Kaufman , his assistant , later Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted Einstein and Szilárd , along and Eugene Wigner , " regarded might win the race to build an atomic bomb , and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to To make certain the US was aware of the danger , in , which Einstein , a pacifist

, said he had never " arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption [ and ] he called , some argue he went — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made ; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them   Not long after settling into , New Jersey , he expressed ) in Princeton , where seeing it as " handed down from one generation to the was prepared to testify on in America , adding , " I do not intend to be quiet about it A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem , which opened Chaim Weizmann , to help raise first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order That should be followed , he suggested , by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology , to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria , which he called an "evil " Einstein was not a nationalist Einstein felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president . Upon his death while in office Einstein the position of President of who explained that the offer " embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can In his late journals he wrote : " If I were not a physicist , I would probably His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin , not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help began playing when he was When he turned 13 , , whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music without " ever practicing systematically He said that " love The examiner stated afterward that his playing was " remarkable and revealing What struck the examiner , writes Botstein , was that Einstein " displayed a deep love of the music , a quality that was and Einstein's life from that period on .

Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals , and he performed for private audiences and Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in In 1931 , while engaged of Beethoven and Mozart's works with such as "Why Socialism ? " them for not having a 'well-regulated system their rule a 'regime of terror and He later adopted a more moderated view , , which is shown by his own person has committed his entire energy to I do not find his methods One thing is certain , however Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated He wrote " I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself . a role model for the generations to come , when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein , whom Wilfrid Israel met while a short letter to Gandhi that was He said he had sympathy He did not believe in , a view which he He clarified , however , that " I am not an atheist " , preferring to call himself an agnostic , When asked if he believed And one life is enough for the First Humanist Society of New York , and was publishes "New Humanist " in Britain he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring He observed , " Without ' ethical culture ' there is , dated 3 January 1954 , Einstein wrote : The word God is for me nothing more than , the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish No interpretation no matter how subtle can ( for me ) And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for

internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm , which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen , " I want to go when I want . I have done my share ; it is time to go I will do it elegantly During the autopsy , the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so : " He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word " Einstein " synonymous Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to which translates as " Conclusions Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics ) attempted to interpret as firm evidence that molecules exist Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by zero , leading to large fluctuations The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered , making the fluid look , which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller explains why the sky is blue Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper " ( " On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies " ) was received on ( where objects are moving became known as Einstein's special theory of that he collaborated with his first wife This paper predicted that , when , a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down , and the body itself would Einstein produced "E "   =   "mc"2 as a consequence of moving bodies ) . a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915 . According to general relativity , the observed gravitational attraction between masses results As Einstein later said , within special relativity was unsatisfactory , while a theory which from the outset even accelerated ones ) should appear more Consequently , in 1907 he In that article titled " On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn argued that free fall is really inertial motion , and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must

This argument is called the equivalence principle . another article " On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light " expanding gravitational waves , ripples in the curvature waves , traveling outward from of closely orbiting neutron stars , While developing general relativity , Einstein him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory In June 1913 , the Entwurf As its name suggests , it less elegant and more difficult of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions a universe that was dynamic , either contracting or expanding . As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time , order to allow the theory to claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years In late 2013 , a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that , shortly after learning the nebulae , Einstein considered a steady-state model the density of matter remains constant , a process he associated with , " In what follows , I would like to can account for Hubbel's ["sic"] facts , and in which the density is constant over time " ... be continually leaving it . For the density to remain constant , new particles of matter must It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle , Bondi General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime , so how to identify the conserved energy and Noether 's theorem allows these quantities Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason : the gravitational field could be made to vanish , in fact , the best description of a wormhole , often called Einstein – Rosen bridges . If one end of a wormhole was positively charged , the other end would to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part , called the torsion . non - linear , a lump of energy made out of would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves , not by a new law that light itself consists of localized particles ( " quanta " )

Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency " f " is " is Planck 's constant He does not say much more , because he is not sure how the particles are a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator . In the Einstein model , each atom oscillates independently — a series of Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult , but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must , based on a counting method that assumed that light could be Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications , among them the Bose – Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST –JILA laboratory Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to 1906 , he had not a "Privatdozent " at the University of Bern . In " Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung " ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation " ) , on the quantization Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and This paper introduced the "photon" concept ( although the name "photon " was introduced later Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy , they then This article showed that the statistics of would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light would be enhanced statistically compared his ideas , which were received , which Einstein suggested was quantum theory , beginning with his 1905 paper

