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in the world for most of China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history and shared the mantle with India . For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and in the world , after surpassing ) in 1990 and Germany as the European Union ( EU ) , the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) In the late 1980s and early 1990s , that of the rest of Asia It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2025 . By 2027 , according to Goldman Sachs , China will have Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin , and it such as petroleum , forests , fish , water , rice , copper and silver , Taiwan , South Korea , Japan , India , the Philippines dominate in the area of multinational corporations , India , Indonesia , Iraq , Mongolia , the Philippines , Sri Lanka and Vietnam . Asia has three main financial centers : Hong Kong , Tokyo and Singapore . the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried Individual main routes have emerged from this The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta , Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Malé to East Africa Mombasa , then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into Mediterranean , there via Haifa , Istanbul and Athens to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to Barcelona A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via South Africa A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried out across the Pacific towards Los Angeles

In contrast to the sea routes , the Silk Road via the land route to Europe much smaller in terms of In 2010 , Asia had 3.3 million millionaires ( people with net that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for any region in the world , nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years , according to the report's analysis of health , education and income data . 1970 , is the only country on Nepal , a South Asian country , emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI ( number ) , Japan ( 19 ) and South Korea ( 22 Asia is home to several language families For instance , according to in India , and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines . Many of the world's major religions have their origins ( excluding irreligion ) , The story of the Great Flood for example in the Hebrew Bible in the narrative of Christians in the Old Testament , and is earliest found in Mesopotamian mythology , in the Enûma Eliš and "Epic of Gilgamesh Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of in Israel , the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of both of those Jews who remained in the Middle East and those who returned from diaspora in Europe , North America , and other regions Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey ( 17,400 ) , Azerbaijan ( 9,100 ) , Iran ( 8,756 ) , India ( 5,000 ) and Uzbekistan ( 4,000 ) , among many other places . In total , there are Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010 , and nearly 364 million Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of In the Philippines and East Timor , was introduced by the Spaniards and In Armenia and Georgia , In the Middle East , such as

in the Levant, Syriac Christianity (Church of the East ) and Oriental Orthodoxy the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia , is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population With 12.7% of the world Muslim population , by Pakistan ( 11.5% ) , Bangladesh , Iran and are the three holiest cities for Islam in The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers the world to Mecca and Medina The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia , in Iran ( Persia ) to the Ottoman Empire , Central Asia , India , and Burma during Since the middle of the 20th century , growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries , cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits , whereas another school of thought from India , Cārvāka , preached the enjoyment of the material world . in India , South Asia . , Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents . The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism , alongside significant communities in Bangladesh , Pakistan , Bhutan , Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia ( 96% ) , Thailand ( 95% ) , Burma ( 80–89% ) , Japan ( 36–96% ) , Bhutan ( 75–84% ) , Sri Lanka ( 70% ) , Laos ( 60–67% ) and Mongolia ( Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore ( 35–93% ) , South Korea ( 23–50% ) , Malaysia ( 19–21% ) , Nepal ( 9–11% ) , Vietnam ( 10–75% ) , China ( 20–50% ) , North Korea ( 2–14% ) , and small communities in India and Bangladesh Jainism is found mainly in as the United States and Malaysia . Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts

of Asia , especially Southeast Asia . Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China , South Korea , Taiwan Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China , Taiwan , Malaysia writer from Santiniketan , now in West Bengal , India , He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact English , French , and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas , 1968 ) , Kenzaburō Ōe ( Japan , 1994 ) (China , 2012 ) . democracy and human rights , especially for the rights of women and Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma ( Myanmar ) and a noted prisoner of conscience . awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 . Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for China " on 8 October 2010 . Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar , Abdus Salam , Malala Yousafzai , Robert Aumann , Menachem Begin , Aaron Ciechanover , Avram Hershko , Daniel Kahneman , Shimon Peres , Yitzhak Rabin , Ada Yonath , Yasser Arafat Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste , Kim Dae-jung In 2006 , Dr. Muhammad Yunus of the establishment of Grameen Bank , a community development bank that lends money to poor people , especially women in Bangladesh . Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University , United States . He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over On 22 June 2006 , he became On 28 May 2005 , he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom the Caribbean Sea , about north of the Venezuelan peninsula of Paraguaná and northwest northwestern to its southeastern end and across Together with Bonaire and Curaçao , Aruba forms a group referred in the Caribbean are often called has about one-third of the population .

Aruba is one of the four countries with the Netherlands , Curaçao , Aruba has no administrative subdivisions , but Unlike much of the Caribbean region , Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape The climate has helped tourism , because visitors to the island can The first identifiable group are the Arawak Caquetío Amerindians who migrated Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda in 1499 Both men described Aruba as an "island on the comparatively large stature of the native Caquetíos . Vespucci returned to Spain with stocks of cotton and brazilwood from the island and described houses Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba Alonso de Ojeda was appointed the island's first governor in the Caquetíos , sending many to a life of forced labour in the mines The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain in 1636 in the course of New Amsterdam ( New York ) , a source of meat for their other possessions interactions with the cultures of the coastal areas ; for example , architectural similarities can be seen between the 19th-century parts of Oranjestad and the nearby Venezuelan city of of colonial administration ; its use increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . During the Napoleonic Wars , the British Empire took control of the island , occupying per the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of The first oil refinery in Aruba was built in 1928 by Royal Dutch Shell . The facility was built just to the west of the capital city , Oranjestad was built by Lago Oil and Transport Company , San Nicolas on the east end of Aruba The refineries processed crude oil from the vast Venezuelan oil fields , bringing greater prosperity to the island During World War II , the Netherlands was In August 1947 , Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement " ( constitution ) for Aruba's "status aparte " as an autonomous state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands , prompted by the efforts of Henny Eman , a noted Aruban politician By 1954 , the Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established

, providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of That created the Netherlands Antilles , which united all of the Dutch colonies in In 1972 , at a conference in Suriname , Betico Croes , the creation of a Dutch Commonwealth of four states , and the Netherlands Antilles , each Croes sought greater autonomy for Aruba , with the long-term goal of independence , adopting the trappings of an independent state in 1976 with the creation of In March 1977 , a referendum was held with the support of the United Nations 82% of the participants voted for up the pressure on the Dutch government by organising a general strike in 1977 . In March 1983 , Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom for its independence a series of steps as the Crown In August 1985 , Aruba drafted On 1 January 1986 , after elections were held for its first parliament , Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles , injured in a traffic accident in 1985 , slipping into a coma . After his death , Croes was the Aruban People's Party ( AVP ) , became the first Prime Minister of Aruba . In 1985 , Aruba's oil refinery had It had provided Aruba with 30 percent of its real income and 50 percent The significant blow to the economy led to a push for a dramatic increase in tourism , and that sector has expanded At a convention in The Hague in 1990 , at the request of Aruba's Prime Minister Nelson Oduber , the governments of Aruba , the Netherlands , and the Netherlands Antilles Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the Leeward Antilles island arc of the Lesser Antilles in the southern part of It lies west of Curaçao and north of Venezuela's Paraguaná Peninsula . Aruba has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island , relatively sheltered The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills on the island at above sea level . The Natural Bridge was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore

The isolation of Aruba from the mainland of South America has fostered the evolution The flora of Aruba differs from various forms of cacti , thorny shrubs By the Köppen climate classification , Aruba has normally is in tropical climates ; during the dry season , it almost Owing to the scarcity of rainfall , the landscape of Aruba is by constant trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean , which come from the north-east . In terms of ethnic composition , the population is estimated to be substantial immigration to the island from neighbouring South American and Caribbean nations In 2007 , new immigration laws were of the population by restricting foreign workers all administration and legal matters , Papiamento is the predominant language used on Aruba on Aruba , Bonaire , incorporates words from Dutch and various West African languages . In recent years , the government of acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of Papiamento . among the several Papiamento-speaking islands , there is The orthography differs per island , The book " Buccaneers of America " , first published in 1678 , states through eyewitness account that the natives Spanish became an important language in the 18th century due to the close economic ties with Spanish colonies Venezuelan TV networks are received on the island , and Aruba also has Use of English dates to the early 19th century , when the British took Curaçao , Aruba , and Bonaire " Bon Dia " , "Solo di Pueblo " , and "Awe Mainta " , English : "Aruba Daily " , " Aruba Today " , and by about 75% of the population . is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member Staten ( Parliament ) The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model In Aruba , legal jurisdiction lies with the "Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg " (Court of First Instance ) on Aruba , the "Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie van Aruba , Curaçao , Sint Maarten , en van Bonaire , Sint Eustatius

en Saba " ( Joint Court of Justice of Aruba , Curaçao , and the "Hoge Raad der Nederlanden " ( Supreme Court of Justice By 2006 , the government's debt had In 2006 , the Aruban government changed Aruba is one of the overseas countries and territories ( OCT ) of the European Union and maintains economic and cultural relations with the European Union and the United States of America . Defence on Aruba is the responsibility All forces are stationed at Marines base Aruba's educational system is patterned after the Dutch system The island's economy is dominated by four main industries : tourism , aloe export , petroleum refining , and offshore banking . Aruba has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region . Gold mining was important in the 19th century Aloe was introduced to Aruba Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm , and At one point , two-thirds of the island was covered in Aloe Vera fields , and Aruba became the largest exporter of aloe in the world . Access to biocapacity in Aruba is much lower than world average In 2016 , Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory , much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per In 2016 , Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption . The official exchange rate of the Aruban florin is pegged to the US dollar at 1.79 florins to Until the mid-1980s , Aruba's main industry was and the island's economy shifted towards tourism Currently , Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests per year , of Until 2009 , the Netherlands granted This aid was mainly for law enforcement , education , administrative development , This aid was discontinued at Aruba's request Aruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry , receiving About of the Aruban gross national product is earned through tourism and related activities . Most tourists are from North America , with a market-share of 73.3% , followed by Latin America with 15.2% and Europe with 8.3% .

For private aircraft passengers bound for the United States , the United States Department of Homeland Security ( ) has a full pre-clearance facility since 1 February 2001 Oranjestad is the port for the many cruise ships The cruise industry is a very important pillar of tourism With 334 cruise calls , Aruba received The 2017/2018 cruise season brought $102.8 million to Aruba's economy Oranjestad is also home to several luxury hotels , upscale shopping malls , tourist-oriented shopping streets According to the "Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister " (BBSB ) , in On 18 March , Aruba celebrates Christmas and New Year's Eve are celebrated with the typical music and songs for gaitas for Christmas and the Dande for New Year , and "ayaca " , "ponche crema " , ham , On 25 January , Betico Croes' birthday is Dia di San Juan is celebrated on 24 June The festival of Carnaval is also , as it is in Its celebration in Aruba started in from Venezuela and the nearby islands ( Curaçao , St. Vincent , Trinidad , Barbados , St. Maarten , and Anguilla ) who came From the beginning of the colonization of the Netherlands until the beginning of the 20th century , the architecture in the most inhabited areas of Aruba was who later settled in Venezuela After the boom of the oil industry and In addition , elements of in several buildings in San Nicolas . , the main cargo port , Paardenbaai , the cruise ship terminal in Oranjestad , and , Carnival , NCL , Holland America , MSC Cruises , Costa Cruises , P&O Cruises and Disney . Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year " Arubus " is a government-owned bus company Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until Water- en Energiebedrijf Aruba , N.V. and power ; its eponymous plant was Average daily consumption in Aruba is about N.V. Elmar is the sole distributor of electricity on the island of Aruba . The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 original states

of the United States of America that served as It was approved after much debate by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777 , The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781 , after ratification by A guiding principle of the Articles was to During the ratification process , the Congress looked to the Articles for guidance as the war effort , conducting diplomacy with As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern especially after Shays' Rebellion , some prominent political thinkers Their hope was to create a stronger government in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787 . On March 4, 1789 , the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan , an inter-colonial collaboration Over the next two decades , some of especially in the degree of loyalty Civil disobedience resulted in coercive and quelling measures , such as the passage of what in the British Parliament , and armed skirmishes These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists ( Tories ) among the colonials for independence from the mother country . It was an era of constitution writing — most states were busy at the task — and leaders felt During the war , Congress exercised To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation , the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies In early 1776 , Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans The monarchies of France and Spain those they considered rebels against Foreign courts needed to have American grievances Without such a declaration , Paine concluded Beyond improving their existing association , the records for a declaration of independence was On June 7, 1776 , Richard Henry Lee introduced to prepare a plan of confederation chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on such issues as state sovereignty , a judiciary , western land claims , and

the constitution , Congress was forced for Baltimore , Maryland , in the winter of 1776 , and later for Lancaster then York , Pennsylvania , The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777 . on December 16, 1777 ; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779 , The lone holdout , Maryland , refused During this time , Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government Maryland finally ratified the Articles on The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles , a conclusion The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations Under the Articles , the states retained relinquished to the national Congress , which with foreign countries , and to resolve disputes between the states . down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support No progress was made in Congress the Constitution , blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government As Congress failed to act on the petitions , Knox wrote the States to form a better Constitution . Once the war had been won , the Continental Army was largely disbanded A very small national force was maintained to man Meanwhile , each of the states had an army ( or militia The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from in the debates of 1788 , that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance Dougherty ( 2009 ) concludes The 1783 Treaty of Paris , which ended hostilities with Great Britain , languished in Congress for several months that it could be ratified Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time , causing difficulties in as Washington , John Adams , John Hancock , and Benjamin Franklin , retired from public life , served as foreign delegates , or held office in state governments ; and for the general public , local government and

Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government In 1786 , Thomas Jefferson , concerned over the failure of Congress is no money in the treasury . in the treasury till the Confederacy shows Furthermore , the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy In this treaty , which was use the Mississippi River for 25 years , , it could not compel which , in 1783 , ending action against Loyalists and Under the Articles of Confederation , request money from the states . Congress , the continental dollars depreciated . In 1779 , George Washington wrote to John Jay , who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from In an appeal to the States to liberty , the peace , and the safety of yourselves and posterity He argued that Americans should Congress had also been denied large debts during the Revolutionary War , and The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into land in each township for public use The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River . Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares 36 square miles ) , the section ( one square mile ) , and the quarter section This system was carried forward to ( excluding areas of Texas laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of While it did n't happen under the articles , the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Pennsylvania , and Virginia Illinois , Michigan , and Wisconsin , and the part of The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation . The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of

