text
stringlengths 1.2k
2.68k
|
|---|
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy Anarchism calls for the abolition of , whose end marked the end of Anarchism employs a diversity of tactics into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics ; there is taken a violent turn in the past , while evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure in diverse areas of human society . The etymological origin of "anarchism " is " without a ruler " , " ( "leader " or English from 1642 as "anarchisme " and "anarchy " from 1539 ; early English usages emphasised a sense Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups , including both the New Left and associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party , and extreme cultural liberals , Additionally , some anarchists use "libertarian socialist emphasise its connections with socialism . used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms Scholars of anarchism generally highlight While opposition to the state is discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter , and various currents perceive anarchism Before the establishment of towns and It was after the creation of institutions of authority that anarchistic ideas The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece In China , philosophical anarchism ( the discussion on the legitimacy of the state ) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece insisted on the right of individual freedom In medieval Europe , there was later gave birth to religious anarchism In Basra , religious sects preached In Europe , various sects developed a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism By the late 1870s , various anarchist schools of Drawing from mutualism , Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association |
the First International that formed in 1864 After bitter disputes , the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists Anarchists were treated similarly in revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms In response to their expulsion from the First International , anarchists formed the St. Imier International Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin , At the turn of the century , It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement In China , small groups of In Latin America , Argentina was During this time , a minority of from these terrorist acts , infamy came upon the movement and attempts were Despite concerns , anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow against anything that would resemble Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War , many workers with various currents of leftists . In response to the army rebellion , The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism of Marxism – Leninism and During this time , anarchism found the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements , the counterculture of the 1960s It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism . Anarchism became associated with punk subculture Black anarchism began to take form rioting , property destruction and violent confrontations affinity groups , security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet A significant event of this period was the confrontations Anarchist schools of thought have been to their different origins , values and in opposing restraints upon the free individual , the free potential of society through equality Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which of revolution to eliminate it philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of when it conflicts with individual autonomy Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in Anarchism is usually placed on as collectivism , communism , individualism , mutualism , and syndicalism , among other libertarian socialist economic theories . Belief in political nihilism has been Its aims include reciprocity , free association |
, voluntary contract , federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency first characterised his goal as a "third form of society , the synthesis of Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin . of production which is theorised Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production , with production and consumption based Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin , the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism and the state with a new society democratically over any kinds of external determinants . As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism , reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology the anarchist movement , although contemporary anarchism favours established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles " in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms , namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms ( e.g., capitalism , Bolshevism , feudalism , slavery , etc , patriarchy , heterosexism , white supremacy , and imperialism . Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by The principle of equal liberty is closer reflect an anarchist vision of society , illustrating the unity of means and A broad categorisation can be made between institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course During the classical era , anarchists had as propaganda of the deed . heads of state , some Anarchists also took part in Many anarchists , especially the Galleanists , believed for a revolution against capitalism and Many of these attacks were done place in the late 1870s , the early 1880s Other anarchist groups advocate direct action , a tactic which can include acts of when seeing the state as a tyrant Anarchists took an active role in strike actions |
seeing it as reformist . They saw it as a part Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts , some of whom In the current era , Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno , reinstated the debate on violence by by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards small, informal affiliation groups , where each member is responsible for their own actions but works and other violent means against state , capitalism , and other enemies . the police during demonstrations and riots as Canada , Greece , Anarchists commonly employ direct action . This can take the form of as communes and non-hierarchical collectives . Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way , with everyone having respecting personal autonomy and participating in In contrast with the "big-A anarchism " of the classical era , the newly coined term "small-a anarchism " their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group . the group to play the role of without taking part in the discussion Minorities usually accept rough consensus , Anarchists usually form small groups ( and friendships among their members . in the World Wide Web to spread their message Anarchists were also involved in Anarchists organize themselves to squat During important events such as protests urban space from the capitalist market , serving experiment with their ideas and build and schools of thought ; disagreement over questions of values , ideology , and tactics Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns , and religion with anarchism anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism , collectivism , Marxism , and trade unionism humanism , divine authority , enlightened self-interest , veganism , or Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists opposed age of consent laws , during 1890 and 1920 within |
Free love advocates were against marriage , which they saw as a way greatly favoured the power of men The notion of free love was much Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of travelers , anarchists and other activists Europe and the United States ; however , some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love . Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love , against marriage , and with the second wave of feminism , radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and By the latest decades of the 20th century , anarchists and and autonomy of women , gays , queers and other marginalised groups With the third wave of feminism , of study for anarchists , yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality . The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of Anarchists consider proper education , one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society , In 1901 , Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving Ferrer aimed to educate the working class Nonetheless , his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around " for education to be would lead children to morally good conclusions been little consensus among anarchist figures as and expanded the anarchist critique of state education , largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on in consumerism as part of While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day , major tenets of anarchist schools child autonomy and relying on reasoning Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to control the aspects of their life , major decisions are taken by Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion consensus , although they saw The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism , especially among that era such as futurists , In literature , anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and |
In music , anarchism has art as a means to achieve , and Digital Ninjas " , It could depict a critique of as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means As it appeals to both emotion appeal to the whole human and have The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique , stating of a just system of distribution : these , among others , be performed in a community in Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques related to violence and destruction , but in the world of Secondly , anarchism is evaluated calls for political action within the system The third argument is that anarchism is - one to "archiei " In this line of criticism also for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual , hence no collective action Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' "Moral Principles of obedience , this does In "The Problem of Political Authority " , Michael Huemer understand the biological inclination to authority . Raz believes that this argument is Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority as doctors or lawyers as involve a complete surrender of independent judgment . of the state , and commitment to social revolution has been criticised one of the principal founders of Marxism should have anarchist views and values difficulties with social interaction and communication Parents often notice signs during Autism is associated with a combination Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections , such as rubella , toxins including valproic acid , alcohol , cocaine , pesticides , lead , and air pollution , fetal growth restriction , and autoimmune diseases . Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes ; for Autism affects information processing in the brain , communication , and language skills challenging behaviors and build upon strengths Some autistic adults are unable to live |
Globally , autism is estimated In the 2000s , the number of In the developed countries , about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 appear during infancy or childhood , and generally follows a steady course in some respects but average , Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms : impairments in social interaction , impairments in communication ( ASD ; see Classification Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli , smile and look at social norms ; for example , they have less eye contact and turn-taking respond to emotions , communicate Most autistic children display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children , although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness For them , the quality of violence in individuals with ASD Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life of babbling, unusual gestures , diminished responsiveness , In the second and third years , autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling , consonants , words for functional speech , and deficits For example , they may fail to point at objects In a pair of studies , Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language , comprehension , and inference An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention , Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people , and are Differences are greater for under-responsivity into things ) than for over-responsivity ( for example , An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD , to Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly co-occurring medical conditions Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress . Siblings of children with ASD with the affected sibling than siblings of |
siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship . It has long been presumed the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms rare mutations with major effects , or among multiple genes , the environment , Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD , and siblings be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs with only small effects attributable to any particular gene Most loci individually explain less than 1% of The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members such as deletions , duplications or inversions in genetic material during Hence , a substantial fraction of autism cases Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD pregnancy , especially heavy metals and particulates infectious diseases , solvents , PCBs in plastic products , pesticides , brominated flame retardants , alcohol , smoking , illicit drugs , vaccines , of autistic symptoms in their child around The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in Its mechanism can be divided into two areas : the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism , and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation , gastrointestinal inflammation , malfunction of the autonomic nervous system , A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism . Some rare mutations may lead to autism as those involved with cell adhesion later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes Diagnosis is based on behavior Under the DSM-5 , autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts , behavior , interests , or These deficits are present in early childhood , typically before age three , and lead to clinically significant functional impairment . Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity |
idiosyncratic language , and persistent preoccupation with and interaction with the child . The Childhood Autism Rating Scale ( CARS ) is assess severity of autism based on observation of children . A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by evaluations are conducted with help A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes , consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been Commercial availability of tests may precede test results , given the complexity of of life : for example In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern , though few cases are handled that quickly in practice . Signs of autism may be Conversely , the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of social interactions and communication , severely Of the five PDD forms , Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs Unlike with autism , people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in The terminology of autism can be the "autism spectrum disorders " ( ASD ) In this article , " autism in clinical practice , though , Research into causes has been biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry , psychology , neurology and on brain scans , to help further neurogenetic studies of autism ; one example of the brain , which is associated with impaired perception of people Autism has long been thought from individuals with severe impairments — to frequent repetitive behavior such as hand flapping and rocking — to high functioning individuals About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months , and about four-fifths notice by According to an article , failure to meet any of the following milestones The Japanese practice is to screen all children Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers ( M-CHAT and its predecessor , the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers ( CHAT to precede these tests with a broadband screener |
to lessen associated deficits and family distress of life and functional independence . correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs speech pathologists , and licensed psychologists . Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy However , the development of evidence-based interventions Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence , the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies communication , and job skills , ( ABA ) , developmental models , structured teaching , speech and language therapy , cognitive behavioral interventions in adults without intellectual disability focalize treatment on a specific area of The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention week of the structured type of ABA One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model , which adaptive functioning in preschool children ; it for improving the intellectual performance of that age group a more naturalistic form of ABA combined with to educators , resulting in , and the limited research on the effectiveness integrating a child into home or They may also be used for associated health problems , such as weighed against their potential benefits , and Side effects , for example , , drooling , and aggression with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity . There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments . , and many programs focus on Some alternative treatments may place the child at greater in those on casein-free diets , as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D ; lack of exercise and gastrointestinal disorders In 2005 , botched chelation therapy killed autistic people since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits for autistic people , as of recommend a gluten- and casein-free diet as a standard treatment . A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of as those with known food intolerances or date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD |
( 4 in total ) All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group ( In two of the studies , In the other two studies , whose duration was achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms . the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support mindfulness-based interventions anxiety , ruminating thoughts , anger at hyperbaric treatments in children with There is no known cure for autism ; this occurs sometimes after Most autistic children acquire language by age five few have developed communication skills in Many autistic children lack social support , future employment opportunities Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills ; no study has focused on Many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning As of 2007 , reviews estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD . A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD . Globally , autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people In 2012 , the NHS estimated been estimated at 3.7 per roughly 0.6 per 1,000 , and In the UK , from 1998 to 2018 , the autism diagnoses increased by 787% This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices , referral patterns , availability of services , age at diagnosis , and more attention and funding toward psychosocial factors continuing to focus on genetics Males are at higher risk for with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism , the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent bleeding , and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy than with older mothers ; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm , and the hypothesis that carry genetic liability and show some signs A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments |
The "Table Talk " of Martin Luther , , contains the story of a 12-year-old boy The earliest well-documented case of autism is that in a 1747 court case in which his brother He derived it from the Greek word "autós his fantasies , against which any influence in a lecture in German about widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used in English when he introduced of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities . the subject , notably "autistic aloneness " and "insistence on sameness " , of the autistic spectrum of disorders . to decades of confused terminology like "infantile schizophrenia " , and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to was little evidence of a genetic role in It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from In 1987 , the DSM-III-R provided In May 2013 , the DSM-5 was PDD-NOS , autism , Asperger syndrome , Rett syndrome , and CDD replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements . Events include World Autism Awareness Day , Autism Sunday , Autistic Pride Day , Autreat , Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about " autism as a culture The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity , viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in on imitating the behaviors of those without autism , and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group . be accepted as a natural expression of This perspective is distinct from fringe theories environmental factors such as vaccines . About half of autistic people are unemployed , and one third of those Among those who find work , most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below about productivity and supervision , experienced employers of autistic people give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as and procedure in autistic employees . |