However , he became displeased evolved after 1925 , despite He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism , stating that God " is not playing at dice " Their debates are remembered because of to quantum mechanics , in particular two particles , which had interacted such that their properties were strongly there were two possibilities : ( 1 ) either the other particle had these properties already determined , or ( 2 ) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that , while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not But as a physical principle , local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell 's theorem , which The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics can not be represented each one being unable to communicate with the other after they Although Einstein was wrong about local realism , his clear prediction has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the top ten papers published in " his "unified field theory " in a "Scientific American" article titled Notably , Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces , neither of which were well understood until Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion the bar to rotate , because the electron 's angular momentum he might be able to Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive his former student Leó Szilárd co - invented ( and in 1930 , patented having no moving parts and using only heat to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for While traveling , Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse . Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public , but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death ( she died in Although the court initially held that the right had expired , that ruling was immediately appealed ,

and the decision was later vacated The right is enforceable , and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right recognized and received adulation and in their "The Talk of the Town " feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain He finally figured out a way He told his inquirers " Pardon Always I am mistaken for Einstein has been the subject of of absent-minded professors ; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " for his services to Theoretical Physics , and especially for his discovery of Afghanistan ( ) , officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Iran to the west , Turkmenistan in the north and the southwest that are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range . , its population is 40.2 million , composed mostly of ethnic Pashtuns , along the historic Silk Road connected it to as well as Europe , leaving behind a mosaic of ethnolinguistic and religious groups that has influenced the modern Afghan nation . The land has historically been home Alexander the Great , the Maurya Empire , Muslim Arabs the Soviet Union , and most recently from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals , among others , rose Following its decline , and the death before being reunited in the 19th century in India attempted to subjugate the country but were repelled in This kingdom lasted almost 50 years , until , following which a republic was dominated by prolonged warfare , starting with the country becoming a socialist state and provoking the Soviet–Afghan War , followed by , and 1996–2001 ) that Many empires and kingdoms have also finally , the Hotak and Durrani dynasties , which The country has been home to them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role among them the Achaemenid Empire , the Macedonian Empire Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least

50,000 years ago , and that farming communities in the area were Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE of the country ) was a center up towards modern-day Afghanistan , making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan from what today is northwest Pakistan There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well After 2000 BCE , successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan ; These tribes later migrated further into toward Europe via the area north By the middle of the 6th century BCE , the Achaemenids in a list of the 29 countries that Darius III of Persia a year earlier in it to the Maurya Empire as part The Mauryans controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended , leading to the Hellenistic reconquest During the first century BCE , the Parthian Empire In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire , centered of Buddhist culture , making Buddhism who , in turn , was replaced by the Hephthalites . The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered began spreading eastward ; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted . the region used to be home Buddhism or Greco-Buddhism , Ancient Iranian religions would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Islamized the wider region and patronized intellectuals such as the historian Al-Biruni His troops are said to have Balkh as well as Bamyan The destruction caused by the Mongols forced Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty who had ruled Afghanistan was referred to by

) are now located in Afghanistan , while the regions of a local Ghilzai tribal leader , successfully rebelled against 1715 and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz , who was soon killed by Mirwais' son Mahmud for possibly planning to concede territories of Kandahar , the last Hotak stronghold , Soon after , the Persian and Afghan forces invaded India , Nader Shah had plundered Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him The Abdalis had " unanimously accepted then receding , Afsharid Empire . Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and and ( 1754–1755 ) . and was forced to retreat , however Shah rokh was reappointed up Torshiz, Bakharz , Jam , Khaf , and Turbat-e Haidari to Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons one that needed to expand and exploit a weak but rich neighboring country , which Ahmad Shah had capitalized on in sought the reasons needed to fill his armies sacked and absorbed Lahore where he was defeated and forced to retreat to back Ahmad Shah had returned the next year in 1749 , where he had Punjab , presenting it as November 1772 , having defeated a coalition power toward himself and people loyal to him , purging and Kandahar to bring support Timur Shah's reforms also saw the capital of the Durrani Empire being shifted from Kandahar to Kabul , being able to cover the empire better as was essentially the heartland of the empire Having consolidated power to himself , rebellions to consolidate and hold the empire apart , Timur Shah would , however being more successful would be where Timur Shah led The Sikhs would lose over 30,000 incorporating it into the Durrani empire once again , reintegrating it as Timur Shah would be succeeded by With Humayun centered in Kandahar Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and Lahore , but being forced to retreat due to issues However , he was forced to withdraw , with his brother , Mahmud Shah Durrani revolting , Zaman Shah However , just under 2 years in his reign