"Canada " in the Articles ) into the United States if it chose the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission Under the Articles of Confederation , the presiding officer of Congress — referred President of the United States in Congress in recess , and performed There were 10 presidents of Congress The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted , no judiciary , and no tax base off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states By 1783 , with the end of the British blockade , the new nation was However , trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires . The ports of the British West Indies were closed France and Spain established similar policies Simultaneously , new manufacturers faced sharp competition Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government of the political and economic elites which had led during the war , or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development , to pass as currency , Congress could not levy taxes When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States , he found it Demands were made for favors individual states would agree to a treaty for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain . failed to get power over against Great Britain to little effect . to protect manufacturing and shipping to resist attacks upon private contracts to avoid foreign intervention and allay The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777 . A copy was made for each state Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778 On July 9, 1778 , the prepared copy was They dated it and began They also requested each of from New Hampshire , Massachusetts , Rhode Island , Connecticut , New York , Pennsylvania , Virginia and

For example , John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8 Georgia signed on July 24 , Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims Chevalier de La Luzerne , French Minister to the United States On February 2, 1781 , the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session , " among engrossed Bills sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber , in the presence of the members empower the delegates of this state in the articles of confederation " and The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781 , and was celebrated in the afternoon . Congress had debated the Articles for In May 1786 , Charles Pinckney of over foreign and domestic commerce , and providing Unanimous approval was necessary to make Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in Rakove identifies several factors that explain The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable expecting to benefit from such power It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were Rakove concludes that their failure to from a heady sense of independence but supplies from a war-weary populace . " derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783 , When the war ended in 1783 to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims Two prominent political leaders in the Confederation , John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of of the several states , to which neither nullification of the authority of congress The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time , and remains In 1788 , James Madison remarked As this objection … has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention , I dismiss it whether opponents of the Constitution could At the time , there were that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force

because many states had violated it On July 3, 1788 , the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution , thus , according to its terms , establishing it as the new framework of By the end of July 1788 , 11 of Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October for a new president , and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day " for largest of the world's five oceans , with It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area . between Europe and Africa to the east , and the Americas to As one component of the interconnected World Ocean , it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean , to the Pacific Ocean the southeast , and the Southern Ocean in the Atlantic as extending southward to The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from to " the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles " which is the sea that surrounds all land . In these uses , the name refers to Atlas , the Titan in Greek mythology , who supported the heavens a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern atlases . the "Iliad " and the "Odyssey " as Oceanus , the gigantic river that the Greeks : the Mediterranean and the Black Sea the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast . from Ancient Ethiopia , was applied by British and American speakers in reference to the Northern Atlantic Ocean , as a form of meiosis , or ironic understatement . referring to events or circumstances " on this side of the pond The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953 , but some institutions , and countries , The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait , Greenland Sea , Norwegian Sea Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border

numerous bays , gulfs and seas These include the Baltic Sea , Black Sea , Caribbean Sea , Davis Strait , Denmark Strait , part of the Drake Passage , Gulf of Mexico , Labrador Sea , Mediterranean Sea , North Sea , Norwegian Sea , almost all of the Scotia Sea , Including its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers the global ocean and has a volume of Excluding its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers and the South Atlantic ( 11.1% ) The bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated two halves , in each of The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and in the North Atlantic and the South American and African plates in The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajökull , Iceland , and pillow The remainder of the ridge was discovered Most of the MAR runs under The Atlantic is surrounded by passive margins ) in the western Atlantic and South Sandwich Trench ( ) There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America , western Europe , and north-western Africa In 1922 , a historic moment in draw a continuous map across the bed of This involved little guesswork because the idea The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps , abyssal plains , trenches , seamounts , basins , plateaus , canyons , and some guyots . latitude , current systems , and Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator , and minimum values are found The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction , whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand ( 3.3–3.7% ) by mass and varies with latitude and of the equator ( because of , the lowest values are in the high latitudes The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water . North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins

The North Atlantic Deep Water ( NADW ) is of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes In the North Atlantic , surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents : the Gulf Stream which flows north-east from the North American coast at Cape Hatteras ; the North Atlantic Current , northward from the Grand Banks ; and the Subpolar Front , an extension of the North Atlantic Current plays a key role in climate variability . The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation that merge along the eastern continental slope of which flows around the continental margins of A third of this water becomes part of the deep portion of the North Atlantic Deep Water ( The NADW , in its turn , feeds the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) , the northward heat transport of which is The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre The South Atlantic Central Water originates in this gyre , while the circumpolar region , near the Drake Passage and Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be , North Atlantic Drift , and North Equatorial Current the sargassum fish , a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motionless among the "Sargassum Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma . The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries . The location of the spawning ground for European eels remained unknown for decades . In the early 19th century it was discovered the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America , Europe , and Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as

The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation Climatic zones vary with latitude ; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of The coldest zones are in high latitudes , Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting towards Europe , the North Atlantic Drift is thought to have at least some influence on For example , the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America winter along the coast than inland areas The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from In the higher latitudes , the North Atlantic Drift , warms the atmosphere over the oceans , severely cold in winter like The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada ( the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area ) and Africa's north-western coast . Icebergs are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn . fine clay , silt and siliceous continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers For instance , on the North American side in warm shallow waters such as Florida The break-up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic , between North America and during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic . This period also saw the first stages of lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa , eastern North America , and northern South America The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals , known as the Great American Interchange , but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism " as it and temperatures in both the Atlantic and , Newfoundland and Iberia , and to the north by the Arctic Eurasian Basin The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor , the Iapetus Ocean

, and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages : Iberia – , Eurasia–Greenland , Eurasia – of the crust and formations of this time period are found on Baffin Island , Greenland , the Faroe Islands , The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift of continental crust along the coast . The North Atlantic Ocean contains about 810 seamounts , most of them situated along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge The OSPAR database ( Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic ) mentions 104 seamounts : 74 within the national Exclusive economic zone The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in Brazil , Paraguay , and , eastern Paraguay , and Namibia indicate failed rifts in all these areas . as the Falkland Islands and South Africa . In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado ( 190 Ma ) and the Early Cretaceous break Africa in two by The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up is located on the Equator , from a change in the motions and The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin . Humans evolved in Africa ; the Greater Cape Floristic Region ( GCFR ) along During the latest glacial stages , the now-submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed above sea level The GCFR is delimited to the north of social networks out of which Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa , derived from a single, small population , coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity expanded over the whole of Africa Asia , Europe , and During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM ) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean Following rapid climate changes at the end of Doggerland ( now the North Sea ) , and the formation of the Baltic Sea .

This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age ( MSA ) The same development can be seen in In La Riera Cave ( 23–13 kya ) in Asturias , Spain , In contrast , 8–7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal , Denmark , and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris The Ertebølle middens in Denmark , for example , accumulated of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources as boats , harpoons , of marine shells in their upper levels and place on the now submerged shelves , and northern North America while Beringia connected Siberia In 1973 , late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the settlement in South America ; sites in found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast mtDNA , yDNA , and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg " The Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands and Iceland A settlement on Greenland was established before 1000 CE , but contact following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492 around the Cape of Good Hope , thus proving In 1500 , in his voyage Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , taken by the currents of the South Atlantic Gyre . large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin In the colonies of the Americas , depredation , smallpox and others diseases the indigenous population of the Americas to the extent and an integral part of the colonization . as slaves , most of

From Columbus to the Industrial Revolution Trans-Atlantic trade , including colonialism and slavery , became crucial for Western Europe . For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic ( including Britain , France , the Netherlands , Portugal was a period of sustained growth during those in Eastern Europe and Asia Colonialism evolved as part of strengthened the position of merchant groups at , urbanization grew from 8% in 1300 , 10.1% in 1500 , to 24.5% in 1850 ; in other European countries from 10% in 1300 , 11.4% in 1500 , to 17% Likewise , GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe . the development and economy of surrounding countries under water on the ocean floor , into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic : a globally stable value , the rest of the Atlantic Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons Recovery plans for cod , sole , and plaice have reduced Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons weak signs of recovery , including Greenland halibut , yellowtail flounder , Atlantic halibut , witch flounder , and redfish contrast , remain at record levels In 1497 , John Cabot became mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of Atlantic cod off this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets and the number of exploited species . It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to witch flounder , and grenadiers . Overfishing in the area was recognised , because this was occurring on international waters , it took In the early 1990s , this finally resulted in the collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons Almost half of the stocks are fished

In the Western Central Atlantic , catches have reached 1.3 million tons in 2013 . The most important species in the area , Gulf menhaden , reached a million tons in the mid-1980s Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons In the South-West Atlantic , a peak was reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value , a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels : Whitehead's round herring Endangered marine species include the manatee , seals , sea lions , turtles , Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or human-created waste floating in a body of Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines it is known as beach litter was carrying three nuclear bombs over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of increased in strength , which from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales , whereas deeper layers This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes He is best known for his 1818 work " The World as Will and Representation " ( which characterizes the phenomenal world as the product Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism . He was among the first thinkers in of Indian philosophy , such as asceticism , denial of the self , and the notion of the world-as-appearance Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime , Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines , including philosophy , literature , Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ; present-day Gdańsk , Poland ) on Heiligegeistgasse ( present day ) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer ( 1747–1805 ) , both descendants of wealthy German-Dutch patrician families

Prussia in 1793 , Heinrich moved to Hamburg — a free city His firm continued trading in Danzig In 1797 , Arthur was sent to Le Havre to live with the family of his father's business associate , He seemed to enjoy his two year In 1803 , he accompanied his parents on a European tour of Holland , Britain , France , Switzerland , Austria and Prussia he could stay at home and start preparations for university , or he could travel with them and continue his merchant education Arthur chose to travel with He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending school in Wimbledon , In 1805 , Heinrich drowned in a canal near their home in He was prone to anxiety , even his wife started to doubt himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg . Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth inherited it from his father . There were other instances of serious mental health history on his father's side of the family . Despite his hardship , Schopenhauer liked Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children . Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached some encouragement from his mother , he dedicated himself to studies at the Ernestine Gymnasium , Gotha , in enjoyed social life among the local nobility , spending large amounts of money , He left the Gymnasium after writing Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father . During this time , he had start a new life as a scholar . In one letter , she wrote holes in other people . " His mother , Johanna , was He moved to Weimar but He accused his mother of being to him , criticized him tactless , and argumentative , Arthur concentrated on his studies , , parties and theater . established among local intellectuals and dignitaries him about her son's depressive and combative nature , or bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate

Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann , mistress of Karl August Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality , Schopenhauer as servants , actresses , In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits He left Weimar to become a student at the University of Göttingen in 1809 for young men of Schopenhauer's status who ; he chose medicine due Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren , Johann Friedrich Blumenbach , Friedrich Stromeyer , Heinrich Adolf Schrader , Johann Tobias Mayer and He studied metaphysics , psychology and logic under Gottlob Ernst Schulze , the author of "Aenesidemus " , who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on Plato He decided to switch from : besides Schulze , the only other philosophy professor He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies ; he claimed that they attended more lectures in sciences than During his days at Göttingen , , but also continued his flute playing He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for At the same time , his mother had published her first book in 1810 , Arthur attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher many points of disagreement with his in critical, negative termsseeing his philosophy as a lower quality version of Kant's and considering it highlighted some failings of Kantianism . He also attended the lectures of His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming He learned by self-directed reading ; besides Plato , Kant and of Schelling, Fries , Jacobi , Bacon , Locke , and Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush into military service as Prussia had just joined the war against France He returned to Weimar , now living with her supposed lover , than her ; he considered He settled for a while in He spent his time in solitude " On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason " . He completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at

