Datasets:

lshowway

/

Wikipedia_5gram_more_orders

like 0

et al . ( 2016 & 2017 ) assert that " all one is that no sure sign of its actual existence has yet emerged . " Irfan Shahîd quoting the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani notes to have raised the battle cry "Ya La Ibad Allah " ( O slaves of Allah ) to invoke each of the universe and is equivalent is the most common word to represent God " He is unique ( ' ) and inherently one ( ' ) , all - merciful and omnipotent . The Qur'an declares " the reality of Allah does n't depend on God is not a part of 99 Names of God ( ' meaning : ' the best names ' or 'the most beautiful names ' ) , each of which evoke a distinct characteristic " ( meaning ' if God wills ' ) after Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with meaning ' In the name of According to Gerhard Böwering , in in Islam does not have associates and companions , nor is there any kinship between God Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over According to Francis Edward Peters , " The Qur’ān insists , Muslims believe , and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God The word " Allāh " is generally pronounced , exhibiting a heavy lām the initial is elided when a preceding word The history of the name "Allāh " in English was probably influenced Thomas Carlyle ( 1840 ) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything Languages which may not commonly use the term "Allah " to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word . the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula , the word " ojalá " in the Spanish language and " oxalá " in the Portuguese language exist today , borrowed from Arabic "inshalla " ( This phrase literally means ' if God wills ' ( in the sense of " I hope Some Muslims leave the name "Allāh "

untranslated in English , rather than using the English translation " God use " Allah " to ( both of them standardized Mainstream Bible translations in the language use "Allah " " God " ) . , Justus Heurnius , and Caspar Wiltens and 1631 Latin edition ) recorded "Allah made a year after the publication of the King James Version ) , which was of the term "Allah " in any other but Muslim contexts , but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law , ruling While " Allah " had "Allah " by the Roman Catholic newspaper "The Herald for using the word to refer However , the use of " Allah " is not prohibited The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab ( Bibles ) have been widely distributed to avoid confusion and misleading information The word ' is always written This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using ' to spell ' referred to by the term , that is , alif - lam - alif - lam Unicode has a code point reserved for ' , = U+FDF2 , solely for " compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly " ; this is discouraged of mathematics , covering design The founding editor - in - chief in - chief was Henning Fernau officially the Republic of Azerbaijan , is a country located , and is bounded by The region and seven surrounding districts are internationally , while negotiations on the resolution of Nagorno-Karabakh conflict are facilitated by ) is Muslim , but the constitution does not declare an official religion and all major political forces in the country are "Atropates " , a Persian satrap under the Guardian Angels " ) , there , which literally translates from Avestan as " we worship The name "Atropates " itself is The name "Azerbaijan " was first adopted Until then , the designation had been used exclusively to identify referred to as "Arran "

, while fully subordinate to by King Javanshir , was suppressed The power vacuum left by the decline of gradually seized by the waves of The pre-Turkic population that lived on the territory among them Armenian and an Iranian language , Old Azeri , which was gradually replaced by Locally , the possessions of the subsequent Seljuk Empire The Shirvanshahs returned , maintaining for Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs and gained the population in what is modern-day Iran , until 1538 , when Safavid king Tahmasp I ( r. 1524–1576 ) completely deposed them , and made The Sunni Ottomans briefly managed to occupy ousted by Safavid Iranian ruler Abbas I ( r. 1588–1629 the Safavid Empire , Baku and its environs r. 1736–1747 ) , many and were vassals and subjects rivals to the south , Russia now actively tried to gain possession of the Caucasus region which was , for the most part , the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan , was Iranian territory until About a decade later , in violation of between the two , the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828 The resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay , forced Qajar Iran to of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that were still literature , and language remained of Baku, Ganja and Tiflis (Tbilisi , now Georgia that took place between 30 March and for the new republic ; a name that prior to the proclamation of the ADR was solely used to , making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women obvious that Soviet Russia would attack Vladimir Lenin said that the invasion was justified as Soviet Russia could not invaded it , establishing the Azerbaijan SSR Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was , and Georgia signed an agreement The previously independent Republic of Aras would also become the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , with 80 percent of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front being supplied by

Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of its importance Approximately 681,000 people with over 100,000 of them women , went to the front , while the total population of Azerbaijan was 3.4 million at the time civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in The disturbances in Azerbaijan , in adopted a Declaration of Independence which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991 , while the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991 Furthermore , an estimated 30,000 people have been killed and more than a million people have been displaced , more than 800,000 Azerbaijanis and 300,000 Armenians Four United Nations Security Council Resolutions (822, 853, 874, and 884) demand for " the immediate withdrawal of Many Russians and Armenians left and overthrown by a military insurrection led by by that time the prime minister , attempted he was arrested and charged , this time by the commander The coup was averted , resulting chairman of the New Azerbaijan Party as well as President of Azerbaijan when his fourth consecutive term in the election that was boycotted by the main opposition parties as fraudulent straddling Western Asia and Eastern Europe . It lies between latitudes 38 ° and 42° N , and longitudes 44 ° and 51° E. The total length of Azerbaijan's land borders is , of which 1,007 kilometers are with The coastline stretches for , and Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan : the Caspian Sea There are also three mountain ranges , the Greater and Lesser Caucasus , and the Talysh Mountains , together covering ( 4,466 m ) , while −28   m ) . The largest lake is Sarysu ( 67 km2 ) , and the longest river is Kur ( 1,515 km ) , measures to preserve the environment of 2001 when the state budget increased due to new revenues provided by the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline and now make up eight percent Over half of Azerbaijan's landmass consists of , and plateaus which rise Jeyranchol-Ajinohur and Langabiz-Alat foreranges ) up Qobustan , Absheron ) . is influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses

9 out of 11 existing climate zones are Both the absolute minimum temperature ( ) and the absolute maximum temperature ( ) were observed in Rivers and lakes form the principal part The country's water systems are continually changing under Artificial rivers ( canals ) and ponds are a part of Azerbaijan's water systems the world with approximately per year The Kura and Aras are the major rivers Yanar Dag , translated as " burning mountain " , is a natural gas fire Baku , which itself is Animal carvings on architectural monuments , ancient rocks , and stones survived up recorded and classified in Azerbaijan , a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse 66 percent of the species growing in the whole Caucasus can be The Constitution of Azerbaijan states that The Parliament of Azerbaijan , called Milli Majlis , consists of 125 deputies elected based The elections are held every five years , The Parliament is not responsible for The New Azerbaijan Party , and independents loyal to the ruling government , currently hold Musavat and Azerbaijani Popular Front Party , failed a seven-year term by direct elections , and the Cabinet , a collective executive body accountable to to dissolve the National Assembly but has the right to veto its decisions . To override the presidential veto , the parliament Azerbaijan's system of governance nominally can be called two - tiered The top or highest tier of the government is the Executive Power headed by " Yerli Icra Hakimiyati " ) , the new Regulation , which granted additional powers to Local Executive Authorities , strengthening their dominant position in Azerbaijan's local affairs Chapter 9 of the Constitution of the Azerbaijan Republic and members of municipalities are Currently , there are 1,607 municipalities of Municipalities were the first labor conditions , and social benefits and since regaining its independence and it as " not free " ( on border with " partly free " ) by , and human rights activists have been rounded up and jailed for A resolution adopted by the European Parliament in September 2015 described Azerbaijan as "

having suffered the greatest decline in democratic governance the past ten years , " noting as well that its dialogue with the country on human rights has " not Azerbaijan signed a decree pardoning more than a dozen Azerbaijan has been harshly criticized to promote its causes abroad and ESISC in that report asserted that the "Caviar Diplomacy " report elaborated by ESI aimed to create a climate against Azerbaijan and that the network Armenian officials , and some NGOs (Human Rights Watch , Amnesty International , " Human Rights House Foundation was financed by the Soros Foundation . According to Robert Coalson ( Radio Free Europe ) , ESISC is a part of front think tanks to The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year . The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Bahrain , on 6 November 1996 . Full diplomatic relations , including mutual exchanges of missions , were first established so far and holds membership and World Trade Organization and is a correspondent On 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly On 1 July 2021 , the US Congress advanced legislation that will have an impact on the military aid that Washington has the National Army of the newly formed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on were created according to the Law There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops and Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub - groups that can be involved in state defense when needed . , which includes the Coast Guard as and pfp and ipa . $ 1.36   billion was planned to be used for bring up the total military budget to 4.6 billion ; 66 rayons ("rayonlar", singular "rayon " ) ( " muxtar respublika " The National (now Central) Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank , empowered to issue the national currency , the Azerbaijani manat , and to supervise Pushed up by spending and Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29%

Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th According to World Bank's Doing Business report 2019 , Arabian historian and traveler Ahmed Al-Belaruri discussed , mentioning its oil in particular , among them Amoco , As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by This means they use more biocapacity At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares and pastures , horticulture and and wine-making , cotton growing In some areas it is profitable to grow grain , potatoes Livestock , dairy products , and wine and spirits are also Some products previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover , and the country has since also become a popular destination for religious, spa It is a national strategy to make tourism a major , if not the single largest , the Silk Road and the south–north corridor , highlights ( BTC ) became operational up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields The South Caucasus Pipeline , also stretching through , and Turkey , became and Europe by connecting the railways In 2010 Broad-gauge railways and electrified railways stretched The government launched a campaign aimed at Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector , mostly The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector . The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies (MCIT ) and an operator both policy-makers and regulators . , there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched its first satellite AzerSat 1 into radio broadcasting as well as the Internet urban , with the remaining 47.2% being The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85% , compared A significant factor restricting population growth is a high level The official language is Azerbaijani , which Russian and Armenian ( only in Nagorno-Karabakh ) are also spoken , and each are There are a dozen other minority languages spoken natively Avar , Budukh , Georgian , , and Udi are all small and their numbers are decreasing

Azerbaijan is considered the most secular Muslim-majority country . 85% of the Muslims are Shia and 15% Sunni ; the Republic of Azerbaijan 3.1% ) are mostly Russian and Georgian Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic ( almost all Armenians live Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include There is also a small Protestant community . Azerbaijan also has an ancient Jewish population with Azerbaijan also is home to and Jehovah's Witnesses communities , as well Some religious communities have been unofficially restricted average education levels rose dramatically from their very low starting point According to Soviet data , 100 percent ) were literate in 1970 the first laws that Azerbaijan's Parliament passed to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union was to adopt a modified-Latin alphabet to replace Other than that the Azerbaijani system has ) and curriculum changes that and have eliminated ideological content . The culture of Azerbaijan has developed that 's why Azerbaijanis are , in many ways , bi Today , national traditions are well are : music , literature The profile of Azerbaijan's population consists , as stated above , of other nationalities or ethnic groups , compactly living in various areas of "Dengi Kurd " ) , Lezgian folk traditions that reach back nearly a thousand years For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved Azerbaijani music has a branchy mode system , where chromatization of major and minor scales is of Among national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments According to "The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians " , , culture and religion the Azerbaijani are musically much closer to Mugham , meykhana and ashiq art When performing mugham , the singers Central Asian countries , Azerbaijani mugham is more free - form and less rigid ; it is often UNESCO proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a Masterpiece Ashiq combines poetry , storytelling, dance, and vocal and instrumental music bard who sings and plays Ashiqs' songs are semi - improvised Since the mid-1960s , Western-influenced Azerbaijani pop music , in its various forms , that has been , while genres such as rock and hip hop are widely

" Running Scared " , entitling the Chokha , which is well - preserved within the national dances . , who composed a divan consisting Turkic literary history , who also composed The " Book of Dede Korkut " consists , and was not written The 16th-century poet , Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals Benefiting immensely from the fine literary traditions of was destined to become the leading literary figure His major works include " The Divan of Ghazals " During the same period , under the pen-name Shah Ismail I wrote about 1400 verses in published as his "Divan " . In the span of the 17th and 18th centuries , Fuzuli's unique genres as well Ashik poetry were taken up by prominent poets and writers such Along with Turks , Turkmens and Uzbeks , Azerbaijanis also celebrate the Epic of Koroglu ( from for " blind man's son " ) , on the Shirvani dialect mainly , while in Iran it is based on the Tabrizi one . The first newspaper in Azerbaijani , " of which is decorative and applied art . , carpet - making , the Azerbaijan nation , is very much , whose patterns are characteristic of ceramics , and carpet - weaving that date as far back as to the 2nd millennium BC . cilantro (coriander ) , dill are very popular and often Climatic diversity and fertility of the land mainly mutton and beef ) , and black tea is the national beverage . Azerbaijanis often use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as Many ancient architectural treasures such as the Maiden Tower and Among other architectural treasures are Quadrangular Castle in , a number of bridges spanning the Aras River , and several mausoleums . created , but distinctive residences were The Gamigaya Petroglyphs , which date back to the 1st to 4th millennium BC , are They consist of some 1500 dislodged and people , carriages , and various symbols were found on , as exemplified in the works the latter two of which Therefore , it is not

surprising that this apparatus soon showed up in Baku – at attracted foreigners eager to invest In 1919 , during the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic , a documentary "The Celebration of the Anniversary of Azerbaijani Independence " was a decree proclaiming 2 August to be Today Azerbaijani filmmakers are again dealing with issues similar to those faced by cinematographers prior to the establishment There are three state-owned television channels : AzTV and criticism , even while the country led the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe ( May–November 2014 against journalists have remained the norm Christianity is officially recognized . to be allowed to meet This registration is often denied . of the Christians are ethnic Armenian or Russian , rather than killed and several prosecuted in trials described as unfair by , according to the Committee to Protect Journalists , , ahead of Iran and Sadly Azerbaijan has been allowed to get away with unprecedented levels almost wipe out its civil society ' Amnesty's 2015/16 annual report on the country stated ' ... persecution of political dissent continued persisted both in the country and abroad , while their family members also faced harassment and arrests . "The Guardian " reported in April 2017 that " Azerbaijan's ruling elite operated a secret $2.9bn (£2.2bn) scheme to pay prominent Europeans , buy Leaked data shows that the Azerbaijani leadership , and rigging elections , made , and to promote a positive image Freestyle wrestling has been traditionally regarded Azerbaijan won up to fourteen medals , including four golds since joining the International Olympic Committee . , is the largest sporting association in the country The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are Neftchi Baku , Qarabağ the first Azerbaijani team to advance to the group stage Copenhagen 2–2 ( a ) Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to reach many international chess tournaments and competitions and became Azerbaijan and is widely played Rabita Baku and Azerrail Baku achieved great success Azerbaijan has a Formula One race-track , made the first to be held Amateur astronomy is a hobby where participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects

in the sky using the unaided eye , Most amateurs are hobbyists , while in astronomy and may often night , when most celestial objects and astronomical events are visible , but using nothing more than their eyes or binoculars , but more dedicated amateurs often use portable telescopes or telescopes Amateurs can also join as members of amateur astronomical societies , which can advise , educate or finding and observing celestial objects . objects such as star clusters , observing particular objects , types of , an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose built radio telescope in the late 1930s to follow up Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes , while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available to study the sky , depending Methods include simply looking at quality , as well as additional sophisticated equipment , such as cameras , to study light from Commercial telescopes are available , new and used , but it is also common for amateur astronomers to build ( or commission the building of ) their own custom telescopes . Amateur astronomers also use star charts that , depending on experience and intentions , may range from simple planispheres through to detailed charts of Amateur astronomers often like to keep Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when , as well as describing the details that were seen logs , and photographic records of observations have also been used The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between The popularity of imaging among amateurs web sites being written by individuals Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists . , the buying and selling of equipment , occurs online . While a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye , or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them . Star hopping is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such ( or memory ) to locate known landmark stars , and " in smartphones has led to

