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Indiana University , the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO of Western Esotericism ( ESSWE ) department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in by step instructions on turning copper Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature . of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry , the general understanding of alchemy such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe ) of alchemy as physical substances New interpretations of alchemy are still concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and Neo-Hermeticist practitioners , alchemy is fundamentally metaphors for spiritual entities , spiritual states In this sense , the literal meanings of a veil , hiding their true spiritual philosophy . In the Neo-Hermeticist interpretation , both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea , healthy , incorruptible , the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment , and the stone extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung . with alchemy and its images , the translation of " The Secret of the Golden Flower " or parallels between the symbolic images in in dreams , visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this "process of individuation " of which the creation of the gold or lapis within of key phrases with cross - references and pored over them brought new light into understanding the art a symbolic process of coming into wholeness into contact and inner and outer , spirit and matter are reunited in the "hieros gamos " greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with

the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling , and also the popular Japanese manga Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire , others worked with the alchemists Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues of base substances into gold , An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies stars , planets , moons , comets and galaxies – Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science , solar astronomy , In contrast , theoretical astronomers create years for a system of stars , astronomers must observe snapshots concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky , while astrophysics attempted to explain have a PhD in physics or of professional astronomers in North America , such as physics , geology Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night is added over time . Before CCDs , photographic plates were Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes have a broad background in maths , sciences and computing in high school professional astronomers , the field is popular Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world as educators from 70 different nations . of themselves as amateur astronomers may stargazing and reading the latest developments in from American Standard Code for Information Interchange , is a character encoding standard ASCII codes represent text in computers , telecommunications equipment , and other devices ASCII was developed from telegraph code Work on the ASCII standard began in May 1961 , with the first meeting of in 1963 , underwent a major revision : these include the digits " "Z " , and punctuation symbols under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association ( ASA ) , With the other special characters and control codes filled leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning ,

There was some debate at the time The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting . other new characters ( the brace and vertical bar characters SOM became start of header ( SOH ) ) and In the X3.15 standard , the X3 committee also Like other character encodings , ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols This allows digital devices to communicate process , store , and the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters , 10 numerical digits , and from The committee debated the possibility of a shift function ( like in ITA2 ) In a shifted code , some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes It allows compact encoding , but The committee voted to use a seven-bit code Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position , it also allowed for a parity bit were reserved for control characters . separators were placed before digits to support uppercase 64-character alphabets , and to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes , were arranged before the letters , to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters ; an important subtlety is that these were based on "mechanical" typewriters the Remington No. 2 ( 1878 ) , the first typewriter with a shift key , and o " ) and "l" (lowercase letter "L placed in the second stick , positions codice 6 ( underscore ) from many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with This discrepancy from typewriters led to Electric typewriters , notably the IBM Selectric ( 1961 , especially Model M ( 1984 ) and thus shift values for The codice 7 pair also dates to the No were used on some keyboards ( so they could be used , while codice 15 were included as diacritics for international use , and codice 16 for mathematical use , in addition to common codice 18 ) The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message ( address ( EOA ) ,

end of message ( EOM ( EOT ) , " DC0 ) , synchronous idle ( SYNC ) , and acknowledge line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage XOFF ) , and 127 (Delete for taking the description of Control-G When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader ; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique . On some systems Control-S retains its meaning a second Control-S to resume output . The Teletype could not move the head erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape : the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation , so these systems had to use the available key ( by default ) sent The Unix terminal driver could only use one code of annoyance where users had such as ksh , bash escape " encountered in URL encodings Over time this meaning has been of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code " ( or , more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer " ) from ECMA-48 ( 1972 ) and its successors out - of - band , as in the TECO and vi text editors . with their historical usage , created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems The best example of this is the newline problem to the beginning of the line ) , RSX-11 , RSTS , used both characters to mark the end Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981 , IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return ProDOS , on the other hand , used carriage return ( CR ) , since Apple replaced these operating systems

with the Unix-based macOS operating system , they now as 360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal " ( connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol , including use of the Network Virtual Terminal , for transferring data in the default ASCII mode . end - of - file indication for input from a terminal mark the end of the actual text in For these reasons , EOF , and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for , also known as Control-C ending the alphabet and serves as Codes 20hex to 7Ehex , letters , digits , punctuation marks Code 20hex , the "space" character , denotes the space between words , as produced by the space bar of a keyboard from this chart ; it is during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2 , His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work As computer technology spread throughout the world , different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions " , as ISO 646 ( 1967 ) identical to ASCII , with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States the United Kingdom's pound sterling ( £ ) ; Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII , since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries . Many other countries developed variants of ASCII , ß , Ł ) , currency symbols ( e.g. £ , ¥ ) , etc . It would share most characters in common , but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use ISO/IEC 646 , like ASCII , C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C , although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII

" and similar variants in the middle In Japan and Korea , in Japan ) or ₩ ( a Won sign , in Korea Eventually , as 8- , , and 36-bit computers as the norm in memory , providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII . Encodings include ISCII ( India ) , VISCII ( Vietnam , and often filled in some or all of the control characters probably unique among post-1970 codes in as found on the ZX Spectrum computer . which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions . Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set ( DEC-MCS ) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing ( UCS ) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII , Animation is a method in which In traditional animation , images are and exhibited on film . with computer-generated imagery ( CGI ) have the look of traditional animation ) An animated cartoon is an animated film , usually a short film aimed at children and featuring The style takes inspiration from comic strips superheroes , or the adventures of Commonly , animators achieved the effect by a rapid succession of images that of sequential images include the phénakisticope , zoetrope , flip book , praxinoscope The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics The mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects a bestowing of life " . Hundreds of years before the introduction of true animation in puppetry , automata , shadow play , and the magic lantern . In 1833 , the stroboscopic disc ( better known as the phénakisticope ) introduced the principle of modern animation with by one in quick succession to form an optical illusion of motion pictures . been made over thousands of years ,

represent such images in fluent motion and series with a proper systematic breakdown of movements The stroboscopic animation principle was also applied in the zoetrope ( 1866 ) , the praxinoscope ( 1877 ) . been known for decades , the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment . of optical toys , with chromolithography film loops ( often traced from live-action footage kids to use at home Émile Cohl's "Fantasmagorie " ( 1908 ) During the 1910s , the production of animated "cartoons " became an industry in the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the golden age of The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts . In 1917 , Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first feature-length film " El Apóstol " ( In 1937 , Walt Disney Studios premiered The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with "Gulliver's Travels " with some success release more than a handful features . as Disney's features , other countries developed and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles , relatively often including stop motion and cutout animation techniques shorts ) per year on Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s , when Cartoons were mainly programmed for children , on convenient time slots , Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen from theatrical releases to TV series . "The Flintstones " ( 1960–1966 ) ( the first prime time animated series ) , " " ( 1981–1989 ) . The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker limited animation methods internationally , many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming and puppetry over cel animation . Computer animation was gradually developed since " The Rescuers Down Under " was the first feature film Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer animated films around the 1990s ,

In 2008 , the animation market was Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins ( around 52% During World War II , animation was widely exploited for propaganda . Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades , such as Snap , Crackle and Pop in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals . closely related to comic books . While many comic book characters found their way to many manga are adapted into anime appear in comic books and magazines be adapted into children's books and outside moving image media , The Walt Disney Company a children's writing tablet in 1929 , their Mickey Mouse mascot has been depicted on an enormous amount Disneyland opened in 1955 and Its enormous success spawned several other Disney theme parks and resorts Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema With its popularity , a large amount of Animated movies have been created for the sake of entertainment , although Subliminal messages are hidden in these animations , for all of them portray a piece of reality , racial and cultural stereotypes , prejudices , discrimination , values , ideologies , The representation of women throughout animated movies Cartoons can be watched through the lens of ideology . ” with Disney princesses in young girls around As a case in point , The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) is a Disney movie that tells the story of a princess who sacrifices her voice in the love of the prince , Ariel , her independence and identity ” , making personal sacrifices and undergoing cultural mandates before freeing themselves from Besides , in the past , As audiences change over time , Disney has adapted their representation of traditional Disney princesses to modern times . For the first time , Disney has created the story of a princess that As with any other form of media , animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field . The original awards for animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932 , during the 5th Academy Awards function .

The first winner of the Academy Award was the short "Flowers and Trees " , a production by Walt Disney Productions The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001 , and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002 It was won by the film be nominated for the award . " Beauty and the Beast " was the first animated film Several other countries have instituted an award for the best-animated feature film as part of their national film awards : Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation ( since 2008 ( since 2006 ) , César Award for Best Animated Film ( since Best Animation ( since 1981 ) ( since 2007 ) , for Best Animated Feature Film has been awarded , longer than a few seconds ) has developed as a form of filmmaking , with certain unique aspects . is in the production phase , the marginal cost a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film , to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks Disney began the practice in the 1930s develop every single scene through storyboards , start to finish , even Animators , like all artists , must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way Since the early 1980s , teams of This problem is usually solved by an overall look and palette for each film Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets posed in different positions , and Unlike live-action films , animated films were receive credit for writing the film used for most animated films of the 20th century The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs To create the illusion of movement , each drawing differs slightly from The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings . The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century Various software programs are used to color The final animated piece is output to one

of several delivery media , including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video . Examples of traditionally animated feature films include "Pinocchio " ( United States , 1940 ) , " Animal Farm " ( United Kingdom , 1954 ) Italy , 1998 ) , and "The Illusionist " ( British-French Full animation refers to the process of Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles , from more realistically animated works like those produced by Beauty and the Beast " , "Aladdin " , "The Lion King " ) to Many of the Disney animated features are examples " ( US , 1999 ) , and "Nocturna " Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second Pioneered by the artists at the American studio used as a method of stylized artistic expression ) , " Yellow Submarine " ( UK , 1968 ) Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators from actors' outlines into animated drawings , (US , 1978 ) , or used in a stylized and expressive manner , " A Scanner Darkly " (US , into live action shots or live-action actors into One of the earlier uses was in Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of "Alice Comedies " ( 1923–1927 at a time to create the illusion There are many different types of stop-motion animation Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques 2D animation techniques tend to focus on 2D animation figures are created or edited 2D animation has many applications , including analog computer animation , Flash animation , and Final line advection animation is a technique used in and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is , and change the profile of a 3D polygon mesh for the animator to manipulate Sometimes , the mesh is given hair , and effects , Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology . has been recognized as a god of archery , music and

dance , truth and prophecy , healing and diseases , and complex of the Greek gods , he is the son of Zeus and Leto , and the twin brother of Artemis , goddess of Seen as the most beautiful god and the ideal of the "kouros " ( ephebe , or a beardless , athletic youth to be the most Greek of all the gods As the patron deity of Delphi ("Apollo Pythios help and wards off evil Medicine and healing are associated Apollo delivered people from epidemics , yet he is also credited to Apollo and his sister Apollo is usually described as is one of the best attested facets of with the health and education of He presided over their passage into and crops from diseases , On the other hand , Apollo also He is associated with dominion As the god of " mousike all music , songs , dance He is the inventor of string-music , and the frequent companion of the Muses , functioning as their chorus leader in The lyre is a common attribute of Apollo In Hellenistic times , especially during , the personification of the sun . In Latin texts , however , there was no conflation of Apollo with Sol among the classical Latin poets until The etymology of the name is uncertain The spelling ( in Classical Attic ) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era , but the Doric form , "Apellon " ( , as it is derived at the initiation of the young men during "fence for animals " and later "assembly within the limits of the square Apella ( ) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta , Several instances of popular etymology are attested associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb ( connects the name with ( "apolysis , with ( "apolousis " in reference to the Thessalian form of the name , and finally with of political life , and he A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name , The Hittite The Hittite testimony reflects an early form ' ,

from comparison of Cypriot with The name of the Lydian god "Qλdãns" /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect , syncope , and the pre-Lydian sound change by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light Like other Greek deities , he had a number of others applied to him , reflecting the variety of roles , duties , and Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire In the traditionally Celtic lands , he was The cult centers of Apollo in Greece , Delphi and Delos , dedicated to Artemis , Apollo's twin sister At Delphi , Apollo was venerated as the slayer of the monstrous serpent Python For the Greeks , Apollo was the most Greek of all the gods , and In Archaic Greece he was the prophet was connected with "healing " In Classical Greece he was the god of light and of music Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship , which he In classical times , his major function in ) and " alexikakos " to his function as a healer . ( literally "healer " or "helper of the plague " ) . Apollo in his aspect of "healer " has a connection to the primitive god Paean Paean serves as the healer of the gods in the "Iliad " , of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph . Such songs were originally addressed to : to Dionysus , to implore protection against disease and after such protection had been rendered It was in this way that Apollo had become recognized as In the "Iliad " , Apollo is the healer under the gods , of disease and death with his arrows , similar to the function of the Vedic god of disease Rudra . He sends a plague ( ) The "Homeric Hymn to Apollo " depicts Apollo as an intruder from the north " is reinforced by the month "Apellaios " in northwest Greek calendars . The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo " Apellaios " is the month of these rites , and Apellon of the name , which is