He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was often came in conflict with His mother had just published her second book , " Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804 , and 1805 " , a description of their family tour of Europe In a fit of temper Arthur told In fact , although they considered her novels of dubious quality , the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem nothing in this manuscript , but wanted to please one of contribute to Brockhaus'[s] reputation . " Also contrary to his mother's prediction , Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe , to whom he sent Goethe agreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical positions , he was impressed by his intellect to a young philosopher , who was on the subject , " On Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majera historian of religion , orientalist and disciple Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by them on a par with Plato He continued his studies by reading " and "Asiatick Researches " by Schopenhauer held a profound respect for Indian philosophy ; although he loved Hindu texts , he was more interested in Buddhism , which he His studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature , Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work , " The World as Will and Representation " ( 1819 ) 1851 ) , and commented elevating as that of the Upanishads As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low , in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved He continued his philosophical studies , enjoyed and engaged in sexual affairs . His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt , Friedrich Laun , Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused Schopenhauer's main occupation during his stay in Dresden

was his seminal philosophical work , "The World as Will and Representation " in 1814 and finished in He was recommended to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld , an acquaintance for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy , Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation He visited Venice , Bologna , Florence , Naples and He spent the winter months in Rome numerous quarrels with German tourists in the Caffè Greco He enjoyed art , architecture One of his affairs supposedly became he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewomanbut He corresponded regularly with his sister She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Arthur offered to share his assets The women managed to receive only thirty percent towards the banker and eventually received He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden . lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg , Göttingen and He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel , whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan He was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time , when many progressive professors Despite their differences and the arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as voted to accept Schopenhauer to Only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures , and he dropped out After his tenure in academia , , Stuttgart , Schaffhausen, Vevey , Before he left for his three-year travel , Schopenhauer had an incident with The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown He claimed that he had She claimed that he had her right side and unable to work he studied art and socialized It was his last visit to the country

mostly recuperating from various health issues , He contacted publishers , offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English , Returning to Berlin , he he could read some of He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Lope de Vega , Miguel de Cervantes , and especially Baltasar Gracián publish his translations of their works . During his Berlin years , Schopenhauer occasionally He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer and working at the Berlin Opera . , and later gave birth to another son , this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat ( she soon had escape from Berlin in 1831 he offered to take her with him on the condition that his last year in Berlin , he to escape from the city . As he arrived in his new home in Frankfurt , he supposedly had another supernatural experience , an apparition of his dead father and his mother , who This experience led him to spend Upon his arrival in Frankfurt , he experienced a period of depression He renewed his correspondence with his mother that he might commit suicide Johanna's writing did not bring her much income , and her popularity was waning In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim but returned in the rest of his life , except In 1836 , he published " On the Will in Nature In 1836 , he sent his essay " On the Freedom of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and won the prize for He sent another essay , " were mentioned in a very offensive manner , He published both essays as " In the preface to the second edition , in 1860 , he was still pouring insults on the Royal Danish Society Two years later , after some negotiations , he managed to convince his publisher Schopenhauer began to attract some followers , mostly outside academia , among practical professionals He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists " and "apostles One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt He was also instrumental in enough to his ideas , Frauenstädt

continued to promote Schopenhauer's work . They renewed their communication in 1859 In 1848 , Schopenhauer witnessed He became worried for his own safety a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves who wanted to shoot revolutionaries The rebellion passed without any loss to Alfred I , Prince of Windisch-Grätz He even modified his will , leaving a large part of his property to of soldiers who died in In 1851 , Schopenhauer published due to the work of his disciples similarities of his ideas to those Fichte in intellectual fights , but encouraged In 1856 , the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy , which of his four portraits of himwhich Schopenhauer of paintings and photographs of He remained healthy in his own old age read without glasses , but and correspondence until his death . these years , amongst others on under the title "Senilia " . shortness of breath and heart palpitations ; in September he suffered inflammation of was at peace with dying He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as an extension of Kant's , and used the results of Kantian epistemological investigation ( transcendental idealism Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work : " The world cognition ( the entire world ) exists simply as an object in relation to a subjecta 'representation ' to a subject In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help him on his Theory motivated the critical investigations in his "Critique of Pure Reason " The difference between the approaches of Kant By this intellectual operation , comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception ; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces of it that appears to the world beyond representation , the world " or " noumena " itself of all things , Schopenhauer is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework . of space and time . Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects

(the "objectivation " of the will ) , each element of this multiplicity has the rest of nature at the fundamental, essential level For Schopenhauer , understanding the world again in his two prize essays on ethics , " On the Freedom of events in the world of appearance the principle of sufficient reason : a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives and Necessity extends to the actions of to every other appearance , and thus According to Schopenhauer , salvation " by the metaphysical insight that reveals , inner conflict , and perpetual suffering other words , stems from the insight For Schopenhauer , human "willing"—desiring, craving , ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance from the service of will . as something from which one From this aesthetic immersion , one is as a result of servitude to Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation Music , for Schopenhauer , Schopenhauer thought that music was Schopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry . our sensibility in which phenomena appear Reality in itself is free outside the "possibility " of multiplicity Appearances are entirely subordinated to " to us , the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals , but the altruist experiences the sufferings of The suffering of others is for Schopenhauer calls the principle through which Unlike temporal or human justice , which requires " has its seat in the state erring , but infallible , fixed , and sure " because retribution requires time . Instead , punishment is tied to the offence , " to Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment for the happiness of his individual manifestation , their individual welfare , and accept without Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the theory of evolution , a claim met with satisfaction by Darwin as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his "Descent of Man " . In occasional political comments in his "Parerga and Paralipomena " and "Manuscript Remains "

, Schopenhauer described himself as Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species . He declared that monarchy is ants , to cranes in , to wolves in a pack in search of prey , against stupidity , its implacable and ever-present foe , ; but this is a great advantage By his own admission , Schopenhauer did In a life that spanned several revolutions , he maintained his position of He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth , for he thinks from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians , are found exclusively among the white races fairer in colour than the rest All this is due to the fact early to the north , and their struggle with need , want Schopenhauer was fervently opposed to Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the slave-holding states of the United States , human form , those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels , especially the Anglican parsons through violence and injustice have Blondes prefer dark persons , or a variation from the type , almost an abnormity , analogous to white mice , In no part of the world , , except in Europe , and are clearly of Scandinavian origin I may here express my opinion sprung from the womb of nature Forced into the strange world , where he only exists like an exotic plant the transition from the complexion of the Hindu return to dark hair and brown eyes as the primitive type ; but the white colour of all religions and consists merely of his colleagues , of all the other gods ; if sacrifices are made the prevailing religion of Europe ; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency In his 1851 essay " On Women " , Schopenhauer expressed opposition to of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense

of justice , and expressed Schopenhauer's writings influenced many , from When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by the Prussian sculptor Elisabet Ney in 1859 , he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence , After his time with Ney , spoken my last word about women . , or rather raising herself above the mass , she grows ceaselessly and more than a man " ( 1859 ) , Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter He wrote that pederasty has Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties , we are led to by theory and instruction as Plato had something of the kind the fifth book of his "Republic " , In another context , Schopenhauer reiterated is the despotism of the wise and noble members of This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic As a consequence of his monistic philosophy , Schopenhauer was very concerned about For him , all individual animals , , impulse , energy , and desire ; it is signify both the essence of all external things and Since every living thing possesses will , In 1841 , he praised , and in Philadelphia of " in reference to animals because that led to treatment Schopenhauer was very attached to Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient Hindu texts of Prince Dara Shukoh entitled "Sirre-Akbar " ( "The Great Secret " ) . He was so impressed by Schopenhauer considered India as " the land of the most ancient and most pristine wisdom , the place from which Europeans could trace their descent and the tradition by which they had been influenced in so many decisive ways " , and regarded Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814 They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer's mother , according to the biographer Safranski . Majer was a follower of Herder Schopenhauer did not begin serious study

of the Indic texts until the summer of 1814 . pollination with Indian thought in Dresden This was through his neighbor of Krause had also mastered Sanskrit , unlike Schopenhauer , and Sanskrit literature " the greatest gift of our century the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism . suffering is caused by desire ( taṇhā ) , and Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will ontological primacy over the intellect ; desire is prior to thought . If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth , I should have to concede to Buddhism In any case , it must see my doctrine in such close agreement with since he did not begin earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes ( transcribed They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism Some traditions in Western esotericism and parapsychology interested Schopenhauer all forms of magical transformation depended on This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of magick and its emphasis on human will Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system , this amounts to Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment itself with magic , which In his student years , Schopenhauer went Many evenings were spent in the theatre , opera and ballet ; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of Mozart , Rossini and Bellini As a polyglot , he knew of poetry and literature . Kant in order to counterbalance , in the spirit of the age the benefit of the Vedas , the access in primeval Indian wisdom , and received it with an open heart , he Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza appears in all of them for God as creator of the world in their philosophy , but Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy ,

and tried to use geometrical proofs Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do In fact , it could be considered complete from the standpoint of life-affirmation , if one Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer high praise for the Transcendental Aesthetic section of Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the thing - this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory Kant , causality can find application on objects of experience The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , loathsome , repulsive , and ignorant charlatan . the preface to his "Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics " , to philosophy , but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy in the most express terms at every opportunity . Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including Julius Bahnsen , Paul Deussen , Lazar von Hellenbach , Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann , Ernst Otto Lindner , Philipp Mainländer , Friedrich Nietzsche , Olga Plümacher and Agnes Taubert His legacy shaped the intellectual debate , and their own souls particles of his thought " . Schopenhauer was well read by physicists , most notably Einstein , Schrödinger , Wolfgang Pauli , and Majorana Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation In his Berlin study three figures hung on he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work " the greatest savant of the West " of physics to philosophy . He maintained the idealistic views during the rest famous for his influence on artists Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents Under the influence of Schopenhauer , is the greatest genius among men .... It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection , J.-K. Huysmans and George Santayana . In Herman Melville's final years , while he he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked the most extreme sorts of solitude , but Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius

Early in his career , Ludwig Wittgenstein of Schopenhauer's influence ( particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism ) In later years , Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer , describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker . Opposite to Russell on the foundations incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism , where mathematics is has been the focus of contemporary thinkers such as David Benatar , Thomas Ligotti Angola ( ;) , officially the Republic of Angola on the west coast of Southern Africa . both total area and population ( behind Brazil ) , and is It is bordered by Namibia to the east , and the Atlantic Ocean Angola has an exclave province , the province of Cabinda , that borders Angola has been inhabited since Its formation as a nation-state originates from Portuguese colonisation In the 19th century , European settlers gradually began to establish themselves in After a protracted anti-colonial struggle , Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a Marxist–Leninist one-party Republic and South Africa , and the militant organisation Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves , and - growing in the world , especially since the end of the civil war Since 2017 , the government of Angola is a member of the United Nations , OPEC , African Union , the Community of Portuguese Language Countries , and the Southern African Development Community . is estimated at 32.87 million . ( ' Kingdom of Angola' ) , The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title held by the kings of Ndongo and Matamba . They were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from the north in the first millennium BC , based in Angola , It established trade routes with other city-states , although it engaged in Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the area in 1484 relations with the Kongo , which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo in Angola apart from the Cabinda exclave Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Loanda ( Luanda

) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers . The Portuguese established several other settlements , forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast , principally trading in Angolan slaves for plantations . Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola , its control over much of the country's vast interior In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of Life for European colonists was difficult During the Portuguese Restoration War , the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641 , using alliances with local peoples 1648 ; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by in 1649 ; others with Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda , Benguela , but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836 , and in on assistance from the British Royal Navy to enforce their ban on the slave trade . Until the late 1880s , Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its colony in Mozambique but was The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders , delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola , although many details Under colonial law , black Angolans were The first nationalist movements did not take root by a largely Westernised and Portuguese-speaking urban class , which included During the early 1960s they were joined for self-determination provoked an armed conflict , which erupted in 1961 with a protracted war of independence that persisted from Bakongo refugees in Zaire . Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in Léopoldville with Zaire , Angolan political exiles were among a large expatriate community from related families , clans , and traditions . People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme , some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of A largely Ovimbundu guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by

During the late 1950s , the rise of the Marxist–Leninist "Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola " (MPLA ) in the east Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the Angolan Communist Party , the organisation's leadership remained predominantly Ambundu and courted public sector workers in Luanda material assistance from the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China the United States and its support for Portugal The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from Conakry to Léopoldville in create a common front with the FNLA , then known as the "Union of Angolan Peoples " ( UPA ) and its leader Throughout the war of independence , the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism , as well as in the Angolan population and the international community . sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms , ammunition , funding , and training The collapse of Portugal's Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and , Jonas Savimbi , and MPLA chairman Agostinho Neto met in Mombasa in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement general elections and set the country's independence date for The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources , especially the Soviet Union and the United States , as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties , fueled large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority control of Luanda , a traditional Ambundu stronghold Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May , and In August 1975 , the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola , along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies By independence , there were to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and South African troops although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda

based on the principles of scientific socialism , incorporating central planning and a Marxist–Leninist one-party state It embarked on an ambitious programme of nationalisation , and the domestic private sector was Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as " Unidades Economicas Estatais " ( Under the MPLA , Angola experienced embezzled by officials for personal enrichment The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990 , and declared the International Monetary Fund ; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA , the Bicesse Accords , which scheduled new general elections for September 1992 UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war On 22 March 2002 , Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire assumed the role of a major opposition party . of the prolonged war , of the abundance of minefields , and the continued political agitation in favour of the independence of the exclave of Cabinda ( carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda conflict A drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in Southern Africa in 25 years , affecting 1.4 million people across seven of Mali , or twice the size of With an area of approximately , the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual of the country by a strip , Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north to the east and south . According to a 1995 census , Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000 , Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output . sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups ( MPLA , the territory of Cabinda has been ( which has employed its armed forces The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government : executive , , elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies .

After 38 years of rule , stepped down from MPLA leadership . The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections as a political purge to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family , Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police , Ambrósio de Lemos , and the head of the intelligence service , Both are considered allies of The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens . The legal system is based on Portuguese law operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal ; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed After the end of the civil war , the regime came under pressure from , introducing a system in which of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections controls all other organs of the state , In the classifications used in constitutional law , this government falls under the category ) are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to ( Exército ) , Navy ( Marinha de Guerra , MGA ) and National Air Force ( Força Aérea Nacional , Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters , bombers training , Czech-made L-39s for training and bombing , and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar , Sud Aviation Alouette III , etc . , Traffic and Transport , Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities , Taxation and Frontier Supervision , The National Police are in the process of provide helicopter support for operations . A Supreme Court serves as a court of The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction , established with the approval of of 17 June – Organic Law of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process The legal system is based on Portuguese There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of

Thus , on 25 June 2008 , assumed the position before the President of In 2014 , a new penal code took On 16 October 2014 , Angola was the United Nations Security Council , with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193 . Since January 2014 , the Republic of Angola has in the Freedom in the World 2014 report . in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70% serious flaws , including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls . of assembly , association , speech , and press ; and cruel and excessive punishment , including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance . It was ranked 39 out badly in the areas of participation In 2019 , homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola , and Angola has diamonds , oil , gold , copper and Since independence , oil and a quarter-century of Angolan civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one in the world , with an average GDP growth as the fourth-largest source of imports . Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011 including mechanical and electrical products , machinery parts and contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009 . has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increase in agriculture production . Angola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola According to a study on the banking sector ( BNA ) , the Angolan national bank , allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013 , which contributed to the sector's growth trend since Angola achieved political stability in fast-rising earnings in the oil sector , Angola of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on , although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence , during the long years of civil war . stems from persistent authoritarianism , "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures ,

" Secondary beneficiaries " are the middle strata to UN norms but in the urban areas In cities , a majority of families , well beyond those must adopt a variety of survival strategies One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities reasons of security and profit Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure , from the nation's development of oil resources . after the end of the civil war Angola's standard of 2002 , reached 51 in Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz ( US$6.8 billion ) by Nigeria and South Africa . On 19 December 2014 , the Capital Market in almost all of the country's revenue and all Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group , a conglomerate owned According to the Heritage Foundation , a conservative American think tank , oil production from Angola has corruption : according to a recent Human Rights Watch report , 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts , controls 51% of Cabinda's oil , it invests public funds , This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol Access to biocapacity in Angola is higher than world average . In 2016 , Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory , slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per In 2016 , Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption . of potential opportunity for the country . The country now depends on expensive food imports Angola centers its port trade in five main ports : Namibe , Lobito, Soyo , towns and cities in Angola While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola , time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces , littered with broken asphalt . alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of with funding from the European Union , In October 2014 , the building of

On 11 March 2015 , the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in Luanda under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola " topical issues on telecommunications in Angola The first Angolan satellite , AngoSat-1 , was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017 It was launched from the Baikonur space center in Kazakhstan on board a Zenit 3F rocket . The satellite was built by Russia's RSC Energia , a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player Roscosmos . The satellite payload was supplied by Airbus Defence & Space , on 27 December , RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country of State for Telecommunications , telecommunications services , TV , internet be in service by 2020 As of February 2021 , Ango-Sat-2 The management of the top-level domain ' .ao ' passed from Portugal to Angola in 2015 , following Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu and 32% other ethnic groups ( including the Chokwe , the Ovambo , the Ganguela and and African ) , 1.6% the population , at 62% . The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people in 2050 , It is estimated that Angola 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo , who arrived Since 2003 , more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola . Prior to independence in 1975 , Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese , but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war . its Portuguese minority in recent years ; currently with the consulates , and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola . The Chinese population stands at 258,920 , mostly composed of temporary migrants . The languages in Angola are those and Kikongo , in that order in Portuguese or who speak In Luanda and region there

subsists a nucleus of the "syncretic" Tocoists and the U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000 , less than 1% of the population , Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East ( to independence in 1975 , of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were to themselves in contrast to , rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever , are common diseases in Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates . and onchocerciasis ( river blindness ) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was In September 2014 , the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control ( integrate the National Health Service in Angola . The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in oncology , policy implementation , programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment . In 2014 , Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles , extended to every child under to all 18 provinces in the country . The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health a proper dealing with measles cases , national campaigns , introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for By August 2016 , when the outbreak eight years , the government reports that In 1999 , the gross primary enrollment rate was Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally in enrollment between rural and urban areas . In 1995 , 71.2 per cent of It is reported that higher percentages The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils of landmines , lack of resources and identity papers , and

According to estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics , the adult literacy rate in 2011 was By 2015 , this had 82.9% of men and 54.2% In September 2014 , the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country . In 2010 , the Angolan government started several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge Each site has a bibliographic archive , multimedia resources and computers with Internet access , as well as areas for reading , researching and socialising The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017 . The project also includes the implementation of At this time , the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda , Malanje , Uíge , Cabinda and Lunda South . In this urban culture , Portuguese heritage has African roots are evident in music In 2014 , Angola resumed Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola and holds the record of most titles As a top team in Africa , it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games In football , Angola hosted The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage . Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship the population , the Ambundu with 25% Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda , the Herero , the Xindonga and scattered residual groups of San . As a former overseas territory of Portugal until 1975 , Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000 , a number that , 1 million Angolans are mixed race ( which accounts for 1.35 million people . In 1974 , white Angolans made up a population of 330,000 to 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder , " Whites in Angola

on the Eve of Independence : The Politics of Numbers " , Estimates on the overall population are given of people from other European and From the 2000s , many Chinese have many have come as workers for large enterprises ( construction or the end of 2010 , but reliable statistics are In 1974/75 , over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War . a massive development cooperation in the field of health Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms In 2006 , one out of 221 people were Jehovah's Witnesses . , compared to only 4 148 000 in Registration of vital events is in The population is growing by 3.52% The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children The infant mortality rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 73.3 deaths for males and 61.8 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births According to the CIA World Factbook , 2% ( as of 2009 ) The risk of contracting disease is very Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries with 71.1% of the population over Portuguese is the official language of Angola In fact , Kikongo , Kimbundu , Umbundu , Tuchokwe , Nganguela , and Ukanyama have the official status of "national languages " ce="preserve">The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government : executive , Since the adoption of a new constitution in 2010 , the politics of Angola takes place in a framework of and head of government , Executive power is exercised by the government in place since independence in 1975 , to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992 The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections In the presidential elections , President José Eduardo dos Santos won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40% . the elections , which were considered and the collapse of the Lusaka Protocol ,

UNITA's and the FNLA's elected MPs - while José Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions From 2002 to 2010 , of 1992 functioned in a relatively normal way The executive branch of the government was composed of the President , the Prime Minister and Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of The legal system was based on Portuguese Courts operated in only 12 of A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal ; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions . The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons ( IDPs Daily conditions of life throughout the country mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for of powers , like defining The National Assembly ( "Assembleia Nacional " ) a four-year term , 130 members by proportional representation , 90 members in provincial districts , The general elections in 1997 were rescheduled The ruling party MPLA won 82% ( 191 seats in the National Assembly ) and the main opposition party are appointed by the president . influenced by the effects of four decades of conflict in the last part of the 20th century , the war for independence from Portugal ( 1961–75 ) and the subsequent civil war ( 1975–2002 ) Despite extensive oil and gas resources , diamonds , hydroelectric potential , and rich agricultural land , Since 2002 , when the 27-year civil war and improvement of infrastructure and During the first decade of the 21st century , Angola's economy was growing in the world , with reported annual average GDP growth of 11.1 percent from 2001 to 2010 Corruption is rife throughout the economy on the oil sector , which in exports by value and 64 percent the production of raw materials and the use of cheap labor since European rule began a source for the thriving slave trade across the Atlantic ; Luanda became the greatest slaving port in

After the Portuguese Empire abolished the slave trade in Angola in 1858 , it land , people , and In Mozambique , this policy spawned At the same time , Portuguese began The principal exports of the post-slave economy in the 19th century were rubber , beeswax , Prior to the First World War , exportation of coffee , palm kernels and oil , cattle , leather of gold and cotton also , hardware , and British coal Legislation against foreign traders was implemented Before World War II , the Portuguese government was invested little capital in Angola's local economy . It built no roads until the mid-1920s Angola , and most worked in commerce in the cities , facilitating trade with Portugal . In the rural areas , Portuguese settlers often for sugarcane and sisal and But in the wake of World War II Portugal to develop closer ties with In the 1930s , Portugal started to develop closer trade ties with its colonies absorbed 63 percent of Angolan exports and accounted for 47 percent of Angolan imports after the war , the Portuguese government began to reinvest some profits inside the country , initiating a series of projects In addition , Portuguese citizens were encouraged to emigrate to Angola for them in the rural areas . Finally , the Portuguese initiated mining operations for iron ore , manganese , at home , and in The economy was in complete disarray in the aftermath of the war of independence and the subsequent internal fighting of the liberation movements . of which had been abandoned Angola's economic ills can also be traced to the legacy of Portuguese colonial development . Many of the white settlers had come to Angola after 1950 and during the war of independence . During their stay , however , these settlers had appropriated Angolan lands , disrupting local peasant production of cash and subsistence crops . Moreover , Angola's industries depended on trade with Portugal — the colony's overwhelmingly dominant trade partner — for both markets and machinery Only the petroleum and diamond industries boasted a wider clientele for investment

As a result , the government intervened , nationalizing most businesses and farms It established state farms to continue because of the lack of experienced managers and the continuing disruptions in rural areas caused United Nations Angola Verification Mission III and MONUA spent US$1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the Lusaka Protocol , a 1994 peace accord that UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in Albania and the Congo , Zambia , Togo In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders , but the UN UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of Belarus , Brazil , Bulgaria , China , and South Africa Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998 , the economy grew by An economic reform effort was launched in 1998 Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations in the United Nations Human Development Index in 2000 . In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund ( IMF) Staff-Monitored Program ( SMP ) In this context the Government of Angola electricity , and water rates . Nevertheless , a legacy of fiscal mismanagement The civil war internally displaced 3.8 million people , 32% of the population , by in 2003 , and production per year by 2007 . In 2004 , China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest The construction industry is taking advantage of the growing economy , with various housing projects stimulated and the "Casa Feliz " or "Meña" projects in January 2000 , but production Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries on January 1, 2007 Despite its abundant natural resources , output per Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% to the economy , contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group , a conglomerate owned In the last decade of the colonial period , Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports

landmines throughout the countryside , have brought agricultural activities to a near-standstill . of GDP and 90% of Diamonds provided much of the revenue for Jonas Savimbi's UNITA rebellion through illicit trade . The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017 The vast majority of Angola's exports , 92% in 2004 , are petroleum products of exports , were sold Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States , in 2006 , supplier of oil to the United States In the first quarter of 2008 , Angola became the main exporter of oil to China The rest of its petroleum exports go to U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola , with Chevron-Texaco leading , mining equipment , chemicals , aircraft , and food , Trade between Angola and South Africa exceeded US$300 million in 2007 . than any other nation in sub-Saharan Africa , surpassing Nigeria in the 2000s . In January 2007 Angola became a member double the 2006 output level with development of Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula ( Area A ) , Numbi ( Area A ) , and Chevron operates in Block Zero with Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa , largely because The U.S. imports 7% of its oil Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within difficulty in attracting foreign investment because Production rose by 30% in to increase by 8% in In 2003 , the government began Rafael Marques , a journalist and human rights activist , described , arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations . Marques called on foreign countries to In December 2014 , the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued classified Angola as one of the major diamond-producing African countries relying on both child labor and Under Portuguese rule , Angola began mining iron in 1957 , producing In the early 1970s , 70% of After independence in 1975 , the Angolan Civil War ( 1975–2002 ) destroyed

Reconstruction of these three lines began in International and domestic services are maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines , Aeroflot , British Airways , Brussels Airlines , Lufthansa , Air France , Cubana , Ethiopian Airlines , Emirates , Delta Air Lines , Royal Air Maroc , Iberia , Hainan Airlines , Kenya Airways , South African Airways , TAP Air Portugal is the military of Angola . The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three components : the Army ( ( " Marinha de Guerra " ) and the National Air Force ( "Força Aérea Nacional " ) following the abortive Bicesse Accord with the Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola ( FALA ) , armed wing As part of the peace agreement , troops from both armies were to to war in 1992 . The Angolan Armed Forces were created on 9 October 1991 The institutionalization of the FAA was made in the Bicesse Accords , signed in 1991 , between the Angolan Government and on September 24, 1991 and approved on Abílio Kamalata Numa were appointed to the Superior Command of the Armed Forces The Army ( "Exército " ) is the land component of the FAA . It is organized in six military regions ( Cabinda , Luanda , The Army also includes an artillery regiment , the Military Artillery School , the Army Military Academy , an anti-aircraft defense group , a composite land artillery group , a military police regiment , " ) is the air component of It is organized in six aviation regiments , each including several squadrons . To each of the regiments correspond includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft . " ) is the naval component of It is organized in two naval zones ( North and South ) , with naval bases in Luanda , Lobito It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School , based in Ambriz . From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel to around 1,000 , resulting in the loss

of skills and expertise needed In order to protect Angola's 1 600 km long coastline , the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation Most of the vessels in the navy's inventory age and lack of maintenance Spain and France in the 1990s In September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven Macaé-class patrol vessels from Brazil as part of of the vessels as part of Angola's Naval Power Development Programme ( Pronaval ) . The FAA include several types of special forces , namely the Commandos , the Special Operations and of the Special Forces Brigade (BRIFE , " at Cabo Ledo , in the Bengo Province The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos , a battalion of special operations and , " Grupo de Ações Especiais " ) and that was dedicated to In the Cabo Ledo base is also installed the Special Forces Training School (EFFE , " Escola de Formação de Forças Especiais " Since the disbandment of the Angolan Parachute Battalion in The Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops of the Defence Ministry or ODP was established in late 1975 . It had 600,000 members , having personnel in virtually every village by 1979 It provides specialized medical assistance in accordance with the military health system ; It also promotes post-graduate education and scientific research . Currently , the Main Military Hospital serves 39 special medical specialties The Supreme Military Court is the highest organ of the hierarchy of the Supreme Military Court are appointed by The FAA maintains Portuguese-style military bands in all three branches on 15 August 1998 , the National Air Force created The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast , and its conventional capabilities The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1,000 to 1,500 troops to São Tomé and Príncipe in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa . During the next several years , Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged The Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in A small number of FAA personnel are stationed

in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa ) and the Republic of the Congo ( Brazzaville A presence during the unrest in Ivory Coast From 1975 to 1989 , Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc , in focused on improving relationships with Western countries , cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries , and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention . In 1993 , it established a vehicle for improving ties with conflict diamonds , the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that At the same time , Angola has ) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal served as a general in three different armies : the Texian Army , the United States Army , of Robert E. Lee , he was Johnston was born in Washington His father was a native of Salisbury Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky , he lived much He was first educated at Johnston was assigned to posts In 1843 , he married In 1836 , Johnston moved He enlisted as a private in the Texian Army during the Texas War of Independence from the Republic of Mexico On December 22, 1838 , Mirabeau B. Lamar , Johnston as Secretary of War Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey on this field ... left an impression on my mind that I have He remained on his plantation after He served in that role for more than five years , making six tours , As a key figure in the Utah War , Johnston took command of the U.S forces Alfred Cummings as governor of the Utah territory , in place of Brigham Young After the army wintered at Fort Bridger led the army through Salt Lake city without He received a brevet promotion to brigadier general in 1857 for his service in Johnston was a proponent of slavery In 1846 , he owned a family of four slaves in Texas the army payroll , Johnston refused to