These apps allow any user to easily simply pointing the smartphone device in that direction , the name of the object , its constellation , etc . are Setting circles are angular measurement scales that can any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified ) , the telescope user can use the setting circle to align ( i.e. , point ) the telescope in A computerized setting circle is called a "digital setting circle " to display a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates , they are not simply a digital read-out of what can be seen on does not need to look then adjust the telescope to those numerical readings distance values and arrow markers to appear in the display that indicate the distance and direction to move the telescope reach zero , indicating that the telescope is properly aligned . When both the RA and Dec axes are thus " zeroed out " the nearest year ( e.g. , J2005 GOTO telescopes have become more popular improved and prices have been point the telescope towards that item automatically to be faster for locating , allowing more time for studying GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts , allowing them to GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars in order to provide accurate tracking and positioning the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging a telescope a great distance away The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to Because CCD imagers are linear , image processing may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution Scientific research is most often not the "main" goal , however , and many amateurs amateurs can still contribute useful data In particular , this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than such as monitoring the changes in , helping to track asteroids , and observing occultations to

of the Moon as seen from can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements around the world , that serve are simply interested in the topic and activities , which may For example , a small local society located in dark countryside may focus on practical observing and star parties , whereas a large one based in a major city might have numerous members but be limited by light pollution and thus hold regular indoor meetings with guest speakers instead . Major national or international societies generally publish their own journal or newsletter , and some hold large multi-day meetings akin to a scientific conference or Aikido ( , , ) is a modern Japanese martial art that is split Aikido is now practiced in that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting with ) life energy " or as " the way of harmonious spirit to overcome oneself instead of cultivating violence or aggressiveness . Aikido's fundamental principles include : ( entering ) , ( breathing control ) , (triangular principle ) and (turning) movements that redirect the opponent's attack momentum . the late 1920s , partly due to , depending partly on when Today , aikido is found The term does not readily appear ( ) is mainly used in compounds to mean ' combine , unite , join together , meet ' , examples being ( combined / united ) , ( composition ) , (unite/combine / join together ) , ( union/alliance/association ) , ( combine / unify ) , and ( ( ) is often used , as in ( ' I feel X ' , but with less cognitive reasoning ) , and ( feeling /sensation ) ; it is used to mean energy or force , as in ( electricity ) and (magnetism ) ; it can also refer to qualities things , as in ( aikido is the "Way of combining forces " or Aikido was created by ( 1883–1969 ) , referred to by some aikido practitioners as ( " The term " aikido " was Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only

Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during of the older martial arts that he had The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu , which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sōkaku , The art of is the primary technical influence on ( ) , short staff ( 1912 , and began studying However , during the latter part of that period , Ueshiba had already 1919 , he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi especially to those who seek on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as not only financial backing but also gifted students . Later that year , Koichi Tohei was sent and is considered the formal introduction of Designated the "Official Delegate for Europe and Africa " by Morihei Ueshiba , Masamichi Noro arrived The largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation , which The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido , begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931 , Yoshinkan Aikido , founded by Shodokan Aikido , founded by Kenji Tomiki The emergence of these styles pre - dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized , Kisshomaru Ueshiba , who at A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in formed a loose network of schools they Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of , followers of Saito subsequently The study of is an important component of The term does not specifically refer The kanji for was written in its older form as up until now is more prevalently seen The character for is used in everyday Japanese terms , such as , or . has many meanings , including "ambience " , "mind " , "mood " , or "intention and action " , however , in traditional martial arts and medicine it is often referred to in its more general terminology as Gozo Shioda's Yoshinkan Aikido , considered one of the "hard styles " , largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II , in aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel

teach about from this perspective . virtually all Japanese martial arts , there are both how to safely fall or The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs ; the techniques for defense consist of throws and Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation , correct movement In aikido , pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting In aikido , specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone , and balance similar to yoga two partners practicing pre-arranged forms ( ) Both halves of the technique , that of and that of , learns to blend with and control attacking energy , while learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous , off - balance positions in This " receiving " of ( e.g. , an exposed side ) , while uses position and timing to keep off - — it is considered an active part of the process of learning aikido Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack , so students must attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner . Other techniques , which explicitly appear to be punches ( ) The following are a sample of The precise terminology for some may vary the following are the terms used by ( ) to blend the movement of with the movement of . Additionally , an technique takes place in front of , whereas usually by incorporating a turning or Finally , most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture ( For example , can be applied to an opponent moving forward an type of movement to redirect the incoming force ) , or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance ( perhaps an version Specific aikido are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier ) " refers to any technique executed when are strikes ( or feints Some view as attacks against " vital points " meant to cause damage in and of themselves using in a brawl to quickly

Others consider , especially to the face , to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques ; a strike , even if it is blocked , can startle the target and break Additionally , the target may also become unbalanced while attempting to avoid a strike ( by jerking the head back , for example ) which may allow for the short staff ( ) ( these techniques closely resemble the use of the bayonet the wooden sword ( ) , and the knife ( Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques , where either weapon - taking and/or weapon-retention may be taught . often called , or . Freestyle practice with multiple attackers called is a key part of most curricula and is exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform Strategic choice of techniques , based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers , is that it is not performed between two people , where both participants attack , defend , to prevent injury to by employing a speed and force of application that is appropriate with varied considerably from one art to Aikido training is mental as well as physical , emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body the practitioner to perform the 'enter-and-blend' movements that underlie aikido techniques , wherein an attack is met with confidence and Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one " must be willing to Aikido practitioners ( commonly called outside Japan ) generally progress by " ( ) , followed ( ) , pursuant to practitioners' grades , often simply white and black belts to distinguish and grades , although Testing requirements vary , so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable The uniform worn for practicing aikido ( ) is similar to the training uniform ( ) used in Both thick ( " judo - style " ) , and thin ("karate-style") cotton tops are used . known as ( used also The most common differences noted in aikido , when observed externally , relate To counteract this , some styles allow students to become less

, in keeping with the core philosophies , this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able and forms of aikido can the mid-1950s , as he increasingly There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art , and ideas have changed over time . Theatre , dance , and other performing arts , as well as and other media such as interactive media and was not differentiated from , such as creativity and interpretation , are explored in art , artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind : from early pre-historic art to contemporary art ; however , some theorists " fits less well outside " is closely related to the older Latin meaning , which roughly translates to " skill " or " craft " , as associated with words such as English words derived from this meaning include "artifact " , "artificial " , "artifice " , "medical arts " , Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses , and ( drunkenness , eroticism , ) , and yet in the ""Republic " " wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art , and laughter Homer that he expresses in Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art , each varying in harmony , whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone , and is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average ; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than narrative or character , through through drama or no drama . The more recent and specific sense of the word "art " or "fine art " emerged in Within this latter sense , the word "art " may refer to several things of using the creative skill , (iii or (iv ) the audience's experience with The creative arts ("art " as discipline which produce "artworks " ( and convey a message , mood to interpret ( art as Often , if the skill is people will consider it a craft instead of art . Likewise , if the skill is it may be considered commercial art On the other hand , crafts and

design are sometimes considered applied art Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments However , even fine art often has may be to communicate ideas , such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art ; to create a sense of beauty ( see aesthetics ) ; to explore the nature of or to generate strong emotions . described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as " one of the most elusive a means for exploring and appreciating as "mimesis " or representation of indirect means to communicate from that art expresses emotions , and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind More recently , thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art develops for itself a medium a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as " the art world " has conferred " the status of " not an essence or a fate but something we have made Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old terms of mimesis ( its representation of reality ) , narrative ( storytelling ) , A shell engraved by " Homo erectus " was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old . and abrasion that indicate manipulation A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old — Because of the size and duration their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked . used styles that showed the higher glory which also presented figures in Further east , religion dominated artistic styles and forms too . Emperor Qin ) , poetry , traditionally named after the ruling dynasty . Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse , emphasizing idealized landscapes , but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful , and focus on telling too , and also saw politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world , such new standards , each being torn

down in succession by the Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism , , Surrealism , etc . can not be maintained very Thus , Japanese woodblock prints ( themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship ) had up by Picasso and to " It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more : neither art itself , nor art nor even the right of art to where cultures of the world and of history are seen as appreciated and drawn from only not only a way of expressing , but the means of creating " can be revealed . Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are , but actually produce Historically , art and artistic skills and ideas have often been , where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix " Art form " refers to It covers the methods adopted by i.e., figurae ) , such as In general there are three schools focusing respectively on form , Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal ( that is, part of the art form ) . Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond Unfortunately , there is little consensus Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role art , conveying the content or essential main idea , while all other interpretations can or idea represented , and Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is partly As evidenced by the title , the subject is Napoleon , and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon typically reject extreme intentionalism , because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and emotions , and reactions prompted and intentions , in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar However , in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate , such as Art can also simply refer A common view is that the epithet "art " a demonstration of technical ability , an originality Traditionally skill of execution was viewed

, neither more nor less Rembrandt's work , now praised for its ephemeral virtues , was most admired wherein the artist used found objects ( " ready - made " Tracey Emin's "My Bed " , or Damien Hirst's "The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living " follow this example and also Emin slept ( and engaged his ability to produce shocking concepts . its purpose difficult to abstract or This does not imply that the purpose of Art is " vague " , but that it has had many unique, different reasons for that are integral to being human , transcend the individual , or do not fulfill a specific external purpose The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive , the finest art has represented a deliberate display of achieved by using massive scale and Nevertheless , there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available , in terms of society , above all , and perishable media such they were clearly not restricted of art may have been Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass - production easier , and were used to bring Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical , and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East Europe , when printmaking began with small woodcuts , mostly religious , that were often very small and hand - colored , and affordable even by Printed books were initially very expensive , but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some Today , its collection is distinguished Its various areas of emphasis give it Public buildings and monuments , secular normally address the whole of society has long been an important factor in Egyptian temples are typical in that that could be seen by the general public , rather than the areas seen only by the priests . Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries , as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing

became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards , and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works The British Royal Collection remains distinct , but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices The building now occupied by the Prado open to the public existed in Most modern public museums and art education programs for children back to this impulse to have art available to everyone . However , museums do not , but do also influence the way art is being perceived by the audience , as studies be gifts from the very ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City , by John Taylor Johnston , a railroad executive whose personal art collection There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object . 1970s was to create art that could not be bought It is " necessary to present something more than mere objects The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind , or was simply an idea , it could not be bought and sold "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in [ have ] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object . In the decades since , these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell left over from conceptual pieces . that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or may be considered art . The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning and the gallery system that derives its profits Art has long been controversial , that is to say disliked by some viewers , for most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded , , or often just religious ones , and has been a thread in many major religions It has been a crucial factor in

depictions of Muhammad remain especially Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics , though often much less so by a wider public . controversy , as with late medieval depictions was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist , , and economic changes in controversies , though often reducing Théodore Géricault's "Raft of the Medusa " ( c. 1820 ) , was in part Édouard Manet's "Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe " ( 1863 ) , was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman , but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in and stark monochromatic oils , to depict , depicts a female nude , hooded detainee strapped to a chair , her legs open to reveal her sexual organs , surrounded by two tormentors dressed in Christ's sacrifice and final suffering , submerged Western art was greatly concerned with and the ideal ; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over has become especially problematic since Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture , as well as the art world Duchamp once proposed that art However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction There is evidence that there may be an element of truth He finds evidence that the older system ) held art to be any skilled human activity ; for example , Techne can be understood neither the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on the New Criticism school and debate concerning "the intentional fallacy Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy " , in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention , or " intended of sister essay to " The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to Ironically , one of the leading theorists

from this school , Stanley Fish , was himself trained by New Critics . As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art " : " Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic These authors contend that : " Anti - intentionalists , such as formalists , hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art . So details of the act of creating a work , though possibly as distinct from formalists stating that : " Intentionalists , unlike formalists , hold that reference to intentions is essential in They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that , " The task of , where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of , but terminating on , the work of art itself . The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as and the humanities were the works of In 1981 , the artist Mark Tansey "The Innocent Eye " as a criticism of The power of language , more art history and historical discourse was explored The fact that language is " not " a transparent medium of thought Symbols " came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone ( the linguistic turn ) and that of art were equally defensible Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as cubist and impressionist paintings , Duchamp's "Fountain " , the movies , superlative imitations of banknotes Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem . Rather , " the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life " are " so much a part where society is trying to go than they are about " criticized Hirst 's and

Emin's work by arguing " For 1,000 years art has been one Today , pickled sheep and soiled beds us all " they are not advancing a definition or theory suggested a thought experiment showing that " applies to it , rather ) is therefore constitutive of Anti - art is a label for art that intentionally challenges ; it is term associated Marcel Duchamp just before World War I , when he was making art One of these , "Fountain " , has achieved considerable prominence and Somewhat in relation to the above , the word "art " is also used to apply in such expressions as " that meal ( the cook is an artist ) , or "the art of deception " (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised ) . high value that gives the term its flavor Making judgments of value requires determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered "art " is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive . Though perception is always colored by experience , and is necessarily subjective , it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying can However , "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically not be the pursuit of the aesthetic Also , art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons . For example , Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians . Yet at the same time , the horrific imagery execution and produces fitting social and political outrage . against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur of what is aesthetically appealing Indeed , the reverse is often true , that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re - invigoration Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality , yet they all seem to agree in accepted , the value of the work

of art is determined by or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the "zeitgeist " . Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings . Artists express something so that , but they do not have to do so consciously Art may be considered an exploration , what it is to Internationally there are also extensive efforts The UN , UNESCO and Blue Shield International the national level and to intervene directly of a country , especially because works of art are often   — Agnostina and Eodiscina   — which are then isopygous , meaning their pygidium is The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain , and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites on Agnostina partly due to the juveniles of one genus have been found with legs differing dramatically suggesting they are not members They are likely the sister taxon to the crustacean stem lineage , and , as such , part of Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a pelagic or a benthic lifestyle not well - suited for swimming , and their fossils found They are likely to have between the head and pygidium allowing - suited for benthic living . sponges , worm tubes and presumably in order to hide or maybe whilst scavenging for An abortion that occurs without intervention When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy , it is called an induced abortion , or less frequently " induced miscarriage " When properly done , abortion a major cause of maternal death , especially in the developing world , while making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces appears to be as safe The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and Birth control , such as the pill or intrauterine devices , can be used immediately following abortion . When performed legally and safely , induced abortions do not those performed by unskilled individuals , unsanitary facilities ) cause 47,000 deaths and Around 56 million abortions are performed each year in

Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008 , before which they decreased for and birth control increased . , 37% of the world's women had access Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in Historically , abortions have been attempted using herbal medicines , sharp tools , forceful massage , or through legal only in specific cases such Those who oppose abortion often argue that an embryo or fetus Those who support the legality of abortion often argue that it is part of a woman's right to Approximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide . Over a third are unintended and about a fifth end in abortions are done due to A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted The manner selected often depends upon Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic the pregnant woman ; to prevent harm to the woman's physical or mental health ; to terminate a pregnancy where indications are that to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed Miscarriage , also known as A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks is a "premature birth " or a "preterm birth termed " stillborn " . The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is aware of the conception fetus , accounting for at least 50% Other causes include vascular disease ( such as lupus ) , diabetes Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with Medical abortions are those induced by 70 days ) gestational age , methotrexate , or a prostaglandin analog alone . Mifepristone –misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate –misoprostol combination regimens , and combination regimens are more effective medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than especially when clinical practice does not Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone , followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98%

effective up to 9 weeks gestational age ; from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women with medications to take home if self-administered medical abortion is as safe is present to help manage Safely permitting women to self-administer abortion medication " Manual vacuum aspiration " ( MVA ) consists of removing the fetus a manual syringe , while "electric vacuum aspiration " ( EVA ) uses an electric pump These techniques can both be used MVA , also known as " mini - suction " and "menstrual extraction " or EVA when cervical dilation may not be Dilation and curettage (D&C ) refers to opening the cervix ( dilation ) and removing tissue Dilation and evacuation ( D&E ) , used after 12 to 16 weeks , consists of opening the cervix and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision . surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to and can be used during the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy where preferred by practitioners , an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary . This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage Only limited data are available comparing this method Unlike D&E , labor-induced abortions after 18 weeks be legally characterized as live birth Historically , a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have The degree of force , if severe , can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through non-surgical implements such as knitting needles These and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called "induced miscarriage upon whether the procedure is performed unsafe abortions as those performed by Legal abortions performed in the developed world are be about 14 times safer for , while the US abortion mortality rate is 0.7 maternal deaths the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists state that " Women should be advised that abortion is generally safer Worldwide , on average ,

abortion is safer than carrying A 2007 study reported that " 26% of all pregnancies worldwide are terminated by induced abortion , " whereas " deaths from improperly performed [ abortion ] procedures constitute 13% of maternal mortality globally . lower than plastic surgery , lower or similar to running a marathon , and about equivalent to traveling 760 miles in a passenger car . Five years after seeking abortion services , women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health , but remains lower than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion Complications , which are rare , can include uterine perforation , conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed Preventive antibiotics ( such as doxycycline or metronidazole ) are typically given before abortion procedures , as they are believed to substantially however , antibiotics are not Complications after second-trimester abortion are similar roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is or more ( as measured It appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation ( whether because of ) correlates with a small increase in a link between induced abortion and breast cancer has been In the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were states : " In fact , illegal abortions in this country have In 1870s New York City the famous abortionist/midwife Madame Restell ( Anna Trow Lohman ) appears to have lost and mental health problems other than those A report by the American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester , with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities , more rigorous research would be needed to A long term-study among US women found that about 99% of women felt that they made the right decision five years after Relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt .

Women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods , especially when it They may attempt self-induced abortion or Although data are imprecise , it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually , with 97% taking place in developing countries , public health organizations have generally advocated abortion point out that abortion bans in no way affect prenatal care for women who choose to The Dublin Declaration on Maternal Health , signed in 2012 , notes , " the prohibition of abortion does not affect A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws , such as Romania A 2011 study concluded that in the United States , some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with The analysis , however , did not take into account travel to In addition , a lack It has been estimated that reduced by up to 75% ( from 20 million to 5 million annually ) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally . While maternal mortality seldom results from of maternal mortalities worldwide , though Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma The number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years , with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per it was 24 per 1000 women On average , the incidence of abortion is similar in countries abortion varies extensively worldwide . ( Germany and Switzerland ) An American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions at the time of becoming pregnant Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using condoms and three-quarters of those using the birth control pill ; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method In 2003 , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC ) reported that 26% of reported legal induced abortions in the United States were known

to have been obtained at as having been done by " curettage " ( suction-aspiration dilation and evacuation ) , 8% by "medical" means ( mifepristone ) , >1% by " intrauterine instillation " ( saline or prostaglandin ) , and 1% The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation Similarly , in England and of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks , 9% between 13 and 19 weeks , and 2% at or over 20 weeks 64% of those reported were The reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across an inability to afford a child , domestic violence , lack of support , feeling they are too young , and the wish to complete education or advance lack of access to or efforts toward population control ( such " Roe v. Wade " and "Doe v. Bolton " : " ruled that became compelling only at the point survive independently of its mother . physicians must be free to On the same day that the Court decided Roe , it also decided Doe v. Bolton , in which the Court defined health very broadly : " The medical judgment may all factors — physical , emotional , psychological , familial , and the woman's age — relevant to This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment . television personality Sherri Finkbine's discovery during her fifth month of pregnancy that she had been is 0.02–1% , and in the potential damage that may occur to , for which initiation of treatment " can not co - exist with preservation of Very early stage cervical cancers ( I and IIa ) may be treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection , radiation therapy , or both , while later stages are treated by radiotherapy Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously can cause intellectual disability or microcephaly can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause The process of birth itself may Since ancient times abortions have been done Induced abortion has a long history and can

be traced back to civilizations the mythological ruler Shennong ) , ancient India since ( c. 1150 ) . Some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested performing abortions ; other scholars disagree descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside The physician Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion , as did Soranus , although According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century CE work "Gynaecology " , one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath ; the other party — to which he belonged — was willing to prescribe abortions , but only for the sake of the mother's health . Aristotle , in his treatise on , condemns infanticide as a means 1869 to declare that abortion is homicide regardless of the stage of 1588 was reversed three years later was divided on whether it believed that early abortion was murder , and it did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until Several historians have written that prior to the 19th century most Catholic authors did not " quickening " or "ensoulment as likely as the general population to terminate a pregnancy , Protestants are less likely to do so , and Evangelical Christians are the least likely to do so Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus , considered by various theologians to be at conception , 40 days advertised their services , and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century , when the practice ( sometimes called "restellism " ) was banned in both the United States and Church groups as well as physicians dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer certain or all forms of a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed " hereditarily ill " , while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions . Induced abortion has long been the source Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues surrounding abortion are related in favor of or against permitting or restricting abortion . The World Medical Association Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes , " circumstances

as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated Abortion debates , especially pertaining to abortion laws , are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of Groups who favor greater legal restrictions on most often describe themselves as " pro - life " while groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as " pro - choice " . Generally , the former position argues that to live , making abortion morally the same as murder Current laws pertaining to abortion are legal , certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a legal abortion ( an abortion performed without the woman's consent is considered feticide legality , or as in that parents be contacted if Other jurisdictions may require that a woman aborting the fetus , that abortion providers " not supported by the medical literature — and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely Many , but not all , of these allow legal abortions in These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction , but may include whether or incest , the fetus' development is impaired , the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered banned entirely , such as rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to Some countries , such as Bangladesh , that nominally ban abortion , may also support clinics illegal or carries heavy social stigma , they can terminate their pregnancies . The organization Women on Waves has , which then travels on Sonography and amniocentesis allow parents and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in have officially banned sex-selective abortion or Many countries have taken legislative steps to 180 states agreed to eliminate " , conditions also condemned by abortion providers and these facilities have been over 8,000 incidents of violence , trespassing , and death threats have been In the United States , four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered David Gunn ( 1993 ) , Also murdered , in the U.S. and Australia , have been

receptionists and security guards such as Woundings ( e.g. , Garson Romalis ) and attempted murders have also Hundreds of bombings , arsons where abortion is legal . Far more common than physical violence The organizations released the personal information online , , sending them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacting their churches . it may be caused by stress or physical exertion , such as crowding through doors or being chased by dogs . " , but can often be controlled by vaccination . Several plants , including broomweed , tree tobacco , are known to cause fetal deformities and abortion in cattle and in sheep and be aborted or resorbed if it has lethal white syndrome ( congenital intestinal aganglionosis Foal embryos that are homozygous for theorized to also be aborted be induced in mares that have been mated improperly , or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant , or that are pregnant with and zebras due to male harassment although the frequency in the wild has The abstract of title , used An abstract of title lists all the owners of , or a building before it other documents that affect ownership of specifically in prior art searches , searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step ( or non - obviousness in The American Revolutionary War ( April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783 ) , secured a United States of America independent from and Spain , conflict taking , trading with Britain and its Caribbean colonies , as well as other European powers via their Caribbean entrepôts trade , colonial policy in Congress authorized George Washington to create Although the "coercion policy " advocated by the North ministry was opposed by a faction viewed conflict as inevitable . in taking Philadelphia , but in October a separate force under John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at provided the Patriots informal economic and military support from the beginning agreed to defend the French West Indies .

This undermined the 1778 "Southern Strategy " devised failed , Cornwallis surrendered in October , and although the British wars with France and Spain continued The French and Indian War and the wider conflict known as colonial charters claiming to extend from and West Florida , inhabited largely by French or Spanish-speaking Catholics , led to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia Although directly administered by the Crown While external affairs were managed by locally but with the ending of expected less taxation , not more customs duties levied in American ports . The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act ; routinely ignored prior to since 85% of New England rum exports were the colonies to pay for defending However , this did little to end the discontent ; in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop "Liberty , killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre . ; to support it , it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies . Since most American tea was smuggled by by those who managed the illegal trade , while being seen as the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk natives Boston Harbor , an event later known Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts , aimed specifically at Massachusetts , although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants , variously called Congresses , Many of the delegates feared that and sent a Petition to the King While denying its authority over internal American affairs , a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade . Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions ; this succeeded in reducing However , on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in In July , the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with the British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships , which each Assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , offering

However , since it was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms , Colonial Secretary Dartmouth viewed Although constitutionally correct , since George could not oppose his own government , it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute , while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress Backed by the Whigs , Parliament by 170 votes , fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the Americans towards However , by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both North and George III were convinced war was inevitable After Boston , Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements ; the Irish Parliament while allowing Catholics to enlist was opposed by many in the colonial assemblies ; combined with the lack Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense " , which argued for American self-government , that To draft the Declaration of Independence , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , consisting of and became a civil war , since each state represented in Congress was , while Loyalists remained faithful Estimates of numbers vary , one suggestion being the population as a whole , committed Loyalists and those who Congress realized defeating Britain required The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for " employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence , conduct undercover operations , analyze foreign publications and initiate , there were two principal campaign theaters within was most frequent and severest In the expanded Northern theater and wintering at coming out of New York at initiated a southern strategy to begin at Savannah , gather Loyalist support , and reoccupy Patriot-controlled territory north to Initially the British were successful , Commander - in - Chief John Hancock and Samuel Adams , considered the militia while completing their objectives and retreating to Boston before multitudes of patriot militias could respond . However, Patriot intelligence , which Paul Revere had helped organize , learned of at Lexington , followed by The next month 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe

the Continental Army , which now needed a Commander - in - Chief To lead Patriot forces surrounding Boston , Congressional leader John Adams of Massachusetts nominated - chief of the Continental Army in announced that Washington was henceforth "General and Commander in Chief placed his artillery atop Dorchester Heights March 5 , so he evacuated Boston known as Evacuation Day ) , Jonathan Eddy raided Canso and assaulted British officials in Quebec began negotiating while the Americans urged them to and after a loose siege the Americans withdrew A failed American counter - attack at Trois-Rivières by American ships on Lake Champlain until to disarm the Assembly's militia as tensions increased , although no fighting broke who fled their Patriot masters to fight British ships anchored off the nearby port at not respond to Lord Dunmore concerning Randolph was also president of and Patriot militias , and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of , but they were decisively and engaged the British at The expedition confiscated what supplies they could and sailed for home on Nova Scotia , William Howe was determined June 1776 and began landing troops The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal Knowlton's Rangers , which included Nathan Hale When Washington was driven off Long Island he soon realized that military might and amateur spies to He was committed to professionalizing military intelligence , and with the aid him back to Brooklyn Heights , but he did not attempt Through the night of August 28 , General Henry Knox Knowing they were up against all agreed to retreat to but it failed to conclude peace as the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence . control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the On October 18 Howe failed to Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16 , but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to

capture Newport , Rhode Island to The outlook was bleak for the American cause fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when enlistments expired at Popular support wavered , morale declined the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident misread the military situation , and American troops the British could win within a year Two weeks after Congress withdrew to about 30 miles upriver from Philadelphia on the night of December 25–26 , 1776 new hope to the Patriot cause , and Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton ; in the night of January 2 defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 and he received the Congressional direction to The 1776 campaign demonstrated regaining New England would be a prolonged affair , which led This involved isolating the north from where Loyalist support was believed to moved down the Hudson from Canada of which gave him responsibility The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal under Barry St. Leger moved east from The two would meet at Albany , leaving Howe to decide whether to join them As General Horatio Gates retreated , his troops blocked roads , destroyed bridges This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix ; despite defeating an American relief force he was abandoned by his Indian allies Now isolated and outnumbered by Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga , reaching Saratoga on , and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties . When Clinton advised he could not reach them , Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat ; a reconnaissance in forcing them back into Saratoga escape had vanished ; persistent rain supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent , defeating , then allowing him to based just to the north at

To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea , the river south of the city . supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy , commanded An attempt by the Royal Navy to take failed ; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis at Saratoga , foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed 2,000 deaths , with another 3,000 However , Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics this by training "model companies " the 1763 Peace a national humiliation * and viewed but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports , Finance Minister Turgot argued they did not need French help to gain independence and war was too expensive to " exchange one tyranny for another " , but this As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with , continuing the struggle on their wide public support , Adams was among those reluctant to pay the price as the United States' primary commercial and military partner while securing the French West Indies These islands were extremely valuable ; sugar and coffee produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined . , when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster " the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries , followed by American independence , Congress undertook to while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace ; conflict over these provisions would lead to the to join on the same terms but refused , largely due to Although Spain ultimately made important contributions agreed only to support France's war recovering Gibraltar , Menorca and The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims ; for of the Newfoundland cod fisheries , a non - negotiable for colonies like One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust and command positions to any French officer

Although many proved incompetent , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette , whom Congress appointed a major General When the war started , Britain pro-Patriot sentiment led the States General to refuse Although the Republic was no longer a major power , prior to 1774 and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping This ended when Britain declared that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy account the strength of the American merchant marine and allowed the colonies to import munitions While well aware of this , the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy Meanwhile , George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe June 28 was inconclusive but boosted the Continentals repulsed British bayonet charges , the British rear guard lost perhaps 50 per-cent more casualties , and the Americans A French naval force under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing was sent to assist Washington ; deciding New York was too formidable a target , in August they launched The resulting Battle of Rhode Island was indecisive ; badly damaged by a storm , the French withdrew to avoid Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt General William Tryon to raid Connecticut . the Penobscot Expedition , attempted to retake , but was defeated . During the winter of 1779–1780 , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge New Jersey , but they were ; although the Americans withdrew , Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force at the Battle of Springfield , effectively failed due to incompetent planning , and the plot was revealed when his British contact John André was captured and later militia to destroy British military supplies in Later in the year , a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country Virginia militia , "Canadien" settlers , and Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on July 4 then secured Vincennes , though Vincennes was recaptured by by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba , and on