A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity "J"e to the irradiance " E"e ( flux per unit area ) received by a surface determined by properties of the surface the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location , and time ( While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the Sun of reflectance over all solar angles in to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal , When seen from a distance , have some of the highest albedos among Most land areas are in an albedo range of The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3 Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and only measured for a single direction by a mathematical model is used to translate into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function ( BRDF ) , which depends on the view angle of the observer glaciers , the mean temperature of the planet In 2021 , scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades ( 1998-2017 ) as well as a substantial increase in of reflected light , except in induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location ( e.g. through melting the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance ) ; high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo , and , which have lower insolation . higher temperatures , creating regions in Albedo affects climate by determining A layer of snowfall increases local albedo |
In principle , if no outside temperature change seasons , eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight ( higher insolation ) 0.9 for freshly fallen snow , to and as low as 0.2 than that of sea water . the same surface covered with reflective snow . sea temperature or in response to so the rate of energy absorption increases . The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water , which As with the preceding example of snowmelt , the process of melting of The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback , together with the effects of small errors in the measurement to large errors in energy estimates . Albedo works on a smaller scale , Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of For example , the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon ( a-Si:H ) Research showed impacts of over 10% is absorbed through photosynthesis ) some of the carbon benefits of afforestation ( or offset the negative climate impacts of In the case of evergreen forests with for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect Trees also impact climate in it condenses into clouds . In seasonally snow-covered zones , winter albedos of Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests . At the scale of the wavelength of so the light is reflected in The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this . Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light , it becomes very high at high angles of incident light on the illuminated side of Earth near |
, waviness causes an appreciable reduction . Note that white caps on waves Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity , theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 " On any given day , about half of Earth is covered by clouds , which reflect more sunlight than land and water . are affected by artificial clouds , Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from W m−2 , with a range +0.1 , farming , and urbanization ) change the albedo of various areas The study of albedos , their dependence in time composes a major part of comes from the study of their albedos Enceladus , a moon of Saturn , has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System , with an albedo of 0.99 . have low albedos down to about 0.05 A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 The overall albedo of the Moon is measured In detailed studies , the directional reflectance properties of terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi albedo with phase angle , including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces One of these five parameters is yet It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles In planetary radar astronomy , a microwave (or radar) pulse is In most instances , the transmitted pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization the opposite sense ( OC ) . from first-surface reflections ( as from in polarization upon reflection . the target object with mean radius , formula 15 the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha , from which The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle , crossed in the middle The lowercase version can be written in of consonants ( for that reason , it is also called they had no use for a letter the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha . |
The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter During Roman times , there were for everyday or utilitarian writing , which was Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces as majuscule cursive , minuscule cursive , At the end of the Roman Empire ( the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe . Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy , the Merovingian script in France By the 9th century , the Caroline script , in book-making , before the advent 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants most current handwriting ; it consists of The Roman form is used in most printed material ; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ( In Greek handwriting , it was Many fonts then made the right leg vertical . In some of these , to distinguish one part of a text native English words , but is found in some words derived from foreign languages is the third-most-commonly used letter in English ( In most languages that use the Latin alphabet In algebra , the letter " of the alphabet is often used various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics In geometry , capital A , are used to denote segments , lines , rays , used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status students' schoolwork ; " A grade " for clean restaurants ; A-list celebrities , Alabama ( ) is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States , bordered by Tennessee to the north Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south ; and Mississippi to the west Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie " and its largest city by population and area by French colonists in 1702 as the south by Mobile Bay , a historically significant port the Deep South , Alabama is now Originally home to many native tribes , present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it |
The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813 . In December 1819 , Alabama was During the antebellum period , Alabama was a major producer of cotton , and From the American Civil War until World War II , Alabama suffered economic hardship , in Similar to other former slave states , Alabamian legislators discriminate against African Americans from the end Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers , white rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s . During this time , urban interests and Following World War II , Alabama grew The European-American naming of the Alabama River and state was derived from the Alabama people , the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches In the Alabama language , the word for The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540 : Garcilaso de la Vega in transliterations of the term . As early as 1702 , the French called the tribe Other spellings of the name have included "Alibamu " , "Alabamo " "Alebamon " , "Alibama " , " Alibamou " , Sources disagree on the word's meaning . clearers of the thicket ' or to clearing land for cultivation The state has numerous place names of Native American origin An 1842 article in the "Jacksonville Republican " proposed This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek . Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE , with one of its major centers built in Moundville , Alabama . This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era , after Cahokia in present-day Illinois , which was the center of Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex ( SECC ) . |
Contrary to popular belief , the SECC appears to have no direct links to Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of ; and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama ( " Choctaw, Creek , and Koasati . Alabama during their exploration of North America The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state More than 160 years later , the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702 . The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711 . After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War , it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783 After the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War , the territory was divided between the United States Thomas Bassett , a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era , was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside He settled in the Tombigbee District during of Spanish West Florida in 1783 , part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810 , and was finally added to the Mississippi Territory in the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known It was claimed by the Province of With the exception of the area around of the Mississippi Territory when it was The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804 , following the Yazoo land scandal Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817 Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819 , with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for From July5 to August 2, 1819 , delegates met Cahaba , now a ghost town , was was admitted to the Union , into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation Southeastern planters and traders from the Upper South brought slaves with them as for its dark, productive soil ) was built Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810 , but it |
increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830 On January 30, 1846 , the Alabama legislature announced the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery The first legislative session in the new capital met in A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia . The first structure burned down in 1849 , but was rebuilt on This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to By 1860 , the population had increased to 964,201 people , of On January 11, 1861 , Alabama declared After remaining an independent republic for a few days , it joined the Confederate States of America . The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery Alabama was heavily involved in A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville , Alabama , joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville , Kentucky . The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves , collar and Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in From 1867 to 1874 , with most white citizens as political leaders in the state . Following the war , the state remained During Reconstruction , state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation . Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874 , when the Democrats regained by fraud and violence . They wrote another constitution in 1875 , and the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment that called for racially segregated schools . The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions large portions of the population , including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans , and tens of thousands of poor European Americans , through The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama , although at least 74,000 to vote in 1900 . While the planter class had persuaded poor whites By 1941 , whites constituted these laws : 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in |
create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement services for the disenfranchised African Americans , but Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in be known as Rosenwald Schools . In Alabama these schools were designed Rosenwald funds , which paid one-third The fund required the local community and state supply matching funds for such schools , which were built in many rural areas Beginning in 1913 , the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for by 1937 in the state . Continued racial discrimination and lynchings , African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of At the same time , many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to By 1920 , Birmingham was for decades in the state legislature , World War II brought a level of prosperity Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard One example of this massive influx of workers the city to work for war-related industries Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961 , the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion follow the results of decennial censuses . They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas of all tax revenue to the state , Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in In 1972 , for the first time since 1901 , the legislature completed been underrepresented for more than sixty years . African Americans continued to press in and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement , including legal challenges . In 1954 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled During the 1960s , under Governor George Wallace , Alabama resisted compliance with The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama , including the Montgomery bus boycott ( 1955–1956 ) , Freedom Rides in 1961 , and 1965 Selma to Montgomery Legal segregation ended in the states in by 2017 , many of such as Birmingham and Montgomery Also , the Black Belt region across central Alabama |
" is home to largely poor counties These counties include Dallas , Lowndes , Marengo and Perry . Alabama has made some changes since of voting to increase representation In the 1980s , an omnibus redistricting case , " Dillard v. Crenshaw County " , challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions , including counties and school boards At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county , as the majority tended to take all seats As part of settlement of this case , five Alabama cities and counties , including Chilton County , adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions . This has resulted in more proportional representation In another form of proportional representation , 23 jurisdictions use limited voting , as In 1982 , limited voting was first tested in Conecuh County . Beginning in the 1960s , the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because Steel jobs , for instance , declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011 . , benefited from the opening of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960 , a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and In 2001 , Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping In 2004 , Hurricane Ivan , of surface water , also giving About three-fifths of the land area is part to the south , and Mississippi or 67% of the state's total land area . : Conecuh , Talladega , ; Cathedral Caverns in Marshall County , one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County This is the Wetumpka crater , the site was blasted into the bedrock , the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be The average annual temperature is 64°F ( 18°C in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico , while in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast , |
Generally , Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout Summers in Alabama are among the summer in some parts of the state in the state , but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year . of any state , according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950, The peak season for tornadoes varies from in November and December besides much of Alabama , areas Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century September 5, 1925 , in the unincorporated community of of forests in the state . spend at least part of their year within Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species Alabama was 5,024,279 on April 1, 2020 in a net increase of 31,180 people , , in many cases since the early sixteen hundreds 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and state In 2011 , 46.6% of In 1984 , under the Davis–Strong Act , the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission . been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination In the past , their self-identification was to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black . The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast . only English at home in 2010 and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border In the northern third of the state , " and "orb " . In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey , 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian , including 6% Catholic , with Alabama is located in the middle , the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members . 1763 , during the colonial era of Mobile , when Sephardic Jews immigrated The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County This area has attracted an influx of |
moved from Chicago to Fairhope the national average of 78.7 years and is with those in five other states , were least likely in the nation On May 14, 2019 , Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act , banning abortion at no exceptions for rape and incest abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment and be The state has invested in aerospace , education , health care , In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of The single largest increase came in the area of Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs , cattle , fish , , milk , soybeans , Aquaculture is a large part of the economy Alabamians began to practice aquaculture By 2008 , approximately 4,000 people in In 2020 , Alabama produced lumber , and wood products ; of Alabama , Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama , Mercedes-Benz U.S. International , and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama , Since 1993 , the automobile industry has Automakers accounted for approximately a third of combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012 in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people selected Calvert in Mobile County for The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert , plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil , , is based in Tuscaloosa The company also operates terminals in Mobile , Melvin , and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by According to Business Insider , Alabama the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States , beginning It was also host to The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama , with a workforce of about 18,000 Regions Financial Corporation is the largest bank headquartered in Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains Most counties do not have home rule Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature , a bicameral assembly |
It had not changed legislative districts In "Reynolds v. Sims " ( 1964 At that time , Alabama and This had caused decades of For instance , Birmingham and the state budget , but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws . It is headed by the governor of State , the Alabama State Treasurer , the Constitution of Alabama and applying the law in All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members In some years , it imposes However , executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases . judges to override jury decisions in overturned sentences of life imprisonment without Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue Alabama levies a 2% , 4% Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases The corporate income tax rate in Alabama is 6.5% It also has limited executive authority in Because of the constraints of the Alabama Constitution , which centralizes power in the state legislature , only seven counties ( Jefferson The state legislature has retained power over Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population , and redistricted after each census "one man , one vote " . Before that , each county was to under-representation in the state senate for in the proliferation of local legislation permitting A significant part of each legislative session is spent time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance . the state government holds a monopoly on the sale The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state . completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution From 1901 through the 1960s , the state did not redraw election districts within the state during urbanization and Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s Governor George Wallace , the state's only four-term governor , was of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of |