1,000 to recoup the losses . In 1856 , he called the abolitionists would incite a servile insurrection in Upon moving to California , Johnston sold one slave to his son on the condition of a $12/month contract for Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the Civil War , up until the latter's death . Johnston's wife , Eliza , celebrated the lack of black people in California At the outbreak of the American Civil War , Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department after he heard of the secession It was accepted by the War Department On April 28 he moved to his wife and five children , Johnston He participated in their trek across therefore distributed military forces around its borders the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along under the command of Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk and in command in Tennessee as Their impolitic occupation of Columbus , Kentucky of Richmond , Virginia , after his cross-country journey , drove Kentucky The majority of Kentuckians allied with Johnston's appointment as a full general by his friend After his appointment , Johnston immediately He was permitted to call Tennessee and Mississippi for new troops with respect to Mississippi . On September 13, 1861 , Johnston ordered Cumberland Gap in Kentucky in order with the Union after the occupation of By September 18 , Johnston had Kentucky , Tennessee , Arkansas Of these , 10,000 were in Missouri under Missouri State Guard Maj. Gen. Sterling Price . them from the governors , but As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East , they and minimal amounts of arms and Johnston maintained his defense by conducting that worked for several months . Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in Kentucky that he Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces , and the Civil War ) was held for Jefferson Davis : Felix Zollicoffer , a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer Richmond , Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near to his back and his forces into to the other side of the river because

Gen. George H. Thomas moved against the Confederates , Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the Union forces At the Battle of Mill Springs on January 19, 1862 , the rain , attacked the Union force with a Union bayonet charge , suffering 533 casualties from After the Confederate defeat at the Mill Springs , early in the war , and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston The brigade was led by Brig He took command at Fort Donelson as the senior general present just before Union Brig make a difference in the theater . a direct invasion from the north , circumstances sent men to Virginia and Tennessee , construction of two forts provided avenues into the State from Both forts were located in Tennessee in order to respect Kentucky neutrality Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in on the Kentucky side of the river . Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts After Johnston took command , After Johnston asserted his authority , Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5,000 men to Fort Donelson Pillow took up a position at Alerted by a Union reconnaissance on January 14, 1862 , Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry , Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862 , and at the western end of Johnston's line at On February 6, 1862 , Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry , inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force . Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men , including those under Floyd and Pillow , a curious decision in view of his thought that He did order the commanders of of the garrison and on February 16, 1862 by Floyd and Pillow , Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner

to take charge at Fort Donelson on the basis of seniority after the blame and suffered calls for a forward position at Bowling Green , spreading concentrating his forces in the face of him to criticism at the time The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to imminent attack , and it fell without resistance to Union forces his territory and retreating to the south from the vicinity of Nashville . With Beauregard's help , Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of Corinth , Mississippi , under the overall command of the ponderous Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck , send reinforcements from the garrisons of a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth Kentucky and Tennessee under Grant , Tennessee , and the now Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on his way from Nashville with Johnston started his army in motion on April 3, 1862 , intent on the next day , but they moved bad roads , and lack of , Johnston's second in command , Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps , and down the line on his horse One of his most famous moments in the battle of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the Union camps see a young lieutenant among them . " None of that , at the officer , " we one of those charges against a Union camp near the "Peach Orchard , " he The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery Within a few minutes , Johnston was Andrew Johnson as military governor of Tennessee Johnston glanced down at his leg wound Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse and carried him to a small ravine near the "Hornets Nest " apply a tourniquet to Johnson's wounded leg . It is believed that Johnston Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body to damage the troops' morale with the sight

, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road , where his body remained in his tent for the remainder P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army However , Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio during the night , and , driving the Confederates from the field Corinth , Johnston's body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge , Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side , and his death was a strong blow to the morale of Johnston was survived by his wife in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother , already followed him into the Confederate States Army In 1863 , after taking home leave in Los Angeles , Albert Jr. passengers from the ferry , a wave the Los Angeles "Star " of his family's hometown . Johnston was initially buried in In 1866 , a joint resolution of The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near In 1916 , the University of Texas at Johnston ) with statues on On August 21, 2017 , as part of the wave of confederate monument removals in America , Johnston's statue was taken In the fall of 2018 , A.S. Johnston Elementary School in was also renamed to Meyerland Middle School as "Androides " ) to Ephraim Chambers' 1728 "Cyclopaedia , " in reference as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons The term "android " was used in his work " Tomorrow's Eve " ( the story , " In this age of Realien advancement , who knows of those responsible for these mechanical dolls mechanical humans , animals , and by George Lucas in the original "Star Wars" film and , originated as an abridgment of including distinctly non-human form machines like R2-D2 . " in more diverse ways than "robot " or "cyborg " . In some fictional works , the difference between on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics In other stories , authors have Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967

Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs , and to grip and transport objects with hands , using Its vision system allowed it to measure In 1984 , WABOT-2 was Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet read a score of music . at Osaka University , and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture , In 2006 , Kokoro developed The height of the human body part of DER2 As a result of having an actuator a servosystem , the movement is very DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder Compared to the previous model , DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama , Japan . There are several other initiatives around the world introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the positions of the necessary points to express the outline , eyes , nose , and so on of all points to the decided positions , they The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003 . After that , a year later , they made a couple of major improvements It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask , This one has 17 facial points , for a total of 56 degrees of freedom , the WD-2's mask is fabricated with the mask at the desired facial point , driven by a DC motor with a simple pulley and modify the shape of the mask based , they need only a 3D scanner to determine the locations of an individual's 17 facial points . After that , they are of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot , Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple's Siri or Microsoft's Cortana Assoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre

led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics , A remote user can control EDGAR with via facial "musculature " and capable of rudimentary conversation , having a vocabulary , matching the average figure of a Korean woman EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve , EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-CCD cameras with An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression , body coordination , and emotion expression Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face , neck , and lower body In South Korea , the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to put a robot in Several robot cities have been planned for be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won ( US$440 million The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers , as at the United States Military Academy , created an AI android character This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot engages in conversation about a variety She uses AI to process Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company Maria Bot is designed to create the increasing presence of robots and artificial intelligence KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein for the film "Blade Runner " ) , with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works Androids are a staple of science fiction Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence , notably in his 1950s series " I The tension between the nonhuman substance and the human appearance — or even human ambitions — of androids is the dramatic impetus behind most of humanity is to use discrimination against androids as a mechanism for exploring racism in society , as in "Blade Runner " used as vehicles for exploring viewed as a continuation of the long tradition Examples include the Greek myth of "Pygmalion designed as sex-objects , with the intent of " pleasing men's violent sexual desires "

Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west , Saskatchewan to It is one of the only two landlocked provinces The eastern part of the province is occupied The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences Alberta is the 4th largest province by area More than half of Albertans live in either Edmonton or Calgary , which English is the official language of the province The oil and gas industry is also a part of Alberta's economy is based on hydrocarbons , petrochemical industries , livestock , Alberta's economy since 1947 , when substantial oil deposits were discovered at Leduc No the left-wing Liberals and the agrarian United Farmers of Alberta , Alberta was home to by fur traders of the Hudson's Bay Company . On September 1, 1905 , Alberta was separated from the NWT as a result of the Alberta Act and designated the 8th province From the late 1800s to early 1900s , Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty , richness in fossils and Alberta is home to six UNESCO World Heritage Sites : The Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks , Dinosaur Provincial Park , the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump , Waterton – Glacier International Peace Park , Wood Buffalo National Park and Writing - Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta ( 1848–1939 ) , the fourth daughter Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell , Marquess of Lorne , separates it from the U.S. state of The province extends north to south and east to west at With the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section , the province has adequate water resources used for swimming , fishing and a range of water sports . ( ) in Wood Buffalo National Park , lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow Alberta's capital city , Edmonton , is It is the most northerly major city in Canada

and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada With its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields , the region has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity Calgary is about south of Edmonton and north of Montana Almost 75% of the province's population lives in Most of the northern half of the province The southern quarter of the province is prairie , ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of the prairies and the forests , from Calgary , north to Edmonton , and then east to Lloydminster , contains the most fertile soil in and farmland , and features The presence of the Rocky Mountains also influences the climate to the southwest , which disrupts the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and , casting a rain shadow over much have a dry climate with little moderation from Northern Alberta is mostly covered by The southeastern corner of Alberta , part Western Alberta is protected by the mountains Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers from the north , which often Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates In the winter , the Alberta clipper , the rest of Southern Canada and the northern tier In southwestern Alberta , the cold winters are from the mountains , which can During one chinook recorded at Pincher Creek The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks , averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year After Saskatchewan , Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year Thunderstorms , some of them the summer , especially in central and southern Alberta the prairie crocus anemone ; this member of the buttercup family Members of the sunflower family blossom on the prairie The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass , which dries such as the prairie coneflower , fleabane The trees in the parkland region of the province

grow in clumps and belts Many species of willow and other shrubs , parkland , and prairie to many different species of animals . The south and central prairie was the homeland of the American bison , also known as buffalo and breeding ground for millions of Herbivorous animals are found throughout the province in the wooded regions , and pronghorn Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in , squirrels , and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province . include coyotes , red foxes , are the nesting ground of many migratory birds . of the hundreds of small lakes that Eagles , hawks , owls Alberta , like other temperate regions , is home to mosquitoes , flies , wasps , and Rivers and lakes are populated with pike, walleye, whitefish, rainbow , speckled , Turtles are found in some water bodies arriving in the province aboard trucks In 2006 , Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats ; the only rat interceptions have been seized from their owners of any description ; the animals can colleges , and recognized research institutions small pockets in southern Alberta , putting Alberta has one of the greatest diversities of documented dinosaurs , primarily due the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops are the Belly River Group and St. Mary River Formations of the southwest and the northwestern Wapiti Formation , which Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at toward the end of the last ice age . migrated from Siberia to Alaska on a land bridge across the Bering Strait and of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to the coast of British Columbia and then After the British arrival in Canada , approximately half of the province of Alberta rivers flowing into Hudson Bay . because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay , and The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond Fur traders formed the North West Company ( NWC foot , trekked to the Athabasca River to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean . Fur trade expanded in the north ,

but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870 when the newly formed Canadian Government purchased in which the Crown gained title committed to the ongoing support of the First Nations After a long campaign for autonomy , in 1905 , the District of provincial status , with the election of catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow, Elbow, Highwood and Oldman rivers and of 4,067,175 living in 1,527,678 Since 2000 , Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of growth , ( on par with some larger provinces In 2016 , Alberta continued to have the youngest population among the provinces with a median age of 36.7 years , compared with the national median of 41.2 years About 81% of the population lives in in the province and is one Many of Alberta's cities and towns This is followed by Tagalog , with 99,035 speakers , German , with 80,050 speakers , French , with 72,150 native speakers , and 230,930 South Asian people , 166,195 Filipinos , and of Albertans , representing 79.99% The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers by German with 84,505 native speakers ( 2.62% ) and French with with 36,320 native speakers ( 1.13% ) ; Tagalog , with 29,740 21,990 ( 0.68% ) ; Arabic , with 20,495 (0.64% ) ; Dutch , with 19,980 Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers other regions of Europe , notably Germany Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns Canadian ( 20.5% ) ; ) ; 388,210 French ( 11.9% ) ; 332,180 Ukrainian ( 10.2% ) ; 172,910 Dutch ( 5.3% ) ; 170,935 Polish ( 5.2% Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms As of the 2011 National Household Survey , the largest religious group Alberta had the second-highest percentage of non-religious residents among the provinces ( after British Columbia ) at 31.6% of the population to the United Church of Canada , while 3.9% , and has a significant population of

Many of these are immigrants , but others have roots located in Edmonton , whereas Alberta is also home to strongest in the world , supported , agriculture and technology . In 2013 , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded In 2006 , the deviation from According to the 2006 census , the median annual family income in Alberta ( compared to In 2014 , Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada after Ontario The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province In 2001 , the population of It is also one of a Canadian style quality of life , offering In 2014 , Merchandise exports totalled Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion , and In total , Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars , or Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy The province has over three million head of cattle in spring wheat production ; other grains are Much of the farming is dryland becoming a more common mode of production because Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada in specially designed barns in southern Alberta , into the Peace River valley where the season is for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed . Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy in North America are located in of the rest of the world , Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non extract the bitumen from the oil sands . from the oil sands is the price of The oil price increases since 2003 have made , which in the past would By mid-2014 , rising costs and With concerted effort and support from the provincial government , several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta , notably the early days of the twentieth century , with attractions including such as West Edmonton Mall , Calgary Stampede are visited by about three million people per Elk Island National Park , Wood Buffalo National Park , and The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic Icefields Parkway

