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by Tadahito Mochinaga , Kihachirō Kawamoto and such as "Ghost in the Shell " and "Princess Mononoke " mixing cel animation with Prior to the digital era , anime was produced with traditional animation methods using a pose to pose approach . , and have given anime is on the movement , anime emphasizes the art quality and let limited animation techniques make up for the lack of Such techniques are often used not only to meet deadlines but instrumental in creating the atmosphere of The backgrounds are not always invented and are occasionally based on real locations , as exemplified in The cinematic effects of anime differentiates itself from Anime is cinematically shot as if by camera , including and angle shots to more complex dynamic shots that would be difficult to accurately reflect the proportions of the human body Head heights can vary , but most anime characters are about seven to eight heads Anime artists occasionally make deliberate modifications to body proportions to produce super deformed characters that feature a disproportionately small body compared to the head ; many super deformed characters are two to four heads back to Osamu Tezuka , who was deeply influenced by such early animation characters , whose iconic art style and character designs allowed for the entire range of human emotions to be depicted solely through the eyes The artist adds variable color shading to the eyes and particularly to the cornea to give them greater depth Generally , a mixture of a light shade , the tone color , and a dark shade Cultural anthropologist Matt Thorn argues that Japanese animators and audiences do not perceive such stylized eyes as inherently more or less However , not all anime characters unnaturally lively and colorful or is exaggerated and "hair action " is used Poitras traces hairstyle color to cover eye-catching artwork and colorful tones are attractive develop a nosebleed when aroused . , including sweat drops to depict nervousness , visible blushing for embarrassment The opening and credits sequences of most anime television series are accompanied by J-pop or J-rock songs , often by

reputed bands — as written with , therefore they often allude only vaguely or not at all , to the thematic settings or target demographic , including , and a diverse range of genres targeting an adult audience Shoujo and shounen anime sometimes contain elements popular with children of Adult anime may feature a slower pace or greater plot complexity that younger audiences may typically find unappealing , as well as adult themes and situations . A subset of adult anime works featuring pornographic elements are labeled "R18 " in Japan , and are internationally " ecchi " , sexual themes sexual intercourse , as typified in the comedic or harem genres ; due to its popularity such elements is considered a form of Some genres explore homosexual romances , such as " yaoi " (male homosexuality animation and does not lend Gilles Poitras compared the labeling "Gundam 0080 " a "giant robot" anime akin to simply labeling " War and Peace " a "war novel " . Yokoyama 's " Tetsujin 28 - , with the "Gundam" metaseries being iconic The diverse fantasy genre includes works based on include the Japanese feudal fairytale "InuYasha " , and the depiction of Scandinavian goddesses who move called Yggdrasil in " Ah Genre crossing in anime is also prevalent , such as , and required played musical components " Mogura no Abanchūru " ("Mole's Adventure " ) , both the first televised and first color anime to debut It was not until the 1960s when the first televised series were broadcast and it has remained a popular medium since Works released in a direct to video format are called "original video animation ; and are typically not released theatrically or televised prior The VHS NTSC video format used in both Japan and the United States is credited as aiding by the DVD format which offered the unique advantages by the industry to solve licensing , piracy and export problems and each episode typically consisting of a self-contained story There is also a labor union for Studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects , as

done with Studio Ghibli's " Spirited Away An anime episode can cost between US$100,000 and US$ 300,000 to produce . The popularity and success of anime compared with under from overseas There has been a rise in in Japan , caused by late night anime with adults as the popular outside Japan , being considered " more of a niche product " Spirited Away " ( 2001 It was also the highest-grossing anime film worldwide until it was overtaken by Anime has to be licensed order to be legally released became well - established in , when such TV series as " Some , such as A.D. Vision , achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in Others , such as AnimEigo The prices vary widely ; for example , ' cost only $91,000 to license while "Kurau Phantom Memory " approximately $2.74 billion in 2009 , today Dubbed animation began airing in the United States to better follow the references of The industry has been subject to , the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations Fansubs , which were originally distributed on VHS bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s , have been freely available and disseminated online adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled They also try to encourage the release once it comes out typically continue to circulate through Even so , the laid back regulations of the Japanese animation industry tend to overlook these issues , allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing the popularity until there is a demand for the domestic anime market in Japan at ( ) , including from licensed products in 2004 to be ( at ( ) , including the worldwide anime market , including sales of licensed products , would grow to , the Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film , the Animation Kobe Awards There were also the American Anime Awards , which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by accused by both Japanese and foreign media for underpaying

Anime has become commercially profitable in Western countries , as demonstrated such as "Astro Boy " and Early American adaptions in the 1960s made Japan expand into the continental European market , first "Barbapapa " , which aired Italy , Spain , and , due to its cheap selling price and the most anime outside of Japan . Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing The 1988 film "Akira " is largely anime was further popularized by international audiences an easy way to access Japanese content Early on , online piracy played over time many legal alternatives appeared . net services such as Netflix and Crunchyroll which have large catalogs in Western countries , although as of 2020 anime fans in many developing non-Western countries , such have fewer options of obtaining access still turn to online piracy . Netflix reported that , between October 2019 and September 2020 , more than member households worldwide had watched at least one anime title Anime clubs gave rise to anime " , a period marked by and manga and include elements " , is not unique to anime and has become Japanese culture and words have entered , an unflattering Japanese term commonly used in English to denote an obsessive fan of Another word that has arisen describing obsessive fans in the United States is " wapanese " meaning ' white individuals who want to be Japanese ' , or later known Japanese anime subculture , a term that originated One of the key points that made anime different from a handful of Once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation being just for children is put aside , the audience can realize that themes involving violence , suffering and death can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime just as much as other media However , as anime itself became increasingly popular , its styling has been inevitably the subject of "South Park"s "Chinpokomon " and "Good Times with Weapons " episodes , Adult Swim's " Perfect Hair Forever " , and Nickelodeon's "Kappa Mikey " are

and anime , but anime tropes have also been satirized by some anime such as " KonoSuba Traditionally only Japanese works have been considered anime , but some works have sparked debate for blurring the lines such as the American anime-style production ' . anime-influenced animation , in an attempt to for example the French production that moved to Tokyo to A U.A.E.-Filipino produced TV series called "Torkaizer " is The web-based series "RWBY " , produced by Texas-based company Rooster Teeth , is produced using an anime art style , and the series has been described as "anime " described it as simply " anime " , without said " Some believe just like Scotch needs to be made in Scotland , an American company ca n't make anime . I think that 's a narrow way Anime is an art form , and to say only one country can make this art is wrong . " " RWBY " has been released in Japan with a Japanese language dub ; the CEO commented " This is the first time It definitely usually works the other way around , and we 're media mix is a strategy to disperse considerable global popularity , and are among historically known as Ancyra and Angora , is the capital of The Ottomans made the city the capital first The hill remains crowned by the ruins became the headquarters of the Turkish National Movement during The government is a prominent employer , but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city located The city gave its name to the Angora wool The orthography of the name Ankara has the Hittite cult center "Ankuwaš " , although this remains a matter of debate . " Ánkyra " (,  "anchor " 1073 , the city became known " ; it was also The oldest settlements in and around the city center was gradually absorbed c. 2000 – 1700 BC by the Indo-European Hittites . , after an earthquake which severely Phrygian rule was succeeded first by Lydian and later by Persian rule remained , as evidenced by

who came there around 300   the north ; Assyria , Cyprus ; and Georgia , Armenia the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers , the headquarters The Celtic element was probably relatively small However , the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for " and made it the capital city of the Roman province of " ( " Temple of Augustus and Rome " ) which contains " , known as the "Res Gestae Divi Augusti " , an inscription cut in than was to be the case and diverted , but it but may have been a summer resort at least one Roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where Railway Station , while on the southern side have extended downwards as far as the site presently occupied by it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north – south and east – west intersected , giving it major strategic importance The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network , which was rode far into the heart of Cappadocia , taking slaves and pillaging ) and later by a large market and trading center but it also functioned ruled from the city's Praetorium , a large administrative palace ( see also below ) , due to frequent imperial visits , The city was visited by Emperor Constans I ( r. 337–350 ) Julian (r. 361–363 ) during Julian 's successor Jovian ( r. 363–364 ) in winter 363/364 ( he entered his consulship while After Jovian's death soon after , in the next year his brother Valens ( r. 364–378 ) used Ancyra When the province of Galatia was divided sometime in 396/99 , the city , without being able 602–610 ) , launched his own unsuccessful rebellion Ten years later , in 620 or more likely 622 , it , which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under

Emperor Constantine V ( r. 741–775 ) ; Ancyra then became the capital The city was captured at least temporarily by the Umayyad prince Maslama ibn Hisham in 739/40 , the last of r. 802–811 ) strengthened its fortifications , a fact which probably saved Arab sources report that Harun and his successor al-Ma'mun ( r. 813–833 ) took the city , but Caliph al-Mu'tasim ( r. 833–842 ) converged abandoned by its inhabitants , Ancara before the Arab armies went on to besiege and destroy Amorium . r. 842–867 ) came to , and ordered its fortifications restored menaced , but not taken , by the Paulicians under Chrysocheir Early Christian martyrs of Ancyra , about whom little is known , included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of one of the towns where the co - emperors Diocletian and his deputy Galerius launched their anti-Christian persecution Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome , then sent back , and forced can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius However , the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra was the center Though paganism was probably tottering it may still have been Twenty years later , Christianity and monotheism , with a life dominated by according to Christian sources , engaged an inscription describing Julian as " to the barbarian nations " , can still be seen , built The Column of Julian which was After Constantinople became the East Roman capital , The Metropolis of Ancyra continued to be a residential see with about 40,000 faithful , mostly Turkish - speaking , but the 1923 Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations . and the city was captured shortly after , at the latest handed it over to the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r. 1081–1118 ) Taking advantage of Seljuk decline , named "Ahiler " chose Angora estimated at 20,000 to 60,000 the Ottoman capital Constantinople ( modern Istanbul ) and

much of Anatolia was occupied Italy and the United Kingdom , leaving After the Turkish War of Independence was won and the Treaty of Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne After Ankara became the capital of into an old section , called "Ulus Ancient buildings reflecting Roman , Byzantine Government offices and foreign embassies are also Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923 , when it was " a small town of no importance " In 1924 , the year after the government had moved there , By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had Ankara continued to grow rapidly ( from the Angora rabbit ) internationally cat skins , gum , and its Kavaklıdere wine , which is and is mostly produced by , where the industrial plants and headquarters and numerous other firms are located . have steadily increased in the past decades production facilities in Ankara , such Due to its elevation and inland location The city lies in USDA Hardiness zone 7b , and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at , nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout When Ankara became the capital of During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s However , from the 1950s onward , the city grew much faster than envisioned , because unemployment and poverty forced people to As a result , many illegal houses called gecekondu were built around the city , as not enough planned housing could be Nevertheless , many of these gecekondus and also as mass housing compounds for Çorum and Yozgat , which are located in Central Anatolia and whose population is decreasing , are named Ankaray ( A1 ) M2 , M3 ) of an additional subway line ( M4 ) is : Istanbul , Eskişehir , The average amount of time people spend for more than two hours every day . The average amount of time people wait public transit is sixteen minutes , while 28% of users wait for over twenty minutes on average every day the opposition Kemalist center-left Republican People's Party ( CHP ) and

The CHP's key and almost only political stronghold in Ankara , which is the city's most populous district . While the CHP has always gained throughout Ankara is minimal . The high population within Çankaya , as , has allowed the CHP to both local and general elections , with the MHP a close third , despite the fact that the MHP is politically stronger than the CHP the political right , far more so the AKP government were particularly strong in Ankara , proving to be , most notably on 10 October 2015 he was re - elected declared the winner by just 1% ahead a prominent lava outcrop ( ) , and the rest was completed by the Romans The Byzantines and Seljuks further made The area around and inside the citadel There are also recreational areas to The remains , the stage , and Roman statues that were found here The Augusteum , now known as the Temple of Augustus and Rome , was AD   14 , a copy (the "Monumentum Ancyranum " ) was inscribed on the interior of the temple 's of a classical Roman bath complex : a " frigidarium " ( cold room ) honor Asclepios , the God of Today , only the basement and first floors It is long and wide was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in the city , completed and opened general prayers , and up to 30 thousand people during This mosque , in the Ulus quarter next in the early 15th century in Seljuk style by architect Mimar Sinan in the 16th century , next to the mosque , two years The "Victory Monument " (Turkish : " Zafer Anıtı " ) was crafted This monument , located in Güven Park to his people : " Turk Be proud , work hard which was later adopted by It is also called the "Hasanpaşa Han There are 102 rooms ( now shops Inn which was completed in to visit the old shops in " ranging from traditional fabrics , hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found is particularly popular , and

many interesting items , not just of copper , can be found here like jewelry , carpets ( named after the ancient Assyrian merchant colonies called "Kârum " that were established in Çankaya , the quarter with Atakule Tower next to Atrium Mall in , and there 's a large anchor monument As Ankara started expanding westward mini - cities began to rise along the western highway , also the "Galleria " , "Arcadium " offer North American and European style shopping opportunities ( these places can There is also the newly expanded "ANKAmall " This mall is the largest throughout The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations ( "Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi " ) the city , where the mausoleum of personal items , as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments Ankara Ethnography Museum ( "Etnoğrafya Müzesi " ) The State Art and Sculpture Museum ("Resim-Heykel Müzesi " ) which is close to the Ethnography Museum and The War of Independence Museum ( "Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi " ) It was originally the first Parliament building ( here as recorded in various photographs Ankara Aviation Museum ( "Hava Kuvvetleri Müzesi Komutanlığı " ) aircraft that have served in the Turkish Air Force (e.g. combat aircraft such as the F-86 Sabre ; and cargo planes such as The city has two football clubs competing in the Turkish Süper Lig : Ankaragücü , founded Gençlerbirliği , founded in 1923 of their colors : red and Gençlerbirliği's B team , Hacettepe S.K. ( formerly A fourth team , Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor , played when they were expelled . as Osmanlıspor but have since There are many popular spots for skateboarding mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter The most important of these parks are : Gençlik Parkı ( houses ) , the Botanical garden , Seğmenler Park famous for the swans received as ( see above for the monument ) , Kurtuluş Park ( has an ice-skating rink ) , Altınpark ( claimed to be Biggest Park of Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo ("Atatürk Orman Çiftliği "

a zoo , several small agricultural farms , greenhouses It is a pleasant place to spend it for having picnics , hiking , biking or simply enjoying good food and nature . There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born breed – the Turkish Angora , called " Ankara kedisi " ( There seems to be a connection and the Turkish Angora is also a distant cousin Eyes may be blue , or even one blue and one amber or green . The W gene which is responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely the presence of a blue eye can indicate that the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located . , eyes are almond shaped and the head is massive with about 1554 , but , like later imports , were not very the United States in 1849 by Dr. James P. Davis The fleece taken from an Angora goat is A single goat produces between of hair Angoras are shorn twice a year , unlike sheep , which are shorn only once set up to promote breeding , along with the Angora cat and their wool because it is silky They have a humorous appearance , as they oddly resemble a fur ball . Most are calm and docile but should be handled carefully the fiber from matting and felting A condition called "wool block " is common in Angora rabbits and should Arabic ( , ' or , ' or ) is a Semitic language that first emerged in , a term initially used to describe peoples living in the Arabian Peninsula , Mesopotamia in the east , and the Anti - Lebanon mountains and northern Syria in the north , as perceived by , Modern Standard Arabic , also referred to as Literary Arabic , which Arabic influence , mainly in vocabulary — mainly Spanish and to Sicilian — owing to both the proximity Arabic language presence , mainly in Southern Iberia the globe throughout its history especially languages of Muslim cultures and countries that were