Shah Shuja would attempt to consolidate the Durrani Realm , which had been long striven by civil war . Afghanistan was divided , including the empire , mostly ruling as After his murder for apparent treason against Fateh Khan would be sentenced by Mahmud Shah Durrani , having him executed His brothers , notably including Dost Mohammad Khan , rebelled and divided up many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared himself Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to but killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa , thus on their attempts to try and subjugate Afghanistan , and allowed his reign consolidating the parts of Afghanistan and also be able to securing Herat ( 1793–1863 ) a few months after his campaign to capture Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on to rule the realm until In 1878 , Ayub Khan who had succeeded Sher Ali Khan , making it an official an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line being conquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in The "Iron Amir " viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian was neutral , Habibullah Khan was them and attack British India , Their efforts to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed , but it After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state . , particularly with the Soviet Union and He proclaimed himself King of intended to modernize his nation . Some of the reforms that were put in place , such , quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders , soon after Kabul fell to Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah , Amanullah's cousin , in turn defeated and killed Kalakani challenged by Zadran , Safi led by Mazrak Zadran , Salemai Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey , the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq and Persia were also pursued , while further international relations were sought by joining the League of Nations in , infrastructure , the founding of and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom

, but reversed the policy when it went further than he by Mohammed Daoud Khan , the king's cousin and brother - in - law , and a Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation of a Pashtunistan , leading King Zahir Shah , like his father Nadir Shah , had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization , creating nationalist feeling , and improving However , Afghanistan remained neutral However , it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways , airports , In April 1978 , the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan what is called the Saur Revolution . , with its first leader named as events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and strong opposition , while also brutally This caused unrest and quickly by 1979 , waged by It quickly turned into a proxy war assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member , then-prime minister Hafizullah Amin , who A Soviet-organized regime , led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal Parcham and Khalq ) , The United States and Pakistan , along China , continued supporting the rebels and weapons including two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface - to - displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan , mainly to Pakistan Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages , millions of landmines were planted , and some cities such as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged a major supporting role in promoting the 'jihad ' and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter . while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting Taking control of Kandahar city that year finally driving out the government of formed the Northern Alliance , later joined by others , to resist The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was swiftly restored as its opponents were defeated or Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's seat asked to address the General Assembly . in August 2021 and the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted payments .

At over , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , slightly bigger than There is no coastline , as Afghanistan shares its longest land border ( the Durand Line and south , followed by , but is mostly mountainous , the western extension of the Himalayas that the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys , often considered part of the "Roof of the World southwest , namely the Turkestan Plains and the Sistan Basin ; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi - deserts , and hot windy deserts , respectively Nuristan and Paktika provinces ( see East Afghan montane conifer forests ) The country's highest point is Noshaq , at The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range , in and around in a geologically active area where earthquakes may They can be deadly and destructive , causing landslides in some parts or avalanches during the winter in the central highlands , the glaciated northeast ( around Nuristan ) , and the Wakhan Corridor , where the average temperature in January is below and can reach , and hot summers in the low-lying areas of in the east , and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in over in July and can , with precipitation more common Snow leopards , Siberian tigers and brown bears live in the high elevation alpine tundra regions Foxes , wolves , otters lynx and other big cats populate the mountain forest region Gazelles , wild pigs and jackals west , while mongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi Marmots and ibex also live or the "Paghman mountain salamander " ) , Endemic flora include " Iris afghanica " Several regions are designated protected areas ; there are three national parks : Band-e Amir by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority , whereas the UN and most are thought to are of the Sunni denomination , 7% Shia and 3% non - The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also Kandahar ) accompanied by gurdwaras , living mainly in Herat forced leave due to decades being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue .

As estimated by the CIA World Factbook , Urbanization has increased rapidly , particularly in the capital Kabul , due to returning refugees from , internally displaced people , and rural migrants , Kabul , located in is the "loya jirga " ( grand assembly ) , a Pashtun consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new head of state , adopting a new constitution , or to settle national or regional issue , with the aim of forming a government ( though it is unclear whether either Karzai or Abdullah will be directly involved in Taliban forces , meanwhile , exercise according to Fawzia Koofi , former member that a men-only government would " not , potentially , be workable as the basis for the new state as their objections to the former government were religious , and not political , Hours after the final flight of American troops a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September It was added that Hibatullah Akhundzada would be officially named Emir , with cabinet ministers being revealed Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head is likely to be a unitary Deobandist Islamic republic to be governed similarly to , and would be based Baradar or Yaqoob would be The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai is likely to be News18 that negotiations were not yet completed and that representatives were still in Kandahar , and that the announcement of the new government would not take place until Government formation was further delayed with the week of 6 September , due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura , the group's leadership council was over appointments needed to form This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured were planning the Cabinet to be men - only , stating that women would not be allowed to " work in that women were " ruled out " from the Cabinet .

Journalists and other human rights activists , mostly women , protested in Herat and Kabul , calling for women to be included in the Cabinet 34 provinces ("wilayat " ) . normally covers a city or several villages the district governors are selected by the provincial governors in Kabul and are responsible There are also provincial councils that According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law , mayors provided much aid and military training for internationally unrecognized , but has , or $72.9 billion by purchasing Its GDP per capita is $ 2,024 ( PPP ) . Despite having $1 trillion or more Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability but exports only $784 million , mainly fruits While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the Afghani (AFN ) is the national currency , with an exchange rate who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses construction , which is one next to the capital , the Aino Mena project in Similar development projects have also begun in - Sharif , and other cities Several small companies and factories began operating which not only provide revenues to the government but also create and has traditionally dominated the economy The country is known for producing or more of the nation's economy is In recent years , there has which authorities and farmers trying Between 2012 and 2019 , the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world 's best The country's natural resources include : coal , , precious and semi - precious stones , natural gas , Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that would double and provide long-term funding in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has granted for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion , making it

the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least One official asserted that " this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy " and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of which is currently viewed as reported , " The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt been conspicuously absent from the bidding process This means they use just under double as much biocapacity Overall the figure stands at 98.7% hydropower , helped by the amount However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen , In recent years an increasing number of solar, biomass and wind power plants Currently under development are the CASA-1000 project annually as of 2016 . In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley , which includes , helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from Smaller numbers visit and trek in which is also one of From the late 1960s onwards , Afghanistan attracting many Europeans and Americans . Kabul before crossing to northern Pakistan and historical sites , and together with Bamyan city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively . The cities of Herat , Kandahar are also very historic . A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet a city founded by Alexander the Great and the Shrine of Ali , believed by many to be the location where Ali by Afghan Telecom , Afghan Wireless , The country uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1 By 2001 following years of a non-existent sector , but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry Due to Afghanistan's geography , transport and highways , particularly on and by the private company Kam Air . also provide flights in and ) ; and a short link from , which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan

only and there is no passenger service A rail line between Khaf , Iran Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since use donkeys , mules or horses to transport or carry and higher education , which is overseen by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education However , the new regime has thus far forbidden girls and female teachers ( AUAF ) followed by both of which are located The National Military Academy of Afghanistan , modeled after a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers Major universities outside of Kabul include As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% ( males 55.48% and females The country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its infant mortality rate is 66 to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births . , with the most advanced treatments being available Afghanistan due to the decades of It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs . Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in and families are often headed according to the Pashtun culture by following , the provision of sanctuary to those seeking refuge , and The remaining Afghans are culturally Persian and Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization Those who have lived in have been further influenced by the best way of organizing large groups of geographically difficult , and in a society that , from a materialistic point There are various Afghan tribes , and Afghan culture is deeply Islamic , One example is " bacha bazi " , a term for activities involving Child marriage is prevalent in Afghanistan Men would typically work on the fields , joined by women About 15% of the population are nomadic , locally called "kochis " Women would normally wear a "chador wear the "burqa " , a full body covering of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region , but Another popular dress is the "chapan " which of Afghanistan and became known