Pella ) , "stone " George Huxley regarded the identification of Apollo with the Minoan deity Paiawon , worshipped in In the "Homeric Hymn " , Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi , where of hunting , is identified with Britomartis ( Diktynna ) been assumed in scholarship . worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia , which Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans , fighting against the Achaeans , during the Trojan War . He is pictured as a terrible god to " Appaliunas " , a tutelary god of Wilusa ( Troy ) in Asia Minor , but the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols A western Anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of "Artimus " ( Artemis ) " as the protector god of public places of plague , invoked during who was linked to the Babylonian god Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god and disease with his arrows , In "Iliad " , his priest prays to "Apollo Smintheus " , The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows , but he was able to free people of Unusually among the Olympic deities , Apollo In cult practice , Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo ( the Apollo of Delphi Lycia was sacred to the god Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period , and the frequency of theophoric names Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established In the 2nd and 3rd century CE , those at or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity . " In the 3rd century , Apollo Julian the Apostate ( 359–361 ) tried to revive the Delphic oracle , but Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi , and other notable ones in Claros Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies . They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of

the Greek architecture , which was mostly based on the rightness of form It seems that the first peripteral temples were and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order The Greeks used standard types because they could be represented in several instances strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings . The first buildings were built narrowly in a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs The order was almost abandoned for posed an insoluble problem at the corner of Apollo appears often in the myths , plays and hymns . direct access to the mind of Zeus Apollo was the son of Zeus , the king of the gods , banned Leto from giving birth on " terra firma " . Leto sought shelter in many lands Finally , the voice of unborn Apollo informed his mother about a floating island named to her children under a palm tree . All the goddesses except Hera were present of childbirth , to prevent Leto from going into labor the island was filled with ambrosial fragrance and the nymphs sang in delight in white garment and fastened golden bands the goddess of divine law , fed him with nectar , or Upon tasting the divine food , Apollo lyre and archery , and Apollo's birth fixed the floating Delos to the earth Leto promised that her son would According to some , Apollo secured Delos to the bottom of Apollo was born on the seventh day (, "hebdomagenes " ) of the month — according to Delphian tradition . Hyperborea , the mystical land of eternal spring , venerated Apollo above all the gods in his honor and hosted Pythian games . was called "the garden of Apollo Apollo spent the winter months among the Hyperboreans His absence from the world caused coldness and this was marked as No prophecies were issued during this time He returned to the world during It is said that Leto came to Delos from Hyperborea accompanied by a pack of wolves His intimate connection to wolves is evident

in his role as the god who protected flocks from predators . The Hyperborean worship of Apollo bears the strongest marks Shamanistic elements in Apollo's cult are often liked to his Hyperborean origin , and have originated as a solar shaman . In myths , the tears of , which surrounded Hyperborea . Apollo also buried in Hyperborea As a child , Apollo is Since he learnt the art of as Archegetes , " the founder ( of towns ) " In his early years when Apollo spent was reared by Thriae , have invented the lyre , and along with Artemis , the art He then taught to the humans the art of healing and archery Phoebe , his grandmother , gave Python , a chthonic serpent-dragon , was a child of Gaia and the guardian of the Delphic Oracle , whose death was Python was the nurse of the giant Typhon Python was sent by Hera to hunt the pregnant Leto to death his mother , Apollo went in search of Python and killed it in the sacred cave at Delphi with the bow and arrows that he had received from Hephaestus Apollo during the battle with the cry Leto was in Delphi , Python had attacked her . Apollo defended his mother and killed Earth , away from the holy oracle of Pytho , Earth gave birth to dream visions of the night ; and they told to the future , through dark beds of sleep on the ground ; and in envy , because of The lord made his swift way to Olympus and wound his baby hands around Zeus the wrath of the earth goddess from the Pythian home for worship that pays in to be banished to Tartarus instead exiled his son from Olympus Apollo had to serve as as per his father's order , he travelled to the Vale of Tempe to bath in waters of According to a variation , Apollo , where Carmanor purified him Apollo to go to Delphi , went to the land of to him on his right side .

Soon after his return , Apollo needed to recruit people to he sprang aboard in the form The crew was awed into submission Initiating them to his service , he instructed them to keep The Pythia was Apollo's high priestess and his mouthpiece through whom he gave prophecies with his arrows and attacked him According to other version , Artemis their mother by attacking Tityos with Admetus was the king of Pherae , who was known for he served as a herdsman under shared a romantic relationship with Admetus during Because Admetus had treated Apollo well , the god conferred great benefits on him in return . of Alcestis , the daughter of He was present during their wedding the rescue and calmed his sister . , Apollo in revenge killed to Tartarus for this , and reminding Zeus of their old love The fate of Niobe was prophesied Niobe was the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion . to Leto because she had fourteen children ( Niobids ) , while Leto had only two . Accordingly , Apollo killed Niobe's sons According to some versions of the myth , among the Niobids , Chloris A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone children , Apollo granted her son under the Trojan king Laomedon in accordance humans in order to check Apollo guarded the cattle of Laomedon in the valleys of mount Ida , while Poseidon built the walls of In Pindar's odes , the gods took three snakes rushed against the wall , into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus . would fall at the hands of he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule and hands , and sell , Apollo infected the city with During his stay in Troy , captured Chryseis , the daughter of shot arrows infected with the plague Receiving the aegis from Zeus , his father's command , causing great terror to destroyed many of the soldiers . get involved in the war , Apollo was provoked by Poseidon , Aphrodite tried to rescue

him , but Diomedes injured Apollo then enveloped Aeneas in a cloud to protect him . He repelled the attacks Diomedes made a stern warning to abstain himself from After the death of Sarpedon , rescued the corpse from the battlefield as per his father's wish and cleaned it He then gave it to Sleep (Hypnos ) and Death (Thanatos ) by Hecuba ) was favored , Apollo healed him and During a duel with Achilles , in a cloud of mist to get into the fort of Troy , he was stopped by , Apollo stripped the armour of the Greek warrior and broke his weapons . Patroclus was eventually killed by Apollo held a grudge against Achilles throughout the war because Achilles had Hector from Achilles , he himself as a Trojan warrior and driving Finally , Apollo caused Achilles' death by guiding an arrow shot by Paris Apollo helped many Trojan warriors , including Agenor , Polydamas, Glaucus in the battlefield madness and killed his family , he sought to purify himself and consulted the oracle of Apollo Apollo , through the Pythia , commanded him to serve king Eurystheus for twelve years and complete the ten tasks had to capture the Ceryneian Hind , After chasing the hind for one year While he was taking it back , he was confronted by Apollo and Artemis , who were angered at Heracles However , Heracles soothed the goddess and explained his situation to her After he was freed from his servitude to Eurystheus , Heracles fell in conflict with Iphytus , a prince of Oechalia , He consulted the oracle of Apollo of ridding himself of the disease In anger , Heracles snatched tolerate this and stopped Heracles ; a duel ensued between them Artemis rushed to support Apollo , while Athena supported Heracles Soon , Zeus threw his thunderbolt between the fighting brothers and separated them He reprimanded Heracles for this act of violation and asked Apollo Periphas was an Attican king and a priest fond of him and started honouring him to the same extent as

At one point , they worshipped Periphas in place of Zeus annihilate the entire family of Periphas . and a good devotee , Apollo intervened and requested his father to spare Periphas Zeus considered Apollo's words and agreed of human beings : male , descended from the sun ; female , descended from the earth ; with four arms and fours legs , two identical faces on opposite sides of a head with four ears , and all devised a plan to humble them around towards their wounds , he at the middle of it . He smoothened the wrinkles and shaped another , he bade Apollo He oversees their education and their passage originated from Apollo and the Muses Chiron , the abandoned centaur , was instructed him in medicine , prophecy , archery and more Asclepius in his childhood gained much knowledge , was abandoned by his mother educated him in mantic arts . Iamus was the son of Apollo When Evadne went into labour , Apollo sent the Moirai to Idmon was educated by Apollo that would happen in his journey with the Argonauts , he embraced Apollo adopted Carnus , the abandoned son of Zeus and Europa . unknown ) from death in a large deep cave , by the means of Immediately after his birth , Apollo demanded a lyre and invented the paean As the divine singer , he is the patron of poets , singers The invention of string music is attributed humans to take delight in music , rhythm and harmony According to Socrates , ancient Greeks who directs the harmony and makes for the gods and the humans . For this reason , he was Apollo's harmonious music delivered people from their pain Dionysus , he is also among the birds , were believed to be the "singers of Apollo They are Apollo's sacred birds and acted as his vehicle during his travel to Among the Pythagoreans , the study of to the worship of Apollo , Their belief was that the music purifies Apollo appears as the companion of the Muses , and as Musagetes

( " leader of Muses he leads them in dance They spend their time on Parnassus , which is one of the immortal gods with his songs and music In his role as the god of banquets , he was always present to play music in weddings of the gods , like He is a frequent guest of the Bacchanalia being at ease amidst the maenads Apollo also participated in musical contests The invention of lyre is attributed stole a number of Apollo's cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos , covering In the cave , he found Upon discovering the theft , Apollo confronted Hermes and asked him Apollo took the matter to Zeus Apollo fell in love with the instrument and offered to exchange According to other versions , Apollo whose strings he tore in repenting of the excess punishment he had given compare his music with that of of music to a contest . The mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire Pan blew on his pipes , Then , Apollo struck the strings to Apollo , and everyone He had found an aulos on Athena had also placed a curse upon the instrument , that whoever everyone became frenzied with joy This led Marsyas to think Apollo , and he challenged The contest was judged by the Muses , or the nymphs of Nysa Marsyas taunted Apollo for " for his skill in so many arts " made into tufts and curls that fall about his brow and to foot , his limbs shine , and he is equally eloquent in prose or verse to the touch , aglow with ivory , and shimmers with What of his song , so The Muses and Athena sniggered at decided to play on his lyre and add his melodious voice to his performance Marsyas argued against this , an advantage and accused Apollo of The nymphs decided that Apollo's argument was Marsyas could not do this According to another account , Marsyas at one point and accepted his defeat Out of shame , he Another variation is that Apollo played

Marsyas could not do this Apollo flayed the limbs of Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to He then gave the rest of his body for proper burial and nailed Marsyas' flayed skin to a nearby pine-tree as a lesson Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas . the strings of his lyre and threw The lyre was later discovered by Cinyras was a ruler of Cyprus , who was a friend of Cinyras promised to assist Agamemnon in the Trojan war , but did He invoked Apollo and asked Apollo then had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras , and defeated him Apollo functions as the patron and protector of sailors , one of the duties he shares with Poseidon Jason prayed to his patron , Apollo used his bow and golden arrow to shed light upon an island escape from a great tempest during his journey homeward During the Trojan War , Odysseus came to the Trojan camp to return Chriseis , the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses , Arion requested them to let him sing for the last time , praise of Apollo , seeking spite , aroused the Titans to war against Zeus and take Apollo played a pivotal role in the entire Trojan War He sided with the Trojans , the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon He killed the Greek heroes Patroclus , Achilles He also helped many Trojan heroes , A war broke out between the Brygoi and the Thesprotians , who had to the battlefield and took sides and Ares came into a direct duel earn a place among the gods , Dionysus declared war against the Indians and travelled to India along with his army of Bacchantes and Apollo armed his son with his own hands Seeing several of his nymphs and Aristaeus drowning in a river , he took them to safety and During the war between the sons of Oedipus, Apollo favored Amphiaraus , a seer and one of the leaders in his shield and his helm with starry gleam the hero by a spear , Apollo

directed the spear towards the charioteer of and took the reins in his hands He deflected many spears and arrows He also killed many of the enemy warriors like Melaneus , Antiphus , Aetion , Polites and During the gigantomachy , Apollo and him in his eyes , Apollo The Aloadae , namely Otis and Ephialtes , were They attempted to storm Mt. Olympus and threatened to fill the sea with mountains and inundate dry land the hand of Hera and Artemis killed them by shooting them Phorbas was a savage giant king of Phlegyas He wished to plunder Delphi He seized the roads to Delphi He captured the old people and children to hold them for ransom a match of boxing , only He hung the chopped off heads to an oak tree put an end to this cruelty . In the first Olympic games , Apollo defeated Apollo divides months into summer He rides on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months , and the absence of Rhoeo , a former lover of in charge of watching their father's ancestral wine jar the wine jar was broken by the swines they threw themselves off a cliff in fear of their father's wrath . carried them to two different cities in Chersonesus , Molpadia to Castabus and Parthenos to Bubastus . He turned them into goddesses He was bound to a rock Seeing his plight , Apollo pleaded stood behind him with tears Leukatas was believed to be of Leukas into the sea . It was present in the sanctuary in love with Adonis , for the rock of Leukas . When she reached the sanctuary of Apollo in Argos , she Apollo then brought her to the rock of Leukas and asked her to throw herself from love with the cult statue of Athena into the net of a fisherman in which , when he was It was an ancestral custom among the Leukadians to fling a criminal from this rock in honor of Apollo for below rock to catch the criminal

the borders in order to exile Daphne was a nymph who scorned When Apollo chased her in she changed herself into a laurel tree According to other versions , she cried for help during the chase , and Gaia helped her placing a laurel tree in her place . , who hit Apollo with golden arrow of love and Daphne with leaden arrow of hatred . The myth explains the origin of the laurel and connection of Apollo with his priestess employed at Delphi . choose one of them , In her honor , he built Evadne was a nymph daughter of Poseidon and a lover of Apollo . of Naxos was loved by Out of affection for her , Apollo turned her sisters into Ourea , a daughter of Poseidon , fell in love with , after the city of his birth the radiant Apollo , and she loved By their union , she became Hecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy , and Apollo as Troilus reached the age of He was ambushed and killed Coronis was daughter of Phlegyas in love with Ischys , son of Elatus and slept her infidelity through his prophetic powers , he sent his sister , Artemis , , was impregnated by Apollo in the form of a snake . In Euripides' play " Ion " , Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa , He used his powers to conceal , a beautiful and athletic Spartan prince , was one the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in Out of Hyacinthus' blood , Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death , and his tears stained the flower petals with Another male lover was Cyparissus , a descendant it with a javelin as it Cyparissus was so saddened by Admetus , the king of Pherae During his exile , which lasted , Apollo served Admetus as The romantic nature of their relationship was first Plutarch lists Admetus as one for the sake of Admetus . Tibullus desrcibes Apollo's love to the king as "servitium amoris " ( slavery

of love ) and asserts by force but by choice He would also make cheese and serve it to Admetus princess Alcestis , Apollo provided a chariot pulled by a lion and a boar came across Apollo in the woods Apollo requited his affections and wanting Apollo sired many children , from , seers or archers . Many of his sons founded new cities Asclepius is the most famous son of Apollo His skills as a physician surpassed that Aristaeus was placed under the care of Chiron after his birth . He became the god of beekeeping , cheese making , animal husbandry and , Hymenaeus , Philammon , Apollo fathered 3 daughters , Apollonis , Borysthenis and Cephisso , who formed a group of minor Muses Mese and Hypate after the highest, middle and lowest strings , Tenerus , Mopsus , Galeus , Telmessus and others His other daughters include Eurynome , Chariclo wife , famous for her beautiful hair , Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo Sinope , a nymph , was Bolina was admired by Apollo She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi , at the base of Mt. Parnassos Cassandra , was a daughter of Apollo wished to court her on one condition - he should Apollo fulfilled her wish , but Artemis as the sister of Apollo she as a female divinity represented the same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity In the pre-Hellenic period , their relationship was described as the one between husband is armed with a bow and She is the cause of sudden deaths led the female chorus on Olympus while The laurel ( "daphne " ) was sacred to both . " Apollo Daphnephoros " had a temple the citizens are to take the oaths Hecate , the goddess of witchcraft " , is the masculine form of Hecate , and both the names mean While Apollo presided over the prophetic powers and magic of light and the prophetic powers and magic of night and chthonian darkness at Apollo's temple in Miletos .