Hindi and Urdu ) , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ) , Maldivian , Pashto , Odia Hebrew and Hausa and some languages in parts of All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers ( native and non - native ) in the Arab world , making it the fifth most spoken language ranked Arabic the fourth most useful language for business Arabic is usually , but not universally , classified as , West Semitic ) , such In the southwest , various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic ) were spoken It is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages ( non-Central Semitic languages ) were also spoken in In Najd and parts of western Arabia , a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested Finally , on the northwestern frontier of Arabia , various languages known to Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic ) first emerged around the 1st century CE Previously , the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription However , this inscription does not It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside — and then gradually displaced -- epigraphic Ancient North Arabian ( ANA ) , which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries . ANA , despite its name , was considered a very distinct language , and mutually unintelligible , from " where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic However , most arguments for a single ANA language or language family the definite article , a prefixed h- It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation Safaitic and Hismaic , previously considered ANA , should be considered Old Arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe dating to 328 CE , found the Nabataean script evolves into dating to the 6th century CE , found Arabic emerged in the Hejaz which

continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in strongly in Judeo-Christian texts , keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition ( This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past , but they are thought to In the late 6th century AD , a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine " distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c. 603–689 ) is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or "an-naḥw " ("the way " ) , and pioneering consonants ( " nuqat l-i'jām " ) compiled the first Arabic dictionary , " Kitāb al-'Ayn " ( "The Book of the Letter ع " ) , and is credited Al-Jahiz ( 776 - 868 ) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul but it would not come Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for , both for Muslims and Charles Ferguson's koine theory ( Ferguson 1959 ) claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were of the conquests : Northern and Central (Al-Jallad The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced borrowed and areal features , which they absorbed " to fuse Arabic and European forms of attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to a wider audience . European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses , such as the Amiri Press established , dramatically changed the diffusion and Later on , a number of Arabic academies modeled after the "Académie française " developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations , first in These academies and organizations have worked creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts , toward the standardization " Arabic " usually refers Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) largely However , it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and

to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially by some scholars as not mutually The former are usually acquired However , there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe . the Middle East , and understood by MSA uses much Classical vocabulary ( e.g. , ' ' to go ' ) that is not deletes Classical words that sound obsolete borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist However , the current preference is to avoid direct borrowings , preferring to either use loan translations ( e.g. a company or organization ; ' 'wing ' , is also , etc . ) , or to coin new words using ' , using the root " m /w/t" 'death ' put into the Xth form , or ' ' university ' , based on ' ' to gather , unite ' ; ' ' republic ' , based on ' ' multitude ' ) Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants ; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages . The varieties are typically unwritten . The only variety of modern Arabic to have acquired official language status is Maltese , not mutually intelligible with any other variety Even during Muhammad's lifetime , there that the Quran was written down However , the dialects of the eastern Arabian peninsula were considered the most prestigious of the Quran was ultimately converted It is this phonology that underlies diglossia , which is the normal use lexicographically , means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains Now the term "al-hatif " is " can express the needs of appear to be originally Arabic educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects , which depending on the region may be considered to constitute separate languages which may have “ sub - dialects ” of their own a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese

) , many speakers code - switch back and forth between The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged , in the same way it Serbian and Croatian , Scots In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they can not understand each other even when they can Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they can not . While there is a minimum level of can increase or decrease based , Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do is a significant complicating factor : A single written form , significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively , unites often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as is similar — perhaps 1500 years Also , while it is , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by because it is the language of vocabulary for languages such as and Indonesian ) , Pashto Saraiki , Sindhi, Somali , Sylheti many Arabic loanwords , some directly , but most via other Mediterranean languages . ( like Berber " taẓallit " , " prayer " ( ' ) ) , academic terms ( like Uyghur "mentiq " so - and - so " ) , everyday terms " but " , or Spanish "taza" and French "tasse " , meaning "cup " ) , and expressions ( like Catalan " a Most Berber varieties ( such as Kabyle ) , along with Swahili In languages not directly in are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred Hindustani and Turkish entered through several West African languages as Islam spread across Since , throughout the Islamic world , Arabic occupied a position similar to , many of the Arabic concepts in , commerce , etc . non-native Arabic speakers , notably by Aramaic and Persian translators There have been many instances of Latin script or to Romanize the language

Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the Academy and population viewed the proposal for a way to reclaim and re - emphasize Egyptian culture . As a result , some Egyptians pushed which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used . There was also the idea of finding a way to use Hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet , but this was seen as too A scholar , Salama Musa agreed with that would allow Egypt to He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow This change in alphabet , he believed , would solve the problems inherent with Arabic , such difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to , two Egyptian intellectuals , agreed with The idea that Romanization was necessary However , this effort failed as People began studying and applying The arrangement of words , how certain sounds create harmony , and the agreement of rhymes create the sense of The repetition in the Quran introduced the true power and impact repetition can have in made them appear more firm Metaphors were not a new concept to poetry , however the strength of to include and focus on The poet ibn al-Mu'tazz wrote a book regarding its fluency and harmony , the structure can be best described as not always being inherently chronological , but can also flow thematically instead ( the chapters in the Quran have segments that flow can transition into other segments not could be related in topic The suras , also known as chapters of the Quran , are not placed in chronological order . The only constant in their structure is that the longest are placed first and shorter ones The topics discussed in the chapters can also have no direct relation to each other ( as seen in many suras ) and can share The elongations and accents present in that is simple and understandable The words of the Quran , although unchanged , are to this day

understandable and frequently used in The writer al-Khattabi explains how culture is a required element to create a sense of art in work as well He believes that the fluency and harmony which the Quran possess are not the only elements that make it beautiful and create a bond between it difficult for a clear timeline to be seen , Hadith were The Hadith were passed down from generation to generation and this tradition became a large resource for understanding the context After the Quran came down to the people , the tradition of memorizing of the Quran memorized , the greater the faith While the influence of the Quran on Arabic poetry is explained and defended by numerous writers , some writers such as Al-Baqillani believe that poetry and the Quran are in no conceivable way related due to ) ; it is also mainly the language of the Quran . the religion of Islam because the Quran Most of the world's Muslims do not but many can read the Quranic script the Quran are most often accompanied and claim that the Arabic language was the language revealed by God for , spoken by man from which all other languages were derived , having first been corrupted . All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula ( ) have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic . This has led researchers to the one or two centuries immediately following the Arab conquest , is influence from the languages previously have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order ; however , a much more significant factor for most dialects is , as among Romance languages , retention Transcription is a broad IPA transcription , so minor differences been lost : , which merged with , while became ( see Semitic languages ) . Various other consonants have changed their sound too , but have remained distinct An original lenited to , and – consistently attested in pre-Islamic Greek transcription of Arabic languages – became

palatalized to or by the time of the Quran and , or Its emphatic counterpart was considered by Arabs ( Hence the Classical Arabic 's appellation ' or " it has become an emphatic stop with Other changes may also have happened Classical Arabic pronunciation is not thoroughly recorded and different reconstructions of the sound system of Proto-Semitic propose different phonetic values Reduction of and between vowels and is responsible for much The Classical Arabic language as recorded was a poetic koine that reflected a consciously archaizing dialect , chosen Even at the time of Muhammed and before , other dialects existed and into monophthongs , etc ( and hence of Classical Arabic ) is that it contains are the loss of the glottal stop and containing : Evidently , final became as in the Classical language , but final became a different sound , possibly ( rather than again Although Classical Arabic was a unitary language and " Formal" Modern Standard Arabic is learned at is technically not the native language of Both varieties can be both written and spoken , although the colloquial varieties are rarely written down and the formal variety is spoken mostly in formal circumstances , e.g. , in radio and TV broadcasts , formal lectures , parliamentary discussions Even when the literary language is spoken , however , it is normally only spoken in its pure form when reading a prepared text out loud When speaking extemporaneously ( i.e. making up the language on the spot to deviate somewhat from the strict literary language a continuous range of " in-between" spoken varieties : , to a form that still uses MSA grammar and vocabulary but with significant colloquial influence , to a form is close to pure colloquial but with the "rough edges " ( the most noticeably "vulgar" or non-Classical aspects ) smoothed out , to pure colloquial The particular variant ( or " register " ) used depends on the social class and education level of the speakers involved and Often it will vary within a single encounter , e.g. , moving the interviewee becomes more comfortable with

Although Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) is a unitary language , its pronunciation varies The variation in individual "accents " of MSA speakers tends to mirror corresponding variations question , but with the distinguishing characteristics of "Arabic" phonology to distinguish between Although they are related , they are not the same For example , the phoneme that derives from Classical Arabic has many different pronunciations Speakers whose native variety has either or will use the same pronunciation when speaking Even speakers from Cairo , whose native Egyptian Arabic has , normally use when The of Persian Gulf speakers is the only variant pronunciation which is n't found in MSA ; is used instead , but may use [ j ] in MSA for Another example : Many colloquial varieties are known which the presence of an "emphatic consonant" triggers backed backed to in these circumstances and very often fronted to in ) , the "emphatic" allophones spread throughout and suffixes , even at their MSA pronunciation as well , but usually with a lesser degree of spreading Modern Standard Arabic has six pure vowels ( while most modern dialects have eight pure vowels which includes the long vowels ) , with short and corresponding long vowels a way that tends to reflect Nonetheless , there are some common trends Most noticeable is the differing pronunciation of and , which tend towards Some accents and dialects , such have an open or a central The vowel varies towards too . of ' at the beginning of this article , The point is , Arabic has only three short vowel phonemes , so those phonemes can The vowels and are often affected somewhat in emphatic neighborhoods as well the differences are less great than The definition of both " emphatic ( to some extent ) corresponding variations Generally , the consonants triggering "emphatic" allophones are the pharyngealized consonants ; ; and , if not followed immediately Frequently , the fricatives also trigger emphatic allophones ; occasionally also the pharyngeal consonants ( the former more than the latter ) the diphthong tends to be fronted

even more than elsewhere , often pronounced or : hence ' ' sword ' but ' ( ) and has the Arabian peninsula but with an allophonic Generally this corresponds with the pronunciation Yemen , as well as be either or , representing Foreign words containing may be transcribed with , , , or is pronounced as velarized in Allah , when the word follows " a " , " or " ū " ( after " i " or " ī " it is unvelarized : " bismi l–lāh " The emphatic consonant was actually pronounced , or possibly — either way 'the language of the Ḍād ' ( the name of the letter used for this sound ) , since they thought the sound was unique to Arabic has consonants traditionally termed " emphatic " ( ) , which exhibit simultaneous pharyngealization as well as varying degrees of velarization , so they may be written with the " Velarized or pharyngealized " diacritic ( Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long . Long (geminate) consonants are normally written , dd , etc . ) , reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark ' , which indicates held twice as long as and ( CVV)—and closed syllables ( The syllable types with two morae ( units and CVV , are termed "heavy syllables " , while those CVCC , are " superheavy syllables the sentence ( due to pausal pronunciation ) and in words such as ' ' hot ' , ' 'stuff, substance ' , ' ' they disputed with each other ' , where a long ' occurs before two identical consonants ( a former short vowel between the consonants has Examples : ' 'book ' , ' ' writer ' , ' ' desk ' but ' 'library ' in short pronunciation ) , ' ( Modern Standard Arabic ) ' they wrote , ' ( Modern Standard Arabic ) ' they wrote it ' = ' (dialect ) , ' ( Modern Standard Arabic ) ' they ( dual, fem ) wrote ' , '

( Modern Standard Arabic ) ' I wrote ' = ' ( short form or dialect ) In the Cairo (Egyptian Arabic ) dialect a heavy syllable may not carry stress , hence ' 'school ' , ' 'Cairo ' . This also affects the way that stress is often retracted : ' 'two houses ' , ' 'desks ' , ' ' sometimes ' , ' ' As mentioned above , many spoken dialects have a process of " emphasis spreading " , where the "emphasis " ( pharyngealization ) of emphatic consonants spreads forward and back and triggering the back allophone in The extent of emphasis spreading varies , it spreads as far as the first full vowel (i.e. sound derived from it spreads indefinitely , but is blocked by any or ; while in Egyptian Arabic , it usually spreads throughout the entire word Unstressed short vowels , especially , are ( especially → and interchange Most Levantine dialects merge short /i u/ into in most contexts ( all , short triggers labialization of ) , and then short i u/ all merge into , which is deleted in ( The labialization plus is sometimes to emphatic consonants , while keeping In most of the Moroccan , Algerian and Tunisian ( except In most dialects , there may a native phoneme in most Arabic dialects except in where is pronounced and is or ( ) is considered a native phoneme in most dialects except in or and are distinguished in but they have merged as Iraq and Tunisia and have merged as in Morocco and The usage of non - native and depends on the usage of each speaker but they might be Many dialects ( such as Egyptian of the Maghreb ) subsequently lost fricatives , converting into . weaken in many of the spoken varieties , and to spread from difficult or impossible to determine whether a given coronal consonant is phonemically emphatic or not , especially in dialects with long - distance Arabic has a nonconcatenative "root-and-pattern" morphology : A root ( usually three ) ,

' I wrote ' is constructed by combining the root 'write ' with the pattern ' I Xed ' to form ' ' ( nominative , accusative , and genitive [ also used when the noun is governed by a preposition ] ) ; three numbers ( singular , dual and plural ) ; two genders ( masculine and feminine ) ; ـَة /-at/ , which is pronounced as /-ah/ before a pause Plural is indicated either through in " construct state " and all nouns which are prefixed Indefinite singular nouns ( other than those add a final /-n/ to gender and state , as There are two varieties , independent pronouns preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs ( ـنِي /-nī/ ) Nouns , verbs , pronouns and adjectives agree with each However , non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular . Furthermore , a verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as ( past and non - past ) ; two voices ( active and passive ) ; and six moods ( indicative , , shorter energetic and longer energetic ) , the fifth and sixth moods , the energetics , exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes also termed perfective and imperfective , indicating the fact that they actually represent The moods other than the indicative occur only in the non - past , and the future tense is signaled by prefixing سَـ ' or سَوْفَ ' onto the non - past . The past and non - past differ in the form of the stem ( e.g. , past كَتَبـ ' vs. non - past ـكْتُبـ ' ) , affixes for indicating person , number and gender : In the past , the person , number a single suffixal morpheme , while in the non - past , a combination and suffixes ( primarily encoding

gender and number ) are The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb , كَتَبَ ' ' occur in many different derived verb stems ( of which there are about fifteen ) , each with one or more characteristic meanings These are referred to by Western scholars as " Form I " , "Form II " , " ( although Forms XI to XV are rare ) . These stems encode grammatical functions such as the causative , intensive and Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs , albeit often semantically related Form II is sometimes used to create transitive denominative verbs ( verbs built are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns , the English gerund " meeting " ( similar to a verbal noun ) has turned into social, often work-related event where people gather together to have a "discussion " ( The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual ( it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances ) They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative , but many have since gained new moods through However , the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself , and remains Arabic , like all other Semitic languages ( except for the Latin-written Maltese , and Originally Arabic was made up Later diacritical points ( which in Arabic are referred to as "nuqaṯ " ) were added ( which allowed readers to distinguish n and y ) . Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out still considered by Arabs as Being cursive by nature , used to write down a verse The composition is often abstract , but sometimes the writing is shaped i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently There are various conflicting motivations involved , , i.e. representing the "spelling " focus on transcription , i.e. representing the "pronunciation " of Arabic ( They differ in that , as in " you " or " yet " , and a vowel ,

as in " me " or " eat " . Some systems , e.g. for scholarly use , are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic , generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in for the sound equivalently written "sh " in intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with and use digraphs ( like These are usually simpler to read , but sacrifice the definiteness whether to interpret "sh " During the last few decades and especially since prevalent in the Arab world , such the ability to communicate using the Latin script only , and some of them still do not have To handle those Arabic letters that can not be accurately represented using For example , the numeral " 3 " may be have named it Arabic Chat Alphabet . Other systems of transliteration exist , such as using dots or , the letter , may be the Western Arabic numerals ( 0 , 1 4 , 5 , 6 9 ) are used . However , in Egypt and , the Eastern Arabic numerals ( – – – – – – – – – ) are in the right , so the order of positions is the same as Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left The most active are in Arabic has been taught worldwide Arabic language schools exist to assist students Arabic and all Islamic terms are in ( both Arab and non-Arab may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available . the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view . " studying and knowing English the Middle East and North Africa have become and ... feigning , or asserting facility in Arabic is sometimes , even education through a mélange Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock ( 13 August 1899   – 29 April 1980 ) was an English filmmaker who was one of the most influential figures in In a career spanning six decades , he directed over 50 feature films , many

of which are still widely watched and studied today . " , he became as his actors thanks to his many interviews , his cameo roles in most of his films , and his hosting and producing the television anthology "Alfred Hitchcock Presents and copy writer before entering His directorial debut was the British-German silent film "The Pleasure Garden " His first successful film , ' ( 1927 ) , helped to shape the thriller genre , and "Blackmail " ( 1929 ) was the first British "talkie His thrillers "The 39 Steps " ( 1935 international recognition and producer David O. Selznick persuaded him A string of successful films followed , ) , "Foreign Correspondent " ( ( 1941 ) , " 1943 ) , and " Notorious " ( 1946 ) , with Hitchcock nominated as nominated for "Lifeboat " ( 1954 ) ; he then went on to direct four films often ranked among the greatest of all time : " Rear Window ) , " North by Northwest " ( 1959 ) and " Psycho " ( 1960 ) , the first to mimic a person's gaze , thereby and framing shots to maximise The film critic Robin Wood wrote that the meaning of a Hitchcock film " is there from shot to shot . A Hitchcock film is an organism , with the whole implied in every detail and every detail related to the whole the 1940s and 50s , three with In 2012 , Hitchcock's psychological thriller "Vertigo " , starring Stewart , displaced Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane " ( 1941 ) as the British Film Institute's greatest film ever made of his films had been selected a Doubt " ( 1943 ) There was a large extended family , including uncle John Hitchcock with his five-bedroom Victorian house on Campion Road , Putney , complete Every summer , his uncle rented a seaside house for the family in Cliftonville , his father called him his "little lamb without a spot"—Hitchcock said he could not remember ever having had a playmate was about his father sending him

he was five ; the policeman , saying , " This is what we do to When he was six , the family moved to Limehouse and and fishmongers ' respectively ; they lived above the former Hitchcock attended his first school , the Howrah House Convent in Poplar , which he entered in gentlemen and little boys " , The family moved again when he was 11 , this time 5 October 1910 Hitchcock was sent to Haringey ) , a Jesuit grammar school with so the boys had to sit through classes anticipating the punishment if they had been written up He later said that this is where he developed his sense While biographer Gene Adair reports that Hitchcock was " an average, or slightly above-average, pupil " , Hitchcock said that he was " usually among the four or five , his work in Latin , The Jesuits taught me organisation , control and , to some degree, analysis His favourite subject was geography , and he became interested in maps , and railway , tram and bus timetables ; according to John Russell Taylor , he could recite , in particular "The Lady Vanishes " , "Strangers and Hitchcock would often take wanted to be an engineer , and on 25 July 1913 , he left St Ignatius and enrolled in night classes at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar had studied " mechanics , Then on 12 December 1914 his father , who had been suffering from emphysema and kidney disease , died — his older siblings had left home by then — Hitchcock took a job , for 15 shillings a week ( £ in ) He continued night classes , this time in art history , painting Hitchcock was too young to enlist when the First World War started in July 1914 , and when he 1917 , he received a C3 classification ( " free from serious organic disease , able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home   ... only suitable for sedentary work John Russell Taylor wrote that , in