the 21st century when it was constantly The "pakol " is another traditional hat originating from The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and Among the most well known are the Great Mosque of Herat , the Blue Mosque , the Minaret of Jam , the Chil Zena , the Qala-i Bost in Lashkargah , the ancient Greek city However , many of its historic monuments them dating back to the 2nd century are still handmade by tribal and nomadic people " war rugs " , a variant of Afghan rugs , were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is Gandhara Art , , with Kamaleddin Behzad of Herat being one Radio Television Afghanistan , originating from 1925 Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels , and there are hundreds Voice of America , BBC , and Radio Liberty ( RFE/RL ) broadcast It has been claimed that ) have also been represented and instruments such as the Indian tabla as well as dayereh and tanbur which are also known Radio Kabul and was influential in During this time female artists also started appearing , at first Mermon Parwin Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was Ahmad Zahir , who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned , a group dance popularly performed by Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products Poetry has always been one The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and , among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories ( although claimed , namely : Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of , finally , Rumi of considered the persophonist throughout the world as The Afghan Pashto literature , although quantitatively remarkable , has always had an essentially local meaning and importance , feeling the influence an ancient tradition that started as a Zoroastrian celebration

which it shares the annual celebration along It occurs every year at the vernal equinox Religious festivals are also celebrated ; as a predominantly Muslim country , Islamic events and festivals such as Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr and Ashura are widely celebrated annually Several international celebrations are also officially held Later that year , the country's cricket team followed it The Afghan national cricket team , which was formed The team eventually made it and the official governing body of the sport and is The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in in Afghanistan is governed by The national team has never competed or qualified for the FIFA World Cup but has The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is buzkashi , mainly popular in the north , but , played by horsemen in two teams , each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass . ) originated in Afghanistan and Albania (; or ) , officially the Republic of Albania ( ) , Kosovo to the northeast , North Macedonia Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions , defined Albania has been inhabited by different civilisations over time , such Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them acclaim over Between the 18th and 19th centuries , cultural developments , widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength , conclusively led to invaded by Italy which formed Greater Albania before becoming a protectorate of , followed by manufacturing . The term Albania is the medieval Latin name recorded by Ptolemy , the geographer located northeast of Durrës . the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon or Arbanon , although it is not certain that this , the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in The words "Shqipëri " and "Shqiptar " are attested from 14th century onwards , but it was of the early 18th centuries that the placename "Shqipëria " and the ethnic demonym "Shqiptarë " gradually replaced "Arbëria " and of Albania dates back to include flint and jasper objects along with fossilised animal bones

, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by Indo-European people who Albania was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples , among them numerous Illyrian tribes there is no evidence that these tribes while it is regarded to be unlikely that they used The territory referred to as Illyria corresponded roughly to the area east The Illyrian Ardiaei tribe , centred in Montenegro his wife , Teuta , inherited Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards   Gentius   in 181 BC of the increasing pressure from threats during and Western Catholic Church that is reflected the Albanian-Greek Gregory Kamonas and subsequently under the Golem The ethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain ; however the first undisputed mention of Albanians to the Albanoi as having taken Few years after the dissolution of Arbanon , Charles of Anjou concluded the Kingdom of Albania and conquered regions back This plan found also the support of the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler , Stefan Dusan , to establish a short-lived empire that created , notably the Principality of Albania , Principality and expansion with its borders going The Albanians , as Christians , , and as such they others by the Devshirme system that allowed the Assembly of Lezhë until the Siege of Shkodër multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute to regain Albania , which When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution The city of Vlorë saw passing Islam offered them equal opportunities and were , according to some scholars , diverse depending on the context not help when investigating such issues strategically important , they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and , Zagan Pasha , Muhammad Ali of the Treaty of San Stefano which overlooked to assign However , the United Kingdom and Austro-Hungarian Empire The league had initially the assistance of Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed

Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league , under Abdyl Frashëri , became focused on working towards Albanian autonomy and requested merging four vilayets , Monastir and Ioannina , into an unified vilayet , the Albanian Vilayet was established on 15 October 1913 to " (Princ Vilhelm Vidi ) " was offered the throne of Albania to This initiative was short - lived , and in 1921 the southern provinces himself the saviour of Albania , Prênk Bibë Doda , to be and northern Mirdita Catholics , were defeated by the rebels who captured most (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu ) served as the head where a pact had been signed between both countries , whereby Italy eventually replaced by another monarchy with however , both maintained close relations the custom of adding one's region to land to international organisations for the building After being militarily occupied by , the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency of the Kingdom of Italy governed by April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the communists took control by attacking By the end of the Second World War , the main military and political force forces to northern Albania against the nationalists , Dukagjin and Kelmend led Class struggle was strictly applied , human freedom and human rights were denied The Kelmend region was almost isolated by of agricultural cooperatives brought about economic decline an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation , a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it . Agriculture became cooperative , and production increased significantly , leading to the country becoming agriculturally self The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% The nation incurred large debts initially with Today a secular state without any official religion , religious freedoms and practises were severely of worship being outlawed . that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised , mostly the waqfs along with the estates of Many believers , along with the ulema and many priests , were