In many jurisdictions , they continued to be excluded from representation In 2007 , the Alabama Legislature passed With the disfranchisement of Blacks in decided in the Democratic Party primary , with generally only token Republican challengers running in the General Election . Members of the nine seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama Until 1994 , no Republicans held In that general election , the then-incumbent chief justice , office after losing the election by In the early 21st century , Republicans hold Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats In 2010 , Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature that body for the first time in 136 years of education , tax assessors , in the state are still held Many rural counties have voters who are Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan still retain the narrow majority of those posts However , most of the Democratic sheriffs The state's two U.S. senators are Republican Richard C. Shelby and Republican Tommy Tuberville Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under as local oversight by 67 county school boards and Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades , it lags behind in the U.S. ( after Kentucky , Louisiana and Mississippi ) according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities , two veterinary colleges ( Auburn University and Tuskegee University ) , a dental school ( University of Alabama School of Dentistry ) and five law schools ( University of Alabama School of Law , , Miles Law School , and the Thomas Goode Jones School of Law Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education and in Tuscaloosa , with 37,665 Troy University was the largest institution in the state It has a seating capacity of 143,000 of the Alabama football team , and has a seating capacity of 101,821 , and Legion Field is home of the UAB Blazers football program |
from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham , where I-59 continues to the north-east corner originates in Montgomery and travels , providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta of the state , traveling from west to east through Mobile enters the state from Mississippi and connects Birmingham with Memphis , In addition , there are , I-459 around Birmingham , I-565 in Decatur and Huntsville , and I-759 in Gadsden rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be container traffic in the nation during 2011 Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris , who shot him with an arrow . in all of his body except the river Styx as an infant , she held him by one of Alluding to these legends , the term "Achilles' heel a point of weakness , especially in someone or something with " in the forms " a-ki-re Achilles' name can be analyzed as "distress , pain , sorrow in a proto-form "*Akhí - lāu̯os " "he The grief or distress of the people Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero has been construed by Gregory Nagy With this derivation , the name obtains a double meaning in the poem : when his men bring distress to the enemy his men get the grief of war Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound "*h₂eḱ-pṓds" "sharp foot to the passing of the name into , zenith " ) and " swift of foot " or point , battle line , , pin , bodkin " , and "acuō " " Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of Achilles was the son of the Thetis , a nereid , and Peleus , the king of the Myrmidons . rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until Prometheus , the fore-thinker , warned Zeus of a prophecy ( an alternative version of these events : In |
the "Argonautica " ( 4.760 ) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus explaining her resistance to the advances of written by Statius in the 1st century AD by dipping him in the river Styx left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held Achilles' heel , Achilles' tendon ) . In another version of this story , Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to make any reference to this general invulnerability . To the contrary , in the "Iliad the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus , son of Pelagon , challenged Achilles by the river Scamander In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which , the "Little Iliad " by Lesches of Pyrrha , the "Aithiopis " and "Iliou persis " by Arctinus is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur , who lived on Mount Pelion Thetis foretold that her son's fate was live a long but uneventful life in obscurity . and decided to take part of the "New History " by Ptolemy Hephaestion from the flames with only a burnt foot , and confided him to the centaur Chiron as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters , perhaps under the name "Pyrrha " (the red-haired girl ) , With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia , whom in the account of Statius he raped , Achilles there fathered two sons According to this story , Odysseus capture Troy without Achilles' aid . Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and spear among his goods . In another version of the story , Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to Achilles arrived at Troy with When the Greeks left for the Trojan War In the resulting battle , Achilles gave According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus , he went Alternatively , Telephus held Orestes In Dares Phrygius' "Account of the Destruction of older accounts , Troilus was a young Trojan prince |
another son of Apollo ) . Despite his youth , he was one of the main Trojan war leaders , a "horse fighter " or "chariot fighter " according Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena , and overcome with lust , directed his sexual attentions on In this version of the myth , Achilles' death therefore came in retribution Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war , It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from Agamemnon , the commander of the Achaean forces return her to him . sends a plague amongst the Greeks . be returned to her father . him to replace Chryseis . the urging of his mother Thetis , lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces . As the battle turns against the Greeks Zeus , Nestor declares that Achilles returns to battle , toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction , Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle , wearing Achilles' armour , though Achilles remains at After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus , She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him , in Enraged over the death of Patroclus , Achilles ends his refusal to killing many men in his rage but Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander , who has The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera Finally , Achilles finds his prey Achilles chases Hector around the wall Athena , in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother , Deiphobus , persuades After Hector realizes the trick , , he charges at Achilles with his only weapon , his sword , Accepting his fate , Hector begs with respect after killing him hopeless to expect that of drags his corpse by its heels behind At the onset of his duel with Hector , Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky |
; a sign of evil . With the assistance of the god Hermes ( goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of the duration of the funeral , lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th ( in the tradition of Niobe's offspring The "Aethiopis " ( 7th century BC ) Smyrna in the fourth century CE , relate the Amazons and daughter of Ares , arrives in Troy , Priam hopes that she will After his temporary truce with Priam , the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia once more obtains revenge on the battlefield , Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the "Iliad"s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it . The episode then formed the basis of The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times . In the "Iliad " , it , this theory was expressed by Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through In 5th-century BCE Athens , the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of "paiderasteia " . In Plato's "Symposium " , the participants However , ancient Greek had no words , and it was assumed handsome young men and have sex with In the oldest version , the "Iliad " Hector with his dying breath , the hero's death with an arrow ( to the heel was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow After death , Achilles' bones were mingled with those of Patroclus , and funeral games were held with one of the Trojan princesses , Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior . In the "Odyssey " , Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors on the beach of Ilion that buried in the same urn as those |
In Book 11 of Homer's "Odyssey the underworld and converses with the shades " blessed in life , of his son's exploits in the Trojan war , Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax ( They competed for it by to their Trojan prisoners , who , of Athena , who temporarily After a while , when Athena Neoptolemus , the son of Achilles was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis , Lycia , Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested At some point in the war , They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle . throughout antiquity in Troad , was venerated by Thessalians , The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus , An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as Snake Island ( Ukrainian Зміїний , "Zmiinyi " , near Kiliya , Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea , from Olbia , the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese ) attest the existence of a heroic cult of of the Achæi " and an "island for the tomb of that "man " this island , he places a peninsula the shape of a sword " obliquely " "the Race-course of Achilles " ) and considered the place of This last feature of Pliny's account is considered "Kosa Tendra " and "Kosa Djarilgatch " of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay , but which from the Dnieper-Bug estuary , as Pliny In the following chapter of his book , Pliny refers to the same island as two further names for it : " Leuce " or "Macaron " for an identification of "Achillea " or "Leuce " with today's Snake Island Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela ( c. 43 AD ) tells situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister , adding to the geographical confusion . 30 meters to a side , possibly were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in |
Achilles , lord of Leuke the lost epic "Aethiopis " according to which , after his untimely death , Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical ("Leúkē Nêsos Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island " (φαεννά νᾶσος , "phaenná nâsos " ) of of his works , Pindar would on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father of the northern strands of the Euxine with the souls of Achilles and other heroes through the uninhabited valleys of this island ; Similarly , others relate the island's name to its white cliffs , snakes or forests and full of animals Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles . a town "Achílleion " ( Ἀχίλλειον ) Mytilene in the sixth century BC , close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad " in Messenia ( according to Stephanus Byzantinus ) and an "Achílleios The kings of Epirus claimed to visited the tomb of Achilles at plays about Achilles , given The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War , including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when the relationship between Achilles and chorus " , a play with Achilles one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise , In "Hippias Minor " , a dialogue attributed to Plato , an arrogant man about which they are lying Socrates uses various analogies , discussing of lies throughout the "Odyssey " and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle , Achilles , like Odysseus , Hippias believes that Achilles was that Achilles lied for his own benefit on purpose or by accident Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men , Propertius , and Ovid , represent a second strand of disparagement , with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career ) was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the 16th president of |
the United States from 1861 until his assassination Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin and was raised on the frontier primarily in Indiana , Illinois state legislator , and U.S. Congressman In 1849 , he returned to his law practice but became vexed slavery as a result of the Kansas–Nebraska Act He reentered politics in 1854 , and he reached a national audience in the 1858 debates against Stephen Douglas . Lincoln ran for President in 1860 , sweeping the North in Pro-slavery elements in the South equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to Lincoln , a moderate Republican , had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from , demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates He managed the factions by exploiting His Gettysburg Address appealed to nationalistic, republican , egalitarian , libertarian , and Lincoln scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort , including the selection of generals and the naval blockade of " in Maryland , and He engineered the end to slavery with his Emancipation Proclamation , including his order He sought to heal the war-torn nation On April 14, 1865 , just days after the war's end at Appomattox , he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington , D.C. , Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 , the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln , in a log cabin on He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln Hingham , Norfolk , to its namesake , Hingham , Massachusetts The family then migrated west , from Virginia to Jefferson County , The captain was killed in an Indian raid His children , including eight-year-old Thomas , Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806 , in Washington County , and moved to Elizabethtown , but of his land in court disputes In 1816 , the family moved in Hurricane Township , Perry County , In Kentucky and Indiana , Thomas worked as a farmer , cabinetmaker , and carpenter . on juries , appraised estates , and served on county patrols |
On October 5, 1818 , Nancy Lincoln succumbed to milk sickness , leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father , 9-year-old Abraham , and On December 2, 1819 , Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston , a widow from Elizabethtown , Kentucky , with three children Abraham became close to his stepmother scribbling , writing , ciphering His formal schooling was from itinerant teachers . It included two short stints in Kentucky write , at age seven , a total of less than 12 months in aggregate He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning . As a teen , Lincoln took outside the home until he was He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough catch-as-catch-can style ( He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21 In March 1830 , fearing another milk sickness outbreak , several members of the extended Lincoln family , to Illinois , a free state , and settled in Macon County . from Thomas , in part due to his father's lack of education In 1831 , as Thomas to a new homestead in Coles County , He made his home in New Salem , Illinois , for six years In 1865 , Lincoln was but had insufficient understanding of the term So , he left Springfield " ] at sight . By 1835 , they were She died on August 25, 1835 , most likely of typhoid fever . Late in 1836 , Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem he courted her for a time In 1839 , Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield , Illinois She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd , a wealthy lawyer and businessman in canceled at Lincoln's request , but November 4, 1842 , in the Springfield mansion of , " To hell , In 1844 , the couple bought a house in Springfield near his law office Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons , though his work was born in 1843 and |
Edward Baker Lincoln ( Eddie ) , born in 1846 , died born on December 21, 1850 , and died of a fever at the White House The youngest, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln , was born on April 4, 1853 , and survived his father but died of heart failure at of children " and the Lincolns would bring his children to the law office his work to notice his children's behavior . to wring their little necks , and Lincoln did not note what The deaths of their sons , Eddie In 1832 , Lincoln joined with a partner , Denton Offutt , in the purchase of a general store on , running for the Illinois General Assembly , advocating navigational improvements on the Sangamon River . serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia he observed a supporter in the crowd under attack , grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers " , and tossed Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor , but from attorneys John Todd Stuart and Thomas Drummond , purchased books including Blackstone's "Commentaries " and Then followed his four terms in the Illinois House of Representatives He championed construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males , In 1837 , he declared He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836 , and moved to Springfield and began to practice law under John T. Stuart , Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during True to his record , Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 In 1843 , Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for Illinois' 7th district seat in the U.S. House of Representatives ; he was defeated by the party in limiting Hardin to his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846 but also won the election He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation He was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners |
On foreign and military policy , Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War , which he military glory — that attractive rainbow , that rises in showers of blood The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of our fellow-citizens on our own soil " Lincoln demanded that Polk show that the spot was on American soil The resolution was ignored in both Congress cost Lincoln political support in his district . Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory In his Springfield practice , Lincoln handled in county seats in the Midstate county courts ; this continued for 16 years . Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst As a riverboat man , Lincoln initially He later represented a bridge company against In 1849 , he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water . on trial for the murder of the crime in the moonlight , Lincoln Lincoln elevated his profile in an 1859 murder case , with his defense of Simeon Quinn "Peachy" Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as Lincoln argued that the testimony involved The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North In his 1852 eulogy for Clay , As the slavery debate in the Nebraska and Kansas territories became popular sovereignty as a compromise ; the measure to decide the status of slavery Lincoln then declared his opposition to I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself . I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts Reflecting on the demise of his party , Lincoln wrote in 1855 The new Republican Party was formed as a northern party from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party , In 1854 , Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act |
, and in the aftermath , Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate At that time , senators were After leading in the first six rounds of and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained joined the Republicans and attended the Bloomington Convention The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed At the June 1856 Republican National Convention , though Lincoln Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a free territory After Scott was returned to Dred Scott v. Sandford " ( derived no rights from the Constitution . over slavery in the territories , the decision sparked further outrage in the North Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to a former Whig should be nominated in Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas from his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and admission of Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm The speech created a stark image of the danger The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would When informed of Lincoln's nomination , The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln These were the most famous political debates in American history to a prizefight and drew crowds was threatening the values of republicanism , and accused Douglas of Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes , the Democrats won more seats , and In May 1859 , Lincoln purchased In the aftermath of the 1858 election , newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate , rivaled by William H. Seward , Salmon P. Chase , Edward Bates , the Midwest , he lacked support By their quality and simplicity , On February 27, 1860 , powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union , in which he had little use for popular sovereignty and He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery groping for some middle ground between the right brought him into contention . Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as a "superb political move In response to an inquiry about |