There , Hecate was taken As a deity of knowledge and given more powers and duties . up the role as protectors of of some of the important cities . As patrons of arts , In the Trojan war , as Zeus' executive In Aeschylus' "Oresteia" trilogy , Clytemnestra kills Apollo gives an order through the Oracle blood between mother and son They invade his temple , and be brought before Athena . Apollo promises to protect Orestes , as Orestes has become The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted As a quintessentially Greek god , Apollo had referred to him as Phoebus On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE , Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields , During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE , the "Ludi Apollinares " ( "Apollonian Games " ) were instituted in his honor , on the instructions of a prophecy After the battle of Actium , which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo , Augustus enlarged the spoils to him , and instituted quinquennial games in his honour . He also erected a new temple to at Delphi and was one Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow Other attributes of his included the kithara ( an advanced version of the common lyre ) , the plectrum and the sword . The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor The palm tree was also sacred to born under one in Delos Homer and Porphyry wrote that Apollo had In many myths Apollo is transformed In addition , Claudius Aelianus wrote ( ἱερακοβοσκοί ) who fed the city of Apollo in Egypt with a hawklike face ( Horus ) As god of colonization , Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies , especially during the height of According to Greek tradition , he " or "Apalunas " in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions , which In literary contexts , Apollo represents harmony , order , and those of Dionysus , god of wine , who represents The contrast between the roles of these gods

Apollo is often associated with Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos . Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world , the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of by Ernst Homann-Wedeking — is the masterpiece bronze , " Piraeus Apollo " . It was found in Piraeus have come from north-eastern Peloponnesus . The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type , in which the god holds the cithara , a sophisticated seven-stringed variant of the lyre , often depicted with a cithara ( as Apollo Citharoedus ) or bow in his hand , or reclining on a tree ( the Apollo Lykeios and centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans , from on the site of a "villa suburbana " near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo Another haloed Apollo in mosaic , from Hadrumentum , is in the museum at Sousse . Apollo has featured in dance and music in modern culture . formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's "Apollon musagète " Apollo been portrayed in modern literature , in " Gods of Management " as a metaphor to portray various types , reason , and bureaucracy Apollo has appeared in many modern video games Apollo appears as a minor character in In philosophical discussion of the arts , a distinction is sometimes made between Andre Kirk Agassi (; born April 29, 1970 ) Novak Djokovic , who won his fifth title all four singles majors on three different surfaces ( hard, clay ( in 1999 ) and the Australian Open ( in 2003 ) was part of the winning Davis Cup teams in 1990 , 1992 and 1995

personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank the most successful run of his career over the next four years by two bulging discs in his back , retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006 He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation , which has raised over $60 million In 2001 , the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas , a K-12 public charter school Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas , Nevada , to Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi , a former Olympic boxer from Iran and American Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi ( née Dudley ) . His father is of Armenian and Assyrian heritage . His grandfather , David , changed his surname from "Aghassian " or "Agassian " to the less noticeably Armenian "Agassi " as " a skin-saving measure during a time Andre Agassi's mother , Betty , is He has three older siblings – Rita ( last wife of former number one Pancho Gonzales ) , Philip and Tami . after Kirk Kerkorian , an Armenian American billionaire . , won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14s Doubles Championship in Chicago He was meant to stay for only three months , because that Agassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at He won his first match against John Austin , but then lost his second match By the end of 1986 , Agassi was He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica and He won six additional tournaments in 1988 , by December of that year , he had surpassed US$1 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments — the fastest anyone in history had reached During 1988 , he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by for 17 years until Rafael Nadal broke it in 2005 ) . , behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander of both the French Open and the US Open in He began the 1990s with a series 1990 at the French Open , where

in four sets to Andrés Gómez , his book to worrying about his wig final of the year at the US Open because he was never going to make it as a pro final to Sampras in three sets In 1991 , Agassi reached Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991 , leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would He eventually emerged for the first round Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon , In 1992 , he defeated Along the way , Agassi overcame No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in It was their second Davis cup title in three years In 1993 , Agassi won the only doubles title of his career , at the Cincinnati Masters , partnered with Petr Korda He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense , he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets With new coach Brad Gilbert on board , Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach , which fueled He started slowly in 1994 , losing in the first week at Nevertheless , he emerged during the hard-court season , winning the Canadian Open . His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with capture the US Open as an unseeded player , beating Michael Stich in the final . In 1995 , Agassi shaved He competed in the 1995 Australian Open ( his first appearance at the event ) and Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995 , all on hardcourt , with Agassi Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 the Canadian Open ) and seven titles total . He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit November , for a total of Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season In terms of win/loss record , 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi He suffered two early-round losses to Chris Woodruff

to Chang in straight sets in At the time , Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions , but he had lost the match on The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta , beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain 1997 was the low point of Agassi's career played only 24 matches during the year . , allegedly on the urging of He failed an ATP drug test , but The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning In his autobiography , Agassi admitted in a failing marriage with actress , had lost interest in the game In 1998 , Agassi began up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments , a circuit for pro players In 1998 , Agassi won five titles and leapt from No At Wimbledon , he had an early loss in the second round to Tommy Haas He won five titles in ten finals at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne , losing to Marcelo Ríos , who Agassi entered the history books in 1999 , Fred Perry , Roy Emerson and Rafael Nadal , and Novak Djokovic ) achieved this feat during the Open Era . won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces ( clay , grass and hard courts Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching to Sampras in straight sets . He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by in five sets ( rallying from a two sets to one deficit ) in 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris , where he Agassi ended 1999 as the No of six consecutive year-ending top rankings ( 1993–98 ) This was the only time Agassi ended his second Australian Open title , beating Sampras in At the time , Agassi was finals at Wimbledon , where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon , defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over En route , he beat

a cramping Rafter in five sets in front At Wimbledon , they met , where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter , 8–6 in In the quarterfinals at the US Open , Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33 minute epic match with Sampras , 7–6 , 6–7 , no breaks of serve during the 52-game match 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi , as injury forced Agassi recovered from the injury and The last duel between Agassi and Sampras in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings . In 2003 , Agassi won On April 28, 2003 , he recaptured began at 33 years and 13 days The record was later surpassed by on June 16, 2003 , which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003 he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero , During his career , Agassi held the ranking for a total of 101 weeks him to withdraw from a number At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup , Agassi lost in the final to Federer runner-up in the event after losses in 1999 and 2000 , In 2004 , Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semi Marat Safin ; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak He won the Masters series event in Cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament — all except the tournaments in Monte Carlo At 34 , he became champion in Cincinnati tournament history ( the tournament began in 1899 ) , tied with Roger Federer and surpassed won the title in 1970 at a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments from several events due to injury He lost to Jarkko Nieminen in After beating Răzvan Sabău and Ivo Karlović in straight sets and Tomáš Berdych in four sets , Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches was his quarterfinal victory over James Blake , His other five-set victories were on Xavier Malisse in Federer defeated Agassi in four sets Agassi had a poor start to 2006

suffering from back and leg pain and lack Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because skipping the entire clay-court season including the French Open . This caused his ranking to drop Agassi returned for the grass-court season , He was defeated in the third round and eventual runner-up ) Rafael Nadal . Against conventions , Agassi , the losing player , was interviewed on was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections After a tough four-set win against Andrei Pavel , Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping In his last match , Agassi fell greatest of the generation of players They also had very contrasting playing styles , The 1990 US Open was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament at the time , compared to Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the 1992 French Open , where they met They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993 , where Agassi was , the US won the Davis Cup in in the finals , and were occupying the top two spots in the rankings for the year , all in the title matches , including the Australian Open , the Newsweek Champions Cup ( now Indian Wells ) , the Lipton International Players Championships ( now Miami Open ) , the Canadian Open Agassi won three of the finals Agassi slumped in the rankings and at Wimbledon in 1999 , where Sampras won in straight sets For both , it was had suffered a string of disappointments in the previous year while Agassi was In the 2000s , they met In 2000 , the top-ranked Agassi defeated finals of the Australian Open in five sets , which was an important win for Agassi who had lost 4 of the previous 5 matches against Sampras . defeated Agassi in the 2001 US Open quarterfinals in There were no breaks of serve they had defeated several up-and-coming players en Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals , while Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets Michael Chang was the opponent Agassi faced

the tour level with Agassi leading 15–7 Both players preferred to stay at Agassi won the first four matches including a straight-set victory in round 16 of the 1988 US Open the round of 16 of the 1994 US Open While both players presented high-quality shot-making , the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996 , admitted in his book that he the matches on purpose as he Becker won their first three matches in 1988 the rivalry in 1990 , and won 10 of their last 11 matches . They first played at Indian Wells Becker won in five sets after a five-set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title . The intensity of the rivalry peaked in Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as his main weapons Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts , but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the 1999 Rome Masters They played four matches at Wimbledon in 1993 and 1999 , while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters , presented on the lists of best matches Agassi also won both their meetings at the Australian Open , in 1995 and 2001 , on his way to With the retirement of Sampras , became Agassi's main rivalry for the final years of Agassi won their first three matches , but They first met in just the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown , with Agassi prevailing Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Open Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003 , when he defeated Agassi in They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two windy days , At the 2005 Dubai Championships , Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt In the historic clash of generations , Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd .

Agassi earned more than $30 million in prize-money to Djokovic, Federer, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date ( Since retiring after the 2006 US Open , Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work On September 5, 2007 , he was He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events defended his title of the CTCA Championships , In the series season finale , he beat to action in 2014 . Agassi won both tournaments he participated Portland to win the title of In 2015 , Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series In 2009 , in Macau Agassi to raise money for the victims Partnered with Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal at each other's expense , which ended After the event , Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line in New York in front of He returned to the tour in a deep, hard shot , and then playing take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner . from the baseline , and he , his father and Nick Bollettieri trained When in control of a point This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach , Brad Gilbert Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear attrition wars , and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot . was a change-up drop shot to the deuce court Agassi was raised on hardcourts , but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros his first major win was at the slick grass of ( including Wayne Gretzky , Joe Montana , Shaquille O'Neal , Ken Griffey , Jr. , and Monica Seles ) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named In 2002 , he joined consumers and cable and satellite industry , and made an equity investment in the network . After meeting chef Michael Mina at one

from MGM Mirage for $215 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt In August 2006 , Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises In September , Agassi and finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel , Fairmont Tamarack , at Tamarack Resort in , they withdrew from the project IMG managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers He later switched to Head Ti Radical racket a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993 He renewed his contract in 1999 signed a lifetime agreement with Head . Agassi was sponsored by DuPont 1993 , Mazda in 1997 American Express and Deutsche Bank in 2003 In 1990 , he appeared in a television commercial for Canon Inc. , with Schick and became the worldwide spokesman Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab In mid-2003 , he was a fragrance by Aramis , and with 24 Hour Fitness , which will Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf . He wrote about the relationship in He married Steffi Graf on October 22, 2001 , at their Las Vegas home ; the only witnesses They have two children : son Jaden Gil The Graf-Agassi family resides in Summerlin , of Agassi's closest friends ; some have In 2012 , Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment written with assistance from J. R. Moehringer In it , Agassi talks about his childhood and his unconventional Armenian father , who came to the United States from positive for methamphetamine in 1997 In response to this revelation , that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles In an interview with CBS , Agassi justified himself and asked Agassi said that he had on the "New York Times " Best Seller list and It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 British Sports Book Awards Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Agassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994

He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in He has been cited as His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year In 2001 , Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas , a tuition-free charter school He personally donated $35 million to In 2009 , the graduating class had through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for In 1997 , Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building to assist in the building of In 2007 , along with several other athletes , Agassi founded the charity charitable causes and aims to inspire The Fund is an investment initiative for social change move charters from stopgap buildings into In September 2013 , the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods In February 2014 , Agassi remodeled the vacant University of Phoenix building in Las Vegas as Doral Academy opened in August 2014 . one of the greatest tennis players of all time Mon–Khmer , are a large language family in These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand , India , Bangladesh , Nepal , and There are around 117 million speakers of Austroasiatic languages Of these languages , only Vietnamese , Only two have official status as modern national languages Vietnamese in Vietnam and Khmer as a fourteenth ) , which two , as Mon–Khmer , Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across Southeast Asia Regarding word structure , Austroasiatic languages are , with basic nouns and verbs This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of as the causative prefix , ranging from between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or in a few cases , such as This is identical to earlier reconstructions Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic : the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia Central India and parts of Bangladesh By contrast , the relationships " between " these families within Austroasiatic on percentages of shared vocabulary . This means that languages can the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be

If this would the case , Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may Sidwell & Blench ( 2011 ) suggest Shompen as an additional branch , and suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have Munda , Khasic , Palaungic B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia , with all the major branches of Austroasiatic of Lingnan , which would of Vietnam , or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan . At 4,500 B.P. , this "Neolithic package " suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced Indochina such as Vietic , Paul Sidwell ( 2018 ) considers rice agriculture in Indochina , but The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be Roger Blench ( 2017 ) suggests ( such as boats , waterways , river fauna , and Blench ( 2017 ) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for ' river , ' prawn ' , 'shrimp ' crab ' , 'tortoise ' , ' turtle ' ' crocodile ' , ' , and 'fish trap ' . Sidwell ( 2021 ) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was to Sino-Tibetan , whose speakers had In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle had access to livestock , crops , and newer types of Sidwell ( 2018 ) ( gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages John Peterson ( 2017 ) suggests " ( " proto- " Other than Latin-based alphabets , many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer , Thai , Lao , and This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century . Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Hindi , Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages . which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China , the carriers of early rice-agriculturalists from Indochina from an Basal-East Asian source population , native to Mainland Southeast Asia and Northeast India , which

also gave rise to other East Asian-related populations , including Northeast Asians and Indigenous peoples The proto-Austroasiatic-speakers can be linked to From Mainland Southeast Asia , the Austroasiatic-speakers expanded into the Indian-subcontinent and Maritime Southeast Asia . from more northerly East Asian groups ( such as Kra-Dai-speakers ) merged with indigenous Southeast Asians In the Indian subcontinent , Austroasiatic-speakers , Ancient Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers ( Hoabinhians ) with the genetic evidence for the origin of Basal-East Asians in Mainland Southeast Asia , which are , and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards among the first wave to replace distinct Australasian-related groups modeled from four ancestry components , which descended from a common ancestor in Mainland Southeast Asia more prevalent among modern Southeast Asians , into the Indian subcontinent , and southwards derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia from Southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum , circa Afroasiatic ( Afro-Asiatic ) , Hamito-Semitic , Semito-Hamitic , or in Western Asia , North Africa , the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers , which any language family ( after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Niger–Congo ) The phylum has six branches : Berber , Chadic , Cushitic , Egyptian , Semitic , and and several linguists see it as independent language family that stood in long-term contact In addition to languages spoken , such as Ancient Egyptian , which forms a distinct branch of the family Akkadian , Biblical Hebrew and Old Aramaic There is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family , In the early 19th century , linguists grouped the Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian languages within a "Hamitic" phylum , in other and with those in derived from the Book of Genesis , which and Shem , two sons of for the entire language family in his "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft " come into general use until Joseph Greenberg a relationship between Berber and Semitic He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic , Hebrew In the course of the 19th century ,