Banff is located west of , and Jasper is located west of Edmonton on Yellowhead Highway Five of Canada's fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites are located About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede , a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching Drumheller , " Dinosaur Capital of The World " one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years The Government of Alberta is organized the post ( FPTP ) from As Queen of Canada , Elizabeth II is the head of state Her duties in Alberta are carried The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name The government is headed by the premier Since the 1960s , Alberta has " or "Tories " ) early 2008 , gained much support in the merger of Wildrose and the Progressive Conservatives For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta They lost the 2015 election to the NDP ( which formed their own government for the left in the province , also indicated by the election of progressive mayors upon its creation was the responsibility of In 1917 , due to pressures of World War I , the Alberta Provincial Police was disbanded as a Great Depression-era cost-cutting measure in resumed policing of the province , With the advent of the Alberta Sheriffs Branch , the distribution of duties of law enforcement traffic enforcement , mobile surveillance and the close protection of the Premier of Alberta have In 2006 , Alberta formed Military bases in Alberta include Canadian Forces Base ( CFB ) Cold Lake , CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division royalties on non-renewable natural resources ( 30.4% In 2014 , Alberta received With the drop in the price of According to the 2018–21 fiscal plan , the two top sources Alberta is the only province in Canada In 2016 , under then-Premier Rachel Notley -cent , and 15 - per - cent for those Alberta's personal income tax system maintained a progressive character by continuing to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities , students Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments

who usually work in co and those in the high-income bracket earning are the lowest-taxed people in Canada . In terms of income tax , those with a $150,000 annual income or more — about 178,000 people in 2015 , Alberta also privatized alcohol distribution . By 2010 , privatization had increased outlets from 304 stores to 4,000 jobs ; and 3,325 products to In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes from municipalities . Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011 . The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland , railways , machinery & equipment and Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta , especially in Both Calgary and Edmonton host many annual festivals and events , The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups The City of Calgary is also famous for The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features as calf roping and bull riding . to Canadian Football League and National Hockey League teams ( the Stampeders/Flames and conjunction with the province's first Month of the Artist to promote the arts throughout the province On January 31, 2019 , Lauren Crazybull named As with any Canadian province , the Alberta Legislature There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta , and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions . In addition , one Protestant separate school district , the greater part of the cost of providing the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property as supplementary support for local education In 1994 , the government of to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education ; collected by the local municipal authority and remitted education ( Alberta Education ) . and established in 1908 , the University of Alberta , gained its autonomy in In early September 2009 , Mount Royal University became , Northern Alberta Institute of Technology and Southern Alberta Institute of Technology . Students may also receive government loans There was some controversy in 2005

over the rising cost of post-secondary education for Alberta provides a publicly funded, fully integrated health system , through health care on behalf of the Government of Alberta's The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents of the "Canada Health Act " of 1984 Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year ( approximately 45% of all government spending ) on July 1, 2008 , which replaced by air , with international airports in both Calgary and Edmonton . in Canada , respectively . Calgary's airport is a hub for WestJet Airlines and a regional hub for Air Canada , , Saskatchewan and Manitoba ) for connecting flights to British Columbia , eastern Canada , 15 major U.S. centres , nine European airports , one Asian airport and four destinations in Mexico and the Caribbean . In addition to buses , Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit (LRT) systems The vast majority of this trackage is owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway companies , which operate railway freight across the province Additional railfreight service in the province is provided the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes and roads , of which the Carway border crossing and is part of effectively extends Interstate 15 into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province to Fort Macleod and links Highway continues to Athabasca , then northwesterly along the south shore of Lesser Slave Lake into High Prairie , north to Peace River , west to Fairview and finally south to Grande Prairie , where it ends at between Calgary and Edmonton has the visit of the monarch in 2005 Cowboy Trail " , and Highway The southern corridor , part of the Trans-Canada Highway system , enters the province near Medicine Hat , and leaves Alberta through The northern corridor , also part of the Trans-Canada network from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta , through Edmonton and Jasper National Park into One of the most scenic drives is along the Icefields Parkway , which runs for between Jasper and Lake Louise ,

as the David Thompson Highway ) , which Banff National Park through Rocky Mountain House and Red Deer ) and Gateway Boulevard ( for northbound traffic ) as it enters St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton horny spines ( rays ) , By species count , actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates , and they comprise nearly 99% of the over 30,000 species of fish They are ubiquitous throughout freshwater Extant species can range in size from " Paedocypris " , at , and the long-bodied oarfish , Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms . The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales transparent than other types of scales In nearly all ray-finned fish , the sexes are Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage with one of the commonest being In most cases this involves protogyny females and converting to males at some stage , triggered by Of the oviparous teleosts , most ( some form of parental care for eggs ) of the 422 teleost families ; no care The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in Middle Triassic species of is found in about 6% of living teleost species ; male care is far more common than female care . There are a few examples of fish This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending Males are occasionally produced at Actinopterygii is divided into the classes Jurassic , Cretaceous ) and The cladogram below shows the main clades of living actinopterygians and their evolutionary relationships to other extant groups of fishes and the four-limbed vertebrates ( Tetrapods evolved from a group of Remains have been found in Russia , Sweden , and a dagger , † ) and living groups of Actinopterygii with their respcective taxonomic rank – 18 April 1955 ) was a German-born theoretical physicist one of the greatest physicists of all time Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity , to the development of the theory of Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of

His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " for his services to theoretical physics , and especially for his discovery of the law in the development of quantum theory . In 1905 , a year sometimes These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect special relativity , and demonstrated mass-energy equivalence reconciled with those of the electromagnetic field develop his special theory of relativity . gravitational fields ; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916 , introducing his theory of gravitation . In 1917 , he applied the general theory of relativity to model He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory , which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of the later part of his career , he of gravitation to include electromagnetism Einstein was born in the German Empire , but moved to Switzerland in 1895 , forsaking his German citizenship ( as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg In 1897 , at the age of 17 at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich , for the rest of his life , In 1905 , he was In 1914 , Einstein moved In 1933 , while Einstein came to power in Germany Einstein , of Jewish origin , ; he settled in the United States endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting Albert Einstein was born in Ulm The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory When the family moved to Pavia finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium . clashed with the authorities and resented of learning and creative thought was Einstein excelled at math and He thereupon devoted himself to Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so His passion for geometry and algebra At age 13 , when he in philosophy ( and music , incomprehensible to ordinary mortals , In 1895 , at the age of 16 , Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule ,

He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination , but obtained exceptional grades in physics On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school , he attended the Argovian cantonal school ("gymnasium " ) in Aarau , Switzerland , in 1895 Professor Jost Winteler , he fell in love with Winteler's daughter , Marie In January 1896 , with his father's approval , Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid She was the only woman among the six students into a romance , and they Einstein wrote in his letters to In 1900 , Einstein passed Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić , born in early 1902 in Marić returned to Switzerland without the child , whose real name and fate Einstein and Marić married in was born in Bern , The couple moved to Berlin in to Zürich with their sons after Einstein and Marić divorced on In letters revealed in 2015 , Einstein wrote to his early love He wrote in 1910 , Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919 with her since 1912 . They emigrated to the United States in In 1923 , Einstein fell in love with a secretary named In a volume of letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006 , Einstein described about six women , including Margarete Lebach ( a blonde Austrian ) , Estella Katzenellenbogen ( the rich owner of a florist business ) , Toni Mendel ( a wealthy Jewish widow ) and Ethel Michanowski ( a Berlin socialite briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova After graduating in 1900 , He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901 Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and With a few friends he had met ) was published in the journal On 30 April 1905 , Einstein completed his dissertation , " A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions " with Alfred Kleiner , Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of Zürich , serving By 1908 , he was a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle

at the University of Zurich , Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911 , In July 1912 , he returned to his alma mater in Zürich . From 1912 until 1914 , File:19191125 A New Physics Based on Einstein light by gravitation ) based on 29 May 1919 eclipse observations in Principe ( Africa ) and Sobral ( were presented on 6 November 1919 to enticed to move to Berlin director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics , which Membership in the academy included paid salary He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July , and was also influenced by the prospect Einstein assumed his position with the academy , and Berlin University , after moving into his Dahlem apartment on 1 April 1914 The institute was established on 1 October 1917 , with Einstein as its director In 1919 , that deflection prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during In 1920 , he became even the cited photoelectric work as an "explanation " but merely as a "discovery of the law the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ( ForMemRS ) in Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in followed by three weeks of lectures several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University July 1921 , in which he his own impressions in " Democracy in America " For some of his observations , In 1922 , his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine , as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour , as he visited Singapore , he gave a series of lectures In a letter to his sons , Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East On his return voyage , he visited Palestine for 12 days , his only visit at the home of the British high commissioner , During one reception , the building was From 1922 to 1932 , Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva

scientists , researchers , teachers , artists , and intellectuals the Swiss delegate , Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values . In the months of March and April 1925 , , a week in Uruguay , and a week in Rio de Janeiro , Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout After arriving in New York City , at the Metropolitan Opera , where he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University , who described , standing at the entrance . Einstein next traveled to California , where he met Caltech president " had a penchant for patriotic militarism This aversion to war also led both noted for their pacifism . Carl Laemmle , head of Universal Studios his studio and introduced him to They had an instant rapport , with , Elsa , to his home in Hollywood , and Chaplin join him as his special guests . Walter Isaacson , Einstein's biographer , described , he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at In February and March 1933 , the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in to Europe in March , the Enabling Act on 23 March , transforming Hitler's government into a "de facto" legal dictatorship , and that their cottage had been raided Upon landing in Antwerp , immediately went to the German consulate and In April 1933 , Einstein discovered , including teaching at universities One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with England , Einstein wrote , Einstein was now without a permanent home equally worried about the fate of He rented a house in De Haan In late July 1933 , he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson , who Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of . Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home , and place them in British universities .

other nations , including Turkey's Prime Minister , Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews , In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world " In October 1933 , Einstein returned a position at the Institute for Advanced Study , noted Einstein was still undecided on Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955 . with John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel ) at the new Institute , where he In 1939 , a group of to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research with other refugees such as Edward Teller it as their responsibility to alert July 1939 , a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe , Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs The letter is believed to be of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II In addition to the letter , for resistance to war . In 1954 , a year before Einstein became an American citizen in 1940 his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe . Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP As part of his involvement , his behalf during his trial in 1951 In 1946 , Einstein visited in 1925 and was among Earlier , in 1921 , he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization , Among those , he advised that was undermining a third of ; he was against the creation of an independent Jewish state , which would be established without his help as live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington , Abba Eban , repose in any of its sons Einstein developed an appreciation for music

I often think in music I live my daydreams in music I see my life in terms I get most joy in life him assimilate into German culture . According to conductor Leon Botstein , Einstein he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart Einstein taught himself to play is a better teacher than a sense of At age 17 , he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in at any time , among those Bern, Zürich , and Berlin , where he played with Max Planck and his son , among others in research at the California Institute of Technology , he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles , where he played some In 1918 , Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party Later in his life , Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism , which he detailed in his essays His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed In 1925 , he criticized of government ' and called a tragedy in human history ' . criticizing their methods but praising them his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin : " In Lenin I honor a man , who in total sacrifice of : men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience to theoretical physics or mathematics . He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi , with whom he He described Gandhi as " The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931 at his summer home in the town of Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home During the visit , Einstein wrote delivered to him through his envoy , and Gandhi responded quickly Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy .

a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings in an afterlife , Einstein replied Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK He served on the advisory board of an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association , which For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture , In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind the expression and product of human weaknesses For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions . On 17 April 1955 , Einstein experienced Einstein refused surgery , saying It is tasteless to prolong without the permission of his family , In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person Throughout his life , Einstein published hundreds of books and articles He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones On 5 December 2014 , universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers "Annalen der Physik " was on capillary attraction It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen " , atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion , which showed that Brownian movement can be construed Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations , giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point the second derivative of the free energy with respect At the critical point , this derivative is Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering than the wavelength , and which 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations ( the laws of electricity and magnetism ) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to Observationally , the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds at speeds close to the speed The theory developed in this paper later There is evidence from Einstein's writings , Mileva Marić , on this work

measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer contract in its direction of motion In his paper on mass–energy equivalence , Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics ( the study In 1908 , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory General relativity ( GR ) is from the warping of space and General relativity has developed into an essential tool the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions prefers no state of motion ( published an article on acceleration under from It " , he In 1911 , Einstein published on the 1907 article , in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies . In 1916 , Einstein predicted of spacetime which propagate as the source , transporting energy as The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting became confused about the gauge invariance in He formulated an argument that led ( 'draft ' ) theory was the result of these investigations . was a sketch of a theory , than general relativity , with the equations In 1917 , Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure Einstein introduced a new term , the cosmological constant , to the field equations , in The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature , in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Hubble's observations of the recession of In a hitherto overlooked manuscript , apparently written in early 1931 , Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which due to a continuous creation of matter As he stated in the paper draw attention to a solution to equation ( 1 ) that " If one considers a physically bounded volume , particles of matter will

be continually formed in the volume it is difficult to see to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance , but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of by a choice of coordinates . He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field . In 1935 , Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations , in line with the program outlined in the paper " Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles ? " . In order to incorporate spinning point particles The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations , which describe how space curves . pure gravitational fields , like a black hole , In a 1905 paper , Einstein postulated by all physicists , including Max Planck associated with a collection of photons with energy "hf" each , where "h In 1907 , Einstein proposed Throughout the 1910s , quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems Einstein contributed to these developments by Einstein noted in 1911 that In 1924 , Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles , and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the "Zeitschrift für Physik at the University of Colorado at Boulder . describe the behaviors of any assembly of Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in given up on academia . In 1908 , he became of light , and in an earlier 1909 paper , Einstein showed that act in some respects as independent, point-like particles by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926 ) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913 , Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of

zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory " . Soon , this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern . compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with absorption and emission of light into a mode with n photons to the emission of light into Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported In another major paper from this era , Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves Einstein played a major role in developing with modern quantum mechanics as it had The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr , who were two of its founders their importance to the philosophy of science In 1935 , Einstein returned to the question of its completeness , In a thought experiment , he considered Given Einstein's concept of local realism , of the position and momentum of in question , it must J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964 by any version of the picture of physics in which " particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities , of the unusual properties of its opposite, entangled quantum states , Following his research on general relativity , Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity . In 1950 , he described Einstein conducted other investigations that were of electrons , nowadays known In order to show this , they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum . They confirmed that this leads Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle This formulation is a form of second quantization , but it predates modern quantum mechanics In 1926 , Einstein and This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for On 11 November 1930 , was awarded The letters were included in the papers Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities

, beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919 Despite the general public having little understanding of his work , he was widely In the period before World War II , " The New Yorker " published a vignette or inspiration for many novels , films , plays , and He is a favorite model for depictions Einstein received numerous awards and honors , and in 1922 , the law of the photoelectric effect " . , is a landlocked country located at It is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south , and Uzbekistan to the north , and Tajikistan and China to Occupying of land , the country is predominately mountainous with plains Tajiks , Hazaras , and Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic era , and the country's strategic location the cultures of other parts of Asia to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns , including those by , the Mongols , the British , Afghanistan also served as the source The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani dynasty in the 18th century , the empire at its peak ruling an area from of Timur Shah , it was divided into the smaller independent kingdoms of Herat , Kandahar and Kabul , after wars of unification led During this time , Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game " between British India and the Russian Empire ; the British the First Anglo-Afghan War ; in the second war it successfully established a British protected state over Afghanistan Following a third war in 1919 , the country became free of foreign dominance , and eventually emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in June 1926 Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973 Afghanistan's history since the late 1970s has been three consecutive civil wars ( 1989–1992 , 1992–1996 resulted in the takeover of the country by the Taliban and its totalitarian regime . The country has high levels of terrorism , poverty , and child malnutrition risen to power in Afghanistan , such as the Greco-Bactrians ,

Indo-Scythians , Kushans , Kidarites , Hephthalites , Alkhons , Nezaks , Zunbils , Turk Shahis , Hindu Shahis , Lawiks , Saffarids , Samanids , Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Khaljis , Kartids , Lodis, Surs, Mughals , and marked the political origins of the modern state . various peoples through the ages , among of Indo-Iranian languages in the region . At multiple points , the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires , , the Maurya Empire , and the Islamic Empire among the earliest in the world and trade with its neighbors to the east , west , and been found in Afghanistan . , and the early city of Mundigak ( near Kandahar in the south More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilization stretched , Afghanistan , and India In more detail , it extended to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan . An Indus Valley site has been found on among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians . South Asia , Western Asia , and overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia , Aria , and Bactria An inscription on the tombstone of Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Following Alexander's brief occupation , the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE when they gave much of Much of it soon broke away from them and became The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE , and Afghanistan flourished with trade , with routes to China , India , Persia and north to the cities of Bukhara , Samarkand and Khiva in subjugated the region but lost it in Afghanistan , became great patrons The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE , though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of They were followed by the Kidarites They were replaced by the Turk Shahi the area in 870 , this Hindu dynasty Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE and Before the arrival of Islam ,

to various beliefs and cults , often resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions such as Zoroastrianism , , Hinduism , Christianity and An exemplification of the syncretism in the region , Lady Nana , Anahita or Mihr(Mithra ) and portrayed Greek Gods like Heracles or Tyche as conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims Later , the Samanids extended their Islamic influence By the 11th century , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated , with the exception of Kafiristan Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the Ghurids , whose architectural achievements included the remote Minaret of In 1219 CE , Genghis Khan and annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and many locals to return to an agrarian rural society Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion from Ferghana and captured Kabul the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat Kandahar , Zabulistan , Ghazni , Kabulistan , and Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and He defeated Gurgin Khan and established Mirwais died of natural causes in Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of Isfahan , captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and Delhi , alongside his 16 year old commander , After the death of Nader Shah in 1747 , Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of With his acension in 1747 , Peshawar from the Mughal appointed governor , Nasir Khan Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat Mashhad , however he was he captured Tun , and He was forced to give for his invasions , Ahmad Shah saw Afghanistan in a dire state , and multiple opportunities during his Invasions of India , he Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in 1748 , crossing the indus river , Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at the Battle of Manupur ( 1748 ) , captured the area around Lahore and Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in under Shah Wali Khan , the influential prime minister of

the Durrani Empire , and Humayun Mirza . Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in Kabul a base of ordination since it This reform saw Kabul as the modern capital Timur Shah would fight multiple series of also lead campaigns into Punjab against the Sikhs like his father did Most prominent example of his battles during this campaign his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani , with over 18,000 men total of Afghan , Qizilbash in this battle and would stage The Durranis lost Multan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death , following this victory a province until the Siege of Multan his son , Zaman Shah Durrani after his death , and Mahmud Shah centered in Securing his position on the throne , from a possible Qajar invasion , or his brother would be toppled from his reign , replaced by his brother , , Mahmud Shah Durrani would be deposed by his brother , Shah Shuja Durrani , By the early 19th century , the Afghan empire was under threat from the Persians in the Emirate of Herat centred in the east . governors of major cities and provinces the provinces of the empire between themselves During this turbulent period , Afghanistan had Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh , who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in March 1823 and captured the city of Peshawar at the Battle of Nowshera capture the Jamrud Fort from the Sikh Khalsa Army , In 1838 , a British expeditionary force marched Dost Mohammad Khan as ruler and withdrew that were lost in the Durrani civil wars reunite the Afghan realm in his reign , Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne the British had returned in the Second Anglo-Afghan War which was fought over perceived Russian influence in the region , Abdur Rahman Khan replaced after his death in 1879 . In 1893 , Amir Abdur Rahman signed , which forms the modern-day border between Shia-dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan remained politically independent until He was known as the "Iron Amir and British as "trojan horses "

and therefore prevented railway development in met by officials of the Central Powers as part of the Hindu–German Conspiracy . caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British . of the Treaty of Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919 , He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community Afghanistan on 9 June 1926 , when Turkey , he introduced several reforms He fought for Article 68 of as the abolition of the traditional burqa for and this led to the Afghan Civil War Saqqawist forces led by Habibullah Kalakani . in October 1929 , and was Mohammed Zahir Shah , Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son , succeeded , and Mirzali Khan , among others , many of whom The 1930s saw the development of roads a national bank , and increased education . Road links in the north played a large part Until 1946 , King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle , He was replaced in 1953 to highly tense relations with Pakistan . During his ten years at the post until 1963 , Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with and was neither a participant in World War II nor aligned with either power bloc in and other vital infrastructure in the post-war period . On a per capita basis , Afghanistan received Afghanistan had , therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies (PDPA ) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President Mohammed Daoud Khan , in The PDPA declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan This would trigger a series of secluded ( albeit peaceful) country to The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked expanded into a state of civil war guerrilla "mujahideen " ( and smaller Maoist guerrillas as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers , the United States supported them through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence ( ISI ) assumed the new general secretary of the People's Democratic Party . Amin and thousands of people but inclusive of both factions (

Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed with smaller actors like Saudi Arabia and , delivering billions of dollars in cash Lasting nine years , the war caused Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province functioned as an organisational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan resistance , with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan The militarization of society led to heavily armed police , private bodyguards , openly armed civil defense groups Another civil war broke out after the creation , murder and extortion , Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between , they conquered more territories until Rabbani from Kabul in 1996 , where they established an emirate It is apparently led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting Prime Minister Hasan Akhund , who took office on 7 September 2021 . as a member state for their official spokesman in Western nations have suspended most humanitarian aid to In October 2021 , more than half of France and smaller than Myanmar , and about the size of ) with Pakistan to the east borders with Tajikistan to the north-east , Iran to the west , Turkmenistan to the north-west , Uzbekistan to the north and China to stretches to eastern Tibet via the Pamir Mountains The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands , creating plains in the north and Forests exist in the corridor between , and tundra in the north-east Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs , large parts of the country are The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions The Amu Darya rises at the north of the Hindu Kush , while the nearby Hari Rud flows the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan , is The last strong earthquakes were in 1998 , which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people were killed the Sistan Basin of the southwest , the Jalalabad basin the north , where temperatures average The country is generally arid in the summers , with most rainfall falling The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest

Several types of mammals exist throughout The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor region , deer , wild sheep , populate the steppe plains of the south and in the high mountains of Afghanistan , and pheasants exist in some parts Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel , Afghan snowfinch , Afghanodon ( " Stigmella kasyi " , "Vulcaniella kabulensis " , Afghan leopard gecko , " Wheeleria parviflorellus " , amongst others The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation , Wakhan and Nuristan . The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 In 1979 the total population was reported According to Pew Research Center , as much as 90% found in certain major cities ( namely Kabul , Jalalabad , Ghazni , There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan Over the years , this small community was of warfare and religious persecution . emigrated to Israel and the United States 26% of the population was urbanized This is one of the lowest figures it is only higher than Pakistan and Iran after 2001 The only city with over a million residents is its capital Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan during On 17 August 2021 , the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party , Gulbuddin Hekmatyar , met with both Hamid Karzai , the former President of Afghanistan , and Abdullah Abdullah , , in Doha , Qatar , the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period with an unofficial Coordination Council led by senior statesmen The Kabul meetings on government formation are men-only meetings of the Afghan National Assembly , who stated Many figures within the Taliban generally agree left Kabul on 30 August , at the Arg in an official ceremony . of government as Prime Minister , while other important positions would go to According to CNN , the new government In a report by CNN-News18 , sources said the new government was going Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei head of government as Prime Minister

The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members . However , later interviews disclosed to the announcement postponed to some time during divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar and treated in Pakistan . As of early September , the Taliban high-ranking posts " in the government and Afghanistan is administratively divided into Each province has a governor and a capital The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial districts , each of which The provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan , and The provincial governors are representatives of the central government for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces . are elected through direct and general elections for of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term . Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations Historically , Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany , one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919 ; the Soviet Union , which Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978 ; and India , with which a friendship treaty was signed in The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently had notable unofficial ties with China , Pakistan , and Qatar . Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan , it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations , particularly the United States , in mineral deposits , it remains cited as reasons why the country The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods It has $2.8 billion in external debt with donor money , only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget . of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar . One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates , Many Afghans are now involved in of the largest industries in the country . Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City

Kandahar , and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town near Herat , Mazar - e in different parts of the country , Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003 . Afghanistan is a member of WTO , SAARC , ECO , It holds an observer status in SCO , employing about 40% of the workforce pomegranates , grapes , apricots derived from the cultivation and sale been an uptick in saffron production , copper , iron ore , lithium , uranium , rare earth elements , chromite , gold , zinc , talc , barite , sulfur , lead , marble if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its mineral deposits , its gross national product for Afghan security forces and other critical needs . an average of crude oil , of , copper , gold , The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of Bolivia , Other larger deposits are the ones of Bauxit In a 2011 news story , the "CSM " of the cost of the Afghan war have on Afghanistan's mineral deposits , leaving it Access to biocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average . In 2016 , Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory , much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - According to the World Bank , 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018 , up from 28% in 2008 . As of 2016 , Afghanistan of rivers and streams that which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan , and Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan Nevertheless , some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country lakes , canyons and historical sites regions such as the Wakhan Valley , was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail , Coming from Iran , the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including Herat , Kandahar and

, northern India , and Nepal The city of Ghazni has significant history , Balkh , and Zaranj The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar , The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction In the north of the country is Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided Etisalat , MTN Group , and , which provides services to millions of phone , internet civil war , telecommunications was virtually , with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users between various parts of the country has The Ring Road is crucially important for A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel , completed in 1964 , Air transport in Afghanistan is provided Airlines from a number of countries These include Air India , Emirates Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki These lines are used for freight and Herat , western Afghanistan , intended for both freight and passengers , is under construction as Taxis are yellow in color Camels are primarily used by Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 There are over 16,000 schools in the country Of this , about 60% are from returning to secondary schools . Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities About 21% of these are females Kabul University ( KU ) , the United States Military Academy at West Point , is The Afghan Defense University was constructed near Qargha Kandahar University in the south , Herat University According to the Human Development Index , Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world . The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital in Kabul Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan , each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles

Pashtunwali ( the Pashtun way ) . Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality revenge for the shedding of blood The Pashtuns are largely connected to , while some Pashtuns have been Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years Afghans , particularly Pashtuns , are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard people in a country that is of view , has an uncomplicated lifestyle sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men ; the legal age for marriage is In the villages , families typically occupy mudbrick houses , or compounds Villages typically have a headman ( "malik " ) , a master for water distribution ("mirab " ) Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of various forms of shalwar kameez , especially "perahan tunban " and " for head covering ; some women These were worn by some women the Taliban enforced this dress on women when they were in power The "karakul " is a hat made It was favored by former kings to much of the world in the far east of the country ; it Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages , including Greek and Buddhist stupas , monasteries , monuments , temples and Islamic minarets . have been damaged in modern times The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban , who regarded them as Despite that , archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country , some of Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan , and many of these Carpets have been produced in of rugs ; for example Every province has its own specific characteristics in making Pottery has been crafted in The village of Istalif , north The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of oil painting found in cave murals produced by a fusion of Greco-Roman art of the most notable miniature artists of the Timurid and to use Western techniques in art such as TOLO and Shamshad TV The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873 By the 1920s , Radio Kabul was in both of Afghanistan's official languages on

Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian Bollywood films and listening ("Kabuliwala " or "Pathani " , sitar and harmonium , and local instruments like zerbaghali , in Central Asia , the Caucusus and for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979 . Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops , such as wheat , maize , barley and such as milk , yogurt Kabuli palaw is the national dish of Afghanistan Afghanistan is known for its high quality pomegranates of the major educational pillars in the region , writers from the Middle Ages to the present day with equal ardor by Iran ) Herat , a great mystic and Sufi saint in the 11th century Balkh , in the 13th century , and in great growth in the last century of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered in present-day Iran , and with National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August to mark the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 under King Amanullah Khan and the country's full independence . in Afghanistan , such as Sport in Afghanistan is managed Cricket and Association football are the two most popular sports in the country Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles with the winning of 2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup . in 2001 , participated in , 2009 , 2011 and The Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground serves as the nation's main cricket stadium . The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium recently won an international football trophy in 2013 also having a following in other parts It is similar to polo The Afghan Hound ( a type of running dog was formerly used in wolf hunting is a country in Southeastern Europe . It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea within the Mediterranean Sea and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest , to the east and Greece to as the Illyrians , Thracians , Greeks , Romans , Byzantines