, Hitchcock was required to a founding editor and business manager of Henley 's in - house publication , "The Henley Telegraph " ( sixpence a copy ) , to which Henley 's promoted him to He enjoyed the job and would stay late at the office to Truffaut that this was his "first step While still at Henley 's that Famous Players-Lasky , the production arm of Paramount Pictures , was opening a studio They were planning to film " The Sorrows of Satan " by Marie Corelli , so he produced some drawings Donald Spoto wrote that most of the staff were Americans with strict job specifications , which meant that Hitchcock gained experience as a co - " The Times " wrote in His work included " Number 13 " ( 1922 ) , also known as " Mrs. Peabody ; " it was cancelled because of financial problems — the few finished scenes are lost — and " Always Tell Your Wife which he and Seymour Hicks finished together when Hicks was about to give up on it Hicks wrote later about being helped by " a fat youth who When Paramount pulled out of Hitchcock worked on " Woman to Woman " ( 1923 ) with the director Graham Cutts , designing the set , writing the script and producing He said : " It was the first film that I had really got my hands onto . The editor and "script girl " on " Woman to Woman " was Alma Reville Hitchcock to direct "The Pleasure Garden " ( 1925 ) , starring Virginia Valli , a co - production of Gainsborough and the German firm Emelka Reville , by then Hitchcock's fiancée Although the film was a commercial flop , Balcon liked Hitchcock's work ; a "Daily Express" headline called him the "Young man with a master mind Production of "The Pleasure Garden " encountered obstacles which Hitchcock would later learn from : on arrival and it was confiscated ; one actress could not enter the water that he had to borrow When he was not working

He would also meet with producers to build connections . , based on an original story titled "Fear o ' God " . The film is lost , and Hitchcock called it "a very bad movie " A year later , Hitchcock wrote and directed " The Ring " ; although the screenplay was credited solely , is murdering young blonde women in London , and only on the killer , but he turns out to be innocent . To convey the impression footsteps were being had a glass floor made so that the viewer could see the lodger pacing up and down in his room Hitchcock had wanted the leading man to be guilty , or for the film at least to end ambiguously , but the star was Ivor Novello , a matinée idol , and the "star system " meant that Novello could not be the villain . You have to clearly spell it out in big letters : ' He is innocent . ( He had the same problem years Released in January 1927 , " was the first of his to be influenced by German Expressionism you might almost say that " The Lodger " was my first picture The couple honeymooned in Paris , Lake Como and St. Moritz , before returning to London to live learned that Reville was pregnant , a Tudor farmhouse set in 11 acres Surrey , for £ 2,500 Their daughter and only child , Patricia Alma Hitchcock Reville became her husband's closest collaborator ; Charles Champlin wrote in 1982 : " two were Alma 's . he wanted to mention "four people who have given me the most affection The first of the four is a film editor , the second is a scriptwriter , the third Pat , and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed And their names are Alma Reville . , when its production company , British International Pictures ( BIP ) , converted The film was the first British "talkie " ; his longest cameo appearances , which shows him being bothered by a small boy as

, Hitchcock explained how he the film , stressing the word "knife His first film for the company , " , was a success ; his second , "The 39 Steps " ( 1935 ) , was acclaimed in the UK and gained him recognition It also established the quintessential English " Hitchcock blonde " ( Madeleine Carroll ) as the template Screenwriter Robert Towne remarked , " It 's not much of an exaggeration to say that all contemporary escapist entertainment begins This film was one of the first to introduce the "MacGuffin" plot device , a term coined by the English screenwriter Angus MacPhail innocent to crazy and maniacal a dinner party where he dyed all the food blue because he claimed there were Hitchcock followed up with " based on the 1936 novel "A Shilling for Candles " Starring Nova Pilbeam and Derrick De Marney , the film was relatively enjoyable for the cast and crew to make Hitchcock's next major success was "The Lady Vanishes " ( in which Miss Froy ( May Whitty ) , a British spy posing as The film saw Hitchcock receive the 1938 New York Film Critics Circle Award in June 1938 : " Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not : Magna Carta By 1938 Hitchcock was aware he turned them all down because he disliked the contractual obligations or thought the projects were repellent . However , producer David O. Selznick offered him , which was eventually shelved that he was already a celebrity magazines and gave interviews to the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood . He and his wife Alma kept a low profile , and were not interested in attending parties or compared to the limits that he had often faced in Britain Although Hitchcock and Selznick respected each other , their working arrangements were and Hitchcock was often unhappy Hitchcock's method of shooting just what was more , which meant that the film could not be cut As well as complaining about Hitchcock's "goddamn jigsaw cutting " , their personalities were

mismatched : Hitchcock was reserved whereas Selznick was flamboyant . Eventually , Selznick generously lent Selznick made only a few films each year , as did fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn , so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock Goldwyn had also negotiated with to be outbid by Selznick : " [ Selznick ] was the Big Producer .   ... The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me — and it shows you the amount of control — he said I was the 'only director ' he 'd ' trust Hitchcock approached American cinema cautiously ; in which the "Americanness " of the characters was incidental : "Rebecca " ( 1940 ) was set The film , starring Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine , concerns an unnamed naïve young woman who Hitchcock's second American film was the thriller "Foreign Correspondent " ( 1940 ) , set in and produced by Walter Wanger . Hitchcock felt uneasy living and working in a film that overtly supported Europe , as covered by The film is the first of cast by Hitchcock , and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant plays a sinister character . , perhaps poisoned , that Grant's character is actually a killer , as per written in the book , " Before the Fact " by , although he would have preferred to end with the wife's murder is the first of two films , a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal to scout for " Saboteur"s filming locations He also directed " Have You Heard ? " ( 1942 ) , a photographic dramatisation for "Life" magazine of Emma was severely ill ; Hitchcock never spoke publicly about that he admired her . his brother William died of an overdose Hitchcock was not very close made Hitchcock conscious about his own eating and drinking habits He was overweight and suffering take his diet seriously with the help In January that year , "Shadow of a Doubt " was released , which Hitchcock suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley ( Joseph Cotten ) of being a serial killer .

Hitchcock's typical dinner before his weight loss had been a roast chicken , boiled ham , potatoes To lose weight , his diet but it was hard to maintain ; Donald Spoto wrote that his weight fluctuated considerably over the next 40 years While there he made two short propaganda films , " Bon Voyage " ( and produced by Sidney Bernstein of It was originally intended to be broadcast to the Germans , but the British government deemed it too traumatic to be shown to London's Imperial War Museum and remained unreleased until " , under the title the Imperial War Museum had given it : " Memory of the Camps " . when he directed "Spellbound " explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned ; Selznick edited it to make it " play " more effectively Gregory Peck plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under ) , who falls in love with him while trying Two point - of - view shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand ( which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took ) and out-sized props for it to hold : a bucket-sized glass of The spy film "Notorious " followed next sold him , Ingrid Bergman , for $ 500,000 ( equivalent to $ million in ) because of cost overruns on Selznick's "Duel in the Sun " "Notorious" stars Bergman and Grant , led to him being briefly placed under surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation According to Patrick McGilligan , in or around March 1945 , Hitchcock and , with his friend Sidney Bernstein . , one of which was With "Rope " ( 1948 ) , Hitchcock experimented with he had done earlier with actually shot in 10 ranging ; a 10-minute length of film was the most that a camera's film magazine could by having a dark object fill the entire screen , and was the first of four films that Stewart made

1949 ) , set in 19th-century Australia , also uses the short-lived technique this production , then returned to black - and - white England , where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before . and used several prominent British actors , including His thriller "Strangers on a Train " over , then left over meet , one of whom , each wishing to do away with someone , should the scheme , while Robert Walker , previously known for " boy-next-door" roles by three colour films starring Grace Kelly : "To Catch a Thief " ( 1955 ) In " Dial M for Murder " , to murder his unfaithful wife ( Kelly , so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like filmed " Rear Window " ( 1954 ) , starring James Stewart and Grace Kelly , as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr . Stewart's character is a photographer called Jeff who must temporarily use a wheelchair , then becomes convinced that ) has murdered his wife . Jeff eventually manages to convince his policeman buddy ( Wendell Corey ) and As with "Lifeboat " and "Rope " , the principal characters are the host of the television series "Alfred Hitchcock Presents " The title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature it himself ; it is which his real silhouette then filled . of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair , while two are shown with a sign "Two chairs — , which aired from 1955 to 1965 It became " The Alfred Hitchcock Hour " Hitchcock's success in television spawned a set these included " Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology " , " Stories They Would n't Let licensed the director's name to create "Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine " , a monthly digest specialising in " To Catch a Thief " , was released ; it is set becomes the prime suspect for a spate of A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce and Kelly and a lightweight plot ,

the witty script ( loaded with double entendres ) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success This time , the film starred James Stewart and Doris Day , who sang the theme song " Que Sera , Sera " , which won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became a big hit . They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from " The Wrong Man " ( 1956 to star Henry Fonda , playing who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife ( Vera Miles ) emotionally collapses under While directing episodes for "Alfred Hitchcock Presents had to have his gallbladder removed again starred James Stewart , with He had wanted Vera Miles to play the lead , but she I was offering her a big part , the chance to become a beautiful sophisticated blonde , a real actress We 'd have spent a heap and she has the bad taste to I hate pregnant women , because then they have children . plays Scottie , a former police investigator suffering obsessed with a woman he has been hired to shadow ( and this time Hitchcock did not opt for a happy ending . agree that " Vertigo " is the director's most personal and revealing film , dealing with developed by Irmin Roberts , commonly referred to as a dolly and Hitchcock won the Silver Seashell prize . " Vertigo " is considered a classic , but it attracted that the film was " too slow and too long " it was " devilishly far - fetched " , but praised the cast performances and Hitchcock's direction . During pre - production of ( 1959 ) , which was a "slow" and "agonising" process , his wife Alma , Hitchcock kept himself occupied , which are also recognised as among his best : , a Madison Avenue advertising executive who is mistaken At first , Thornhill believes Kendall is helping him , but then realises that she is an enemy agent ; he later the film grossed $ 404,056 (

equivalent to $ million in ) Based on Robert Bloch's 1959 novel "Psycho " , produced on a tight budget of $ in ) and shot in black - and - white extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the hallmarks The film proved popular with audiences , with lines stretching outside theatres as viewers waited for " Psycho " was the most profitable of Hitchcock's career , and he personally earned in to $ million in ) . him the third largest shareholder and his own boss at Universal , in theory at least , although that did On 13 August 1962 , Hitchcock 's 63rd birthday , the French director François Truffaut filmed over eight days at Universal Studios It took four years to transcribe the tapes and organise the images ; was clear to him that Hitchcock was not simply the mass-market entertainer the American media made him out to , Truffaut wrote , that Hitchcock had " given more thought The film scholar Peter William Evans wrote that " The Birds " ( 1963 ) ) are regarded as " Hitchcock had intended to film "Marnie " first , and in March 1962 it was announced that Grace Kelly , Princess Grace of come out of retirement to When Kelly asked Hitchcock to postpone " Marnie " until , to develop a screenplay based which Hitchcock had republished in It was her first role ; she had been a model in New York when Hitchcock saw her , " I signed her because Grace Kelly was the last . In " The Birds " , Melanie Daniels , a young socialite , meets lawyer Mitch Brenner ( where " The Birds " was filmed ) carrying a pair Suddenly waves of birds start gathering , watching , and The question : " What do the birds want ? " is He said it was his most technically challenging film ( 2012 ) , depicted said that Hitchcock became obsessed her followed , whispered obscenities to her , had her handwriting analysed , and had a ramp built from his private office directly into

Diane Baker , her co - star : " [ N]othing could have been more horrible for me than to arrive on that movie set and to see her being treated the way While filming the attack scene in the attic — which took a week to film — she was placed in a caged room while two men wearing elbow-length protective gloves threw live birds at her the birds ' flying away from her too soon , one leg that she had decided against appearing in "Marnie " ( he decided to cast her as " one of the " , Richard Brody called the film a "story of sexual violence " inflicted : " The film is , to put it simply , sick , and it 's so because Hitchcock was sick , suffered from the lack of , and then went ahead and did so virtually , Hedren ) steals $ 10,000 Earlier she is shown having Mark tracks her down and blackmails her into marrying him not want to be touched , Mark rapes her . Marnie and Mark discover that Marnie's mother had been a prostitute when Marnie was a child , and that , while the mother was — the mother believed the client had tried to molest Marnie—Marnie had killed the client to save her mother had to be placed as close as possible to Hedren when he filmed her face . Evan Hunter , the screenwriter of " "Marnie " too , explained to Hitchcock that , if Mark loved Marnie , he would comfort her , not Hitchcock reportedly replied : " Evan , when he sticks want that camera right on her face Biographer Stephen Rebello claimed Universal imposed two films on him , " Torn Curtain " ( 1966 ) and " Topaz " ( 1969 ) , the latter of which is based on a Leon Uris novel "Torn Curtain " , with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews , precipitated the bitter end make his penultimate film , "Frenzy " on the novel "Goodbye Piccadilly , Farewell Leicester Square

are actually committed by his friend Two scenes show naked women , one of whom is being raped the latter " one of Both actors , Barbara Leigh-Hunt and Anna Massey , refused to do the scenes , so models were used Biographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship , often managing to fool Joseph Breen , the head of a fraudulent spiritualist , and her taxi-driver lover Bruce Dern , making a living from her phony powers While " Family Plot " was based on the Victor Canning novel "The Rainbird Pattern " " , collaborating with James Costigan Hitchcock's health was declining and he was worried about his wife , who had suffered a stroke . He was too ill to travel to London — he had a pacemaker and was being so on 3 January 1980 the British consul general presented why it had taken the Queen so long , Hitchcock quipped , " I suppose it He died of kidney failure the following month , wrote that Hitchcock had declined to see a priest , but according to Jesuit priest Mark Henninger , he and another priest , Tom Sullivan Hitchcock remarked that he was influenced by early filmmakers George Méliès , His silent films between 1925 and 1929 were in the crime and suspense genres Whilst visual storytelling was pertinent during his craft so that by the time the director had perfected his style and Hitchcock later said that his British work , whereas the American phase was when his "ideas were fertilised " . Scholar Robin Wood writes that the director's first two films , , were influenced by German Expressionism , and Sergei Eisenstein's and Vsevolod Pudovkin's theories of montage 1926's "The Lodger " was inspired by both German and Soviet aesthetics , styles which solidified for being unoriginal and conceited Earning the title "Master of Suspense " , the director experimented with ways He said , " My suspense work comes out of creating nightmares And I " play " I make them gasp and surprise them and shock them

When you have a nightmare , it 's awfully vivid if you 're dreaming that you Then you 're as happy as can be when you wake up because you 're responds in proportion to how realistic you make it . it looking so natural that the audience gets involved and believes , for the time being , what 's going on Hitchcock's films , from the silent of recurring themes that he , notably in " Rear Window voyeuristic activities and made the audience participate where an innocent protagonist is accused of a crime and is pursued by That 's because the theme of the innocent man being accused , I feel , provides the audience with It 's easier for them direct references to homosexuality but the director , expressed implicitly through images Author Jane Sloan argues that Hitchcock was , and the theme of marriage It was also not until The espionage backdrop , and murders committed by characters with psychopathic tendencies were murderers , they were usually charming and friendly , forcing The director's strict childhood and Jesuit education may have ; a theme which he event to keep the plot moving along even if it was non - essential to the story Bidisha wrote in " The Guardian" in 2010 : " There 's the vamp , the tramp , , the double-crosser and , best Do n't worry , they all get punished in the end Hitchcock's films , she argued , is that of the heterosexual male protagonist . " The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again " , Roger Ebert wrote in 1996 : " They were They were icy and remote that subtly combined fashion with Sooner or later , every Hitchcock woman The victims in " The Lodger " Ingrid Bergman , whom Hitchcock directed three times ("Spellbound " , " Notorious " , and , is dark blonde . risks her life by breaking into In " To Catch a Thief " , Francie ( also Kelly ) offers to help a man she believes is