In 1844 , Theodor Benfey proposed Berber , and Cushitic ( he called the latter "Ethiopic " ) Friedrich Müller named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft " ("Outline of Linguistics " It was the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius ( 1810–1884 ) who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa , which , the Berber languages , the Cushitic languages , the Beja language , and the Chadic languages . Unlike Müller , Lepsius saw Hausa and Nama as part These classifications relied in part on In 1912 , Carl Meinhof published Meinhof's model was widely supported in Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages peoples with essentially Caucasian origins , intrinsically the 'Negroes of Africa ' . on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of language mixture " . However , his suggestion found little acceptance Marcel Cohen ( 1924 ) rejected the idea of a distinct "Hamitic" subgroup and included Hausa ( a Chadic language ) in Finally , Joseph Greenberg's 1950 work led to the widespread rejection of " Hamitic " as a language category by linguists . Greenberg refuted Meinhof's linguistic theories and rejected He consequently rejoined Meinhof's so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages with , and proposed a new name , " Afroasiatic " , for reassigned most of Meinhof's additions to Hamitic to other language families , notably Nilo-Saharan Following Isaac Schapera and rejecting Meinhof , he classified the Khoekhoe language as In 1969 , Harold Fleming proposed of Afroasiatic , suggesting for Based on typological differences with the other Cushitic languages , Robert Hetzron proposed that Beja , nor that of Ongota Little agreement exists on the subgrouping of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic : Semitic , Egyptian , Berber , Chadic , Cushitic , and Afroasiatic is one of the four major language families Joseph Greenberg in his book "The Languages of Africa " The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an Ancient Egyptian inscription divergent from Proto-Afroasiatic , and Estimates of the date at which They fall within a range between

Christopher Ehret ( 2002 : 35–36 a single linguistic community , or complex of communities , before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages in West Asia , North Africa , the Horn of Africa , and parts of the first speakers to the first farmers in the Levant the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic , as The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features ( e.g. alternative feminine endings 2018 ) and Putten ( Andorra , officially the Principality of Andorra , is a sovereign landlocked microstate on the Iberian Peninsula , in the eastern Pyrenees , bordered by France to the north and Spain to ruled by the count of Urgell until 988 , when it was transferred to the Roman Catholic Diocese of The present principality was formed by a charter It is headed by two co Urgell in Catalonia , Spain and the President of France . Andorra is the sixth-smallest state in Europe The Andorran people are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent Andorra is the world's 16th-smallest country by land Its capital , Andorra la Vella , is the highest capital city in Europe , at Tourism in Andorra sees an estimated 10.2 million visitors the European Union , but the euro is The origin of the word Andorra is The oldest derivation is from the Greek historian Polybius ( "The Histories" III , 35 , 1 located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars . derive from the Basque ' , Another theory suggests that Andorra may the Iberian Peninsula , the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of at Sant Julià de Lòria , was settled in 9,500 BC as a passing place between During the Neolithic Age , a group of people moved to the Valley of Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet ( Ordino ) and Feixa del Moro ( Sant Julià de Lòria 4900–4300 BC as an example of the Urn culture The model of small settlements began to

evolve to a complex urbanism during the Bronze Age The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins The presence of Roman influence is recorded from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD . The places with the most Roman presence are in Camp Vermell ( Red Field ) in Sant Julià de Lòria , and in some places in Encamp , as well After the fall of the Roman Empire , Andorra came under the influence of the Visigoths , the Kingdom of Toledo , and The Visigoths remained in the valleys for Andorra remained part of the Frankish "Marca Hispanica the Count of Urgell and eventually the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell . In 988 , Borrell II , Count of Urgell , gave in exchange for land in Before 1095 , Andorra had of Caboet for help and In 1095 , the Lord of Caboet and the bishop of Urgell Arnalda , daughter of Arnau of Caboet , married the viscount of Castellbò Their daughter , Ermessenda , married the count of Foix , Roger-Bernard II In the 13th century , a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of the bishop and the count , by the signing of the first paréage , which between the count of Foix ( the French head of state ) and In 1364 , the political organization of the parliament ) as representative of local departments ( comuns , quarts in 1419 , the second oldest parliament in particularly in the construction of churches , bridges , religious murals and The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the Catalan language The local economy during the Middle Ages was based on livestock , agriculture , With the passage of time , passed to the kings of Navarre it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy ( fargues Farga Catalana ) and with the introduction The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers

Founded in 1604 , it took advantage of the local thermal waters . located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in as a noble fortress of the Busquets family . In both the Reapers' War and the War of the Spanish Succession , the Andorran people ( their rights reduced in 1716 . reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and In 1812–1813 , the First French Empire annexed Catalonia during the Peninsular War ( ) and divided the region into four départements , with Andorra as a part In 1866 , the syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit led ratification by both Co-Princes and established The ban resulted in an economic conflict and revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880 , and established The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of with the revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany . was divided over the  – the "Andorran Question " in relation to the Eastern Question . where trilingualism coexisted with the official language In 1933 , France occupied to the Spanish CNT and FAI ) called for political reforms , the universal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in On 6 July 1934 , adventurer and of freedoms and modernization of On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell , declaring himself on the Bishop of Urgell and From 1936 until 1940 , well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain and Vichy France and Francoist Spain , two fascist states of foreigners and refugees , of citizens and sympathy with for Andorra's survival and the protection of Andorra was relatively unscathed by of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries , of propaganda , culture and , promulgated in such places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel , as a meeting place for people of ideologies close to Andorran and Spanish Republicanism and Free France The network was maintained after the war , when film societies were formed and books censored in Franco's Spain for the Catalan or foreign public even in two axes : mass tourism and

, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s . as "Andorran dream " ( in relation to the American dream ) along Proof of this was Ràdio Andorra of chanson française , swing , Given its relative isolation , Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history with developments in transport and the need to reform Andorran institutions due human rights and the balance of powers adapt legislation to modern demands . In 1982 , a first separation of Its political system was modernized in 1993 after the Andorran constitutional referendum , when the constitution on 14 March by 74.2% of with the president of France and This peculiarity makes the president of France of Andorra , an elected monarch , by a popular vote of the Andorran people . During this session , the Syndic General , who is the head of the General Council a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors appoint the elected candidate as the head of The General Council is also responsible for The council also approves the annual budget of The government must submit the proposed budget for If the head of government is In turn , the councillors have the power to remove the head of The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court , the Criminal Law Court , the High Court of Andorra , The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges one by the judges and magistrates The magistrates and judges are appointed The High Court also appoints members of the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties It is composed of four judges Andorra does not have its own armed forces primarily with France and Spain ( an alarm ) is called and especially the head of each house ( offer a firearm in case of Andorra is a full member of the United Nations ( UN ) , the Organization for Security Europe ( OSCE ) , and has a special agreement with the European Union ( EU ) , it also has observer status at the World Trade Organization

reconstituted at various dates , but of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain ( Capità or Cap de Sometent In the modern era , the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers The army's role in internal security was largely a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard . The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year The force consisted of six Corporals , plus four junior staff officers to co -ordinate action , and a commander with the rank the Sometent , but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service , with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm . A shotgun per household is unregulated Rifles and pistols require a license more than 700 years , and its main responsibility is to present the flag of Andorra The "Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra " (GIPA ) is terrorism , and hostage recovery tasks . in style to an active military force , it is part of the Police Corps Santa Coloma , operates from four modern fire stations Due to its location in the eastern Pyrenees mountain range , Andorra consists predominantly of These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into , leaves the country for Spain Phytogeographically , Andorra belongs to Andorra has alpine , continental on average, more snow in winter and a great diversity of microclimates that hinder defined during spring and summer , which In winter , however , to the influence of fronts from the Atlantic , which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains . Tourism , the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy , accounts for roughly 80% of One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from approximately 19% of GDP ) . the 21st century , the tourist industry suffered a decline in the prices of goods in Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes , cigars , and furniture the European Union , but enjoys a special relationship with it , such as

trade in manufactured goods ( no tariffs ) and as a non-EU member for the Spanish peseta in banking transactions until 31 December 1999 , when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency , the euro . Coins and notes of both the franc Andorra has historically had one On 31 May 2013 , it was legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June , against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of The historic and official language is Catalan , a Romance language more of these , in among the general population , though it is understood to varying degrees in The population of Andorra is predominantly Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell Muslims , Hindus , and Bahá'ís , and roughly 100 Jews . There are three systems of school , Andorran , French and All schools are built and maintained the most part by France and Spain The Universitat d'Andorra ( UdA ) is It was established in 1997 The university provides first-level degrees in nursing , computer science , business administration , and educational sciences , in addition a centre for virtual studies , connected approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism , law , Catalan philology , humanities , psychology , political sciences , audiovisual communication , telecommunications engineering , and East Asia studies . Until the 20th century , Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world , and Andorra has a road network of , Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities , with services on most major routes There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to Barcelona and Toulouse , plus a daily tour from the former city . and Escaldes-Engordany with commercial helicopter services and Alt Urgell , south of the Andorran-Spanish border Since July 2015 , Andorra – Madrid and Palma de Mallorca , and France provide access to international flights The nearest airports are at Perpignan , France ( from Andorra ) and Lleida , Spain (

France ( from Andorra ) Andorra which is on the -gauge line the Andorran national telecommunications company , SOM , also known as Andorra Telecom ( STA On 12 October 1989 , the General Council established radio and television as essential public services , becoming on 13 April 2000 , In 1990 , the public radio was Diari d'Andorra " , " El Periòdic d'Andorra " , and "Bondia " The history of the Andorran press begins in " ( 1932 ) and "Andorra Agrícola " ( 1933 ) In 1974 , the "Poble Andorrà " Andorra is home to folk dances Andorran folk music has similarities to the music in the presence of dances such The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours of the Cerdanya and Andorra's cuisine is marked by its nature , the duck with winter pear , the lamb in the oven with nuts, pork civet and mushrooms , escudella , spinach with raisins and pine nuts Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art are one of the most important artistic manifestations Summer solstice fire festivals in the Pyrenees was included as UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage in 2015 . Football is governed in Andorra of association football ( Primera Divisió , Andorra was admitted to UEFA and FIFA in the same year, 1996 . plays on the international stage in rugby union VPC Andorra XV is a rugby team based in cycling , volleyball , judo swimming , gymnastics , tennis , is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection . The collection is often a set of economics , anthropology and history , and it is used smaller than most of the values For example , consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm : 2500 , 2700 , 2400 , 2300 , 2550 , 2650 , 2750 , 2450 , 2600 , 2400 . every possible observation and not just a subset of them for vectors in multiple dimension , The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with , when placed in some order

In this case , the arithmetic average is There are applications of this phenomenon , is an average in which For example , the arithmetic mean of often in the general population from which be calculated as formula 26 . of data from it , for example , just integers , into some range of possible values can across this range , even when The analog of a weighted average in this context an infinite number of possibilities for the precise value of the variable in each range , is called the "mean of the probability distribution it has the property that all measures of its central tendency , including not just the mean but also the aforementioned median In general application , such an oversight will towards the middle of the numerical range . The American Football Conference ( AFC ) is one of the two conferences of the National Football League ( NFL ) , the highest professional level of American football in the United States . its counterpart , the National Football Conference ( NFC Both conferences were created as part of the 1970 merger between the National Football League , the new AFC , with the remaining thirteen NFL teams forming A series of league expansions and division realignments thus making the current total of 16 teams This chart of the 2020 season standings displays an application in green ) finished in Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division ) during the regular season , in addition to eleven other games assigned to are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season , and the remaining eight games are split between the roster Using the 2021 regular season schedule as an example , each team in the AFC West plays against At the end of each season , the four division winners and three wild cards ( non-division winners with best regular season record The AFC playoffs culminate in the AFC Championship Game , Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL merged with the American Football League (AFL

with eight teams , and added two more expansion clubs ( the Miami Dolphins in 1966 and the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968 ) In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference , the Cleveland Browns , Pittsburgh Steelers , and Since the merger , five expansion teams have the league in 1976 , they were temporarily placed in the NFC This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences . The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment . In 1984 , the Baltimore Colts relocated In 1995 , the Cleveland Browns had the Baltimore Ravens with the players and personnel from the Browns , while the Browns The Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee in 1997 , where they were 2002 , adding the Houston Texans to sent only half of its 16 teams to the Super Bowl: New England Patriots ( 10 times ) , Denver Broncos ( 4 times ) , Pittsburgh Steelers ( 4 times ) , Baltimore Ravens ( 2 times ) , Indianapolis Colts ( 2 times ) , Kansas City Chiefs ( 2 times ) , on an appearance in the Super Bowl . NBC aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 on either NBC or CBS . playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games ) According to Orwell , the fable Orwell , a democratic socialist , was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile during the May Days conflicts between the POUM and Stalinist forces during upon a cult of personality while engaging in the practice of mass incarcerations only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime Other titular variations include subtitles like " A Satire " and "A Contemporary Satire " Orwell suggested the title ' for the French translation , which abbreviates to URSA , the Latin word for "bear " , a symbol of Russia in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union against Stalin in high esteem , a phenomenon The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers , including