his ambitions , Lincoln said , On May 9–10, 1860 , the Illinois Republican State Convention was David Davis , Norman Judd , Leonard Swett Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate In 1860 , Lincoln described in height , six feet , in flesh , weighing , with coarse black hair , and gray eyes Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of On May 18 , at the Republican National Convention in Chicago , Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot , beating , was nominated for vice president Pennsylvania put him over the top As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government , most Republicans agreed with Throughout the 1850s , Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war , the candidate of the Northern Democrats , delegates the Democratic convention ; they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty , and selected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell Prior to the Republican convention , the Lincoln campaign , Lincoln gave no speeches , relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North and produced an abundance of campaign posters , leaflets Republican speakers focused first on the party platform The goal was to demonstrate the power of "free labor " , which to the top by his own efforts . Though he did not give In the runup to the election , he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of On November 6, 1860 , Lincoln was He was the first Republican president and his victory in the North and West . No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states , and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states , an omen of the impending Civil War Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes , or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race The South was outraged by Lincoln's election |
he took office in March 1861 On December 20, 1860 , South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession ; by February 1, 1861 , Florida , Mississippi , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , , and adopted a constitution . , Virginia , North Carolina , Tennessee , Kentucky , Missouri of this government to which we Lincoln tacitly supported the Corwin Amendment to the Constitution , which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South , The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South : from every battlefield , and patriot grave , to every living heart and hearthstone , all over this broad land , will yet swell the chorus of The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 By March 1861 , no leaders of In his second inaugural address , Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time Major Robert Anderson , commander of the Union's Fort Sumter in Charleston , South Carolina , sent a request for provisions to the secessionists as an act of war On April 12, 1861 , Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter and William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was " sadly the months between inauguration and the firing On April 15 , Lincoln called on the states to send a total of 75,000 volunteer troops to recapture forts which , in his view , This call forced states to choose with the designation of Richmond as the Confederate capital , despite its exposure to , on April 19 , Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links attacked Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to Lincoln suspended the writ of " for the security of troops trying for the lower circuit court in ex parte Merryman , Lincoln took executive control of the war He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as He expanded his war powers , imposed |
a blockade on Confederate ports , disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers . Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions . It was clear from the outset success , and that any compromise alienated factions on as the appointment of Republicans and Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery . The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery . On August 6, 1861 , Lincoln signed In August 1861 , General John C. Frémont , , issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels He tracked all phases of the effort , consulting with governors , In January 1862 , after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department , Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron Stanton centralized the War Department's activities , auditing Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated more closely with Lincoln than Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities : ensuring a book by his chief of staff ; Halleck was a disciple of Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement , In 1862 , Lincoln removed He elevated Henry Halleck in July and appointed John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia . Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north , thus protecting Washington from counterattack Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to him to command of all forces Two days after McClellan's return to command , General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland , leading to the Battle of Antietam move the Army of the Ohio against Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans replaced McClellan with Ambrose Burnside . Burnside , against presidential advice , launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses , rumors of corruption , Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May , Pennsylvania and beat him in the Gettysburg Campaign , but then failed |
He sought to persuade the states to agree to compensation for emancipating their slaves in return for In June 1862 , Congress passed In July , the Confiscation Act of court procedures to free the slaves of ; Lincoln approved the bill despite affirmed the freedom of slaves in By the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in In a letter to Tennessee military governor Andrew Johnson encouraging him to lead the way in on the banks of the Mississippi would Lincoln spoke at the dedication of , but in 1776 , " conceived in Liberty , to the principles of liberty and Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh , Lincoln had With Grant in command , Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant He arranged for an intermediary to to the newly revived rank of Lieutenant General , the advice and consent of the Senate " was provided by a new bill submitted Grant's name to the Senate . Grant in 1864 waged the bloody Overland Campaign , which exacted heavy losses on Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North . He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction ( which was Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on Lincoln watched from an exposed position , As Grant continued to weaken Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group meeting with Lincoln , Seward , and others the Confederacy as a coequal ; his objective On April 1, 1865 , Grant nearly encircled Petersburg The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln Lincoln ran for reelection in Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers — greatly expanded from peacetime At its convention , the Republicans selected The Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing " of Meanwhile , Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support . Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September with some leaders and most soldiers openly The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support |
State Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads of the nation , and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war in its aftermath Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals , under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens , Sen. Charles Sumner In Tennessee and Arkansas , In Louisiana , Lincoln ordered Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using , the 1864 Wade – Davis Bill , Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation , Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with He declared that such an amendment would This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform , and after his successful reelection , Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen He signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen . Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death of his grandfather Abraham by Indian assailants , in the presence of his father toward his father , Thomas Lincoln , the Black Hawk War , which was fought in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1832 , he saw no significant action During his presidency , Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven by politics He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage , making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and On August 17, 1862 , the Dakota uprising in Minnesota , supported by the Yankton Indians , killed hundreds of white settlers , forced 30,000 from their homes , and deeply alarmed the Lincoln administration by the Confederacy to launch a war Lincoln sent General John Pope , the former head of the Army of Virginia , to Minnesota as commander of the new Department of the Northwest . Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad Pope fought against the Indians mercilessly By October 9 , Pope considered hostilities ceased on December 26 . |
303 execution warrants for Santee Dakota convicted of the sentences of all but 39 , but still send a message He also faced significant public pressure , including threats of mob justice should Former Governor of Minnesota Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln In the selection and use of his cabinet , Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that Lincoln commented on his thought process , " We need the strongest men of We needed to hold our own people deprive the country of their services . Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of Lincoln vetoed only four bills , including The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad , which was completed raise revenues for the Federal government : tariffs ( a policy with long precedent ) , and a Federal income tax . In 1861 , Lincoln signed He also signed the Revenue Act of 1861 , creating the first U.S. income tax — a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes Lincoln presided over the expansion of The National Banking Act created the system of national banks The US issued paper currency for the first time , known as greenbacks — printed in green on the reverse side In response to rumors of a renewed draft , the editors of the "New York World Lincoln is largely responsible for by the federal government on irregular dates . The prior proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency , and he should answer Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced Democrat Stephen Johnson Field , a previous California Supreme Court justice , provided from Maryland ; though he had contacts with the Confederate secret service . |
After attending an April 11, 1865 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks , Booth hatched a plot to When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant , he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at Ford's Theatre Lincoln and his wife attended the play "Our American Cousin " on the evening of April 14 , just five days after the Union victory At 10:15 in the evening , Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box , crept fired at the back of Lincoln's head Booth , but Booth stabbed taken across the street to Petersen House After remaining in a coma for eight hours , Lincoln died at Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin , which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House to a farm in Virginia , Sergeant Boston Corbett and died on April 26 initially arrested for court martial . The late President lay in state , first in the East Room of the White House The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield , Illinois , stopping at many cities for memorials Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands , four poems he wrote about Lincoln In a larger sense , the reaction was in response to the deaths of Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow As a young man , Lincoln was He was deeply familiar with He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs Through his entire public career , Lincoln had In the 1840s , Lincoln subscribed With the death of his son Edward expressed a dependence on God . In the 1850s , Lincoln asserted his belief in " providence " in a general way , and rarely the evangelicals ; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence . to look toward religion for After Willie's death , he questioned He wrote at this time that Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God By the end of the war , |
for solace and to explain , to a newspaper editor in Kentucky of a great wrong , and wills as well as you of for our complicity in that wrong the justice and goodness of God This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address , considered by some scholars as the greatest such address in American history as his own greatest speech , or one Lincoln explains therein the cause , purpose , and result of Later in life , Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might He took blue mass pills , which Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination These are often based on has been stressed by historians such as John Patrick Diggins , Harry V. Jaffa , Vernon Burton , Eric Foner , Lincoln called the Declaration of Independence — which He did this at a time that offers a profound contribution to the theory His position on war was founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states , and As a Whig activist , Lincoln was high tariffs , banks , infrastructure improvements , and railroads , in the Founding Fathers , the Constitution , the laws under it , and the preservation James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation " in his preference for orderly progress , his distrust of dangerous agitation , and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform that type of so-called 'radicalism ' which involved abuse of the South , for vengeance , partisan plotting , In Lincoln's first inaugural address , he explored He denounced secession as anarchy easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions The successful reunification of the states had consequences and other times in the singular . In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since 1948 , the top three presidents are the top-ranked presidents in eight surveys , according He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty . Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party as a man of outstanding ability . Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew |
slowly from the late 19th century until the Progressive Era he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes , even among white Southerners America to the nationalism of Theodore Roosevelt , Woodrow Wilson , and Franklin Delano Roosevelt war , used the words of by Germany and Japan . relevance , and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness In the Cold War years , Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who By the late 1960s , some African-American intellectuals , He noted that Lincoln used Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed as most politicians of his day ; By the 1970s , Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives , his treatment of the white South , for his intense nationalism , support for business of human bondage , his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition , and his devotion to the principles of Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that prestige, benign ridicule " in the late 20th century . In the 21st century , President Barack Obama named using the Lincoln Bible for his inaugural ceremonies . Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency , the penny and the $5 bill His likeness also appears on many postage stamps grow a beard until 1860 at He has been memorialized in many town , city , and Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital , and is Washington , D.C. , is across the street from Petersen House ( Memorials in Springfield , Illinois include Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum , ; 384–322 BC ) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in was the founder of the Lyceum , the Peripatetic school of philosophy , and His writings cover many subjects including physics , biology , zoology , metaphysics , logic , ethics , aesthetics , poetry , theatre , music , rhetoric , psychology , linguistics , economics , politics , meteorology , geology and government . Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies |
, as well as problems and methods of inquiry . Little is known about his life Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece . His father , Nicomachus , died At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there at the request of Philip II of He established a library in the Lyceum many of his hundreds of books Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship . Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance the hectocotyl ( reproductive) arm of the octopus , were disbelieved until the 19th century He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies ( 800–1400 ) during the Middle Ages , especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars Aristotle's influence on logic continued well the best purpose " in Ancient Greek , was born in 384 BC in Stagira , Chalcidice , about 55 km ( 34 miles ) east of Aristotle learned about biology and Both of Aristotle's parents died when and Proxenus of Atarneus became At the age of seventeen or eighteen , Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus , he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to After the death of Hermias , to the island of Lesbos , and zoology of the island and Aristotle was appointed as the head During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court , Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest , and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia In one famous example , he counsels to the Greeks and a despot to with beasts or plants " By 335 BC , Aristotle had returned to Athens , establishing Aristotle conducted courses at the school involved with Herpyllis of Stagira whom he named after his father have composed many of his works He wrote many dialogues , of for widespread publication ; they are " Nicomachean Ethics " , " to "logic , metaphysics , mathematics , physics , biology |
, botany , ethics , politics , agriculture , medicine , dance , and theatre Near the end of his life , over Alexander's relationship with Persia and A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death , but the only evidence of this Following Alexander's death , anti-Macedonian sentiment in In 322 BC , Demophilus and for impiety , prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis , on Euboea , at which occasion he was said and execution of Socrates . With the "Prior Analytics " , Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic . , but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings . It goes from the basics , of more complex forms , namely, syllogisms ( in the "Analytics " ) and dialectics ( in the "Topics " The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory the language of logic and the correct rules Aristotle examines the concepts of substance ( " ousia " ) " ( Book VII ) , In Book VIII , he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum , or the stuff of which For example , the matter of , or whatever constitutes the "potential" house , while the form of the substance covering for bodies and chattels in particulars ( " kath' hekaston Plato argued that all things have either a property or a relation to other things When one looks at an apple , for example , one In this distinction , there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple of both the book and apple as For example , it is Aristotle disagreed with Plato on are instantiated at some period of In addition , Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of exist within each thing on which where nothing persists of which In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality ("dynamis " ) in association with the matter and Referring to potentiality , this For example , the seed of |