In "Vertigo " and " North by Northwest " respectively steals $ 40,000 and is murdered by Norman Bates , a reclusive psychopath Tippi Hedren , a blonde , appears to be the focus of , again played by Hedren In "Topaz " , French actresses Dany Robin as Stafford's wife and Claude Jade as Stafford's daughter are blonde heroines His films often feature characters struggling such as Norman Bates in " " , Roger Thornhill ( Cary Grant his mother for insisting that shadowy , murderous men are after him In " The Birds " , , and struggles to free The killer in " Frenzy " The villain Bruno in " Strangers on a Train " hates his father , ( played by Marion Lorne ) Hitchcock became known for having remarked that " actors should & Mrs. Smith " ( 1941 onto the set wearing the name tags of the stars of the film , to that Hitchcock had once called Hitchcock responded by saying that had been accused of calling would never say such an unfeeling, rude thing about What I probably said , was that all actors should be In a nice way of course . : " I remember discussing taught and so forth . He said , ' We 're taught using improvisation . We are given an idea and then we are turned loose to develop in any way we I said , ' That That 's writing . ' Critics observed that , despite actors , actors who worked with him often gave brilliant performances James Stewart both worked with Hitchcock four times , and Ingrid Bergman The chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well , which is by no means as easy as it sounds . He should be willing to be used and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights . He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder , since he did

not need to , although in publicity photos he was shown an excuse to never have to - production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by " Cahiers du cinéma " , in his book "Hitchcock at Work " After investigating script revisions , notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock , and other production material , Krohn observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned He noted that the myth of , often regurgitated by generations was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of was not storyboarded at all Even when storyboards were made , scenes that were shot differed from them significantly . like " Notorious " reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough Another example Krohn notes is the American remake moreover went over schedule , something that , as Krohn notes , was not an uncommon occurrence Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order , which he notes over schedule and , more importantly , differed from the standard operating procedure Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how they chose ( often under the producer's aegis ) . According to Krohn , this script revisions and the like refute the notion of not change during production , which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth him as " the most universally recognizable person in the world " and "a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius " named him the most influential director of all time , and a 2007 " The Daily Telegraph" critics' poll ranked him Britain's greatest director : " Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands any director to shape modern cinema , which would be utterly different cruelly withholding crucial information ( from his characters and from us ) like no one else . " Hitchcock at No . 4 ranked 2nd in the critics' top ten poll and

. 1 in its "50 Greatest Directors" list . . 2 on "Empire" magazine's "Top 40 Greatest Directors of the first BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award and , in 1979 He was nominated five times "Rebecca " , nominated for 11 Oscars , won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940 ; another Hitchcock film , " Foreign Correspondent " , was also of the Beatles' "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" album cover , to appear along with other British cultural figures , and he was featured that year in these islands and given the age its character It includes home movies , 16mm film The David O. Selznick and the Ernest Lehman collections housed at , contain material related to Anacondas or water boas are a group The South American names "anacauchoa " and "anacaona " Peter Martyr d'Anghiera , but the idea of a South American origin was questioned by Henry Walter Bates who , in his travels in South America , failed to find The word anaconda is derived from ) that John Ray described in 1693 ) as " serpens indicus bubalinus anacandaia zeylonibus , ides , but the description of its habit was based on Andreas Cleyer who in 1684 described a gigantic snake that crushed large animals by coiling around Henry Yule in his Hobson-Jobson notes that the word became more popular due to a piece of fiction published in 1768 in the Scots Magazine by Edwin described a 'tiger ' being crushed to death by an anaconda , when there actually never were any tigers in Sri Lanka . Yule and Frank Wall noted that the snake was in fact a python and suggested a Tamil origin "anai-kondra " meaning Altaic (; also called Transeurasian ) is a "sprachbund " ( i.e. a linguistic area ) and proposed language family that would include the Turkic , Mongolic and Tungusic language families and possibly also the Japonic and Koreanic languages . the 1960s and is still listed rejected the proposal , after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found ,

and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries . Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to mutual linguistic influences Later proposals to include the Korean and Japanese languages into a "Macro-Altaic" family have always been controversial The original proposal was sometimes called "Micro-Altaic tentatively reconstructed by Sergei Starostin and what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect ) by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival , the German – Russian linguist Wilhelm Radloff . The first Tungusic language to be attested is Jurchen , the language of the ancestors The earliest Mongolic language of which we have written evidence is known as the Stele of Yisüngge , and by the "Secret History of the Mongols " , written , written in the Khitan large script and However , the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi , discovered , has been dated to , such as found on The first substantial text in Japanese , however , is the "Kojiki " , is the Hyangga , a collection of go back to the Three Kingdoms period ( 57 BC–668 AD ) , but are preserved in an orthography that only goes back to the 9th century AD A proposed grouping of the Turkic , Mongolic , and Tungusic languages was published a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern Russian Empire In 1844 , the Finnish philologist Matthias Castrén proposed a broader grouping , that later came to be called the Ural–Altaic family himself used the terms "Tataric " and " Chudic " ) The name "Altaic " referred to the Altai Mountains While the Ural-Altaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias , atlases the 1960s it has been heavily Ramstedt rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis but again an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists ( what was in effect a heavily revised version has since set the standard in Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not Roy Andrew Miller's 1971 book " Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages

" convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic . that Japanese ( and possibly Korean ) originated as a hybrid language She proposed that the ancestral home of Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern Manchuria A group of those proto-Altaic ("Transeurasian") speakers would have where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with In a typological study that does not 2020 ) discuss for Koreanic " still so different from the Core Altaic languages that we can even Given also that there is but , rather , only lexical and structural borrowings , joined in what he The inclusion of Ainu is not widely accepted by Altaicists . Among the earlier critics were Gerard Clauson ( They claimed that the words and features shared by Turkic , Mongolic , and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance Sergei Starostin , who published a comparative lexical analysis The list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem The dates given are those of Turkic languages , Tungusic languages are distributed Scholars have yet to reach agreement on how to classify the Tungusic languages but two subfamilies have been proposed : South Tungusic ( or Linguisitically two branches emerge , the Common Mongolic and the Khitan/Serbi ( sometimes called The "Etymological Dictionary " by Starostin and others ( 2003 ) proposes a set of sound change laws that would of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony , Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by them lacked it ; instead the members of the proposed Altaic group shared about 15–20% in particular , Turkic – Mongolic 20% , Turkic – Tungusic 18% , Turkic – The authors tried hard to distinguish and between Mongolic and Tungusic and Tungusic but not in that early Transeurasian speakers were originally agriculturalists Those critics also argued that the words and features shared by Turkic were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages , though more shared with Mongolic languages

Asya Pereltsvaig further observed in 2011 that , in general, genetically related languages and families tend to diverge over The prehistory of the peoples speaking the "Altaic" languages According to Juha Janhunen , the ancestral languages comprising present-day North Korea , Southern Manchuria , However Janhunen is sceptical about , while András Róna-Tas remarked that , if it ever existed , must be more remote Austrian German ( ) , Austrian Standard German Standard German written and spoken in It has the highest sociolinguistic prestige locally , as it is the variation used , when empress Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II introduced compulsory schooling ( in 1774 ) and several reforms "Oberdeutsche Schreibsprache " ( Upper German written language ) , which was highly influenced based on the Southern German dialects , as As German is a pluricentric language , where communication with Germans is frequently difficult, and administrative and legal language , which is due Austria was the , a sociolect This form is known as , a very complex structure and vocabulary generally reserved generally difficult to understand , diplomatic , internal , official is now used less and less , thanks to various administrative reforms In Austria , as in southern Germany , verbs that express a state tend to use as the auxiliary verb in the perfect , Verbs which fall into this category include "sitzen " ( to sit ) , "liegen " ( to lie ) and , "schlafen " ( to stehen " ( to stand to confess ) are identical in the present perfect : "habe gestanden not fully mutually intelligible to easier in Bavaria , especially rural areas , where the Bavarian dialect still predominates Viennese , the Austro-Bavarian dialect of Vienna in Germany as quintessentially Austrian similar , but pronunciation is distinct for each and , it may be possible for an Austrian to realise which dialect is However , in regard to can easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents ( probably more so than Bavarians Upper Austria , and the Tyrol being , such as the dialect of

Carinthia , where , in the past , many speakers were bilingual ( and , in the southeastern portions are even today ) with influenced by immigration during the Austro-Hungarian period , particularly from what is is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that "a Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non Informally put , the axiom of choice says that given any collection of bins , each containing at least one object , it is possible from each bin , even if Formally , it states that for every indexed family formula 1 of nonempty sets there exists an indexed family formula 2 of elements be made without invoking the axiom in particular the case if the number of sets is finite , or if a selection rule is available – some distinguishing property that happens to hold for exactly one element always select the smallest number , e.g. given the sets , the set containing the smallest number " is a choice function . Even if infinitely many sets were collected always be possible to choose the smallest element from each set to produce That is , the choice function provides the real numbers ( if there are Bertrand Russell coined an analogy : for , one can pick out the left shoe from each pair to obtain an appropriate selection ; this makes it possible to directly define a choice function Although originally controversial , the axiom One motivation for this use is that a number of generally accepted mathematical results , such as Tychonoff 's theorem , Contemporary set theorists also study axioms that are not compatible with the axiom that there exists a collection of Authors who use this formulation often " , but this is Its domain is the power set of " removed ) , and so , whereas with the definition used sets " is that collection , and so only makes sense does not specify whether the collection of nonempty sets is finite or infinite , and thus implies However , that particular case is a theorem

choice (ZF ) ; it "one" set , a choice function just corresponds of the axiom of choice says that every nonempty set has an element ; choice was often used implicitly , although it had not yet been formally stated . For example , after having established that the set "X " contains only non-empty sets , a mathematician might have said " let " F(s ) " be one of for all " s " in "X " to define For finite sets "X " , equivalent to saying that if , each containing at least one item , then we can choose exactly one item Clearly , we can do this : We start at the first box , choose an item ; an item ; and so on The number of boxes is finite , so eventually , our choice procedure we chose , the second box to the second element we chose , and prove " for every natural number " k " , every family of "k" nonempty sets has a choice function . " This method can not , however , be used to show a choice function , as is asserted may make it possible to avoid the axiom of choice even For example , suppose that each member of the collection "X " is Every such subset has a smallest element , so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it maps each set to the least element of The difficulty appears when there is explicit choices , how do we know that our set exists ? For example , suppose that " X " is the set First we might try to proceed as if " X , because " X " is infinite , our choice procedure will never come to an end , and consequently , we shall never be able to produce a choice function for all of " Next we might try specifying But some subsets of the real numbers do 0,1 ) does not have a least element : if " x " is in ( 0,1

) , then so is " x"/2 , and " x"/2 is always strictly smaller than " x " . Additionally , consider for instance the unit circle "S " , and the action "G " consisting of all rational rotations Namely , these are rotations by angles which are rational multiples of   "π " . Here " G " is countable while " S " Hence " S " breaks up into uncountably many orbits under   that all of its translates by G are disjoint from   The set of those translates partitions , which are all pairwise congruent Since " X " is not measurable for any rotation-invariant countably additive finite measure on "S " , finding an algorithm The reason that we are able of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are well - ordered One might say , " Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work , it may be possible to find Then our choice function can choose the least element A proof requiring the axiom of choice without explicitly defining the object in of choice implies that there which no well-ordering of the reals is of these intangibles ( objects that are proved to exist , but which can not be explicitly constructed ) , which may conflict with some philosophical principles . Because there is no canonical well-ordering of all sets , a construction that relies on a well-ordering may not produce a canonical result , even if a canonical result is desired ( as is often the case in category theory ) which says that it is finitely many pieces and , using only rotations and translations , reassemble the pieces It is possible to prove many theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation ; such statements will The restriction to ZF renders any claim that Tarski paradox is neither provable nor disprovable from ZF alone : , but also impossible to prove there is no such decomposition . Similarly , all the statements listed below which require choice or some weaker version

thereof for their proof are unprovable in ZF , but since each is provable in ZF there are models of ZF in which each statement is true Statements such as the Banach – " If AC holds , then the decomposition in the Banach – As discussed above , in is able to provide " nonconstructive proofs " in which the existence of an object is proved although ZFC , however , is The axiom of choice has also In Martin-Löf type theory and higher - order Heyting arithmetic , the appropriate statement Diaconescu's theorem shows that the axiom of choice implies the law of excluded , where it does not Thus the axiom of choice is not generally available in constructive set theory dependent choice , which do not that the "negation " of the axiom of choice is not a theorem ZFC and thus showing that ZFC is consistent if ZF the technique of forcing , developed that , assuming ZF is consistent , the axiom of choice itself is not a theorem of Together these results establish that the axiom of choice is logically independent The assumption that ZF is consistent is harmless because adding another axiom to an already inconsistent system can not make Because of independence , the decision whether to use the axiom of in a proof can not be One argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it because it allows one to prove some simplifying propositions that otherwise could not be proved Many theorems which are provable using choice are of an elegant general character : every ideal in a ring is contained a basis , and every product of that a wide class of mathematical statements , , are provable in ZF if and only if they are provable in ZFC . that P = NP , the Riemann hypothesis , and many other unsolved mathematical problems When one attempts to solve makes no difference whether ZF or ZFC is employed if the only question is the existence of a proof .

The axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of GCH ) is not only also independent of ZFC . each imply the axiom of choice and so are strictly stronger – Bernays – Gödel set theory and Morse–Kelley set theory , there is an axiom called the axiom of global choice that is stronger than because it also applies to There are important statements that , neither AC nor ¬AC , are The most important among them are Zorn's lemma and the well-ordering theorem . These results might be weaker than , equivalent to , or sets , that is , as sets of objects and morphisms ( usually called a small category ) , or even locally small categories , whose hom-objects are sets , then there is so it is difficult for There are several weaker statements that are not equivalent to the axiom of choice , but are closely , which states that a choice function Other choice axioms weaker than axiom of choice include the Boolean prime ideal theorem and the axiom Here are some statements that require that they are not provable from ZF but are provable There are several historically important set-theoretic statements implied by AC whose equivalence to AC is The partition principle , which was formulated before AC itself , was PP to be equivalent , but whether the partition principle implies AC is still the oldest open problem in set theory the claim that every set of real numbers then BP is stronger than ¬AC , which asserts the nonexistence Strengthened negations may be compatible with It is also consistent with ZF + DC that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable ; however , this consistency result , due to Robert M. Solovay , can not be proved in ZFC itself , but requires a mild large cardinal assumption The much stronger axiom of determinacy , or AD , implies that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable , and has the perfect set property ( all by AC itself ) . Quine's system of axiomatic set theory , "

We shall abbreviate "Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus Additionally , by imposing definability conditions The observation here is that one can define a function to select , to choose a left shoe . frequently called Attila the Hun , He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans , but was unable to take Constantinople . emboldened Attila to invade the West devastating the northern provinces , but was unable to take Rome . which the Hunnic Empire quickly collapsed . Some scholars have suggested that this description is typically East Asian , because it has all the combined features that fit , and Attila's ancestors may have Many scholars have argued that the name father " , by means , meaning " little father " , compare Wulfila from " wulfs" "wolf " and " -ila " , i.e. " little Maenchen-Helfen notes that this derivation of the name " offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties " , and Gerhard Doerfer notes that the name is simply correct Gothic . Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong ( 2020 ) similarly state that Attila's name " must have been Gothic Attíla ) a composite title-name which derived from Turkic * " es " ( great , old ) , and * " til " (sea, ocean ) , The stressed back syllabic " til " assimilated the front member "es " , so it became * " as " . It is a nominative , " ( < *"etsíl " < *"es tíl " ) with the meaning As another Turkic possibility , H. Althof ( 1902 ) considered it was related to Turkish "atli " ( " ingenious but for many reasons unacceptable " , while dismissing Mikkola 's as " too farfetched to be taken seriously Criticizing the proposals of finding Turkic Doerfer notes that King George VI of the United Kingdom had a name of Greek origin does not make them Greeks or Arabs : it is therefore plausible that Attila would have a name not of Hunnic origin with a major challenge , in that and Latin by the enemies of

and he was both a witness to and an actor in the story is the only person known to have Only fragments of Priscus' work remain . It was cited extensively by and it is also an important source Numerous ecclesiastical writings contain useful but scattered information , sometimes difficult to authenticate or distorted by years of The literature and knowledge of the Huns themselves was transmitted orally , chanted poems that were handed neighbors of the Huns who wrote the Volga , who migrated further into Western Europe c.   370 and built up an enormous empire there Their main military techniques were mounted archery and at least may have spoken a Turkic language , perhaps closest to Attila's father Mundzuk was the brother of reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in are unsure whether it was institutionalized , merely customary , or an occasional occurrence . but it is uncertain whether Attila's birthdate is debated ; journalist Éric Deschodt and writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date However , historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s His people were nomads who had only recently arrived in Europe , then attacked the Gothic kingdom between They were a very mobile people , whose mounted archers , and the Germanic tribes seemed unable Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from the Danube , initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against Emperor Valens , whom they killed Large numbers of Vandals , Alans ruled by two distinct governments , one , and the other in and rulers but acknowledged the suzerainty relations between the two empires were cordial : the Romans used the Huns as Thus , the usurper Joannes was able It was Aëtius , later Patrician of the West , who , the alliance lasting from 401 The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute , whereas The death of Rugila ( also The following year , Attila and Bleda ) , all seated on , to double their previous tribute of gold , to open their markets for each Roman taken prisoner by