, such as during the Battle of Blue Licks , was extreme " even English and German settlements to join Clark's militia when the British and their auxiliaries withdrew French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit , but they dispersed when Miami natives led by Little Turtle attacked the encamped settlers The "Southern Strategy " was developed by They argued it made no sense where they were strongest , while the New England economy was reliant on of who governed it . tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain , while local support meant securing it Victory would leave a truncated United States facing controlled by the Royal Navy , Congress would be forced to agree the British commander in East Florida , to Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell , an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for Ethan Allen , captured , many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened retreating to Savannah , an operation Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed to recapture Savannah Reinforced by Clinton , his troops over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed . ; over 120 were killed , many allegedly after surrendering . leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south but this was undermined by Previously , captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king to fight their former comrades , while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral "grandees " to side with them August 16 , leaving Cornwallis free not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued ; before moving north leaving their forces too far apart Greene divided his army , leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis ; a detachment was sent southwest , nearly eliminating it as and Greene felt strong enough The Patriots now controlled most of Augusta , leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost

of losses they could not However , from the beginning of of Spanish Louisiana , allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into New Orleans , then ship New Orleans who was appointed US "commercial agent Pollock campaigned east along the Gulf Coast to secure West Florida , including partly due to his difficult relationship with Virginia , which he hoped Washington and Rochambeau now discussed their options ; the former wanted to attack New York , the latter Virginia , where Cornwallis' forces were less well - established and thus Washington eventually gave way and When Lafayette entered Virginia , An agreement by the Spanish navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard , a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate . This provided Lafayette naval support , while and Savannah meant their co - ordination was planned more carefully Despite repeated urging from his subordinates engage Lafayette before he could ; although the Battle of the Chesapeake was indecisive , leaving Cornwallis isolated . failed due to bad weather . Cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on October 16 sent emissaries , these were finalized the next day between Washington and Clinton made preliminaries signed November 1782 acknowledging US independence Wayne loosely invested the withdrawing There they observed the British finally taking off their regulars from Charleston , as well as Loyalists on the Hudson River about sixty miles north of New York City , and there the substance of the American army was furloughed home with officers at half pay until the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war on issuing land grants to veterans in To win their insurrection , the Americans needed to outlast the British will to continue the fight . To restore the empire , the British the early months , and compel the Congress , the first being a colonial conflict in which objections to Imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy split between Patriots , Loyalists and those who preferred to naval assistance , while French troops fought Although the Dutch Republic was no longer

a major power , prior to 1774 This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780 and the conflict proved disastrous to their economy . being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France food and supplies rather than lay six to twelve weeks away by sail , and controlling four or five major ports did not give British armies control over the inland areas , combat - tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before Together they took away French claims The state legislatures independently funded and controlled , each with their own state officer corps . Motivation was also a major asset : When the war began , Congress and each colony only maintained local militias Militiamen were lightly armed , had little training , and usually did not have uniforms . far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations . To compensate for this , Congress established a regular force known as and their regimental Continental Line officers ; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments to choose and command his own generals his chief of artillery , Henry Knox was Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , a veteran of The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war ; when properly employed , the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces , as at military affairs , personally recruited his senior officer corps , and kept the states focused For the first three years until after Valley Forge America were relatively small , and logistics ; the British in particular were constrained by Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men in the Continental Army and the other As a whole , American officers never maneuvers , and they lost The great successes at Boston ( 1776 trapping the British far from , mostly by Baron von Steuben's training . Immediately after the Army emerged from including a black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack then counter - charging for Here Washington came to realize

that saving entire towns was not necessary , but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was Washington informed Henry Laurens " that the possession of our towns , while , will avail them little Although Congress was responsible for ; there was never nearly established the Board of War , which included Because the Board of War was also a committee Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero by capturing The last was by the frigate USS "Alliance On March 10, 1783 , the " Alliance " outgunned HMS " Sybil " in a 45-minute duel while Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich of cargo and the ship itself the Americans had no major international allies , as most nation-states watched and waited to see how developments would unfold itself well in the face of British regulars and their German auxiliaries known to , who was already a long-time rival of Britain , to offer to protect their trade and also on Britain initiating a war on and navy that France would send to America , primarily to give up New France in However , in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics , as , which was not available were largely autonomous economic and political entities , with no centralized area This meant that , unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars , that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as , whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable ; one British statesman described it as " like trying to conquer a map " . While Ferling argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle , Ellis suggests the odds always favored the Americans , especially after Howe

1776 , an "opportunity that would never come again " . in 1763 led to a drastic reduction were focused on defending sugar islands there were four separate British commanders - in - chief , the first of whom was Thomas Gage ; Rightly or wrongly , many his failure to take firm action earlier The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated However , it allowed the Patriots to take the initiative and British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony Howe's responsibility is still debated ; , Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities the delay in launching the New York campaign and failure to pursue Washington's beaten army . British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated . replaced by Sir Henry Clinton , appointed instead of Carleton who was North America , especially Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot , replaced He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis' invasion delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still hired foreign soldiers , especially Britain ; 10% of the British army and their use When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in , an historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration India , of whom 30,000 Often generically referred to as " Hessians " , they , and even Germany , where in general , and the use key speeches and in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves The prospect of mercenaries being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence , more so than taxation and other acts combined ; the King was accused of declaring to the idea there were now By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war , it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless ' became one of the charges The presence of over 150,000 German-Americans meant both sides

felt these mercenaries might be persuaded to desert ; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less the printing of "handbills " promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause . The British launched a counter - campaign claiming deserters could well be executed for meddling in a war that was not theirs . the war , with the highest rate of desertion occurring during the time between Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown ; consequently , British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists , but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British When the British began probing the backcountry The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives . When the early war policy was administered by General William Howe , the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked 1778 and Westminster turned to , neutral colonists in the Carolinas often broke out between Tories and A Loyalist militia unit — the British Legion — provided that it received a commission in for " brutality and needless slaughter when permitted to do so Women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and aside from auxiliary tasks like treating the wounded or setting up camp , some dressed as men to directly support combat , New York , and Danbury , Connecticut , to warn has been called the "female Paul Revere " When war began , the population predominantly used as labor on a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms a temporary manpower shortage , white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended which were employed on farms he also ensured fugitive slaves were that they were not to be punished for their attempted escape . Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary

January 1778 that there was no other way The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated ; were black and recruitment stopped of roles , while another as teamsters , servants , As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely , the treatment of Black Loyalists became , Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused . around 8,000 to 10,000 freed blacks were evacuated by the British onto London , while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in Nova Scotia Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war , and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict . took ; the Seneca , Onondaga the British ; members of and many Tuscarora and Oneida sided the Iroquois tribes that had sided with but the Indian inhabitants were not a part Lord North , Prime Minister since 1770 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed , The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included the governing body , suspend any objectionable legislation , In return , all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned , British debts honored , and Sir Henry Clinton , the new British Commander - in was ordered to stop treating than subjects whose loyalty might be North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting and slave-owning south , but after was forced to accept the fact that this policy had failed . It was clear the war was lost , although the Royal Navy forced end the offensive war in America was North now resigned , obliging the king to invite Lord Rockingham to form a government ; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause , he made a commitment to US independence a condition When Lord Rockingham , the Whig leader and friend of the American cause was elevated He had become a celebrity in , England 's former ally Since the 1760s he had been He had been a successor to and with Franklin was a member London , David Hartley and Richard Oswald sufficiently to prevent France from

allowed them to negotiate separately The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement France proposed setting the western boundary of claims involving the Mississippi River , and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met , John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them , cutting off France and Spain , and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne , in Paris , effective the next day September 3 , John Adams , who helped draft the treaty , claimed it represented " one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe " Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament , the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring " little short of a standing miracle orders that he had long waited to give , that were to cease immediately . That same day , by arrangement with As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783 , all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed " to their homes " , when they would the field as of Washington's General Orders on The expanse of territory that was now the United States was ceded from try to establish an Indian buffer state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by a dozen or so American Indian tribes that had been While tribes were not consulted in practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they erecting an additional British Fort Miami ( Ohio ) continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty went into most threatened by American independence , and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it . Its territory adjacent to the US was relatively undefended , so Spanish policy , then blocked American settler access to A former Continental Army General , James Wilkinson settled in there he fostered settler secession from As was typical in wars of the era , diseases such Between 1775 and 1782 , a smallpox epidemic broke out

The French suffered 2,112 killed in and set an example to overthrow the constitutions of other free countries often bear - for - word in Most significantly , it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end While many were uneasy over some , yet denying it southern states on slave labor made abolition a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom in 1790 the Quakers petitioned Congress to abolish slavery ; the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased , and by 1804 all the northern states had However , even many like A large historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted and successfully broke The "Patriots " , an insulting term used by the British that was proudly adopted by the Americans , stressed Although " Two Treatises of Government " has long been cited as a major influence Henry F. May demonstrate that Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding " was far more widely read than were his political "Treatises " . that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible In Britain itself , republicanism was a fringe view since it challenged Political power was not controlled by , and instead , the colonial political system free elections , which were open The ideological approach that centers on republicanism Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty , aristocracy or national church the British common law , which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and commemorative stamps celebrating the various people and events However , it would be more than 140 years after the Revolution before any stamp commemorating that war itself was ever and at the Library of Congress Digital Collections ( previously LOC webpage , " American Memory The ampere ( , ; symbol : A ) , often shortened between electrical conductors carrying electric current . , one essentially the same as the SI 's and the other using electric charge as the base unit defined by measuring the force between ( as in " the charging current

is 1.2 A " ) and the charge accumulated ( or passed of time is expressed in coulombs ( as in " the battery charge is " ) . , who studied electromagnetism and That unit , now known as Ampère's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current , typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to for performing calculations , data processing in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function Starting from an initial state and initial input ( perhaps empty ) , the instructions describe a computation that , when executed , proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states , eventually producing "output Arithmetic algorithms , such as a division algorithm for finding prime numbers , and the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of The word "algorithm " is derived , whose nisba ( identifying him as from Khwarazm ) was Arabized Persian الخوارزمی c. 780–850 ) . Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was a mathematician , , whose name means ' the native of Khwarazm ' , a region About 825 , al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise The manuscript starts with the phrase "Dixit Algorizmi " ( ' Thus spake Al-Khwarizmi' ) , where " Algorizmi " was the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name " , English 'algorism ' , the corruption of his name , simply of the Greek word ἀριθμός ("arithmos " ) , ' number ' ( " cf . " In English , the word "algorithm " was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer began with attempts to solve the "Entscheidungsproblem " (decision problem ) posed Later formalizations were framed as attempts to define "effective calculability " No human being can write fast enough , or long enough , or small enough† ( †"smaller you 'd be trying to write on molecules , on atoms , on electrons " ) to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names , one But humans can do something

equally useful , in the case give " explicit instructions for determining for arbitrary finite " n " Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly , in a form be followed by a computing machine " , or by a "human who is capable of carrying out The concept of "algorithm " is is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from In logic , the time that an algorithm requires to complete can not be measured , as it is not apparently related Most algorithms are intended to be Minsky : " But we will also maintain , with Turing … that any procedure which could " naturally " be called effective , can , in fact , be realized Gurevich : " … Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis : every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine … according to Savage [ 1987 ] , an algorithm is a computational process defined Turing machines can define computational processes that that the algorithm always terminates . Typically , when an algorithm is , written to an output device and the algorithm must be rigorously defined : specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could Because an algorithm is a precise list of So far , the discussion on the formalization of an algorithm has assumed is the assignment operation , which sets control tables ( processed by interpreters be verbose and ambiguous , and are rarely used for Pseudocode , flowcharts , drakon-charts and control tables are structured ways to express the ambiguities common in the statements based basically an instance of logic written to be effective for the intended "target" computer(s ) to produce "output " from given ( perhaps null ) " input " . " Algorithm versus function computable a given function multiple algorithms may exist . This is true , even without expanding the available instruction set available Rogers observes that " It is ... important to distinguish " function computable by algorithm " , i.e. mapping yielded Unfortunately , there may be

may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant " Computers ( and computors human "computor " ) is a restricted type of machine , a "discrete deterministic mechanical device " that blindly follows its instructions . Minsky's machine proceeds sequentially through its five ( or six , depending on how one counts) instructions unless either a conditional IF-THEN GOTO or an unconditional GOTO changes program flow out ZERO (e.g. the contents of location replaced ) , SUCCESSOR ( e.g. L ← L+1 ) , and DECREMENT ( e.g. L ← L − 1 ) Rarely must a programmer write "code But Minsky shows ( as do Melzak and Lambek ) that his machine is Turing complete However , a few different assignment instructions (e.g. DECREMENT , a Minsky machine ) are also required somewhat up to the designer . The unconditional GOTO is a convenience ; it can be constructed by initializing a dedicated location to zero e.g. the instruction " Simulation of an algorithm : computer (computor) language that " the best way to learn an algorithm is to try it ... immediately take pen and But what about a simulation or a language that the simulator/computer/computor can " : when computing the roots of a quadratic equation the computor must know how But what model should be used Van Emde Boas observes " even if instead of concrete machines , arbitrariness the notion of "simulation" enters " . When speed is being measured , the instruction set matters "Structured programming, canonical structures " : Per the Church computed by a model known to be Turing complete , and only four instruction types — conditional GOTO , unconditional GOTO Kemeny and Kurtz observe that , while " undisciplined " use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF - THEN GOTOs can result in "spaghetti code " , a programmer can write structured programs using it is also possible , and not too hard , , IF - THEN - ELSE , and WHILE - DO , with two more "Canonical flowchart symbols " : The graphical aide called

a flowchart , offers a way to describe and document an algorithm ( of a page and proceeds down showing program flow , the rectangle ( The Böhm – Jacopini canonical structures are made Sub - structures can " nest " in rectangles , but only if a single exit occurs or Euclid's algorithm , is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) , the largest number that divides them both without a remainder . , who first described it Euclid poses the problem thus : " Given two numbers not prime to one another , to He defines " A number [ to be ] a multitude composed , a positive integer not including zero To "measure " is to place a shorter measuring length " s " successively ("q" times ) along longer length "l " until the remaining portion " r " Euclid's original proof adds a third requirement : the two lengths must not be prime to Euclid stipulated this so that he could construct a reductio ad absurdum proof that the two numbers' common measure is in fact the " greatest " . While Nicomachus' algorithm is the same are prime to one another The flowchart of "Elegant " can "How "Elegant" works " : In place Elegant " shifts back and forth between two "co - loops " , an A > B loop that computes A ← A − B , and a B ≤ A loop This works because , when at last the minuend M is less than or equal to Does an algorithm do what its author wants it to do ? But tests are not enough Knuth suggested 40902 , 24140 But " exceptional cases " must be identified and tested . Will "Inelegant" perform properly when R > S , S > R , R ( Yes to all ) What happens when one number is zero , both numbers are zero ( " Inelegant " computes forever in all cases ; " Elegant " computes forever when A = 0 . ) What happens if "negative" numbers are

If the input numbers , i.e. the domain of zero , then the failures at zero indicate that the algorithm ( and the program that instantiates it ) is a partial function rather than and he proposes " a general method applicable to proving the validity of " Elegance (compactness ) versus " is the clear winner , compared However , "Inelegant " is " faster " ( it Algorithm analysis indicates why this is the case : " Elegant " whereas "Inelegant " only does As the algorithm ( usually ) requires many loop-throughs , " on average " much time is wasted doing a "B = 0 ? The compactness of "Inelegant " can But Chaitin proved that compacting an algorithm can not be automated by a generalized algorithm ; rather , it can only be done heuristically ; i.e. , by exhaustive search ( examples to be found at Busy beaver ) , trial and error , cleverness , insight , application of inductive reasoning , etc . Observe that steps 4 , 5 and 6 are repeated in steps 11 , 12 and a hint that these steps , together with steps 2 and 3 , can be eliminated . The speed of "Elegant " can be improved by moving the "B=0 ? " test outside of ? , A = 0 It is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource ( such as time or storage ) is theoretically required for example , an algorithm which adds up the elements of a list of " n " numbers would ) " , using big O notation At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values : the sum of all the elements so far , The analysis , and study of , and is often practiced other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses not on the specifics of any particular implementation Usually pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation However , ultimately , most algorithms and their algorithmic efficiency is eventually put to the test using real code .