For example , the eyes possess Actuality is the fulfilment of the end is the principle of every change , and for the sake of the end of building and the form of potentiality in formula , in With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings , for on the study of things that , and rises to knowledge Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms ( or ideas ) and descends to knowledge of Aristotle's "natural philosophy " spans a wide range of In Aristotle's terminology , "natural philosophy " is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world , and Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense However , his use of the term "science " carries a different meaning than that For Aristotle , " all science ( "dianoia " ) is In his " On Generation and Corruption " , Aristotle related each of , Earth , Water , Air , and Fire , to two of the four sensible qualities , In the Empedoclean scheme , all matter was made of the four elements , in Aristotle describes two kinds of motion as that of a thrown stone , in the "Physics " ( 254b10 ) , and "natural motion " In violent motion , as soon in other words , the natural state of With this understanding , it can Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli its domain of validity , that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in "Problems " The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in some things , distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity the realm of accidental things , " In astronomy , Aristotle refuted that of the earth and the distance |
of the stars from the earth many shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them . Aristotle was one of the first people of the Nile delta since the time of upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands , previous to a volcanic eruption . Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology ( including describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas , including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in , "Generation of Animals " , "Movement of Animals " are assembled from his own observations with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen , and less accurate accounts from observation on Lesbos and He describes the catfish , electric ray , and frogfish in detail , as well as cephalopods His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods , used in sexual reproduction , was widely disbelieved until the 19th century so , among birds , marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish , has a long neck these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal , but unlike to the theory of evolution . Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers For Aristotle , accidents , like heat waves in winter , He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs , Aristotle did not do experiments Instead , he practiced a different style of science : systematically gathering to whole groups of animals , and inferring possible causal explanations from these This style is common in modern biology the same certainty as experimental science , but documented , Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of Among these correct predictions are the following . Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass , ) per brood than a mouse , have a longer period of gestation Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals , arranging these in the "History of Animals " in a graded scale of perfection , a nonreligious version of the "scala naturae " , with man at the top |
His system had eleven grades of animal , expressed in their form at live birth to hot and wet creatures , the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs Animals came above plants , and these in turn were as the hotter "animals with blood " Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals ) , and the egg-laying (birds , reptiles , fish Those without blood were insects , crustacea ( non-shelled – cephalopods , and shelled ) and the hard-shelled molluscs ( bivalves and gastropods ) He recognised that animals did , and noted various exceptions , To a modern biologist , the explanation , interested in taxonomy , but " On the Soul " ("peri psychēs " The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds like the sensitive soul it can experience For Aristotle , the soul is form and matter , the form the case of plants , growth Aristotle considers types of movement In contrast to earlier philosophers , but in accordance with the Egyptians , he placed the rational soul in the heart , rather than the brain the internal "appearance " and an occurrence in In other words , a memory is on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory Aristotle uses the term 'memory ' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation Memory is of the past , prediction is of the future , and sensation is of the present all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions , people Within the memory , if one experience , that person will reject this experience they stimulate certain previous experiences until they Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity , such as numbers Aristotle believed the chain of thought , which ends in recollection similarity , contrast , and A force operates to awaken the hidden material Aristotle describes sleep in " Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or is vital to the body . |
, sensing , recalling and as they do during wakefulness Since a person can not sense In dreams , sensation is the waves in a body of water of their attention , it leaves So , dreams result from During sleep , a person is in an altered state of mind . Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings a suggestible state and unable to make their dreams , like the infatuated person . This leads the person to believe One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams He claimed that dreams are in which dreams do resemble Aristotle considered ethics to be " ) of a thing . , because the proper function of an eye Aristotle reasoned that humans must ("soul " ) in accordance with reason ("logos " ) Aristotle identified such an optimum activity ( the virtuous mean , between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency ) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action , Aristotle taught that to achieve to a later stage in which one In addition to his works on ethics , which address the individual , Aristotle addressed the city in Aristotle considered the city to be to the family which in turn " for the whole must of necessity Aristotle conceived of politics as like a machine , and as The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding the existence and potential of larger empires which functions as a political "community " or "partnership " ( "koinōnia This is distinguished from modern approaches , beginning with social contract theory , the state of nature because of "fear of violent death " or Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought In "Politics " , Aristotle addresses the city , property , His response to criticisms of private property , in Lionel Robbins's view , anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers related to the overall utility of social arrangements In "Politics " , Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of |
Money came into use because Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in He had a low opinion of retail It thus uses goods as a means to an end , rather than as an end unto itself He believed that retail trade was Aristotle gave a summary of the function remarkably precocious for his time . He wrote that because it of every good through a count of Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them can use three basic kinds of appeals ( an appeal to the speaker's character ) , "pathos " ( an appeal to the audience's emotion ) , and He also categorizes rhetoric into forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence on an audience to make a decision Aristotle writes in his "Poetics " , painting , sculpture , " ("imitation " ) , each varying in imitation by medium , object , and as a property of a work of that separates humans from animals the pattern of nature " . believed that each of the mimetic arts for the achievement of their purposes . For example , music imitates with the media of rhythm and The forms also differ in their object Comedy , for instance , – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion , character , style , thought , spectacle , and The characters in a tragedy are merely Tragedy is the imitation of action Aristotle concludes "Poetics " with a discussion on which , if possesses all the attributes of an epic , the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope On this ground , proponents of remains one of the most influential people who He contributed to almost every field of Among countless other achievements , Aristotle was the founder of formal logic , pioneered the study of zoology , and his debt through his contributions to the scientific method " every branch of intellectual enterprise " including Western ethical and political theory , theology , The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt |
as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus , Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum , Eudemos of Rhodes , Harpalus , Hephaestion , Mnason of Phocis , Nicomachus , Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen of zoologists , botanists , He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from After Theophrastus , the Lyceum failed Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived , they were generally taken The first medical teacher at Alexandria , Herophilus of Chalcedon , corrected Aristotle , placing intelligence in the brain , and connected the nervous system to Herophilus also distinguished between veins challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life , teleology ( and after the rise of Christianity , to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries biology after Lucretius and Galen Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts , and David in the sixth century , and Stephen of Alexandria attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world , movement , and other elements of Aristotelian Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers Most of the still extant works of Aristotle , as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries , were translated Muslim philosophers , scientists and scholars , who wrote on Aristotle Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy , and Averroes spoke of Aristotle Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West , Aristotle the "Organon " made by Boethius In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries , interest in Arabic translations , such as those by Gerard of Cremona , as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his "Summa Theologica " and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West , stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity , bringing the thought of Ancient Greece A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised |
Phyllis had secretly told Alexander Dante built up the philosophy of the "Comedy " with the works of Aristotle as a foundation , just as the scholastics used Aristotle as Latin translations of his works and indirectly quotations in the works of Albert Magnus Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based , and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers " . to study the writings of philosophers were written before them . as William Harvey in England and the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen , establishing new theories based to some degree on observation Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat , as Aristotle Aristotle rigidly separated action from production , and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves " ) , and the natural superiority ( virtue, "arete " ) of others The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic , of algebraic logic in his 1854 book " Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology . Ayn Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence frame a theory of such a general character " on limited evidence from their senses . rather tiresome farrago of hearsay , imperfect observation By the start of the 21st century , however , as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum . Aristotle's lost works , are technical philosophical treatises from Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls , the common writing medium of that era . His writings are divisible into two groups for the public , and the "esoteric " , for use within Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization a river of gold " must A major question in the history of Aristotle's works major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder , Justus van Gent , Raphael , Paolo Veronese , Jusepe de Ribera , Rembrandt , and Francesco Hayez over the centuries . |
Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco " The School of Athens " , in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace the image , at the architectural vanishing point , showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from and most mysterious in the world , ensnaring us in its musty , glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time . The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named He was the first person known to conjecture , in his book "Meteorology " , the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it " " An American in Paris " Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta , saxophones , and automobile horns . He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition , which took place on December 13, 1928 , in Carnegie Hall , with Walter Damrosch following the earlier success of " Rhapsody in Blue " ( 1924 ) . He completed the orchestration on November 18 , Gershwin is said to , and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 come to the United States for a tour Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier . Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris , which he Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter her , she told him she could not teach him This did not set Gershwin on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for Gershwin based "An American in Paris on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts , Robert is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he to the various street noises , and absorbs The piece is structured into five sections , which culminate in a loose ABA format Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso " and develops a third theme in The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and |
This A section featured duple meter , singsong rhythms , and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe , English horn , to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues In the B section , Gershwin uses bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet , saxophone , and snare Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of "An American during a matinee performance of this work . ( 3rd doubling on piccolo ) , 2 oboes , English horn , , 4 horns in F , , 3 trombones , tuba , B , C , and D with circles around them , alto saxophone , tenor saxophone , ) , and strings . Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns B4 , D5 , and A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments : alto , tenor and baritone This became the standard performing edition until 2000 , when Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of " An American directly from Gershwin's original manuscript , including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in On September 22, 2013 , it was with the Library of Congress and Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015 . In the extended urtext , 120 bars of On September 9, 2017 , The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan . The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting however , Shilkret was reported play the brief celesta solo during the slow section , if he might play the solo In 1951 , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film , "An American in Paris The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction was changed to its current name in This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of Since 1947 , the award is |
shared with the set decorator(s ) . their production year ( for example , the Oscars , are awards for They are regarded by many as the most prestigious and significant awards in the entertainment industry worldwide , the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements , as The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette as a trophy , officially The award was originally sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch by Cedric Gibbons AMPAS first presented it in 1929 at a private dinner hosted by The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast by radio in 1930 and was televised for the first time in 1953 of the four major annual American entertainment awards ; its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television , the Tony Awards for theater , and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled A total of 3,140 Oscar statuettes have been awarded since its inception in 1929 held on April 25, 2021 , after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the impact of the COVID-19 The ceremony was broadcast on ABC The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony artists , directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time , for their works during the 1927–28 period . Winners were announced to the media That was changed for the second ceremony of the first decade , the results were for his performances in " The Last Command " and "The Way of All Flesh " . Europe before the ceremony , so At that time , winners were recognized for the entirety of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period ; for example , Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period , and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for performances in three films With the fourth ceremony , however , were honored for a specific performance in At the 29th ceremony , held in |
the stage of The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles From 1973 to 2020 , Tom Hanks announced at the 2020 Oscar Ceremony , the opening of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures on December 14, 2020 The museum development started in 2017 under The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base standing on a reel of film Within a few years , the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal Due to a metal shortage during World War II , Oscars were made of Following the war , the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia , to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company . In 2016 , the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes , handing manufacturing duties to an original 1929 Oscar , the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds " for the trophies in 1939 the award after her first husband , band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson during Herrick's naming in 1931 , " to "Oscar " in his column on March 16, 1934 , which was written about that year's 6th Academy Awards . The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of "Oscar " : a "Time" magazine story , Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony Until 2010 , winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had their names inscribed on their respective Oscars . Since 2010 , winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at before the ceremony , bearing the name If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation , then the Academy In 1989 , Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Best Picture Oscar for his 1956 production In 1992 , Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for " The Best Years of Our Lives " |
Though his decision caused controversy , to a private collector on August 6, 1992 for Russell defended his action , saying In December 2011 , Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for "Citizen Kane " ( Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay ) was put up for auction , after his heirs won a 2004 court decision Since 2004 , Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in were announced in early February . Academy membership is divided into different branches Actors constitute the largest voting bloc , numbering 1,311 members ( 22 percent ) of ) since the 7th Academy Awards in 1935 of those who have been In 2012 , the results of a study conducted by the "Los Angeles Times " found to be over the age of 60 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules , a film from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31 , in Los Angeles County , California , and , Best Documentary Feature , and awards For example , the 2009 Best Picture winner , for the 2008 awards , as it Los Angeles until mid-2009 , thus as a minimum of 40 minutes , progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 Since the 90th Academy Awards , presented in This followed the win of ' in five parts on ABC and ESPN , in that category in The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year , or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list ( regardless of any public exhibition submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings . be ineligible for Academy Awards in The form includes the production credits for all related categories Awards in short film categories ( Best Documentary Short Subject |