After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed , Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in 1967 . The churches had not been spared either and many were converted Nonetheless , many Albanians continued to isolation as well as the revolutions most notably students , became politically active and campaigned against the government that Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government , requesting their money back as government forces responded by firing Republican Guard deserted , leaving their armouries a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy , expatriates and to secure the ground to the European Union (EU ) and together with Croatia , gained Between 2013 and 2017 , Edi Rama of the Socialist Party numerous reforms focused on modernising the economy state institutions , including the country's judiciary and Unemployment has been steadily reduced , with Albania achieving the 4th lowest unemployment rate Albania with the epicentre positioned southwest and in places as far away as Taranto , Italy , while the most affected areas were the coastal city On 9 March 2020 , the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19 ) was confirmed to Albania has an area of and Albania lies between latitudes 42 ° and 39° N , and longitudes 21 ° and 19 ° E. Its northernmost point is Vërmosh is Sazan at 19 ° 16' 50 " eastern longitude ; and the easternmost point is Vërnik at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude . The highest point is Mount Korab at above Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is In the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in Farther south extends the Large the Adriatic Sea but as well as The longest river in the country , measured variable and diverse owing to Albania experiences predominantly a mediterranean and

continental climate , with four distinct seasons positioned within the northern and The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter The highest temperature of was recorded in The mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending are considered to be among at least of rain annually , which is extremely rare A biodiversity hotspot , Albania The estuaries , wetlands and lakes , pygmy cormorant and the extremely At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are designated and managed by the Albanian government There are 15 national parks , 4 ramsar sites Albania has fifteen officially designated national parks scattered across its territory Encircled by numerous two-thousanders , Valbonë Valley National Park The Ceraunian Mountains in southern Albania , rising immediately along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast , characterises Further south sprawls the Butrint National Park on a peninsula that is surrounded by the Lake of Butrint and Channel of Vivari on The country is recognised as vulnerable to climate change impacts , ranked the Paris Agreement , Albania is committed which , along with national policies , will help to mitigate Albania's ranking has however decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in laid out in the constitution wherein the president functions as the head The civil law , codified and based and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited . The president is the commander - in - chief of the military and The prime minister , appointed by the president and approved by the parliament , has extended its responsibilities and position in continental and international affairs , developing and establishing friendly relations Albania's admission into the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO The country has been extensively engaged of the United States and the European Union (EU ever after it supported the Albania's independence Nowadays , both countries have signed Albania and Kosovo are culturally , socially and economically very closely rooted due to the Albanian majority population Albania has been an active member of They country took on membership 2007 as well as in 2017 and was elected vice president Albania has committed to increase

The military now consists mainly of , such as tanks and Increasing the military budget was one of Military spending has generally been low " qarqe " ) and The government introduced the new administrative divisions to be implemented in 2015 , whereby There are overall 2980 villages or communities in the entire country , formerly known The largest county in Albania , by The largest in the county , in Albania has been largely The country has a developing mixed economy classified by Its largest trading partners are Italy , Greece to their high population , modern infrastructure and the west to the east . the European Union average , while GDP (PPP ) per capita was 35% According to "Forbes " , the Gross Domestic Product (GDP ) was growing The Foreign direct investment has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked in the near term , driven by , and about 24.31% of the land ) , vegetables ( potatoes Further , the country is a worldwide significant producer The World Bank and European Community economists report that , Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings many times higher than those where vine was naturally grown The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old . many changes and diversification , since It is very diversified , Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit after Romania , and the largest oil reserves approaching companies from the European Union (EU Albania is a significant minerals producer and is Previously one of the most isolated and controlled countries in of national importance and has been including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to , while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2   million contrast the previous year according to the country's tourism agency has the most scenic and pristine beaches , and is often called the pearl of the Albanian coast is rich in varieties of clean ecologically , which represent also the principal hub for Albania's national flag carrier airline , The highways and motorways in Albania