the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences ( unless n is extremely large ) but it may be critical . Empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms , a recent significant innovation , relating to FFT algorithms ( used ) , can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like In general , speed improvements depend which are very common in each other , and algorithm advances in one field may improve those differing complexity , while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms . There are also mappings from are not usually patentable . In the United States , a claim consisting does not constitute "processes " ( USPTO 2006 ) , and hence algorithms are not patentable ( as in Gottschalk However practical applications of algorithms are v. Diehr , the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable A Sumerian clay tablet found in Shuruppak near Algorithms for arithmetic are also back to the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus circa 1550 BC . Tally - marks : To the ancients used tallying : accumulating stones or marks scratched on symbols , eventually Roman numerals and the abacus evolved ( Dilson , p.   16–41 ) The first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was " The clock " : Bolter in particular, the verge escapement that provides us with " The accurate automatic machine " led immediately the 13th century and finally to "computational machines"—the difference engine "Logical machines 1870 – Stanley Jevons' "logical abacus " and "logical machine " : The technical problem was to reduce Boolean equations when presented in a form similar to what is now known as first a simple "abacus " of "slips , contrived so that any part or class of the [ logical ] combinations can be More recently , however , a completely mechanical form , and have thus inference in what may be called a "Logical Machine " His machine came

equipped with " certain moveable wooden rods " and " at the foot are [ etc ] ... " This machine he displayed in 1870 Another logician John Venn , however , in his 1881 "Symbolic Logic " , turned a jaundiced eye have no high estimate myself of the interest or importance of what are it does not seem to me that any contrivances at present known or likely to be discovered really deserve the name of logical machines " ; see more But not to be outdone he too presented " a plan somewhat analogous , I apprehend [ And ] [ a]gain the following contrivance may be described . " Jacquard loom , Hollerith punch cards , telegraphy : Bell and Newell ( 1971 ) indicate that the Jacquard loom " were the roots of a tree By the mid-19th century the telegraph , the precursor use throughout the world , its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as " dots and By the late 19th century the ticker tape ( ca 1870s ) was in use , as was the use of " Telephone - switching networks " of electromechanical relays ( invented 1835 ) was behind the work " Symbols and rules " ) reduced arithmetic to a sequence But Heijenoort gives Frege ( 1879 ) this kudos : Frege 's is " perhaps the most important single work ever which we see a " 'formula language ' , that is a "lingua characterica " , that is , free "The paradoxes " : At the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature , in particular , the Burali - Forti the Russell paradox ( 1902–03 ) , and the Richard "Effective calculability " : In an effort to solve the Entscheidungsproblem defined precisely mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by that would succeed ) . In rapid succession the following appeared : Church's proof that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper

and make a yes - no decision about the next instruction . Alan Turing's proof of that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his [automatic-] machine"—in effect almost identical to Post's "formulation is unknown whether Stibitz knew Turing's biographer believed that Turing 's use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest : " Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as , and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling Turing — his model of computation is now called a Turing machine — begins , as did Post that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and " activity is on - going because of issues surrounding , vary according to geographical location , and may not correspond to One seed - to - seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species , though most last several months Oilseed rapa can go from seed - to - seed , annuals , including virtually all domesticated grains convenience , particularly if they are not considered cold hardy Carrot , celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually Tomato , sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as Ornamental perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens , mirabilis , wax begonia , snapdragon , "pelargonium " , coleus and The plants grow and bloom during the cool season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for Winter annuals die after flowering and Winter annuals typically grow low to usually sheltered from the coldest nights by growth when the snow melts Winter annuals are important ecologically , as they provide vegetative cover that early spring when no other cover exists and and birds that feed on Even though they do not compete directly with cultivated plants , sometimes winter annuals are considered a pest can be hosts for insect pests or fungal diseases ( such as which attack crops being cultivated in one species of annual plant leads control flowering time ) of "Arabidopsis thaliana

They were formerly thought to be a clade comprising plants bearing flower-like structures . Detailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually monophyletic , the angiosperms having evolved in parallel Usually mouthwashes are antiseptic solutions intended , although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as Additionally , some rinses act as saliva substitutes to neutralize acid and Rinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste can This can lower the anti-cavity re - Fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride , but is not as cost effective as leaving the fluoride toothpaste on Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20-50 ml ( 2/3 fl oz The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then Most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash . Mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste . Similarly , the mouth should not Patients were told to "spit do n't rinse " after toothbrushing Gargling is where the head is tilted back , allowing the mouthwash the mouth while exhaling , causing The most-commonly-used mouthwashes are commercial antiseptics , which Mouthwashes combine ingredients to treat Variations are common , and mouthwash has no standard formulation , so kill the bacterial plaque that causes cavities It is , however , generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need the mechanical methods could be tedious and time - consuming , and , additionally , some local conditions may render them especially difficult . common , such as taste disturbance , tooth staining , sensation Alcohol-containing mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse , as they Soreness , ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g., aphthous stomatitis or allergic contact stomatitis ) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients , such as preservatives and after oral surgery procedures , such treat the pain associated with mucositis prescription mouthwashes are more effective in

many patients and prescribers continue to There has been only one controlled study to , and commercial mouthwashes ( such / baking soda solution , on Before Europeans came to the Americas , Native North American and Mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes , often made from plants such Indeed , Aztec dentistry was more Anton van Leeuwenhoek , the famous 17th century microscopist , discovered living organisms ( living , because they were mobile ) in water from the canal next to adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in Next he tried rinsing the mouth with a mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms until the late 1960s when Harald Loe ( at the time a professor at ) demonstrated that a chlorhexidine compound could Since then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up control the Volatile Sulfur Compound ( VSC)-creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that cause tooth decay , with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as " Streptococcus mutans " has led these bacteria from initially growing . not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for eucalyptol and thymol , which help to penetrate plaque . Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol ) is added , as Because of the alcohol content , it after rinsing , although breath alcohol levels a drying agent , which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth , releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds The same researchers also state that the risk of acquiring oral cancer rises almost five who neither smoke nor drink for those who do ) , concluding that " there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk Studies conducted in 1985, 1995, 2003 , and 2012 did not " the available evidence does not support Cetylpyridinium chloride containing mouthwash ( e.g. 0.05% Chlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antiseptic and is However , there is no evidence

to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque also used to reduce gingivitis an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat gingivitis periodontal disease , although it does not penetrate into Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque , so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing Instead , chlorhexidine mouthwash is more effective when used as an adjunctive treatment is impossible due to pain , as may occur in It is not suited for a painful condition where the blood clot is lost the ability of a mouthwash to bind tannins , meaning that prolonged use , tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining ) A randomized clinical trial conducted in Rabat University in when chlorohexidine with alcohol base 0.12% was used , when compared Chlorhexidine mouthwashes increase staining of oil mouthwashes is called "Kavala " "Gandusha " , and this practice has more recently been re - marketed by the complementary and alternative medicine industry as Its promoters claim it works by " pulling out " "toxins " Oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates . to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load , and the other health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification or have not been investigated Essential oils are oils which have Mouthwashes based on essential oils could Anti-cavity mouthwashes use sodium fluoride to protect an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl , 1.5% ) also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis . Methyl salicylate functions as an antiseptic , A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a povidone-iodine solution was effective in preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted . Sanguinarine-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti Sanguinarine is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract , obtained poppy ) , and others However , its use is strongly termed "sanguinaria-associated keratosis " , and

show dysplasia , the potential for Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with that a saltwater mouthwash might be used in aqueous solution are marketed , although pharmacists will easily be Saltwater mouthwash is made by dissolving 0.5–1 teaspoon of table salt into as hot as possible without , as it is a hypertonic solution Conversely , if heat is (e.g., hot water bottle ) rather than inside a dental abscess to drain extra - orally , which is later on the face ( see cutaneous sinus Hot saltwater mouth baths ( or hot saltwater mouthwashes , ) are also routinely used after oral surgery , to keep food debris out of healing wounds and Some oral surgeons consider saltwater mouthwashes the mainstay start about 24 hours after a dental extraction . The term "mouth bath " implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth , rather than vigorously swilled around ( which could dislodge Once the blood clot has stabilized , the mouthwash can be used more Sucralfate is a mucosal coating agent , composed Tetracycline is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash ) , but prolonged use may e.g. 0.03% ) , there is moderate substantivity , broad spectrum anti-bacterial action , some anti-fungal action , and significant anti-plaque effect , especially Alexander III of Macedon ( , A member of the Argead dynasty , he He succeeded his father King Philip II to spent most of his ruling years conducting His father Philip was assassinated in , Alexander's sister , and Alexander , Alexander was awarded the generalship modern-day Turkey ) , Alexander broke He subsequently overthrew King Darius III and He eventually turned back at the Beas River due to the demand of planned to establish as his capital He did not manage to execute a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion which his conquests engendered , such featuring prominently in the history and made him the measure against ( although the exact date is uncertain According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch , on that her womb was struck by

a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread " far and wide " before dying away . Sometime after the wedding , Philip is said to have seen securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved for these dreams : that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage , ; or that Alexander's father was That same day , Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won It was also said that that it had burnt down because Artemis was away , Later in his childhood , Alexander When Alexander was ten years old , a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse , which he offered The horse refused to be mounted Alexander , however , detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow , asked to tame the horse , which Plutarch stated that Philip , and ambition , kissed his son tearfully , declaring : " My boy , you must find a kingdom big enough for Alexander named it Bucephalas , meaning " ox-head " . Bucephalas carried Alexander as far When Alexander was 13 , the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up his friends and future generals , and Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine , possible future mistress of well as Amminapes , future satrap Alexander responded quickly and drove began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi , a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene Concerned that other Greek states might intervene , Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead . marched south through Thermopylae , They went on to occupy The Athenians , led by Demosthenes , voted to seek alliance to win Thebes's favour , but the Amphictyonic League ) , capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and As Philip marched south , the left , accompanied by Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat , counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow , thus breaking their line .

Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines , followed by Having damaged the enemy's cohesion , Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them . With the Athenians lost , the Thebans Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese , welcomed by all cities ; however , when they reached Sparta , they were refused , but did not resort to war . a "Hellenic Alliance " ( modelled on with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in less secure , since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir , while Alexander was only her off with her brother , King Alexander I of Epirus in a guest , despite having defeated them in battle a few years before . However , it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son Pixodarus , offered his eldest daughter to suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir Alexander reacted by sending an actor to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son , but instead to scolded Alexander for wishing to explaining that he wanted a better bride In summer 336   BC , while at Aegae attending the wedding the region of Lyncestis killed , but spared a third , Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa , he was furious . Attalus was at that time corresponding Attalus also had severely insulted , Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave When news of the revolts reached Alexander , he responded quickly Though advised to use diplomacy rode south towards Thessaly . He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass and ordered his men to ride When the Thessalians awoke the next day , they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered , where he was recognized as the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him , the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little who is reported to have said " But verily , if I were not Alexander

, I would like to "leader " ) and , like Philip , was appointed the "Independent Thracians " ; and at Mount Haemus , the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights . News then reached Alexander that Marching west into Illyria , , forcing the two rulers to flee While Alexander campaigned north , the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once Alexander immediately headed south . While the other cities again hesitated , Thebes decided to fight . The Theban resistance was ineffective , and Alexander razed the city and divided 338 BC ) , Philip II began "hēgemṓn " ( ) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered At first , all went revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Taking over the invasion project of Philip II crews numbering 38,000 , drawn Miletus , held by Achaemenid forces , required a delicate siege operation , with Further south , at Halicarnassus successfully waged his first large-scale siege , eventually forcing his opponents , the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria , Orontobates , to asserting control over all coastal cities to no major ports and Alexander moved inland but did not storm the Pisidian city Alexander " undid " the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot , a feat said to In spring 333 BC , , he marched on towards Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army , his army to collapse , and , his mother Sisygambis , and the lands he had already lost Tyre , which he captured When Alexander destroyed Tyre , to Egypt quickly capitulated . The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill , requiring When " his engineers pointed out to him that because of be impossible ... this encouraged Alexander all the more to , but not before Alexander not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner - nor that he was absent for

Alexander restored the temples neglected by To legitimize taking power and Memphis and went to consult Henceforth , Alexander often referred and after his death , currency depicted him adorned with the Horns would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and defeated Darius again at Darius once more fled the field Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via Alexander himself took selected troops on The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny , and was taken prisoner by Bessus , his Bactrian satrap and As Alexander approached , Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King Artaxerxes V , before retreating into Alexander buried Darius's remains next to He claimed that , while dying , Darius had named The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to However , as basic forms of were maintained and resuscitated by " may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the " last of and set out to defeat This campaign , initially against Bessus , all called Alexandria , and Bessus was executed . However , when , at some point later , Alexander was "proskynesis " , either a symbolic kissing of aimed at securing the aid and deities and believed that Alexander and the many satrapies were specifically reserved The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with as to whether he had and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor , Babylonia or Egypt ; he also had to ( re)create a central government with or without the support of As early as 334 BC , when he challenged incumbent King Darius III " by appropriating the main elements of argued that he was worthier than Darius " to succeed However , Alexander's eventual decision to burn the "entire Persian people " made it impracticable , and one of his officers , Philotas , was executed

for failing to alert Alexander , who had been charged , was assassinated at Alexander's command , to prevent attempts at , this one instigated by his own royal pages in the "Anabasis of Alexander " , Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack When Alexander set out for Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence whom Antipater defeated and killed , which then deferred to Alexander , who chose to In general , Greece enjoyed Alexander sent back vast sums from and increased trade across his empire ) to cement relations with of Gandhara ( a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan ) , to come to him Omphis (Indian name Ambhi ) , the ruler Jhelum ) , complied , but the chieftains of some hill clans , known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas ) , Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he of " Persian robes , gold and silver ornaments , 30 horses Porus , to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms , but narrowly escaped losing Subsequently , however , the two rivals Alexander ; and Taxiles , after having contributed zealously to , was entrusted by the king A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in the shoulder by a dart , but , in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle . According to Curtius , " Not only did Alexander slaughter also did he reduce its buildings Ora , numerous Assakenians fled to the Indus and fought and won ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes , in what is now the Punjab , in the Battle of the Hydaspes in , and made him an that he did not previously own , towards the south-east , Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from The other was Nicaea (Victory ) , thought to be located Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who

fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun ) and named it Ajax , because he thought that East of Porus's kingdom , near Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of the Hyphasis River (Beas ) , refusing to Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther , but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return ; the men , he said , " longed to again see their parents , their wives and children Alexander eventually agreed and turned south , marching along the Indus to Carmania (modern southern Iran ) with Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his soldiers , and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon , led by After three days , unable to persuade his men to back down which Alexander accepted , and Meanwhile , upon his return to guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it , and an early age reading Xenophon's "Cyropaedia " , There , his closest friend and possible lover , Hephaestion , died of differ slightly in each . Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa . worsened until he was unable The common soldiers , anxious about his health , were granted the right to file past him as he that Alexander was struck with , followed by 11 days of weakness ; he did not develop a fever , instead dying assassination , foul play featured Diodorus , Plutarch , Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned . Justin stated that Alexander was while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater , recently removed as Macedonian viceroy , and at odds with Olympias , Philotas , Antipater purportedly arranged by his son Iollas , who The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact

that twelve days passed between the start such long-acting poisons were probably not available However , in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore ("Veratrum album " ) antiquity , may have been used to poison Alexander . Clinical Toxicology " , Schep suggested " , and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned , "Veratrum album " offers the most plausible cause . Several natural causes ( diseases ) have been suggested , including malaria his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been , which was in turn called Aristander foretold that the land where " would be happy and it and took it temporarily one so he could convert the original to coinage . , at Amphipolis , dating its original intent was to be the burial place Pompey , Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria , where Augustus , allegedly , accidentally knocked the nose off Caligula was said to have Around AD 200 , Emperor Septimius Severus His son and successor , Caracalla The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus " , discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum , is so named not because it was thought to because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting It was originally thought to ( died 311 BC ) , the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle the blinded Cyclops , due to the many random and disorderly movements Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece , they were not Alexander IV by Roxane being born whom he bequeathed his kingdom ; his laconic reply was " tôi kratistôi"—"to Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point , implying that this was Perdiccas initially did not claim power , instead suggesting that