at number 31 on the Modern Library List of , is ripened for rebellion from its animal populace by neglect at which he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals , Snowball and Napoleon , assume command and stage a revolt , driving Mr. Jones off the farm They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn . Snowball teaches the animals to read educates young puppies on the principles of The pigs elevate themselves to positions Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and , Snowball announces his plans to Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm , replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill . after a violent storm , Napoleon and Napoleon of consorting with his old rival When some animals recall the Battle of falsely representing himself as the main hero " Beasts of England " is replaced with " Animal Farm " , Napoleon then conducts a second purge , Napoleon's dogs , which troubles the rest Mr. Frederick , a neighbouring farmer , attacks Although the animals win the battle , they do so at great cost Although he recovers from this He is taken away in , but Squealer quickly waves electric lighting , heating , and alongside Boxer , with " an inebriates' home in another part of the country The pigs start to resemble humans alcohol , and wear clothes The Seven Commandments are abridged to just one phrase , but some animals are more Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers , with whom He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions cards , flattering and praising of the farmers , play the Ace of Spades at the same time and both sides begin George Orwell's "Animal Farm " is an example of Stylistically , the work shares many similarities with some of Orwell's other works , suggest Orwell's bleak view of the future for

humanity ; he seems to to those in " Animal Farm " and " 1984 " In these kinds of works , traumatic conditions of Europe following the Second World War the pursuit of truth in writing For this reason , he is the narrator speaks in an unbiased and uncomplicated fashion . The difference is seen in the way as Napoleon , twist language in February 1944 after his experiences during the Spanish Civil War " Homage to Catalonia " In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of can control the opinion of enlightened people This motivated Orwell to expose saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals , Orwell had quit the BBC He was also upset about a booklet for In 1944 , the manuscript was to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain , the United States , and the Soviet Union . During the Second World War , it became Faber and Faber , where they had some sympathy for the viewpoint he posited that someone might was working for Nicholson & Watson in In his "London Letter " on 17 April 1944 for " Partisan Review " , Orwell wrote that it was Frederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication , even from people in his own office and from his wife ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army , which had played a major part A Russian translation was printed in the paper "Posev In October 1945 , Orwell wrote a good time with " Animal Farm " – an excellent bit of satire – Secker and Warburg published the first edition of "Animal Farm " in 1945 space for a preface in the author's proof In 1972 , Ian Angus found together with his own introduction , in "The Times Literary Supplement " on 15 September 1972 as Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press , specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of " Animal Farm " with another introduction by Crick , claiming

to be the first edition with the preface Writing in the American "New Republic" magazine , George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book , It seemed on the whole dull . " on the same day , called the book " a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age It seems to me that identify Napoleon with Stalin , and Snowball with Trotsky , unfavourable to the author , upon is a political satire with a good deal of " as one of the 100 best English-language novels also featured at number 31 on faced similar forms of resistance in In the same manner , " Animal Farm In 2018 , the government made the decision to censor all online posts about of 2019 , remains sold Amy Hawkins and Jeffrey Wasserstrom of "The Atlantic Mainland China for several reasons : the general public " and "Animal Farm " in is in London or Los Angeles and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into " a complete system of thought " Animalism , an allegoric reference to Communism Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with sleeping in beds , trading with the maxims , " All animals This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments , which were against the humans and preventing animals virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory " of revolution ( violent conspiratorial revolution , led by unconsciously power-hungry people ) In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition , that the destruction of the Soviet myth was in a story that could be The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution . been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918 , and the defeat of the White Russians in of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR , The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use , " the turning point of the story " as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald , stands as an analogy

for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure , and the pigs' treatment of the other animals by the populace in the 1930s . In chapter seven , when the animals the purges , confessions and show During the battle , Orwell first to " All the animals except Napoleon " in recognition of Stalin's decision Orwell requested the change after he met Józef Czapski in Paris in Czapski , a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime , File:15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party ( Bolsheviks).jpg|thumb|Front row ( left to right ): men in a kind of rapprochement , reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Tehran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of " the best possible relations between the USSR Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell , was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984 , directed by Andy Serkis is directing a film adaptation for Netflix , with Matt Reeves producing , was broadcast in January 1947 Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square , London , with Hugh Gordon Porteous , amongst Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall of the book , was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4 . by the Information Research Department ( IRD ) , a secret wing of the British Foreign Office , They inhabit a wide variety of habitats from larva with gills to Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and rely entirely on their skin They are superficially similar to mammals and birds , reptiles The earliest amphibians ( "crown " ) evolved in the Carboniferous period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins , during the Carboniferous and Permian periods , but were The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura ( the frogs ) , Urodela ( the salamanders ) , and Apoda ( the caecilians ) . The number of known amphibian species is approximately 8,000 , of which nearly 90% are The largest living amphibian is the South China giant salamander ( "Andrias sligoi

from the middle Permian of Brazil . The actual number of species in each group the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and the American Museum of Natural History , available as the online reference database " are defined as all tetrapods with includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians ( frogs , salamanders and caecilians The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain fall within extinct groups , like the subclass Labyrinthodontia ) or the Lepospondyli , in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy , All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia that have evolved from a common ancestor The three modern orders are Anura ( the frogs Urodela , the salamanders ) , and Gymnophiona ( or Apoda from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona . The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with They could also use their strong fins including modern amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . on land , many of " Ichthyostega " was one of the first primitive amphibians , with nostrils It had four sturdy limbs , a neck , a tail with fins and of the lobe-finned fish , "Eusthenopteron " Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed able to support the weight of and "feet " with five or more digits ; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation The fish's hyomandibula bone in the hyoid region behind the gills the stapes of the amphibian ear , an adaptation At the end of the Devonian period ( with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates , though some , such as "Ichthyostega " have propelled themselves with their forelimbs , dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal Extensive swamps developed with mosses , ferns , horsetails and calamites There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain , occupying the ecological position reaching several metres in length ,

preying on the large insects of the period to water to lay their shell-less eggs , and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors . reptiles , and amphibians were , leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the biosphere According to the fossil record , Lissamphibia and Lepospondyli at some period between The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic ( around , before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea There are large gaps in the fossil record , but the discovery of a Gerobatrachus hottoni from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs Molecular analysis suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took As they evolved from lunged fish , amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land In the water , the sideways thrusts of , but on land , off the ground for locomotion and Terrestrial adults discarded their lateral line systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via They needed to develop new methods with fluctuations in ambient temperature . Their skins were exposed to harmful ultraviolet rays four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs Lacking these membranes , amphibians require water bodies for reproduction , although some species have developed various strategies for the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in brackish water in mangrove swamps ; the Anderson's salamander meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes . and an unusually large genome , which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates with their rapid metamorphosis , which seems the ancestors of lissamphibia ; in Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means the metamorphosis , the metamorphosis has to at an early stage when the larvae are ( The largest species of salamanders do ) first discovered in 2012 contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species . The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander ( "Andrias davidianus

a result , their food and energy requirements are limited In the adult state , they have Modern amphibians have fully ossified vertebrae Their skin contains little keratin and lacks The skin contains many mucous glands and in The hearts of amphibians have three chambers , two atria and one ventricle . Most amphibians lay their eggs in water Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat . , webbed toes with no claws , no tails , large eyes and glandular moist skin Members of this order with smooth skins known as the "true toads " . Frogs range in size from West Africa to the "Paedophryne amauensis " , Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats , some are specialised Anura is divided into three suborders Future molecular studies should provide further insights into paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages These have certain characteristics that are and includes the remaining families of modern frogs to lizards than they are to side and often finned They range in size from to the diminutive "Thorius pennatulus " from Mexico which seldom exceeds in length Salamanders have a mostly Laurasian distribution , being present in much of the Holarctic region the Amazon basin ; South America was apparently the start of the Miocene , 23 million years ago for all the extant species of salamanders . Members of several salamander families have become Most salamanders are under long . of the year in each habitat . A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been " ) , the Japanese giant salamander ( " Andrias japonicus " ) and the hellbender ( " Cryptobranchus alleganiensis " These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state by suction , depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right . The males excavate nests , persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them , and guard them They differ from the cryptobranchids by In salamandrids , the male deposits a bundle of sperm , the spermatophore

into her cloaca where the sperm is The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae , the lungless salamanders , which includes The third suborder , Sirenoidea , contains the four species of sirens , which Members of this order are eel-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs . Some of their features are primitive Fertilisation is likely to be These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or worm-like form The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres ( 3 to 30 inches ) with A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds limited to discerning differences in light intensity It also has a pair of Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil , in rotten wood they make their way to adjacent bodies Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch . terrestrial vertebrates , such as the presence through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands as those found on toads The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece , in contrast to mammals and Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin . Caecilians are unique among amphibians the dermis between the furrows in the skin The similarity of these to the scales Amphibian skin is permeable to water Gas exchange can take place through rising to the surface of water amphibians have evolved mucous glands , In addition , most species of humans while others have little effect The skin colour of amphibians is produced These three cell layers consist of the melanophores ( Unlike bony fish , there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system , and this results in the colour change Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods , though with a number of variations The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable by means of overlapping processes . The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle , and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of In most amphibians , there are

four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot , but no claws The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions In frogs , the hind legs are In the walkers and runners the hind limbs The feet have adaptations for the way of life , with webbing for climbing , and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging In most salamanders , the limbs are the same length and project at right angles Locomotion on land is by is used as a prop , In their normal gait , only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles , the tail has dorsal and ventral fins and side as a means of propulsion Salamanders use their tails in defence in a process known as autotomy Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and after separation which may distract Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage , the circulation is similar to that of a fish ; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through , and is spread around the body and back to the heart In the adult stage , amphibians ( They have a heart that consists deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around a central brain , a spinal cord , and than that of reptiles , similar in morphology and function to that of a fish . The brain consists of equal parts , cerebrum , midbrain and cerebellum such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe , and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including The brain sends signals through the spinal cord in the rest of the body . Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes , but this is lost

Some caecilians possess electroreceptors that allow them to locate objects around The ears are well developed in on the surface of the head just This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone , the stapes , There is a patch of specialized haircells in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals . at metamorphosis , the cornea becomes The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development They allow colour vision and depth Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking before seizing the item with their jaws Some use inertial feeding to help much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and Amphibians possess a pancreas , liver The liver is usually large with Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit , and may , near the roof of the body cavity Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine , The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes , possessing few internal septa and large alveoli , and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin both low temperatures and high flow rates , aquatic amphibians on cutaneous respiration , as in In air , where oxygen For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations ( e.g., "Eleutherodactylus " , the Pacific "Platymantis " , the Australo-Papuan microhylids , and many other tropical frogs ) need any water for breeding in They reproduce via direct development , Almost all of these frogs live in into miniature versions of the adult , passing through the tadpole stage within the egg In the tropics , many amphibians breed

In temperate regions , breeding is the spring , and is triggered Experiments have shown the importance of In caecilians , fertilisation is The majority of salamanders also engage In most of these , the male deposits a spermatophore , a small packet of sperm on top of on land or in the water The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species In some , the spermatophore may may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called With a few exceptions , frogs use or in the case of "Epipedobates tricolor " , around the neck . They remain in amplexus with covers them with sperm . Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip forming a sort of basket with An exception is the granular poison frog ( "Oophaga granulifera of the cloaca and used to This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and Most frogs can be classified as a breeding site , the males usually arriving Explosive breeders on the other hand are found emerge after heavy rains and congregate the calling of the first male to find There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts , with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention Most amphibians go through metamorphosis , In typical amphibian development , eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle . Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood , Specific events are dependent on threshold values Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body , it is subject to They also make use of After metamorphosis , these organs become The egg of an amphibian is typically This capsule is permeable to water and gases , and swells This also happens in salamander eggs

Eggs of some salamanders and frogs the supply of oxygen to the embryo Most eggs contain the pigment melanin which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against may take the form of spherical egg masses , rafts or long strings . In terrestrial caecilians , the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage The tungara frog ( "Physalaemus pustulosus " ) builds a floating nest from foam to The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform In many species of frog and , direct development takes place , Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land , and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies Some caecilians , the alpine salamander ( "Salamandra atra Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct , often for on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult . Frog larvae are known as tadpoles , but the tadpoles of some species ( such as "Nannophrys ceylonensis " and live among wet rocks . Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons , gills for respiration ( external gills at used as accessory breathing organs , the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes While tadpoles do not have true teeth , in most species , in ponds and streams are , large caudal fins and small mouths ; on growing or loose fragments of vegetation . attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria . They also feed on diatoms , filtered from the water through the sediment at bottom of the pond

Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage At metamorphosis , rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed The animal develops a large jaw , and , and a tongue is formed development of stereoscopic vision and loss All this can happen in about a day eyes without lids , teeth in both upper and lower jaws , three pairs of feathery external gills , a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers , rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the adult form , but this varies with species and with populations or transforms into an adult . Both of these are able low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine . include lack of food , lack of trace elements and competition sometimes behaves in this way and on land , larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter fully formed as a juvenile salamander . The female salamander often broods the eggs . In newts and salamanders , metamorphosis is less dramatic than before the animals leave the water . Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins , the closure of gill slits , thickening of the skin , the development of eyelids , and certain changes in Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer , and For adaptation to a water phase , so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of make their way to water . They have three pairs of external red feathery gills , a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes , a lateral line system and a short tail with fins from side to side . They are mostly active at and make sorties onto land By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes

, lateral line systems and tails . and the body divides into segments In the majority of species of Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct on the yolks of the eggs , but as this source of nourishment declines the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct . This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins with scrapings from the oviduct wall . By this time they have undergone metamorphosis , and reabsorbed their teeth . developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days The care of offspring among amphibians of eggs in a batch , that any degree of parental care takes Nevertheless , it is estimated Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs . capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders The male hellbender , a primitive salamander , excavates The male "Colostethus subpunctatus " , a tiny frog , under a stone or log . transports the tadpoles on his back , to a temporary pool where he dips reared larvae in her stomach after carries the tadpoles around in brood The granular poison frog ( "Oophaga granulifera " ) is typical of a number of Its eggs are laid on the forest floor one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of Amphibians are notable among vertebrates for their diversity of chromosomes and determined for at least 1,193 (14.5% ) of the ~8,200 known (diploid) species , including 963 anurans , 209 salamanders , and 21 caecilians . are characterized by 20–26 bi-armed chromosomes . to other taxa of vertebrates and corresponding variation in genome size ( C-value : picograms of DNA in The large genome sizes have prevented whole-genome sequencing of The 1.7GB draft genome of "Xenopus tropicalis " was

for amphibians in 2010 . With a few exceptions , adult amphibians are The diet mostly consists of small prey caterpillars , earthworms and spiders often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates Food is mostly selected by sight , even in conditions Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell They typically have small hinged pedicellate teeth , have one or two rows of teeth in in the lower jaw , and toads ( " Bufo spp . " typical of the frogs and salamanders raising its hind feet over its back and Among leaf litter frogs in Panama , Caecilians do not flick their tongues , but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth . The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements , algal crusts , detritus and at the bottom of their heads , and passes through branchial food traps between a horny beak edged by several rows of of many kinds as well as out larger particles with the papillae around salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks may be a means of orientation , as in bats , The presence of a particular species in an area In most species , the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an air sac or sacs in the throat or at This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator , helping to transfer the sound to at times when the animal is The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of a female in response to the advertisement call or female during unwanted attempts at Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians , but some frogs in some species , females and In salamanders , defence of occasionally causing the loss of a tail