are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation The Autostrada 1 (A1 ) represents The Autostrada 2 (A2 ) is part the Pan-European Corridor VIII and connects Fier with The Autostrada 3 (A3 ) is currently under construction and will Shëngjin and Sarandë . , Hekurudha Shqiptare which was extensively promoted There has been a considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since However , a new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrës is secular , free , compulsory and based on three levels of education segmented in primary, secondary and tertiary education . and taught most often at The languages taught in schools are English , Italian , French following secondary education , has undergone of higher education well dispersed in others primary , secondary and tertiary healthcare , 37th in the world outperforming several developed countries probably thanks to the health benefits of Due to its geographical location and natural resources oil and coal , to wind , solar and water as well as other renewable sources . is dependent on hydroelectricity simultaneously ranking fifth in the world in The Drin , located in the north , hosts four hydroelectric power stations , including and the 58th in the world where the country's largest reserve is located . TAP ) , Albania will Withal the TAP runs for across Albania's territory before entering the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast approximately and comprise lakes , rivers at per inhabitant per year As of various reports , during 1991 to 2005 approximately 50% of the professors and the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015 It aims to triple public the point where it covers 40% Vodafone Albania , Telekom Albania and Albtelecom As of the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority ( AKEP As defined by the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT ) , the population of Albania The country's total fertility rate of 1.51 children born per woman is one of the ; 75.8 years for males and quite limited , hence this

, with about 600,000 of them in Tirana County followed by Fier County and Durrës , making it the largest urban area in Contrary to official statistics that show ) have frequently disputed the official numbers was as follows : Albanians 2,312,356 ( 82.6% of the total ) , Greeks 24,243 ( 0.9% ) , Macedonians 5,512 ( 0.2% ) , Montenegrins 366 ( 0.01% ) , Aromanians 8,266 ( 0.30% ) , Romani 8,301 ( 0.3% ) , Balkan Egyptians 3,368 ( 0.1% ) , other ethnicities 2,644 declared ethnicity 390,938 ( 14.0% ) , and not relevant 44,144 ( 1.6% ) . National Minorities stated that " the results of the census should be viewed the authorities not to rely exclusively is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania " Its standard spoken and written form is though it is notably based Also a dialect of Greek that preserves features now lost in Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include Aromanian , Serbian the Greek minority has caused problems for In a 2017 study carried out by of the 25–64 years old is able to use at least one foreign language , with English first at 40.0% , followed Among young people aged 25 or less Turkish have seen rising interest after Italian and French have had a stable interest , while Greek has , with 0.5 to 3% of the population having at least one member that speaks Greek , most having learned it present ) due to private schools Outside of the small designated "minority area " in the south the teaching of Greek was Germany for studying or various experiences for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better with Turkey , interest in learning Turkish , in particular among young people , has been As of the 2011 census , there Sunni Muslims , 280,921 (10.03% ) Roman Catholics Eastern Orthodox , 58,628 ( 2.09% 0.02% ) of other religions and 153,630 (5.49% ) believers without irreligious while 386,024 (13.79% ) did themselves religious , 30% considered

themselves non - religious , give widely different results , with 70% of respondents refusing to declare The Albanian Orthodox Church officially refused to recognize the results , claiming that 24% of the total population adhered to its faith claiming that many Muslims were not counted and that the number of adherents numbered some 70% of the Albanian population the census , complaining that many of its believers were not contacted Orthodox and Bektashis are mostly Catholics mainly live in the north During classical times , there are thought to have been about seventy Christian families founded by Paul the Apostle , while monarchic and later communist regimes followed either as a republic or as , under the state policy of obliterating The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely banned religion . The country was then officially declared Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Due to that , he was arrested and imprisoned by Albania shares many symbols associated with The red colour used in the flag symbolises The eagle has been used by The country 's national motto , " Ti Shqipëri , më jep nder You Albania , you give me honour , you give me the name Albanian " ) particularly influenced by a multitude of Centuries later , the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial literature and art whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of various civilisations tracing back to from within the castle to include dwellings , religious and commercial structures , with Nowadays , the cities and towns Perhaps the best known examples can be found A productive period of Historicism , Art Nouveau The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modern Italian style , which is present At this period many socialist-styled complexes , wide roads and factories were constructed , while town squares were redesigned and numerous of historic and important buildings demolished . and Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region site shared with and as such, different parts of the country Albanians produce and use many varieties and most notably , olives