The Huns , satisfied with the treaty , decamped from the Roman Empire and , perhaps to consolidate and The Huns remained out of Roman sight by the Sassanids , abandoned their invasion , and turned their attentions back including ( according to Priscus) Viminacium where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that Attila regarded the Danube , the Vandals ( led by Geiseric ) captured the Western Roman province , which they invaded in a large issue of new coins to finance as the Romans knew ) his forces rolling siege towers , with which they Naissus (Niš ) and massacred Priscus said " When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted , as though it had been sacked ; for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of next took Serdica ( Sofia ) , and Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz They encountered and destroyed a Roman army Theodosius , unable to make effective armed resistance , admitted defeat , sending the "Magister militum per Orientem" Anatolius to Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium ( probably around 445 ) was defeated , though not He had previously been on the troops that Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of "magister militum However , Valentinian's sister was Honoria , who had sent the Hunnish king her engagement ring — in order to Honoria may not have intended Attila chose to interpret her message When Valentinian discovered the plan , only the influence of his mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria , rather than killing her . , strenuously denying the legitimacy of Attila supported the elder son , while Aëtius supported the younger . ( The location and identity of these kings is not known and Other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographic "vitae " written to commemorate their bishops : Nicasius was alleged to have saved Tongeren is said to have saved , gathering troops from among 's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric

  I ( Theodorid ) to ally with the Romans . The combined armies reached Orléans ahead of Attila , thus checking and the Huns at a place usually assumed modern Châlons - en - Champagne considered to be a strategic victory for , and Aëtius failed to press his advantage , according to the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much invading and ravaging Italy along Communities became established in what would later become Venice as Aquileia so completely that it was afterwards hard to recognize Aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle , but managed to harass and slow Attila's advance with Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius , as and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452 this year did not improve the harvest To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy , and taking the city would not Marcian (Flavius Marcianus ) was the successor After Attila left Italy and at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had stopped The conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage , this time to the beautiful young Ildico ( the name suggests Gothic or Ostrogoth origins He may have had a nosebleed Or he may have succumbed Attila's sons Ellac , Dengizich and Ernak , " in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike destroyed They " were clamoring that them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned Against the treatment as " slaves of the basest condition " a Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler Ardaric ( who was ) revolted and fought with Attila's eldest son Ellac was killed in Attila's sons " regarding the Goths as deserters from their rule , came against them as though they were seeking fugitive slaves " , attacked Ostrogothic co -ruler Valamir ( who also fought alongside Ardaric and but were repelled , and some group of Huns moved to

His brother Dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across was defeated at the Battle of Bassianae by by name and some even all but dried up , and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants . from attempting to reconstruct a valid line Lampert of Hersfeld's contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071 , the Sword of Attila had been presented to Otto of Nordheim by of Pope Leo and Atilla as attended also by Saint Peter and Saint Paul , " a miraculous tale calculated pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables " made Theoderic the Great , Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries , when any reader of Jordanes knew that this was in which Etzel (Attila ) is Dietrich's refuge in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich ( Ermanaric ) the poems "Dietrichs Flucht " and the "Rabenschlacht Attila and approached August von Kotzebue to It was , however , Emperor Wilhelm II praising Attila the Hun's military prowess , according to Jawaharlal Nehru's "Glimpses of World History " . , " Attila " and its Turkish variation "Atilla " are commonly used named after Attila ; for instance , in Budapest there are 10 Attila Streets , one of which is an important street behind the Buda Castle and the North Aegean Islands , as well as Crete and its surrounding islands . The Dodecanese , located to the southeast ; the islands of Delos and Naxos are within the Cyclades to Euboea , the second-largest island in Greece , despite being administered as Nine out of twelve of The Aegean Sea has been historically important The Aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between Europe and , and later the Byzantine Empire held , and it was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire , with was a Venetian colony until 1669 . The rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone , though often greatly altered by A number of issues concerning sovereignty Late Latin authors referred the name "Aegaeus " said to have jumped into

rather than throwing himself from the Athenian acropolis , as told by Aegeus had told Theseus to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in The Venetians , who ruled many Greek islands , meaning "main sea " or "chief sea " ) , a name that held on in many European countries called "White Sea " (Bulgarian : / ; Macedonian : / ; Serbo-Croatian : / ) , and covers about in area , measuring about longitudinally The sea's maximum depth is , located at a point east of Crete . , with the following islands delimiting the sea The Greek regions that border the sea , by the Dardanelles , also known lies the city of Istanbul . Aegean surface water circulates in , before being displaced by of , then flows through , which is to say According to the Köppen climate classification , most Hot-summer Mediterranean ("Csa " ) , are generally not quite as are participating in the Network . sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower , and there were large well-watered coastal plains When they were first occupied , the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected flourishing from around 3000 to tools , stunning artwork , writing systems , and a massive network of , followed by that of becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece , which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 BC close to the Aegean coast , was military infrastructure , while trade over the Aegean , was essential for the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon , to be followed by It is undetermined what cause modifying it to create the Greek alphabet By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs of which Athens , Sparta , and Corinth were closest , and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well In the 8th and 7th centuries BC many Greeks emigrated

, Asia Minor and further afield The Aegean Sea would later come to be under the control , albeit Philip II and his son Alexander the Great led not only to the unification of After Alexander the Great's death , his empire , roughly corresponding to modern-day Greece The Fall of the Western Roman Empire allowed its successor state , the Byzantine Empire , to continue However , their territory would later be threatened by the Early Muslim conquests initiated the Eastern Anatolian peninsula as well as Egypt , the Levant , and North Africa led by Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi , and most of the island back in , but the reconquest was not completed and was soon Later attempts by the Byzantine Empire to recover the island were without success . haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged Under Presian I and his successor Boris I , the Bulgarian Empire managed to from which they annexed almost all the territories Malik Shah I , the empire was divided After Constantinople was occupied by Byzantine successes were not to last their expansion the Byzantine Empire had already been By the late 14th century the Byzantine Empire had lost of the Aegean from 1829 onward had occupied them since , reneging on the 1919 Venizelos–Tittoni agreement to cede The Greco-Italian War took place from October 1940 to April 1941 the Aegean Sea , to be administered they had withdrawn from mainland Greece the sea was easier than travelling and to some extent , the coastal areas of Anatolia . , and marble and iron Its name was " Royal road ,   Persian Empire and the Aegean sea . two belong to Turkey   the largest passenger port in Europe and the third largest in the world , Piraeus bi - annually acts as maritime industry professionals from all over the world transported , behind Aghioi Theodoroi and Fish are Greece's second-largest agricultural export , and Fish captured include sardines , mackerel , grouper , grey mullets , sea bass , and the northern, central and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated , respectively

The industry has been impacted by Overfishing and habitat destruction is also a concern , threatening grouper , and seabream populations , resulting in perhaps a 50% decline To address these concerns , Greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by The islands of Santorini, Crete , Lesbos An estimated 2 million tourists visit Santorini annually . However , concerns relating to overtourism have arisen in recent years , such as issues of also been successful in developing Greece and Turkey both take and marinas meeting strict quality standards including As of 2015 , the Blue Flag has been awarded to 395 beaches intent on reforming him . a Russian-influenced argot called "Nadsat " , that is equivalent to ' -teen ' in English . " was included on " named by Modern Library and its readers in the novel's Anglo-Russian slang , " Nadsat " ) and fellow gang members are Dim , a slow-witted bruiser , who is the gang's muscle ; Georgie , an ambitious second - in - command ; and Pete , who mostly plays along The story begins with the droogs sitting in their favourite hangout , the Korova Milk Bar , and drinking "milk - plus " – a beverage consisting of choice – to prepare for They assault a scholar walking home from the public library ; rob a store , leaving the owner and his wife bloodied and unconscious ; beat up a beggar ; then scuffle with and terrorise the young couple living there , beating the husband and gang a writer working on a manuscript called "A Clockwork Orange " , and Alex contemptuously reads out a paragraph that states the novel's main theme before shredding the manuscript strains within the gang become apparent to stay out of school his "post-corrective adviser " , Alex visits a record store , where he meets He invites them back to the flat , where he drugs and rapes them . That night after a nap , Alex waiting downstairs in the torn-up and graffitied lobby . of the gang , demanding that

then pacifies the gang by agreeing Alex breaks in and knocks the woman unconscious ; but , when he hears sirens and opens the door to flee , Dim His parents visit one day to inform him that Georgie has been Two years into his term , he , Alex is only reading an experimental behaviour modification treatment called the Ludovico Technique in exchange for having the remainder of his sentence with nausea-inducing drugs while watching graphically violent films , eventually conditioning him to become severely ill at the mere thought who watch as Alex collapses only to find that they Now homeless , he wanders the streets and enters a public library , hoping to learn of a painless method The old scholar whom Alex had assaulted in Part 1 finds him and beats him , with but they turn out to be Dim and Billyboy , The writer , F. Alexander , still lives here , but his wife has since died of what he believes to be injuries but gives him shelter and questions him about the conditioning he Alexander and his colleagues , all highly critical of the government , prevent the incumbent government from being re Alex inadvertently reveals that he a relentless barrage of classical music plays over by government officials anxious to counter the bad publicity created by his suicide attempt . He is informed that Alexander has been " put away " for Alex's protection and his Alex is offered a well-paying job if he agrees to side with the government once he is discharged A round of tests reveals that his old violent impulses have returned , indicating , " I was cured now 18 years old and working for the nation's musical recording archives — finds himself halfheartedly with a new gang (Len , Rick , who has reformed and married , Alex finds himself Burgess has stated that the total of 21 chapters was an intentional nod to the age of 21 being recognised published in the United States prior to the U.S. version , so that the tale would end on a darker note ,

with Alex becoming his old, ultraviolent self again – an ending which the publisher insisted would be " more realistic The film adaptation , directed by Stanley Kubrick considered to be " badly Kubrick called Chapter 21 "an extra chapter " and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay and that he had never given serious consideration to using it . in Hove , then a Burgess had arrived back in Britain after his stint abroad to see that much had changed A youth culture had developed , based his first wife Lynne's beating by a gang of The saying " as queer as   ... " followed by an improbable object : " ... a clockwork orange " , or "... a left-handed corkscrew " etc . predates the exercise of his free will To induce this conditioning , Alex are systematically paired with negative physical stimulation The book , narrated by Alex , rhyming slang and derived Russian ( like " baboochka droog " ( друг ) = friend ; " moloko сумка ) = sack or bag ; "Bog " = God ; "horrorshow " ( хорошо " ( преступник ) = criminal "человек " ) = man or little ; and so on Some words Burgess invented himself or just adapted from pre-existing languages . of old rhyming slang ; a bit But most of the roots are Some words are not derived from to guess , e.g. " in - out , in - out " or " the old in-out " means sexual intercourse . " Cutter " , however , means " money " , because " cutter " rhymes with " bread - and -butter " ; this is rhyming slang , which is intended to be impenetrable to outsiders ( especially eavesdropping policemen no key was provided , and the reader was left to interpret The term "ultraviolence " , referring to excessive or unjustified violence , was coined by includes the phrase " do the ultra - violent " . because of "objectionable language " .

A year later in 1977 it was , later to be reinstated Also , in 1973 a bookseller was arrested for selling the novel The charges were later dropped . " The Sunday Telegraph" review was positive , and described the book as " entertaining   ... even profound Kingsley Amis in " The Observer " " , writing " Mr Burgess , one which incidentally suggests a view of juvenile violence I ca n’t remember having met before Malcolm Bradbury wrote " All of Mr Burgess’s powers considerable , have gone into Roald Dahl called it "a terrifying and marvellous book " " but was uncomfortable with " a certain arbitrariness about the plot which is slightly irritating " . for addressing " acutely and savagely the tendencies of " a great strain to read " " The Sunday Times" review was negative , and described the book as " " The Times " also reviewed the book negatively , describing it [ with ] clumsy cliches about Burgess dismissed "A Clockwork Orange " as " too didactic to be and while discussing " Lady Chatterley's Lover compared that novel's notoriety with "A Clockwork Orange " : " We all suffer from the popular desire to make the The book I am best known for , or only known for , is a novel I am prepared to repudiate : written a quarter of a century ago , a "jeu d'esprit " knocked off for money in seemed to glorify sex and The film made it easy for readers of the book to misunderstand what it was about , and the misunderstanding will pursue me I should not have written the book because of this danger of misinterpretation , and the same may be said of Lawrence is the 1971 film "A Clockwork Orange " by Stanley Kubrick , featuring Malcolm McDowell as a stage play titled "A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music " . Die Toten Hosen which , combined with " ( so stated by the subtitle ) , was released Titled "A Clockwork Orange: 2004 " , it

received mostly negative reviews , with John Peter calling it "only an intellectual "Rocky Horror Show " , and John Gross of " The Sunday Telegraph " calling it "a clockwork lemon " Even Burgess himself , who wrote the script based on his novel , According to "The Evening Standard " , he called the score , written " neo - wallpaper " Burgess had originally worked alongside , and envisioned a musical score that Unhappy with the decision to abandon that score , he heavily criticised The Edge as saying that Burgess's original conception was " a score written by a novelist rather than a songwriter " Calling it "meaningless glitz " , Jane Edwardes of "20/20" magazine said that watching this production was " like being invited to an expensive French Restaurant – on a production of "A Clockwork Orange " The production went on to play , Ensemble Studio Theatre ( Theaters ( 2005 ) and While at Edinburgh , the production " , which was named "Pick of the Week " by the "LA Weekly " and nominated for three of the 2004 LA Weekly Theater Awards: Direction, Revival Production This production utilised three separate video streams outputted to Amsterdam ( , ) is within the city proper , 1,558,755 , that was dammed to control flooding ; the city's name derives , and became the leading centre for and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were the Heineken Experience , the Royal Palace of Amsterdam NEMO , the red-light district and many The city is also well known Paradiso ) among the world ; well - preserved legacies attracting millions of Amsterdam's visitors annually by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC ) study Moreover , many of the world's largest companies , such as leading technology companies Uber ranked the second-best city to live in The city was ranked 4th place globally Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009 The Port of Amsterdam is the fifth largest The KLM hub and Amsterdam's main airport , Schiphol , is the Netherlands' busiest airport as well

as the third busiest in Due to its geographical location in what used to be wet peatland , However , in and around the area of what later became Amsterdam , local farmers settled as early as three millennia ago This secluded area could grow there into downstream of this area , in Rokin , such as shards and a granite grinding stone ( But the location of these artefacts around the river banks of the Amstel probably point "Amestelle " , meaning ' watery area ' , from " Aa(m ) " 'river' + "stelle" 'site at a shoreline ' , ' river bank ' , who lived more inland and more upstream , where the land was not as wet The Van Amstel family , known in documents which from then on offered the Amstel an open connection to the Zuiderzee , IJssel and waterways further afield This made the water flow of the Amstel more active , so excess water could Moreover , the river had grown A settlement was built here immediately and right from the start of not on farming , as opposed to how communities had lived further upstream for the past 200 years of the Amstel , eponymously named Dam , is historically estimated to have occurred between 1264 and 1275 . the Amstel ' or ' at This allowed the inhabitants of the village to travel freely through the County of either 1300 or 1306 . From the 14th century on , Amsterdam flourished , largely from trade Kalverstraat rendered the city an important place of The Miracle devotion went underground but was was revitalised and became an important national point Strongly pushed by Dutch Revolt leader William the Silent The 17th century is considered Amsterdam's "Golden Age " Africa , as well as , and Brazil , forming the international trading Dutch East India Company became the world's first stock exchange by and France took their toll on its lowest point , with Holland being The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age New museums , a railway station , and

the Concertgebouw were built ; in Amsterdam a direct connection to the Rhine , and the North Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the North Sea started to expand again , and new suburbs were built . Even though the Netherlands remained neutral and Schellingwoude , all lying north of Amsterdam , were , at their own request , annexed Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews , thereby a high risk of being imprisoned or , of whom some 60,000 lived the February strike attended by 300,000 people to Perhaps the most famous deportee was the young Jewish girl Anne Frank At the end of the Second World War , communication down , and food and Dogs , cats , raw sugar beets cooked to a pulp — were consumed to stay alive . Because of the war and other events As society was changing , , and also for new roads , as the automobile became available A metro started operating in 1977 Smaller streets , such as the Jodenbreestraat and Weesperstraat , were widened and almost all houses and buildings were stopped and the highway into the city's centre was never fully built ; Meanwhile , large private organizations , such as "Stadsherstel Amsterdam " , were founded to restore the entire city centre . visible today , efforts for further restoration are still ongoing . The entire city centre has reattained its former splendour and between 2012 and 2015 , the annual number of visitors rose from 10 to 17   million Real estate prices have surged , and local shops are making way for tourist-oriented ones , making the centre unaffordable Construction of a new metro line connecting the part The project was controversial because its cost three by 2008 , because of fears of damage to because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times been given to urban regeneration and renewal , especially in areas directly bordering the city centre , such , the capital of which is not Amsterdam , but rather The river Amstel ends in the city centre

canals that eventually terminate in The surrounding land is flat as it Amsterdam is intensely urbanised , as is the Amsterdam metropolitan area surrounding the city proper has 4,457 inhabitants per km2 Amsterdam has more than of are navigable by boat . surrounded by a moat , called the Singel , which now forms grew , mainly due to This changed when , during fled to the North , especially Jewish people from Spain , Portugal and Eastern Europe similarly settled in Amsterdam , as did Germans Paris ( 560,000 ) and This was all the more remarkable as Amsterdam was neither the capital city the Dutch Republic , which itself was to so-called "groeikernen " (growth centres ) Between 1970 and 1980 , Amsterdam experienced its sharp population decline reurbanisation and gentrification , leading of Amsterdam's population growth was due to Amsterdam were mostly Huguenots , The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly of the Dutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s Other immigrants , including refugees asylum seekers and illegal immigrants , came from Europe Almere and Purmerend , prompted , literally " cores of neighborhoods De Pijp and the Jordaan abandoned Today , people of non-Western origin Ethnic Dutch ( as defined by the Dutch census ) now make up by far the largest one Only one in three inhabitants under 15 is an "autochthon " , or a person who has ) , most of whose followers Catholic priests were driven out of Calvinism was declared the main religion ; although Catholicism was not forbidden and priests allowed to serve , the Catholic hierarchy was prohibited . " schuilkerken " , covert religious buildings Catholics , some Jewish and dissenting Protestants worshiped in , Huguenots from France , Lutherans , Mennonites , as well as Protestants from across In 1603 , the Jewish the city , other Christian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services . Regular services there are still offered Being Calvinists , the Huguenots soon The first Ashkenazis who arrived in Amsterdam They not only founded their own synagogues the 'Amsterdam dialect ' adding a large Yiddish local vocabulary .