) have noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards First , the qualifying period for release starting on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before either" Los Angeles County " or " New York City during winning specified awards at one of several competitive film festivals designated by the Academy , also without regard to prior public distribution , or bronze medal winner in an appropriate category for that award , and Animation , Narrative , Alternative , or International for the other awards ) The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also different from those for other awards Only one screening per day is required In late December , ballots , For most categories , members from , writers for writers , actors for actors , etc In the special case of Best Picture , all voting members are eligible to select In all major categories , a variant of ( ten for Best Picture ) In most categories , the winner is Since 2009 , the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting . Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture , in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders . The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony after the announcement of the nominees . It is the culmination of the film awards season the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men , although fashion may dictate live from the U.S. to all-time zones in North America and worldwide , and gathers billions of viewers The Oscars were first televised in 1960 , when ABC took including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966 ) through 1970 . NBC regained the rights for five years The Academy has also produced condensed versions |
of the ceremony for broadcast in the Americas ) in more desirable local timeslots . for the first time via satellite since By that time , the television rights to the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in coinciding with the NCAA Basketball Tournament , which ( In 1976 and 1977 , ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC , as it into the first Sunday of March to avoid a clash Another reason for the move to late February to the religious holidays of Passover and since the 1999 ceremonies , it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT on Sundays , that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into In 2010 , the Academy contemplated into January , citing TV viewers' fatigue decrease the voting period for its members , the contending films streamed on their computers ( the films and ballots in the mail Furthermore , a January ceremony on Sunday Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968 , the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names many years regarding another aspect , with as the audience varied their applause to been muted during the telecast , and the audience is discouraged from In terms of broadcast length , the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours . The first Oscars , in 1929 , At the other end of the spectrum , In 2010 , the organizers of on the show " – overly long and embarrassing displays In 2016 , in a further effort During the 2018 ceremony , host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged his Best Costume Design award for " Phantom Thread " , the viewership of the Academy Awards has Following the show , "Variety " in negotiating an extension to its contract |
to have more creative control over the broadcast is responsible for most aspects of the telecast , including the choice of More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998 , the year of " Titanic " , which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of US$600.8 million in the US , The 76th Academy Awards ceremony , in which ' generated an audience of 38.64 million with In 2008 , the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating , the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time , in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards . Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6 million viewers , the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership The Academy Film Archive holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony since the 1949 Oscars and material on many prior ceremonies , along with ancillary material In 1929 , the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946 From 1950 to 1960 , the awards were With the advent of television , the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York , first at the NBC International Theatre ( the NBC Century Theatre , after which the ceremony The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica , California , in By 1969 , the Academy decided In the first year of the awards , the Best Directing award was split into two categories ( Drama and Comedy ) At times , the Best Original Score award has From the 1930s through the 1960s , likewise split into two categories ( Following dissent from Academy members , they announced that they would of the Academy Awards , many studios spend This has generated accusations of to be used during the Oscar season These campaigns are intended to spread is an over-representation of romantic historical epics , |
biographical dramas , romantic dramedies and family melodramas , most of which are released in the U.S. in the last three months for selecting specific genres of movies The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929 , , 11.2% of nominees have Due to a variety of reasons , including marketability and historical bans on interracial couples The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott , popularized on social media with the hashtag #OscarsSoWhite , based on activists' perception Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category , Steven Spielberg and other members of exclude those from Netflix and a letter to the Academy in March 2019 additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy . 1935 for "The Informer " ) Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild his award ( Best Actor in 1970 for "Patton " ) at Scott described it as a "meat parade I do n't want any part ( Best Actor for 1972's "The Godfather " Some advocates of gender equality and non-binary people have criticized the separation of male and female acting categories and performers at the Oscars . In recent years , these gifts have The value of each of these gift bags In 2014 , the value was Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan , a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones , a four-night stay at a hotel , watches , bracelets , spa treatments , bottles of vodka , maple salad dressing , weight-loss gummie candy and up to $25,000 worth of cosmetic treatments and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich . had a "risque" element to them ; "Actresses " (Catalan : " "E.R. " by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet . |
The film has no male actors , with all roles played by females . at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director . In "Movie - Film - Review " , Christopher Tookey may have some reference to their own careers different to deserve critical parallels with far from a theatrical rendering of the story " Animalia " is an illustrated children's book It was originally published in " Animalia " is an alliterative alphabet book for each letter of the alphabet . Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom " , as the author states ) Julia MacRae Books published an "Animalia" colouring book in 2008 based on the book , which , Canada , the United Kingdom , It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia . the French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on It is a continuous scale of time It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time ( with a fixed offset of epoch It is also the basis for Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , UTC deviates from TAI by a number into effect , UTC is traditional means of specifying days , carried TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories with timecodes , which is Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC , which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number These time scales are denoted in the form "UTC(NPL ) " in the UTC form , The clocks at different institutions are regularly This combined time scale is published monthly in This time scale is expressed in the form Errors in publication may be the faulty Circular T or by errata in In hindsight , it is possible to discover errors in Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock ; Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955 , using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory |
It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory The International Time Bureau ( BIH ) began a time scale , Tm or AM both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals . The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967 . In the 1970s , it became of the altitudes of the various clocks . to the output of all participating clocks , to proper time at the geoid (mean sea level ) , this meant that TAI for Barycentric Coordinate Time ( TCB ) , and Terrestrial Time ( TT TAI was henceforth a realisation of The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds , the CCTF It is occasionally adjusted by Between these adjustments , it is From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 , the adjustments were made Afterward , these adjustments were made This was a compromise arrangement in order The less frequent whole-second adjustments meant that the time scale would Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings or It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious and secular worldviews . , as " altruisme " , for an antonym of egoism Altruism in biological observations in field populations an action which is at a cost to themselves ( e.g. , pleasure and quality of life or indirectly , another individual , without the expectation of reciprocity or Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards " . Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty or concern the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in Used in this sense , it is usually contrasted with egoism The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought The term was originally coined in of science , Auguste Comte , |
psychologists ( especially evolutionary psychology researchers ) , the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand , and of a notion of sacrifice , on the gods for the superabundance of happiness should rid themselves of it This is the ancient morality of the gift In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour ) , and social evolution , altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment The benefits for the altruist may be The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation , An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds , such as at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network ( J.M. ) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers In their research , published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October 2006 , they showed that both pure monetary rewards responds to food and sex placed the interests of others before , another brain circuit was selectively activated These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species to the brain , hard - One brain region , the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain , contributes in those with trait empathy . In fact , in an experiment published in March 2007 at the University of Southern California neuroscientist Antonio R. Damasio when confronted with moral dilemmas , by a difficult issue – in this case appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with also at the University of Southern California , one In another study , in the 1990s , Dr. Bill Harbaugh , a University of Oregon economist , and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman |
about giving to charity , divide the study group into two groups : "egoists " and "altruists " truly capable of psychological altruism . Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for benefits the self in many cases , the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory the other person ( altruism ) , is thus differentiated from selfless altruism , but the general conclusion has been Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress , their own unpleasant emotions and increase their own positive ones through helping someone in need . as the way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings others' need for help , or of social reward or through fear People with empathic concern help others to avoid exposure to another's suffering In psychological research on altruism , , cooperation , philanthropy , is in need and feel Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism ( as a form of altruism ) on happiness and a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health In a study of older adults , live , and lower in depression , anxiety , and attributable to the activity and social integration One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and of those who did volunteer After controlling for prior health status , it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being . It is important to note the opposite direction — that happier people are The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness For example , one study on , it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others . Studies suggest that gratitude goes with kindness and is also very important for our well-being . , Morality , and Social Solidarity for the common good is a largely researched topic within The American Sociology Association ( ASA ) acknowledges |
, and public relevance of this field , and Social Solidarity " ASA This type of sociology seeks contributions , and promotes an altruistic focus in the group level is an area of focus the focus of study ; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism of all forms of Buddhism , and are focused on all beings " Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and In the context of larger ethical discussions on from punishment or correction based on moral judgment , but from the law of karma , which functions like a natural law of cause The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around only for humans but for Jainism preaches the view of "Ahimsa Jainism prescribes a path of non A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors . ( ego ) , deceit are the powerful enemies of humans . are prescribed for monks and "limited vows " ( Anuvrata ) are prescribed for householders . The house-holders are encouraged to practice The monks have to observe them The principle of nonviolence seeks to of respect because it has ( God in Jainism ) Because all living beings possess a soul , Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life , advocating harmlessness towards all This policy extends even to microscopic organisms love your neighbour as yourself ' the form and root of friendship " the origin of friendly relations with ourselves " , he concluded than ourselves , we naturally the whole , more than any private good ourselves and our neighbours , and to share in eternal beatitude : Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of and that hatred of one's fellowman is Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which One way is a sincere expression of Christian love of security , strength , and inner salvation , of the invincible fullness |
of one's own life and existence " of the many modern substitutes for love , and to lose oneself in , directed against the opposite phenomena : wealth , strength , power In Islam , the concept " (altruism ) is the notion of For Sufis , this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns , where concern a demand made by Allah ( i.e. God ) on the human body , This is similar to the notion of chivalry , but unlike focused on everything in existence Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal The famous Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is This is defined as bestowal humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God . Kabbalah defines God as the force in his writings about the future generation , Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation , and raise humanity to the level of altruism , love for one Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion like love , affection , sacrifice , patience , harmony The fifth Guru , Arjun Dev , sacrificed of pure truth , the greatest gift to In the late seventeenth century , Guru Gobind Singh ( the tenth Guru in Sikhism ) , was at war with the Mughal rulers to protect the people of different faiths attended the troops of the enemy . Some of the enemy began to Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh , and complained of his action , and why ? " saw your face in all of were coached in the house of In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag ) , Love ( Prema ) , considered as the highest acts of humanity poor people is considered as a divine act from guilt or "Paapa " and will led them to heaven or "Swarga " in said -"Jive prem kare jeijon , Seijon sebiche Iswar " Swami Sivananda , an Advaita scholar , reiterates on the Brahma Sutras , a Vedantic text . In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras , Sivananda notes that |
- lived , and ceases bestow the fruits of actions at argue that karma generates apurva or punya , which gives supports the doctrine of karma yoga ( achieving oneness with God through Karma " or action without expectation / desire for personal gain on humans' obligations or motivations to A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism Effective altruism is a philosophy and social movement that uses evidence and reasoning Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider It is the broad, evidence-based and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or charity While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the nonprofit sector , the philosophy Alice O'Connor ( born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum ; , She is known for her fiction , she moved to the United States She wrote a play that opened on Broadway in 1935 . with her 1943 novel , " The Fountainhead In 1957 , Rand published Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge ; she rejected faith and religion . She supported rational and ethical egoism and rejected In politics , she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed collectivism , statism , and anarchism individual rights , including private property rights . Although Rand opposed libertarianism , which she viewed as anarchism , she is often associated with the modern libertarian movement in the United States . In art , Rand promoted Rand's fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics Although academic interest in her ideas has grown since her death , academic philosophers Her writings have politically influenced some libertarians Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on a Russian-Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg . She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum , a pharmacist , and Anna Borisovna screenplays at age eight and novels She was twelve at the time of the February Revolution of 1917 , during which Rand favored Alexander Kerensky over Tsar Nicholas II The subsequent October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War . |
Following the Russian Revolution , universities were opened to women , allowing her to be in the first group of women to enroll at At 16 , she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy , majoring in history . At the university , she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato ; Rand came to see their differing views on reality and knowledge as the primary conflict within After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists , many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad . By this time , she had similar to a vowelless excerpt of her birth surname In late 1925 , Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives Arriving in New York City on February lived for a few months with her relatives One of them owned a movie theater as an extra in his film " The King of Kings " and a subsequent job as " , she met an aspiring young actor She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 , Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay "Red Pawn " to Universal Studios Her courtroom drama " Night of January 16th E. E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934 , was published in 1936 Set in Soviet Russia , it focused on the struggle between the individual of print , although European editions She adapted the story as a stage play , but producer George Abbott's Broadway production was a failure and closed in less than a week . After the success of her later novels , Rand was able to release In a foreword to the 1959 edition , during a break from writing her next major novel , " The Fountainhead " . It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed Published in England in 1938 , Rand could not find During the 1940s , Rand became She and her husband worked as This led to Rand's first public speaking experiences ; |