, Venetians and Ottomans . The Albanians established the autonomous Principality of Arbër in the 12th century Albania remained under Ottoman rule for ( known as Arnauts ) After the defeat of the Ottomans in the Balkan Wars , the modern nation state of Albania declared independence in 1912 . Enver Hoxha formed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after World War II It went through a process of It may be derived from and astronomer from Alexandria , The term may have a continuation in In his history written in the 10th century a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects Nowadays , Albanians call their country only at the end of 17th and beginning "Arbëreshë " amongst Albanian speakers . The first attested traces of neanderthal presence in the territory the middle and upper Paleolithic period and were discovered in Xarrë and at Mount Dajt in The discovered objects in a cave near Xarrë Multiple artefacts from the Iron and Bronze Ages near tumulus burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania , which has similar affinity with the sites in southwestern Macedonia and Lefkada In ancient times , the incorporated territory of , Ancient Greeks and Thracians . In view of the Illyrian tribes , used any collective nomenclature for themselves , of the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea extending in the south to the mouth of The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from written in the middle of the 4th century , ruled over most of In 229 BC , Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships In the 11th century , the Great Schism formalised in Albania through the emergence of In the 13th century , the principality was started to take possession over dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work part in a revolt against Constantinople an agreement with the Albanian rulers , promising to protect them and their ancient liberties from the Despotate of Epirus . Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built included all of Albania except

In 1367 , various Albanian rulers established During that time , several Albanian principalities were of Kastrioti , Lordship of They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 were considered an inferior class of people the Sultan to collect a requisite percentage of under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg , by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II . He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and Western Europe in the region , Albanian towns were through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets , cotton goods However , motives for conversion though the lack of source material does Since the Albanians were seen as A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords by delegates from Bosnia , the administrator of the Sanjak of Prizren including Kosovo , Shkodër , The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops , such as the Battle of Novšiće , the league was forced to take care of the administration of selected as the first prince of the principality against incorporation to Albania . were incorporated into the Albanian Principality . Meanwhile , the revolt of Albanian peasants In order to gain support joined by Isa Boletini and his men of Central Albania by the end of August 1914 . of state for a seven-year term . He was forced to adopt gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions . a strong support by the fascist regime of Italy He also made donations of of schools and hospitals . Italy from 1939 until 1943 In October 1940 , Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian invasion of A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of Germans started to occupy the country The partisans entirely liberated the country from

of the nation , the Communist party sent They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mërtur On 15 January 1945 , a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years , the institution In the aftermath of World War II and In the field of education , illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population higher than the world and European average Yugoslavia until 1948 , then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from curtailed during the communist era with all forms In 1945 , the Agrarian Reform Law meant mosques , tekkes , monasteries into cultural centres for young people . A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda After forty years of communism and of 1989 , people , led to the transformation of the existing order The schemes began to collapse in late 1996 , leading many of The protests turned violent in February 1997 In March , the Police and These were promptly emptied by The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in In April 1997 , Operation Alba , entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of Following the disintegration of the communist system , Albania focused on an active process of Westernisation with the goal of accession the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) . In 2009 , the country , active membership in NATO , becoming among the first countries in Southeast Europe to As Prime Minister , he implemented , as well as democratising On 26 November 2019 , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged of the town of Mamurras . The tremor was felt in Tirana , and Belgrade , Serbia of Durrës and Kodër-Thumanë . have spread to Albania . From March to June 2020 , the government declared a state of emergency as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic is located on the Balkan Peninsula in Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest and the Ionian Sea to the southwest along

at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude ; the southernmost is Konispol at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude ; the westernmost point the Adriatic ; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea For a small country , much of across the length and breadth of The Lake of Shkodër is the largest lake in Southern Europe and located in and Small Lake of Prespa , which are among the highest positioned lakes in Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent . from its mouth to its source , is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters , the Black and White Drin The climate in the country is extremely the differences in latitude , longitude The warmest areas of the country are immediately On the contrary , the coldest areas are Rainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year The country receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in The Albanian Alps in the far north of the country the most humid regions of Europe , receiving An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country , particularly on the mountains in the north are extraordinarily important for the greater flamingo rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country used in the preparation of herbs , 1 biosphere reserve and 786 other types of and Theth National Park cover a combined territory of within the rugged Albanian Alps in northern Albania . Divjakë-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and the topographical picture of Llogara National Park and continue on the Peninsula of Karaburun within the eastern half of the Straits of Corfu Environmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution, climate change , waste management , biodiversity loss and 80 among 181 countries in the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 45% Albania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign

state whose politics operate under a framework of state and the prime minister as The government is based on the separation and balancing of powers among on the Napoleonic Code , is divided the representative of the unity of the Albanian people The tenure of the president depends on the confidence of the parliament and is by a majority of three-fifths of is authorised to constitute the cabinet In the time since the end of with other countries around the world . ) was considered by Albanian politicians to be a significant ambition for the country's foreign policy with the NATO and has maintained ) in the region of the Balkans a number of agreements and treaties for the United Nations Economic and Social Council from 2005 to It served as vice president of the ECOSOC in 2006 and 2013 In 2014 , it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from 2015 to The Albanian Armed Forces consist of Land, Air and Naval Forces and Since the fall of communism , In the 1990s , the country scrapped Albania is defined within a territorial area The country is divided into three regions of a number of counties ( municipalities ( "bashkia " ) municipalities were reduced to 61 , while the rurals were abolished population , is Tirana County with The smallest county , by population , is Gjirokastër County with over 70,000 people . by area , is Korçë County encompassing In 2016 , it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans with an estimated value , China , Spain , The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both In 2012 , Albania's GDP per Albania was one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth The country had a trade balance of −9.7% and unemployment rate of 14.7% . on an ambitious program to improve the business climate The economy is expected to expand Agriculture in the country is based is used for agricultural purposes . , tomatoes , maize , The country's proximity to the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea

because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are Albania has one of Europe's longest histories In 2009 , the nation produced The secondary sector of Albania have undergone the collapse of the communist regime in the country from electronics , manufacturing , textiles , to food , cement , mining , and Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state ranked among the world's leading chromium producers and exporters copper , nickel and coal the world , telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor steadily increasing since the beginnings of The increase of foreign visitors has been , an increase of 740 percent in The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated Its coastline has a considerable length of . The coast has a particular character because it virgin beaches , capes , coves , covered bays , lagoons , The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in an integral transportation corridor in Albania and the longest motorway It will prospectively link Durrës on the Adriatic Sea across Pristina in of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor as well as connect , after its completion , Tirana and Elbasan with the Pan-European Corridor VIII , followed by Vlorë , it is as one of In the country , education is The academic year is apportioned into two semesters beginning in September or October , and ending in June Albanian serves as the primary language of instruction in all academic institutions across the country The study of a first foreign language is mandatory Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels , elementary and secondary school , from grade one to five and six to nine a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance organised in three levels , among and is in a process of The average healthy life expectancy is at 68.8 years and , Albania has a wide variety of energy resources ranging from gas , Currently , the electricity generation sector of Albania Fierza , Koman , Skavica Albania has considerably large deposits of oil

It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and Myzeqe Plain within the Western Lowlands , After the completion of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline ( , that will transport natural gas The water resources of Albania are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country , which is one of After the fall of communism in scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have left Albania spending on research and development to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of GDE from foreign sources , including the framework programmes for of research spending , among others ) in 2018 , the country was estimated in 2020 at Its population density stands at 259 inhabitants per The overall life expectancy at birth is 78.5 years The country is the 8th most populous country in the Balkans and ranks as the 137th most populous country in At least 900,000 people left Albania during this period with 11% and Durrës County with Tirana is one of largest cities in the Balkan Peninsula and ranks seventh ( such as Greeks , , asserting a higher percentage of the country's population ( 0.1% ) , no On the quality of the specific data the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of with the utmost caution and calls on on the data on nationality collected during the census in determining its policy on the protection of national minorities . Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities : Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples Other Albanian minorities are the Gorani people and Jews Regarding the Greeks , " it The estimates vary between 60,000 and 300,000 ethnic Greeks in According to Ian Jeffries , most revised and merged from the two main dialects standard modern Greek is spoken in areas , Macedonian , Bosnian , Bulgarian , Gorani , and Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality pupils in schools dedicated to Instat , the Albanian government statistical agency , 39.9% by Italian with 27.8% and

, English , German and lost much of its previous interest . Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country speaking it as first language , and with two-thirds of mainly Albanian families in the post communist era ( 1992 – or migration to Greece . Young people have shown a growing interest in Some of them go to Albania and Germany have agreements Due to a sharp rise in economic relations were 1,587,608 ( 56.7% ) , 188,992 ( 6.75% ) ) Bektashi Muslims , 3,797 (0.14% ) Evangelicals , 1,919 ( 0.07% ) other Christians , 602 ( 69,995 people ( 2.5% ) were Albania is nevertheless ranked among Religion constitute an important role in the lives of only 39% of the country's population . In another report , 56% considered while 9% defined themselves as 80% believed in God and 40% believed in life after The preliminary results of the 2011 census seemed to belief in any of the listed faiths Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country found in the south , whereas in Durrës , as early as the time of the Apostles . The Archbishopric of Durrës was purportedly preaching in Illyria and Epirus Meanwhile , in medieval times , the Albanian people first appeared within historical records At this point , they were Islam arrived for the first time in the late 9th century to the region , when Arabs raided parts of the eastern banks During modern times , the Albanian republican , a systematic policy of separating religion from all organised religion from the territories of Albania Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and its history , culture and belief the bravery , strength and valour Albanians since the Middle Ages including the establishment , më jep emrin Shqipëtar " ( "

, finds its origins in the Albanian National Awakening The artistic history of Albania has been ancient and medieval people , traditions and religions to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and The architecture of Albania reflects the legacy Major cities in Albania have evolved constant redesigning of town squares and evolution reflect a whole spectrum of various architectural styles . Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania and most visible in Byllis in the southern Albanian cities and surroundings of and Neoclassicism merged into the 19th century in Tirana such as the Skanderbeg Square It is also present in Shkodër , Vlorë , Sarandë Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list These include the ancient remains of Butrint , the medieval Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastër , Throughout the centuries , Albanian cuisine has been widely influenced by Albanian culture of fruits such as lemons , oranges , figs , With a coastline along the Adriatic and Ionian in the Mediterranean Sea , fish , crustaceans , and seafood under a thick, tart veil of yoghurt . Petulla , a traditional fried dough , is served with powdered sugar or feta cheese and different sorts of fruit jams . with cream and served with Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle The country has more coffee houses per capita at home or outside at It is cultivated across Southern Albania , and belongs to the Old World in the constitution of Albania . Radio Televizioni Shqiptar ( RTSH ) is Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century and developed after the country's declaration of motion pictures was built in 1912 in Shkodër by an Austrian distribution company with In 1953 , the Albanian-Soviet epic film , In 2003 , the Tirana International Film Festival was Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity Folk music can be divided into Koço Çakali , in Paris , The festival is celebrated annually since launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers including Vaçe Zela and Parashqevi Simaku , Dua Lipa , Ava Max ,

Bleona , Elvana Gjata , Ermonela Jaho international recognition for their music , while of costume that vary in often worn during special events and , religious holidays , weddings , Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing in the northern of Albania , The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the first literary work of written Albanian during The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti ( "Rrethimi i Shkodrës " ) from the language of the people ( " et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis ( " History of Skanderbeg " " ) ( Christian Teachings ) from 1592 written by Lekë Matrënga , ( "Doktrina e krishterë " ) Pjetër Budi , the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry , an apology for George Castriot ( 1636 ) by " ( The Band of Prophets ) ( 1685 ) by Pjetër Bogdani , The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably Albania participated at the Olympic Games in The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006 Albania normally competes in events , weightlifting , shooting and The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games volleyball , tennis , swimming It is governed by the Football Association of Albania ( , F.SH.F. ) , which was created in 1930 the World in 2017 ( highest 22nd any major UEFA or FIFA tournament , until UEFA Euro 2016 , Albania's first ever appearance at the continental tournament when they beat Romania by several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe The Albanian diaspora has been formed since to places such as Italy Following the fall of communism , large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia , Canada , France , In the English language , the word generally refers to God in Islam been used by Arabic people of Muhammad used the word " Allah used as a term for God

and non-Arab ) and even Arab Christians in Classical Arabic by the majority of in this way by Bábists, Baháʼís, Mandaeans , Indonesian and Maltese Christians , and Sephardi Jews . Grammarians of the Basra school regarded it of "lāh " ( from the verbal root "lyh " with the meaning of borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew to be derived from a contraction " and ' "deity , god exist in other Semitic languages , including Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults Arab pagans considered Allah as an unseen God Pre-Islamic Meccans worshiped Allah alongside a host Islam forbade worship of anyone used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon According to one hypothesis , which Allah ( the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh ) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal ( the supreme deity of Quraysh ) According to that hypothesis , the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca , about a century before Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of No iconic representation of Allah is known Allah is the only god in Mecca The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for " God " than "Allah " , except Jehovah's Witnesses God " in the language of , or "Alaha " . Arab Christians , for example , for God the Father , ' Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to They adopted the Muslim ' , as early as the 8th century . In the name of God , " In the name of Father The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words "One God " at the end . Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre-Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el-Jimal in Northern Jordan to Enno Littman ( 1949 )

, contained references to Allah as the proper name of God . by colleagues of ʿUlayh , ( 3 ) of the cohort In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated in both Arabic and Aramaic . for God was "Allah " of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre-Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia . However most recent research in the field of Islamic Studies ( 2014 ) , Clair Wilde ( 2014 ) & ML Hjälm can say about the possibility of a pre-Islamic, Christian version of the Gospel in Arabic that pre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported In Islam , " Allah " is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and creator to God in other Abrahamic religions . According to Islamic belief , Allah , and humble submission to his will , divine ordinances and commandments is " He is the only God , creator of the universe , and the judge of humankind . " No human eyes can see Allah till Allah , His inaccessible mystery , His various names , and His actions on behalf In Islamic tradition , there are All these names refer to Allah , Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase " Insha'Allah the invocation of "Basmala " ( contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism , God as the Jews ( ) . The Qur’an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted , a velarized alveolar lateral approximant , a marginal phoneme in Since the initial alef has no hamza , by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century ; for example , For example , because of Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages forms of the Malay language ) . as the translation of Hebrew "Elohim " ( translated in English Bibles as This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century . The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl in 1650 (revised edition from 1623 edition " as the translation of the Dutch word printed in the Netherlands in 1629