) of their original daytime retreat under a log The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged in size and These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas the ground and glaring at the opponent was usually launched at either the tail region In frogs , male territorial behaviour is ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories Holders of territories have a "home advantage better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs chest to chest tussles may take Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins The first line of defence in salamanders This keeps their skin moist and makes in this respect , but the Cayenne caecilian ( "Typhlonectes compressicauda " ) produces in a feeding experiment in Brazil . In some salamanders , the skin is North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin ( TTX ) In feeding trials , fish , frogs , reptiles , birds the snakes have developed immunity through its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake of the neck and under the warts These regions are presented to the attacking animal warn potential predators of their toxicity . of these , it is In some species , such as , the warning colouration is on the belly during the day , thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid mottled browns , greys and olives ( " Blarina brevicauda " ) avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands . The tail may have a constriction at Some frogs and toads inflate themselves and fierce , and some spadefoot toads In one experiment , when offered 2 and 2 vs 3 Frogs can distinguish between low numbers ( 1 vs 2 , 2 vs 3 , but and large numbers ( 3 vs 6 , 4 vs 8 6 ) of prey . been noted since the late 1980s from

to be one of the most critical threats amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle . Of these , 1,356 (33.6% ) A number of causes are believed , pollution , introduced species , global warming , endocrine-disrupting pollutants , destruction of the ozone layer ( ultraviolet radiation has to the skin , eyes , and eggs of amphibians ) , and diseases like chytridiomycosis With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins , In many terrestrial ecosystems , they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in In the Middle East , a growing appetite for them for food was linked to an increase in mosquitoes . are affected by their decline . two species of frog that are If the snake were to become birds of prey and other predators that feed on it . lakes , fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and accumulates as sediment on the bottom A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae , resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when released in 2005 in the form Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field , this call to action details The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for them to create assurance colonies of Yup'ik : " Alaskaq " ;) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America the U.S. , it borders the Canadian province of British Columbia and the territory of Yukon to the east and share a maritime border with the Russian Federation's Chukotka Autonomous Okrug to the west , just across the Bering Strait . by area , comprising more total area than the next three largest states ( Texas , California , and Montana )

It represents the seventh largest subnational division in the world mostly north of the 60th parallel , with a population of 736,081 as of 2020 — more than quadruple the combined populations of Approximately half of Alaska's residents live within The state capital of Juneau is the second-largest city in the United States by area , comprising more territory than the states of Alaska was occupied by various indigenous peoples for thousands of years before the arrival of The state is considered the entry point for spanned most of the current state . in 1867 for US$7.2 million ( acre ( $4.74/km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before While it has one of to a diversified economy dominated by fishing , natural gas , and oil The indigenous population of Alaska is proportionally It was derived from an Aleut-language idiom Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge . At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana Valley in Alaska , remains of a six-week-old infant The baby's DNA showed that she belonged in the New World at the end of The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in along with parts of British Columbia The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887 , when on Annette Island and found the town The Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut people's seafaring society , although they were to the Yup'ik , while their cousins The Gwich'in people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge was established in the 17th century . in Alaska by storm and This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin , who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and " under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732 , during an expedition of Siberian cossack A. F. Shestakov and

Russian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky ( 1729–1735 ) . Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741 , when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the "St. Peter After his crew returned to Russia the finest fur in the world , small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward fort were built in Nootka Sound such as Valdez , Bucareli Sound , on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago , became the capital of Russian America was transferred to the United States . William H. Seward , the 24th United States Secretary of State known as Seward's Folly ) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million Russia's contemporary ruler Tsar Alexander II , the Emperor of the Russian Empire , King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland , was made on March 30, 1867 . the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka to the governor's house at " Castle Hill Alaska was loosely governed by 1884 , with a governor appointed A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag , Sitka was the only community They organized a "provisional city government " , Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s , gold rushes in Alaska and and settlers to Alaska . Alaska was officially incorporated as in Sitka until 1906 , was moved north to Juneau During World War II , the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on Attu , Agattu and two United States Navy personnel were killed at Attu were interned in Japan . About half of the Aleuts died during for the United States Army , United States Army Air Forces and Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome ; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft , ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure Decades later , the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946 .

major battles against political foes , mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within On March 27, 1964 , the massive Good Friday earthquake killed portions of large coastal communities , mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides . It was the second-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history , with a moment magnitude of 9.2 The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led In 1989 , the "Exxon Valdez " hit a reef in the Prince William Sound , Located at the northwest corner of North America , Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States , but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America ; about of British Columbia ( Canada ) separates Alaska from The state is bordered by Canada's Yukon and British Columbia to the east ( the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest ; the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west ; and the Arctic Ocean to Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait At in area , Alaska of the second-largest U.S. state , Texas . With its myriad islands , Alaska has The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians Unimak Island , for example , is home to Mount Shishaldin , The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr , west of Anchorage Anchorage , the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula in the years following the Alaska Purchase . The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago It contains the state capital Juneau , the former capital Sitka , and Ketchikan , at The Interior is the largest region of Alaska ; much of it is Fairbanks is the only large city in the region Most of the population lives along Kodiak Island is also located in The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta , one of the largest river deltas

The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve – Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field . known as Barrow , is Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere , but the International Date Line was thus the entire North American continent , within the same legal day . According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management , approximately 65% of Alaska is as public lands , including a multitude of national forests , national parks , Of these , the Bureau of Land Management manages , or 23.8% of the state The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service Of the remaining land area , the state of A portion of that acreage is occasionally Smaller portions are set aside for Another are owned by 12 regional , and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ( ANCSA Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements to be sold on the open market before they could take effect ( including subsurface title in many cases , a privilege denied to individual Alaskans Various private interests own the remaining land , totaling within the U.S. state of Alaska ; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology the other U.S. states , but it is divided into "boroughs " . Delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Convention wanted to avoid the pitfalls of the traditional county system and Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs , cover the entire land area of the state . into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation . A "recording district " is a mechanism for management of the public record in Alaska The state is divided into 34 recording districts decentralization—state/county/township — most of Alaska of the land is located in Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough

in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage Chugiak , Peters Creek , Girdwood , Bird , and Indian to 291,247 people in 2020 . The richest location in Alaska by per capita income Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places ( CDPs ) The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities , essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city – The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known Of Alaska's 2020 U.S. census population figure of 733,391 , 16,655 people , or 2.27% of Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan , Kodiak , Palmer and for these areas by the United States Census Bureau , for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census (Clover Pass , Herring Cove , Ketchikan East , Mountain Point , North Tongass Highway , Pennock Island and The climate in south and southeastern : " Cfb " ) , and a subarctic oceanic climate ( Köppen "Cfc " ) in the northern parts . On an annual basis , the southeast is part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months . While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska , it gets more snow around of snow , although The climate of western Alaska is determined It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest This region has a tremendous amount of variety The climate of the interior of Alaska Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks in the winter , the temperature can the arctic circle ) on June 27, 1915 , as the state with the lowest high temperature in The climate in the extreme north of Alaska Even in July , the average low temperature The United States Census Bureau found in the 2020 United States census that on April 1, 2020 , a 3.6% increase since

In 2010 , Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population , Washington , D.C. ) . one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world Asian , 1.4% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander At the survey estimates , 7.8% of from 2015 to 2019 . In 2015 , 61.3% was of the state population in 2015 . From 2015 to 2019 , the largest Hispanic and Latin American groups were The state was 66.7% White ( 64.1% non-Hispanic white , and 7.3% from two or more races Hispanics or Latin Americans of any race made up 5.5% of the population in 2010 . , 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups ( i.e. According to the 2011 American Community Survey , 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home about 4.3% spoke an Asian language ( including spoke other languages at home . In 2019 , the American Community Survey determined Collectively , Asian and Pacific Islander languages were spoken by 5.6% of Alaskans . the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010 , about 34% of Alaska residents were members of identified as evangelical Protestants ; 50,866 as Roman Catholic ; and 32,550 1% Buddhist , 0.2% Baháʼí , and The largest religious denominations in Alaska was the Catholic Church 32,170 adherents ; and the Southern Baptist Convention with The Pew Research Center in 2014 determined 62% The Catholic Church remained the largest single Christian tradition practiced in Of the unaffiliated population , they made In 1795 , the first Russian Orthodox Church was the Russian immigrants integrate into society . As a result , an increasing number of Alaska also has the largest Quaker population ( by percentage ) of any state In 2009 , there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska ( for celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities , including Sikhs and Jains In 2010 , Alaskan Hindus established There are an estimated 2,000–3,000 Hindus in Alaska Estimates for the number of Muslims The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s

to construct a mosque in Anchorage They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014 and one of the northernmost mosques in As of 2016 , Alaska had a total employment of 266,072 . in the U.S .. Its per capita personal income for ranking 7th in the nation . According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International , Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States , with a ratio of 6.75 percent The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy , with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock , dairy products , vegetables , Employment is primarily in government , shipping , and transportation Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star , Anchorage and Federal subsidies are also an important part of , coal , gold , precious metals , zinc and other mining, seafood processing Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope ( ANS ) and Cook Inlet basins fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas , North Dakota , and California . Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still day , more than any other crude oil pipeline Additionally , substantial coal deposits are found of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating , transportation , for statewide energy systems ( e.g. with ( at the time of the report low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices , long distances and low population The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil , largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System .

The fund was originally proposed by would spend the entire proceeds of the sale ( which amounted to $900 million It was later championed by the political climate of distrust existing during , the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties from the fund's annual growth have been paid ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 ( equal to three years' payout , in 2008 ( which included 8% from the earnings , puts inflation proofing , and the remaining 5% is The cost of goods in Alaska Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley , about northeast of Anchorage , , about southeast of Fairbanks , with a sizable concentration of farms and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners , small farms and farmers' markets in recent years , with the highest percentage increase ( 46% ) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011 , compared Alaska , with no counties , ( with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer held mostly in the late summer . The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity , and carnival rides , concerts and food Alaska has an abundance of seafood , with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea Seafood is one of the few food items Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet still common in the state , Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from "Outside " In rural areas , subsistence hunting and The cost of transport can reach kg ) or more in some remote areas , during the most difficult times , if these locations can be reached milk is about $3.50 in many villages Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race from Anchorage to Nome , and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan , the Sitka Whale Fest , and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in

The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as later immigrants from Russia and Europe Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel , traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood , folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick , There are many established music festivals in Alaska , including the Alaska Folk Festival , the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival the Anchorage Folk Festival , the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival , the Sitka Jazz Festival The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra in Hollywood to Alaska to as " The Biggest Picture Ever Made " . Upon arriving in Alaska , in Northwest Alaska , where they lived during the duration of the filming at the Astor Theatre in New York City , the studio received the largest amount of feedback as a result , Mala became Jack London's 1906 novel and starring Ethan Hawke , was filmed in part at shot in Canada , but was set in Alaska . ; for example , " in the fictional town of Cicely , Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska They have a long and storied history , but , law enforcement in Alaska was In much of the state , In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law , wildlife Troopers enforce Many rural communities in Alaska are considered outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages . at high levels in the state ; Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation , especially in The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage , University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast , and Alaska Pacific University Alaska has had a problem with most of the highest academic achievers , leave Beginning in 1998 , schools in rural Alaska must have at least 10 students to retain funding from the state This was due to the loss

debate over decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system , or building a road connection from The Interstate Highways in Alaska consists of One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about southeast of Anchorage at Portage . in North America until 2007 . ARR ) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska , , Wasilla , Talkeetna , Denali , and Fairbanks , with spurs to Whittier , The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development , moving freight into Alaska as coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage . The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country . A stretch of about of track along an area north of Talkeetna the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area . In northern Southeast Alaska , the White Pass and Yukon Route from Skagway northwards into Canada ( crossing the border at White Pass Summit . by cruise liner at Skagway . It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series ( The nearest link to the North American railway network is the northwest terminus of the Canadian National Railway at Prince Rupert ) serves the cities of southeast , the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula . The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham , Washington and Prince Rupert , British Columbia , in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway . In recent years , cruise lines have to a lesser degree , towns along , sea , or river air , foot , dogsled for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services — an Alaskan novelty .