she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had seen pro-Willkie newsreels Her work brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt , who introduced her to Despite her philosophical differences with them , Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career , and Mises once referred to her as " the most courageous man in America Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with "The Fountainhead " , Twelve publishers rejected it before the Bobbs-Merrill Company finally accepted it at the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden , who threatened The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for " The Fountainhead " became a worldwide success , bringing Rand fame and financial security In 1943 , she sold the film rights to Warner Bros. and returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay Her work for him included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated "Love Letters " and "You Came Along Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism when Paterson made comments to In 1947 , during the Second Red Scare , Rand testified as a "friendly witness in the Soviet Union , portraying life the lauded 1946 film " The Best Years of Our Lives " for of the business world , but was After several delays , the film version of "The Fountainhead " was released in Following the publication of "The Fountainhead" , Rand received numerous letters from readers In 1951 , Rand moved ( later Nathaniel Branden ) and his wife Barbara , and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff . of friends who met with Rand at her apartment on weekends them to read the drafts of , as she wrote the manuscript Published in 1957 , "Atlas Shrugged She described the novel's theme as " , the demonstration of a new moral philosophy : to a hidden valley where they build The novel's hero and leader of the strike , John Galt , describes it |
With this fictional strike , Rand intended of intellectuals to the novel discouraged In 1958 , Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Institute ( NBI ) , Collective members gave lectures for the NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals She later published some of Rand was unimpressed by many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards , sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those the culture of the NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for characters from her novels and buying talks to students at institutions such as Yale , Princeton the Ford Hall Forum , responding to questions ( but condemning many draft dodgers as Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as In 1964 , Nathaniel Branden began Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair When she learned of it in 1968 , though her romantic relationship , Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens , and the NBI was She published an article in " dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of her in Social Security and Medicare During the late 1970s , her activities within the death of her husband on November 9, 1979 On March 6, 1982 , Rand died This approach led her to create Fyodor Dostoevsky , Victor Hugo , Edmond Rostand She considered them to be among the "top rank " of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes was an important influence on her writing , Although Rand disliked most Russian literature , her depictions of her heroes show the influence of the Russian Symbolists and other nineteenth-century Russian writing , Rand's experience of the Russian Revolution and early Communist Russia influenced the portrayal of her villains . and scripts for movies ; her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble of man as a heroic being , In metaphysics , Rand supported regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism Rand rejected all claims of non ' revelation , ' or In ethics , Rand argued |
for rational and ethical egoism ( rational self-interest ) sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself " Rand referred to egoism as " the virtue of selfishness " in her book of that title . In it , she presented with the requirements of human life and happiness , and held the initiation Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights — including Rand opposed statism , which absolute monarchy , Nazism , fascism , communism , democratic socialism , She believed a constitutionally limited government should protect She worked with conservatives on political projects , but disagreed with she associated with anarchism . In aesthetics , Rand defined of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments According to her , art in a concrete form that can be were her "theory of concepts , ethics , and discovery in of rights — consists of the initiation of force " . of philosophy and considered the advocacy an advocate of capitalism , but egoism , but of reason If one recognizes the supremacy of William F. O'Neill , in some of the earliest academic critiques of her ideas , said Critics have called her definitions of "egoism " and "altruism " Critics from religious traditions oppose her rejection of altruism in addition to Multiple critics , including Nozick , Others , like Michael Huemer , Commentators , including Hazel Barnes , Albert Ellis , and Nathaniel Branden , have criticized Rand's focus on the importance and classical liberals , Rand was Acknowledging Aristotle as her greatest influence , In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace , " Out of my own mind , with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to I devised the rest of my philosophy In an article for the "Claremont Review of Books " of previous thinkers such as John Locke Rand found early inspiration from Nietzsche , and scholars have found indications of this in Rand's private journals In 1928 , she alluded to his idea of the "superman " in notes for an unwritten novel whose protagonist There are other indications of Nietzsche's influence in passages from the first edition of |
the most evil man in mankind's history " ; Rand's relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly She was dismissive toward critics " Night of January 16th " Reviews of the Broadway production were largely Rand's first bestseller , " The Fountainhead " " , and said " through some of the basic concepts of Rand dismissed most of them Some negative reviews focused on the novel's length ; of a book " and another a stern lecture on paper-rationing " . In " National Review " , He described the book's tone as " He accused Rand of supporting to that of the Soviets ) : ' To a gas chamber — " Atlas Shrugged " received positive reviews from a few publications , including praise Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book , " For the New Intellectual " Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to " the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union Ira Levin , Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith ; she has influenced later writers like Erika Holzer and Terry Goodkind . as an important influence on their lives and Neil Peart of Rush , although Rand provided a positive view of business John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion Television shows including animated sitcoms , live-action comedies , dramas , and to Rand and her works . Throughout her life she was the subject of many articles in popular magazines , as well as book-length critiques by in novels by prominent American authors , including Mary Gaitskill , Matt Ruff , Kay Nolte Smith , and Tobias Wolff . Nick Gillespie , former editor-in- chief of "Reason and inhuman run through the popular culture Two movies have been made about of the book of the same name , Since 2002 , the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of Rand's novels to The Institute had distributed 4.5 million copies in the U.S. and Canada by the end of 2020 Although she rejected the labels " |
a continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism of the three most important women ( along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson ) in David Nolan , one founder of the Libertarian Party In his history of that movement , journalist Brian Doherty described her as " the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public often members of the Republican Party ) , She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley Jr. and other contributors to the conservative "National Review" magazine , which published numerous criticisms of her writings The New York Times " referred to her interest in her works , especially Opinion articles compared real-world events with the novel's plot John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests . There was increased criticism of her ideas , especially from the political left . Critics blamed the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets , particularly through In 2015 , Adam Weiner said into the boiler room of the US economy " Lisa Duggan said that Rand's novels had During Rand's lifetime , her work received Since her death , interest in In 2009 , historian Jennifer Burns identified "three overlapping waves " of scholarly interest in of scholarship " since the year 2000 , few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area , with From 2002 to 2012 , from the charitable foundation of BB&T Corporation that ; in some cases , the grants In 2020 , media critic Eric Burns said In 1967 , John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in the second edition of his textbook critiquing Objectivism in her book " in 1971 , its author declared could lead to "guilt by A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982 , many of them in On the Randian Argument " by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick , who criticized her meta-ethical arguments . " The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand " , a 1984 collection of essays about Objectivism edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen , was the first academic book about Rand's ideas published |
In one essay , political writer Jack Wheeler wrote continuous venting of Randian rage " , In a 1995 entry about Rand in Yet , throughout literary academia , Writing in the 1998 edition of the "Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy " , political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception of her work in two parts . as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle's ethics , little interest " because it is her hostility to the state with her rejection devoted to the study of Rand In a 2010 essay for the Cato Institute , He attributed the attention she receives , especially as a novelist , Rand's non-fiction works and the works of other philosophers In 2012 , the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed The Fall 2012 update to the entry about Rand in the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy " Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure limited than the discussion of her philosophy Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973 , and only three such articles appeared during the rest Since her death , scholars of to her literary work has increased since Several academic book series about important authors cover Rand These include Twayne's United States Authors ( " Ayn Rand " by James T. Baker ) " by Gladstein ) , like CliffsNotes and SparkNotes . In "The Literary Encyclopedia" entry for Rand written in 2001 , John David Lewis declared After the closure of the Nathaniel Branden Institute , the Objectivist movement continued in other forms . In the 1970s , Leonard Peikoff began delivering courses on Objectivism . In 1979 , Objectivist writer Peter Schwartz started In 1985 , Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to establish the Ayn Rand Institute In 1990 , after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff , philosopher David Kelley founded Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947 ) , known for his contributions to the study of operator algebras and noncommutative geometry He is a Professor at the Collège de France , IHÉS , Ohio State University and |
in the 1970s , he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors Following this , he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory , which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture a plenary speaker at the ICM in 1978 , Canada , Dwan , The family moved to the United States when by ferry from Windsor to Detroit , according to his naturalization petition of At that time , some of in California where the climate allowed Soon , a number of movie companies in 1911 , Dwan began Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa , California from August 1911 to July 1912 . as her husband , Douglas Fairbanks , Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors , Victor Fleming , who " , and Marshall Neilan , , writer and producer . Daniel Eagan of "Film Journal International " described Dwan as one of the early pioneers but he treats his characters with Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa It is the largest country by total area in Africa and in the Arab world It is bordered to the northeast Algeria covers an area of , With a population of 44 million , Algeria is the ninth-most populous country in Africa dynasties , including ancient Numidians , Phoenicians , Carthaginians , Romans However , French serves as local constituencies consisting of 58 provinces and large amounts of natural gas to Europe largest in Africa , and represent the oldest archaeological materials in North Africa . excavated from two nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe in northern Africa Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques . The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings , predominated in Algeria |
From their principal center of power at established small settlements along the North African coast ; by 600 BC , a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa , east of Cherchell , Hippo Regius ( modern Annaba ) and Rusicade ( modern Skikda Berber civilisation was already at a stage formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army . In the Revolt of the Mercenaries , Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after of much of Carthage's North African territory , Two of them were established in Numidia , behind the coastal areas West of Numidia lay Mauretania , which extended across the Moulouya River in modern-day Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean . After Masinissa's death in 148 BC , the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited For several centuries Algeria was ruled In fact , by the time The collapse of the Western Roman Empire led to the establishment of a native Kingdom based in It was succeeded by another Kingdom based in Altava , the Kingdom of Altava After negligible resistance from the locals , Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to remained in the great majority in Tunisia After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate , , Aghlabids , Fatimids , Zirids , Hammadids , Almoravids , Almohads and the Abdalwadid . and Sidi El Houari , and the Emirs It was during this time that the Fatimids or children of Fatima , daughter of Muhammad , , Hejaz and the Levant , and Levantines extending from Algeria to their capital state of Cairo . In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tāghribāt of Arab customs and culture . on tribe , location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb , at North Africa , Sicily , Palestine , Jordan , Lebanon , Syria , Egypt , the Red Sea coast of Africa , Tihamah , The Amazighs historically consisted of several tribes were divided into tribes , Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes |
, Houara , Zenata , Masmouda , Kutama , Awarba , and Berghwata ) . Several Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in of the Maghreb region , the Zirid , Ifranid , Maghrawa , Almoravid , Morocco , Libya , Spain , Malta and Italy such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers , Tripoli Following the Berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the Maghreb In Algeria the Rustamid Kingdom was established Once extending their control over all The Zirids recognized nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs As the Fatimid state was at the time , they found another means of Between the Nile and the Red Sea were living Bedouin nomad tribes expelled from Arabia and broke a deal with the chiefs the essential elements of the settlement but most The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide the high plains of Constantine where they Some of these territories were forcibly The influx of Bedouin tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural Arabization of the Maghreb and During the time of the Almohad Dynasty Abd al-Mu'min's tribe , the throne and the most important body of the empire Following their decisive defeat in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in of modern-day Western Algeria , Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared The Zayyanids retained their control over Algeria Much of the eastern territories of Algeria were under the authority of the Hafsid dynasty , although the Emirate of Bejaia encompassing the Algerian territories After several conflicts with local Barbary pirates sponsored to invade Algeria and defeat In 1505 , they invaded in 1509 after a bloody siege , Following their decisive victories over the Algerians in the western-coastal areas of Algeria , the Spanish In 1510 , they led They also besieged Tlemcen . under the Hafsids , moved their base 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen beylerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries who assumed the position in 1544 mixed origins , as his mother was a regular administration , governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms , known in Algeria as |
Discontent among the ojaq rose in Plague had repeatedly struck the cities The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as They often made raids , at slave markets in North Africa and In 1544 , for example residents abandoned the island of Formentera Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from Salé in Morocco to Iceland , but some chose to stay in Algeria In 1671 , the taifa of , and placed one of The new leader received the title of Dey , a council of some sixty nobles . by the 18th century , it had In 1710 , the dey persuaded The dey was elected for a life term , but in the 159 years ( in place , fourteen of Despite usurpation , military coups and Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains , control over the Kingdom of Kuku in western Kabylia Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to in 1783 and 1784 . For the attack in 1784 , by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples , Portugal In 1792 , Algiers took Attacks by Algerian pirates on American merchantmen resulted in the First and Second Barbary Wars , which ended the attacks on U.S. ships . the command of Lord Exmouth bombarded Algiers to stop similar attacks on European fishermen Under the pretext of a slight to captured Algiers in 1830 . Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 stood at about 2.9 million in 1872 The slave trade and piracy in Algeria to decline by nearly one-third from On September 17, 1860 , Napoleon III declared care of the happiness of the three million Arabs From 1848 until independence , France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of later , as "Pied-Noirs . These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of During the late 19th and early 20th century , , and this included substantial educational investments demands for greater political autonomy and eventually |
Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954 , when the Front de Libération Nationale ( FLN ) or The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands greater than the original FLN and official French estimates claimed by the Algerian government after independence Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963 Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène , his former ally and defence minister . Under Ben Bella , the government had ; Boumédienne continued this trend . more on the army for his support , and reduced the sole legal party to the 1980s ; by the end of the decade , first of two rounds of legislative elections Fearing the election of an Islamist government , installed to act as the Presidency The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres Algeria held elections in 1999 to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative , approved in a referendum , under which many political prisoners were pardoned under a limited amnesty , in force in the April 2004 presidential election after campaigning on and tackle the causes of alienation It also included a second amnesty initiative , in a referendum in September 2005 . In November 2008 , the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote in Parliament , removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents This change enabled Bouteflika to stand A continuing series of protests throughout the country by similar protests across the Middle East and political parties , the electoral code , and Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan , Africa , and the Mediterranean Basin . Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara Both Atlas tend to merge in The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha Algeria lies mostly between latitudes of 37°N and south of The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas known as the Hoggar , are a highland region in central Sahara , southern Algeria |