the eastern part , which used to be the center of medieval Amsterdam . disrepair after the Second World War a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction and as a result the original plans for large-scale reconstruction were abandoned by the government visited the city , where festivities were held in churches and Catholic processions on the public streets , however , were still forbidden under Amsterdam have been changed by the Hindu diaspora from Suriname and several distinct branches of Islam have been brought Amsterdam fans out south from as De Wallen (English : "The Quays The medieval and colonial age canals of Amsterdam , known was developed that was based their ends emerging at the IJ bay . of the canals were mostly for residential development : the Herengracht ( where "Heren " refers to " Heren Regeerders van de stad Amsterdam " , ruling lords " means canal , so that the name can be roughly translated as " Canal of the Lords " ) , Keizersgracht ( Emperor's Canal The fourth and outermost canal is the Singelgracht , which is often not mentioned on maps because it is a collective name , but otherwise no masonry superstructures proceeded from west to east , across a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian Geert Mak calls it – and not from The eastern part of the concentric canal plan , covering , has never been implemented the 17th century , the city did not , public buildings and streets just The main aim of the plan , however , was to improve public health Following Sarphati , civil engineers Jacobus van Niftrik 19th-century neighbourhoods surrounding the city's centre , with the city preserving the ownership of all land which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before : "Plan Zuid " ( designed by the architect Berlage ) and "West These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve people affordable houses with modern conveniences . located among green spaces , connected to wide roads , making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by motor car .

The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the Westelijke Tuinsteden The oldest wooden building is "Het Houten Huys " at recognisable with their stepped gable façades , which These buildings were built according to One of the most striking buildings designed by In the 17th century baroque architecture became very popular , as it was elsewhere heavily influenced by French culture . with the baroque style and started building in different neo - styles . Most Gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in popular and many new buildings were constructed Since Amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period , new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before the modern era was Art Deco , which was called the Amsterdamse School Whole districts were built this style The Vondelpark , the largest park in the city the Amsterdamse Bos ( "Amsterdam Forest " ) 1.000 hectares and is approximately three times the size The city has many open squares ("plein " is the main city square and has the Royal Palace According to the 2007 European Cities Monitor ( ECM ) – an annual location survey of Europe's leading companies carried out by global real estate consultant Cushman & Wakefield – , ranking fifth in the survey the world's oldest stock exchange and , due to Brexit , has overtaken LSE annually , this is excluding the 16 million day-trippers visiting the city every year The number of visitors has been of the total beds available and 41% ) originate from Europe . designated "Rembrandt 400 " , De Wallen , also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt , is This neighbourhood has become a famous attraction for alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented by behind a window or glass door , typically illuminated such as De Bijenkorf founded in P.C. Hooftstraat and "Cornelis Schuytstraat " , daily , like the Albert Cuypmarkt and Fashion models like Yfke Sturm , Doutzen Kroes of German music in the 19th century there

were few national opera productions ; the Hollandse Opera of Amsterdam the specific purpose of promoting Dutch opera . The Rijksmuseum ( 1885 ) and Stedelijk Museum ( 1895 ) were With the 20th century came cinema , on programming is very strong Many people who work in the television industry the square itself is a long, rectangular pond . several large houses , one of which The Museumplein is covered almost entirely The square itself is the most prominent site in The artist most associated with Amsterdam is Rembrandt , whose work , The museum underwent a 10-year, 375 million euro renovation starting in a short while and there is a museum This building is where the permanent collection is This building , known as the performance wing Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings , like , are in the collection . Next to the Van Gogh museum stands the Stedelijk Museum the square it borders and was They range from small museums such as the Verzetsmuseum (Resistance Museum ) , the Anne Frank House the very large , like the Tropenmuseum (Museum of the Tropics ) , Amsterdam Museum ( , Hermitage Amsterdam ( a dependency that treat the city nostalgically and The 1949 song " Aan de Amsterdamse grachten " Amsterdam " ) was performed and recorded by many artists , probably that by Wim Sonneveld ( In the 1950s Johnny Jordaan rose to fame with " Geef mij maar Amsterdam " ( " I prefer Amsterdam " ) , which praises the city above Another notable Amsterdam song is " Amsterdam " A 2011 poll by Amsterdam newspaper "Het Parool " that Trio Bier's "Oude Wolf " was voted " Amsterdams lijflied " . AFAS Live ( formerly known as the Heineken Music Hall ) is a concert hall located Many famous international artists have performed there . Two other notable venues , Paradiso and the Melkweg ranging from indie rock to hip hop , R&B , and other popular genres . , with the Bimhuis being the premier venue Armin van Buuren and Tiesto , some

the Netherlands and frequently perform in Each year in October , the city Another popular dance festival is 5daysoff , which takes place in the venues Paradiso Their home is the Concertgebouw , which making it one of the most-visited concert halls Therefore , the two buildings combined are often called the Stopera , ( a word originally coined by protesters against it very construction : " Stop the Opera[-house ] " This huge modern complex , opened in 1986 , lies in the former Jewish neighbourhood at Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a concert hall , which The current building dates from The Dutch National Opera and Ballet ( formerly known as "Het Muziektheater " ) A new theatre has also moved into other established venues : Theater Amsterdam is located or "kleinkunst " , which combines music , storytelling , Wim Sonneveld and Toon Hermans were pioneers In Amsterdam is the Kleinkunstacademie (English They range from large and is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city , Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being The Paradiso , Melkweg and Sugar Factory are cultural centres are the Escape, Air , John Doe and Also noteworthy are Panama , Bimhuis located near the Central Station , with its rich programming hosting the best in the field is considered one include : " Koningsdag " ( which was named "Koninginnedag in 2013 ) ( King's Day – Queen's Day ) ; the Holland Festival the 'Stille Omgang' ( a silent Roman Catholic evening procession held every March ) ; Amsterdam Gay Pride ; The Cannabis Cup held each year on 27 April — from all over Europe . The stadium Johan Cruyff Arena is the home of The Olympic Stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events , The city holds the Dam to Dam Run , a race as well as the Amsterdam Marathon . The ice hockey team Amstel Tijgers play in the Jaap Eden ice rink There are three field hockey teams : Amsterdam

Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women Amsterdam has gradually been divided into semi-autonomous boroughs , called " stadsdelen " or 'districts ' As with all Dutch municipalities , Amsterdam a municipal executive board and a government appointed mayor ( "burgemeester from 1998 to 2011 ) was appointed as the first woman to be being nominated by the Amsterdam municipal council and began serving a six-year term on 12 July 2018 She replaces Eberhard van der Laan (Labour Party ) was formed – the first coalition without take up his office as acting Mayor subdivided into eight boroughs , called " stadsdelen " or 'districts ' , a system that was implemented gradually in the 1980s to that had previously been run ("deelraad " ) , elected The fifteenth , Westpoort , covers the harbour such as major infrastructure projects , which are the jurisdiction of the central municipal authorities . restructured , in which many smaller boroughs maintain the borough system by replacing the district councils directly elected district committees ( " " Amsterdam " is usually : metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam ("Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam " , not to be confused ) , Greater Amsterdam ("Groot Amsterdam " Amsterdam ("Stadsgewest Amsterdam " ) . The smallest of these areas is Amstelveen only , as well Though much larger in area only slightly larger , because Lelystad but excludes Graft-De Rijp . " Amsterdam " and "capital : The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in " the capital Amsterdam " ( " de hoofdstad Amsterdam " ) ("de stad Amsterdam " ) . the Nieuwe Kerk on Dam Square , immediately after the former monarch Normally , however , the Parliament which has historically been the seat First and centre are three St Andrew's crosses , but also as civil ensign , Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right when he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced , this time with when city and province became Currently , there are sixteen tram routes Regional buses , and some suburban buses , to be the hub , a kind

numbered One to Eight planned priorities led to the current situation , where only roads A1 , A2 , and A4 originate from Amsterdam Road A8 , leading north to Zaandam and the A10 Ringroad were opened The A10 ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring , numbered S101 through to , and sometimes without a central reservation In the city centre , driving a car Parking fees are expensive , and many streets are closed to cars The local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as "Autodelen " and Five are intercity stops : Sloterdijk Bijlmer ArenA and Amsterdam Centraal . The stations for local services are : Lelylaan, RAI , Holendrecht, Muiderpoort and Science Park . Amsterdam Centraal is also an international railway station . From the station there are regular services by domestic and international intercity trains , such as , the third - largest in Europe , and the 14th - largest in the world This airport is 4 meters below sea level According to the most recent figures published by in 2015 the 442.693 households ( 850.000 residents ) in Amsterdam together owned Theft is widespreadin 2011 , concerning social history , and especially the history Many schools , however , are This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations , but with the influx of Muslim immigrants , there has been a rise in the number Amsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools ( Dutch : gymnasia ) , the Vossius Gymnasium , Barlaeus Gymnasium Gymnasium and the Cygnus Gymnasium where a classical curriculum including Latin and classical Greek is taught . Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out , SBS Broadcasting Group , consisting of TV-stations SBS 6 , Net 5 and However , Amsterdam is not considered 'the media city of the Netherlands ' The town of Hilversum , south-east of Amsterdam , has been Radio Netherlands , heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s , is

James Bond's Diamonds Are Forever , Ocean's Twelve From the late 1960s onwards many buildings in Amsterdam have been squatted both for housing and for using The museum documents work and everyday life by houses the EWK — Center for Political Illustration Art of preserving and telling about It has , among other things , exhibitions on the terms and The work museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories , including people's professional life in the museum that is permanent — when Sweden became modern , the exhibition was in 2007 — 2013 and consisted of somehow significant both for working life inaugurated that takes by where Industriland ends : Future country . what a sustainable society is will be The exhibition consists of materials that are designed based on conversations The exhibition addresses themes such as The museum preserves , develops and Audi AG ( ) ( commonly referred to as Audi ) , going back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises ( Horch and the "Audiwerke " ) founded by DKW and Wanderer ) , acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz August Horch . , meaning The four rings of the Audi logo each represent together to create Audi's predecessor company , Audi's slogan is , meaning " 1885 , later becoming a branch On 14 November 1899, August Horch ( 1868–1951 ) established the company A. Horch & Cie August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded his second company , the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued using "Horch " as a trade name a meeting with close business friends , Paul they discussed how to come Several times he looked like saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working , until he finally blurted out , " Father   – " audiatur et altera pars " ...   would n't it be a good idea to call it "audi " instead of " horch " ? " in German means " Hark ! " or " hear " , which is "Audi " – " to listen followed by a 3,564 cc model , as

well as 4,680 cc and 5,720 cc models These cars were successful even in the first German car manufacturer to present a production car , ) , acquired the majority of These engines were used in " Audi Zwickau " and "Audi Dresden" models that At the same time , 6 - cylinder and 4 - cylinder ( the " four " and Wanderer , to form the company offered the Audi Front that became the first European car to combine a six-cylinder engine with the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today , representing these four brands . while the member companies used their own names and through the 1930s , so that by 1938 the company's DKW brand accounted for of relocating what was left and IFA F9 and were similar The reformed company was launched 3 September 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles The Ingolstadt site was large , consisting was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution , but at this stage there was at Ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable then the company 's largest single shareholder , Daimler-Benz took However , small two-stroke cars were not did not benefit from the economic boom competitor manufacturers such as Volkswagen and The decision to dispose of the Auto Union business the DKW and Audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by Daimler-Benz , who in return retained the dormant Horch trademark and the Düsseldorf factory which became a Mercedes-Benz van assembly plant 1966 were using the spare capacity of the Ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60,000 Volkswagen Beetles per the 1960s as customers were more having classified the model internally as the F103 , sold it simply Later developments of the model were as the Audi 60 , 75 , 80 , and Super 90 Initially , Volkswagen was hostile a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity where Volkswagen executives ordered that the Auto Union name and flags bearing the four rings were

Then VW chief Heinz Nordhoff explicitly forbade Auto Union Fearing that Volkswagen had no long-term ambition for the Audi brand , Auto Union engineers the first Audi 100 in secret , Nordhoff was so impressed he which when launched in 1968 , went on to be but had moved on to the TT and TTS versions of which are still a car well ahead of its time However , teething problems with The Neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8 ) followed in 1972 and the Audi 50 ( later rebadged The Audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the Polo concept , one that led and A6 , respectively ) became the company's biggest sellers , whilst little investment whilst the fatally flawed NSU Ro80 went out of Production of the Audi 100 had been steadily moved from Ingolstadt to Neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed , and by the appearance of was now at the former NSU plant . , and so , a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger was accepted to The performance car , introduced in 1980 , was named the "Audi Quattro " , a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro " ( the "Ur-" prefix is a German augmentative used , in this case , to mean " original " and is also applied to and "UrS6 " ) , few of these vehicles were produced ( all hand - built by a single team ) , but the model was a great success in rallying effectively dead , the company's official name was was beginning to develop a kind of " grandfather's car" image , the "type 89 " was introduced . This completely new development sold extremely well . was quite spartan ( even the passenger-side mirror forward a new and very elegant Audi 90 , which had to claim and maintain several world records to shift its target market upscale to compete

It was essentially a new engine fitted the four-cylinder Audi 80 , the 5-cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100 , the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8 Although the five-cylinder engine was a successful and robust powerplant , it was still a little too The five-cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice ; however , a turbocharged version The engine , initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of , named the S2 , and also to the Audi 100 body , and Sales in the United States fell after interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration , showing an Audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed Audi contended , prior to the problems were caused by driver error Subsequently , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA ) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases the "60 Minutes" report , were caused by driver error such as confusion of the Audi unintended acceleration problems : " Once an unintended acceleration had begun , in the Audi 5000 , due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system ( producing an initial acceleration , or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity This summary is consistent with the conclusions and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3 g [ which is similar in magnitude to These accelerations could not be the sole cause of [(long-duration ) sudden acceleration incidents ( SAI ) ] , but might have triggered some SAIs by Significantly : multiple "intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and [ were also observed and ] reported by Transport Canada Audi made several modifications ; the Later repairs , of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978 , added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward Audi's U.S. sales , which had reached 74,061 in 1985 , dropped remained level for three years , – with resale values falling dramatically

many features that helped regain consumer confidence was a first in production car design In the A2 Audi further expanded their TDI technology The A2 was extremely aerodynamic and and was never really a sales success The model , a Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor , sold the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80 . The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced The Audi Cabriolet continued on ( based The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L , 1.6 L and 1.8 L four - cylinder , and 2.8 L 30V V6s in 1998 China in particular has become a key market , representing 108,000 out made it the biggest contributor while the other marques in Group such with the new Audi A7 and Audi A3 TDI Clean Diesel . along with the Wireless Power Consortium , operated a booth which demonstrated a phone compartment using the Audi dealers in the UK falsely claimed that the Audi A7 , A8 , and R8 were Euro NCAP safety tested , all achieving five out installed in the cars manipulated emissions data the cars to pollute at higher The A1 , A3 , A4 Audi promised to quickly find a technical solution and upgrade the cars so Ulrich Hackenberg , the head of research U.S. sales for the month had increased the 3-liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 Audi A6 Quattro , A7 Quattro , that it plans to take over all Audi shares it does not own ( totalling 0.36% ) , thus making Audi a fully owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group Audi AI is a driver assist feature offered by at a future time , acknowledging that legal, regulatory and technical hurdles must be overcome to that its new A8 will be fully self - driving for speeds will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature . The Audi A8 will therefore be the first production car

to reach level 3 autonomous driving , meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks , e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie . Audi produces 100% galvanised cars to prevent corrosion , and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so , following has proved to be very effective in preventing rust . pursue new technology and high performance . An all-aluminium car was brought forward by the Audi A8 was launched , which introduced aluminium space frame technology ( called "Audi Space Frame " or ASF ) which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity The disadvantage of the aluminium frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminium bodyshop . the quattro four-wheel drive system which is standard in Nonetheless , the A8 is usually the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment , also having best - in - has not adopted the transverse engine layout which is typically found in economy cars ( such as Peugeot and Citroën ) , since that To be able to mount powerful engines ( such as a V8 engine the Audi A8L W12 ) , Audi has usually engineered its more expensive cars with a longitudinally front-mounted engine and A6 are available with treats all-wheel drive as an option . on its V8-powered cars ( as opposed to crossover SUVs ) until the 2010 BMW 7 Series and 2011 BMW 5 Series , while the Audi A8 has had all-wheel drive available 80 and Audi 50 in along with Volvo , was the champion of the inline-five cylinder , 2.2 L engine This engine was used not only The 2.1   L inline five-cylinder engine was used as a base providing well over after modification For the ultra-luxury version of its Audi A8 fullsize luxury flagship sedan , the Audi A8L W12 , Audi uses the Volkswagen Group W12 engine instead of the conventional V12 engine The W12 engine configuration ( also known as a "WR12 " ) is created of 72 ° , and allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair

, allowing Audi to build a conventional V12 engine could have only a rear-wheel drive configuration as the engine bay for a differential and other components required to In fact , the 6.0   L W12 in the Audi A8L New models of the A3 , A4 , A6 and A8 have been introduced , with the ageing 1.8-litre engine now having been replaced by new Fuel Stratified Injection ( FSI ) Based on the gearbox found in the Audi A8 W12 , the world's first production car to have LED DRLs , and have since spread throughout the entire model range . has used a centralised control interface for its on - board infotainment systems , called Multi Media Interface ( MMI The availability of MMI has gradually filtered down the Audi lineup , and following its introduction on the third generation A3 It has been generally well received , as it requires , along with ' main function' direct access buttons Audi calls the synthetic diesel E - diesel the Japanese electronics giant Sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project and other electronic components being used in the Quattro , a four-wheel drive (4WD) turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and it was one of the first to take advantage of , thinking them to be too heavy and complex , yet the Quattro was to become It led its first rally before going the rally world had been served notice The Quattro went on to achieve Audi taking all podium places , but succumbed to problems further into and helped place Audi second Michèle Mouton , the only female driver to win , now simply called the "S1 " , and raced in being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his Ford RS200 Santos swerved to avoid hitting three and injuring 30 . the title for Audi setting a new Pikes Peak International Hill Climb record which he had retired from North America , Audi returned to Europe , turning first to then in 1993 , being

dealer/team Champion Racing competing against Corvettes , where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars ) Once again , the quattro four-wheel drive was superior , and Champion Audi won defend their title , but a newcomer gave them a run for their money that deeply affected the car's performance . returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory-supported Joest Racing Audi began racing prototype sportscars in in their first season - the Audi R8R (open-cockpit 'roadster' prototype ) and the Audi R8C (closed-cockpit 'coupé' GT-prototype ) . The factory-supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three ( 2000–2002 ) , as well as winning every race in , and driven by Joest drivers " loaned " to the fellow Volkswagen Group company , while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall , and first in The R8s ( which were built , reducing power , and an additional of weight compared On average , the R8s were about 2–3 seconds off pace compared to able to take first and third , while the Oreca team took The Champion team was also the first American team to The R10 TDI employed many new and innovative features , the most notable being the twin-turbocharged direct injection diesel engine . which it later went on the car was developed with a Diesel engine due to ACO regulations that favor Audi Sport Team Joest's Benoît Tréluyer earned Audi their first pole position in five years while the team's sister car locked out Audi entered a factory racing team run by This was a successful operation with the team taking 25 victories between 2000 and the end of the 2002 season customer cars to Champion Racing as well as continuing to race the factory running Audi R8s and eventually replaced Team Joest as the Audi Sport North America between 2006 and 2008 . Le Mans which was a one-off sports car race in The factory team Audi Sport UK won races and the championship in the 2004 season but Audi was unable to match their sweeping success

partly due to the arrival of The French manufacturer's 908 HDi FAP became the car to beat a World Endurance Championship which would be organised Audi competed won the first WEC race at Sebring and followed this up As defending champions , Audi once again entered the Audi R18 e - tron quattro chassis into the 2013 WEC and the team won the first five consecutive races , including a redesigned and upgraded R18 e - tron quattro which would once again face a challenge and additionally from Porsche who Audi provide factory support to Abt Sportsline The design is popularly believed to and that a form of the Olympic logo symbolized the newly established Auto Union's desire to succeed . The original "Audi" script , with the distinctive slanted tails on 1920 by the famous graphic designer Lucian Bernhard , and was resurrected when Volkswagen Following the demise of NSU in to the four rings , in preference , and was commonly displayed next to the Volkswagen roundel when the two brands Audi Sound Studio designed for producing the Corporate Sound The Corporate Sound project began with sound agency Klangerfinder GmbH & Co KG Audi started using a beating heart sound trademark beginning Audi's corporate tagline is , meaning " not in Italy , where is used ) , and in other markets , such as Originally , the American tagline was " Innovation through technology " , but in Canada "Vorsprung durch Technik used the slogan "Truth in Engineering " in However , since the Audi emissions testing scandal came this slogan was lambasted for being In fact , just hours after disgraced Volkswagen CEO Martin Winterkorn admitted to cheating It 's not that easy " Vorsprung durch Technik " was first of the Bartle Bogle Hegarty advertising agency visited the Audi factory in " , the U2 song " Zooropa Audi Sans ( based on Univers Extended ) was originally created in a new corporate typeface called Audi Type , designed FC Nürnberg , Hertha BSC , and ( DSV ) as well as the alpine skiing national teams of

For almost two decades , Audi fosters golf sport : for example the team Luna Rossa during the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series and also is the primary sponsor of the Melges 20 sailboat ERC Ingolstadt (hockey ) and FC Ingolstadt 04 (soccer Audi also sponsor the New York Yankees as Audi signed a deal to sponsor , promote and provide vehicles So far these have been , "Iron Man " , " Iron Man 2 ' , ' , ' , ' and ' . The e-tron vehicles were promoted in " A prototypical dashboard figure – later named "Wackel-Elvis " ("Wobble Elvis " or "Wobbly Elvis " ) – appeared in The next phase of technology Audi is The original e-tron concept shown at the 2009 Frankfurt motor show is and has been scheduled for This concept is also considered to be the direction for a future mid-engined gas-powered 2-seat performance coupe . The Audi A1 e-tron concept , based on the Audi A1 production model extending Wankel rotary engine to provide power after the initial charge of the battery is It is the only concept of the three to have range-extending capability . It is all set to be displayed at the Auto Expo 2012 in Powered by a 1.4 litre engine , and can cover a distance up to Audi is the first carmaker to develop two spaces ; the Audi Home Terminal and the The Audi Home Terminal features an Audi TV channel delivering video content The Audi Vertical Run is where users can access the mini-game Vertical Run , a futuristic mini -game teleports where users can teleport Audi had stated that additional content that is able to fly or in a few cases the downward The human activity that surrounds aircraft is The science of aviation , including designing and building aircraft , is , but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self - controlled by onboard computers . in the air in much the same way that ships float or canopies , filled with which is less dense than Small hot-air balloons , called sky lanterns ,

prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations , to fly , the first being kites , which were first invented in ancient China over A balloon was originally any aerostat , large, powered aircraft designs   — usually fixed-wing . reported as referring to " also sometimes referred to as "flying-ships " .   — though none had yet been The advent of powered balloons , called dirigible balloons , and later of , began to change the way Huge powered aerostats , characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags , were produced , the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous There were still no fixed - wing aircraft or non - rigid balloons large enough to be called airships , so " airship " came to be synonymous with these aircraft Then several accidents , such as A powered , steerable aerostat is called a " dirigible " Sometimes this term is applied only " is regarded as the definition then be rigid or non These soon became known as widely adopted for tethered balloons ; in windy weather , this both aircraft , such as airplanes , must find some way to push air or gas downwards so that a reaction occurs ( by Newton's laws of motion ) to push the aircraft Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common , with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called A wing is a flat, horizontal surface , usually shaped in cross - section To fly , air must A "flexible wing " is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material , often its engine thrust vertically downward . A pure rocket is not usually regarded not depend on the air for its lift ( and can even however , many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors blowing over its wings to provide to fly and were invented The first heavier - than - air craft capable of A "flying wing " has no fuselage ,

-effect vehicles are generally not They " fly " efficiently An example is the Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster Rotorcraft , or rotary-wing aircraft , a "rotary wing " ) to provide The rotor pushes air downward to By tilting the rotor forward , the downward flow is tilted backward , producing thrust for forward flight . , with a separate power plant to provide The rotor is tilted backward . As the autogyro moves forward , , making it spin . over the rotor , to provide They are nowadays classified as "powered lift" types and not as rotorcraft ever built , is the Antonov An-225 "Mriya transporting of goods , and has recently flown loads commercially With a maximum loaded weight of , it is also the heaviest aircraft built to The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 "Ruslan " ( world's second-largest airplane , also used American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport , weighing , loaded "Pegasus " , a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting body experimental research aircraft , fastest manned , powered airplane / fastest manned , non - spacecraft aircraft ) was Mach 6.72 , or , on Gliders are heavier - than - air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne Take-off may be by launching , or by pulling into the air on a tow-line , either and lift , it must ( but not necessarily in Many gliders can " soar " , " i.e. " , gain height from updrafts such by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley , whom many recognise as though normally the pilot can control the altitude , either by heating the air or by releasing ballast , giving some directional control ( since Kites are aircraft that are ( fixed or mobile ) blowing over and under them , typically aircraft engines although rubber and manpower have also been used Most aircraft engines are either lightweight reciprocating engines or ) to create thrust in " but can be mounted behind in " pusher configuration " until World War II and is still Human-powered flight has been achieved ,

but has not become a practical means These mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when stationary , so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using Compared to engines using propellers , higher speeds and , above They are also much more fuel - efficient than rockets Some rotorcraft , such as helicopters , have a powered rotary wing or "rotor " , where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is The rotor may , like a propeller Aircraft are designed according to Some , such as paragliders , comprise only flexible materials that act aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape . , but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung often employed flexible doped aircraft fabric covering to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell Later aircraft employed semi-monocoque techniques , where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure Lighter - than - air flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull Heavier - than - air The fuselage typically also carries a tail On a fixed-wing aircraft the wings are rigidly on a rotorcraft the wings are attached , held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure The term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as When an aircraft is abused , said to be flown " outside the envelope " , something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer limited by factors such as An aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its intended flight path and so is difficult to fly its flight path and is difficult to Therefore , it is important , which act similarly to although in the canard layout , the main aft wing an aircraft's flight attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on , or integral with , a vertical force applied at a distance forward the aircraft , causing the aircraft to pitch up or down .

The two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and drag opposing its motion . and may be a more fuel efficient mode of Most military aircraft are powered heavier - than - air types . Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights , carrying passengers , The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners , the largest of which are wide-body aircraft where the pilot is not paid a wide range of aircraft types such as , warbirds and hot air balloons to An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in a Special Airworthiness Certificate , called an Experimental Certificate in A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun , for Alfred Bernhard Nobel ( , ; 21 October 1833   – 10 December 1896 ) was a Swedish chemist , engineer , inventor having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel Prize , though he also and learning , particularly in became fluent in six languages and After reading an erroneous obituary condemning him the Nobel Prize institution , which would annually recognize those who " conferred the greatest benefit to humankind " . The family was impoverished and only Alfred and his three brothers survived beyond childhood a descendant of the Swedish scientist Olaus Rudbeck ( 1630–1702 ) , and in his turn , the boy was interested grew successful there as a manufacturer made possible the production of modern plywood Now prosperous , his parents were private tutors and the boy excelled chemistry and languages , achieving He also developed sufficient literary skill to was dying , but the entire stock was destroyed immediately after his death except for three copies , being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous Nobel was Lutheran and regularly led by pastor Nathan Söderblom who received Europe and America while keeping He remained a solitary character , given to periods of depression . He remained unmarried , although his biographers note that he had at least three loves , the first in Russia with a girl named Alexandra

his secretary , but she left She was awarded the 1905 Nobel Peace prize " Celje whom he met in , he afterward moved to acquired Bofors-Gullspång , the Björkborn Manor was included , he stayed at As a young man , Nobel studied There he met Ascanio Sobrero , who had invented nitroglycerin three years before nitroglycerin because it was unpredictable , exploding when subjected to But Nobel became interested in finding a way to control and one year to study , working who designed the American Civil War ironclad , USS "Monitor , while his first Swedish patent , which was on " ways to had difficulty switching back to regular domestic production when the fighting ended and they filed for bankruptcy . , who greatly improved the business On 3 September 1864 , a shed used Stockholm , Sweden , killing five people , including Nobel's younger brother Emil Fazed by the accident , Nobel founded the company Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget AB in Vinterviken so that he could continue , a substance easier and safer and the UK and was used Branobel and became hugely rich Nobel found that when nitroglycerin it became safer and more convenient to handle , and this mixture he patented in that year , at a quarry in Nobel later combined nitroglycerin with various nitrocellulose compounds , similar to collodion , but settled on a more efficient recipe combining another nitrate explosive Gelignite , or blasting gelatine , as it was named , Gelignite was more stable , transportable and conveniently formed to fit into bored holes , like Engineering " , bringing Nobel his brother Ludvig caused several newspapers to of military explosives — not , as is commonly quoted , dynamite , which was mainly used for civilian applications — and is said to have brought about his decision to leave a better legacy The obituary stated , ' ( " The merchant of death is dead " ) , and went on to say , "Dr. Alfred Nobel , who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before

, died yesterday . " Nobel read the obituary and was appalled at the idea that he would be remembered in this way his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the Nobel Prizes , to be awarded annually without distinction of individuals , Nobel 's will 31,225,000 Swedish kronor , to establish the five Nobel Prizes This converted to £ 1,687,837 " ( ' in Swedish ) , is cryptic and " ideal " as " idealistic " ( ' ) not to give the prize to for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes , given that he had not consulted them before to discoveries or improvements in technological awards , but had not left instructions on how to to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a sixth prize in Peter Nobel ( born 1931 ) , asked the Bank of Sweden to differentiate its award to economists given " to Italy , so he The "Monument to Alfred Nobel " ( , ) Diplomat and Professor Arkady Melua were initiators Sergey Alipov and Pavel Shevchenko , and appears to be an explosion or Alexander Graham Bell (; born Alexander Bell , March 3, 1847   – August 2, 1922 ) was a Scottish-born inventor , scientist , and engineer who is credited with inventing and patenting the first practical telephone Bell's father , grandfather , and brother had all been associated speech and both his mother and wife were deaf ; profoundly influencing further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U.S. patent and has a stone inscription marking it of whom would die of His father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell , a phonetician , and his mother was Eliza Grace Bell Born as just "Alexander Bell " , and allowed him to adopt the name "Graham " , chosen out a Canadian being treated by his father who had become a family friend a simple dehusking machine that was put into the piano and became the family's pianist .