Roxane's baby would be king , if male ; with himself However , the infantry , under this arrangement since they had been Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used and 40 years of war between ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs : Ptolemaic Egypt , Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time known as Alexander's "last plans " . Craterus started to carry out not to further implement them many scholars to doubt their historicity . Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out Alexander perhaps earned the epithet " the Great " due to his unparalleled success as a military commander ; he never lost a battle , despite typically cavalry tactics , bold strategy , The Macedonian phalanx , armed with the sarissa , a spear long , had been developed and perfected by Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability employed various languages and weapons . the wings , so that his line This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked , while his phalanx , armed with long pikes his first confrontation with Darius , he used the same deployment , and again break up the phalanx and equipped the center advancing at an angle , parting when the chariots bore down When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques , such as Thus , in Bactria and Sogdiana , Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements , while massing his cavalry the most scant in their detail , paintings by Apelles and Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image ; scholars today , however , find the claim dubious that artistic portraits , not least because of who they are commissioned by , are always partisan , and that artistic portrayals of Alexander " seek to legitimize him ( or ,

, to interpret him to their audiences , to answer their critiques , and to persuade them thus should be considered within a framework of " praise and blame " , in the same way sources such as praise poetry are with " a straight nose , a slightly protruding jaw , full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead " . As is the case with personality traits in general , Alexander's prominent personality traits reflected encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire tells how his ambition " kept his spirit serious and lofty in However , his father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model , as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year Alexander's relationship with his father " forged his father , illustrated by his reckless behavior According to Plutarch , among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash , impulsive nature , which undoubtedly Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to He had a calmer side — perceptive was intelligent and quick to Alexander was erudite and patronized unlike his father ) , seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour ("timê " made him a great leader His extraordinary achievements , coupled with his own ineffable sense his companions , may have combined He appears to have believed himself a deity , or at least sought to deify himself Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of notably " proskynesis " , aimed at securing the aid and the practise of "proskynesis " was disapproved by the Macedonians , and they were unwilling to perform This behaviour cost him the sympathies of However , Alexander also was ruling culturally disparate peoples , many of whom lived in kingdoms where Alexander married three times : Stateira II and Parysatis II , the former a daughter of Darius III and and , possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine his friend , general , and bodyguard Hephaestion , the son of Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of

The Roman era writer Athenaeus says , based Alexander's contemporary , that the king " was quite excessively keen on boys " , and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in Plutarch , probably based on None of Alexander's contemporaries , however , are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual , though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus , whom classical Greek culture where " Alexander garlanded the tomb that of Patroclus , the latter hinting that he was just the same way as Patroclus was of Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander However , Ogden calculates that Alexander , who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years , had it rather sparingly , " not wishing to offend the Macedonians " , showing great self-control in Nevertheless , Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not His campaigns greatly increased contacts and , and vast areas to the east Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers , many surviving was the largest state of its time . collapse even during his lifetime . However , the power vacuum he left his name , most of them The first , and greatest , which would become one The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well At first , the cities must have been inhospitable , little Following Alexander's death , many Greeks who had settled there tried to According to the legend , after While he was sleeping , the goddess appeared and told him to found a city there and move into it the Smyrnaeans from In 334 BC , Alexander the Great donated An inscription from the temple , now : " King Alexander dedicated [this temple by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian . The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and Furthermore , town planning , education

in the Hellenistic period were all based distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic , and Tajikistan ) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom ( 180 BC – 10 AD ( a region spanning the upper confluence of rivers in modern Pakistan ) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are Hellenistic civilization and South Asia , as are the Edicts of Ashoka , which directly converting to Buddhism and the reception The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion : the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes , and some Mahayana ceremonial practices ( burning , and food placed on altars ) are similar to however , similar practices were also One Greek king , Menander I , probably became Buddhist , and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as ' For example , Greek astronomical instruments dating modern-day Afghanistan , while the Greek concept of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped was far - ranging . found as far as Pakistan Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far and thereafter Roman leaders saw him Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus " , which he then wore Alexander's head with his own , as did Nero and Caracalla a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship that he was inordinately preoccupied He began openly mimicking Alexander , despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term "Phalangarii " has two possible meanings , both The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed carried their equipment suspended from a long pole far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as Caligula , who could not swim , then proceeded to

ride his favourite horse Incitatus across , He says this was Alexander's only unsuccessful project from his own lifetime , probably encouraged His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from Writing shortly after Alexander's death , He reportedly read this passage to his patron King Lysimachus , who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped , " I wonder where I was at In the first centuries after Alexander's death , probably in Alexandria , a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into , later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been , more so than any other ancient figure ("O Megalexandros " ) is a household name to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play . Is King Alexander alive ? " The correct answer is " He is alive and well and rules causing the mermaid to vanish and referred to by the epithet "gujastak " , meaning " accursed " destroying temples and burning the sacred texts In Sunni Islamic Persia , under the influence " Iskandarnamah " ) , a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges . Firdausi's "Shahnameh " ( " The Book of Kings " ) includes Alexander in is to Mecca to pray Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca ) many times in subsequent Islamic art and The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn ( literally " the Two - Horned One " ) mentioned in a heroic figure who built a wall to to " the one true God According to Josephus , Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem , which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire the name "Sikandar " , derived from ( the Second Alexander the Great In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of to the Indian subcontinent , resulting in Alexander Romances ) written by Indo-Persian poets , a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities , texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or

who served with Alexander were Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes ; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus ; Their works are lost , but later works based on these original sources have The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus ( 1st century BC ) , followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus ( mid - to -late 1st century AD ) , Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD ) , the biographer Plutarch finally Justin , whose work dated as Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski ( , ; July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950 ) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field called general semantics , which he viewed as both distinct from , and more encompassing than , the field He argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed , and thus no one , given that the most we can know is that Korzybski belonged to an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians , After being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries , he then to the United States ) to After the war he decided to remain in the United States , becoming Korzybski's work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named general semantics This should not be confused The basic principles of general semantics , which include time - binding , Science and Sanity " , published in Korzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by ( 1 ) the structure directly , but only through their "abstractions " ( nonverbal impressions or "gleanings " derived from the nervous system , and verbal indicators expressed and He called this awareness , this goal such as " I do n't know ; let 's see , " in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as what he said about the verb form " is " of the general verb " to be . " His system , however , is and formulations such as "

He thought that "certain uses " of the verb " to be " , called the " is of identity " and the " is of predication " , were faulty in structure , e.g. , a statement such as , " Elizabeth is a fool " ( said of a person named "Elizabeth " who has done something that we regard as foolish ) Korzybski's remedy was to " deny to be aware continually that " Elizabeth " is " not " what we " We find Elizabeth not in , but the nonverbal domain ( the two , he said , This was expressed by Korzybski's most famous premise , " the map is not Note that this premise uses the phrase " is not " , a form of " to be " ; this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon " to be " as such . explicitly that there were no structural problems or when used to state One day , Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits , wrapped He muttered that he just had to eat something , would also like a biscuit . " Nice biscuit , do n't you think , " said Korzybski , while he The students were chewing vigorously . Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits , in order to On it was a big picture of vomit , put their hands in ran out of the lecture hall to " You see , " Korzybski remarked , " I have just demonstrated that people do n't just eat food , but also words , and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter . He was 25 years old , and numerous disciplines , as evidenced by These include author Robert A. Heinlein naming a character " , and science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt in his novel "The World of Null-A " , published his phrase " the map is not

the territory " in lectures . released in November 1979 by Atari which is periodically traversed by shoot and destroy the asteroids and saucers , while not colliding hit by the saucers' counter - fire " Asteroids " was one and proved both popular with Rains , who decided to use hardware developed by Howard Delman titled "Cosmos " ; its physics model were derived from " Spacewar The player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right , fire shots straight forward , and thrust Once the ship begins moving in player intervention unless the player applies thrust Each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting for instance , an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction . they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more Smaller asteroids are also worth more ; the "big saucer" shoots randomly and poorly , while the " small saucer " fires frequently at the shots from the small saucer diminishes until a new set of large asteroids appears , The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40,000 and 60,000 . Play continues to the last ship lost supposed to begin shooting as soon as they appeared , but this was changed . Additionally , saucers can only aim at the player's ship on - screen ; they are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary the boundary and destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely with little risk losing revenue due to this exploit by Lyle Rains and programmed by ( later called the Atari 2600 ) to work on "Dirt Bike " , which was never released a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to "Cosmos of the game , thinking " Computer Space " as " the inspiration Rains conceived of "Asteroids " and "Space Invaders " , combining " and " eliminate all threats The unfinished game featured a giant, indestructible asteroid , so Well , why do n’t we have a game where you

shoot the rocks and blow them a similar concept where the player selectively shoots and is a vector game , in Rains initially wanted the game done suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would of Cyan Engineering , Atari 's off -campus research lab in Cyan gave it to Delman , who finished the design and to develop "Asteroids " . Logg modeled the player's ship , the five-button control scheme , and the game physics after " Spacewar ! " , which several changes to improve playability . and rendered by the monitor , and it was configured to The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg's right thumb , which he was dissatisfied with , as he had a problem " tak[ing ] his hand off the thrust button " different from each other . A steadily decreasing timer shortens intervals between saucer attacks to keep the player from not shooting asteroids A "heartbeat" soundtrack quickens as the game progresses A prototype of "Asteroids " was well received by several Atari staff and engineers , who " wander[ed ] between labs , passing comment and stopping to play as they went " . Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype , so he created a second prototype for staff to play . Players used to " Spacewar ! " struggled to maintain a joystick ; players accustomed to "Space Invaders " noted they get " Asteroids " slows down as the player gains 50–100 lives , because there is no limit " Asteroids " was released for the Atari VCS ( later renamed the Atari 2600 ) and Atari 8-bit family in 1981 , then the Atari 7800 A port for the Atari 5200 , identical Programmers Brad Stewart and Bob Smith were unable " Asteroids " was immediately earned a further $500 million from of manufacturing another vector game , "Lunar Lander " , but demand for " Asteroids " was so high " that several hundred "Asteroids" games were shipped in "Lunar Lander" cabinets " .

" Asteroids " was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number , though " Space Invaders " remained the top game at street locations . " Asteroids " went on to become the highest-grossing arcade video game of 1980 It shipped 70,000 arcade units worldwide in in the United States that year , and grossed about worldwide ( adjusted However , the game did not perform as well overseas in It sold 30,000 arcade units overseas , from video game critics and has been Edwards commented that " this home cartridge [ ... ] If blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game , but at this price I ca n't wholeheartedly recommend it , while giving the game an overall B+ rating William Cassidy , writing for GameSpy's "Classic Gaming " , noticed its innovations , including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow appearing in the top 10 high scores , and commented , " the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well " . 39 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time " , particularly lauding the control dynamics which require " the constant juggling of listed "Asteroids " as number 29 , commenting that " Asteroid " was a classic the day it was released , and it has never lost any " Asteroids " was ranked fourth on " Retro Gamer"s list of " was listed on " "Entertainment Weekly " named " Asteroids " one of the top ten games for " listed "Asteroids " as Released in 1981 , " The onscreen objects are tinted blue , and hyperspace is replaced by a shield that depletes when used The asteroids rotate , and new "killer satellite" enemies break into smaller ships that home The arcade machine's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop added " power-ups , ship morphing and the ability to dock your ships ) , Nintendo 64 ( A technical demo of "Asteroids " was but was never released .

Developed by Digital Eclipse , it of "Asteroids " has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense "throttle monkey" mode . Two independent clones , " Asteroid " The Mattel Intellivision game " Meteor ! " to avoid a lawsuit , and was reworked as " Astrosmash was discovered that he had such as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ( APG Asparagaceae and is placed in The order has only recently been It was first put forward later taken up in the Dahlgren system Liliales , a very large order containing almost all monocots DNA sequence analysis indicated that many of the taxa previously included in Liliales should actually be redistributed over The boundaries of the Asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of may lead to further changes and it is difficult to define morphologically since its members are structurally , although some are climbers and some are tree - According to telomere sequence , and finally , the most divergent motif CTCGGTTATGGG appears ) of the order is the presence of phytomelanin , a black pigment present , either at the base of the order Asparagales is second in importance within the monocots only to herbaceous , some no more than 15   cm high , there are a number of climbers ( " e.g. " , some species of " Asparagus " ) , as well as several genera forming trees ( e.g. "Agave " Yucca " , "Dracaena " , "Aloe " ) , ( a rosette ) , either at the end of a more-or-less woody stem as with "Yucca " . The flowers are in the main not particularly distinctive , being six tepals , either free or fused from the base and up to six stamina than the bases of the tepals or The seeds characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated ( in most species bearing fleshy fruit ) , or if present , have a layer of The orders which have been separated from the old Liliales are difficult to As circumscribed within the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system Asparagales is 1767–1851 ) who coined the word

for a higher order taxon that included " Asparagus " although Adanson and Jussieau had also done so earlier ( see History ) The type genus , " Asparagus " , from which the name of the order is derived , was He placed " Asparagus " to constitute Asparagales have historically in his taxonomic scheme he created eight sections with " Asparagus " and The system of organising genera into families is generally credited to Antoine Laurent de Jussieu who formally described both the Liliaceae the Asparagaceae , as Lilia and Asparagi , respectively , in ( phylogeny ) , placing " Asparagus " and related genera a class (III ) of " Stamina Perigynia " and 'order' Asparagi , divided The use of the term "Ordo " (order ) at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family , rather In creating his scheme he used While De Jussieu's "Stamina Perigynia " also included would eventually form families within Asphodelaceae ) , Narcissi (Amaryllidaceae ) , the remainder are now Jussieu's Asparagi soon came to be referred to as "Asparagacées " Meanwhile , the 'Narcissi ' had , by Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire , using "Amaryllis " as the type species rather than "Narcissus " , and that a subgroup of Liliaceae be to as Amaryllideae and in 1813 de Candolle described Liliacées Juss . that was simple and petaloid , but did not use 1846 ) , the other important British taxonomist of " ( 1830 ) he partly followed Jussieu by describing a subclass he called Endogenae , or Monocotyledonous Plants ( preserving de Candolle's "Endogenæ phanerogamæ " ) divided into two tribes had greatly expanded and refined both an intermediate ranking (Alliances ) and tribes within a paraphyletic ("catch-all") family , being all Liliales not included in the other orders , but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them The order Liliales was very large and had become a used not present in patterns that This kept the Liliaceae separate from and Amaryllidaceae into four tribes ( contained many genera that would eventually