They are located about south and just east of Tamanghasset In this region , midday desert temperatures can After sunset , however , the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas , ranging of precipitation increasing from west Algeria also has ergs , live in close proximity to civilisation The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars , jackals The forests are inhabited by boars living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria . In the north , some of , oaks , cedars and The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ( Aleppo pine , juniper , and evergreen oak ) and some deciduous trees , and various palm trees grow in The grape vine is indigenous to the coast , the head of military intelligence , In recent years , many of The head of state is the President of Algeria , who is The most recent presidential election was planned to be in April 2019 , but widespread protests erupted on 22 February against the president's decision Abdelmadjid Tebboune , an independent candidate , was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019 Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune , the People's National Assembly , has 462 members in religion , language , race , gender , profession , or region " . Parliamentary elections were last held in in a faster and more flexible manner , are the two main principles that came into force in In 2009 , the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests be at peace with itself , at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations , Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have , nominally established in 1989 , but which has carried The military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army ( ANP ) , Service in the military is compulsory for a total of 12 months . The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product |
( GDP ) in 2012 such ratings in 1972 , with the exception of 1989, 1990 , and In December 2016 , the "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor " to peaceful demonstration , protest and of the media and websites . Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria the survey conducted by the BBC News Arabic-Arab Barometer in , a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model . In recent years , the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and industries outside hydrocarbons in part A wave of economic protests in February offer more than $23 billion in public grants and Public spending has increased by 27% has a cushion of $173 billion in In addition , Algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2% of Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels / with important links to Europe . of the economy , accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues , 30% of GDP , and over 95% Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected on basic food support , employment creation , support for SMEs , and Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result Production from the oil and gas sector in terms plays a key role in all aspects of Access to biocapacity in Algeria is lower than world average . Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards This development program is meant to advance Currently , Algeria has 20,000 research professors with state-set goals to expand to Despite a decline in total unemployment , in 2011 , but remained a rate of 21.5% for those Africa ; its length is estimated more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85% Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen Algeria is also crossed by At the outset of the 20th century , the northern, coastal area ; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases in the Sahrawi refugee camps , in the western Algerian Sahara desert from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( |
, Romans , Vandals , Byzantine Greeks , Arabs , Turks have contributed to the history of Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also present in the population of Algiers Despite the dominance of the Berber ethnicity in Algeria , the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity , especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages . Algerian Arabic ( Darja ) is Berber has been recognised as Kabyle , the predominant Berber language , is ) in parts of Kabylie Although French has no official status in Algeria , it has one of the largest Francophone populations in the world , in government , media ( It can be regarded as In 2008 , 11.2 million Algerians could of 30 million at the time . Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria , accounting for 99% of There are about 290,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia . the number of people identifying as in 2013 to around 15% in In 2018 , Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians in the Maghreb region ( 2.23 per 1,000 people ) , and dentists ( 0.31 urban areas , and around 93.4% of the number of people without sustainable access , measles , typhoid fever , reduce the rate of illiteracy , to track their learning through the 20 facilities Since 1972 , Arabic is used as the language of instruction The students can also learn English Apart from the 122 private schools , the Universities of the State are free of charge . After nine years of primary school , Education is officially compulsory for it offers education in various disciplines ( law , medicine , offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy , most of the other sectors as Among the most important universities , there are occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa . , Tamazight and French , Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib |
, Albert Camus , Kateb Yacine and for their thoughts on decolonization ; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras ) ; in Tunis , wrote the Muqaddima The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times Contemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms of genre , exploring a wider range of themes and issues . have contributed to the preservation of In this line , Mohamed Temam , this art , scenes from the history of the country , the habits and M'hamed Issiakhem , Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and This period had also known Augustine of Hippo , Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella , among many others . is the publication of novels as the "Algerian trilogy " of Mohammed Dib , Currently , a part of Algerian writers a literature of shocking expression , due The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka through generations ; Shawiya music , a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry ( were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013 ; 21 films in this repertoire were The country was considered as the "granary It offers a component of dishes the region and according to the seasons produced with abundance in the country meat , fish and vegetables rechta , chakhchoukha , berkoukes , shakshouka , mthewem , in Algeria , in Europe made at home , following Among these cakes , there are , Griouech , Kalb el-louz , Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya Various games have existed in Algeria In the Aures , people played El khergueba ( chess variant ) . are part of Algerian culture . Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in " Atlas Shrugged " , the first love , of Dagny Taggart . |
, Francisco was dubbed the "climax without the aid of his family's wealth and Later , Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental , who often reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and invented a generator of usable electric energy from This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart much of the novel , working Hank " ) Rearden is and tougher than steel . He lives in Philadelphia with Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President His father and grandfather worked for He is completely loyal to Willers does not possess the creative ability from the United States to the People's States of Europe . restored to their rightful place in society Kept in the background for much of the book , Danneskjöld makes as compensation for the income taxes he at the time the book was written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea , In a 1974 comment at a lecture , Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist He relies on his sister , her in almost every endeavor because of In a sense , he is This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of those on whom his life depends The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden , who she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister . This information is used to blackmail delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to Ferris is a biologist who works deride reason and productive achievement , and He clashes on several occasions with He is also one of the group of looters who tries Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon the looters , Ferris uses the device on Galt , but it Ferris wants from Galt . A former professor at Patrick Henry University , and to Francisco d'Anconia , John Galt and but squandered it for social approval He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military , including a sound-based weapon |
known as Project X ( Xylophone overloads the circuits of Project X , and every structure and living thing in , modeled on J. Robert Oppenheimer , an earlier project , and his part in in Washington , who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty In return for betraying Hank of businesses each person may own to divest most of his companies a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity , concerned with human behavior , human biology , cultures , societies , and linguistics , in Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour , while , including norms and values ' anthropology of the past ' in reference to history . Its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and of the Greek words "ánthrōpos " ( , " human " ) and "lógos " ( , "study " ( Its adjectival form appeared in the works Sporadic use of the term for some such as the use by Étienne Serres , or paleontology , of , was founded on its model in 1842 , as well These anthropologists of the times were liberal of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century Theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy , linguistics , and ethnology the result of processes or laws For them , the publication of Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution Paul Broca in Paris was in of the explicitly anthropological societies , the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris , meeting for the first time in Paris he became an immediate convert to "Transformisme had taken an interest in the pathology He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals , He discovered the speech center of the human brain His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology psychology , Theodor Waitz , took up the theme of general and social anthropology in The title was soon translated as Waitz defined anthropology as " the science of the nature of man Following Broca's lead , Waitz points |
, which would gather material from other fields , but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy , physiology , to be brought into the comparison Waitz was influential among British ethnologists the Ethnological Society of London to form the Anthropological Society of London , which henceforward would follow the path of It was the 2nd society dedicated to Representatives from the French "Société " were In his keynote address , printed in the first volume of its new publication , " the work of Waitz , adopting inventor of cultural anthropology , and The Anthropological Society of Madrid ( 1865 ) , the American Anthropological Association in 1902 , the Anthropological Society of Vienna During the last three decades of the 19th century , a proliferation of in membership and association . The major theorists belonged to these organizations . They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning . example , the presence of buried victims in Great Britain and "cultural" anthropology in participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area , and the use of findings in the United States , from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology , through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation , developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century European countries with overseas colonies tended to , social sciences and natural sciences . Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences , including the discoveries about of humans , how the evolutionary past of and culture , and from social sciences , including the organization of human social and cultural relations , institutions , social conflicts Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and as by Al-Biruni of the Islamic Golden Age as a shift toward the analysis of During the 1970s and 1990s , During this shift , enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge In contrast , archaeology and Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways sense " of the world around them , while social anthropology is the study of the "relationships " among |
philosophy , literature and the arts for self and group , contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge , customs , and institutions In that , it helps develop an understanding of social structures , This project is often accommodated in Ethnography can refer to both a methodology Comparison across cultures is a key element the study of humans and non-human primates Archaeology is the study of the human past order to deduce patterns of confused with anthropological linguistics ) seeks to understand the processes of human communications verbal , variation in language across time and space , the relationship between language and culture of linguistic forms and processes to texts written by participants of Tim Ingold distinguishes ethnography from anthropology construct general theories of human experience , ethnography concerns itself with fidelity One of the central problems in the anthropology of ' painting ' , , or exist in a significantly different form the anthropology of media or mass media ) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means , and other cultural and social aspects of mass media The types of ethnographic contexts explored range of newsrooms in newspapers , journalists in the field , film production ) to contexts of media reception of internet research , as well , social movements , or health education as teaching , politics , to the 18th and 19th centuries , it was part , with the study and production of ethnographic photography , film interchangeably with ethnographic film , visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation performance , museums , art , and the production and reception of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology , Bronisław Malinowski , or reciprocity ) as an alternative , focused upon exchange . Marx and known as Political Economy Political economy introduced questions of history concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were The third area was on colonialism , imperialism , and the creation of the method and theory of anthropology the practical side of anthropological research ; it Over its history , anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and |
development ) , and also relatives Within kinship you have two different families People can also have a chosen family in which they chose who Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology research findings , anthropological hiring practices , and Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions , whose perspectives and of white feminists of Europe , America , and elsewhere . From the perspective of the Western world , important than knowledge from the Western world along the way correcting against the systemic biases beginning with the "patriarchal origins of anthropology ( and (academia ) " thus reflecting an age gap in the pursuit of anthropology by first-wave feminists until This correction of systemic bias may include mainstream feminist theory , history , linguistics , archaeology , and anthropology Feminist anthropologists are often concerned with the construction of gender across societies According to St. Clair Drake , Vera Mae Green w]ell into the 1960s " , the only African-American female anthropologist She studied ethnic and family relations in the Caribbean the way black life , experiences , and Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems , If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food , food security this interplay between culture and biology broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization . Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes This subfield tends to focus on with its own history , language , – shape processes of human cognition , emotion , perception , motivation Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge , cultural innovation , and transmission over time and of the cognitive sciences ( especially experimental psychology and with historians , ethnographers , archaeologists , linguists , musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms . Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture . As with transpersonal psychology , the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness ( ASC ) Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems |
of the structure of societies . primarily with politics in stateless societies of states , bureaucracies and in patron-client relations or tribal political organization ) to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions ( and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions ) . Legal anthropology or anthropology of law on conflict management , crime , sanctions , or formal regulation . Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term . Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology , and extends to various areas where It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology , and sometimes considered thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases . Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of cultural adaptations to environments " relationships between a population of humans of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of informed with culture , politics and power , globalization , localized issues , century anthropology and more The focus and data interpretation is often used for creation of policy , and Social sciences , like anthropology , can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment Professor Kay Milton , Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology , describes anthropology the consistent presence of the concept of culture ; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition by a high degree of globalization . ( The troubling problem is borrowing non indigenous practices , philosophies and practices in become a distinct position in anthropology as Knowledge about diversities in human culture in human ecology which can claim In exploring environmentalism - the term particularly from the harmful effects of human activities Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts The anthropology of religion involves the study |
of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions , and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization , poverty , attention of anthropologists ) brought There are two main approaches to urban anthropology or examining the social issues within the cities By defining different types of cities , one would use social factors of interaction between living things . It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines , including anthropology , ethology , medicine , psychology , veterinary medicine A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions from a racial perspective ; that is Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution such as archaeology , behavioral ecology A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification , burned , mutilated or Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology such as petrifacted bones and footprints was founded in 1903 . another's values or viewpoints , but Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide the allied war effort against the Axis Powers ( Nazi Germany , Fascist Italy , and Imperial Japan Many served in the armed forces , while others worked in intelligence complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of Their codes of ethics or statements and amended through November 1986 stated as part of the US Army's strategy in in Afghanistan , under the "Human Terrain System " (HTS) program ; in addition , HTS teams are working with In 2009 , the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities , where data collection occurs in the context of war , integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency , of phenomena and tends to begins , and other crucial topics in Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals |
End of preview. Expand
in Dataset Viewer.
- Downloads last month
- 0