Despite being normally quiet and introspective , he revelled in that continually entertained family guests during Bell was also deeply affected by his mother's gradual deafness ( she began to lose her hearing when he was 12 ) , and learned a manual finger language so he could out silently the conversations swirling around speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother's forehead wherein she would hear His family was long associated with , were all elocutionists . which are still well known ) , which appeared in " The Standard Elocutionist " appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes ( as they were then known ) to articulate not only to write Visible Speech but to identify any symbol and Bell became so proficient that , Scotland , which he left at the age of 15 , having His school record was undistinguished , marked especially biology , while he treated was born , with long hours his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction , the attributes that his pupil would need to At the age of 16 , Bell , he instructed classes himself £ 10 per session . The following year , he attended the University of Edinburgh , joining his older brother Melville who had enrolled there the previous year . and , in 1863 , took his sons to see a unique automaton developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone based on The rudimentary "mechanical man " simulated a human voice . Bell was fascinated by the machine and after he obtained a copy German , and had laboriously translated it , he and his older brother Melville built their own automaton head . Their father , highly interested in their project , offered to pay " if they were successful While his brother constructed the throat and His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could " speak " , with a live subject , the family's Skye Terrier , After he taught it to growl continuously , Bell would the dog's lips and vocal cords to produce

With little convincing , visitors believed his dog could articulate " How are you , grandmama convinced onlookers that they saw it to philologist Alexander Ellis , Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by , Bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would be the underpinning reporting : " Without knowing seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means , so could consonants , so could articulate speech He also later remarked : " I thought that Helmholtz had done it   ... and that my failure was due It was a valuable blunder   ... moved to London , Bell and , in his spare hours , continued experiments on sound using a minimum Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and was similarly bed - ridden While Bell recovered ( by then referring to himself in and served the next year as an instructor Edward would never recover . His older brother Melville had married and his own elocution school , applying for a patent a family , Bell continued as to tuberculosis , causing a family crisis earlier in life and had been restored to health by they realized that their remaining son was Acting decisively , Alexander Melville Bell asked over his last student , curing a pronounced lisp ) , and join his father and mother in setting out Caroline Margaret Ottaway , to Paris , Ontario , to stay with at Tutelo Heights ( now called Tutela Heights ) , near Brantford to what he called his "dreaming place " , a large hollow of the human voice and when he Onondaga , he learned the Mohawk language After setting up his workshop , Bell continued experiments based on a type of pump organ ) so which continues today as the public Horace Mann School , to introduce the Visible Speech System by , Bell proved successful in Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad , Bell continued first contemplated returning to London to complete his studies , but His father helped him set up

his private practice by contacting Gardiner Greene Hubbard , the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation Teaching his father's system , in October 1872 was Helen Keller , who came to see , hear , She was later to say lip reading as well as detailing his belief that with resources and effort , the deaf could be taught to read lips and speak ( known as oralism ) thus enabling their integration were often being excluded . Owing to his efforts to balance negatively by those embracing Deaf culture " swept up " by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors residing in the city . to transmit musical notes and articulate speech , but although absorbed by his experiments , he found it difficult to devote enough time to While days and evenings were occupied by his teaching and private classes awake late into the night , and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment . Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment Worse still , his health deteriorated Deciding to give up his lucrative private Boston practice six-year-old "Georgie" Sanders , deaf from birth , offered Bell a place to , complete with a room to Although the offer was made by 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next clear that Mr. Sanders was backing student to continue their work together ten years Bell's junior but became the object the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage , with progress made both at While working that summer in a "phonautograph " , a pen-like machine that possible to generate undulating electrical currents Bell also thought that multiple metal reeds would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound . rapidly expanding and in the words of Western Union President William Orton , had become " the nervous system of commerce " Thomas Edison and Elisha Gray to find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending

multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device , the two wealthy patrons began to financially Pollok visited the scientist Joseph Henry , who was then director of the Smithsonian Institution the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would When Bell said that he did not have the necessary knowledge , Henry replied , " Get That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying , even though he did not have the equipment needed to continue his experiments , nor the ability to create as his assistant , and the two of them experimented with the wire , heard the overtones of the reed ; overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds an acoustic telegraph and drew up a patent application Meanwhile , Elisha Gray was also That same morning , Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later Bell's patent 174,465 , was issued to Bell on March 7, 1876 , by On March 10, 1876 , three days after his patent was issued , Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work , using a liquid transmitter similar Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water , Although Bell was , and still is , accused of Bell used Gray's water transmitter design only after Bell's patent had been granted , and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment , to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible "articulate speech " ( Bell's words ) could be electrically He told Bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described the patent office a year earlier on February 25, 1875 , long before Elisha Gray described the water device his caveat , and because he did not contest Bell's priority , The patent examiner , Zenas Fisk Wilber , later was an alcoholic who was much Marcellus Bailey , with whom he had served in the Civil War . He claimed he showed Gray's patent caveat Wilber also claimed ( after

Boston ) that he showed Gray's caveat to Bell and that Bell paid him $ 100 Bell claimed they discussed the patent only in general terms , although Bell admitted that he learned " the instrument " in Boston to call Thomas Watson who was Bell brought home a working model of of Mount Pleasant distant , indicating that He made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying The following night , he amazed guests an improvised wire strung up This time , guests at the household distinctly heard people in The third test on August 10, 1876 , was to be the "world's first long-distance call " . Bell and his partners , Hubbard and Sanders , offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $ The president of Western Union balked , countering that the telephone was nothing that if he could get the patent for $25 million he would consider it a bargain . By then , the Bell company no and lectures to introduce the new invention A short time later , " quite extraordinary " although the sound was " rather faint , and by 1886 , As is sometimes common in , as evidenced by a number was successful in establishing priority over the original Bell patent and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded Bell's laboratory notes and family letters were the key The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by to annul the patent issued to , the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents ( No . 174,465 dated March 7, 1876 , and No . 186,787 dated January 30, 1877 ) were no longer in effect , although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the case's importance , Italian inventor Antonio Meucci also claimed to were purportedly lost at the laboratory later incorporated as a subsidiary of Meucci's work , like many other inventors of the period , was based on earlier experiments , the final case involving Meucci

However , due to the efforts June 11, 2002 , stated that Meucci's "work but when Bell delayed the German patent application , the electrical firm of Siemens & Halske set without having to pay royalties agreements in other countries eventually consolidated became a naturalized citizen of the United States . his status as : " I am not one of those hyphenated Americans That summer , the Bells had a vacation across from Baddeck , overlooking christened " The Lodge " was completed and two years later , a larger complex of buildings , including a new laboratory , were begun the estate , employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats He was an enthusiastic boater , and Bell and his family sailed or Bell and his family would alternate " would , over the next 30 years , become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened . Both Mabel and Bell became immersed by the villagers as " their Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often , Charlotte Gray , Bell's work ranged " unfettered across the scientific landscape " and he often went to bed voraciously reading the "Encyclopædia Britannica " only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with and telegraph , four for four for " hydroairplanes " and invented techniques for teaching his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept , they could not Methane gas , he reasoned , he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter jointly invented a wireless telephone , named a photophone , Bell believed the photophone's principles were his life's "greatest achievement " , telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was " the greatest invention [ I have ] ever made , greater worked flawlessly in tests but did not find Guiteau's bullet , partly because the metal bed frame on which

the President was lying disturbed the instrument Garfield's surgeons , led by self-appointed chief physician Doctor Willard Bliss , were skeptical of the device , and ignored Bell's requests to move the President to a bed not Bell's own detailed account , presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate Perplexed by the peculiar results he had , Bell " proceeded to the Executive Mansion the next morning   ... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal It was then recollected that lay was another mattress composed of Upon obtaining a duplicate , the mattress was found to consist of The extent of the [area that produced a response from the detector ] having been so small , as , it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced , " The death of President Garfield and the subsequent "post-mortem" examination , however , proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected Based on information gained from sketch concepts of what is Enrico Forlanini and began testing models . " ) , the first self-propelled Bell-Baldwin hydrofoil . The experimental boats were essentially proof - of - concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial HD-4 , powered by Renault engines A top speed of was achieved , with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration , along with the ability to take Walter Pinaud , a Sydney yacht designer and builder , to work on the pontoons Pinaud soon took over the boatyard to make useful design changes to the again on the HD-4 . begun experiments to develop motor - powered heavier - than The tetrahedral wings were named "Cygnet " I , II , and III , and were flown both unmanned and manned ( " Cygnet I " crashed during a flight carrying Selfridge ) in The AEA's work progressed to heavier - than - air machines , Moving to Hammondsport , the group then designed and built the "Red Wing " , framed in

and powered by a small air-cooled engine . , the biplane lifted off on The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder ( later variations on the original design would of the aileron , was to become a standard component on all aircraft . The "White Wing " and " June Bug " were to follow and mishap had been accomplished . However , the AEA had depleted allowed it to continue with present as the "Silver Dart " flown Bras d'Or made the first aircraft flight in Canada Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be Bell , along with many members heredity which grew out of He specifically wanted to see titled " Upon the Formation of Bell's research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness , as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives , was an important element in determining the production of He noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion He also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated " states that " Dr. Bell does not advocate legislative interference with one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated . The article goes on to say that " the editorial remarks based thereon The paper's author concludes by saying “ A wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness , it seems to us , would be to continue the investigations which Dr. Bell has so admirable begun until the laws deafness are fully understood , and then by explaining those laws lead them to choose their partners deaf-mute offspring will not be the result Historians have noted that Bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage , and never mentioned sterilization who was also the founder of joining a new committee on eugenics chaired To give the organization scientific credibility , Davenport set up a Board of Scientific Directors naming Bell and chaired by Davenport . to attract other scientists to attend

Bell died of complications arising His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on While tending to him after his long illness , Mabel , his wife , whispered , " Do n't leave me . " , on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome . ( approximately US$ in today's dollars Among the luminaries who judged were Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas , " with Bell becoming the second recipient of Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent , he used his prize money to create endowment funds (the 'Volta Fund' ) and institutions in and around 1880 ) , also known the" 'Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory ' , " and which eventually led to the Volta Bureau is still in operation in Georgetown , Washington , D.C. scientific discovery , and the very next year it improved Edison's phonograph by the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it , key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted . Bell helped establish the publication "Science and was primarily responsible for The French government conferred on him the decoration ; the Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert Medal in 1902 ; him a PhD , and he was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1912 The "bel " (B ) Bell first on its list of issuing a commemorative stamp honoring Bell in the city where Bell spent considerable time The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time . an audio wave signal ; a diagram of a telephone receiver ; the geese which helped him to understand flight ; and the sheep which he studied designed under Dr. Bell's tutelage , named the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in the National Library of Anatolia , also known as The region is bounded by the Turkish Straits to the northwest , the Black Sea to held to be a line between

the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea , bounded by the Armenian Highlands to the east and , which were largely replaced by the Greek language during classical antiquity as well as during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods . , and Lydian , while other, poorly attested local languages included Phrygian and Mysian , a Celtic language , was spoken the early 20th century and it has continued However , various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today , including Kurdish This traditional geographical definition is used , for to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia renamed the Eastern Anatolia Region by the newly established Turkish government . and landscape , the eastern provinces of , which largely corresponds to as such after the division of Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia " to apply to formerly referred to as "Armenia " ( which had a sizeable Armenian population and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring ( 5123 m ) . The Euphrates, Araxes, Karasu and Murat rivers connect the Armenian Highlands to The English-language name "Anatolia " derives from the Greek ( ' ) meaning " the East " and designating ( referring to the Aeolian , Ionian and Dorian colonies 284–305 ) , who created the Diocese of the East , known , and thus commonly referred to ( in Greek ) The Latinized form " , " with its "-ia" ending , is probably a Medieval Latin innovation The modern Turkish form "Anadolu " derives directly from the Greek name Aνατολή ( " Anatolḗ The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula , though not particularly popular Asía " ) , perhaps or possibly echoing the name of The endonym Ῥωμανία ("Rōmanía " " " ) was understood as another name for the province by the invading Seljuq Turks Thus (land of the) Rûm became During the era of the Ottoman Empire , mapmakers Other contemporary sources called the same area Kurdistan . East Anatolian Plateau and Armenian Plateau to refer encompassed by each term largely overlaps

According to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian , this difference in the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line , the Eastern Anatolia Region and the Southeastern Anatolia Region , the former largely , the latter to the northern part of toponyms was " necessary to obscure all evidence " of of Armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear The Hattians were an indigenous people , whose main center was the city of Hattush . Affiliation of Hattian language remains unclear , All of those languages are extinct ; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have been proposed , but are not generally accepted The region became famous for exporting Assyrian traders were bringing tin and whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands centered at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale ) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BCE The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia , in , however , the Hittites ( along with the other Indo-European ancient Anatolians ) were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from c. 1650 BCE ) was founded , becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE However , the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast tribal Kaskians , a non-Indo-European people who had after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire . The Assyrians and Hittites were then , subsequent to losing much territory to the Middle Assyrian Empire and being finally overrun by the Phrygians , another Indo-European people who are believed to have The general consensus amongst scholars is that possibly ) Wilusa ( Troy ) , the Seha River Land ( to south-central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran From the late 8th century BCE , a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia : the Cimmerians Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium

as divided into regions that were diverse in culture , The northern regions included Bithynia , Paphlagonia were Mysia , Lydia and Caria ; and Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia belonged to the southern shore . There were also several inland regions : of minted coinage ( as opposed , some time in the 7th century Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against The Ionian Revolt , as it became known , though quelled , initiated the Greco-Persian Wars , which ended and the Ionian cities regained their independence . In 334 BCE , the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire the breakup of his empire , Anatolia and the Seleucids , the latter A period of peaceful Hellenization followed , such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BCE where Christianity spread , so that by the 4th century CE , western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek - speaking , to predominantly Muslim and Turkish - speaking ( although ethnic groups , and Assyrians remained numerous and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia , Philadelphia , fell in 1390 the Mongols , at least nominally The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler the legend " Minted by Osman son of It is not well understood how the Osmanlı , or Ottoman Turks , came to dominate their neighbours is still little known . several Turkic groups left their homelands and settled Anatolia remained multi - ethnic until the early 20th century ( see the rise During World War I , the Armenian genocide , the Greek genocide ( especially in Pontus ) , and the Assyrian genocide almost Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 , most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex . A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and

downfolded troughs , covered by a plateau with rough terrain , is There are temperate broadleaf , mixed and coniferous forests ( totaling $365.8 billion in 2021 ) and , as of January 2021 , it is the world's most valuable company by Steve Jobs , Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne to develop and sell 1977 , and sales of its computers , among them the Apple II new computers featuring innovative graphical user interfaces , such caused problems , as did NeXT to resolve Apple's unsuccessful operating-system strategy and entice Jobs back to the company Apple became profitable again through First, a revitalizing campaign called " Think different " , and by launching a retail chain , the Apple Stores , and has acquired numerous companies to broaden health reasons , and died two months later The company receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors , its environmental practices , the first publicly traded U.S. company to be valued at Two years later , it became the first company the first valued at over $3 trillion , by Steve Jobs , Steve Wozniak designed and hand - built To finance its creation , Jobs The Apple I was sold as which would not yet be had left and sold his share and Wozniak for $ 800 only twelve days after having revenues grew exponentially , doubling The Apple II , also invented by Wozniak , was introduced on the TRS-80 and Commodore PET , because of its character cell-based color graphics and open architecture . interface called the Disk II in 1978 and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II : compatibility with in an attempt to compete with Jobs and several Apple employees , including Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface ( GUI ) , and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa Jobs then took over Wozniak's and Raskin's low-cost-computer project it as a graphical system cheaper and On December 12, 1980 , Apple ( ticker symbol " AAPL " ) went public selling 4.6 million shares

at $ 22 per share ( $ .39 per share , generating over $100 million , which was more capital than any IPO since created , from a stock price of $ 29 per share and to create the illusion that the computer enclosure is smaller than it actually the Macintosh , the first personal computer to be Its debut was signified by " 1984 " , a $1.5 million television advertisement directed by Ridley Scott that aired during Macintosh sales were initially good , but began to taper off dramatically after the first three months due to , who had been hired two years earlier by Jobs using the famous line , " Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest Rather than submit to Sculley's direction Informed by Jean-Louis Gassée , Sculley found out that Jobs had been attempting to organize a coup NeXT Inc. Wozniak had also quit his active employment to pursue other ventures , expressing and stating that the company had " been going in the wrong direction the company amicably and both Jobs and the so-called "high-right policy " named for the position Jobs had argued the company should produce products aimed at the consumer market the Macintosh , which they were Newer models selling at higher price points offered higher profit margin , and appeared to have no effect on total sales as power users snapped up every increase in Although some worried about pricing themselves out of the market , the mid-1980s , notably due to Jean-Louis Gassée's mantra of " fifty-five or die " , referring to the last years of the decade as new desktop publishing programs appeared on PC clones that offered some or and had already estranged many of its original consumer customer base who could no The Christmas season of 1989 is the first in the company's history to have declining sales , Sculley and Gassée deteriorated , leading Sculley to effectively demote Gassée Gassée left the company later that year . The same year , Apple introduced System 7 , a major upgrade to the operating system

doing incredibly well , introducing Apple believed the Apple II series was too expensive to produce and took away sales from the low-end Macintosh . to promote that computer by advising Macintosh rather than Apple II , and authorizing salespersons to direct , also led to the cannibalization To address this , management by focusing on delivering software Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response ; instead using a GUI similar to the Apple Lisa in " Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. before it was finally dismissed The System 6 platform itself was outdated because it was not originally built UNIX vendors such as Sun Microsystems . IBM , and Motorola formed a new computing platform ( the PowerPC Reference Platform ; PReP ) , which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple software . The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind and thus counter Microsoft's monopoly and to bring Steve Jobs back , bringing Jobs back to At the August 1997 Macworld Expo in Boston would join Microsoft to release , and that Microsoft had a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of the Macintosh 128K : The iMac design team was led by I ve , who would later design the iPod and the iPhone . Apple's acquisition of Macromedia's Key Grip software project , signaling to solely focus on web development software The product , still unfinished at the time of the sale , was renamed "Final Cut Pro " when it Next , Apple successfully acquired the German company Astarte , which had developed DVD authoring technology , as well Apple then employed the same technology to SoundJam MP , released by Casady & Greene "iTunes " when Apple purchased added the ability to burn CDs , and removed its recording feature and of Apple's music software project , originally code - named iMusic , behind Mac OS X , based on NeXT's NeXTSTEP alike , Mac OS X aimed to combine the stability , reliability , The product , which was first