segregate to each other's contemporary orders ( Liliales and Asparagales respectively ) . Tulipae , while large groups such Scilleae and Asparagae would become part of Asparagales either as part The number of known genera ( and species ) continued to grow , that of the Bentham & Hooker system in ) several of Lindley's other families had They used the term 'series ' to indicate suprafamilial rank , with seven series ) , but did not However they did place the Liliaceous and Amaryllidaceous genera and Asparageae ) , and Agaveae and Alstroemerieae ) . changed the way that taxonomists considered phylogeny (tree-like structure ) in assembling classification systems Eichler , having established a hierarchical system in which the flowering plants ( angiosperms ) were divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons , further divided Engler , in his system developed Eichler's ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he including " Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien " ( Engler and Prantl 1888 ) and a suborder which included both families Liliaceae The Liliaceae had eight subfamilies and the represented as subfamily Lilioideae ( tribes ) , the Asparagae were was preserved , representing the alliaceous genera Allieae , Agapantheae and Gilliesieae were the three tribes within this subfamily In the twentieth century the Wettstein system ( 1901–1935 in an order called 'Liliiflorae ' 1985 ) incorporating new information including Dahlgren developed Huber's ideas further and popularised them , with a major deconstruction formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least The order Asparagales as currently circumscribed has only recently been recognized and phylogenetic theory , enabling a phylogenetic tree and Thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data . This complicated discussion about plant evolution and necessitated " rbc"L gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined The largest clade representing the Liliaceae , all , studies based mainly on morphology had identified the Asparagales as a distinct group , but had also included groups now located in the monophyly of Asparagales , based on morphology , 18S rDNA , and other DNA sequences , although

some phylogenetic reconstructions based on molecular data have suggested that Asparagales may be paraphyletic , with Orchidaceae separated monocots ) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence The lilioid monocot orders are bracketed , namely Petrosaviales is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants ( to Asparagales ) ; to form a clade , all the groups joined by thick lines would need to While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as "alismatid monocots " ( basal or early branching monocots ) , the remaining clades ( lilioid and commelinid monocots ) have been referred to as the "core monocots " . The relationship between the orders ( with pectinate , that is diverging Two differences between these two groups ( although with exceptions ) are : The 'lower Asparagales ' typically have simultaneous microsporogenesis ( i.e. cell walls develop only after both meiotic divisions ) , which appears , whereas the 'core Asparagales ' have develop after each division ) . The 'lower Asparagales ' typically have an inferior ovary , whereas the 'core Asparagales ' have A 2002 morphological study by Rudall treated possessing in the 'core Asparagales ' could be However , Stevens notes that ' in such a way that it is not clear where to all angiosperms ( only Asteraceae might - or might not - be more speciose ) and hence by far the largest in that these families are polyphyletic and so should be combined . Several studies suggest ( with high bootstrap support ) that Orchidaceae is the sister Other studies have placed the orchids differently However , their nectaries are rarely and most orchids have dust-like seeds , All four contain relatively few species , and it has been suggested that they be combined into The relationship between Boryaceae ( which includes only two genera , "Borya " and "Alania " ) , and other Asparagales has remained unclear The Boryaceae are mycorrhizal , but not in the same way as orchids The relationship shown between Ixioliriaceae and Tecophilaeaceae is still unclear . these two families , others have not

All have some genetic characteristics in common , having lost Arabidopsis-type telomeres . The next node in the tree (Xanthorrhoeaceae "sensu lato " + the 'core Asparagales ' ) has The 'core Asparagales ' , comprising Amaryllidaceae "sensu lato are a strongly supported clade , as are clear , particularly within the Asparagaceae "sensu lato Stevens notes that most of its subfamilies are difficult to recognize , and that significantly different divisions have so that the use of a broadly defined family to refer to the entire clade is Several studies have attempted to date the evolution of the Asparagales , based 'bracketed' families , i.e. families which could either be segregated from more comprehensive families or could be included in ; otherwise the circumscription of the Asparagales A separate paper accompanying the publication of the 2009 APG III system provided subfamilies to accommodate the families Two older systems which use the order Asparagales are the Dahlgren system and the Kubitzki system . the order in these two systems are shown The equivalent family in the modern APG III system ( see below ) is shown in Plants assigned to this order are mostly tropical or aquatic . , and the only monocots known to have green embryos other than the Amaryllidaceae They also include the only marine angiosperms growing completely submerged , the seagrasses . There they can pollinate carpellate flowers underwater , where pollen may form elongated strands , increasing chance of flowers are either floating or Vegetation may be totally submersed , have floating leaves , or Phylogenetically , they are basal monocots , diverging early in evolution , the order Alismatales contains only the Alismataceae and Limnocharitaceae , making it equivalent to the Alismataceae as revised currently defined are here distributed which are assigned , with The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system ( APG ) of , which may be thought of as an unranked clade containing the families The biggest departure from earlier systems ( see below ) is the inclusion of The family Araceae alone accounts for The order Apiales is placed within the asterid group of eudicots as circumscribed

to an unranked group called the campanulids , and within the campanulids , it belongs to a clade known in Under the Cronquist system , only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here , the rosids rather than the asterids . " Pennantia " was in recent and is based upon Apiaceae , which resemble each In most plants the synascidiate ( i.e. " united bottle - zones are fertile and bear arranged along the first . that includes the large family Asteraceae ( or Compositae ) known for composite flowers ten families related to the Asteraceae . to have evolved from one common ancestor Synapomorphies ( a character that is shared by two or more groups through evolutionary development The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable , dating back plant taxonomy when it contained only five families , of which only two are ( such as APG II and APG III ) have expanded it The order Asterales currently includes 11 families , the largest of which are the Asteraceae , with about 25,000 species , and the Campanulaceae ("bellflowers " together 7 genera ) , MGCA clade ( Menyanthaceae , Goodeniaceae , Calyceraceae , in total twenty genera herbaceous , the examination of the basal members in the family suggests that the common ancestor of the family was an arborescent plant , a tree or shrub , perhaps adapted to dry conditions , the southern hemisphere but many not in to conjecture that there is been made , which range The Asterales , by dint of being a super - set of the family Asteraceae , include some species grown ("Helianthus annuus " ) , lettuce chicory ("Cichorium " ) . Historically , these terms have been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not resolve into not observed to have characteristics As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered that were found to have volatile-rich surfaces similar to comets , these came to be distinguished from the objects found in Thus the term "asteroid " now the inner Solar System , including those co -

Millions of asteroids exist : , bodies within the young Sun's solar nebula that never grew large enough to and Jupiter , or are co - orbital with Jupiter , with the majority falling into These were named after and are generally identified with carbon - rich , metallic , and silicate (stony) compositions , respectively Asteroids are somewhat arbitrarily differentiated : while asteroids are mainly Furthermore , asteroids formed closer is mainly one of size one meter or less , whereas Only one asteroid , 4 Vesta , which has a relatively reflective surface , is normally this is only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned The United Nations declared 30 June as International Asteroid Day " It is 100 percent certain we 'll be hit [ we 're not 100 percent sure the Big Questions " , considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event , and has developed and released the "National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan " to The first asteroid to be discovered , Ceres , was originally considered to be a new planet appeared to be points of showing little or no planetary disc , though readily distinguishable from stars due to the term "asteroid " , coined in " asteroeidēs " , meaning ' star - like , star - shaped ' , , partly because of the discovery This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be be charted again and any moving object would , hopefully , be not discovered by a member of the group , but rather by accident in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi Later that year , Carl Friedrich Gauss used these observations , which was found to be between the planets Mars and Three other asteroids ( 2 Pallas , 3 Juno , and 4 Vesta ) were However , Karl Ludwig Hencke persisted , and began searching for more asteroids He also found 6 Hebe less than two years later discovered every year after that ( asteroids , which appeared as

This dramatically increased the rate of detection compared with earlier visual methods : beginning with 323 Brucia , whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point . It was known that there were many more , but most astronomers did not bother with them , some calling them "vermin of the skies " , a phrase variously attributed to E. Suess and E. Weiss First , a region of the sky , typically one hour apart . Second , the two films or plates would move slightly between the pair the body would seem to float Third , once a moving body was identified , its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope . send the locations and time of computer programs determine whether an apparition ties together earlier apparitions into a single orbit . There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross Earth 's , and that could with Earth " ( see Eros had been discovered as long ago as 1898 these were : 1221 Amor , finally 69230 Hermes , which approached within : the increasing acceptance of the Alvarez hypothesis that an impact event resulted in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction , , the LINEAR system alone has discovered Traditionally , small bodies orbiting the Sun across being called a meteoroid . However , following the discovery of was also introduced to cover Greek for " planet - like " ) , and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such an alternative for asteroids since they are not star - like The word "planetesimal " has a similar meaning , but refers specifically to when the Solar System was forming . The term "planetule " was coined by the geologist William Daniel Conybeare to describe minor planets , but is not in The three largest objects in the asteroid belt , Ceres When found , asteroids were distinct from comets , and there was no unified term for the two until " small Solar System body " A few objects have ended up being

dual - listed because they were first classified as minor planets Conversely , some (perhaps all) comets are eventually most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter , though a few such as Hidalgo ventured far beyond Jupiter Those located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter were known When astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter , now called centaurs , they numbered them among the traditional asteroids , though there was debate over whether they should be considered asteroids or as a new type of object . Then , when the first trans-Neptunian object ( other than Pluto ) , Albion , was discovered in 1992 , and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up , new terms were invented to sidestep the issue : Kuiper - belt object , trans-Neptunian object , scattered-disc object , and so , called "objects " partly to avoid the need to classify predominantly comet - like in composition , though some may be more akin to asteroids Furthermore , most do not , and the ones so far discovered are larger than traditional comet nuclei be the main reservoir of dormant comets . also called "asteroids " , However , it is becoming 2006 to include most objects previously that have enough mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity . According to the IAU , "the term 'minor planet ' may still be used , but generally , the term 'Small Solar System Body ' will be preferred in the asteroid belt evolved much like neared its current mass , at which point excitation from orbital resonances with Jupiter ejected over 99% of planetesimals and spectral properties suggest that asteroids larger than approximately in diameter accreted during that early era , whereas between asteroids during or after and Jupiter , generally in This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than ( ) , it is thought that they are as Near-Earth asteroids , or NEAs , , from almost for the

largest down to rocks just 1 meter The three largest are very are roughly spherical , have at least partly differentiated interiors , and are thought to be surviving protoplanets . The dwarf planet Ceres is by far the largest asteroid , with a diameter of . The next largest are 4 Vesta and 2 Pallas , both with diameters of just over . Vesta is the only main-belt asteroid that can , on occasion , be Mars and Jupiter , is ( 9% ) , Pallas brings this figure up to half , whereas the three most-massive asteroids after that , 511 Davida ( ( 0.9% ) , constitute and Pallas , are intact protoplanets that share many characteristics common to planets , and are atypical nearly spherical although it may have an undifferentiated interior , like the majority and hence the only one differentiated : it has a crust Vesta , too , has a differentiated interior , though it formed is devoid of water ; , Rheasilvia , Vesta also Pallas is unusual in that Hygiea is the largest carbonaceous asteroid and , unlike the other largest asteroids , lies relatively close to the plane of the Because there is no sufficiently large crater on the surface to be the source of that family , as there is thought that Hygiea may have been completely disrupted in the collision in the asteroid belt show that there Very few asteroids with a diameter larger than 100 meters have a rotation period For asteroids rotating faster than so any loose surface material would be flung However , a solid object should be able to rotate much more The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood Ceres appears to be composed to have a nickel-iron core , olivine mantle 10 Hygiea , however , which carbonaceous chondrite , is thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid , though it may be a differentiated asteroid that was globally disrupted by an impact and Other asteroids appear to be the remnant cores Most small asteroids are thought to be

piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity , though the largest are probably solid : a dark, volatile-rich population , consisting of the C-type and P-type asteroids , with albedos less that 0.10 and densities under , and a dense, volatile-poor population , consisting over 0.15 and densities greater and other organic compounds , and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary may have even brought life also see panspermia ) " The last can only be determined accurately by observing the orbits So far , every asteroid with moons has turned out to be a rubble pile , a loose conglomeration of rock and metal that may be half empty space by volume . include 121 Hermione ( 268×186×183 km ) The fact that such large asteroids as Sylvia may be rubble piles , presumably due to disruptive impacts , has important consequences for the formation of the Solar System: Computer simulations of collisions involving solid bodies show them destroying each other as colliding rubble piles are more likely of 24 Themis using NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility . As this ice layer is sublimating , it may be getting replenished Scientists hypothesize that some of the first water brought to Earth was delivered by asteroid impacts after the collision , on an asteroid orbiting the white dwarf GD On 22 January 2014 , European Space Agency ( ESA ) scientists reported the detection The detection was made by using The finding is unexpected because comets , not asteroids , are typically considered to " sprout jets , " The lines are becoming more and more blurred between In May 2016 , significant asteroid data arising from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and NEOWISE missions Findings have shown that solar winds Most asteroids outside the " big four " ( Ceres , Hygiea ) are likely to be broadly similar in appearance , if irregular in shape 50   km ( 31 mi ) 253 Mathilde is a rubble pile saturated of the asteroid's radius , and Earth-based observations after the big four ,

reveal a similarly angular profile , suggesting it is also saturated with radius-size craters Medium-sized asteroids such as Mathilde and 243 Ida that have been observed up close also reveal a deep regolith Of the big four , Pallas and Hygiea are practically Vesta has compression fractures encircling a radius-size crater Asteroids become darker and redder groups and families based on of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered . Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations , whereas families are tighter and result Families are more common and , but several small families have been belong to dynamical families each thought co - orbital with Earth Examples are 3753 Cruithne and Sometimes these horseshoe objects temporarily become quasi - satellites for a few decades or a few hundred years , before returning Such objects , if associated with Earth or Venus or even hypothetically Mercury , are a special class In 1975 , an asteroid taxonomic system based and spectral shape was developed by known asteroids ) , S-types for that did not fit into either C or S. This classification has since been expanded to include The two most widely used taxonomies now used are the Tholen classification and SMASS classification The former was proposed in 1984 by David J. Tholen , and was based on data collected and composition is not always very good , and a variety of classifications are in use A newly discovered asteroid is given a provisional designation ( such as ) consisting of indicating the half-month of discovery and Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed , it is given a number , and later may also be given a name ( e.g. – e.g. ( 433 )   Eros – but dropping the parentheses is quite common . Informally , it is common to drop the number altogether , the first mention when a name is repeated The first asteroids to be discovered were used to designate the planets . In 1851 , after the fifteenth asteroid (Eunomia ) had been discovered a specific asteroid ( although he assigned continuing to designate the first

four only with their existing iconic symbols ) astronomers , and the next asteroid to be discovered ( 16 Psyche , in 1852 ) was the first to be designated in an iconic symbol as well , as were a few other asteroids discovered over the next few years ( see chart above ) 20 Massalia was the first asteroid that was not assigned an iconic symbol , and That year Astraea's number was increased to ⑤ , but the first four asteroids , Ceres to Vesta , were not listed by their numbers until and their shapes and terrain remained The best modern ground-based telescopes and the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope can resolve mostly remain little more than brightness as they rotate ) and their spectral properties , and asteroid sizes can be estimated by timing an asteroid passes directly in front imaged Phobos and Deimos , the two small moons of Mars , which are probably captured asteroids . the "Dawn" spacecraft , which orbited 4 Vesta from July 2011 to September 2012 , and has been orbiting the dwarf planet 1 Ceres since the OSIRIS-REx sample return mission to asteroid 101955 Bennu , the planning stages of a mission to capture lunar orbit where it could possibly be visited by astronauts and later impacted into the Moon . It has been suggested that be rare or exhausted on or materials for constructing space habitats " ( see Colonization of the asteroids ) Asteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple An allocution , or allocutus , by the defendant who has been found guilty prior to being why the sentence should be lenient The term "allocution " is used generally , but there are vaguely similar processes It is generally phrased as , " Prisoner at the Bar Guilty by a jury of your peers Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you ? The right to make a plea in defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed In its absence , a sentence but