, is served by many major airlines remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state . Regular flights to most villages and towns subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska , as the Cessna Caravan , the most popular aircraft in Much of this service can be In 2006 , Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita Of these , there are In modern times ( that is mid-late 1920s ) , dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means Anchorage to Nome ( although the distance varies from year to to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when prizes , and prestige . Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies : GCI as of late 2011 , Alaska Communications The Alaska Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and Senators serve four-year terms and House members The governor of Alaska serves four-year terms Alaska's court system has four levels : the Alaska Supreme Court , the Alaska Court of Appeals , the superior courts and The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions , including issues related to land use development , fishing , tourism , and been active within the Native corporations . as governor of Alaska . In addition , Republican governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party on February 24, 2015 , placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as can consume small amounts of cannabis This allows it to have It is one of five states with no sales tax , one of seven states with no individual income tax , and — along with New Hampshire — one of two that has The Department also issues an annual summary of hotel , motel , and ) taxes , tire taxes and about 85 percent of its revenue from taxes

brought its budget shortfall from over $2 billion in Alaska regularly supports Republicans in Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson Since 1972 , however , In 2008 , Republican John McCain defeated McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin , the state's governor and downtown Anchorage , and the areas been strongholds of the Democratic Party . 1.1% , or about 4,000 votes . California ) and ranked-choice voting ( Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , whereby farming The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago , nascent farmers began to plant Plants were independently cultivated in into foods , fibers , Food classes include cereals ( grains , oils , meat , milk , eggs and fungi such as pesticides and fertilizers Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage Environmental issues include contributions to global warming and sensitive to environmental degradation , of Latin , from ' field ' and 'cultivation ' human activities , certain species of ant, termite Agriculture is defined with varying scopes , fiber , forest products , horticultural crops , and their related services " The development of agriculture enabled the human population Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe , and included , peas , lentils , bitter vetch , chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant . In the Andes of South America , the potato was with beans , coca , llamas , alpacas , and Cotton was domesticated in Peru explain the historical origins of agriculture . Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant , and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China Farmers grew wheat , barley and onions , and fruits wheat and barley , alongside by sheep and goats . were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC In China , from the 5th century

Water-powered grain mills were in use by By the late 2nd century , heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin In Greece and Rome , , and barley , alongside vegetables including peas , beans in Mesoamerica ( apart from beans , and cacao . and developed chinampas or artificial islands tomato , tobacco , and sunflower , tobacco , squash breeding in Europe and North America practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming . was developed in North America . The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming intensification ' across the whole continent over Since 1900 agriculture in developed nations , and to a lesser extent in the developing world productivity as mechanization replaces human labor , pesticides , and selective breeding The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale , greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in In nomadic pastoralism , herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of of forest is cleared by crops for a few years until the soil Another patch of land is selected This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy It is intensively practiced in a high use of inputs ( water , fertilizer , pesticide and From the twentieth century , intensive agriculture increased for labour , but caused a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture first certified organic food in 1991 ( CAP ) in 2005 The growth of organic farming has renewed integrated pest management , selective breeding , and the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security , given the favorable experience approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously By 2015 , the agricultural output of , India and the United States . Following the three-sector theory , the number of people employed in agriculture and the least developed countries , and less than 2% in During the 16th century in Europe , the 19th century , this had dropped

At the start of the 21st century , some one billion people , were employed in agriculture . worldwide remain at high risk of as certain cancers related to chemical use On industrialized farms , injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery , or have children with birth defects As an industry in which families entire families can be at risk for injuries , illness , In addition , incidences of death , injury and illness In the European Union , the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work health and safety directives in agriculture , livestock farming , horticulture , and forestry in which forests are burnt cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period to regrow forest , and returning after many more years ( 10–20 This fallow period is shortened if population density nutrients ( fertilizer or manure Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures , when one cultivar is the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers , or requiring irrigation . In all of these environments perennial crops Important categories of food crops include cereals , legumes , forage , Natural fibers include cotton , wool , hemp , silk and Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat , milk , eggs , or Livestock production systems can be defined based was a significant increase in livestock production , carcass weight , especially among beef , pigs and chickens , increased by almost a factor of 10 as shrubland , rangeland , and pastures for feeding ruminant animals . to the grassland as a major nutrient source . This system is particularly important in Mixed production systems use grassland , fodder ; mainly chickens and pigs ) Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm , representing the de upon for crop production and manure use Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia ,

with much smaller amounts of growth in as the plow or harrow to nutrient incorporation , or for pest control Tillage varies in intensity from Pest control includes the management of weeds , insects , mites , biological (biocontrol ) , mechanical (tillage ) , composting , avoidance , Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production , and the method of use of manure produced by livestock . manure , green manure , compost Crop nutrient use may also be managed which occurs to some degree in Some farmers use irrigation to supplement In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada , farmers use a fallow year to conserve humankind for thousands of years , since crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans or resistance to pests . Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after over the centuries increased yield , enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization For example , average yields of corn ( maize ) in per hectare ( t / acre ) in 1900 to per acre ) in 2001 from less than 1 t / ha in South American average wheat yields are around 2 t / ha In contrast , the average wheat yield in Genetically modified organisms ( GMO ) are to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops . into crops through genetic engineering . For some , GMO crops cause Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production , import or use of GMO foods and crops . regulates the trade of GMOs . tolerate exposure to herbicides , These seeds allow the farmer to grow with herbicides to control weeds Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops , from the soil bacterium "Bacillus thuringiensis " ( Bt These crops resist damage by insects be acquired through traditional breeding practices , Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation , such as biodiversity loss , desertification

, soil degradation and global warming , which cause decrease in crop yield Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures , particularly habitat change , climate change , water use and toxic emissions Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment , including The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature ( especially herbicides and excessive water usage , and loss of A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion 96 per hectare ) , Agriculture seeks to increase yield as fertilisers and removal of pathogens , predators , and Costs decrease with increasing scale of Pesticides kill insects , plants These and other measures have cut biodiversity to A senior UN official , Henning Steinfeld , said of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems " Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture , or 30% of the land surface of the planet It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases , responsible for By comparison , all transportation emits It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide ( which has 296 times the global warming potential of as warming as CO2 . Through deforestation and land degradation , livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices Land transformation , the use of land , is the most substantial way humans alter Estimates of the amount of land Land management is the driving factor behind degradation ; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land Eutrophication , excessive nutrient enrichment in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia loss of biodiversity , and cropland , as well as and leaching from agricultural land . These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater , with harmful effects as northern China , the Upper Ganges and

and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran , Mexico the challenge of producing more food for Pesticide use has increased since 1950 The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that An alternative argument is that the way to a trade-off between the environment and a need Climate change and agriculture are interrelated Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and weather extremes ( like storms in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations some foods ; and changes in Global warming is already affecting agriculture crop production in low latitude countries , while Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of CO2 and a percentage of the world's methane , and future land infertility , and the displacement of wildlife Agriculture contributes to climate change such as forest for agricultural use % to global annual emissions in 2010 value to ecosystems , recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs , and balancing the rights of a variety of users and Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage land loss to erosion , reduces water pollution , and enhances carbon sequestration Other potential practices include conservation agriculture , agroforestry , improved grazing , avoided grassland conversion , agricultural productivity , food security and trade by 2050 , it found could be reduced by almost half Since the 1940s , agricultural productivity has to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization , The vast majority of this energy input comes from transformed agriculture around the globe , for rice , depending on geographic area ) as world population doubled Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways : direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers , pesticides , and farm machinery Together , direct and indirect consumption by US farms transporting , marketing , consumption , and disposal of food and food-related items and consumption of [agricultural] goods and marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s Although the study of agricultural economics is

throughout history , ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States , distribution , and agricultural marketing This is related to the greater efficiency of farming , combined with National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products , in the form of taxation , subsidies , In the 1980s , non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies , milk and rice , Among the oilseeds , sesame had Since the 1980s , policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers . generally graded to indicate quality Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences in 1843 , John Lawes and at Rothamsted Research Station in England ; In America , the Hatch Act of by farmers' interest in fertilizers . Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products . policies related to taxes ) , natural resources and environmental sustainability ( development , and market access for There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy , including consumers , agribusiness , trade lobbies and Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making , in the form in environmental issues and labor unions , The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) leads provides a forum for the negotiation of Aldous Leonard Huxley ( 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963 ) was an English writer and philosopher travel writing , satire , and He spent the latter part of his life in the United States , living in with works such as "The Perennial Philosophy Huxley was born in Godalming , Surrey , England , He was the third son of the writer Julia was the niece of poet a character in one of her sister's novels Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley , the zoologist , agnostic , As a child , Huxley's nickname was

He was described by his brother , Julian , as someone ] the strangeness of things " He taught French for a year at Eton College , where Eric Blair He was mainly remembered as Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at Brunner and Mond , his early twenties , establishing himself as During the First World War , Huxley spent including Bertrand Russell , Alfred North Whitehead , They lived with their young son in Following Lawrence's death in 1930 , Huxley edited Lawrence's letters ( 1932 Works of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress , pacifist themes ( for example , In " Brave New World " , set in a dystopian London , Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and Pavlovian conditioning . He lived in the U.S. , a time in Taos , New Mexico Heard introduced Huxley to Vedanta (Upanishad-centered philosophy ) , meditation , Huxley and Krishnamurti entered into debate ) over many years , Huxley , with his pragmatic concerns , the circle of Hindu Swami Prabhavananda , and introduced Christopher Isherwood to this circle . During this period , Huxley earned , in his autobiography " My Guru that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the US , a novelist and screenwriter , put him in touch with completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast . Huxley received screen credit for " and was paid for his work Wonderland " and the biography of presented themselves for examination . based on religious ideals , the only excuse allowed under the McCarran Act , the judge is meditating on the central problems of Huxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make From these , he made some warnings in his writings and talks In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist Mike Wallace , Huxley outlined several major concerns : modern politicians to a naive public as well-marketed commodities In a December 1962 letter to brother Julian

thinking of human problems in ecological terms Huxley's engagement with Eastern wisdom traditions was entirely compatible with a strong appreciation of modern science more Buddhist than Christian ... Huxley endorsed training in general semantics and "the nonverbal world of culturally uncontaminated consciousness , cultivate the art of pure receptivity ... able to cut holes in the fence of verbalized symbols that hems Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963 , Huxley had an extensive association with the Vedanta Society of Southern California From 1941 until 1960 , Huxley contributed 48 articles to "Vedanta Two of those lectures have been In the spring of 1953 , Huxley had Huxley had initiated a correspondence with in a Canadian institution , and eventually of mescaline ; Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley's session in southern California After the publication of " The Doors of Perception importance of the psychedelic drug experience , which to write articles for the society's journal , lecture at the temple , Differing accounts exist about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points In 1940 , Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a "ranchito " in the high desert hamlet of Llano , California , in northern Los Angeles County . the first time in more than 25 years , he along the dirt road beside the ranch . He wrote a book about his experiences with the Bates Method , " The Art of Seeing in 1942 ( U.S. ) , 1943 ( UK ) in his teens , despite the partial recovery For example , some ten years after publication of "The Art of Seeing " , in 1952 , Bennett Cerf was apparently reading his paper from the lectern He was n't reading his address He had learned it by for a magnifying glass in his pocket to spent several evenings in the Huxleys' company in with a wry smile , " I On the other hand , Huxley's second wife , : " One of the great achievements of his life : that of of Huxley as a "poor fellow who

Walter C. Alvarez , she tempered her statement For instance , although Aldous Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision Her account , in this respect , agrees with the following sample of Huxley's own words from " The Art of Seeing " : "The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism , or any part of the organism American popular science author Steven Johnson , in his book " about his difficulties with visual encoding : Words , even the pregnant words of poets No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or Huxley married on 10 July 1919 Maria Nys ( 10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955 ) , a Belgian epidemiologist from Bellem , a village near Aalter , he met at Garsington , Oxfordshire , ( 19 April 1920 – 10 February 2005 ) , who had a career as an author , anthropologist , and In 1956 , Huxley married , a biography of Huxley . Huxley was diagnosed with laryngeal cancer lectures on " Human Potentialities " the destruction of most in the 1961 Bel Air Fire , the senior literary organisation in Britain , and he accepted the title via The correspondence between Huxley and the society is kept at the Cambridge University Library . The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at Somerset House , London , Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963 ; it was Russian composer Igor Stravinsky , who dedicated his last orchestral composition an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae , such as "Chlorella , " "Prototheca ) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types , such as stomata , xylem and phloem , have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they

Green algae are examples of algae of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived Algae lack the various structures that characterize ( leaf-like structures ) of bryophytes , rhizoids of nonvascular plants , and the roots , leaves , and other organs found in tracheophytes osmotrophy , myzotrophy , or , euglenids , dinoflagellates , cells whose ancestors possessed plastids , from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis , unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria Because of the wide range of types of algae , they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society . Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications for bioremediation or pollution control , transforming sunlight into algae fuels or seaweed ' and retains that meaning is related to Latin , no reason is known to associate the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification The primary classification of algae is based The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted However , the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae , reflecting their acquisition during The table below describes the composition of Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure Many of these groups contain some members Linnaeus , in "Species Plantarum " ( 1753 ) , the starting point of algae , of which In 1768 , Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin ( , the first work dedicated to marine algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation This is the first use of a biochemical criterion Unlike macroalgae , which were Throughout the 20th century , most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae : cyanophytes , rhodophytes , chrysophytes , xanthophytes , bacillariophytes , phaeophytes , pyrrhophytes ( cryptophytes and dinophytes were included in Protista ,

" , parasites of metazoans , or "Cephaleuros " , originally classified as fungi , sporozoans , or protistans of other red algae , or the dinoflagellates "Oodinium " , parasites of fish In other cases , some groups were were seen as endophytic algae . originally seen as algae . The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae These probably had an isomorphic alternation of A range of algal morphologies is exhibited , and convergence of features Apical growth is constrained to subsets different from those of reds Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates In three lines , even higher levels of may reach 50 m in length The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology are mainly from the Ascomycota with occur separate from lichens . two , from the green algae , A photobiont may be associated with named and classified as fungal species Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons Scleractinia ( stony corals ) . These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes , including secretion of the exoskeleton , with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts Dinoflagellates ( algal protists ) are often endosymbionts in the cells of Reef-building stony corals ( hermatypic corals ) require Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges , for example Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases , but pheromones may play a key role in Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis , a key stage of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species ( that number For example , according to these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones The distribution of algal species has been of phytogeography in the mid-19th century . of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and air , water , or

can be found in a variety of environments : fresh and marine waters , air , soil , and The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed However , not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae , as the chemical composition of certain water bodies Marine spores are often spread by To some degree , the distribution of by locality , such as "Pacific algae " or "North Sea algae " For example , " Clathromorphum However , scientists regard the overall data Algae are prominent in bodies of water , common in terrestrial environments , and are found in unusual environments , such as on snow and ice . Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone' , which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet The various sorts of algae play significant roles the water column ( phytoplankton ) provide Algae can be used as In many cases , algal metabolism is In classical Chinese , the word is of the imperial scholars ) for "literary talent red algae , has a number of is extracted from brown algae . Its uses range from gelling agents in food , to medical dressings . in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run , biofuels should Here , algae-based fuels hold great promise , directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of by humans in many ways ; for example , as fertilizers , soil conditioners , and livestock feed Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places . of food , especially in label them as superfoods . They provide many vitamins including : A , B1 , B2 , B6 , niacin , and C , and are , iron , magnesium , Algae are national foods of many nations : China consumes more than 70 species ,

including "fat choy " , a cyanobacterium and "aonori " ; Ireland , dulse ; Chile , Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales , where It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia , in Hawaii in Scotland , Ireland , Greenland , and Iceland . The oils from some algae have high levels For example , " Parietochloris incisa arachidonic acid , where it reaches , essential omega-3 fatty acids , docosahexaenoic acid ( Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids , but as copepods and are passed can be captured from manure effluents an algal turf scrubber ( ATS ) . Scientists developed the ATS , which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon , and studied its efficacy for the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers , streams , and from the ATS and studied its potential They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew as they did with commercial fertilizers Various polymers can be created from algae , which can be especially useful in the creation of These include hybrid plastics , cellulose-based plastics , poly-lactic acid , and bio Analysis of variance ( ANOVA of statistical models and their associated estimation procedures ( to analyze the differences among means ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher ANOVA is based on the law of total variance , where the observed variance While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century , antecedents , which improved upon methods It also initiated much study of rather than a total) sum of squares the emerging field of psychology which developed Ronald Fisher introduced the term variance and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article " The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance His first application of the analysis of variance the breed : it is typically limited to dogs that are the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics

In the illustrations to the right , X"1 , " X"2 , each of the groups ( shown in blue ) has a relatively large variance very similar across groups , the variation in dog weights : knowing grouping dogs as "pet vs working breed " The heaviest show dogs are likely to be as pets tend to be the distributions have variances that are , and the means are more However , the significant overlap of distributions , for example , means that we can not distinguish The difference in weights between Setters The analysis of variance provides the formal tools A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment Random-effects model ( class II ) is a college or university department to find a good introductory textbook , The fixed-effects model would compare a list of exist among a list of randomly selected texts The analysis of variance has been a linear model that relates the response to in parameters but may be In a randomized controlled experiment , the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units , The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis , following the ideas of C. S. Peirce and Ronald Fisher This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by Francis J. Anscombe at Rothamsted Experimental Station and according to Cox and Kempthorne For a randomized experiment , the assumption of Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model In the randomization-based analysis , there is The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition data from non-randomized experiments or observational studies , model-based analysis lacks the warrant of For observational data , the derivation of In practice , the estimates of The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence , normality and homogeneity of variances of The randomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the variances

of the residuals ( as a consequence of unit-treatment additivity ) and uses However , studies of processes invariant under a "change of scale use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity to follow a parametric family of probability distributions ( in the protocol for the experiment ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments , those in The statistical significance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two variances . This ratio is independent of several possible alterations In the era of mechanical calculation it constant from all observations ( when The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number of two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance . ANOVA estimates 3 sample variances : a total variance based on all the observation deviations from the grand mean , an error variance based on all the observation deviations from their appropriate treatment means , and a treatment variance The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum for comparing the factors of the total deviation to the "F"-distribution with formula 19 , The expected value of F is formula 21 ) which is 1 for As values of F increase above 1 , the evidence is increasingly the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors ( i.e. maximizing power For example , to test : The approximation is particularly close Such permutation tests characterize tests with maximum power ANOVA consists of separable parts ; partitioning sources of variance and hypothesis testing ANOVA is used to support fit more complex models to data , compare models with the objective of without any reference to ANOVA , used to make some sense of hypotheses about batches of coefficients More complex experiments with a single factor involve constraints on randomization and include completely randomized blocks and Latin squares ( and variants The more complex experiments share many of the complexities ANOVA generalizes to the study of When the experiment includes observations at , it is termed factorial grows as the number of factors increases The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk

Texts vary in their recommendations regarding the continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering Interactions complicate the interpretation of experimental data can be taken at face value the significance of main effects . " Graphical methods are recommended to enhance A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox ( 1958 ) A variety of techniques are used with support of analytical trickery ) Some analysis is required in support of the "design " of the experiment changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in In the design of an experiment , the number of experimental units is planned provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and " Provide information on sample size Besides the power analysis , there are Power analysis is often applied in a certain ANOVA design , effect size in the population , sample size and significance level . across studies and disciplines . Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm homoscedasticity and gross normality This can be done in Follow-up tests are often distinguished in the mean pooling across groups A , B and C to the mean of as linear and quadratic relationships , when the independent variable There are several types of ANOVA Many statisticians base ANOVA on the design of the experiment , especially on the protocol that specifies the random assignment of For single-factor ( one-way ) ANOVA , the adjustment for unbalanced data For more complex designs the lack of balance Consequently , the analysis of unbalanced factorials that for balanced designs . " In the general case , " The analysis applied to unbalanced data , but ANOVA is considered to be The vector formula 36 is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all formula 32 . In order to obtain a fully general formula 29-way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term With this notation in place , we now have the exact connection with the parameters within each set of interactions In organic chemistry , an alkane , In other words , an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure

( either C–C or C–H ) , and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms ( in a C–H bond The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its carbon skeleton or Methane is produced by methanogenic bacteria and some long-chain alkanes function as pheromones in certain animal species or as protective waxes in plants and fungi . An alkyl group is an alkane-based molecular fragment that bears branched , or cyclic . For example , 3-methylhexane and The above list only includes differences of In addition to the alkane isomers , the chain of carbon atoms may form In 1866 , August Wilhelm von Hofmann suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of i , o and u C"n"H2"n " , C"n"H2"n"−2 , Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by of the IUPAC naming system , the usage is distinguish between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers , e.g. The first four names were derived from methanol , ether , propionic acid and the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel ( " -a " or , C6H14 ; heptane , C7H16 ; octane , C8H18 The numeral prefix is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine , for example nonane , use the Latin prefix , this class of hydrocarbons is their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones , Together , alkanes are known Trivial names for compounds are usually They were coined before the development of systematic names , and have Under standard conditions , from CH4 to C4H10 C5H12 to C17H36 they are the size ( molecular weight ) of than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact , thus the greater van der Waals forces , The melting points of the alkanes follow a similar trend to boiling points for the same reason as There is one significant difference between boiling points Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids For alkanes , this can The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points

Alkanes do not conduct electricity in any way , nor are For this reason , they do the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in entropy ) . Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects It is derived from the electron configuration of carbon , which has The carbon atoms in alkanes are described orbitals directed towards the corners of a tetrahedron which are derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals Geometrically , the angle between the bonds An alkane has only C–H and C–C single bonds The former result from the overlap of an sp3 orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of the overlap of two sp3 orbitals on adjacent carbon atoms to that of the four sp3 orbitals — There is a further degree of freedom for each carbon–carbon bond : the torsion angle between the atoms at each end of the bond Ethane forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes , as If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond , one will The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle , resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane However , the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon – carbon single bond . This difference in energy between the two conformations , known as the torsion energy , of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature . There is constant rotation about the C–C bond The case of higher alkanes is more For this reason , alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon – carbon so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra . of the group : methyl groups show

bands at 1450 cm−1 and 1375 cm−1 , while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm−1 and 1450 cm−1 . The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at " δ"H = 0.5–1.5 . The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon : , –CH3 ) , 15–55 (secondary, methylene , – CH2 – Alkanes have a high ionization energy , and the case of branched chain alkanes , the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals Alkanes are only weakly reactive with most chemical compounds to range from 50 to 70 , depending on the extrapolation method undergoing no observable protonation in pure sulfuric acid ( " H"0 ~ – 12 By virtue of their strongly C–H bonds ( ~100 kcal/mol ) and C–C bonds ( react with alkanes in the absence This inertness is the source of the term "paraffins of " lacking affinity " ) Free radicals , molecules with unpaired electrons , play a large role in most reactions of alkanes , such as Moreover , redox reactions of alkanes with oxygen and the halogens , in a strongly reduced state ; in the case of methane , carbon is to combustion without any smoke , Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens , leading to the production of haloalkanes In highly branched alkanes , the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value ( Such distortions introduce a tension in the molecule the case of the eclipsing conformations of butane For example , the highly branched 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane is than its linear isomer , " n"-octane Due to the subtlety of this effect been vigorously debated in the chemical literature branched alkanes by electron correlation , destabilization of linear alkanes by steric repulsion , stabilization by neutral hyperconjugation , and/or Alkanes react with halogens in The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively Free radicals are the reactive species that participate in the reaction , which usually leads to a mixture of products Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones

This can be done with The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts pairs of ions of opposite charges , usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion . In both types of processes , the corresponding reactive intermediates ( radicals , ions in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst . In isomerization , the alkanes become In other words , it does In reformation , the alkanes become Both of these processes raise the octane number Alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to The fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids In the Reed reaction , sulfur dioxide , separate an alkane from a metal . Alkyl groups can be transferred from Alkanes form a small portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter ( 0.1% methane , 2 ppm ethane ) , Saturn ( 0.2% methane , 5 ppm ethane ) , Uranus ( imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of been detected in the tail of in interstellar space , away from trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks , comprise They have formed over millions of years Alkanes have a low solubility in water at high pressures and low temperatures ( commercially exploited at the present time , the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put Methanogens are also the producers of The methane output of cattle and other herbivores , which can release 30 to 50 gallons per day , and of They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans at the end of the carbon cycle , Alkanes also play a role , in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms : fungi , plants use alkanes as a source of In plants , the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species , but are They protect the plant against water loss

, prevent the leaching of important minerals carbon atoms in length and are More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by exceptionally high levels of "n"-heptane in its resin known to contain volatile alkane components , in the scent of some roses . Alkanes are found in animal products They are important as pheromones insects depend for communication . In some species , e.g. the support beetle "Xylotrechus colonus " , pentacosane ( C25H52 ) and 9-methylpentaicosane ( C26H54 ) are transferred by body contact . ) , 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane ( C39H80 ) , 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane ( C39H80 ) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane ( C40H82 between the sand bee ("Andrena nigroaenea " ) and the early spider orchid ( "Ophrys sphegodes " Sand bees use pheromones in order the case of "A. nigroaenea " , the females emit a mixture of tricosane ( C25H52 ) and heptacosane produce large quantities of the three alkanes in liquid hydrocarbons , including alkanes , from carbon monoxide and hydrogen . be prepared directly from alkyl Alkanes can be prepared from Addition of molecular hydrogen across the π bond(s ) of alkenes and alkynes , platinum , or nickel In the Wurtz reaction , a haloalkane is The applications of alkanes depend on The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes , and in some countries of natural gas ; they are normally stored as gases under easier to transport them as at atmospheric pressure that can be Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines , as they the combustion chamber without forming droplets , which would impair the uniformity of the combustion premature ignition , which causes knocking measured by the octane rating of the fuel has an arbitrary value of 100 , with sixteen carbon atoms ) are liquids less suitable for use in Diesel fuels are characterized by their cetane number Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form In the latter function , they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents , Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax

, for example , in are found in bitumen , containing hundreds or thousands of carbon atoms . they are released into the environment " n"-alkanes as both carbon and energy sources . and dangerous to inhale ; special caution must be taken around , explosive , and dangerous Both of them may cause Alkanes also pose a threat to Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court and abuse of discretion . to each circumstance , a party to challenge that result in an appellate court on of law , fact , of appeal from a particular type of from state to state . , "petitioner " or "pursuer A "cross-appeal " is an appeal brought For example , suppose at having lost part or all their claim The appellant in the new case can be , defendant , third-party intervenor , or respondent ( appellee ) from the lower case , depending on An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in The appellee is required to respond to the petition , oral arguments , and legal briefs of the appellant . An appeal " by leave " both of the lower court and the court In tort , equity , In criminal matters , however , appeal a jury or bench verdict of a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole Likewise , in some jurisdictions , an issue of law " by leave " from the trial court or a decision in favor of a defendant By convention in some law reports , , the name of the case in Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals , particularly in the criminal context . with the next higher court of review . " Appellate review " is the general term for the process by which courts matters decided by lower courts . Generally , an appeal of the judgment

will also allow appeal of the trial court in the course of the case There are two distinct forms of appellate review For example , a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court , and lose on "direct appeal " as filing for a writ of to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact .... the other hand , provide[s ] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at "Graham v. Borgen " , In Anglo-American common law courts , appellate review of by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases . right , defendants usually petition This appeal is known as a direct appeal the Supreme Court , exercises discretion over This means that the defendant had it occurred in the trial . Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude Similar to federal post-conviction relief , an appellant Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of for collateral relief to be sought After direct appeal , the conviction is to the intermediate appellate court , followed by A "notice of appeal " is The form is completed by the appellant The specific rules of the legal system will dictate Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site . traditionally , it is measured This can vary from country to country , as well on the specific rules in force . of evidence presented in the trial court If the appellate court finds no defect , If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision " below " the whole decision or any part of it In some cases , an appellate court may Sometimes , the appellate court finds a defect without considering its merits , which In some systems , an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court was before that court and is In other systems , the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court

The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee ( or respondent Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers , Those arguments are presented in written briefs In an adversarial system , appellate courts do for review of informal proceedings conducted If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal , one a trial "de novo " by a court of In some cases , an application for if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses , where they are convicted on a lesser offense , the appeal is of the lesser offense ; the conviction represents In an appeal on the record from appellant and respondent are bound the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in Each seeks to prove to Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments . In order for the appeal to erroneously instructing the jury on the law seriously improper argument by an attorney , admitting acting outside the court's jurisdiction , injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing fact , an appellate court will apply " standard of review . Under this standard , the appellate court gives This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness In some cases , an appellant may In the case of new evidence , made a material difference in the trial . criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words " May a decision by a court of appeal ; this notice is transmitted to by the clerk of the trial court , constitutes the final judgment on the case , unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion without comment other than "review In other words , after looking at the case , they chose In the common law , an answer is In a criminal case , there is is entered on the record in

is no plea entered of guilt money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction of appeal(s ) , appeal court , court of second instance or hear an appeal of a trial court or In most jurisdictions , the court system is divided into at least three levels : the trial court and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case ; at least one intermediate appellate court ; and a supreme court ( or court of last resort of the intermediate courts , often on from one jurisdiction to another . In some areas , the appellate court has While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts , the type of jurisdiction they exercise , such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals , in criminal cases , and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit , which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases , on one hand , and appeals from In the United States , Alabama , have separate courts of criminal appeals . In the United States , both state and federal appellate courts are restricted to hearing appeals based In most U.S. states , and in U.S. federal courts , parties before the court is unsatisfied with the outcome of find an error on the part of Therefore , only a small proportion of trial court decisions appeal " or "court of ( or "court of errors on the premise that it was Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals ( which existed from 1844 to 1947 ) , and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals ( The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant , to inform them of the charges In response to arraignment , Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions , ( or pleas in bar In Australia , arraignment is In every province in Canada ,