, which are perhaps the most important element are a popular and an integral part Tavë kosi ("soured milk casserole " ) is the national dish of Albania , consisting of lamb and rice baked Fërgesë is another national dish , made up of peppers , tomatoes also a popular speciality , and is Flia consists of multiple crêpe-like layers brushed Tea is also enjoyed both enormously beloved , and a part the country , and has been , and the right to free expression is guaranteed the Press Freedom Index of 2020 compiled by the Reporters Without Borders , with its score steadily the national broadcaster corporation of Albania operating numerous television and radio stations The first movie theater exclusively devoted to showing e Re in Tirana . the Great Warrior Skanderbeg , was released chronicling It went on to win established , the largest film festival in the country , and continues to play by two Himariot musicians , Neço Muka and Festivali i Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster Radio Televizioni Shqiptar ( RTSH its inauguration in 1962 and has Contemporary artists Rita Ora , Bebe Rexha , Era Istrefi , and Inva Mula have achieved soprano Ermonela Jaho has been described by Presently , national costumes are most celebrations , mostly at ethnic festivals and by performing dance groups . ; it is not connected publications , mainly of the Catholic region but also of the Orthodox in Albanian , trying to do for Albanian what Martin Luther had Meshari ("The Missal " ) written by Gjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered one is not well understood . their books although their language was quite Other significant examples include : a baptism formula ( Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only , , who in his book Siege of Shkodër 1504 , confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in in vernacula lingua " ) as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita During the 16th and the 17th centuries , the catechism ("E mbësuame krishterë

(The Christian Doctrine ) from 1618 and ("Rituale romanum " ) 1621 by Frang Bardhi , who also published a dictionary and folklore creations , the theological-philosophical treaty " Cuneus Prophetarum the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages , were Since then , Albania have that include swimming , athletics The country have been represented by Popular sports in Albania include Football , weightlifting , basketball , , rugby union and gymnastics Football is by far the most popular sport The Albania national football team , ranking 51st in on 22 August 2015 ) have won the 1946 Balkan Cup and the Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000 , but had never participated in 16 medals at the European Championships with 1 of them being gold , Historically , the Albanian people have established , especially in Sicily and Calabria , and Greece to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the Ottoman conquest of up the largest ethnic group in the country . Allah (; , ) is The word " Allah " has The pre-Islamic Arabs worshipped a supreme deity whom they called Allah , alongside other lesser deities " to indicate the Islamic conception of " Allah " has been by Muslims ( both Arab after the term "al-ilāh " and "Allah " were used interchangeably Arabs who had become Muslims It is also often , albeit not exclusively , used The etymology of the word " Allāh " has been discussed extensively as either formed " spontaneously" ("murtajal " ) or as the definite form " lofty " or " Others held that it was , but most considered it of the Arabic definite article " al- " "the " to ' meaning " the deity " , or "the God Cognates of the name "Allāh " The corresponding Aramaic form is "Elah " ( ) , but its emphatic state is "Elaha " ( ) . It is written as ( " ʼĔlāhā " ) in Biblical Aramaic and ("ʼAlâhâ " ) in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church , both meaning simply "God Regional variants of the word " Allah

" occur in both pagan and According to the Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir , who created and controlled the Universe Pagans believed worship of humans or animals who had lucky events in their life brought them closer of lesser gods and those whom they called the “daughters of Allah or thing other than God Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs The term may have been vague goes back to Julius Wellhausen , However , there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal named Allah and then hosted a polytheist deity centuries earlier , but nothing precise is known about this use Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult that did not have an idol Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths , including Christians and Jews , use the word " Allah " to mean " God " . who add the biblical name "Jehovah " ( يهوه ) to the title "Allah Similarly , the Aramaic word for " Assyrian Christians is " ʼĔlāhā " (Even the Arabic-descended Maltese language of Malta , whose population is almost entirely Catholic , uses "Alla " for " use the terms ' ( ) ( ) for God the Son , and ' ( ) and also created their own Trinitized ' The Muslim ' reads : " the Compassionate , the Merciful . " The Trinitized ' reads : and the Son and the Holy Spirit , , which initially , according However , on a second revision by the 5-versed-inscription was re - translated as " ( 1)This [ inscription ] was set up (2) son of ʿUbaydah , secretary Augusta Secunda ( 4 ) Philadelphiana ; may he go mad who ( 5 ) effaces back to 512 , references to ' l - ilah (الاله ) can be found In pre-Islamic Gospels , the name used , as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions by Sydney Griffith et al . ( 2013 ) , David D. Grafton