not the conviction may be overturned , In the federal system , Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 32(i)(4 ) provides that the court must " address the defendant personally to speak or present any information An (; Medieval Latin for " he has is a written statement voluntarily made by affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law . Such a statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiant's signature by a taker a written declaration or statement that is sworn or affirmed before a person who has authority to administer , although for some proceedings an affidavit called a "preamble " , is added attesting that the affiant personally may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein , the courts have no jurisdiction to admit Affidavit is not treated as by the Supreme Court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the court so orders for sufficient reasons , namely , the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for cross - , although " make oath " is sometimes omitted . opposed to swearing oaths . The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent but does not Under Section 21 of the Civil Law and Criminal Law (Miscellaneous Provisions ) Act 2020 witnesses are no longer required to an affirmation when filing an affidavit . an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual ( especially if the affiant is not available for cross - material facts which may be dispositive Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated , or who can not be located or made to appear , may be accepted by the court , but usually only An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to are admissible as evidence . When a person signs an affidavit , Some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence certain assumptions are made , to

and knows that a false swearing by them , if found out , could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including does not confirm its acceptance as Equally , the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court ( for swearing the affidavit ) is international use under the terms of the Documents which have been notarized by a notary public , and certain other documents , and then certified with a conformant apostille , are accepted for The name Aries is Latin for Its old astronomical symbol is ( ♈ ︎ described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Aries is a relatively dim constellation , possessing only four bright stars : Hamal (Alpha Arietis , Mesarthim (Gamma Arietis , fourth magnitude ) faint and include several pairs of now , albeit as a specific region of the sky , by the International Astronomical Union It was originally defined in , and has remained a constellation includes the ancient pattern as well as , the constellation , now known Modern-day Aries was known as , Although likely compiled in the 12th or 11th century BC , the MUL.APIN reflects a tradition which distinct from the other characters present . associated with the god Amon-Ra , who a ram's head and represented fertility and Because it was the location of the "Indicator of the Reborn Sun " . Aries was prominent , priests to temples , a practice that was modified by Persian astronomers centuries Aries was not fully accepted Phrixos and Helle were the son jealous and wished to kill To accomplish this , she of Delphi that said Phrixos must be sacrificed to end his son atop Mount Laphystium when Aries , sent by Nephele , arrived Historically , Aries has been that Hipparchus depicted Alpha Arietis as the ram's muzzle , though Ptolemy did not include it in his constellation figure denoted as " the star over , followed Ptolemy's description by mapping by depicting Aries lying down Astrologically , Aries has been The First Point of Aries , the location of the vernal equinox

This is because the Sun crossed in Aries more than two as a point south of Gamma Arietis , the First Point of Aries has since moved as a nondescript four-legged animal with what may be antlers instead of horns Some early Bedouin observers saw a ram elsewhere in thirteen stars in a figure along with were over the animal's hindquarters and one of which was the disputed star over Apes , a constellation representing a bee used by Jakob Bartsch as for these stars for his constellation Lilium , representing Johann Hevelius renamed the constellation "Musca " , the southern fly , it was but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries . The brightest stars — Alpha , Beta , and Gamma Arietis — formed a constellation called "Lou " ( 婁 ) , variously translated as " bond " , "lasso " , and " sickle " , which was associated , the location of the full moon closest represent a woman carrying a basket of 35 , 39 , and called "Wei " ( 胃 ) , which represented a fat abdomen Delta and Zeta Arietis were a part ) , thought to represent "Zuogeng " ( 左更 ) , a constellation depicting a marsh and pond inspector , was composed of Mu, Nu, Omicron "Aswini " , after the traditional names to the twins , making them Aries itself was known as In Hebrew astronomy Aries was named "Taleh or Gad , and generally The neighboring Syrians named the constellation "Amru " Half a world away , depicting a porpoise , along with Alpha , Beta , and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise , while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail . The Marquesas islanders called it "Na-pai-ka " ; the Māori constellation "Pipiri " may correspond to modern Aries as well . In indigenous Peruvian astronomy , a constellation Aries has three prominent stars forming an asterism Alpha (Hamal ) and Beta (Sheratan ) are commonly used

There is also one other star above α Arietis , called Hamal , for " lamb " or "head of the ram " ("ras al-hamal " ) , which references β Arietis , also known as " , the Arabic word for " the two signs " , referring to It has a luminosity of and in which the companion star is only Hermann Carl Vogel determined that Sheratan was a spectroscopic binary in 1903 ; its orbit γ Arietis , with a common name of , the Arabic word meaning "pair " or a word for " fat ram However , it may also come from the Sanskrit for " both of which are unusual languages Along with Beta Arietis , it The primary is of magnitude 4.59 and the secondary is of The primary has a luminosity of and the secondary has a luminosity of an absolute magnitude of 0.2 and the secondary is a B9-type star with an absolute magnitude The angle between the two components is 1 , one of the earliest such telescopic discoveries . The primary , γ1 Arietis , is The primary is of magnitude 5.2 and the secondary is of Its overall magnitude is 4.63 , and λ Arietis is a wide double star with a white-hued primary and a yellow - The primary is of magnitude 4.8 and the secondary is of The two components are separated by 36 arcseconds at an angle of 50 ° ; the two stars are located 0.5 ° east of 7 Arietis . and a white secondary . The primary is of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is of The primary itself is a wide double star with visible to the naked eye have magnitudes between 3 and 5 . δ Ari , called Boteïn 4.35 , 170 light - 4.89 , 263 light - Its spectral class is A0 and its absolute magnitude 4.98 , 288 light - Its spectral class is F2 and its absolute magnitude a similar star of magnitude 4.51 , 172 light - years away Its spectral class is K1 and its absolute magnitude

4.55 , 343 light - Its spectral class is B3 and its absolute magnitude 41 Arietis , known both as c Arietis and Nair al Butain , is a brighter star of magnitude 3.63 , 165 light - years away Its spectral class is B8 and it 6.09 , 815 light - the Orion Nebula approximately five million years ago , possibly due Finally , Teegarden's Star is the closest star It is 4,080 light - It is 1,630 light - , a rotating variable star considered to be They are normally main-sequence B0p — B9p stars , and their variations are not usually visible to the naked eye photometrically , usually having periods of 10.3 , located southeast , meaning that its surface brightness , magnitude 13.6 , is significantly NGC 772 is a class SA(s)b galaxy , which means that it is a somewhat prominent bulge and spiral arms that are The main arm , on the northwest side of the galaxy , is home to NGC 772 has a small companion galaxy , NGC 770 , that is about 113,000 light - years away from The two galaxies together are also classified NGC 772 has a diameter of 240,000 light-years and the system is 114 million light-years located farther from the core . NGC 678 and NGC 680 Aries that are only about 200,000 light NGC 678 is an edge-on spiral galaxy that is 4.5 by 0.8 arcminutes . , is the brighter of the two at magnitude 12.9 ; NGC 678 has a magnitude NGC 678 is the larger galaxy at NGC 678 is further distinguished NGC 691 itself is a spiral galaxy slightly Because it is so diffuse and is 124 million light - NGC 877 is the brightest member of an 8-galaxy group that also includes NGC 870, NGC 871 , and NGC 876 , and is 178 million light - years away with a diameter of Its companion is NGC 876 , which is about 103,000 light - years from the core of NGC They are interacting gravitationally , as they are connected by

NGC 821 is an E6 elliptical galaxy . It is unusual because it which is normally only found NGC 821 is 2.6 by Its diameter is 61,000 light-years and it is 80 million light - years Its parent body may be the asteroid Icarus 32 degrees away from the Sun . , meteors that last several seconds and often begin at the horizon not visible to the naked eye , This is possible because of , with the highest rates visible from The average Delta Aquarid meteor is very slow , However , this shower sometimes produces Other meteor showers radiating from Aries include HIP 14810 , a G5 type star , HD 12661 , like HIP 14810 , is a G-type main sequence star , slightly larger than the Sun , , and the other is HD 20367 is a G0 type star , The planet , discovered in 2002 , has a mass 1.07 times that of Jupiter and orbits every 500 days . Its name is Latin for " , and its old astronomical symbol is ( ♒ ︎ ) , a representation Aquarius is one of the listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy , and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations Aquarius is identified as " the god Ea himself , who is commonly depicted holding an overflowing vase , the "Way of Ea " , corresponding the destructive floods that the Babylonians regularly experienced , and thus was negatively to be represented simply as the son of Prometheus who built a ship with his wife Pyrrha to washing ashore on Mount Parnassus . Aquarius is also sometimes identified Mount Olympus by Zeus to act Neighboring Aquila represents the eagle , under An alternative version of the tale recounts Ganymede's kidnapping Eos , motivated by her affection His water jar , an asterism itself , consists of Gamma, Pi, Eta , and water flowing from the Water Jar was " feathers and forests " The constellation's stars were the most numerous which counted Iota , Lambda, Phi 88 , 89 , and 98 Aquarii represent " Fou-youe "

, the axes used as weapons the axe "Fuyue " was represented by and may have instead been " Tienliecheng " also has a disputed position ; the 13 - star castle replete with ramparts may have possessed Nu and Xi Aquarii but may instead have been located south in Piscis Austrinus Nearby , the emperors' mausoleum "Xiuliang " stood , demarcated by Kappa Aquarii and " Nu " , also the name for the 10th lunar mansion , was a handmaiden represented , its four brightest stars being less than The two brightest stars , Alpha and Beta Aquarii , are luminous yellow supergiants , of spectral types G0Ib and G2Ib respectively , that were once hot blue - white B - class main sequence stars 5 to 9 times as massive as The two are also moving through space perpendicular to the plane Just shading Alpha , Beta Aquarii Having cooled and swollen to 2200 times as luminous as It is around 6.4 times as massive as the Sun and Sadalsuud is 540 ± 20 light-years from Alpha Aquarii , also known as It is 520 ± 20 light-years distant around 6.5 times as massive as the Sun and 3000 times γ Aquarii , also called Sadachbia , is a white main sequence star of between 158 and 315   million years old and is around two and a half times the Sun's mass , and double Of magnitude 3.85 , it is 164 ± 9 light years away . ζ Aquarii is an F2 spectral type double star ; both stars Overall , it appears to be of magnitude 3.6 and and the secondary a magnitude of Aquarius as of 2013 . Gliese 876 , one of to be found to possess , including one terrestrial planet 6.6 times the mass of Earth . 91 Aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet , 91 Aquarii   b. Gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet , Gliese   There are also less-prominent systems in 12.4 , is host to It orbits its parent star every 3.36 days at

HD 206610 , a K0 star located host to one planet , HD ; more massive at 1.56 solar masses It orbits every 610 days at a distance Much closer to its sun is WASP-47 b , which orbits every 4.15 days only 0.052 AU from its sun, yellow dwarf (G9V) WASP-47 . Earth , is host to one known planet : HD 210277 b. The 1.23 Jupiter mass planet orbits the Sun1.1 AU , though its orbital period is significantly longer at around 442 days , detected by the radial velocity method in The star it orbits resembles the Sun , orbits host star HD 212771 at The star itself , barely below 7.6 , is a G8IV (yellow subgiant) star located the Sun1.15 solar massesit is significantly less dense As of 2013 , there Aquarius : the Gliese 876 and HD 215152 systems The former is quite prominent ; the latter has only two planets and has a host star farther away The HD 215152 system consists of the planets HD 215152 b and HD 215152 c orbiting their K0-type , magnitude Both discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method , the two tiny planets orbit very close to HD 215152 c is the larger at 0.0097 Jupiter masses ( still significantly larger than the Earth , which weighs in at 0.00315 Jupiter masses ) ; its smaller sibling is barely and respectively ) is large enough to make this discrepancy statistically that ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 in Aquarius has seven Earth-like rocky planets Because of its position away from in the Messier catalog : the globular clusters Messier 2 , Messier   72 , and the asterism Messier   73 While M73 was originally catalogued the 6 main stars are not close enough together to fit this definition , M2 , also catalogued as NGC 7089 , is a rich globular cluster At magnitude 6.5 , it but a 100 mm aperture telescope is needed to M72 , also catalogued as NGC 6981 , is a small 9th magnitude globular cluster NGC 7009 , also known planetary nebula located 3,000 light-years from Earth

It was given its moniker by the 19th century astronomer Lord Rosse for its resemblance to the planet Saturn It appears blue - green Compared to the Helix Nebula , another planetary nebula NGC 7293 , also known it also the largest planetary nebula as seen from Earth is NGC 7727 , of particular interest for amateur astronomers who wish to discover or observe supernovae . Originally discovered by Chinese astronomers in seen coming from the Water Jar beginning on 21 April and as late Fireballs are common shortly after the peak , approximately between 9 May , (a term derived from the English word "animation " ) describes all animated works , However , outside of Japan and in English , "anime " is colloquial for "Japanese animation " and refers specifically to The earliest commercial Japanese animations in following decades , developing Anime is distributed theatrically , Japanese comics (manga ) , light novels generally focuses less on movement , and more on the detail " camera effects " , such anime is an art form that comprises ; it is sometimes mistakenly classified as a genre itself . is used to refer to ( , ) as " as " a style of animation originating in Japan " . The etymology of the term "anime " Japanese "katakana " as ( ) and as ( , ) Do you watch anime ? or " How much anime have you As with a few other Japanese words , such as " saké " and "Pokémon " , English texts sometimes " ( as in French the final "e " , to cue the reader to pronounce the letter , not to leave it silent as English orthography may suggest . " Emakimono " and "kagee " are considered precursors of " Emakimono " was common while the "emakimono " was unrolled from the right to left with " Kagee " was popular the shadows play of China . The paper play called "Kamishibai " surged in the twelfth century and remained popular Puppets of the "bunraku" theater and "ukiyo-e" prints

Finally , mangas were a heavy inspiration to experiment with techniques pioneered " ( ) , a private work to appear ; animators such and Jun'ichi Kōuchi ( considered the "fathers of anime " ) produced numerous films , the oldest surviving of which well - established in Japan and many animators , including Noburō Ōfuji and Yasuji Murata , continued to work with cheaper cutout animation rather than Other creators , including Kenzō Masaoka and Mitsuyo Seo , nevertheless made great strides employed animators to produce educational shorts several artists' organizations to form the The first talkie anime was " Chikara to Onna no Yo no Naka " ( 1933 ) , a short film produced The first feature-length anime film was ' ( 1945 ) , produced by Seo animator Osamu Tezuka adapted and simplified Disney animation techniques to reduce costs and Originally intended as temporary measures to allow him to produce material was the first anime film was "Instant History " ( 1961–64 An early and influential success was " Astro Boy " directed by Tezuka based on which were later animated . Tezuka's work — and that of characteristics and genres that remain fundamental elements of anime today . The giant robot genre ( also known as " mecha " ) , the end of the decade by Yoshiyuki Tomino , who Robot anime series such as "Gundam " and "Super Dimension Fortress Macross " became instant classics remained one of the most , a television series produced by Gainax and directed by Hideaki Anno , such as "Ghost in the Shell " ( began attracting greater interest in Western countries ; major international successes include " Sailor Moon both of which were dubbed In 2003 , " Spirited Away " , a Studio Ghibli feature film directed by It later became the highest-grossing anime film , methods of animation , its production increasingly used computer animation to improve Early anime works were experimental , and consisted of images drawn on blackboards , stop motion animation of it came to dominate the medium other animation techniques is mostly limited to